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https://archive.org/details/newinternational22unse_0 


t 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  XXII  i 


COLORED  PLATES 

Facing  Page 

Three  Color  Process . 242 

Song  Birds,  American  . 246 

Frogs  and  Toads,  American  . . 312 

Totem  Poles,  Southern  Alaska  .  .  .  . . 368 

Game  Fishes,  American . 498 

United  States  Flags . 728 

University  Gowns — British  Usage . 784 

\  ^ 

University  Gowns — American  Usage . 788 

MAPS 

Tasmania .  4 

Tennessee . * .  98 

Texas . 138 

Transportation — Commercial  Map  of  the  World . 424 

Transvaal . 428 

Turkey  in  Europe . 570 

Turkey  in  Asia . 572 

United  States,  Eastern — Physical  and  Political . 694 

United  States,  Western — Physical  and  Political . 696 

Early  Colonial  Grants  . 742 

United  States  in  1789  and  1808  746 

United  States  in  1816 . .  .  .  .  750 

United  States  in  1852  756 

United  States,  Showing  Accessions  of  Territory . 776 

Uruguay . N  .  .  . . 818 

Utah . «  .  .  .  .  -IP? . 826 

■mmr"" 

ENGRAVINGS 

Tea . 32 

.escope — Reflecting  Telescope .  74 

i  escope — Tower  Telescope .  75 

vescopes — Yerkes  Telescope  of  University  of  Chicago .  76 

i  David  (“  The  Rustic  Wedding  ”) .  96 

NY  SON  . , . 104 

r  al  Magnetism — Isogonic  Chart  for  United  States . 120 


vl  Magnetism — Isogonic  Chart:  for  the  Earth  . . 

. ,v  W  .....  .' . 


.  .  121 
.  .  152 


IV 


Facing  Page 


Textile  Printing — European  Hand-Blocked  Patterns . .  .  153 

Thorvaldsen  (“Christ”)  . 238 

Titian  (“The  Tribut/  Money”)  . 304 

Torpedo  Boat,  '  Submarine  . 358 

Torpedo  Boat,  Submarine . 359 

Tree  Fern  and  Traveler’s  Tree . 436 

Trilobites,  Representative . 472 

Trogon,  Hoopoe,  etc . 488 

Trout  and  Grayling . 498 

Troyon  (“ Oxen  Going  to  Work”) . 502 

Tulip  Tree . 538 

Turner,  J.  M.  W.  (“The  Grand  Canal,  Venice”) . 584 

Typesetting  and  Type-Casting  Machines . 606 

Typesetting  and  Type-Casting  Machines . 607 

Uniforms — Military  Dress  Uniforms . 648 

Uniforms — Service  Uniforms  of  the  European  War . 649 

Uniforms — United  States  Army . 652 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 

For  a  full  explanation  of  the  various  sounds  indicated,  see  the  Key  to  Pronunciation  in  Vol.  I. 


a  as 

k  “ 

a 

a 

a 
a 
a 
a 
e 


e 

6 

e 

e 

i 

I 

I 

o 

o 

6 

8 

o 

oo 

ou 

u 

u 

& 

u 

d 

y 

B 


a 

a 

u 

u 

u 

(( 

a 

a 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

H 

u 

u 

C( 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 


m 

u 

u 

u 

a 

u 

(( 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

u 

a 

u 

u 

u 


ale,  fate. 

senate,  chaotic. 

glare,  care,  and  as  e  in  there. 

am,  at. 

arm,  father. 

ant,  and  final  a  in  America,  armada,  etc. 
final,  regal,  pleasant, 
all,  fall, 
eve. 

elate,  evade, 
end,  pet. 

fern,  her,  and  as  i  in  sir,  etc. 
agency,  judgment, 
ice,  quiet, 
quiescent, 
ill,  fit. 
old,  sober, 
obey,  sobriety, 
orb,  nor. 
odd,  forest,  not. 
atom,  carol, 
oil,  boil. 

food,  fool,  and  as  u  in  rude,  rule. 

house,  mouse. 

use,  mule. 

unite. 

cut,  but. 

full,  put,  or  a  oo  foot,  book, 
urn,  burn, 
yet,  yield. 

Spanish  Habam  Y>r  oba,  where  it  is  like 
English  v  but  l  vith  the  lips  alone./ 


ch  as  in  chair,  cheese. 

d  “  “  Spanish  Almodovar,  pulgada,  where  it  is 
nearly  like  th  in  English  then, 
g  “  “  go,  get. 

g  “  “  German  Landtag  =  ch  in  Ger.  ach,  etc. 
h  “  j  in  Spanish  Jijona,  g  in  Spanish  gila;  like 
English  h  in  hue,  but  stronger. 

Jiw  “  wh  in  which. 

k  “  ch  in  German  ich,  Albrecht  =  g  in  German 
Arensberg,  Mecklenburg,  etc. 

“  in  sinker,  longer. 

“  “  sing,  long. 

11  French  bon,  Bourbon,  and  m  in  the  French 
fitampes;  here  it  indicates  nasalizing  of 

_ '  e  preceding  vowel. 

“  “  shine,  shut. 

“  st,  thin. 

“  “  then,  this. 

“  z  in  azure,  and  s  in  pleasure. 

An  apostrophe  [’]  is  sometimes  used  as  in  ta/b’l 
(table),  k&z'’m  (chasm),  to  indicate  the  elision  of 
a  vowel  or  its  reduction  to  a  mere  murmur. 


For  foreign  sounds,  the  nearest  English  equiva¬ 
lent  is  generally  used.  In  any  case  where  a  special 
symbol,  as  g,  h,  k,  n,  is  used,  those  unfamiliar  with 
the  foreign  sound  indicated  may  substitute  the  Eng¬ 
lish  sound  ordinarily  indicated  by  the  letter.  For 
a  full  description  of  all  such  sounds,  see  the  article 
on  Pronunciation. 

■  T  \  "  J  fm 

f\ 


THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


ART  A  GLIA,  tar-ta/ly&,  Nicol6 
(1500-1557).  An  Italian  physicist 
and  arithmetician  whose  real  name 
was  Nicolo  Fontana.  He  wras  born 
at  Brescia,  lectured  at  Verona,  and 
became  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Venice.  Tartaglia  first  became  generally  known 
through  his  solution  of  cubic  equations,  and  from 
his  suggestions  Cardan  (q.v. )  probably  derived 
the  solution  known  as  Cardan’s  method.  His 
work  in  physics  is  preserved  in  his  Nuova  scienza 
(1537;  French  trans.,  1845-46),  showing  that  he 
studied  the  theory  of  falling  bodies  and  investi¬ 
gated  the  range  of  projectiles  at  various  angles. 
His  treatise  on  arithmetic,  General  trattato  de 
numeri  et  misure  (1556-60),  is  the  chief  au¬ 
thority  on  the  Italian  methods  of  his  time. 
Quesiti  et  inventioni  dierse  de  Nicolo  Tartaglia 
(1546)  is  also  well  known. 

TAR/TAK.  According  to  2  Kings  xvii.  31, 
the  name  given  to  a  deity  worshiped  by  the 
Avites,  who  were  transferred  to  Samaria  by  the 
Assyrian  King  after  the  destruction  of  the 
northern  Hebrew  Kingdom.  Jewish  tradition 
represents  T'artak  as  worshiped  under  the  form 
of  an  ass  ( Tal .  Bal).,  Sanhedrin  63).  No  such 
deity  as  Tartak  has  been  found  in  the  Baby¬ 
lonian  or  Assyrian  literature,  but  it  is  possible 
that  Tartahu  is  meant,  which  is  a  name  of 
Ninib. 

TAE'TAN  (possibly  Fr.  tiretaine,  tirtaine, 
linsey-woolsey,  from  Sp.  tiritaha,  thin  silk  or 
woolen  cloth ) .  A  well-known  cloth  of  checkered 
pattern,  also  called  plaid.  The  Scottish  Gaelic 
tartan  is  a.  loan  word  from  the  English;  the 
native  name  is  rather  breacan.  These  colored 
plaids  have  long  been  in  great  favor  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  where  each  clan  has  its 
distinctive  pattern.  Consult  James  Grant,  Tar¬ 
tans  of  the  Clans  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh, 
1886),  and  C.  N.  North,  Leabhar  communnam 
fior  Chael,  Book  of  the  Club  of  True  Highlanders 
(2  vols.,  London,  1892). 

TAR'TAR  (ML.  tartorum,  MGk.  raprapov, 
tartar,  probably  from  Lat.  Tartarus,  from  Gk. 
T aprapos,  Tartarus,  Hades).  A  mixture  of  bi¬ 
tartrate  of  potash  and  tartrate  of  lime,  de¬ 
posited  from  wine  and  known  in  its  crude  form 
as  argol  or  lees.  (See  Argol. )  In  dentistry,  a 
deposit  upon  the  teeth,  consisting  mostly  of  cal¬ 
cium  phosphate. 

TARTAR  EMETTC.  A  nameq?uV’°d  to  the 
double  tartrate  of  potassium  simony, 


K  ( SbO )  C4H406  +  y2H20.  It  is  prepared  by 
making  a  paste  of  antimonious  oxide,  acid  potas¬ 
sium  tartrate  and  a  little  water,  allowing  to 
stand  for  several  hours,  then  boiling  the  paste 
with  water,  and  allowing  the  resulting  solution 
to  crystallize.  Tartar  emetic  has  a  sweet  taste, 
but  leaves  a  disagreeable  aftertaste  in  the 
mouth.  It  is  moderately  soluble  in  water,  but 
is  insoluble  in  alcohol.  It  has  an  irritating 
effect  on  the  alimentary  canal,  and  causes  vomit¬ 
ing;  but  vomiting  is  also  due  to  its  action 
upon  the  medulla,  after  absorption  into  the 
blood.  Owing  chiefly  to  its  depressing  effect 
on  the  heart  and  the  nervous  system,  it  is  now 
little  used. 

TARTARIC  (tar-tar'Ik)  ACID,  C4H606.  An 
acid  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen, 
of  which  four  different  modifications  are  known. 
Ordinary  tartaric  acid  is  usually  seen  in  the  form 
of  colorless,  transparent  crystals,  which  are  not 
affected  by  the  action  of  the  air,  have  an  agree¬ 
able  acid  taste,  and  are  soluble  in  water  and  al¬ 
cohol.  The  crystals  when  gently  warmed  become 
strongly  electric,  the  opposite  sides  of  the  crys¬ 
tals  becoming  charged  with  the  opposite  forms  of 
electricity.  On  heating  tartaric  acid  to  about 
169°  C.  (336°  F.),  it  fuses;  and  at  slightly  higher 
temperatures  it  becomes  changed  into  metatar- 
taric,  tartralic,  and  tartrelic  acids,  substances 
of  still  unknown  constitution. 

Tartaric  acid  occurs  abundantly  in  the  vege¬ 
table  kingdom  both  free  and  combined.  It  is 
from  argol  (q.v.),  a  product  of  grape-juice  fer¬ 
mentation,  that  the  tartaric  acid  of  commerce  is 
obtained.  Argol,  or  crude  tartar,  is  boiled  with 
water  and  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  solution 
precipitated  with  lime.  The  insoluble  tartrate 
of  calcium  thus  obtained  is  purified  by  washing 
with  water,  then  decomposed  by  treating  with 
sulphuric  acid.  This  transforms  the  tartrate 
into  the  sparingly  soluble  calcium  sulphate, 
while  tartaric  acid  goes  into  solution  in  the  free 
state.  The  filtered  liquid,  when  cooled  and  evap¬ 
orated,  yields  crystalline  tartaric  acid.  Tartaric 
acid  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  baking  pow¬ 
ders  an  4  of  certain  dyestuffs,  in  dyeing  and  calico 
printing,  in  photography,  and  in  pharmacy. 

Being  a  dibasic  acid,  tartaric  acid  can  form 
both  acid  and  neutral  salts.  The  most  important 
tartrates  are  the  following:  Neutral  potassium 
tartrate,  K2C4H406,  a  soluble  salt  which  crystal¬ 
lizes  with  half  a  molecule  of  water.  Acid 
potassium  tartrate,  or  bitartrate  of  potash. 


TARTARIC  ACID 


2 


TARTINI 


r 


KHC4H406,  is  prepared  from  argol  by  extraction 
with  boiling  water  and  filtering  the  solution  thus 
obtained  through  charcoal.  The  salt  crystallizes 
readily  as  the  hot  solution  cools.  The  snowy 
white  rhdmbic  prisms  thus  deposited  constitute 
cream  of  tartar,  which  is  moderately  soluble  in 
cold  water  and  less  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  is  an 
excellent  saline  purgative  and  diuretic  and  is 
largely  used  in  medicine.  Calcium  tartrate, 
CaC4H406  +  4H20,  is  practically  insoluble  in  cold 
water  and  slightly  soluble  in  hot  water.  The 
insolubility  of  the  acid  tartrate  of  potassium 
and  of  the  tartrate  of  calcium  often  helps  to 
identify  tartaric  acid.  Tartar  emetic  is  described 
above. 

Tartaric  acid  was  early  known  in  the  form  of 
tartar ;  Scheele  was  the  first  to  obtain  the  acid  in 
the  free  state  and  to  determine  its  principal 
properties  (1769).  Like  other  acids,  tartaric 
acid  promotes  secretion  of  saliva,  and  may  be 
used  to  allay  thirst.  When  taken  internally  it 
is  decomposed  in  the  blood  with  formation  of 
alkaline  carbonates,  which  cause  an  increase  of 
the  alkalinity  of  urine. 

A  remarkable  modification  of  tartaric  acid  is 
known  as  racemic  acid  (C4H0O6)  2.2H20.  It  is  a 
frequent  associate  of  tartaric  acid,  but  is  es¬ 
pecially  abundant  in  the  grapes  of  the  Vosges 
district.  While  it  exhibits  a  close  resemblance  to 
tartaric  acid,  it  crystallizes  more  readily  from 
solution;  contains  two  equivalents  of  water  of 
crystallization ;  is  less  soluble  in  alcohol ;  and 
the  racemate  of  lime  is  soluble  in  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  is  precipitated  unchanged  on  adding 
ammonia.  Its  most  important  difference,  how¬ 
ever,  is  that  its  solution  does  not  rotate  the 
plane  of  polarized  light,  while  a  solution  of  or¬ 
dinary  tartaric  acid  exerts  a  well-marked  right- 
handed  rotation.  Pasteur  proved  that  racemic 
acid  is  a  combination  of  ordinary  tartaric  acid 
(to  which,  from  its  optical  property,  he  applies 
the  term  “dextroracemic  acid”)  and  of  an  acid 
which  produces  left-handed  rotation,  to  which  he 
gives  the  name  “lsevoracemic  acid.”  (These  acids 
are  at  present  generally  referred  to  as  dextro- 
tartaric  and  lsevotartaric  acids.)  He  found 
that,  by  saturating  racemic  acid  with  soda  and 
ammonia,  and  allowing  this  solution  to  crystal¬ 
lize  at  the  temperature  of  the  laboratory,  two 
varieties  of  crystals  are  obtained,  which  differ 
from  one  another  in  the  same  way  as  a  right- 
hand  glove  and  a  left-hand  glove,  or  as  any  un- 
symmetrical  object  differs  from  its  own  mirror 
image.  If  the  two  kinds  of  crystals  are  sepa¬ 
rated,  and  then  dissolved,  each  solution  is  found 
to  act  powerfully  on  polarized  light,  but  in  op¬ 
posite  directions.  On  separating  the  free  acid 
from  each  of  the  two  solutions,  and  mixing  equal 
parts  of  concentrated  solutions  of  these  acids, 
racemic  acid  is  again  formed,  which  exerts  no 
action  on  a  polarized  ray. 

Besides  the  three  modifications  mentioned 
above,  viz.,  ordinary  or  dextrotartaric  acid, 
lsevotartaric  acid,  and  racemic  acid,  a  fourth 
modification  of  the  same  chemical  composition 
and  constitution,  known  as  mesc>oT't°T'ic,  anti- 
tartaric,  or  inactive  tartaric  acid,  been  ob¬ 
tained.  It  may  best  be  prepared  ;  !  mg  tar¬ 
taric  acid  with  a  strong  solut  caustic 

potash.  In  the  anhydrous  stat.  >tartaric 

acid  melts  at  about  140°  C.  (284  usually, 

however,  it  is  obtained  in  the  fo  crystals 

having  the  composition  C4H6O0.H.  .  is  very 

soluble  in  water.  Its  acid  potas  ,  alt,  too, 

is  very  soluble  in  water,  anc  i  calcium 


salt  crystallizes  with  3  molecules  of  water : 
CaC4H4d6.3H20.  The  different  modifications  of 
tartaric  acid  have  also  been  prepared  syntheti¬ 
cally.  Their  relation  to  one  another  has  been 
explained  stereochemically.  See  Stereochem¬ 
istry. 

TARTARIN,  tar'ta'raN'.  The  hero  of  three 
tales  by  Alphonse  Daudet,  Tartarin  of  Tarascon 
(1872),  Tartarin  on  the  Alps  (1885),  and  Port- 
Tar  ascon  (1890). 

TARTARS,  tiir'tarz.  See  Tatars. 

TAR'TARTJS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  T aprapos) . 
According  to  Homer,  a  deep  and  sunless  abyss, 
as  far  below  Hades  as  earth  is  below  heaven, 
and  closed  in  by  iron  gates.  Into  Tartarus  Zeus 
hurled  those  who  rebelled  against  his  authority, 
e.g.,  Cronos  and  the  Titans.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  such  sinners  as  Tityos,  who  offered  violence 
to  Leto,  and  after  his  death  by  the  arrows  of 
Apollo  and  Artemis  was  condemned  to  have  his 
liver  perpetually  eaten  by  vultures,  or  Sisyphus 
(q.v. ),  Tantalus  (q.v. ),  and  Ixion  (q.v. )  are 
represented  in  the  earlier  poems  as  suffering  in 
sight  of  the  other  shades.  Later,  when  the  idea 
of  a  judgment  in  the  other  world  and  a  separa¬ 
tion  between  the  good  and  the  bad  had  become 
well  developed,  Tartarus  became  the  place  of 
punishment  for  all  sinners. 

TAR'TARY  ( properly  Tatary ) .  The  name 
which,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  applied  to  the 
central  part  of  Eurasia.  In  later  times  a  dis¬ 
tinction  was  made  between  European  and  Asiatic 
Tartary,  the  former  comprising  that  part  of 
Russia  which  was  once  the  Khanate  of  the 
Crimea.  The  term  Asiatic  Tartary,  first  applied 
to  the  whole  of  Central  Asia,  has  gradually  been 
confined  to  Turkestan. 

TARTE,  tart,  Joseph  Israel  (1848-1909). 
A  Canadian  statesman.  He  was  born  in  the 
Province  of  Quebec,  was  educated  at  L’Assomp- 
tion  College,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1871.  Afterward  he  became  editor  of  Le  Cana- 
dien  and  then  of  L’Evenement,  in  Quebec.  Po¬ 
litically  he  was  a  Conservative  until  1891,  but 
after  that  he  supported  the  Liberals.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  of  Quebec 
in  1877-81,  and  became  an  active  political  or¬ 
ganizer  of  his  party  in  that  province.  As  the 
avowed  foe  of  corruption,  he  had  given  dissatis¬ 
faction  by  criticism  of  certain  politicians  and 
measures;  but  after  his  election  to  the  Dominion 
House  of  Commons  in  1891,  as  an  Independent 
Conservative,  he  attacked  the  administration 
of  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald,  his  political  chief, 
alleging  corrupt  practices  by  ministers.  This 
compelled  him  to  leave  the  Conservative  party, 
and  when  the  Laurier  administration  came  into 
power  in  1896  he  was  appointed  Minister  of  Pub¬ 
lic  Works.  He  held  that  position  until  1902.  He 
was  afterward  political  editor  of  La  Patrie  of 
Montreal. 

TARTINI,  tiir-te'ng,  Giuseppe  (1692-1770). 
An  Italian  violinist,  composer,  and  theoretician, 
born  at  Pirano,  Istria.  He  discovered  the  com¬ 
bination  tones,  about  1714,  and  used  them  in 
making  perfect  purity  of  intonation.  His  fame 
rapidly  increased  and  in  1721  he  was  made  solo 
violinist  and  conductor  of  the  orchestra  at  Sant’ 
Antonio  in  Padua.  From  1723  to  1725  he  was 
chamber  musician  to  Count  Kinskv  at  Prague. 
Afterward  he  again  took  up  his  duties  at  Padua 
and  founded  a  violin  school  there  in  1728,  which 
acquired  a  world-wide  reputation.  His  composi¬ 
tions  inpl-  le  numerous  classical  concertos,  so¬ 
natas,  4v'  ither  compositions  for  the  violin,  and 


TARTUFE 


3 


TASHKENT 


the  best  known  of  his  theoretical  works  are: 
Trattato  cLi  musica  secondo  la  vera  scienza  dell’ 
armonia  (1754);  De’  principj  dell’  armonia 
musicale  contenuta  nel  diatonico  genere  (17(37)  ; 
and  L  ’arte  dell’  arco,  reprinted  in  Choron,  Prin- 
cipes  de  composition,  vol.  vi  (Paris,  1816).  Con¬ 
sult  Fayolle,  Notices  sur  Corelli,  Tartini,  etc. 
(Paris,  1810). 

TARTUFE,  tar'tyf',  or  TARTUFFE.  The 

name  of  Moliere’s  most  celebrated  comedy  and 
of  the  chief  character  in  it,  who  has  become  the 
type  in  all  languages  for  a  hypocritical  scoundrel 
carrying  out  his  evil  designs  under  the  cloak  of 
religion.  In  the  play  Tartufe  ingratiates  him¬ 
self  with  a  simple-minded  gentleman  named 
Orgon,  and  nearly  ruins  both  him  and  his  family 
before  being  discovered.  The  name  is  said  to 
have  suggested  itself  to  Moliere  on  the  occasion 
of  a  visit  to  the  Papal  Nuncio,  where  he  saw  the 
pious  and  solemn  countenances  of  the  Nuncio’s 
courtiers  suddenly  lighted  up  with  ecstatic  ani¬ 
mation  by  the  appearance  of  a  seller  of  truffles — 
in  Italian,  tartuffoli.  The  play  was  written  in 
1664,  presented  once  in  1667,  then  prohibited,  and 
it  was  not  until  1669  that  Moliere  succeeded 
finally  in  getting  the  King’s  consent,  after  which 
the  comedy  ran  for  three  months. 

TARUDANT,  ta'roo-dant'.  The  capital  of 
the  Province  of  Sus,  Morocco,  situated  between 
the  base  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  and  the  Sus 
River,  125  miles  southwest  of  Morocco  (Map: 
Africa,  D  1 ) .  The  surrounding  country  is  highly 
cultivated  and  the  city,  walled  and  defended  by 
a  citadel,  contains  many  fine  mosques,  groves, 
and  gardens.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked 
and  most  of  the  houses  have  but  one  story.  Cop¬ 
per,  gold,  silver,  and  iron  ores  are  mined  in  the 
vicinity  and  the  chief  industries  are  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  copper  articles  for  Central  Africa,  tan¬ 
ning,  leather  dressing,  and  dyeing.  Pop.  (town), 
about  8500;  (district)  30,000. 

TARUMA,  ta'roo-ma'.  A  tribe  of  Arawakan 
stock  (q.v. )  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Essequibo 
River,  British  Guiana.  They  came  originally 
from  the  Rio  Negro,  Brazil.  They  are  of  medium 
stature,  but  well  formed.  Their  language  differs 
so  much  from  the  cognate  dialects  that  it  was 
formerly  thought  to  constitute  a  distinct  stock. 

TARUMARI,  ta/roo-ma/r6,  or  Tarahumari. 
A  numerous  tribe  of  Piman  stock  (q.v.)  occupy¬ 
ing  the  Sierra  Madre  region  of  central  and 
southern  Chihuahua,  and  extending  into  the  ad¬ 
jacent  sections  of  Sonora  and  Sinaloa,  Mexico. 
No  reliable  statement  of  their  number  can  be 
given.  On  account  of  the  broken  character  of 
their  country  there  is  no  central  organization, 
each  valley  settlement  managing  its  own  affairs 
under  a  local  chief.  The  language  is  in  several 
dialects  and  the  people  generally  are  classed 
by  the  Mexicans  as  Christians  in  the  north  and 
heathen  in  the  south.  Although  peaceful  in  char¬ 
acter,  the  Tarumari  have  several  times  revolted 
against  the  Spaniards  and  the  Mexicans.  In 
1648  they  rose,  destroyed  all  the  missions,  drove 
out  every  Spaniard,  and  for  four  years  main¬ 
tained  a  successful  resistance  under  their  chief 
Teporaca.  In  1690  they  again  rebelled,  de¬ 
stroyed  the  missions,  mines,  and  haciendas,  and 
massacred  all  the  Spaniards,  but  were  finally 
subjugated  in  1692.  A  local  insurrection  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Temosachic,  northwest  of  Chi¬ 
huahua  City,  in  1895,  led  by  a  native  prophetess, 
was  suppressed  only  after  a  massacre  by 
Mexicans.  ! 

Physically,  the  Tarumari  are  dark  Lnd  rather 


undersized,  but  of  remarkable  strength.  They 
resemble  the  Pueblo  Indians.  They  make  pot¬ 
tery  and  weave  elaborate  girdles  of  native  cotton, 
though  the  men  ordinarily  wear  only  a  loin  cloth. 
They  are  sedentary  and  semiagricultural,  but 
depend  also  upon  hunting,  fishing,  and  wild  prod¬ 
ucts.  Much  attention  is  given  to  the  corn  crop, 
nearly  all  their  ceremonial  dances  being  invo¬ 
cations  or  thanksgiving  for  rain.  They  have  a 
feast  of  the  dead  a  year  after  the  funeral,  and 
are  devoted  to  the  peyote  rite,  going  hundreds 
of  miles  on  foot  to  procure  supplies  of  the  cactus. 
Their  houses  are  small  thatched  huts  of  logs  or 
stones  laid  in  clay  mortar,  and  they  frequently 
utilize  the  mountain  caves  for  dwelling  purposes. 
Consult  K.  S.  Lumholtz,  Unknown  Mexico  (New 
York,  1902). 

TASCHEREAU,  tash'ro',  Elzear  Alex¬ 
andre  (1820-98).  A  Canadian  prelate  and  car¬ 
dinal,  born  at  Ste.  Marie  de  la  Beauce,  Quebec. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Quebec  Seminary,  with 
which,  after  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  in 
1842,  he  remained  connected  for  nearly  thirty 
years,  first  as  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and 
from  1860  as  superior,  the  appointment  includ¬ 
ing  the  rectorship  of  Laval  University.  In  1862 
he  was  made  vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  and 
Archbishop  in  1871.  In  1872  he  founded  the 
Hotel  Dieu  du  Sacre-Coeur  at  Quebec  and  re¬ 
stored  the  church  at  Ste.  Anne  de  Beaupre.  In 
1886  he  became  Cardinal,  the  first  Canadian 
member  of  the  Sacred  College.  In  1894  he  re¬ 
tired  from  the  administration  of  his  diocese. 
Consult  J.  C.  Dent,  Canadian  Portrait  Gallery 
(Toronto,  1880),  and  Henri  Tetu,  Le  Cardinal 
Taschereau  (Quebec,  1891). 

TASCHEREAU,  Sir  Henri  Elzear  (1836- 
1909).  A  Canadian  jurist.  He  was  born  at 
Ste.  Marie  de  la  Beauce,  Province  of  Quebec,  and 
was  educated  at  Quebec  Seminary.  Called  to 
the  bar  in  1857  he  practiced  his  profession  in 
Quebec  City.  He  was  a  Conservative  member 
of  the  Canada  Legislative  Assembly  in  1861-67, 
and  in  1871  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  Su¬ 
perior  Court  of  the  province.  He  was  a  judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Canada  in  1878-1902, 
and  Chief  Justice  thereof  in  1902-06,  retiring  in 
the  latter  year.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Judicial 
Committee  of  the  Imperial  Privy  Council.  In 
1902  he  was  knighted.  He  published:  Notes  and 
Commentaries  on  the  Criminal  Laio  of  Canada 
(1874)  ;  The  Code  of  Civil  Procedure  in  Lower 
Canada  (1876);  The  Criminal  Code  of  the  Do¬ 
minion  of  Canada,  as  Amended  in  1893  (1896). 

TASCHEREAU,  Jules  Antoine  (1801-74). 
A  French  author  and  statesman,  born  at  Tours. 
He  studied  law  at  Orleans  and  then  entered 
journalism  in  Paris.  He  was  for  a  time  the  edi¬ 
tor  of  the  National ;  served  in  the  magistracy; 
and  in  1833  founded  the  Revue  Retrospective,  de¬ 
voted  to  the  collection  of  documents  upon  his¬ 
tory  and  literature  (20  vols.,  1833-37).  In  1837 
he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He 
sat  in  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and  then  in  the 
Legislative  Assembly;  supported  the  Empire, 
and  was  rewarded  with  a  place  in  the  National 
Library,  of  which  he  in  time  became  director. 
Among  his  published  works  are  Histoire  de  la 
vie  et  des  ouvrages  de  Moliere  (1825)  and  His¬ 
toire  de  la  vie  et  des  ouvrages  de  P.  Corneille 
(1829). 

TASHKENT,  tash-kent',  or  TASHKEND. 

The  capital  of  the  Governor-Generalship  of  Rus¬ 
sian  Turkestan  and  of  the  Territory  of  Syr- 
Darya,  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  important 


TASIKO 


4 


TASMANIA 


cities  of  Central  Asia,  situated  near  the  Tchir- 
tchik,  a  feeder  of  the  Syr-Darya,  about  150  miles 
northeast  of  Samarkand  (Map:  Asia,  H  4).  It 
consists  of  the  new  Russian  city,  built  up  since 
the  Russian  occupation,  and  the  old  native  city. 
The  former  is  well  laid  out,  abounds  in  private 
gardens,  and  compares  favorably  in  regard  to 
public  buildings  and  educational  institutions 
with  most  cities  of  European  Russia.  It  has  a 
library  rich  in  works  on  Central  Asia.  The  native 
city  is  still  partly  surrounded  by  walls  and  is 
Oriental  in  appearance,  with  its  narrow  crooked 
streets  and  low  houses  turning  towards  the  street 
their  blind  walls.  Tashkent  manufactures 
leather  goods,  textiles,  metal  articles,  and  foot¬ 
wear.  Agriculture  and  gardening  are  carried  on. 
Commercial  relations  are  also  maintained  with 
China  by  way  of  very  ancient  caravan  roads. 
The  trade  has  greatly  increased  in  importance 
since  the  connection  of  the  city  with  the  Caspian 
Sea  by  rail.  A  large  portion  of  the  trade  of  the 
upper  valleys  of  the  Syr  and  Amon  is  centralized 
at  Tashkent.  Pop.,  1904,  164,749,  consisting 
chiefly  of  Sarts,  Tatars,  Kirgliizes.  The  Rus¬ 
sians  number  about  25,000.  The  first  trust¬ 
worthy  mention  of  Tashkent  dates  from  the  sev¬ 
enth  century,  although  local  traditions  attribute 
to  the  city  very  great  antiquity.  The  town  has 
been  in  possession  of  Russia  since  1865. 

TASIKO.  See  New  Hebrides. 

TASK,  The.  A  descriptive  and  didactic  poem 
in  blank  verse  by  William  Cowper,  written  in 
the  summer  of  1783  at  the  suggestion  of  Lady 
Austin,  who  had  jestingly  proposed  a  sofa  as  a 
possible  subject  for  the  poet. 

TASK  AND  BONUS.  A  policy  and  system 
of  management  developed  and  introduced  into 
a  number  of  large  manufacturing  establishments 
by  IT.  L.  Gantt  and  usually  associated  with 
his  name.  Its  principal  elements  are:  (1)  De¬ 
termining  the  task  which  a  workman  suited  to 
the  job  can  be  taught  to  perform  readily. 
Task  in  this  sense  means  a  determined  volume 
of  output  of  standard  quality,  produced  in  the 
way  determined  to  be  the  best.  (2)  Providing 
means  of  teaching  or  training  the  workman  to 
perform  this  task  regularly  by  the  standard 
movements  prescribed.  ( 3 )  .Fixing  such  pay¬ 
ment  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  task  as  will 
secure  the  workman’s  cooperation  and  make  him 
satisfied  that  he  is  being  fairly  treated.  (4) 
Maintaining  the  usual  day  rate  of  payment  to 
the  workman  during  the  process  of  training,  or 
during  any  time  when  he  fails  to  reach  the 
determined  rate  of  output — or,  in  other  words, 
to  perform  the  task  set  for  him. 

In  substance,  then,  this  method  maintains  the 
ruling  rate  of  day  wages  for  all  employees,  but 
awards  in  addition  a  bonus  to  those  who  achieve 
the  task.  In  practice  it  is  found  most  satisfac¬ 
tory  to  express  this  bonus  in  terms  of  time  to 
be  paid  for,  rather  than  directly  as  wages.  Put¬ 
ting  it  in  the  form  of  a  percentage  of  time  al¬ 
lowed  eliminates  from  consideration  any  ques¬ 
tion  of  the  actual  rate  per  day,  which  may  be 
fixed  by  collective  bargaining  or  by  any  method 
prevalent  in  the  community.  The  rate  of  bonus, 
or  the  additional  percentage  of  time  allowed  for 
achieving  the  task,  varies  with  the  conditions, 
but  is  generally  between  25  and  40  per  cent. 
For  example,  if  the  time  allowed  for  completing 
a  certain  piece  or  certain  volume  of  work  under 
the  task  and  bonus  system  is  10  hours,  the  wage 
rate  is  20  cents  an  hour  and  the  bonus  offered 
is  25  per  cent,  the  workman  completing  that 


piece  or  turning  out  that  volume  of  work  in  10 
hours  or  less  is  paid  for  12^  hours.  He  re¬ 
ceives  $2.50  for  the  job,  regardless  of  time,  if 
the  time  taken  is  within  the  task  limit  of  10 
hours.  The  workman  attempting  the  “task,”  but 
failing  by  taking  more  than  10  hours,  is  paid 
only  the  regular  day  rate  for  the  actual  time  he 
has  worked.  If  this  is  11  hours,  e.g.,  he  would 
receive  but  $2.20. 

The  objects  sought  are  to  secure  the  maximum 
output  consistent  with  continued  health  and 
well-being  of  the  operative,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  forestall  or  overcome  the  objections  gen¬ 
erally  raised  by  workmen  to  new  methods  or  new 
machinery.  These  spring  usually  from  the  fear 
(too  often  realized)  that  hardships  will  be  im¬ 
posed  upon  them  by  the  change.  The  attractive¬ 
ness  of  a  new  job  or  a  new  method  is  offset  by 
the  risk  that  the  worker  and  his  family  may  lose 
the  means  of  support  in  the  attempt  to  make  the 
change  or  to  gain  higher  efficiency.  This  is  true 
even  of  the  acceptance  of  piece  rates;  for  with 
the  possibility  of  larger  gain  there  is  also  the 
chance  of  being  able  to  turn  out  only  a  small 
output  and  consequently  receive  only  small  pay. 

As  the  task  and  bonus  system  does  not  disturb 
the  day  rate  as  a  primary  basis  of  payment,  the 
workman  runs  no  risk  in  attempting  to  accom¬ 
plish  the  task.  Therefore  if  the  work  has  been 
properly  studied,  and  a  properly  attainable  task 
has  been  set,  and  a  proper  rate  of  bonus  is  of¬ 
fered,  the  task  and  bonus  method  may  afford  a 
satisfactory  solution  for  many  labor  problems. 
Consult  H.  L.  Gantt,  “Task  and  Bonus,”  in 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers, 
Transactions  (New  York,  1901),  and  ib.,  Work, 
Wages,  and  Profits  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1913). 

TAS'KER,  John  Greenwood  (1853-  ). 

An  English  Wesleyan  Methodist  clergyman,  born 
at  Skipton  and  educated  at  Richmond  College. 
He  entered  the  ministry  in  1875,  and  was 
elected  to  the  Legal  Hundred  in  1902.  From 
1880  to  1884  he  spent  his  time  at  Stuttgart, 
Germany.  For  many  years  he  served  as  theo¬ 
logical  tutor  in  Richmond  College  and  in  Hands- 
worth  College,  Birmingham,  and  of  the  latter 
became  principal.  Tasker  published  Spiritual 
Religion,  the  Fernley  Lecture  of  1901,  and  con¬ 
tributed  to  several  important  works. 

TASMAN,  tas'man,  Abel  Janszoon  (c.1602- 
59 ) .  A  Dutch  explorer.  He  was  born  at  Lutge- 
gast,  near  Groningen,  and  early  went  to  sea. 
He  made  two  important  voyages  of  discovery  in 
the  Pacific.  In  1642  he  left  Batavia  in  command 
of  an  expedition  sent  out  by  Van  Diemen,  Gov¬ 
ernor-General  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company, 
to  circumnavigate  the  Australian  continent. 
During  his  voyage  of  ten  months  he  discovered 
(Nov.  24,  1642)  Tasmania — which  he  called  Van 
Diemen’s  Land — New  Zealand,  and  the  Friendly 
and  Fiji  Islands.  After  publishing  an  account 
of  his  voyage,  which  was  reprinted  in  1722  (2d 
ed.  by  Jacob  Swart,  1860),  he  made  a  second 
voyage  in  1644  to  New  Guinea  and  New  Holland 
and  discovered  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  His 
life  has  been  written  by  Dozy,  in  his  Bijdragen 
tot  de  taal-,  land-,  en  volkenkunde  van  Neder- 
lansch  Indie  (1887),  and  by  Walker  (Hobart, 
1896). 

TASMA'NIA.  A  state  of  Australia  occupy¬ 
ing  the  island  of  Tasmania  with  its  neighboring 
islands.  The  island  of  Tasmania,  formerly  called 
Van  Diemen’s  Land,  lies  between  lat.  40°  33'  and 
43°  39'Ti>.  and  long.  144°  39'  and  148°  23'  E. 
(Map:  Vustralasia,  G  7).  It  is  separated  from 


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TASMANIA 


5 


TASMANIA 


the  southeastern  portion  of  the  Australian  conti¬ 
nent,  the  coast-  of  Victoria,  by  Bass  Strait,  140 
miles  wide;  the  Indian  Ocean  bounds  the  island 
on  the  west  and  the  Pacific  on  the  east,  the  two 
meeting  at  its  southern  extremity.  Tasmania  is 
irregularly  heart-shaped,  measuring  200  miles 
from  north  to  south  and  245  miles  from  east  to 
west.  The  area  of  the  main  island  is  24,331  square 
miles,  and  of  the  state,  including  the  smaller 
islands,  26,215  square  miles. 

Tasmania  is  an  ancient  plateau,  which  has 
been  extensively  and  irregularly  dissected  by  the 
action  of  running  water.  A  bleak  table-land,  2000 
to  3000  feet  high,  occupies  the  middle  and  a 
large  part  of  the  western  half  of  the  island  and 
is  crowned  by  mountains  and  cleft  by  chasms 
through  which  issue  the  torrential  streams  of 
the  west  coast.  In  the  northwest  this  plateau 
reaches  an  altitude  of  5069  feet  in  Cradle  Moun¬ 
tain,  the  highest  point  of  the  island.  In  the 
northeastern  corner  of  the  island  there  is  a  simi¬ 
lar  plateau  remnant,  but  between  the  two  there 
is  a  series  of  great  valleys  extending  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Tamar  in  the  north  to  that  of  the 
Derwent  in  the  south  and  affording  the  route  for 
the  main  railroad  line.  The  remaining  parts  of 
the  island  are  cut  up  into  a  maze  of  deep  val¬ 
leys  and  high  ridges  and  peaks,  often  of  a  pre¬ 
cipitous  character.  There  are  about  20  peaks 
over  4000  feet  high  scattered  through  nearly 
every  part  of  the  island.  The  coasts  are  gener¬ 
ally  bold,  and  in  the  southeast  are  irregularly 
indented  with  fiords  and  harbors  suggesting,  to¬ 
gether  with  the  generally  lower  level  of  the  sur¬ 
rounding  mountains  and  the  outlying  islets,  a 
subsidence  of  the  land  in  this  direction. 

The  central  area  is  studded  with  a  number 
of  mountain  lakes  of  considerable  size,  most  of 
which  feed  the  Derwent  River.  The  rivers  of 
Tasmania  are  large  and  numerous  considering 
the  size  of  the  island.  The  most  important  are 
the  Derwent  and  Huon  in  the  south,  the  Gordon 
in  the  west,  and  the  Tamar  in  the  north,  all 
of  which  enter  the  sea  through  large,  navigable 
estuaries. 

The  climate,  on  account  of  the  westerly  winds, 
is  more  temperate  and  equable  than  that  of  the 
continent.  At  Hobart  the  mean  temperature  in 
summer  is  62°  F.,  and  in  winter  47°  F.,  the  ex¬ 
tremes  ranging  to  100°  F.  and  29°  F.  The  rain¬ 
fall  varies  greatly  in  the  different  localities,  and 
depends  largely  on  the  degree  of  exposure  to  the 
west  winds,  which  bring  most  of  the  moisture. 
In  the  east  the  general  average  is  22  inches,  in 
the  north  30  inches,  and  in  the  west  40  inches, 
though  some  western  localities  have  had  100 
inches  of  rain  in  a  year.  In  the  west  and  south¬ 
west,  where  the  rocks  are  granitic  and  schistose, 
the  soil  is  rather  poor.  In  the  central  valley 
and  in  the  northern  and  southeastern  districts 
the  Tertiary  deposits  have  combined  with  vol¬ 
canic  detritus  to  form  a  very  rich  soil  of  a  choc¬ 
olate  color. 

The  flora  is  essentially  Australian,  and  closely 
related  to  that  of  Victoria.  The  gigantic  euca¬ 
lyptus  is  widely  distributed,  and  the  Huon  pine 
( Dacrydium  franklini)  is  common  in  the  south. 
The  Tolasa  Blue  Gum  attains  a  height  of  350 
feet.  The  conifers  are  well  represented,  there 
being  9  species  peculiar  to  the  island,  and  of 
the  1100  species  of  angiosperms,  or  higher 
plants,  over  250  are  restricted  to  Tasmania.  The 
fauna,  though  also  distinctively  Australian,  in¬ 
cludes  several  mammals  unknown  on  the  main¬ 
land.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  are  two 


carnivorous  marsupials,  the  Tasmanian  wolf 
and  the  Tasmanian  devil.  See  Dasyure. 

The  central  table-land  and  the  western  and 
southern  portions  are  built  up  mainly  of  Paleo¬ 
zoic  strata  through  which  harder  igneous  rocks 
have  been  intruded.  Towards  the  coast  Mesozoic 
and  Tertiary  formations  appear,  chiefly  as  sand¬ 
stones,  while  throughout,  but  especially  in  the 
east,  there  are  extensive  volcanic  outpourings, 
dikes  of  porphyry  and  greenstone,  and  large  fields 
of  basalt  of  Tertiary  age.  The  latter,  capping 
and  protecting  the  softer  sandstones,  are  largely 
responsible  for  the  rugged  and  irregular  nature 
of  the  surface.  Considerable  beds  of  coal  and 
lignite  appear  in  the  Paleozoic  and  Mesozoic 
formations.  Copper  near  Macquarie  Harbor, 
tin  in  the  northwest,  and  gold  are  important 
minerals,  and  coal  mines  and  oil  shale  are 
worked. 

The  principal  minerals  produced  are  tin,  cop¬ 
per,  silver,  and  gold.  Formerly  copper  led  in 
the  value  of  annual  output,  but  it  has  been  sur¬ 
passed  by  tin,  in  the  production  of  which  Tas¬ 
mania  exceeds  any  other  Australian  state.  Both 
lode  and  stream  tin  are  w7orked.  The  principal 
tin  workings  are  at  Mount  Bischoff,  in  the  north¬ 
west;  the  workings  at  Brauxholm  and  Mount 
Cameron,  in  the  northeast,  should  be  mentioned. 
Copper  is  found  chiefly  on  the  west  coast,  par¬ 
ticularly  at  Mount  Lyell.  Silver  occurs  on  both 
east  and  west  coasts.  The  principal  gold  fields 
are  at  Beaconsfield,  Lefroy,  and  Mathinna.  Up 
to  the  end  of  1912  the  recorded  value  of  Tas¬ 
mania’s  mineral  output  was  £36,669,779,  of  which 
tin  £11,972,602,  copper  £10,256,981,  gold  £7,407,- 
282,  and  silver  and  lead  £6,258,748.  In  1912 
the  output  of  tin  ore  amounted  to  3713  tons, 
valued  at  £543,103;  in  1913,  4010  tons,  £531,983. 
The  value  of  the  copper  output  in  1901  was 
£1,026,748,  in  1912,  £440,444,  and  in  1913,  £375,- 
664;  the  output  amounted  to  9730  tons  in  1901 
(besides  10,029  tons  of  ore),  6528  tons  in  1912, 
and  6536  in  1913.  The  output  of  silver  and  lead 
in  1912  was  valued  at  £309,098  and  in  1913  at 
£319,997.  The  maximum  gold  output,  £327,545, 
was  reached  in  1899;  the  output  in  1912  was 
valued  at  £161,300,  and  in  1913  at  £141,876. 
Other  minerals,  especially  coal,  are  worked  to 
some  extent. 

The  agricultural  development  has  been  less 
noteworthy  than  that  of  the  other  Australian 
states.  The  area  under  crop  in  1880-81  (140,788 
acres)  was  smaller  than  in  1860-61;  in  1912-13 
it  was  286,065  acres,  and,  in  1913-14,  264,140 
acres.  In  addition,  there  were  in  the  latter  year 
605,559  acres  under  permanent  artificially  sown 
grasses,  as  compared  with  314,422  acres  in 
1901-02.  Wheat  cultivation  has  declined;  in 
1860-61  the  acreage  was  66,450;  in  1865-66, 
73,270;  in  1912-13,  25,226.  In  1913-14  there 
were  under  wheat  18,432  acres,  yielding  349,736 
bushels;  oats,  58,886  acres,  1,598,664  bushels; 
potatoes,  30,811  acres,  80,389  tons;  hay,  84,138 
acres,  112,958  tons.  Of  great  importance  is  the 
cultivation  of  fruit,  especially  apples;  to  apples 
24,370  acres  were  devoted  in  1912-13.  Tasmania 
is  well  adapted  to  stock  raising,  but  the  industry 
has  not  shown  much  progress  in  recent  years. 
On  March  1,  1914,  there  were  43,941  horses, 
205,743  cattle,  1,745,356  sheep,  and  37,990  swine. 
The  estimated  wool  clip  for  1913  was  about 
8,872,000  pounds. 

In  the  direct  oversea  trade  (exclusive  of  the 
trade  with  other  Australian  states),  imports  and 
exports  were  valued  at  £816,886  and  £625,031  re- 


TASMANIA 


6 


TASSAERT 


spectively  in  1911,  and  £1,025,081  and  £522,865 
in  1913.  The  exports  include  tin,  wool,  silver, 
gold,  timber,  fruit,  and  jam.  The  principal  ports 
are  Hobart  and  Launceston.  In  1914  there  were 
684  miles  of  railway,  of  which  519  miles  belonged 
to  the  government.  The  gauge  is  mainly  3  feet, 
6  inches. 

The  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a  Gover¬ 
nor,  who  is  appointed  by  the  British  crown  and 
is  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  five  ministers  respon¬ 
sible  to  the  legislative  body.  This  body  is  the 
Parliament,  consisting  of  the  Legislative  Council 
(18  members,  elected  for  six  years)  and  the 
House  of  Assembly  ( 30  members,  elected  for 
three  years).  Tasmania  is  represented  by  six 
Senators  and  five  Representatives  in  the  Aus¬ 
tralian  Parliament.  There  is  universal  adult 
suffrage. 

The  revenue  and  expenditure  in  1912 
amounted  to  £1,111,292  and  £1,077,857  respec¬ 
tively;  in  1913,  £1,238,085  and  £1,235,014.  Pub¬ 
lic  debt  June  30,  1914,  £12,265,012;  the  debt 
was  incurred  for  the  construction  of  public 
works. 

The  estimated  population  of  Tasmania  in  1825 
was  14,192;  in  1850,  68,870;  in  1875,  103,739;  in 
1900,  172,900.  The  census  of  March  31,  1901, 
returned  a  population  of  172,475  (89,624  males, 
82,851  females)  ;  that  of  April  3,  1911,  191,211 
(97,591  males,  93,620  females).  The  people  are 
almost  wholly  of  British  race;  of  the  total  in 
1911,  172,497  were  born  in  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia.  In  1911  there  were  183,840  per¬ 
sons  returned  as  Christian.  Members  of  the 
Church  of  England  numbered  88,158;  Roman 
Catholics,  28,581;  Methodists,  24,975;  Presby¬ 
terians,  15,735.  The  population  of  the  local  gov¬ 
ernment  area  of  Hobart,  the  capital,  was  27,526 
in  1911  (with  suburbs,  38,391);  Launceston, 
24,254.  There  are  no  other  large  towns.  Mar¬ 
riages  in  1913,  1620;  births,  5886;  deaths,  2131; 
arrivals,  45,883;  departures,  45,168. 

Elementary  instruction  is  compulsory.  In  1913 
there  were  431  public  elementary  schools,  with 
33,953  pupils  enrolled;  16  superior  schools,  with 
an  average  attendance  of  about  1485;  and  72 
other  schools  (nongovernment),  with  4450 
pupils.  There  are  two  technical,  besides  three 
mining,  schools.  At  Hobart  is  the  University  of 
Tasmania;  the  enrollment  in  1913  was  only  162. 

Ethnology.  The  aboriginal  inhabitants  of 
Tasmania,  who  are  now  extinct,  were  of  doubtful 
racial  affinities,  having  been  regarded  by  differ¬ 
ent  authorities  as  being  variously  connected  with 
the  Papuan,  Melanesian,  and  Australian  races. 
They  were  of  medium  stature  (1.66  m.),  with 
broad,  prognathous  faces,  subdolichocephalic 
skulls  (index  76-77),  very  prominent  brow 
ridges,  very  flat  broad  noses,  dark  skins,  and 
frizzly  hair,  the  last-named  feature  being  the 
chief  difference  from  the  Australians.  In  cul¬ 
ture  the  Tasmanians  were  probably  even  lower 
than  the  Australian  aborigines.  Their  stone  im¬ 
plements  were  of  paleolithic  type;  they  were 
as  ignorant  as  the  Australians  of  pottery  and 
the  bow  and  also  lacked  the  Australian  boom¬ 
erang  and  spear  thrower.  Crude  rafts  of  bark 
bound  together  with  grass  fibre  formed  their 
only  means  of  navigation.  The  tale  of  the  ex¬ 
termination  of  the  Tasmanians,  who  never  num¬ 
bered  more,  perhaps,  than  five  or  six  thousand, 
is  one  of  the  blackest  pages  in  the  history  of 
European  colonization.  The  European  settle¬ 
ment  began  in  1804,  and  by  1824,  when  the  first 
census  was  taken,  there  were  only  340  natives 


alive.  These  had  dwindled  down  to  four  by  1865. 
The  last  Tasmanian,  a  woman  named  Tinganina, 
is  said  to  have  died  in  May,  1876. 

History.  In  1642  the  Dutch  navigator  Abel 
Janszoon  Tasman  (q.v. )  discovered  the  island 
now  known  by  his  namp,  supposing  it  to  be  the 
mainland  of  the  southern  continent,  and  called 
it  Van  Diemen’s  Land,  in  honor  of  his  friend  and 
patron,  Anthony  Van  Diemen,  Governor  of  the 
Dutch  East  Indies.  It  was  visited  by  Captain 
Cook  in  1777.  The  next  recorded  exploration  is 
that  of  George  Bass,  a  young  English  surgeon, 
who  explored  the  strait  which  bears  his  name  in 
1798,  and  thus  discovered  that  Tasmania  was  not 
a  peninsula,  but  an  island.  Later  in  the  year  he 
returned  and  surveyed  the  entire  coast.  No 
colonizing  was  attempted  until  1803.  In  that 
year  Captain  Collins  brought  out  400  convicts 
from  England,  and  in  1804  laid  out  Hobart 
Town,  the  present  capital  of  Tasmania.  In  the 
same  year  a  settlement  was  founded  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  island  by  colonists  from 
Sydney.  In  1806  this  colony  was  transferred  to 
Launceston.  From  these  two  centres  the  coloni¬ 
zation  of  the  island  proceeded  steadily.  Till  1823 
the  island  was  under  the  authority  of  the  New 
South  Wales  government.  In  that  year  it  re¬ 
ceived  a  separate  Lieutenant  Governor  and  in 
1825  a  separate  Governor.  The  opposition  to  con¬ 
vict  labor,  always  deep-seated,  notwithstanding 
the  scarcity  of  laborers,  led,  in  1835,  to  the  first 
petition  to  the  home  government  for  its  abolition. 
This,  however,  did  not  take  place  until  1853.  In 
that  year,  too,  the  colony  received  its  present 
name  of  Tasmania.  In  1854  a  constitution  pro¬ 
viding  for  responsible  government  by  a  Colonial 
Parliament  was  framed  by  the  Legislative  Coun¬ 
cil  of  the  Colony,  in  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  the  Australian  Government  Act  of  1850,  and 
this  bill  received  the  royal  assent  in  1855.  On 
Jan.  1,  1901,  Tasmania  became  a  member  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia.  See  Australia. 

Bibliography.  Just,  The  Official  Handbook 
of  Tasmania  (Melbourne,  1892)  ;  Johnston,  Sys¬ 
tematic  Account  of  the  Geology  of  Tasmania 
(Hobart,  1888)  ;  Murray,  Tasmanian  Rivers, 
Lakes,  and  Floorers  (London,  1900)  ;  .  Roth 
and  Butler,  The  Aborigines  of  Tasmania  (2d  ed., 
Halifax,  1900)  ;  for  the  flora  and  fauna,  Mere¬ 
dith,  My  Bush  Friends  in  Tasmania  (London, 
1859)  ;  id.,  Tasmanian  Friends  and  Foes  (ib., 
1880)  ;  id.,  My  Bush  Friends  in  Tasmania.  Last 
Series  (ib.,  1891)  ;  Fenton,  A  History  of  Tasma¬ 
nia  (Hobart,  1884)  ;  G.  W.  Smith,  A  Naturalist 
in  Tasmania  (Oxford,  1909). 

TASMA'NIAN  WOLF,  Tiger  Wolf,  Zebra 
Wolf,  or  Thylacine.  A  wolflike,  carnivorous, 
and  savage  marsupial  of  Tasmania.  See  Das- 
yure;  Colored  Plate  of  Marsupials;  Plate  of 
PlIAL  ANGERS. 

TAS'MAN  SEA.  That  portion  of  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean  which  is  included  between  Aus¬ 
tralia  and  Tasmania  on  the  west  and  New 
Zealand  on  the  east  (Map:  Australasia,  H,  J  6). 
It  is  more  than  15,000  feet  deep  and  contains 
but  few  islands. 

TASSAERT,  ta'sart,  Antoine  (1729-88).  A 
Flemish  sculptor,  born  and  trained  in  Antwerp. 
After  working  in  London  and  Paris,  where  he 
studied  under  Slodtz,  he  was  called  to  Berlin  in 
1775  by  Frederick  the  Great,  who  made  him 
court  sculptor  and  rector  of  the  Academy.  He 
modeled  many  statues  and  groups  in  the  aca¬ 
demic  French  style;  busts  including  that  of 
Moses  Mendelssohn  (National  Gallery,  Berlin), 


TASSAEBT 


7 


TASSO 


and  the  statues  of  generals  Seydlitz  and  Keith, 
now  in  the  Cadet  School  at  Gross-Lichterfelde, 
where  for  the  first  time  great  generals  are  por¬ 
trayed  in  their  uniform  instead  of  in  Roman 
costume. 

TASSAEBT,  Nicolas  Franqois  Octave 
(1800-74).  A  Flemish  historical  and  genre 
painter.  He  was  born  in  Paris,  and  studied  at 
the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts  and  under  Girard  and 
Guillon  Lethiere.  He  was  one  of  the  first  real¬ 
ists  and  portrayed,  with  able  technique,  the 
sufferings  of  the  poor  and  the  unfortunate.  His 
exaggerated  pathos  does  not  appeal  to  present 
taste,  but  he  was  highly  regarded  by  Delacroix 
and  the  Barbizon  masters.  Among  his  most 
characteristic  works  are  “The  Suicide”  and  the 
“Unhappy  Family.”  He  also  painted  historical 
and  religious  compositions.  Tassaert  asphyxiated 
himself  with  the  fumes  of  charcoal. 

TAS'SIE,  James  (1735-99).  A  Scottish 
modeler  and  gem  engraver.  He  was  born  near 
Glasgow,  and  studied  modeling  at  the  Academy 
in  Glasgow.  In  1763  he  went  to  Dublin,  where  he 
entered  the  laboratory  of  Henry  Quin.  Together 
they  invented  a  kind  of  vitreous  paste,  or 
enamel  of  much  hardness  and  beauty  of  texture, 
in  which  they  reproduced  gems  and.  medallions. 
In  1766  Tassie  settled  in  London,  where  he 
continued  his  work  with  gems  and  casts,  and 
also  made  many  large  white  enamel  profile 
medallion  portraits  of  notable  contemporaries, 
among  them  Adam  Smith,  Sir  Henry  Raeburn, 
and  Dr.  James  Beattie.  He  made  reproductions 
of  some  of  the  most  valuable  collections  of  gems 
in  Europe,  and  executed  copies  of  about  15,000 
examples  for  the  Empress  Catharine  of  Russia. 
He  also  furnished  numerous  casts  for  Wedgwood’s 
(q.v. )  work.  From  1769  to  1791  he  exhibited 
at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  a  large  catalogue 
of  his  works,  with  descriptions  by  Rudolphe 
Eric  Raspe,  was  published  in  the  latter  year. 
His  nephew,  William  Tassie  (1777-1860),  also 
a  gem  modeler  and  caster,  succeeded  to  his 
uncle’s  business  and  added  greatly  to  the  col¬ 
lection.  A  large  part  of  it,  bequeathed  to  the 
Board  of  Manufacturers,  Edinburgh,  is  now  in 
the  Scottish  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

TASSO,  tas'sO,  Bernardo  (1493-1569).  An 
Italian  poet,  born  in  Alenno  (Bergamo)  and  edu¬ 
cated  at  Padua.  The  early  part  of  his  life  was 
spent  in  the  service  of  the  Sanseverino  and  Ran- 
gone  families,  for  whom  he  visited  Tunis,  Spain, 
France,  and  Flanders.  From  1563  he  was  en¬ 
gaged  with  Guglielmo  Gonzaga,  Duke  of  Mantua, 
who  made  him  Governor  of  Ostiglia  in  1567.  His 
romanzesque  epos  L’Amadigi  di  Gaula  ( 1542-60) , 
based  on  the  Spanish  prose  version  of  Amadis  of 
Gaul  by  Orddnez  de  Montalvo,  attempts  to  recon¬ 
cile  the  fantastic  freedom  of  Ariosto  with  the 
theory  of  classic  imitation.  An  episode  of  this 
poem  he  treated  afterward  separately  in  II  Flori- 
dante,  completed  by  his  son  Torquato  in  1587. 
The  lyrics,  Amori  (1555)  and  Rime,  odi  e  salmi 
(1560),  as  also  his  selve  and  favole  have  an  his¬ 
torical  interest  as  specimens  of  imitations  (es¬ 
pecially  of  Horace)  and  from  their  relations 
with  the  Petrarchistic  movement.  His  Lettere 
(Padua,  1733-51)  are  a  valuable  contribution 
to  the  political  and  literary  history  of  his  time. 
Consult:  Pasolini,  I  genitori  di  T.  Tasso  (Rome, 

1895)  ;  Foffano,  L’Amadigi  di  B.  T.  (Turin, 

1896)  ;  F.  Pintor,  Delle  liriche  di  B.  Tasso  (Pisa, 
1899). 

TASSO,  Torquato  (1544-95).  The  great 
Italian  epic  poet  of  the  Catholic  reaction,  son  of 


the  preceding,  born  at  Sorrento,  March  11,  1544. 
His  earliest  training  was  in  the  Jesuit  schools  of 
Naples.  On  his  father’s  exile  in  1552  Torquato 
went  to  live  in  Rome  ( 1552-56 ) ,  then  to  Ber¬ 
gamo  (1556-57)  and  Urbino,  where  Bernardo 
had  taken  service  (1557-58).  In  the  spring  of 
1559  he  settled  in  Venice,  entering  the  law  school 
at  Padua  the  following  year.  From  this  time 
date  his  earliest  sonnets  and  madrigals.  En¬ 
couraged  by  their  success  and  under  his  father’s 
critical  guidance  he  now  also  began  his  Rinaldo, 
a  poem  of  Carolingian  chivalric  substance  treated 
in  the  manner  of  Ariosto  (a  fabric  of  episodes), 
but  with  reference  to  Aristotelian  principles  of 
unity  of  action  (all  episodes  involving  Rinaldo). 
In  1561  Tasso  changed  his  course  at  Padua  to 
the  school  of  philosophy  and  letters.  The  Ri¬ 
naldo  was  published  in  1562.  During  these  years 
was  being  formed  the  European  alliance  against 
Turkey  that  was  to  lead  to  the  battle  of  Lepanto. 
In  the  midst  of  this  crusading  propaganda 
(1561-62)  Tasso  wrote  Del  Gerusalemme,  116 
octave  stanzas,  many  of  which  were  later  trans¬ 
ferred  bodily  to  his  immortal  masterpiece.  For 
his  third  semester  in  philosophy  Tasso  went  to 
Bologna  (1563).  Accused  of  writing  a  libellous 
pasquinade  against  notables  of  the  university,  he 
was  compelled  (1564)  to  flee  for  his  life.  At 
his  refuge  in  Modena  he  received  a  warm  offer  of 
hospitality  from  the  future  Cardinal  and  Pa¬ 
triarch  of  Jerusalem,  Scipione  Gonzaga,  residing 
at  Padua.  Tasso  there  resumed  his  studies,  com¬ 
posing  meanwhile  occasional  and  amorous  lyrics 
for  Gonzaga’s  Accademia  degli  Eritrei.  He 
graduated  in  1565,  and  received  an  appointment 
with  Cardinal  Luigi  d’Este,  assuming  residence 
for  his  sinecure  at  Ferrara  in  October  of  that 
year.  He  was  destined  to  remain  there  for  a 
long  period.  He  made  occasional  excursions  to 
Mantua  to  visit  his  father  and  his  sweetheart 
Laura  Perperara;  to  Pesaro,  Urbino,  and  Castel- 
durante  as  guest  of  his  patroness  Lucrezia  Gon¬ 
zaga  della  Rovere.  In  1570  a  journey  to  Paris 
with  the  Cardinal  brought  him  in  contact  with 
the  poets  of  the  French  Pleiade,  notably  Ron- 
sard.  Meanwhile  Tasso  had  participated  with 
growing  prestige  in  the  Academy  life  of  Ferrara, 
writing  verses  and  exercises  of  eloquence  and 
erudition. 

In  1572  he  was  transferred  to  the  suite  of 
Alfonzo  II  Gonzaga,  and  the  years  1572-74  mark 
the  height  of  his  social  popularity.  For  a  fes¬ 
tival  at  Belvedere  in  1573  he  composed  his  ele¬ 
gant  pastoral  drama  Aminta,  a  poem  in  free 
blank  verse.  This  poem  is  suffused  with  a  bril¬ 
liant  coloring  of  extraordinary  mellowness.  It 
has  a  sustained  motivation  of  intense  but  lan¬ 
guid  sensuousness,  through  which  runs  a  vein 
of  the  subtle  humor  inherent  in  sophisticated 
courtliness  when  applied  to  a  pastoral  subject. 
In  1574  Tasso  became  lecturer  in  astronomy  and 
mathematics  at  the  university  of  Ferrara  and 
began  a  classic  tragedy,  Galealto  di  Norvegia. 
As  early  as  1570  he  had  resumed  work  on  the 
subject  treated  in  Del  Gerusalemme ;  pro¬ 
foundly  affected  by  current  debates  on  aesthetics, 
he  had  been  studying  carefully  the  principles 
underlying  epic  compositions.  His  conclusions 
he  embodied  in  three  Discoi~si  dell  arte  poetica, 
which  remain  the  best  comment  on  the  structure 
and  intent  of  the  Gerusalemme  liberate,  and 
a  typical  expression  of  Aristotelian  aesthetics  of 
the  Renaissance.  The  great  poem  was  complete 
in  1575,  a  date  which  also  marks  the  first  signs 
of  Tasso’s  loss  of  mental  balance.  He  came  to 


TASSO 


8 


TASSONI 


betray  a  certain  unexplainable  terror  for  possible 
criticism  of  his  work.  These  fears  first  con¬ 
cerned  mere  questions  of  form.  He  intrusted  a 
private  revision  of  the  poem  to  his  friend  Scipi- 
one  Gonzaga,  who  in  turn  consulted  the  cele¬ 
brated  critics  Pier  Angelio  da  Barga,  Sperone 
Speroni,  Flaminio  dei  Nobili,  and  Silvio  Antoni- 
ano,  and  they  set  about  the  task  with  all  the  con¬ 
scientiousness  of  pedants.  Tasso’s  Lettere  record 
the  painful  travails  of  his  spirit  during  these 
discussions,  which  aroused  in  him  also  a  fear  lest 
his  poem  be  in  part  heretical.  The  assurances 
of  the  Inquisition  could  not  allay  this  dread. 
By  1576  he  had  decided  completely  to  rewrite 
and  allegorize  his  work,  a  revision  prevented 
only  by  his  complete  nervous  breakdown.  He 
began  to  fancy  the  existence  of  plots  against  him 
at  Ferrara  and  felt  the  ground  at  Florence  and 
Rome  as  possible  harbors  of  refuge.  He  quar¬ 
reled  with  a  certain  Ercole  Fucci,  who  finally  as¬ 
saulted  him  with  a  cane.  In  1577,  during  an 
audience  with  his  patroness  Lucretia,  he  drew  a 
knife  on  a  servant  who  he  feared  was  spying  on 
him.  This  access  led  to  careful  surveillance  and 
medical  attention.  From  this  time  begin  periods 
of  mad  flights  and  wanderings.  In  July  of  1577 
he  tramped,  begging  his  way  as  far  as  Sorrento, 
but  returned  apparently  normal  to  Ferrara  in 
April,  1578.  In  July  again  he  went  wandering 
to  Mantua,  thence  to  Padua  and  Venice,  finally 
ending  at  Turin.  Again  in  Ferrara,  1579,  he 
became  violent  at  the  fancied  coldness  of  his 
reception,  and  was  confined  in  the  insane  asylum 
of  Sant’  Anna. 

His  confinement  lasted  till  1586,  but  in  fre¬ 
quent  lucid  intervals  he  displayed  a  considerable 
literary  activity.  Then,  at  the  instance  of  An¬ 
gelo  Grillo  and  Antonio  Costantini,  Tasso  was 
permitted  to  accompany  Vincenzo  Gonzaga  to 
Mantua.  A  renewed  attack  of  melancholia  was 
not  relieved  by  a  vacation  in  Bergamo  (1587), 
and  again  Tasso  fled,  this  time  to  Bologna,  the 
Loreto  shrine,  whence  finally  to  Rome.  The  per¬ 
sistent  efforts  of  the  Gonzaga  to  extradite  Tasso 
have  caused  much  discussion  as  to  the  presence 
of  other  motives  than  insanity  in  the  poet’s 
long  imprisonment.  At  Rome  Tasso  was  the 
guest  of  his  old  friend  Scipione  Gonzaga  and 
later  of  the  Aldobrandini.  During  the  six  fol¬ 
lowing  years  he  wrote  or  completed  the  tragedy 
II  Torrismondo  (imitation  of  Oedipus  Rex),  the 
Galealto,  the  religious  epic  II  mondo  creato,  and 
the  revised  Jerusalem  Delivered  (which  he  now 
entitled  La  Gerusalemme  conquistata) . 

In  1592  came  a  brief  residence  with  Matteo 
di  Capua  and  G.  B.  Manso  in  Naples.  In  1594 
Clement  VIII  assigned  him  a  pension  and  looked 
favorably  upon  the  idea  of  a  poetic  coronation. 
Before  this  scheme  was  carried  out,  however, 
the  poet  died,  April  25,  1595. 

The  poem  of  Tasso  deals  with  the  taking 
of  Jerusalem  during  the  Third  Crusade,  largely 
as  described  by  Gillaume  de  Tyre.  This  is  the 
unifying  theme,  around  which  is  an  accretion 
of  episode — the  love  stories  of  Rinaldo  and 
Armida,  of  Tancred  and  Clorinda,  of  Erminia 
and  Tancred,  of  Olindo  and  Sofronia.  This  ro- 
manzesque  element  comes  to  constitute  the  most 
important  part  of  the  poem;  for  while  the 
treatment  of  the  main  theme  falls  cold  in  a  mat¬ 
ter-of-fact  narrative  adorned  in  vain  by  some 
extrinsic  devices  of  style,  Tasso  gives  in  his 
episodes  free  play  to  his  elegiac  and  idyllic 
sentiment.  The  best  that  can  be  said  for  the 
work  as  a  whole  is  that  the  conception  of  God’s 


power  sustaining  the  faithful  man  in  his  weak¬ 
ness  to  a  great  accomplishment,  is  objectified 
with  a  greater  dignity  and  a  greater  freedom 
from  banality  than  is  apparent  in  any  of  the 
epic  poems  written  on  the  theory  that  art  is  a 
branch  of  logical  science.  There  is  much  that  is 
dead  in  the  Jerusalem  Delivered.  It  is  the  epi¬ 
sodic  figures  that  live:  Sofronia,  wholly  sane 
and  conscious,  but  divinely  possessed  by  the 
rapture  of  faith ;  Clorinda,  her  soul  miraculously 
warmed  with  Christian  charity,  bidding  an 
eternal  farewell  to  her  lover;  the  suffocating 
emotion  of  Erminia  as  she  sees  Tancred’s  distant 
camp  in  'the  moonlight;  Armida’s  sensuous 
charm.  The  Jerusalem  Delivered  shows  relig¬ 
ious  moods  more  deeply  experienced  than  in  any 
other  religious  poetry  since  the  time  of  Dante; 
and  it  strikes  here  and  there  richer  chords  of 
melancholy  and  pathos  than  in  any  other  Ital¬ 
ian  lyrics  since  Petrarch. 

In  the  Aminta  and  Jerusalem  Delivered  we 
find  nearly  all  the  motives  of  the  Italian  verse 
of  the  next  two  centuries.  Tasso  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  thus,  as  also  in  matters  of  form,  a 
great  renovator  of  Petrarchism.  His  work  gave 
great  impetus  to  the  development  of  Seicentismo 
(see  Italian  Literature),  and  he  overshadowed 
both  Petrarch  and  Dante  in  the  minds  of  the 
baroque  poets  of  the  next  five  generations:  this 
because,  in  theory  and  practice,  he  considered 
style  as  ornamentation,  and  ingeniosity  of 
metaphor  the  chief  instrument  of  literary  art. 

Bibliography.  Editions  of  Gerusalemme 
Uberata:  1st  ed.,  pirated  (Venice,  1580), 
by  Celio  Malespini,  entitled  II  Goff  redo;  2d 
and  3d  ed.  by  Angelo  Ingegnieri  (Parma  and 
Casalmaggiore,  1581);  1st  authorized  ed.  (Fer¬ 
rara,  1581)  by  Febo  Bonm\.  Modern  critical 
ed.  by  A.  Solerti  (3  vols.,  Florence,  1895-96). 
Annotated  ed.  by  S.  Ferrari  (Florence).  Trans¬ 
lations:  Edward  Fairfax  (London,  1687,  1749, 
1817,  1895)  ;  John  Hoole  (London,  1797,  1810, 
etc).  Others:  P.  Doyne  (Dublin,  1761);  Wif- 
fen  (London,  1826,  1856)  ;  Carew  (Manchester, 
1881);  James  (London,  1884);  Aminta:  best 
ed.  by  Solerti  (Turin,  1901)  ;  translations  by 
Oldmixon  (London,  1698)  ;  Dancer  (ib.,  1660)  ; 
Whitmore  (Springfield,  Mass.,  1900).'  Complete 
works:  33  vols.,  Pisa,  1821-32.  Critical  ed. 
minor  works:  Lettere  and  Dialoghi  by  Guasti 
(Florence,  1852-59)  and  Prose  diverse  (1875); 
A.  Solerti,  Appendice  alle  opere  in  prosa  (Flor¬ 
ence-,  1892)  ;  Opere  minori  in  versi;  Poemi 
minori ;  Teatro  (3  vols.,  Bologna,  1892-95)  ; 
Bibliografia;  Rime  d’amore;  Rime  d’occasione  o 
d’encomio  (3  vols.,  Bologna,  1898-1902).  Bi¬ 
ography:  in  Italian,  A.  Serassi,  Vita  di  Torquato 
Tasso  (Bergamo,  1790)  ;  Angelo  Solerti,  Vita  di 
Torquato  Tasso  (3  vols.,  Turin,  1895)  ;  A.  Alber- 
tazzi,  Torquato  Tasso  (Modena,  1911);  in  Eng¬ 
lish:  Robert  Milman,  Life  of  Tasso  (2  vols.,  Lon¬ 
don,  1850)  ;  William  Boulting,  Tasso  and  his 
Times  (New  York,  1907),  containing  a  bibliog¬ 
raphy.  General  criticism:  Antonio  Belloni,  Gli 
epigoni  della  Gerusalemme  liberata  (Padua, 
1893);  Hedwig  Wagner,  Tasso  daheim  und  in 
Deutschland  (Berlin,  1905)  ;  Scopia,  Le  fonti  del 
mondo  creato  di  Torquato  Tasso  (Naples,  1907)  ; 
G.  E.  Woodberry,  in  Inspiration  of  Poetry  (New 
York,  1910)  ;  A.  Sainati,  La  lirica  di  Torquato 
Tasso  (Pisa,  1912)  ;  F.  de  Sanctis,  Storia  della 
letteratura  italiana  (2  vols.,  Bari,  1912). 

TASSONI,  ta-so'ne,  Alessandro  (1565- 
1635).  An  Italian  diplomat,  critic,  and  poet. 
He  was  born  in  Modena  of  an  old  patrician 


TASSY 


9 


TATARS 


family.  About  1595  he  published  at  Rome  a 
dialogue  in  defense  of  Alessandro  Magno  and 
Obizzo  d’  Este,  an  effort  which  was  dedicated 
to  Cardinal  Alessandro  d’  Este,  and  which  at¬ 
tracted  such  favorable  notice  from  that  prelate 
that  young  Tassoni  was  taken  into  the  service 
of  Cardinal  Ascanio  Colonna  (1597).  His  Con- 
sidcrazioni  sopra  le  rime  del  Petrarca  (1609) 
became  the  occasion  of  bitter  controversy.  In 
1613  Tassoni  entered  the  service  of  Charles  Em¬ 
manuel  of  Savoy.  But  his  Filippiche  contra  gli 
Kpagnuoli  (1615;  reprinted  1855)  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  Cardinal  Prince  Filiberto  of 
Savoy,  and  Tassoni  withdrew  into  private  life 
(1622).  Afterward  he  became  secretary  to  Car¬ 
dinal  Ludovisi,  and  then  councilor  and  cham¬ 
berlain  at  the  court  of  Duke  Francis  I  of  Modena 
(1632).  The  Pensieri  diver  si  of  Tassoni  form  a 
curious  monument  of  Seicento  culture,  but  the 
poet  achieved  his  greatest  fame  with  La  secchia 
rapita  (The  Rape  of  the  Bucket,  written  1614; 
published  in  Paris,  1622;  ed.  by  Carducci,  1861, 
etc.).  This  is  a  mock  heroic  poem  in  12  cantos, 
founded  upon  an  incident  of  the  Modenese  wars. 
It  is  a  precursor  of  Boileau’s  Lutrin  (1673)  and 
Pope’s  Rape  of  the  Lock  (1712).  Its  humor, 
the  Tuscan  purity  of  its  language, .  and  the  per¬ 
fection  of  its  metrics  have  made  it  an  Italian 
classic.  Consult:  Nunziante,  Alessandro  Tas¬ 
soni,  e  il  Seicento  (Milan,  1885)-;  Bacci,  Le  con- 
siderazioni  sul  Petrarca  di  Alessandro  Tassoni 
(Florence,  1887)  ;  ed.  of  Secchda,  Oceano,  and 
Rime  by  Casini  (ib.,  1887)  ;  Ambrosi,  Sopra  i 
Pensieri  diver  si  di  Alessandro  Tassoni  (Rome, 
1896)  ;  Le  lettere  di  Alessandro  Tassoni,  ed.  by 
G.  Rossi  (Bologna,  1901)  ;  the  important  Miscel¬ 
lanea  tassoniana,  ed.  by  Casini-Santi  (Modena, 
1908)  ;  G.  Rossi,  Saggio  di  una  bibliografia  delle 
opere  di  Alessandro  Tassoni  (Bologna,  1908). 

TASSY,  Joseph  Helidore  Sages se  Vertu 
Garcin  de.  See  Garcin  de  Tassy,  J.  H.  S.  V. 

TASTE  (OF.  taster,  Fr.  tdter,  to  taste,  from 
Lat.  *taxitare,  frequentative  of  taxare,  to  touch, 
intensive  of  tangere,  to  touch;  connected  with 
Goth,  tekan,  Icel.  taka,  AS.  tacan,  Eng.  take ) . 
The  sensations  of  taste  are  four  in  number :  salt, 
sweet,  sour,  and  bitter.  The  varied  experiences 
commonly  regarded  as  tastes  are,  therefore, 
blends  or  fusions  of  one  or  more  taste  qualities 
with  other  sensations.  Lemonade,  e.g.,  is  blended 
of  sour  and  sweet,  cold,  pressure,  and  the  odor 
of  lemons.  If  the  nostrils  are  plugged  with 
cotton  wool,  claret  cannot  be  distinguished  from 
vinegar  or  a  morsel  of  raw  potato  from  apple. 

Taste  is  a  chemical  sense,  and  like  vision  and 
smell,  though  in  a  less  marked  degree,  shows 
the  phenomena  of  mixture,  adaptation,  and  con¬ 
trast.  In  mixture,  there  is  at  least  a  partial 
compensation  for  all  pairs  except  sweet-salt,  if 
the  components  are  mixed  in  the  proper  pro¬ 
portions  and  at  low  intensities.  Sweet  and  salt 
themselves  mix  to  a  flat  or  vapid  quality,  some¬ 
what  as  blue  and  yellow  mix  to  give  a  gray. 
Complete  adaptation  can  be  attained  only  by 
stimulation  for  several  hours  with  strong  solu¬ 
tions;  but  experiment  bears  out  the  common  ex¬ 
perience  that  any  one  of  the  four  qualities  is 
weakened  after  a  stimulation  of  a  few  moments. 
Contrast  is  both  simultaneous  and  successive. 
The  contrasting  pairs  are  sweet-salt,  sweet-sour, 
and  salt-sour;  bitter  does  not  contrast  with  any 
other  taste.  The  stimulation  of  the  tongue 
by  the  one  member  of  these  pairs  increases  its 
sensitivity  to  the  other  member,  or  causes  dis¬ 
tilled  water  to  give  the  contrasting  taste. 


The  tongue,  like  the  skin,  is  supplied  with 
nerve  endings  which  mediate  sensations  of 
pressure,  temperature,  and  pain.  The  nerve 
endings  concerned  in  gustatory  sensation  are  the 
taste  bulbs  or  beakers,  many  of  which  are  clus¬ 
tered  together  in  the  sides  of  the  circumvallate 
and  fungiform  papillae.  The  central  area  of  the 
tongue  is  insensitive  to  taste;  the  tip  is  most 
sensitive  to  sweet,  the  base  to  bitter,  and  the 
edges  to  sour.  This  does  not  mean,  however, 
that  all  the  papillae  in  a  given  region  will  re¬ 
spond  in  the  same  way  to  gustatory  stimuli.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  some  respond  to  four  solutions 
(usually  sugar,  quinine,  tartaric  or  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  salt),  others  to  but  three,  still  others 
to  two,  and  a  few  to  one  alone.  We  are  led 
to  suppose,  therefore,  that  there  are  four  kinds 
of  taste  cells,  each  one  responsive  to  a  single 
mode  of  stimulus,  and  that  a  given  papilla  may 
contain  all  four,  or  three,  or  two,  or  only  one. 
Consult:  W.  Nagel,  Handbuch  der  Physiologie 
des  Menschen,  vol.  iii  (Brunswick,  1905)  ;  Os¬ 
wald  Kiilpe,  Outlines  of  Psychology ;  Eng.  trans. 
by  E.  B.  Titchener  (new  ed.,  London,  1909)  ; 
E.  B.  Titchener,  Text-Book  of  Psychology  (New 
York,  1910)  ;  W.  M.  Wundt,  Physiologische 
Psychologic,  vol.  ii  (6th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1910)  ; 
Ladd  and  Woodworth,  Elements  of  Physiological 
Psychology  (New  York,  1911).  See  Psychologi¬ 
cal  -Apparatus.  For  taste  in  animals,  see 
Chemical  Sense  in  Animals. 

TATAR  BAZARJIK,  ta-tar'  ba/zar-jek',  or 
Pazarjik.  A  district  town  in  east  Rumelia, 
Bulgaria,  situated  on  the  Maritza,  74  miles 
southeast  of  Sofia  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  E 
3).  It  lies  in  a  low  region  and  suffers  from  in¬ 
undations.  Pop.,  1905,  17,597,  mainly  Bulgari¬ 
ans.  The  place  was  founded  by  Tatars  in  the 
fifteenth  century. 

TATARS,  ta'tarz  (less  correctly  Tartars,  Fr. 
Tartare,  from  ML.  Tartarus,  from  Pers.  Tatar, 
Chin.  Tahtar,  Tah-dzu,  Tatar,  possibly  from  a 
Tungusic  or  Manchu  word  meaning  archer, 
nomad;  probably  confused  by  popular  etymology 
with  Lat.  Tartarus,  hell,  on  account  of  their 
atrocities).  A  term  loosely  applied  to  certain 
Tungusic  tribes  originally  inhabiting  Man¬ 
churia  and  Mongolia,  and  now  represented  by 
the  Fishshin  Tatars  of  northern  Manchuria,  the 
Solons  and  Daurians  of  northeastern  Mongolia, 
and  the  Manchus  of  China.  In  the  course  of  the 
westward  movement  of  the  Mongols  the  term 
Tatar  obtained  vogue  among  the  civilized  peo¬ 
ples  of  western  Asia  and  eastern  Europe,  and 
came  to  be  applied  with  little  discrimination  to 
the  hordes  of  Mongols  who  descended  from  time 
to  time  upon  the  frontiers  of  Occidental  civiliza¬ 
tion  and  to  the  kindred  peoples  subdued  by 
them.  Ultimately  it  came  to  be  used  almost, 
if  not  quite,  as  a  synonym  for  Turkish  (Turki), 
in  which  sense  it  is  still  employed  by  some 
modern  ethnologists. 

The  “Tatars  of  Siberia”  (Baraba,  Irtish,  Tobol, 
etc.)  are  probably  of  very  mixed  origin.  In 
western  Siberia  some  fragments  of  the  Osti- 
aks,  etc.,  have  been  styled  Tatars,  probably 
from  their  adoption  of  Tatar  customs,  etc.  The 
Tatars  of  European  Russia  are  of  diverse  ori¬ 
gins.  The  so-called  Kazan  and  Astrakhan  Ta¬ 
tars  are  fragments  of  the  Golden  Horde.  The 
Tatars  of  the  Crimea  are  probably  composed  of 
the  Nogai-Tatars  of  the  steppes  and  the  Ta¬ 
tars  of  the  mountains  and  coast  regions.  There 
are  besides  the  Tatars  of  the  Caucasus.  It  will 
easily  be  seen  that  most  of  these  peoples  styled 


TATE 


TATLER 


Tatars  are,  linguistically  at  least,  of  Turkic 
stock,  but  very  mixed  physically.  Consult : 
Otto  Wolff,  Geschichte  der  Mongolen  Oder  Tar- 
taren  (Breslau,  1872)  ;  H.  H.  Howortk,  History 
of  the  Mongols  (London,  1876-80)  ;  Hermann 
Vambery,  Etymologisches  Worterbuch  der  turko- 
tatarisclien  Spraohen  (Leipzig,  1878)  ;  id.,  Die 
primitive  Cultur  des  turko-tatcirisehen  Volkes 
(ib.,  1879)  ;  Emile  Chantre,  Recherches  anthro- 
pologiques  dans  le  Caucase  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1885- 
S7 )  ;  Charles  de  Harlez,  La  religion  nationale 
des  Tartares  orientaux  (Brussels,  1887). 

TATE,  Sir  Henry  (1819-99).  An  English 
manufacturer  and  art  patron.  He  was  born  at 
Chorley,  Lancashire;  entered  early  on  a  com¬ 
mercial  career  in  Liverpool,  and  in  1874  went 
to  London,  where  he  acquired  a  large  fortune  in 
sugar  refining.  He  was  the  principal  founder 
of  Liverpool  University  College.  His  chief  claim 
to  distinction,  however,  is  as  founder  of  the 
National  Gallery  of  British  Art,  popularly 
known  as  the  Tate  Gallery,  on  the  Thames  Em¬ 
bankment,  near  Vauxliall  Bridge.  This  origi¬ 
nated  in  his  private  collection  of  modern  British 
pictures.  His  desire  to  have  this  collection  pre¬ 
served  prompted  his  offer  of  £84,000  for  a 
building  purely  devoted  to  British  art,  if  the 
government  would  provide  the  site.  The  building 
was  completed  and  opened  in  1897. 

TATE,  Nahum  (1652-1715).  An  English 
poetaster,  born  in  Dublin.  He  graduated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1672,  and  five  years 
later  he  was  settled  in  London.  In  1692  he 
succeeded  Shadwell  as  poet  laureate.  With  the 
exception  of  Pye  ( q.v. ) ,  he  was  the  tamest  of  the 
laureates.  He  passed  his  last  days  in  the  Mint 
in  Southwark,  then  a  privileged  sanctuary  for 
debtors.  Tate  composed  several  plays  and  much 
poor  verse,  including  elegies  and  birthday  odes. 
His  best  poem,  composed  independently,  is  Pan¬ 
acea,  a  Poem  on  Tea  (1700).  With  some  suc¬ 
cess  he  wrote  a  second  part  to  Dry  den’s  Absalom 
and  Achitophel  (1682).  The  best  passages, 
however,  were  by  Dryden.  In  literary  history 
Tate  has  gained  unenvied  fame  as  an  adapter 
of  several  plays  by  Shakespeare  and  other  Eliza¬ 
bethans.  Among  them  are  Richard  II  (1681), 
King  Lear  ( 1681 ) ,  and  Coriolanus  ( 16S2 ) .  His 
version  of  Lear,  in  which  Cordelia  survives  and 
marries  Edgar,  held  the  stage  till  1840.  Tate 
is  also  known  as  the  joint  author,  with  Nicholas 
Brady,  of  the  New  Version  of  the  Psalms  (1696; 
supplement  1698).  To  Tate  is  ascribed  the 
beautiful  Christmas  hymn  “While  Shepherds 
Watched.”  Consult  L.  F.  Benson,  The  English 
Hymn:  Its  Development  and  Use  in  Worship 
(New  York,  1915). 

TATE,  Ralph  (1840-92).  An  English  geolo¬ 
gist  and  paleontologist,  born  at  Alnwick.  He 
studied  at  the  Royal  School  of  Mines,  and  in 
1861  entered  the  Philosophical  Institution  of  Bel¬ 
fast  as  a  teacher  of  natural  sciences.  In  1867 
he  joined  an  expedition  for  the  exploration  of 
Nicaragua  and  Venezuela;  and  upon  his  return 
to  England  published  a  series  of  papers  on  the 
geology  and  paleontology  of  those  countries. 
Appointed  professor  of  natural  sciences  in  the 
University  of  Adelaide,  South  Australia,  in  1875, 
he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  that 
country,  where  he  was  active  in  scientific  re¬ 
search  and  helped  to  establish  the  Royal  So¬ 
ciety  of  South  Australia.  The  list  of  his  pub¬ 
lications  includes  several  hundred  papers  and 
monographs,  among  them  Flora  Belfasiinensis 
(1863);  New  Yorkshire  Lias  (1876);  Hand¬ 


book  of  the  Flora  of  Extra-tropical  South  Aus¬ 
tralia  (1890). 

TATIAN,  ta'shan.  A  Christian  apologist  of 
the  second  century.  He  was  a  native  of  Assyria, 
received  a  Greek  education,  and  came  to  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr,  with  whom  he 
was  intimately  associated,  probably  about  the 
year  152.  Under  the  instruction  of  this  first 
Christian  philosopher,  Tatian  early  became  a 
Christian,  and  wrote  thereupon  his  first  impor¬ 
tant  work,  The  Address  to  the  Greeks.  After 
Justin’s  death  he  turned  towards  views  which 
caused  him  to  be  identified  with  the  Gnostics,  al¬ 
though  comparison  of  the  different  accounts  leads 
to  the  suspicion  that  party  spirit  may  have  ex¬ 
aggerated  his  departure  from  the  commonly  re¬ 
ceived  Christian  doctrines  and  practices.  Tatian 
returned  to  Mesopotamia,  where  he  was  wel¬ 
comed  heartily  and  performed  valuable  services 
for  the  Church.  He  prepared  here  a  harmony 
of  the  Gospels  in  Syriac,  under  the  name  of 
Diatessaron,  or  The  Fourfold  Gospel,  which  early 
attained  a  wide  circulation  among  the  Syriac¬ 
speaking  churches,  and  was  made  the  subject  of 
a  commentary  by  Ephraem  Syrus.  The  Syriac 
original  cannot  have  been  prepared  long  after 
Justin’s  death  (about  166),  and  therefore  gives 
important  testimony  to  the  general  acceptance 
of  the  Fourth  Gospel  at  that  time,  and  hence  to 
its  considerably,  earlier  origin.  The  Diatessaron 
has  accordingly  been  an  object  of  great  interest, 
but  the  text  has  been  until  recently  regarded  as 
hopelessly  lost.  In  1883  a  description  of  an 
Arabic  translation  of  the  Diatessaron  existing  in 
the  Vatican  Library,  previously  but  imperfectly 
described  bv  others,  was  put  forth  by  Ciasca,  a 
“scriptor”  in  that  library,  and  in  1888  he  pub¬ 
lished  an  edition  of  the  text  with  a  Latin  trans¬ 
lation.  A  second  manuscript  of  the  same  trans¬ 
lation  had  meantime  been  presented  to  the  li¬ 
brary  (1886).  This  Latin  version  has  been 
translated  into  English  by  Hill  (Edinburgh, 
1894;  2d  ed.,  1910),  and  an  English  translation 
from  the  Arabic  has  been  made  by  Flogg  in  the 
Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  vol.  ix  (New  York,  1896). 
Consult:  Zahn,  Forschungen  zur  Geschichte  des 
neutestamentliche  Kanons,  vol.  iv  (Erlangen, 
1891)  ;  Harris,  The  Diatessaron  of  Tatian  (Lon¬ 
don,  1890)  ;  id.,  Fragments  of  the  Commentary 
of  Ephrem  Syrus  on  the  Diatessaron  (ib.,  1895)  ; 
A.  Hobson,  The  Diatessaron  of  Tatian  and  the 
Synoptic  Problem  (Chicago,  1904).  Both  the 
extant  works  of  Tatian  may  be  found  in  trans¬ 
lation  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers,  vols.  ii  and  iv 
(New  York,  1885  et  seq.). 

TATISHTCHEV,  ta'tish-chef,  Vassili  Niki- 
titcii  (1686-1750).  A  Russian  historian  of  the 
school  of  Peter  the  Great  (q.v.).  He  studied 
at  Moscow  and  in  Germany.  Tatishtchev  par¬ 
ticipated  in  the  war  with  Sweden,  after  which 
he  went  on  embassies  to  Poland,  Holland,  Ger¬ 
many,  and  Switzerland.  Subsequently  he  was 
made  Governor  of  Astrakhan  and  superintendent 
of  mines  in  the  Ural  region.  Tatishtchev 
pleaded  for  the  advancement  of  learning,  es¬ 
pecially  in  his  Dialogue  on  the  Benefit  of  the 
Sciences,  written  in  1733  and  first  published  only 
in  1887,  and  wrote  a  good  History  of  Russia, 
and  a  didactic  treatise,  Testamentary  Injunc¬ 
tions  (1773;  new  ed.,  1885),  addressed  to  his  son. 

TATIUS,  ta'shl-us,  Achilles.  A  Greek 
writer.  See  Achilles  Tatius. 

TATLER,  The.  A  penny  paper  published  in 
London  by  Sir  Richard  Steele,  issued  three  times 
a  week  and  running  through  271  numbers,  be- 


TATLOCK 


ii 


TATTNALL 


tween  April  12,  1709,  and  Jan.  2,  1711.  Its 
original  purpose  was  merely  to  describe  events 
of  the  dav;  but  with  the  contributions  of  Addi- 
son,  which  began  in  number  18,  it  gradually  as¬ 
sumed  a  more  didactic  tone  and  eventually  be¬ 
came  a  set  of  gssays  on  various  social  and  quasi¬ 
political  topics.  Its  sudden  withdrawal  was 
probably  occasioned  by  the  exception  taken  by 
Steele’s  superiors  in  government  offices  to  cer¬ 
tain  statements  printed  in  it  and  the  editor’s 
consequent  dismissal  from  the  gazetteership. 
His  pseudonym  of  Bickerstaff  had  also  by  this 
time  been  penetrated.  Steele  wrote  188  of  the 
papers  and  Addison  41.  The  remainder  were 
mostly  written  in  collaboration.  The  successor 
of  the  Tatler  was  the  Spectator  (q.v.). 

TAT'LOCK,  John  Strong  Perry  (1876- 
) .  An  American  English  scholar,  born  at 
Stamford,  Conn.,  and  educated  at  Harvard  (A.B., 
1896;  Pli.D.,  1903).  He  taught  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Michigan  from  1897,  becoming  pro¬ 
fessor  of  English  in  1913.  He  edited  Shake¬ 
speare’s  Troilus  and  Cressida  (1912),  and  with 
Percy  MacKaye,  made  a  version  of  Chaucer 
called  The  Modern  Reader’s  Chaucer  (1912); 
and  published  also  Development  and  Chronology 
of  Chaucer’s  Works  ( 1907 )  ;  Harleian  MS.  7 S3Jh 
and  Revision  of  Canterbury  Tales  (1909);  The 
Scene  of  the  Franklin’s  Tale  Visited  (1914). 

T  ATRAEURED,  ta/tra-fu'red  ( Ger. 
Schmeks) .  A  noted  Hungarian  watering  place 
and  health  resort  in  the  county  of  Zips,  situated 
in  the  midst  of  pine  forests  on  the  south  slope 
of  the  Hobe  T&tra,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sclilagen- 
dorf  peak  at  an  elevation  of  3340  feet  above  the 
sea.  It  has  mineral  springs,  pine-cone  baths, 
and  a  cold-water  cure.  Near  by  are  the  health 
resorts  of  Uj  T&trafiired  (Neuschmeks)  and  Also 
Tatrafiired  (Lower  Schmeks). 

TATRA  (ta'tro)  MOUNTAINS.  See  Car¬ 
pathian  Mountains. 

TATS,  tats,  or  TATES.  An  agricultural 
people  of  extreme  western  Persia  and  the  Caspian 
region  of  the  Caucasus.  .  Although  they  may  pos¬ 
sess  some  Mongolian  blood,  they  are  not  Tatars 
either  somatically  or  linguistically.  Some  au¬ 
thorities  class  them  with  the  Persian  Tajiks 
(q.v.).  Their  number  approximates  100,000. 
Their  language  is  a  dialect  of  Persian. 

TA  TS’ING,  ta'tsing'  (or  Ch’ing).  The  dy¬ 
nasty  on  the  throne  of  China  at  the  opening  of 
the  twentieth  century.  It  was  of  Manchu  ori¬ 
gin  and  began  with  the  year  1644.  The  name — 
Ts’ing — means  “pure”  or  “purity,”  and  is  said 
to  be  synonymous  with  the  word  Manchu.  Ta 

THE  REIGN  PERIODS  OF  THE  TA  TS’ING  CH’AO 
OR  “GREAT  PURE”  DYNASTY  OF  CHINA 


\ 


NAME  OF  REIGN 

Began 

Ended 

1.  Shun-chih . 

1644 

1661 

2.  K’ang-hi  or  Iv’ang-hsi . 

1662 

1722 

3.  Yung-ching  or  Yung-ch6ng .  .  .  . 

1723 

1735 

4.  K’ien-lung  or  Ch’ien-lung . 

1736 

1795 

5.  K’ia-k’ing  or  Chia-ch’ing . 

1796 

1820 

6.  Tao-kwang . 

1821 

1850 

7.  Hien-fung  or  Hsien-f^ng . 

1851 

1861 

8.  T’ung-chih . 

1862 

1874 

9.  Kwang-sii  or  Kwang-hsii . 

1875 

1908 

10.  Hsiian-tung . 

1909 

1912 

means  “great”  and  was  prefixed  to  almost  all 
dynastic  names.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that 
the  personal  name  of  a  Chinese  emperor  was 
You.  XXII.— 2 


never  used  during  his  lifetime.  When  he  came 
to  the  throne  a  name  for  the  period  of  years 
during  which  he  reigned  was  chosen;  but  it  is 
convenient  at  times  to  transfer  this  name  to  the 
man  himself;  hence  we  sometimes  speak  of  the 
Emperor  K’ang-lii,  or  the  Emperor  K’ien-lung, 
though  strictly  speaking  these  names  denote  only 
certain  periods  of  years.  The  dynasty  came  to 
an  end  Feb.  12,  1912,  when  the  child  Hsiian-tung 
abdicated  in  favor  of  the  Republic. 

TAT'TAM,  Henry  (1789-1868).  A  distin¬ 
guished  Coptic  scholar.  He  was  born  in  Ire¬ 
land  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub¬ 
lin,  and  at  Gottingen  and  Leyden;  he  was  or¬ 
dained  in  the  Church  of  England;  and  was  rector 
of  St.  Cuthbert’s,  Bedford,  1818-45;  archdeacon 
of  Bedford,  1844—66 ;  and  rector  of  Stamford 
Rivers,  Essex,  1849  till  his  death.  He  traveled  in 
the  East  and  became  distinguished  as  an  Orien¬ 
talist,  in  which  department  he  published  various 
works.  Among  the  ancient  Syriac  manuscripts 
which  he  found  at  a  convent  in  Egypt  were  the 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  John,  Bishop  of  Ephe¬ 
sus,  and  the  Epistles  of  Ignatius.  He  published 
a  Coptic  grammar  (1830;  2d  ed.,  1863),  and  a 
dictionary  (1835),  besides  Versions  of  the 
prophets  (1836-52)  and  of  the  Apostolical  Con¬ 
stitutions  (1849)  in  that  language. 

TAT'TERSALL’S.  A  famous  English  mar¬ 
ket  for  riding  and  carriage  horses,  at  Knights- 
bridge,  London;  established  in  1766  at  Hyde 
Park  Corner  by  Richard  Tattersall,  a  groom  to 
the  Duke  of  Kingston.  It  consists  of  a  large  and 
handsome  building  in  the  centre  of  which  is  a 
large  court  under  a  glass  roof.  At  one  time 
it  was  the  centre  of  all  business  relating  to 
horse-racing  and  betting  throughout  the  country. 

TATTI,  Giacopo.  See  Sansovino,  Jacopo. 
TATT'NALL,  Josiah  (1795-1871).  An 
American  naval  officer,  born  at  Bonaventure, 
near  Savannah,  Ga.  He  was  educated  in  Eng¬ 
land,  and  entered  the  United  States  navy  in  1812. 
He  served  with  Decatur  in  the  Algerine  War  and 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1818.  In  the  Mexican 
War,  he  fought  at  the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz, 
and  led  the  attack  upon  the  forts  at  Tuxpan, 
where  he  was  wounded.  In  1850  he  became  a 
captain,  and  in  1857  flag  officer  on  the  Asiatic 
station.  In  1859,  while  on  this  station,  he 
chartered  the  small  river  steamer  Toeywan  to 
take  the  American  Minister  to  Peking  in  order 
to  ratify  a  treaty  negotiated  in  the  preceding 
year.  When  the  American  squadron  arrived 
off  the  Peiho,  Tattnall  found  there  the  French 
and  British  naval  forces  with  their  diplomatic 
representatives  on  board.  The  Chinese  having 
refused  permission  for  any  foreign  vessels  to 
proceed,  the  British  and  French  forces  attacked 
the  forts.  Seeing  that  they  were  being  worsted, 
and  that  the  boats  containing  reenforcements 
could  not  stem  the  strong  current  of  the  stream, 
Tattnall,  in  the  Toeywan,  declaring  that  “blood 
is  thicker  than  water,”  towed  the  flotilla  up 
to  the  support  of  the  badly  pressed  vessels. 
The  phrase  has  become  historic. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in  1861, 
Tattnall  resigned  and  became  captain  in  the 
Confederate  navy,  charged  with  the  defense  of 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  In  March,  1862, 
he  was  given  command  of  the  Merrimac  ( Vir¬ 
ginia )  and  the  defenses  of  Virginia;  destroyed 
this  vessel  in  order  to  escape  capture;  was  later 
court-martialed,  but  acquitted;  was  unsuccessful 
in  his  defense  of  Savannah,  and  in  January, 
1865,  was  obliged  to  destroy  his  fleet.  He  was 


TATTOOING 


12 


TAUCHNITZ 


included  in  Johnston’s  surrender  to  Sherman, 
was  paroled,  and  in  1866  removed  with  his  fam¬ 
ily  to  Halifax,  but  returned  in  1870  and  was 
inspector  of  the  port  of  Savannah  until  his 
death.  Consult  C.  C.  Jones,  Life  and  Services 
of  Commodore  Josiah  Tattnall  (Savannah, 
1878). 

TATTOO'ING  (from  tattoo,  Tahitian  tatn, 
tattooing,  tattooed).  The  practice  of  decorating 
the  surface  of  the  body  by  introducing  pigments 
under  the  skin.  The  process  consists  in  prick¬ 
ing  the  skin  with  a  sharp  instrument  and  in¬ 
serting  the  pigments,  usually  powdered  char¬ 
coal,  in  the  punctures.  The  design  appears  in 
a  deep  blue  color  and  is  indelible.  Other  pig¬ 
ments  have  come  into  use  in  recent  times.  As 
a  primitive  mode  of  ornamentation,  tattooing  is 
widespread,  its  distribution  as  compared  with 
the  related  custom  of  scarification  being  de¬ 
termined  by  the  color  of  the  skin.  In  general, 
light-skinned  races  tattoo,  while  dark-skinned 
peoples  practice  scarring.  In  Oceania  the  prac¬ 
tice  is  especially  developed  among  the  Poly¬ 
nesians. 

The  original  significance  of  tattooing  is  dis¬ 
puted.  It  has  been  held  by  some  that  it  had 
a  religious  or  social  meaning,  but  the  best  evi¬ 
dence  goes  to  show  that  it  was  at  first  purely 
ornamental  in  character.  It  must  indeed  be  ad¬ 
mitted  that  in  many  instances  the  tattooed  de¬ 
signs  have  a  tribal  or  clan  or  even  a  religious 
meaning,  but  this  usage  is  probably  derived 
from  the  decorative.  The  patterns  range  from 
simple  lines  and  dots  to  complex  designs.  Prob¬ 
ably  the  fullest  development  of  the  custom  among 
primitive  peoples  is  in  New  Zealand,  and  the 
Marquesas  Islands,  though  it  is  also  much  prac¬ 
ticed  in  various  parts  of  the  East  Indian  archi¬ 
pelago.  The  tattooing  of  the  natives  in  North 
and  South  America  and  in  parts  of  the  world 
other  than  those  mentioned  above  is,  as  a  rule, 
simple.  In  modern  times  and  among  higher 
races  the  Japanese  have  brought  the  art  to  its 
highest  state  of  perfection.  The  prevalence  of 
the  practice  among  sailors  of  all  nationalities  is 
well  known,  but  in  both  these  cases  the  patterns 
in  use  have  entirely  lost  their  primitive  char¬ 
acteristics  and  are  of  civilized  origin.  Consult: 
J.  A.  E.  Lacassagne,  Les  tatouages  (Paris, 
1881);  Wilhelm  Joest,  Tdtotoiren,  XarbenZeich- 
nen  und  Korperbemalen  (Berlin,  1887);  H.  G. 
Robley,  Moko;  or  Maori  Tattooing  (London, 
1896)  ;  Augustin  Kraemer,  Die  Samoainseln 
(Stuttgart,  1902). 

TAU,  tou.  See  Chinese  Language;  Taoism. 

TAUBERT,  touTiert,  Wilhelm  (1811-91). 
A  German  pianist  and  composer,  born  in  Berlin. 
He  studied  philosophy  at  the  university  there, 
at  the  same  time  studying  composition  under 
Berger  and  Klein,  and  afterward  taught  music 
until  1831,  when  he  became  conductor  of  the 
court  concerts.  In  1842  he  was  appointed  con¬ 
ductor  of  the  royal  opera.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Arts  from  1834  and  president 
of  the  musical  section  of  the  same  from  1875. 
His  works  include  the  operas  Die  Kirmes 
(1832),  Macbeth  (1857),  Cesario  (1874),  music 
for  the  Medea  of  Euripides,  and  Shakespeare’s 
Tempest.  His  songs  were  popularized  by  Jenny 
Lind  and  other  noted  singers. 

TAU  BE'TA  PI  ASSOCIATION.  A  college 
honorary  technical  fraternity  that  was  organized 
in  Lehigh  University,  South  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  in 
1855.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  initials  of 
three  Greek  words  that  form  the  secret  motto  of 


the  association.  The  Tau  Beta  Pi  bears  the  same 
relation  to  engineering  and  similar  studies  as 
the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  (q.v.)  does  to  literary 
scholarship,  and  the  Sigma  Xi  (q.v.)  does  to 
original  research  in  science. 

The  object  of  the  fraternity  is  to  mark  in  a 
fitting  manner  those  who  have  conferred  honor 
upon  their  Alma  Mater  by  a  high  grade  of 
scholarship  as  undergraduates,  or  by  their  at¬ 
tainments  as  alumni,  and  to  foster  a  spirit  of 
liberal  culture  in  the  technical  and  scientific 
schools  of  America. 

There  were  in  1914,  27  chapters  in  as  many 
different  colleges  and  technical  schools  and  5699 
members,  of  whom  5029  were  active,  412  gradu¬ 
ate,  and  258  honorary  members. 

The  badge  is  a  watch  charm  or  scarf  pin 
of  gold,  shaped  like  the  bent  of  a  trestle.  On 
its  obverse  there  are  engraved  the  secret  name 
and  symbols  of  the  association,  while  on  the  re¬ 
verse  the  name  of  the  chapter  appears  on  the 
cap  of  the  bent,  and  on  the  sill  are  the  name  and 
class  of  the  owner.  The  colors  of  Tau  Beta  Pi 
are  seal  brown  and  white. 

Tau  Beta  Pi  has  published  since  March,  1906, 
an  octavo  quarterly  magazine  called  The  Bent 
of  Tau  Beta  Pi,  and  also  in  1911  issued  a  Cata¬ 
logue  of  the  Tau  Beta  Pi  Association  to  which 
have  since  been  added  periodic  supplements. 

TAUBMANN,  toup'man,  Otto  (1859-  ). 

A  German  composer,  born  at  Hamburg.  At  first 
he  followed  a  commercial  career,  but  later  entered 
the  Dresden  Conservatory,  where  his  teachers 
were  Wiillner  and  Nicode.  In  1886-89  he  was 
director  of  the  Conservatory  at  Wiesbaden,  in 
1891-92  theatre  conductor  at  St.  Petersburg. 
In  1895  he  settled  in  Berlin  as  critic  of  the 
Berliner  Borsen  Courier.  At  one  bound  he  at¬ 
tained  fame  when  his  great  choral  work,  Eine 
Deutsche  Messe  (for  soli,  chorus,  orchestra, 
and  organ),  was  produced  at  Dortmund  in  1898. 
His  other  works,  all  cast  in  large  form,  are: 
Psalm  XIII  (for  soli,  chorus,  and  orchestra)  ; 
Tauwetter  (for  male  chorus  and  orchestra)  ; 
Krieg  und  Frieden  (chorus  and  orchestra)  ;  the 
choral  drama  Sdngerweilne  (1904). 

TAUCHNITZ,  touK'nits,  Christian  Bern- 
hard,  Baron  (1816-95).  A  German  publisher, 
born  near  Naumburg,  a  nephew  of  the  follow¬ 
ing.  His  firm,  founded  in  Leipzig  (1837), 
was  noted  for  its  accurate  classical  and  biblical 
texts,  its  dictionaries  and  other  works  of  ref¬ 
erence.  In  1841  Tauchnitz  began  a  Collection  of 
British  (and  American)  Authors,  now  extending 
to  over  4000  volumes  and  widely  read  on  the 
Continent.  English  authors  were  paid  a  royalty 
by  Tauchnitz,  who  thus  helped  to  establish  the 
present  international  copyright  law.  A  similar 
collection  of  translated  German  Authors  was  be¬ 
gun  in  1866  and  Students’  Tauchnitz  Editions 
of  English  and  American  works  began  to  appear 
in  1886  with  German  notes  and  introductions. 
Tauchnitz  was  made  Baron  in  1860,  British 
Consul  General  for  Saxony  in  1872,  and  member 
of  the  Saxon  House  of  Peers  in  1877. 

TAUCHNITZ,  Karl  Christoph  Traugott 
(1761-1836).  A  German  publisher,  born  in 
Grossbardau.  He  began  to  print  books  in  1797 
at  Leipzig.  He  was  the  first  to  use  stereotype 
plates  (1816)  in  Germany.  His  stereotyped  edi¬ 
tions  of  the  classics  were  once  widely  famed 
alike  for  their  cheapness,  their  convenience,  and 
their  accuracy.  He  thus  printed  a  Bible  in 
Hebrew  and  the  Koran  in  Arabic.  By  his  will 
Leipzig  received  4,500,000  marks  for  charitable 


TAU  CROSS 


13 


TAURIDA 


ends.  The  business  was  continued  by  bis  son 
Karl  Christian  (1798-1884). 

TAU  (tou)  CROSS.  See  Anthony,  Saint, 
Cross  of. 

TAUERN,  tou'ern.  A  division  of  the  eastern 
Alps,  including  the  principal  section  of  what 
was  known  to  the  ancients  as  the  Noric  Alps 
(Map:  Austria,  C  3).  It  lies  between  the  rivers 
Drave  and  Mur  on  the  south  and  the  Enns  on 
the  north,  and  extends  from  Brenner  Pass  in 
eastern  Tirol  through  the  Austrian  crownlands 
of  Salzburg  and  Carinthia  into  north  Styria. 
The  system  consists  of  two  main  divisions,  the 
Hohe  (high)  Tauern  in  the  west,  and  the  Niedere 
(low)  Tauern  in  the  east.  The  whole  system 
has  a  length  of  about  150  miles  and  a  width  of 
28  miles.  It  is  wholly  of  Archean  formation, 
consisting  chiefly  of  gneiss  in  the  west  and  mica- 
slate  in  the  east,  with  some  granite.  The  west¬ 
ern  or  Hohe  Tauern,  as  their  name  implies,  are 
considerably  higher  and  more  rugged  than  the 
eastern.  Their  main  range  forms  a  sharp  ridge 
with  steep  sides  rising  above  the  snow  line  and 
carrying  over  250  glaciers,  from  which  numerous 
mountain  torrents  fall  in  cataracts  down  the 
steep  valleys.  The  highest  peak  in  the  system  is 
the  Grossglockner,  with  an  altitude  of  12,461 
feet. 

TAULER,  tou'ler,  Johann  (1300-61).  A 
German  mystic.  He  was  born  at  Strassburg  and 
when  15  years  old  entered  the  Order  of  the 
Dominicans.  When  the  “black  death”  visited 
Strassburg  in  1346,  he  stuck  to  his  post  and 
comforted  the  people.  Excepting  for  preaching 
tours  into  the  Rhineland,  where  he  came  into 
contact  with  the  Friends  of  God  ( q.v. ) ,  he  re¬ 
mained  in  Strassburg  until  his  death.  Tauler 
was  an  emotional  yet  practical  mystic  and  left 
a  large  number  of  sermons  full  of  evangelistic 
life.  The  Book  of  Spiritual  Poverty,  formerly 
ascribed  to  him,  has  been  more  recently  regarded 
as  a  compilation.  See  a  translation  of  extracts, 
Golden  Thoughts  from  the  Book  of  Spiritual 
Poverty  (Edinburgh,  1897).  Of  the  various  edi¬ 
tions  of  Tauler’s  works,  the  Frankfort  edition 
of  1826  is  the  most  complete. 

Bibliography.  C.  Schmidt,  Johannes  Tauler 
(Hamburg,  1841)  ;  Susanna  Winkworth,  Tauler’s 
Life  and  Times  (London,  1857;  new  ed.,  New 
York,  1907)  ;  Nicolas  von  Basel,  Bericht  von  der 
Bekehrung  Taulers,  edited  by  C.  Schmidt 
(Strassburg,  1875);  W.  Preger,  Geschichte  der 
deutschen  Mystik,  vol.  iii  (Leipzig,  1893)  ;  A. 
W.  Hulton,  The  Inner  Way;  36  Sermons  from 
John  Tauler  (ib.,  1905)  ;  Conferences  and  Ser¬ 
mons  of  John  Tauler,  translated  by  Rev.  W. 
Elliott  (Washington,  1911).  See  also  Mys¬ 
ticism. 

TAUNTON,  tan'ton.  The  capital  of  Somer¬ 
setshire,  England,  in  the  valley  of  the  Tone,  38 
miles  southwest  of  Bristol  (Map:  England,  D 
6 ) .  The  streets  are  wide  and  are  well  paved. 
The  Church  of  St.  Mary  is  of  Perpendicular 
architecture,  and  is  famous  for  its  ornamented 
tower;  that  of  St.  James  was  the  conventual 
church  of  an  Augustinian  priory.  Taunton  has 
an  extensive  museum  in  the  remains  of  the  Nor¬ 
man  castle.  It  has  manufactures  of  silk,  gloves, 
and  hosiery.  Ina,  King  of  the  West  Saxons, 
built  a  castle  in  Taunton  about  700  a.d.  This 
was  soon  after  destroyed,  but  another  fortress 
was  built  on  the  site  soon  after  the  Conquest,  at 
which  period  the  town  had  a  mint.  Pop.,  1901, 
21,078;  1911,  22,563.  Consult  Toulmin,  History 
of  Taunton  (Taunton,  1822). 


TAUNTON.  A  city  and  one  of  the  county 
seats  of  Bristol  Co.,  Mass.,  36  miles  south  of 
Boston ;  on  Taunton  River,  and  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map: 
Massachusetts,  E  5).  It  is  regularly  laid  out 
with  finely  shaded  streets,  and  lias  many  hand¬ 
some  residences.  Among  its  institutions  are  a 
State  Insane  Hospital,  Morton  Hospital,  the  Old 
Ladies’  Home,  and  Bristol  Academy.  The  Pub¬ 
lic  Library  contains  55,000  volumes.  Other  im¬ 
portant  collections  are  the  Bristol  County  Law 
Library  and  that  of  the  Old  Colony  Historical 
Society.  The  city  hall,  county  courthouse,  the 
post  office,  registry  of  deeds,  and  the  jail  are 
buildings  of  merit.  There  are  several  pleasure 
grounds,  of  which  Taunton  Green  and  Wood¬ 
ward  Springs  Park  are  the  more  noteworthy. 

Taunton  carries  on  a  large  trade,  being  the 
business  centre  of  a  number  of  towns  in  the  vi¬ 
cinity.  It  has  also  important  industrial  inter¬ 
ests,  the  various  establishments  according  to  the 
census  of  1909  having  $16,504,000  capital,  and 
an  output  valued  at  $15,380,000.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  cotton  goods,  stoves,  and  sil¬ 
verware.  There  are  machine  shops,  wood-work¬ 
ing  establishments,  and  manufactories  of  copper 
ware,  tacks,  wire  nails,  stove  lining,  carriages, 
buttons,  boxes,  oilcloth,  brick,  printing  presses, 
twist  drills,  cotton  machinery,  aluminium  goods, 
pearl  •  jewelry,  eyelets,  etc.  The  iron  industry 
was  established  here  in  1652. 

The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor  and  nine 
councilmen,  elected  at  large.  The  water  works, 
and  the  electric-light  plant,  are  owned  by  the 
municipality.  Pop.,  1900,  31,036;  1910,  34,259; 
1915  (State  census),  36,161;  1920,  37,137. 

Settled  in  1638  as  Coliannat,  Taunton  was  in¬ 
corporated  under  its  present  name  in  1639.  It 
was  made  a  shire  town  in  1746  and  was  char¬ 
tered  as  a  city  in  1865.  The  first  permanent 
settlement  in  Vermont  was  made  by  a  company 
from  Taunton  in  1736.  Consult  Quarter-1 Mil¬ 
lennial  Celebration  of  the  City  of  Taunton 
(Taunton,  1889)  ;  Emery,  History  of  Taunton 
(Syracuse,  1893). 

TAUNTON,  Baron.  See  Labouchere,  Henry. 

TAUNUS,  tou'nus.  A  mountain  range  of 
west  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  extending  about  55  miles  in  a 
northeast  direction  from  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine  near  its  confluence  with  the  Main  (Map: 
Germany,  C  3).  It  consists  mainly  of  schists 
and  quartzites,  and  reaches  its  highest  elevation, 
2713  feet,  in  the  northeast.  It  is  steepest,  how¬ 
ever,  in  the  southwest,  where  many  crags  are 
crowned  with  ruined  castles.  The  higher  por¬ 
tions  of  the  range  are  forest-clad,  and  the  lower 
slopes  are  covered  with  vineyards  yielding  some 
of  the  best  of  Rhenish  wines.  The  range  is  fa¬ 
mous  for  numerous  mineral  springs,  including 
those  of  Wiesbaden,  Homburg,  and  Nauheim. 

TAURIC  CHERSONESE,  ta'rik  ker'so-nez. 
See  Chersonesus,  2;  Iphigenia. 

TAURIDA,  tou'rl-da.  A  government  of 
European  Russia,  consisting  of  the  peninsula 
of  the  Crimea  (q.v.)  and  a  portion  on  the  main¬ 
land  connected  with  the  peninsula  by  the  Isthmus 
of  Perekop  ( Map :  Russia,  D  5 ) .  Area,  about 
24,497  square  miles.  No  other  government  in 
European  Russia  presents  such  striking  natural 
contrasts  .  as  this.  The  region  north  of  the 
isthmus  is  mostly  flat  and  its  climate  is  consid¬ 
erably  colder  than  that  of  the  peninsula.  The 
principal  river  of  the  mainland  portion  is  the 
Dnieper,  which  forms  its  northwest  boundary. 


TAURIDA 


14 


TAVERNIER 


This  part  of  the  government  is  well  adapted  by 
its  steppelike  surfaces  for  stock  raising.  Large 
numbers  of  merino  sheep  are  reared.  Wheat, 
rye,  barley,  and  oats  are  produced  extensively. 
The  cultivation  of  industrial  plants  and  fruits 
is  confined  principally  to  the  peninsula.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  flour,  tobacco,  and  some 
iron  products.  The  population  is  very  cosmo¬ 
politan.  In  1912  it  numbered  1,965,900,  of  whom 
the  Russians  constituted  about  71  per  cent  and 
the  Tatars  about  13  per  cent.  The  capital  is 
Simferopol  ( q.v. ) .  See  Crimea. 

TAURIDA,  Prince  of.  See  Potemkin,  G.  A. 

TAU'RIN  (from  Lat.  taurus,  bull,  so  called 
because  first  discovered  in  the  bile  of  the  ox),  or 
Amido-Ettiyl-Suephonic  Acid,  C2H4  (NH2)S03H. 
A  substance  occurring,  as  a  constituent  of  tauro- 
cholic  acid,  in  the  bile  and  in  other  animal 
products  and  tissues.  When  pure  it  forms  six- 
sided  glistening  prisms,  perfectly  transparent, 
neutral,  devoid  of  odor,  soluble  in  water,  but 
insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether. 

TAUUtUS.  A  series  of  mountain  ranges  in 
the  southern  part  of  Asia  Minor  forming  the 
southern  boundary  of  the  Anatolian  Plateau, 
which  covers  the  central  part  of  the  peninsula 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  C  3).  It  follows  the 
Mediterranean  coast  from  the  Euphrates  towards 
the  iEgean  Sea.  On  the  north  it  slopes  gradually 
towards  the  plateau,  but  on  the  south  it  falls 
in  steep  terraces  towards  the  sea.  The  Taurus 
has  many  peaks  above  10,000  feet,  being  highest 
near  the  eastern  end.  Between  the  ranges  rivers 
flow  to  the  sea  from  the  inner  plateau.  A  north¬ 
eastern  extension  from  the  Sihun  River  in  align¬ 
ment  with  the  eastern  Taurus  is  known  as  the 
Anti-Taurus. 


TAURUS  (Lat.,  bull).  The  second  sign  of 
the  zodiac  (q.v.),  its  conventional  symbol  being 
8 .  The  constellation  Taurus  contains  the  two 
famous  star  groups  known  as  the  Pleiades  and 
the  Hyades  ( qq.v. ) ,  in  the  latter  of  which  is 
situated  the  brilliant  red  star  Aldebaran  (q.v.). 
Other  interesting  objects  in  this  constellation 
are  X  Tauri,  an  Algol  variable  with  a  period 
of  3.9  days,  and  the  Crab  nebula,  so  called  from 
its  shape. 

TAUSEN,  tou'sen,  Hans  (1494-1561).  A 
Danish  leader  in  the  Reformation,  born  at 
Birkende,  in  Fyn.  From  1523  to  1525  he  studied 
at  Wittenberg  under  Luther,  after  his  return 
fearlessly  preaching  the  doctrines  of  the  Refor¬ 
mation.  He  met  great  antagonism  from  the 
clergy,  but  was  popularly  successful.  In  1537  he 
became  professor  of  Hebrew  in  Copenhagen  Uni¬ 
versity,  and  in  1542  Bishop  of  Ribe.  In  worship 
he  employed  the  people’s  mother  tongue  instead 
of  Latin,  wrote  hymns,  a  postil,  and  pamphlets 
in  Danish,  and  translated  part  of  the  Bible. 
Tausen  was  the  first  and  one  of  the  foremost  of 
Danish  followers  of  Luther,  an  able  and  power¬ 
ful  preacher,  and  gifted  as  a  poet  and  linguist. 
II.  F.  Rordam  edited  part  of  his  writings  in 
1870. 


TAUSIG,  tou'siK,  Ivarl  (1841-71).  A  Ger¬ 
man  pianoforte  virtuoso,  born  in  Warsaw.  He 
received  his  first  instruction  from  his  father, 
and  completed  his  education  with  Liszt  in  1855- 
59.  He  became  famous  for  technique  and  inter¬ 
pretative  ability,  and  won  a  world-wide  reputa¬ 
tion  bv  the  concert  tours  that  occupied  his  short 
life.  He  was  connected  with  the  musical  life 
of  Dresden  (1859-60),  Vienna  (1862),  and  Ber¬ 
lin  (1865),  in  which  latter  city  he  founded  a 
■‘Schule  des  hoheren  Clavierspiels,”  which  he 


gave  up  in  1870.  Of  his  composition  and  ar¬ 
rangements  the  great  proportion  are  classical 
pianoforte  works  which  he  edited.  He  also  pre¬ 
pared  and  edited  a  new  edition  of  dementi’s 
Gradus  ad  Parnassian,  and  arranged  the  piano 
score  of  Wagner’s  Meistersinger.  He  composed 
and  published  two  Etudes  de  concert  (F#  and 
Ab),  also  Ungarische  Zigeunerweisen,  Youvelles 
soirees  de  Vienne,  and  Yalscs-Caprices  on  themes 
from  Strauss. 

TAUSSIG,  tous'sig,  Frank  William  (1859- 
) .  An  American  economist,  born  in  St. 
Louis.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1879,  and 
after  teaching  there  for  10  years,  became  professor 
of  economics  in  1892.  In  1904-05  Taussig  was 
president  of  the  American  Economic  Association. 
His  publications  include:  The  Tariff  History  of 
the  United  States  (1888;  6th  ed.,  rev.,  1914),  a 
standard  work;  Protection  to  Young  Industries 
as  Applied  to  the  United  States  (1883;  2d  ed., 
1886)  ;  History  of  the  Present  Tariff,  1860-83 
(1885);  The  Silver  Situation  in  the  United 
States  (1892;  3d  ed.,  rev.,  1896);  Wages  and 
Capital  (1896)  ;  Principles  of  Economics  (1911; 
2d  ed.,  1915)  ;  Some  Aspects  of  the  Tariff  Ques¬ 
tion  (1915);  Inventors  and  Money  Makers 
(1915),  Brown  University  lectures.  He  also 
edited  State  Papers  and  Speeches  on  the  Tariff 
(1892)  ;  and  for  some  years  was  editor  in  chief 
of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics. 

TAU-TAI.  See  Taotai. 

TAU'TOG  (Massachusetts  Indian  tautauog, 
pi.  of  taut,  sheep’s  head,  the  Indian  name  of  the 
fish).  An  American  food  fish  ( Tautoga  onitis) 
of  the  family  (Labridac)  to  which  the  wrasses 
of  Europe  belong.  It  is  found  from  Maine  to 
South  Carolina,  especially  along  the  coast  of 
southern  New  England,  on  rocky  and  weedy  bot¬ 
toms,  where  it  lives  on  mollusks,  crustaceans, 
worms,  sand  dollars,  etc.  It  is  abundant,  is  of 
considerable  importance  as  a  food  fish,  and  is 
locally  known  as  blackfish  and  oysterfish. 
It  may  attain  an  extreme  weight  of  22  pounds, 
with  a  length  of  3  feet,  but  the  average 
weight  is  about  three  pounds.  The  annual  catch 
amounts  to  about  1,500,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$60,000.  The  tautogs  spawn  in  May  and  June, 
and  are  very  prolific,  a  large  fish  yielding  more 
than  a  million  eggs,  which  are  small  and  buoy¬ 
ant,  and  hatch  in  four  or  five  days.  Consult  G. 
B.  Goode,  Fishery  Industries,  sec.,  i  (Washing¬ 
ton,  1884)  ;  Jordan  and  Evermann,  Americam 
Food  and  Game  Fishes  (New  York,  1905). 

TAV'ERNER,  Richard  (c.1505-75).  An 
English  religious  writer.  He  was  born  at  Bris- 
ley,  Norfolk;  graduated  at  Oxford  in  1529;  was 
clerk  of  the  signet  under  Thomas  Cromwell,  and 
managed  to  retain  court  favor  after  Cromwell’s 
fall  (1540).  In  1545  he  wTas  returned  to  Parlia¬ 
ment,  and  by  the  King’s  gift  came  into  posses¬ 
sion  of  much  property.  Under  Edward  VI  he 
maintained  his  position.  Early  won  for  the 
Reformation  and  the  author  of  a  translation  of 
the  Augsburg  Confession  (1536)  and  other  origi¬ 
nal  and  translated  works  in  the  interest  of 
Protestantism,  and  a  licensed  lay  preacher  under 
Edward  VI,  he  still  was  unmolested  by  Mary,  al¬ 
though  he  lost  his  office.  Under  Elizabeth  he 
came  again  into  royal  favor  and  was  high  sheriff 
at  Oxford  (1569).  Taverner’s  principal  literary 
work  was  a  revision  of  Thomas  Matthew’s  Bible 
of  1537,  upon  the  suggestion  of  Thomas  Crom¬ 
well.  It  was  the  first  complete  Bible  ever  printed 
in  England  (London,  1539). 

TAVERNIER,  ta'var'nya/,  Jean  Baptiste, 


TAVIRA 


15 


TAX  AND  TAXATION 


Baron  d’Atjbonne  (1605-80).  A  French  trav¬ 
eler,  born  in  Paris.  He  became  a  dealer  in 
precious  stones,  and  between  1638  and  1603  made 
a  number  of  journeys  to  Turkey,  Persia,  India, 
and  the  East  Indies.  His  Six  Voyages  en  Tur- 
quie,  en  Perse,  et  aux  Indies  (1676),  edited  by 
Chappuzeau  and  La  Chapelle,  went  through  many 
editions.  Consult  V.  Ball’s  translation,  Travels 
in  India  (1889),  with  a  biographical  sketch  of 
Tavernier. 

T  AVER  A,  ta-ve'ra.  A  seaport  town  of  the 
Province  of  Algarve,  Portugal,  136  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Lisbon,  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Gilao, 
at  its  mouth  (Map:  Portugal,  B  4).  The  harbor 
is  navigable  for  small  vessels  and  affords  an  im¬ 
portant  commerce  in  mineral  waters  and  white 
wines.  The  town  has  also  sardine  and  tunny 
fisheries.  Pop.,  1900,  12,178. 

TAV'ISTOCK.  A  market  town  in  Devon¬ 
shire,  England,  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
west  border  of  Dartmoor,  about  35  miles  south¬ 
west  of  Exeter,  and  12  miles  north  of  Plymouth, 
in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Tavy,  which  is  crossed 
by  two  bridges  within  the  town  (Map:  England, 
B  6 ) .  There  are  iron  foundries  and  mining 
works,  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  iron  being  found 
in  decreasing  quantity  in  the  neighborhood.  The 
parish  church,  dating  from  1318,  is  a  handsome 
edifice.  Tavistock  was  formerly  of  great  im¬ 
portance,  owing  to  its  abbey,  the  largest  and 
most  magnificent  in  Devonshire,  which  was 
founded  in  the  year  961,  for  the  Benedictine 
Order.  The  refectory  and  abbey  gateway  still 
exist.  Pop.,  1901,  5043;  1911,  4392. 

TAVOY,  ta-voi'.  The  capital  of  a  district  of 
the  same  name  in  Tenasserim,  Lower  Burma, 
160  miles  west  by  north  of  Bangkok,  on  the 
Tavoy  River,  30  miles  from  its  mouth  (Map: 
Burma,  C  4).  It  is  the  shipping  point  for  the 
rice  and  fruit  of  the  surrounding  region,  and 
manufactures  earthenware,  silk,  and  salt.  Tavoy 
has  been  a  British  possession  since  1824.  Pop., 
1901,  22,371;  1911,  25,063. 

TAVRIS,  ta-vres'.  A  town  of  Persia.  See 
Tabriz. 

TAWAKONI,  ta-wa/ko-ne.  An  important 
Caddoan  tribe  of  the  Wichita  group  (q.v.).  See 
Waco. 

TAWING.  See  Leather. 

TAWNY,  or  TENNE.  The  term  for  orange 
color  in  heraldry  (q.v.),  represented  in  engrav¬ 
ing  by  diagonal  lines  running  from  the  sinister 
chief  point  and  crossed  by  horizontal  lines. 

TAX,  Single.  See  Single  Tax. 

TAXACE75E,  taks-ars6-e.  A  family  of  Coni¬ 
fers  including  forms  commonly  called  yew, 
ground  hemlock,  etc.  It  comprises  5  genera  and 
about  20  species,  occurring  chiefly  in  the  North¬ 
ern  Hemisphere.  Formerly  it  included  the  Podo- 
carpaceae  (see  Podocarpus)  of  the  Southern 
Hemisphere.  The  most  familiar  North  Ameri¬ 
can  representative  is  Taxus  canadensis  (Ameri¬ 
can  yew,  ground  hemlock,  etc. ) . 

TAX  AND  TAXATION  (OF.,  Fr.  taxe,  from 
ML.  taxa,  tasca,  taxation,  tax,  from  Lat.  taxare, 
to  touch,  rate,  appraise,  estimate).  A  tax  is  a 
compulsory  contribution  from  private  income  or 
wealth  to  meet  the  general  expenses  of  govern¬ 
ment.  The  purpose  of  taxation  is  primarily  the 
securing  of  revenue,  although  it  may  incidentally 
subserve  political,  social,  or  moral  ends.  The 
common  element  in  all  forms  of  taxation  is  the 
destination  of  the  revenue  derived  from  them — ■ 
to  cover  general  expenses  of  government.  This 
characteristic  serves  to  distinguish  from  taxes 


such  compulsory  payments  as  fees  and  special 
assessments  (see  Assessor),  which  are  primarily 
payments  to  meet  costs  incurred  in  affording 
special  public  services  to  the  individuals  who 
pay  them. 

Taxation,  while  it  is  to-day  by  far  the  most 
important  source  of  public  revenue,  is  of  com¬ 
paratively  recent  origin.  The  mediaeval  state 
depended  for  its  revenues  largely  upon  the  prod¬ 
uct  of  the  public  domain.  (See  Finance.)  It 
was  in  the  cities  that  taxation  first  developed. 
Payment  of  taxes  was  generally  regarded  as  pre¬ 
requisite  to  citizenship.  With  the  increase  in 
public  needs  which  accompanied  the  development 
of  the  national  state  various  forms  of  indirect 
taxes — tolls,  import  duties — were  levied  and 
with  the  extension  of  citizenship  characteristic 
of  the  modern  state  the  duty  of  paying  taxes 
has  become  practically  universal.  The  broaden¬ 
ing  of  the  functions  of  the  state,  noted  under 
Finance,  has  had  the  effect  of  making  taxation 
an  increasingly  important  element  in  economic 
life.  In  general  the  higher  the  social  and  eco¬ 
nomic  development  of  a  nation,  the  heavier  is 
the  burden  of  taxation  upon  its  citizens. 

Principles  of  Taxation.  Writers  on  finance 
are  accustomed  to  lay  down  certain  general  prin¬ 
ciples  of  justice  and  of  administration  to  which 
practical  systems  should  conform.  Taxes  should 
be  capable  of  yielding  a  large  revenue;  they 
should  be  economical,  i.e.,  the  cost  of  collection 
should  not  materially  increase  the  burden  im¬ 
posed  upon  the  taxpayer;  they  should  be  elastic, 
capable  of  responding  to  a  sudden  demand  for 
revenue;  they  should  not  impair  their  source 
through  discouraging  industry.  So  far  as  pos¬ 
sible  they  should  be  collected  in  such  a  way  as 
to  cause  the  taxpayer  the  least  inconvenience; 
they  should  be  certain,  so  that  each  man  might 
know  what  he  might  be  expected  to  pay  and 
make  provision  accordingly.  Most  important  of 
all,  they  should  be  equitably  distributed. 

On  what  principle  the  distribution  of  taxes 
should  be  made  is  a  question  on  which  financial 
theorists  are  far  from  an  agreement.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  most  writers  re¬ 
garded  a  tax  as  a  payment  to  the  state  for  pro¬ 
tection  or  for  the  privilege  of  securing  an  in¬ 
come  under  the  laws  of  the  state.  It  followed 
from  this  view  that  taxes  should  be  distributed 
according  to  the  benefit  received  or  according  to 
the  cost  incurred  by  the  state  in  affording  the 
benefit.  Such  a  principle  proved  unsatisfactory, 
since  both  benefit  and  cost  are  indeterminable. 
In  recent  years  the  doctrine  which  has  the  widest 
following  teaches  that,  since  civilized  existence 
is  conditioned  by  the  state,  each  individual  is 
born  with  the  duty  of  contributing  to  the  needs 
of  the  state  in  proportion  to  his  ability  or  fac¬ 
ulty.  This  theory  more  nearly  than  any  other 
corresponds  with  public  sentiment  and  with  the 
actual  practice  of  taxation. 

Proportional,  Progressive,  and  Degressive 
Taxation.  A  system  of  proportional  taxation 
is  one  in  which  the  contribution  from  income  or 
wealth  remains  a  constant  percentage,  whatever 
the  size  of  the  latter  may  be.  It  is  defended  on 
the  ground  that  it  approximates  the  ideal  of 
taxation  according  to  ability.  Progressive  taxa¬ 
tion,  in  which  the  contribution  increases  rela¬ 
tively  to  income  or  wealth,  may  be  defended  on 
the  same  ground,  since  one  who  possesses  a  large 
income  is  obviously  more  able  to  surrender  a  cer¬ 
tain  percentage  of  it  than  one  who  has  a  small 
income  is  to  surrender  an  equal  percentage. 


TAX  AND  TAXATION 


16 


TAX  AND  TAXATION 


More  often  it  is  advocated  as  a  measure  of  social 
equalization.  Degressive  taxation,  in  which  the 
contribution  diminishes  relatively  to  income  or 
wealth,  has  no  valid  defense;  it  exists  only  be¬ 
cause  of  the  imperfection  of  the  taxing  machin¬ 
ery,  which  finds  less  difficulty  in  levying  upon 
small  aggregates  of  wealth  than  upon  large. 

An  ideal  system  of  taxation  would  be  a  single 
tax  on  incomes.  Such  a  tax  would  have  to  take 
account  of  the  necessary  expenditures  of  indi¬ 
viduals,  since  these  affect  faculty;  it  would  also 
take  account  of  the  character  of  income,  whether 
funded  or  unfunded,  since  the  former,  being  more 
certain,  places  its  recipient  in  a  better  economic 
position  than  the  latter.  Income  taxes,  however, 
have  proved  practicable  to  only  a  limited  extent. 
(See  below.) 

A  tax  on  all  property  would  approximate  the 
same  end,  since  the  value  of  property  is  closely 
dependent  upon  the  income  it  yields.  This  tax 
was  practicable  enough  when  almost  all  property 
was  tangible  and  incapable  of  concealment.  It 
is  the  most  unsatisfactory  of  systems  when,  as 
at  present,  a  vast  amount  of  property  consists  in 
intangible  personalty.  For  these  reasons  a  mul¬ 
tiple  system  of  taxation,  direct  and  indirect,  is 
necessary  to  provide  satisfactory  revenues  and 
to  approximate  fairness  in  distribution. 

Shifting  and  Incidence  of  Taxation.  The 
problems  of  taxation  are  immensely  complicated 
by  the  fact  that  a  tax  may  not  rest  upon  the 
persons  who  pay  it  in  the  first  instance,  but  may 
be  shifted  in  whole  or  in  part  through  price 
changes.  A  tax  upon  the  output  of  a  factory 
would  naturally  result  in  an  equal  rise  in  price. 
The  manufacturer  might  pay  the  tax,  but  its 
ultimate  incidence  is  upon  the  consumer.  A 
tax  on  houses  might  temporarily  be  borne  by 
the  owner,  but  in  the  nature  of  the  case  it  would 
ultimately  result  in  higher  rents,  since  it  would 
put  a  check  upon  building.  A  tax  on  land  value, 
on  the  other  hand,  could  not  be  shifted,  since  it 
would  not  affect  the  amount  of  land  available 
for  use,  and  hence  could  not  raise  rents. 

Capitalization  of  Taxation.  Closely  allied 
to  the  phenomenon  of  shifting  is  that  of  capital¬ 
ization.  A  special  tax  falling  upon  an  income- 
yielding  property  from  which  it  cannot  be  shifted, 
e.g.,  a  landed  holding,  tends  to  depress  the  value 
of  the  property  by  the  capital  value  of  the  tax. 
Subsequent  purchasers  of  the  property  are  not 
burdened  by  the  tax,  since  full  allowance  for  it 
is  made  in  the  purchase  price. 

Direct  and  Indirect  Taxes.  A  classification 
of  taxes  of  much  practical  importance  is  that 
which  distinguishes  between  direct  and  indirect. 
The  distinction  cannot  be  sharply  drawn,  but  it 
may  in  general  be  said  that  direct  taxes  are 
those  which  are  levied  upon  the  persons  or 
property  of  those  upon  whom  they  are  expected 
to  rest,  while  indirect  taxes  are  levied  upon  com¬ 
modities  or  industrial  processes  with  the  expec¬ 
tation  of  their  further  diffusion.  Examples  of 
the  former  kind  are  the  poll  tax,  the  general 
property  tax,  and  the  income  tax.  Examples  of 
indirect  taxes  are  customs  duties  and  excise 
taxes.  The  practical  advantage  of  indirect  tax¬ 
ation  lies  in  its  ease  of  collection  and  in  the  fact 
that  it  creates  a  minimum  of  opposition  on  the 
part  of  the  taxpayer,  who  does  not  recognize 
that  he  is  paying  a  tax  through  the  enhancement 
of  price  of  articles  which  he  may  purchase  or  not 
as  he  chooses.  This  very  fact  gives  rise  to  one 
of  the  chief  disadvantages  of  such  taxation,  viz., 
that  it  encourages  wasteful  administration,  since 


the  financier  is  not  held  to  such  strict  account 
for  funds  raised  in  this  way.  A  further  objection 
to  indirect  taxation  is  that  it  weighs  most  heav¬ 
ily  upon  the  poor,  since  it  is  only  commodities 
in  general  use  which  can  yield  a  considerable 
revenue  through  indirect  taxation. 

Forms  of  Taxation.  The  simplest  form  of 
taxation  is  the  poll  tax,  a  head  tax  levied  equally 
upon  all  citizens  or  inhabitants.  This  tax  was 
not  uncommon  in  England  towards  the  close  of 
the  Middle  Ages;  it  was  an  important  form  of 
taxation  in  the  New  England  colonies.  Where  it 
still  exists  it  is  of  minor  importance.  A  tax  on 
general  property  was  developed  in  the  northern 
Colonies  of  America.  Taxes  on  houses  are  dis¬ 
cussed  under  the  title  House  Tax  (q.v.). 

A  notable  development  in  taxation  has  been 
the  imposition  in  many  countries  of  special  taxes 
upon  the  land.  In  almost  all  the  cities  of  New 
Zealand  local  revenues  are  raised  chiefly  from 
proportional  taxes  upon  the  unimproved  value 
of  the  land,  and  the  same  system  is  widely  em¬ 
ployed  in  Australia  and  western  Canada.  A 
trace  of  the  same  system  appears  in  the  Penn¬ 
sylvania  law  permitting  the  cities  of  Pittsburgh 
and  Scranton  to  introduce  gradually  heavier 
rates  on  land  than  on  buildings.  New  Zealand 
also  has  state  taxes  graduated  according  to  the 
size  of  holding  and  special  taxes  on  absentee 
holdings.  Western  Canadian  communities  levy 
special  taxes  on  unimproved  land,  and  the  same 
principle  appears  in  the  British  system  adopted 
in  1910-11.  Germany  and  England  also  levy 
taxes  upon  the  increase  in  value  of  land,  as  in¬ 
dicated  by  prices  at  successive  transfer,  or  by 
appraisal. 

For  inheritance  tax  see  that  title. 

The  chief  forms  of  indirect  taxes  are  customs 
duties  (see  Tariff)  and  excise  taxes,  or  taxes 
upon  the  production  or  sale  of  commodities.  The 
latter  are  common  wherever  business  is  highly 
developed.  They  are  employed  in  England  to 
offset  duties  on  imports,  which  would  otherwise 
serve  to  protect  the  native  producer. 

Taxation  in  the  United  States.  There  are 
no  constitutional  restrictions  upon  the  power  of 
the  Federal  government  over  taxation  save  that 
“no  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid 
unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or  enumera¬ 
tion,”  “no  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles 
exported  from  any  State,”  “no  preference  shall 
be  given  ...  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over 
those  of  another,”  and  “that  all  duties,  imposts, 
and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the 
United  States.”  The  power  of  the  States  to  tax 
is  also  practically  unlimited,  except  that  they 
may  not  tax  interstate  commerce,  levy  import  or 
export  duties,  or  exercise  the  right  of  taxation 
in  a  manner  to  impair  the  obligation  of  a  con¬ 
tract  or  to  confiscate  property  without  due  proc¬ 
ess  of  law.  The  State  constitutions  in  many 

«/ 

cases  place  further  limitations  upon  the  power 
of  taxation  exercised  by  the  State  governments. 
The  two  fields  of  national  and  State  taxation 
have  been  on  the  whole  well  defined  and  separate 
since  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
While  there  is  no  legal  objection  to  the  right  of 
the  State  to  levy  excise  taxation,  the  prohibition 
of  taxation  of  like  commodities  entering  the 
State  by  interstate  commerce  renders  this  right 
nugatory;  the  States  are  therefore  practically 
confined  to  direct  taxation,  and  the  Federal  gov¬ 
ernment  has  refrained  from  entering  this  field 
of  taxation  except  in  periods  of  great  national 
emergency.  Areas  of  conflict  do,  however,  ap- 


TAX  AND  TAXATION 


17 


TAX  AND  TAXATION 


pear  in  the  income,  corporation,  and  inheritance 
taxes.  Both  income  and  inheritance  taxes  are 
employed  by  the  Federal  government  and  some 
of  the  States.  While  the  inheritance  tax  has 
not  been  employed  by  the  Federal  government 
except  in  emergencies,  the  trend  of  financial 
opinion  favors  the  adoption  of  a  Federal  tax. 

State  Taxation.  In  the  majority  of  the 
United  States  the  basis  of  the  fiscal  system  is 
found  in  the  general  property  tax,  levied  both  for 
State  and  local  purposes,  on  realty  and  person¬ 
alty  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  State.  This  tax, 
although  general,  has  long  been  severely  criti¬ 
cized  by  taxation  experts.  Recent  tendencies 
have  been  in  the  direction  of  breaking  up  the 
general  property  tax  through  the  separate  treat¬ 
ment  of  special  forms  of  property,  especially  cor¬ 
porate  property,  and  the  relegation  of  the  tax  on 
general  property  to  local  purposes.  Confined  to 
tangible  property  and  levied  for  local  purposes, 
the  tax  on  property  may,  in  the  opinion  of  ex¬ 
perts,  be  stripped  of  most  of  its  abuses.  Through 
the  inefficiency  and  occasional  dishonesty  of 
assessors,  and  through  their  frequent  dependence 
upon  popular  favor,  property  of  all  sorts,  and 
more  especially  personal  property,  escapes  its 
just  burdens,  while  in  many  cases  the  system  of 
basing  the  taxation  of  the  State  upon  the  local 
assessment  leads  to  a  competition  among  the 
various  districts  of  the  State  to  keep  their  local 
assessment  unreasonably  low  and  thus  evade, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  burden  of  the  State  gen¬ 
eral  property  tax.  The  resulting  inequalities  are 
only  partially  remedied  by  the  various  State 
boards  of  equalization  which  now  exist  in  about 
one-half  of  the  States  and  which  exercise  the 
right  to  raise  or  lower  the  assessment  of  counties 
and  in  cases  even  to  alter  the  assessment  of  indi¬ 
viduals.  It  has,  moreover,  been  found  imprac¬ 
ticable  to  secure  good  results  by  imposing  severe 
penalties  for  evasion  or  by  paying  portions  of 
the  tax  to  persons  discovering  such  evasions. 

Mortgages  are  taxed  in  most  States  together 
with  the  other  forms  of  personalty,  and  as  no 
deduction  is  usually  made  in  the  assessment  of 
mortgaged  property,  the  imposition  of  the  tax 
on  mortgages  usually  amounts  to  double  taxa¬ 
tion.  Attempts  have  been  made  in  Massachu¬ 
setts,  California,  Oregon,  and  elsewhere  to  pre¬ 
vent  this  double  taxation  of  mortgaged  property. 

In  connection  with  the  general  property  tax 
many  of  the  Southern  States  also  depend  upon 
a  number  of  license  or  privilege  taxes  upon  vari¬ 
ous  forms  of  business  or  exhibitions.  In  the 
South  the  tax  is  not  graduated,  but  is  usually 
a  fixed  charge,  and  according  to  Seligman  ( Es¬ 
says  in  Taxation )  is  the  natural  result  of  the 
economic  constitution  of  the  South  in  the  past. 
The  aristocratic  landed  interests  did  not  desire 
to  tax  themselves  by  land  or  poll  ( slave )  tax, 
but  attempted  to  shift  the  burden  in  Colonial 
days  by  taxing  imports  and  exports  and.  after 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  bv  levying  business  taxes  or  licenses. 

A  few  States  levy  an  income  tax,  in  some 
cases  instead  of  the  general  property  tax,  in 
others  in  connection  with  it.  The  income  tax 
law  of  Massachusetts  has  survived  from  Colonial 
days.  It  exempts  incomes  under  $2000,  taxing 
only  the  excess,  and  exempts  also  the  income 
from  property  already  taxed.  It  is  laxly  admin¬ 
istered.  Vhhe  Wisconsin  income  tax  law,  as  a  re¬ 
sult  of  excellent  administration,  has  proved  to  be 
a  satisfactory  source  of  revenue  and  has  led  to 
a  change  of  view  among  taxation  authorities 


as  to  the  practicability  of  State  income  taxes  as 
a  minor  source  of  revenue. 

The  assessment  of  the  property  of  corpora¬ 
tions  by  local  bodies  under  the  general  property 
tax  has  everywhere  been  found  to  be  inadequate, 
and  the  expedient  has  commonly  been  resorted 
to  of  assessing  the  propert}'  of  such  corpora¬ 
tions  by  a  State  board  instead  of  by  local  as¬ 
sessors.  ^Corporations  are  taxed,  however,  on 
another  basis  than  that  of  the  value  of  their 
property.  According  to  Professor  Seligman  the 
basis  of  taxing  corporations  in  the  United  States 
has  been:  (1  Y  the  value  of  the  property ;  \ 2 ) 
the  cost  of  the  property;  <"3)  the  capital  stock 
at  par  value ;  ( 4 )  Hhe  capital  stock  at  market 
value;  (5)^the  capital  stock  plus  the  bonded 
debt  at  market  value;  (G^he  capital  stock  plus 
total  debt,  both  funded  and  floating ;  ( 7 )  the 

business  transacted;  (8)^gross  earnings;  (9) 
dividends;  (10)*capital  stock  according  to  divi¬ 
dends;  (II)  net  earnings;  (12)  value  of  fran¬ 
chise.  Several  States  have  accepted  gross  rev¬ 
enue  or  net  earnings  as  a  basis  for  taxation,  and 
in  several  States,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  etc.,  this 
tax  is  progressive.  A  feature  of  recent  taxation 
is  the  so-called  special  franchise  tax.  A  tax  of 
this  sort  which  falls  upon  “franchises  for  the 
use  of  streets  granted  by  municipalities  to  pub¬ 
lic-service  corporations,”  was  passed  by  the  New 
York  Legislature  in  1899,  and  a  somewhat  simi¬ 
lar  tax  was  levied  in  New  Jersey  in  1900.  One 
of  the  most  serious  drawbacks  to  the  just  and 
equitable  taxation  of  corporations  lies  in  the  in¬ 
terstate  location  of  their  property  and  the  in¬ 
terstate  character  of  their  business  and  the  con¬ 
sequent  frequent  conflicts  of  jurisdiction.  To 
prevent  this  Prof.  Henry  C.  Adams  advocates  the 
Federal  taxation  of  interstate  commerce,  while 
another  authority  on  finance  (Professor  Selig¬ 
man)  urges  uniformity  of  State  action  or,  in  de¬ 
fault  thereof,  taxation  by  the  Federal  govern¬ 
ment  and  subsequent  redistribution  of  such  rev¬ 
enue  among  the  States. 

Federal  Taxation.  The  revenue  of  the  Fed¬ 
eral  government  has  been  obtained  principally 
from  customs  and  internal  revenue  duties.  Down 
to  1848  the  internal  revenue  receipts  were  rela¬ 
tively  insignificant  except  for  the  years  1814-18, 
when  they  averaged  over  $3,000,000  as  compared 
with  customs  receipts  of  about  $20,000,000.  From 
1849  to  1862  no  internal  revenues  were  collected. 
Under  the  stress  of  the  Civil  War  a  vast  number 
of  internal  duties  were  imposed,  and  from  1864 
to  1868  the  internal  revenues  exceeded  the  cus¬ 
toms  in  yield.  After  the  restoration  of  normal 
conditions  the  internal  revenue  receipts  fell  to 
a  level  somewhat  below  the  customs  and  except 
sporadically  did  not  surpass  the  customs  until 
the  years  of  the  Spanish  War  finance  (1898- 
1902).  Since  1911  the  internal  revenue  receipts 
have  uniformly  exceeded  the  customs  receipts, 
partly  in  consequence  of  the  two  new  elements — 
the  corporation  tax,  first  affecting  yield  in  1910, 
and  the  income  tax,  affecting  yield  in  1914.  For 
American  and  foreign  policy  of  taxation  during 
and  after  the  war  see  articles  Finance,  United 
States  and  Volume  XXIV. 

Bibliography.  H.  C.  Adams,  Science  of 
Finance  (New  York,  1899)  ;  C.  F.  Bastable, 
Public  Finance  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1903);  E.  R.  A. 
Seligman,  Progressive  Taxation  in  Theory  and 
Practice  (2d  ed.,  Princeton,  1908)  ;  Adams, 
Public  Finance  (New  York,  1909)  ;  E.  R.  A. 
Seligman,  Shifting  and  Incidence  of  Taxation 
(3d  ed.,  ib.,  1910)  ;  id.,  Essays  in  Taxation  (8th 


TAXATION  OF  COSTS 


18 


TAXILA 


ed.,  ib.,  1913)  ;  id.,  Income  Tax  (2d  ed.,  ib., 
1914)  ;  R.  M.  Haig,  The  Exemption  of  Improve¬ 
ments  from  Taxation  in  Canada  and  the  United 
States  (ib.,  1915)  ;  also  references  under  Fi¬ 
nance  and  Political  Economy. 

TAXATION  OF  COSTS.  The  official  con¬ 
firmation  of  the  amount  of  costs  due  a  success¬ 
ful  litigant.  It  is  a  ministerial  act  usually  per¬ 
formed  by  the  clerk  of  the  court,  but  subject  to 
review  by  the  court.  In  England  costs  are  taxed 
before  a  taxing  master  or  registrar,  and  in  Scot¬ 
land  before  an  auditor.  See  Costs. 

TAX  DEED.  An  authenticated  instrument 
by  which  a  public  officer  transfers  land  sold  for 
taxes.  The  validity  of  the  deed  depends  upon 
the  regularity  of  the  tax  sale  and  compliance 
with  the  statutes.  Delivery  of  the  deed  may  be 
compelled  by  mandamus  or  restrained  by  in¬ 
junction.  The  deed  is  not  made  until  after  the 
time  for  redemption  has  expired.  See  Tax 
Sale. 

TAXICAB.  See  Motor  Vehicle. 

TAX'IDEE'MY  (from  Gk.  ra|ts,  taxis,  ar¬ 
rangement  -j-  depya,  derma,  skin ) .  The  art  of 
skinning,  preserving,  and  stuffing  the  skins  of 
animals,  and  of  properly  mounting  them.  All 
animals  should  first  be  carefully  measured,  ac¬ 
cording  to  measurements  prescribed  by  taxider¬ 
mists.  Drawings  and  if  possible  casts  should  be 
made  of  parts  whose  form  and  expression  are 
characteristic  and  can  be  expressed  in  no  other 
way.  These  precautions  have  reference  to  the 
mounting  of  the  animals  in  a  lifelike  attitude  and 
form.  Mounting  requires  experience  and,  for 
the  greatest  success,  an  artist’s  eye  for  form 
and  a  sculptor’s  skill  in  modeling.  The  skin 
should  be  carefully  removed  from  the  body  to 
the  tips  of  the  toes  and  to  the  bill  in  the  case 
of  the  bird.  Directions  as  to  where  and  how 
far  to  cut  the  skins  of  the  various  sorts  of  ani¬ 
mals  may  be  found  in  taxidermists’  guides.  The 
skin  should  not  be  cut  at  the  claws  and  beak, 
and  in  the  case  of  birds,  the  skull  should  be  left 
within  the  skin.  Clean  the  leg  and  skull  bones 
of  all  flesh,  clear  out  the  brain,  and  preserve 
the  skin  and  all  it  contains  by  anointing  it 
thoroughly  on  the  inside  with  arsenical  soap. 
Many  taxidermists  prefer  to  have  the  entire 
pelvic  and  pectoral  girdles  preserved  at  least. 

Subsequent  treatment  depends  somewhat  on 
whether  the  specimen  is  to  be  mounted,  and 
upon  the  facilities  at  hand,  and  the  ease  and 
cost  of  transportation.  Except  in  the  case  of 
young,  and  of  certain  species,  the  skins  of 
mammals,  whether  preserved  in  the  field  or  in 
the  laboratory,  should  if  possible  be  preserved 
wet,  in  a  salt  and  alum  bath.  The  proportions 
recommended  by  Hornaday  are:  to  one  gallon  of 
water  add  %  of  a  pound  alum  (one  pint)  and 
1%  pounds  salt  (one  quart)  ;  heat  to  near  the 
boiling  point  until  the  crystals  are  all  dissolved. 
When  possible  test  with  a  salometer,  where 
liquid  should  stand  at  15°.  Do  not  allow  the 
liquid  to  remain  in  a  zinc  or  galvanized  vessel. 
Immerse  the  skins  in  the  cooled  solution.  For 
the  first  two  or  three  days  do  not  allow  the 
skins  to  crumple  or  fold,  and  to  facilitate  the 
penetration  of  the  fluid  to  all  parts  of  the  skins 
stir  them  about  in  the  fluid.  Keep  greasy  skins 
by  themselves  and  replace  a  dirty  and  bloody 
preservative  by  a  clean  one. 

Skins  for  mounting  should  be  preserved  dry 
only  when  the  lack  of  facilities  and  the  cost  of 
transportation  render  the  wet  method  prohibi¬ 
tive.  By  the  dry  method  the  skins  may  be  pre¬ 


served  with  arsenical  soap.  When  the  soap  is 
all  absorbed  the  skins  should  be  dusted  with 
finely  powdered  salt  and  alum  in  equal  propor¬ 
tions.  Very  good  skins  may  be  prepared  with 
salt  alone  in  an  emergency;  but  such  skins 
should  be  guarded  against  the  attacks  of  insects, 
rats,  mice,  cats,  dogs,  etc. 

Bird  skins  may  be  preserved  either  with  pow¬ 
dered  arsenic  and  alum  or  with  arsenical  soap. 
Before  removing  the  skin  of  a  bird  plug  the  vent 
and  nostrils  with  cotton.  Dirt  and  blood  spots 
should  then  be  washed  out  with  water  and  the 
feathers  dried  with  generous  and  repeated  sprink¬ 
ling  of  meal,  plaster  of  Paris,  or  sawdust.  The 
skin  having  been  removed  and  anointed  with 
the  preservative,  replace  the  skull  (using  great 
care  here  as  elsewhere  not  to  stretch  or  tear  the 
delicate  skin)  ;  gently  fill  the  eye  sockets  and 
throat  with  cotton  to  their  natural  fullness ; 
wind  the  wing  bones  and  legs  with  cotton  to  an 
amount  equal  to  the  muscles  removed,  and  gently 
draw  them  down  into  the  skin  of  the  arms  and 
legs,  which  should  be  placed  in  a  natural  posi¬ 
tion.  Then  make  as  close  an  imitation  of  the 
body  as  possible  (of  cotton  for  little  birds  and 
of  tow  for  large  ones),  insert  it  into  the  skin, 
packing  it  in  just  sufficiently  to  fill  out  all  the 
natural  roundness  and  no  more,  and  draw  the 
skin  over  it.  Next  smooth  all  the  feathers  care¬ 
fully,  lay  the  wings  naturally  beside  the  body, 
and  tie  them  there  by  many  windings  of  thread 
round  and  round  the  whole  length  of  the  body. 
This  done  lay  the  bird  on  its  back  on  a  board, 
stretch  out  the  beak  and  tail,  and  fasten  them 
in  position  if  necessary  and  leave  the  specimen 
in  an  airy  place  until  thoroughly  dried.  A  light 
label  should  be  attached  to  the  leg.  Skins  so 
preserved  are  better  for  study  purposes  than 
when  mounted,  as  they  are  easily  handled,  take 
less  room  in  a  cabinet,  and  are  more  easilv  cared 
for.  When  properly  preserved  they  may  be  pre¬ 
pared  for  mounting  at  any  time  by  softening  by 
means  of  wrapping  in  damp  cloths. 

The  mounting  of  skins  is  a  very  elaborate 
process,  and  good  results  depend  not  only  upon 
acquired  skill,  but  upon  a  knowledge  of  anatomy, 
bionomics,  and  good  artistic  taste.  In  the  case 
of  the  smaller  birds  and  animals  it  consists  of 
arranging  wires  lengthwise  of  the  body  and  the 
limbs,  so  connected  as  to  support  the  body  in  a 
lifelike  attitude;  but  large  animals  must  have 
the  substance  of  the  body  replaced  by  some  firm 
material,  such  as  clay  or  some  plastic  composi¬ 
tion,  which  must  be  modeled  with  great  intelli¬ 
gence  if  the  figure  is  to  be  satisfactory. 

Bibliography.  Montague  Browne,  Practical 
Taxidermy  (2d  ed.,  New  York,  1884)  ;  R.  W. 
Shufeldt,  “Scientific  Taxidermy  for  Museums,” 
in  United  States  National  Museum,  Annual 
Report,  1892  (Washington,  1894)  ;  Montague 
Browne,  Artistic  and  Scientific  Taxidermy  and 
Modelling  (London,  1896)  ;  Rowley,  The  Art  of 
Taxidermy  (New  York,  1898)  ;  John  Oliver 
Davie,  Methods  in  the  Art  of  Taxidermy  (Phil¬ 
adelphia,  1900)  ;  W.  T.  Hornaday,  Taxidermy  and 
Zoological  Collecting  (8th  ed.,  New  York,  1902)  ; 
C.  K.  Reed,  Guide  to  Taxidermy  (Worcester, 
1908). 

TAXILA,  taksT-la  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Ta|tXa, 
from  Skt.  Taksalca&la,  rock  of  Takshaka,  a  Naga 
king,  or  from  Pali  Takkasila,  rock  of  the  Takkas, 
a  tribe  living  between  the  Indus  and  the  Chenab) . 
A  famous  city  of  ancient  India.  It  was  situated 
near  the  modern  village  of  Dheri  Shahan,  on  the 
little  stream  Tabranala,  in  the  District  of 


TAXIS 


TAXONOMY 


Rawalpindi,  in  the  Punjab.  It  was  one  of  the 
most  populous  and  wealthy  of  all  the  cities  of 
India,  and  seat  of  an  important  university  fa¬ 
mous  for  instruction  in  the  medical  sciences. 
It  was  the  residence  of  A6oka  (q.v.)  while  he 
was  Viceroy  of  the  Punjab.  The  Sus  or  Abars 
became  its  masters  in  126  b.c.,  only  to  lose  it  at 
the  beginning  of  the  next  century  to  Kanishka, 
King  of  the  Kushans.  Consult:  J.  W.  McCrin- 
dle,  Invasion  of  India  by  Alexander  the  Great 
(London,  1896)  ;  id.,  Ancient  India  as  De¬ 
scribed  in  Classical  Literature  (ib.,  1901)  ;  V.  A. 
Smith,  Early  History  of  India  (3d  ed.,  Oxford, 
1914). 

TAX'IS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  ra£is,  arrange¬ 
ment).  A  term  applied  by  botanists  to  move¬ 
ments  by  free-swimming  organisms,  spores  or 
sperms,  in  which  the  direction  of  the  movement 
is  determined  by  the  direction  of  the  applied 
stimulus.  Similarly  directed  movements  in 
fixed  plant  organs  are  termed  tropisms.  Zoolo¬ 
gists  often  use  tropism  to  cover  taxis  as  well. 
Tactic  responses  may  be  positive,  in  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  stimulus  source;  negative,  away 
from  the  stimulus  source;  or  diatactic,  at  right 
angles  to  the  lines  of  stimulus.  They  may  be 
called  forth  by  a  variety  of  stimuli,  as  light 
( phototaxis ) ,  chemical  nature  of  the  substance 
( chemotaxis ) ,  or  varying  osmotic  pressure  of 
the  medium  ( osmotaxy ) . 

TAXON'OMY  (from  Gk.  ra^is,  taxis,  ar¬ 
rangement  +  voyos,  nomos,  law,  from  veyeiv, 
nemein,  to  distribute)  in  Plants.  The  classi¬ 
fication  of  plants.  Probably  the  first  scientific 
study  of  plants  was  the  attempt  at  classification. 
Artificial  classifications,  beginning  with  the  most 
ancient  one  into  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees,  and 
culminating  in  the  Linnsean  system  ( see 
Botany)  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
were  'at  first  necessary  on  account  of  lack  of 
knowledge  of  the  structure  of  plants.  Such 
classifications  simply  catalogued  and  pigeon¬ 
holed  the  rapidly  accumulating  material,  in  prep¬ 
aration  for  a  classification  based  upon  natural 
relationships.  Natural  systems  have  been  evolv¬ 
ing  since  the  eighteenth  century;  being  modified 
by  every  advance  in  morphological  knowledge, 
none  are  abreast  of  current  opinion,  and  no 
final  classification  seems  to  be  in  sight.  Each 
newly  proposed  system,  however,  approaches  to 
it.  The  present  system  is  a  composite  one,  not 
being  referable  to  any  single  systematist,  but 
having  had  a  somewhat  natural  and  very  slow 
development.  In  its  larger  outlines  it  is  pre¬ 
sented  below.  All  of  the  groups  mentioned  are 
described  under  their  several  titles. 

At  present  four  primary  divisions  of  the  plant 
kingdom  are  recognized,  as  follows: 

IV.  Spermatophytes  or  Seed  plants. 

III.  Pteridophytes  or  Fern  plants. 

II.  Bryophytes  or  Moss  plants. 

I.  Thallophytes  or  Thallus  plants. 

These  categories  are  distinct  enough,  and  there 
is  no  difficulty  in  assigning  all  plants  to  them; 
but  the  question  arises :  Are  they  equivalent 
groups?  Some  think  there  should  be  more  pri- 
marv  groups,  and  others  fewer.  Beginning  with 
the  lowest  great  division  there  is  an  increasing 
complexity.  An  easy  differential  way  of  separat¬ 
ing  the  groups  is  as  follows:  Thallophytes  have 
thallus  bodies  but  no  archegonia  (q.v.)  ;  Bryo¬ 
phytes  have  archegonia  but  no  vascular  bundles; 
Ptei'idophytes  have  vascular  bundles  but  no 
seeds;  Spermatophytes  have  seeds. 

I.  Thallophytes,  the  least  natural  group  of 


19 


the  four,  comprise  what  seems  to  be  a  heteroge¬ 
neous  mass  of  forms.  They  are  divided  into  two 
great  parallel  series,  algae  and  fungi,  the  former 
containing  chlorophyll  (green  pigment)  and  be¬ 
ing  independent  plants,  the  latter  containing  no 
chlorophyll  and  being  parasites  or  saprophytes. 
The  algae  are  usually  subdivided  as  follows: 


Algae 


Rhodophyce®  or  red  algae. 
Phaeophyceae  or  brown  algae. 
Chlorophyceae  or  green  algae. 
Cyanophyce®  or  blue-green  algae. 


It  is  a  serious  question  whether  the  Cyano¬ 
phyceae  should  be  included  in  this  way  with  the 
other  algae,  for  they  appear  to  be  far  more  nearly 
related  to  the  bacteria,  a  group  of  fungi.  The 
classification  of  the  fungi  is  in  a  very  unsatis¬ 
factory  state,  but  the  plants  are  for  the  most 
part  being  treated  under  the  following  heads: 


Fungi 


Basidiomycetes  or  basidium  fungi  (toadstools 
and  their  allies,  including  rusts  and  smuts). 

Ascomycetes  or  sac  fungi  (mildews,  lichen 
fungi,  etc.). 

Phycomycetes  or  algalike  fungi  (molds,  downy 
mildews,  etc.). 

Schizomycetes  or  fission  fungi  (bacteria). 

Myxomycetes  or  slime  molds. 


The  first  three  groups  are  regarded  as  true 
fungi;  the  last  two  are  problematical  as  to 
their  relationships,  often  being  regarded  as  dis¬ 
tinct  from  the  fungi. 

II.  Bryophytes  form  a  very  natural  group, 
the  two  great  series  being  liverworts  ( Hepatic* ) 
and  mosses  (Musci).  Their  principal  subdivis¬ 
ions  are  as  follows: 


Musci 


Bryophyta 


Hepatic® 


(  Bryales. 

\  Sphagnales. 

Anthocerotales. 

•  Jungermanniales. 
Marchantiales. 


III.  Pteridophytes  also  form  a  natural  group, 
though  the  main  divisions  are  very  dissimilar  in 
appearance.  The  prominent  existing  groups  are 
as  follows: 

f  Lycopodiales  or  club  mosses, 
teridophyta  j  Equisetales  or  horsetails. 

( Filicales  or  ferns. 

IV.  Spermatophytes  should  probably  be  di¬ 
vided  into  two  primary  groups,  although  at  pres¬ 
ent  they  are  treated  as  one.  The  two  great  di¬ 
visions,  gynmosperms  and  angiosperms,  differ 
more  in  essential  features  from  one  another  than 
does  the  former  group  from  pteridophytes,  but 
they  are  held  together  at  present  by  the  common 
character  of  seed  production.  The  existing  gym- 
nosperms  are  grouped  as  follows: 


Gymnosperm® 


Gnetales. 

Coniferales  (pines  and  their  allies). 
Ginkgoales  (maiden-hair  tree). 
Cycadales  (cycads). 


The  angiosperms  comprise  a  vast  assemblage 
of  forms  that  are  easily  separated  into  two  great 
series,  monocotyledons  and  dicotyledons,  but 
whose  further  division  is  at  present  in  a  some¬ 
what  chaotic  state.  Most  of  the  subdivisions 
heretofore  suggested  are  confessedly  artificial, 
and  probably  as  far  as  one  may  go  safely  with 
natural  groups  is  as  follows: 

a  •  OT.™~  /  Dicotyledones - {  Xr^u^hkmvde® 

Angiosperm®  |  Monocotyledones.  1  Arctncmamyae®. 

The  unit  of  classification  used  by  taxonomists 
is  the  species,  a  group  very  difficult  to  define, 
but  understood  in' a  general  way.  The  species 
always  bears  two  names,  as  Quercus  alba,  the 
systematises  name  for  white  oak,  alba  indica- 


TAXONOMY 


20 


TAYABAS 


ting  the  species,  and  Quercus  the  genus  to  which 
the  species  belongs.  In  some  cases  forms  of  a 
species  may  be  distinct  enough  to  be  character¬ 
ized,  and  are  called  varieties,  being  designated 
by  adding  a  third  name  to  the  species  binomial. 
The  next  higher  taxonomic  group  is  the  genus, 
which  comprises  one  or  more  species.  For  ex¬ 
ample,  Quercus  is  the  oak  genus,  containing 
many  species.  The  next  higher  taxonomic  cate- 
tory  is  the  family,  which  comprises  one  or  more 
genera,  and  is  indicated  except  in  a  few  ex¬ 
ceptional  cases  by  the  common  termination 
“aceae,”  as  “Rosaceae,”  the  rose  family.  The  next 
higher  category  is  the  order,  the  form  of  whose 
designation  is  not  so  fixed  as  that  of  the  family, 
but  which  is  increasingly  indicated  by  the  ter¬ 
mination  “ales,”  as  “Coniferales.”  Still  higher 
categories  are  often  employed,  but  the  usage  is 
so  variable  that  nothing  definite  can  be  stated  in 
reference  to  them.  All  of  these  categories  have 
their  intermediate  subdivisions,  which  general 
usage  has  in  the  main  established.  For  example, 
a  genus  may  have  its  species  grouped  into  sub¬ 
genera;  a  family  may  be  broken  up  into  tribes, 
each  containing  its  own  genera;  and  an  order 
often'  has  its  suborders. 

The  literature  of  taxonomic  botany  is  vast  in 
extent,  and  a  complete  list  of  even  the  most  im¬ 
portant  works  cannot  be  cited.  No  work  as  yet 
contains  a  systematic  presentation  of  all  the 
known  species  of  plants.  The  most  extensive 
current  works  are  as  follows :  Engler  and  Prantl, 
Die  natiirlichen  Pflanzenfamilien  (Leipzig), 
completed  in  four  sections,  each  containing  nu¬ 
merous  parts,  and  including  all  known  genera; 
Bentham  and  Hooker,  Genera  Plantarum  (Lon¬ 
don,  1863-83),  including  all  known  genera  of 
flowering  plants;  Engler,  Das  Pflanzenreich 
(Leipzig),  many  parts  of  which  have  appeared, 
and  which  is  planned  to  be  completed  in  20 
years,  including  descriptions  of  all  known  spe¬ 
cies  of  plants. 

Each  country  has  its  own  manuals  containing 
descriptions  of  its  flora.  The  current  manuals 
dealing  with  the  flowering  plants  and  in  some 
cases  the  fern  plants  of  the  United  States  are  as 
follows:  Gray,  Manual  of  Botany  (7th  ed.,  rev. 
by  Robinson  and  Fernald,  New  York,  1908), 
including  northeastern  United  States;  Britton 
and  Brown,  Illustrated  Flora  of  the  Northern 
United  States  and  Canada  (ib.,  1896-98)  ;  N.  L. 
Britton,  Manual  of  the  Flora  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  (ib.,  1901),  including  the 
same  range;  A.  W.  Chapman,  Flora  of  the  South¬ 
ern  United  States  (3d  ed.,  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1897)  ;  J.  K.  Small,  Flora  of  the  Southeastern 
States  (New  York,  1903),  including  region  south 
of  Maryland  and  Kentucky  west  to  100th  merid¬ 
ian;  Coulter  and  Nelson,  New  Manual  of  Rocky 
Mountain  Botany  (ib.,  1909)  ;  E.  L.  Greene, 
Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Region  of  San 
Francisco  Bay  (San  Francisco,  1894)  ;  Thomas 
Howell,  A  Flora  of  Nortlucest  America  (Port¬ 
land,  Oreg.,  1903)  ;  P.  A.  Rydberg,  Flora  of  Mon¬ 
tana  (New  York,  1900)  ;  id.,  Flora  of  Colorado 
(Fort  Collins,  Colo.,  1906)  ;  Piper,  Flora  of  the 
State  of  Washington  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1906). 
Manuals  for  various  other  regions  are  appearing 
as  the  demand  for  them  develops.  An  attempt 
to  include  in  a  single  work  the  whole  vascular 
flora  of  North  America  is  Asa  Gray,  Synoptical 
Flora  of  North  America ,  incomplete  (1874- 
97).  The  most  inclusive  work  is  North  Amer¬ 
ican  Flora  (New  York  Botanical  Garden),  pre¬ 
senting  the  whole  plant  kingdom  within  its 


range.  Each  group  is  presented  by  specialists 
and  many  parts  have  appeared.  For  the  im¬ 
portant  taxonomic  literature  of  algae  and  fungi, 
see  articles  on  the  principal  groups.  See  Botany. 

TAX  SALE.  A  public  sale  of  land,  by  proper 
officials,  for  delinquent  taxes  assessed  thereon. 
The  requisites  and  details  to  be  followed  vary  in 
the  different  States,  but  the  general  principles 
are  common.  The  taxes  must  be  constitutional 
and  legally  assessed;  they  must  be  due  and 
unpaid;  a  proper  return  of  the  delinquency 
must  have  been  made.  The  sale  must  be  public 
and  to  the  highest  bidder,  and  it  must  be  adver¬ 
tised  to  be  held  at  a  proper  time  and  place.  The 
whole  proceeding  must  be  strictly  in  conformity 
with  the  statute.  As  each  particular  parcel  of 
land  is  liable  for  the  taxes  assessed  upon  that 
and  no  more,  each  parcel  must  be  sold  separately. 
In  certain  States,  where  a  division  is  practicable, 
it  is  mandatory  upon  the  tax  collector  to  sell 
only  such  portion  of  the  land  as  will  satisfy 
the  unpaid  taxes.  The  purchaser  is  given  a  cer¬ 
tificate,  and  the  owner  usually  has  a  certain 
period  to  redeem  upon  payment  of  the  taxes, 
interests,  and  costs.  At  the  end  of  the  period 
the  purchaser  is  entitled  to  receive  a  tax  deed 
(q.v.).  See  Tax  and  Taxation;  Tax  Deed; 
Tax  Title. 

TAX  TITLE.  The  interest  or  title  acquired 
by  a  purchaser  of  land  at  a  tax  sale.  If  the  sale 
be  valid,  the  validity  of  the  title  depends  upon 
the  failure  of  the  owner  to  redeem  within  the 
proper  time.  Until  the  expiration  of  the  time 
allowed  for  redemption  the  purchaser  has  prac¬ 
tically  only  a  right  in  the  nature  of  a  lien  on 
the  property.  See  Tax  ’Sale. 

In  most  States  the  deed  is  prima  facie  evi¬ 
dence  of  title  in  the  purchaser.  In  many  States, 
after  the  expiration  of  the  time  for  redemption, 
a  tax  title  is  made  superior  to  all  other  claims. 
In  a  few  States,  however,  the  purchaser  gets  only 
the  right  of  the  delinquent,  taxpayer,  and  there¬ 
fore  the  title  may  be  precarious.  Tax  titles 
are  often  considered  uncertain  because  questions 
of  a  strict  compliance  with  the  statute  as  to 
the  assessment,  delinquency,  and  sale  are  in¬ 
volved.  When  the  tax  title  of  a  purchaser  in 
good  faith  proves  to  be  invalid  for  any  reason, 
he  is  generally  allowed  to  recover  the  purchase 
price  and  may  recover  from  the  owner  the  actual 
value  of  any  reasonable  improvements  he  may 
have  made.  See  Tax  and  Taxation;  Tax 
Sale;  Title. 

TAY,  ta.  A  river  of  Scotland  with  interest¬ 
ing  changes  in  direction  due  to  longitudinal  and 
transverse  valleys  ( Map :  Scotland,  E  3 ) .  It 
rises  on  the  border  of  Argyllshire,  and  flows  first 
eastward,  traversing  the  beautiful  Loch  Tav, 
then  southeast,  and  finally  northeast  as  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  a  broad  tidal  estuary  tributary  to 
the  North  Sea,  10  miles  below  Dundee.  It  is 
118  miles  long  and  navigable  for  small  vessels 
to  Perth,  though  the  mouth  of  the  estuary  is 
obstructed  by  sand  banks.  The  estuary  is 
spanned  by  an  iron  railroad  bridge  3593  yards 
long. 

TAY,  Loch.  A  lake  in  West  Perthshire,  Scot¬ 
land,  situated  in  a  rock  basin,  355  feet  above 
the  sea  level.  It  is  about  15  miles  long,  with 
an  average  breadth  of  one  mile,  and  varies  from 
100  to  600  feet  in  depth  (Map:  Scotland,  D  3). 
Its  picturesque  features  and  salmon  fishing  make 
it  a  favorite  tourist  and  angling  resort.  Ben 
Lawers,  on  its  western  side,  rises  3984  feet. 

TAYABAS,  ta-ya/Bas.  A  province  of  Luzon, 


TAYABAS 


21 


TAYLOR 


Philippine  Islands,  occupying  the  isthmian  por¬ 
tion  between  the  central  and  southern  part  of 
the  island,  and  the  region  along  the  east  coast  of 
central  Luzon,  formerly  included  under  the  dis¬ 
tricts  of  Infanta  and  Principe  (Map:  Philip¬ 
pine  Islands,  C  3).  These  two  districts  and 
the  large  island  of  Polillo  (q.v.)  lying  to  the 
east  of  them  were  annexed  to  the  province  in 
1902.  Total  area,  5993  square  miles,  of  which 
the  dependent  islands  take  up  491,  and  of  these 
the  island  of  Polillo,  333  square  miles.  The 
entire  mainland  portion  is  occupied  by  a  high 
coast  range  covered  with  forests  and  generally 
inaccessible  and  unexplored.  The  northern  dis¬ 
tricts  are  undeveloped,  but  in  Tayabas  proper 
there  are  some  agriculture  and  cattle  raising, 
and  considerable  mechanical  industries,  includ¬ 
ing  weaving,  the  manufacture  of  hats,  cigar 
boxes,  and  coconut  oil,  and  boat  building.  Pop., 
1903  (exclusive  of  the  subprovince  of  Marin- 
duque),  153,065,  almost  entirely  Tagalog.  There 
are  also  some  Negritos.  Capital,  Lucena. 

TAYABAS.  A  town  of  Tayabas  Province, 
Luzon,  Philippines,  situated  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  65  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Manila  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  C  3). 
It  is  the  centre  of  a  large  inland  and  coast  trade, 
and  has  a  dockyard.  Pop.,  1903,  14,740. 

TAYGETUSi  ta-ij'e-tus  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
Tavyeros) ,  now  called  Pentedaktylon.  The 
principal  mountain  range  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
Greece  ( Map :  Greece,  D  7).  It  extends  south- 
westward  from  the  west  coast  of  the  peninsula 
and  forms  the  central  one  of  the  three  promon¬ 
tories  in  which  south  Greece  terminates.  It 
reaches  in  Mount  Hagios  Elias  an  altitude  of 
7903  feet.  It  formed  the  ancient  boundary  be¬ 
tween  Laconia  and  Messenia. 

TAY'LER,  John  James  (1797-1869).  An 
English  Unitarian  clergyman.  He  was  born  at 
Newington  Butts,  London;  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Glasgow  in  1818;  and  was  min¬ 
ister  of  a  Unitarian  congregation  at  Manchester 
(1820-53).  In  1840  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  ecclesiastical  history  in  Manchester  New  Col¬ 
lege,  and  in  1852  also  professor  of  theology. 
When  the  college  was  removed  to  London  ( 1853) , 
he  became  its  principal.  With  the  Rev.  James 
Martineau  he  was  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  con¬ 
gregation  in  Little  Portland  Street  (1859-60). 
He  published  Christian  Aspects  of  Faith  and 
Duty  (2  series,  1851,  1877)  ;  Attempts  to  As¬ 
certain  the  Character  of  the  Fourth  Gospel 
(1867;  2d  ed.,  1870).  J.  H.  Thom  published 
Tavler’s  Life  and  Letters  (London,  1872). 

TAY'LOR.  A  borough  in  Lackawanna  Co., 
Pa.,  4  miles  southwest  of  Scranton,  on  the 
Lackawanna  River,  and  on  the  Central  of  New 
Jersey,  the  Delaware  and  Hudson,  and  the  Dela¬ 
ware,  Lackawanna,  and  Western  railroads  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  K  3 ) .  Its  interests  are  coal  min¬ 
ing  and  silk  manufacturing.  The  place  was 
settled  in  1790  and  incorporated  in  1893.  Pop., 
1900,  4215;  1910,  9060;  1915  (U.  S.  est.), 

11,591. 

TAYLOR.  A  city  in  Williamson  Co.,  Tex., 
35  miles  northeast  of  Austin,  on  the  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Texas,  and  the  International  and 
Great  Northern  railroads  (Map:  Texas,  D  4). 
The  buildings  and  grounds  of  the  Fair  Associa¬ 
tion,  the  city  hall,  and  the  artesian  wells  are 
noteworthy.  Taylor  is  the  centre  of  extensive 
cotton  interests,  and  has  considerable  trade  in 
farm  produce,  live  stock,  wool,  etc.,  and  manu¬ 
factures  of  machine-shop  products,  flour  and 


cottonseed  oil.  The  International  and  Great 
Northern  Railroad  maintains  repair  shops  here. 
Pop.,  1900,  4211;  1910,  5314. 

TAYLOR,  Alfred  Edward  (1869-  ).  A 

British  philosopher.  He  studied  at  New  College, 
Oxford,  and  was  a  fellow  of  Merton.  He  taught 
at  Owens  College,  Manchester  (1896-1903),  was 
next  Frothingham  professor  of  philosophy  at 
McGill  University,  Montreal,  and  after  1908 
held  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  at  St.  An¬ 
drews.  His  writings  include :  The  Problem  of 
Conduct  (1901);  Elements  of  Metaphysics 
(1903);  Aristotle  on  his  Predecessors  (1906); 
Plato  (1908);  Thomas  Hobbes  (1908);  Epi¬ 
curus  (1911):  Yaria  Socratica  (1911);  Aris¬ 
totle  (1912). 

TAYLOR,  Alfred  Swaine  (1806-80).  An 
English  toxicologist  and  medical  jurist,  born  at 
Northfleet,  Kent.  He  studied  in  the  united 
hospitals  of  Guy  and  St.  Thomas  in  1823.  In 
1831  he  began  to  deliver  at  Guy’s  Hospital  the 
first  Englisti  course  of  lectures  on  medical  juris¬ 
prudence.  In  1832  he  became  joint  lecturer  with 
Aikin  on  chemistry  at  Guy’s,  and  he  held  this 
chair  alone  from  1850  to  1870.  His  t Manual  of 
Medical  Jurisprudence  (1844)  and  The  Princi¬ 
ples  and  Practice  of  Jurisprudence  ( 1865)  passed 
through  many  editions.  He  first  drew  attention 
to  the  great  incentive  for  secret  murder  offered 
by  life  insurance,  and  to  the  possibility  of 
arsenical  poisoning  from  wall  papers  and  other 
fabrics.  Among  his  numerous  writings  was  a 
Handbook  on  Poisons  (1848). 

TAYLOR,  Ann  (Mrs.  Josiah  Gilbert) 
(1782-1866)  and  Jane  (1783-1824).  English 
writers  for  children,  whose  prose  and  verse  were 
popular  throughout  the  English-speaking  world. 
They  were  born  in  London,  but  the  family  early 
removed  to  Lavenham,  Suffolk,  and  later  to 
Colchester.  The  sisters  published  jointly  Orig¬ 
inal  Poems  for  Infant  Minds  (1804),  which  was 
translated  into  German,  Dutch,  and  Russian ; 
Rhymes  for  the  Nursery  ( 1806,  containing  Jane’s 
familiar  “Twinkle,  twinkle,  little  star”)  ;  and 
Hymns  for  Infant  Mmds  (1808).  After  Ann 
Taylor’s  marriage  they  worked  separately,  with¬ 
out  as  much  success.  Their  earlier  work,  mark¬ 
ing  an  epoch  in  young  people’s  literature,  has 
held  its  own.  E.  V.  Lucas  edited  The  Original 
Poems,  and  Others  in  1903,  and  in  1915  Mary 
Macleod  edited  Ann  and  Jane  Taylor  in  the 
“Children’s  Poets  Series.”  Their  brother,  Isaac 
Taylor  (q.v.),  edited  Memoirs  and  Correspond¬ 
ence  of  Jane  Taylor  (2  vols.,  London,  1825), 
and  Ann’s  son,  Josiah  Gilbert,  edited  The  Auto¬ 
biography  of  Mrs.  Gilbert  (ib.,  1874). 

TAYLOR,  (James)  Bayard  (1825-78).  An 
American  poet,  man  of  letters,  journalist, 
and  traveler,  born  at  Kennett  Square,  Chester 
Co.,  Pa.  His  education  was  obtained  in  the 
common  schools  of  the  neighborhood.  He  be¬ 
came,  in  1842,  the  apprentice  of  a  printer,  and 
here  he  published  his  first  volume,  Ximena:  or 
the  Battle  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  and  Other 
Poems  (1844).  In  1844-45  he  made  a  pedes¬ 
trian  tour  through  Europe,  describing  his  ex¬ 
periences  in  Views  Afoot:  or  Europe  Seen  with 
Knapsack  and  Staff  ( 1846) .  The  following  year, 
1847,  he  joined  the  New  York  Tribune,  and  re¬ 
mained  on  the  staff  of  that  paper  as  long  as 
he  lived,  publishing  in  its  pages  the  sketches 
of  many  of  his  subsequent  books.  As  its  special 
correspondent,  he  visited  California  in  1849, 
where  he  spent  five  months  among  the  gold  dig¬ 
gers;  two  years  later  he  was  in  Egypt,  Asia 


TAYLOR 


22 


TAYLOR 


Minor,  and  Syria;  in  1852-53  in  India,  crossing 
from  Bombay  to  Calcutta,  and  then  going  to 
China  to  join  the  expedition  of  Commodore 
Perry  to  Japan.  From  1862  to  1863  he  was 
secretary  of  the  United  States  legation  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  later  charge  d’affaires  there, 
and  was  influential  in  securing  for  the  northern 
States  the  sympathy  of  Russia.  In  1874  he 
was  again  in  Egypt,  and  the  same  year  at  the 
Millennial  Celebration  in  Iceland.  For  several 
years  previously  he  had  lived  in  Germany,  and 
there,  and  in  America  and  England,  in  1870 
he  brought  out  the  work  for  which  he  is  best 
known,  his  excellent  translation  of  Goethe’s 
Faust.  In  1876  he  wrote  the  Ode  in  honor  of 
the  opening  of  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in 
Philadelphia.  In  February,  1878,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Minister  to  Germany,  and  went  again 
to  that  country,  but  died  there  towards  the  end 
of  the  same  year,  leaving  unfinished  biographies 
of  Goethe  and  Schiller.  He  was  married  in 
1850  to  Miss  May  Agmew,  who  died  the  same 
year,  and  in  1857  to  Miss  Marie  Hansen  of 
Gotha,  Germany,  who  survived  him,  reedited  his 
works,  and,  with  H.  E.  Scudder,  wrote  his  Life 
and  Letters  (Boston,  1884). 

Taylor’s  work  is  voluminous,  and  varied  both 
in  kind  and  in  quality.  He  wrote  books  of 
travel,  of  which  the  chief  are:  El  Dorado:  or 
Adventures  in  the  Path  of  Empire  (1850)  ;  A 
Journey  to  Central  Africa  (1854);  A  Visit  to 
India ,  China,  and  Japan  (1855)  ;  The  Land  of 
the  Saracen  (1854);  Northern  Travel  (1858); 
Travels  in  Greece  (1859)  ;  At  Home  and  Abroad 
(1859-62);  Colorado  (1867);  By-Ways  of  Eu¬ 
rope  (1869);  Egypt  and  Iceland  in  the  Year 
187 Jf  (1874);  and  others.  His  novels  include: 
Hannah  Thurston  (1863);  John  Godfrey’s  For¬ 
tunes  (1864);  The  Story  of  Kennett  (1866); 
Joseph  and  his  Friend  (1870).  His  poems  were 
also  numerous ;  besides  Ximena,  the  notable 
volumes  are:  Rhymes  of  Travel,  Ballads,  and 
Other  Poems  (1848);  A  Book  of  Romances, 
Lyrics,  and  Songs  (1851)  ;  Poems  of  the  Orient 
(1854);  Poems  of  Home  and  Travel  (1855); 
The  Poet’s  Journal  (1862)  ;  The  Picture  of  St. 
John  (1869);  The  Ballad  of  Abraham  Lincoln 
(1869)  ;  The  Masque  of  the  Gods  (1872)  ;  Lars, 
A  Pastoral  of  Norway  (1873)';  The  Prophet,  A 
Tragedy  (1874);  Home  Pastorals,  Ballads,  and 
Lyrics  (1875);  and  The  National  Ode  (1876). 
Two  posthumous  collections  of  Taylor’s  miscel¬ 
lanies  appeared — Studies  in  German  Literature 
(1879)  and  Essays  and  Notes  (1880).  He  had 
a  distinct  lyrical  faculty,  but  he  never  seemed 
able  to  bring  his  varied  powers  under  full  ar¬ 
tistic  control.  The  public  persisted  in  regarding 
him  as  a  traveler  and  journalist  rather  than  as 
a  poet,  and,  despite  the  remonstrances  of  some 
friendly  critics,  it  is  probable  that  the  public 
was  right.  At  most  lie  is  a  minor  poet,  a  good 
translator,  and  a  versatile  writer  of  prose.  Con¬ 
sult:  Marie  Hansen-Taylor  (his  wife)  and  H.  E. 
Scudder,  Life  and  Letters  of  Bayard  Taylor  (2 
vols.,  Boston,  1884),  and  Mrs.  Taylor,  On  Two 
Continents :  Memories  of  Half  a  Century  (New 
York,  1905)  ;  A.  H.  Smyth,  Bayard  Taylor  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1886),  in  “American  Men  of  Letters”; 
W.  D.  Howells,  Literary  Friends  and  Acquaint¬ 
ance  (New  York,  1900)  ;  William  Winter,  Old 
Friends  (ib.,  1909). 

TAYLOR,  Beet  Leston  (1866-1921  ).  An 
American  writer.  He  was  born  at  Goshen,  Mass., 
and  was  educated  at  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  He  joined  the  staff  of  the  Chicago 


Tribune,  and  in  that  connection  became  widely 
known  for  his  humorous  column  called  “A  Line- 
o’-Type  or  Two.”  His  writings  include:  Line-o’- 
Type  Lyrics  (1902);  The  Well  in  the  Wood 
(1904)  ;  The  Log  of  the  Water  Wagon  (1905)  ; 
The  Charlatans  (1906);  Extra  Dry  (1906); 
A  Line-o’-Verse  or  Two  (1911)  ;  The  Pipesmoke 
Carry  (1912);  Motley  Measures  (1913). 

TAYLOR,  Brook  (1685-1731).  An  English 
mathematician,  born  at  Edmonton,  Middlesex. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge.  In  1712  he  was 
made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  two 
years  later  became  its  secretary.  Taylor  is 
chiefly  known  for  a  theorem  which  bears  his 
name,  and  which  appeared  in  his  Methodus  In- 
crementorum  Directa  et  Inversa  (1715),  the  first 
important  treatise  to  deal  with  the  calculus  of 
finite  differences.  Taylor  also  contributed  in  a 
valuable  way  to  the  problem  of  the  centre  of 
oscillation  ( Philosophical  Transactions,  xxviii), 
to  the  theory  of  vibrations  of  a  string,  and  other 
questions  of  mathematical  physics.  His  Linear 
Perspective  (1715)  and  New  Principles  of  Linear 
Perspective  (1719)  were  a  notable  advance  in 
the  theory.  Thev  also  contained  an  enunciation 
of  the  principle  of  vanishing  points,  the  first  in 
English  and  the  most  complete  to  that  time. 
For  biography  consult  the  preface  to  his  post¬ 
humous  work,  Contemplatio  Philosophica  (1793). 

TAYLOR,  Charles  Fayette  (1827-99).  An 
American  orthopedic  surgeon,  born  in  Willis- 
ton,  Vt.,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Ver¬ 
mont.  The  year  1857  he  spent  in  London,  study¬ 
ing  the  Swedish  movement  cure  under  Roth. 
Subsequently  he  settled  in  New  York  City,  and 
was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  the  movement 
cure  (see  Mechanotherapy)  into  America.  Dr. 
Taylor  became  a  specialist  in  orthopedic  surgery, 
and  was  very  successful.  He  was  especially 
skillful  in  devising  original  appliances  to  meet 
deformities.  Among  his  inventions  are  the  Tay¬ 
lor  splint  for  treatment  of  curvature  of  the  spine 
and  the  long  extension  hip  splint.  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  New  York  Orthopaedic  Dispensary 
and  Hospital,  of  which  he  was  the  executive 
surgeon  for  many  years.  Taylor  established  in 
New  York  City  an  institute  for  the  treatment  of 
deformities,  which  was  successfully  operated 
for  many  years,  previously  to  the  organization 
of  the  hospital.  He  wrote  much  on  the  subjects 
in  which  he  specialized. 

TAYLOR,  Dan  (1738-1816).  Founder  of 
the  New  Connection  of  General  Baptists.  He 
was  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  where  he  worked 
in  the  mines  till  1762.  After  having  been  for 
a  year  one  of  Wesley’s  preachers  he  seceded,  but 
continued  preaching.  In  1763  he  united  with 
the  General  Baptists  and  rose  to  prominence 
as  a  preacher  among  them.  In  1769  he  headed 
a  secession  from  that  body.  (See  Baptists.) 
His  better  known  works  embrace:  A  Compendi¬ 
ous  View  of  Christian  Baptism  (1772)  ;  Funda¬ 
mentals  of  Religion  (1775);  and  The  Eternity 
of  Future  Punishment  (  1789,  written  against 
the  Unjversalist  Elhanan  Winchester).  Con¬ 
sult  Adam  Taylor,  Memoirs  of  Rev.  Dan  Taylor 
(London,  1820),  and  W.  Underwood,  Life  of 
Rev.  Dan  Taylor  (ib.,  1870). 

TAYLOR,  David  Watson  (1864-  ).  An 

American  naval  constructor,  born  in  Louisa  Co., 
Va.  He  graduated  with  the  highest  honors  from 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1885,  and 
received  also  the  highest  honors  from  the  Royal 
College  at  Greenwich,  England,  where  he  studied 
in  1885-88.  In  the  United  States  navy  he  was 


TAYLOR 


23 


TAYLOR 


promoted  through  the  various  grades  to  captain 
in  1901,  and  in  1914  became  chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Construction.  He  was  awarded  a  gold  medal 
by  the  British  Institution  of  Naval  Architects 
for  the  best  original  paper  on  “Ship-Shaped 
Stream  Forms.”  Taylor  published  Resistance  of 
Ships  and  Screw  Propulsion  (1893;  2d  ed., 
1907)  and  The  Speed  and  Power  of  Ships 
(1910). 

TAYLOR,  Edward  Thompson  (1793-1871). 
An  American  preacher,  widely  known  as  Father 
Taylor.  He  was  born  in  Richmond,  Va.;  was 
taken  in  charge  by  a  lady  near  that  city;  ran 
away  to  sea  at  the  age  of  seven,  and  for  10  years 
was  a  sailor.  In  the  War  of  1812  he  served 
on  a  privateer,  the  Black  Hawk,  was  captured, 
and  was  confined  first  at  Melville  Island  and 
then  in  Dartmoor  Prison,  where  he  became  the 
chaplain  to  his  fellow  prisoners,  having  joined 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  in  1811.  After 
his  release  from  prison  he  was  successively  a 
peddler  of  tin  and  ironware  and  a  buyer  of  rags, 
and  a  farmer;  was  regularly  licensed  to  preach 
in  1814;  and  in  1819  became  an  itinerant  Meth¬ 
odist  minister.  In  1829  he  was  chosen  minister 
of  the  newly  established  Seamen’s  Bethel  in  Bos¬ 
ton,  which  position  he  held  until  1868,  when  he 
resigned.  He  visited  Europe  in  1832  and  Pales¬ 
tine  in  1842,  and  was  chaplain  to  the  United 
States  frigate  sent  with  relief  to  Ireland  during 
the  famine  of  1846.  By  his  warmth  of  heart, 
his  native  wit,  and  his  natural  eloquence  he 
gained  a  remarkable  influence  over  his  sailor 
auditors.  Numerous  anecdotes  have  been  told 
to  illustrate  his  wit  and  his  power  as  a  public 
speaker,  and  accounts  of  his  eloquence  may  be 
found  in  Miss  Martineau’s  Retrospect  of  West¬ 
ern  Travel,  in  Buckingham’s  America,  Histori¬ 
cal,  Statistic,  and  Descriptive,  in  Dickens’s 
American  Notes,  in  Miss  Bremer’s  The  Homes  of 
the  New  World,  and  in  Mrs.  Jameson’s  Common¬ 
place  Book  of  Thoughts,  Memories,  and  Fancies. 
Consult  Haven  and  Russell,  Father  Taylor,  the 
Sailor  Preacher  (Boston,  1872),  and  Robert 
Collyer,  Father  Taylor  (ib.,  1906). 

TAYLOR,  Emily  Heyward  Drayton  (Mrs. 
J.  Madison  Taylor)  (1860-  ).  An  Ameri¬ 

can  miniature  painter.  She  was  born  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  and  studied  there  at  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  and  in  Paris  under  C6cile  Ferrier. 
Good  examples  of  her  miniatures,  which  are 
carefully  drawn  and  somewhat  detailed  and 
realistic  in  treatment,  are  those  of  President 
and  Mrs.  McKinley,  Dr.  S.  Weir  Mitchell,  Mrs. 
Clement  Newbold,  Miss  Edith  Moore  Taylor, 
Mrs.  Eugene  Hale,  Mrs.  Cyrus  McCormick,  Em¬ 
mons  Blaine.  Mrs.  Taylor  made  her  residence 
in  Philadelphia,  became  a  member  of  the  Penn¬ 
sylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  president  of 
the  Society  of  Miniature  Painters,  and  received 
gold  medals  at  London  (1900)  and  at  Charles¬ 
ton  (1902).  She  collaborated  with  Anne  Hol¬ 
lingsworth  Wharton  in  Heirlooms  in  Miniature 
(1898). 

TAYLOR,  Sir  Frederick  Williams  (1863- 
) .  A  Canadian  financier,  born  at  Moncton, 
New  Brunswick.  He  entered  the  service  of  the 
Bank  of  Montreal  in  1878,  by  1906  had  become 
manager  of  the  London  branch,  and  in  1913  was 
appointed  general  manager  at  Montreal.  During 
his  eight  years  in  London  he  became  the  head 
of  British  colonial  banking  interests  there,  and 
the  Bank  of  Montreal  was  the  medium  through 
which  $500,000,000  of  Canadian  loans  were 
placed  on  the  London  market,  besides  about 


$125,000,000,  the  proceeds  of  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  stock  issues. 

TAYXOR,  Frederick  Winslow  (1856-1915). 
An  American  efficiency  engineer,  born  at  Ger¬ 
mantown,  Pa.  In  1883  he  graduated  M.E.  from 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technologv.  Between  1878 
and  1889  he  was  employed  by  the  Midvale  Steel 
Company  at  Philadelphia  as  foreman,  master 
mechanic,  chief  draftsman,  and  chief  engineer. 
Thereafter  he  devoted  himself  to  organizing  the 
management  of  manufacturing  concerns,  includ¬ 
ing  the  Bethlehem  Steel,  Cramp’s  Shipbuilding, 
and  the  Midvale  Steel  companies.  Taylor  was 
the  originator  of  scientific  management  in  busi¬ 
ness,  which  quickly  grew  to  an  important  move¬ 
ment.  He  patented  about  100  inventions,  and 
devised  the  Taylor-White  process  for  treating 
high-speed  tools,  for  which  he  received  a  gold 
medal  at  Paris  in  1900.  In  1906  he  served  as 
president  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers.  Taylor  was  author  of  Concrete, 
Plain  and  Reenforced  (1905;  2d  ed.,  1911),  with 
S.  E.  Thompson;  Art  of  Cutting  Metals  (1906)  ; 
Concrete  Costs  (1912),  with  Thompson;  The 
Principles  of  Scientific  Management  (1911; 
Fr.  trans.,  1916);  Shop  Management  (1911). 
Consult  C.  B.  Thompson,  Scientific  Management 
(Cambridge,  Mass.,  1914). 

TAYLOR,  George  (1716-81).  A  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  from  Pennsyl¬ 
vania.  He  was  born  in  Ireland,  emigrated  to 
America  as  a  redemptioner  in  1736,  and,  after 
serving  a  wealthy  manufacturer  as  a  clerk, 
married  his  employer’s  widow.  He  became  very 
wealthy,  was  a  member  of  the  Provincial  As¬ 
sembly  from  1764  to  1770,  and  on  July  20,  1776, 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Continental  Con¬ 
gress.  He  served  only  a  short  time,  retiring  in 
March,  1777.  Consult  John  Sanderson,  Biog¬ 
raphy  of  the  Signers  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde¬ 
pendence,  revised  and  edited  by  R.  T.  Conrad 
(Philadelphia,  1847). 

TAYLOR,  Graham  (1851-  ).  An  Amer¬ 

ican  social  worker,  born  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 
He  graduated  from  Rutgers  College  in  1870,  and 
from  the  Reformed  Theological  Seminary  at 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  in  1873.  From  1880  to 
1892  he  was  pastor  of  the  Fourth  Congregational 
Church  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  for  the  last  four 
years  of  this  period  serving  also  as  professor 
of  practical  theology  at  Hartford  Seminary.  In 
1892  he  was  appointed  professor  of  social  eco¬ 
nomics  at  the  Chicago  Theological  Seminary, 
and  from  1894  he  was  resident  warden  of  the 
Chicago  Commons  Social  Settlement,  which  he 
had  founded.  In  addition  he  held  the  presi¬ 
dency  of  the  Chicago  School  of  Civics  and  Phi¬ 
lanthropy,  and  served  as  an  associate  editor  of 
The  Survey.  He  wrote  Religion  in  Social  Action 
(1913),  which  is,  in  a  sense,  autobiographical. 

TAYLOR,  Hannis  (1851-  ).  An  Amer¬ 

ican  lawyer  and  diplomat,  born  at  Newbern, 
N.  C.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
North  Carolina.  From  1893  to  1897  he  was 
United  States  Minister  to  Spain.  Later  he  prac¬ 
ticed  law  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He  published 
The  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  English  Constitu¬ 
tion  (2  vols.,  1898-99),  a  work  in  which  he 
attempted  not  only  to  trace  the  history  of  the 
English  system  of  government,  but  also  the 
growth  therefrom  “of  the  Federal  Republic  of 
the  United  States.”  Taylor  published  also  In¬ 
ternational  Public  Law  (1902)  ;  The  Science  of 
Jurisprudence  (1908);  The  Origin  and  Growth 
of  the  American  Constitution  (1911).  Taylor 


TAYLOR 


TAYLOR 

championed  the  claims  supporting  Pelatiah 
Webster  ( q.v. ) . 

TAYLOR,  Sir  Henry  (1800-86).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  poet,  born  at  Bishop-Middleham  in  Dur¬ 
ham.  He  began  writing  verses  in  the  Byronic 
manner  and  was  soon  contributing  clever  arti¬ 
cles  to  the  Quarterly  Review.  Encouraged  by 
Southey,  whom  he  visited  at  the  Lakes,  he 
settled  in  London  as  a  man  of  letters  (1823) .  In 
1824  he  was  given  a  clerkship  in  the  Colonial 
Office,  a  post  which  he  filled  with  great  ability 
till  lus  resignation  in  1872.  He  made  warm 
friendships  with  Mill,  Lockhart,  Rogers,  Carlyle, 
Spedding,  Aubrey  de  Vere,  and  many  other 
literary  men.  In  recognition  of  his  services  to 
the  government  and  to  literature,  he  was  made 
K.C.M.G.  (1869).  His  last  years  were  passed  at 
Bournemouth.  Taylor’s  literary  fame  rests  se¬ 
cure  on  Philip  Van  Artevelde  (1834;  performed 
by  Macready,  1847),  one  of  the  most  poetic 
tragedies  since  the  Elizabethan  age.  Other  trag¬ 
edies  in  the  same  style  but  of  less  merit  are 
Isaac  Comnenas  (1827),  Edwin  the  Fair 
(1842),  and  St.  Clement’s  Eve  (1862).  The 
Virgin  Widow,  a  dramatic  poem  (1850),  is  an 
experiment  in  romantic  comedy.  In  1847  Tay¬ 
lor  published  The  Eve  of  Conquest  and  Other 
Poems.  His  strongest  prose  is  represented  by 
The  Statesman  (1836),  a  collection  of  ironical 
discourses  on  success,  which  were  taken  seri¬ 
ously;  and  by  a  charming  Autobiography  (1885; 
but  privately  printed,  1877),  containing  care¬ 
fully  drawn  portraits  of  his  early  contempo¬ 
raries.  Consult  his  Works  (author’s  ed.,  5  vols., 
London,  1877-78)  ;  selection  from  poems  in 
Miles,  Poets  and  Poetry  of  the '  Century  ( ib.. 
1891)  ;  and  Correspondence,  edited  by  Edward 
Dowden  (ib.,  1888). 

TAYLOR,  Henry  Clay  (1842-1904).  An 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  Washington, 
D.  C.  He  graduated  at  the  Naval  Academy  in 
1863,  was  assigned  to  the  West  Gulf  Blockading 
Squadron,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Mobile 
Bay  (Aug.  5,  1864).  After  the  Civil  War  he 
spent  two  years  in  the  South  Pacific  station, 
and  on  his  return  home  was  detailed  for  duty 
at  the  Naval  Academy.  In  1868  he  was  pro¬ 
moted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  commander,  and 
after  taking  part  in  a  surveying  expedition 
(1870-71)  he  again  spent  two  years  at  the 
Naval  Academy.  In  1879  he  was  advanced  to 
the  rank  of  commander,  and  from  1881  to  1884 
he  commanded  the  Swatara  on  the  Asiatic  sta¬ 
tion.  Two  years  after  his  return  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  commandant  of  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard, 
a  post  which  he  held  two  years.  From  1893  to 
1896  he  was  president  of  the  Naval  War  College 
at  Newport,  R.  I.  In  1897  he  was  again  ordered 
to  sea  service,  and  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  battleship  Indiana.  In  the  spring  of  1898 
he  joined  Admiral  Sampson’s  fleet  at  Key  West, 
and  in  May  he  took  part  in  the  bombardment 
of  San  Juan.  The  next  month,  with  the  Indiana 
and  other  war  vessels,  he  conveyed  General 
Shatter’s  army  from  Tampa  to  Santiago,  and 
on  July  3,  when  Cervera  came  out  of  the  harbor, 
his  vessel  took  an  important  part  in  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  Spanish  fleet.  After  the  war  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  receiving  ship  Ver¬ 
mont,  and  in  1902  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Navigation. 

TAYLOR,  Henry  Ling  (1857-  ).  An 

American  surgeon,  born  and  educated  in  New 
York  City  (M.D.,  1881,  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons).  He  followed  his  father, 'Charles 


24 

Fayette  Taylor  (q.v.),  in  the  practice  of  the 
latter’s  specialty.  In  1902  he  became  professor 
of  orthopedic  surgery  at  the  Postgraduate  Medi¬ 
cal  School  and  Hospital,  New  York.  He  pub¬ 
lished  Orthopedic  Surgery  for  Practitioners 
(1909). 

TAYLOR,  Henry  Osborn  (1856-  ).  An 

American  scholar,  born  in  New  York  City.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1878  and  at  Columbia 
Law  School  in  1881.  From  the  former  insti¬ 
tution  he  received  the  degree  of  Litt.D.  in  1912 
and  in  1915  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters.  In  addi¬ 
tion  to  a  law  book — Treatise  on  Law  of  Private 
Corporation 3  (1884;  5th  ed.,  1902) — he  pub¬ 
lished:  Ancient  Ideals:  A  Study  of  Intellectual 
and  Spiritual  Growth  from  Early  Times  to  the 
Establishment  of  Christianity  (2  vols.,  1900; 
2d  ed.,  1913)  ;  The  Medieval  Mind  (2  vols., 
1911;  2d  ed.,  1914)  ;  The  Classical  Heritage  of 
the  Middle  Ages  (1901;  3d  ed.,  1912)  ;  Deliver¬ 
ance:  The  Freeing  of  the  Spirit  in  the  Ancient 
World  (1915). 

TAYLOR,  Hobart  Chatfield  Chatfield-. 
See  Chatfield-Taylor,  H.  C. 

TAYLOR,  Isaac  (1787-1865).  An  English 
miscellaneous  writer,  inventor,  and  artist,  born 
at  Lavenham,  in  Suffolk.  He  studied  engraving 
under  the  direction  of  his  father,  with  whom 
he  executed  the  plates  for  Boydell’s  Illustrations 
of  Holy  Writ  (1820),  commended  for  their  orig¬ 
inality  by  Rossetti.  Turning  to  literature,  he 
joined  the  staff  of  the  Eclectic  Review  (1818), 
for  which  he  continued  to  write  for  many  years. 
Some  time  before  this  he  had  begun  the  study 
of  patristic  literature  and  of  Lord  Bacon.  He 
was  known  as  the  great  lay  preacher  of  his  time. 
Of  his  publications  we  may  mention:  The  Ele¬ 
ments  of  Thought  (1823;  11th  ed.,  1867),  which 
grew  out  of  his  early  studies  of  Bacon  and  the 
Church  Fathers;  a  translation  of  the  Characters 
of  Theophrastus  (1824),  with  etchings  by  him¬ 
self;  The  Natural  History  of  Enthusiasm  (1829; 
10th  ed.,  1845);  Saturday  Evening  (1832),  a 
devotional  volume  which  had  an  immense  sale 
in  England  and  the  United  States;  Home  Educa¬ 
tion  (1838;  7th  ed.,  1867);  a  translation  of  the 
Jewish  Wars  of  Josephus  (1847  and  1851)  ;  An¬ 
cient  Christianity  and  the  Doctrines  of  the  Ox¬ 
ford  Tracts  (8  parts,  1839-40:  4th  ed.,  1844); 
and  The  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry  (1861).  Con¬ 
sult  Taylor’s  Memorials  of  the  Taylor  Family 
of  Ongar  (London,  1867).  See  also  Taylor, 
Ann  and  Jane. 

TAYLOR,  Isaac  (1829-1901).  An  English 
ecclesiastic,  born  at  Stanford  Rivers,  Essex.  He 
was  educated  at  King’s  College,  London  (1847- 
49),  and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  (1850-53), 
and  in  1857  became  curate  of  Trotterscliffe, 
Kent.  In  1885  he  became  canon  of  York  Min¬ 
ster.  He  was  the  author  of  The  Liturgy  and 
the  Dissenters  (1860),  and  one  or  two  other 
theological  pamphlets;  but  was  best  known  by 
his  works  on  philology.  His  Words  and  Places 
(1864;  2d  ed.,  1865)  was  a  work  of  great  re¬ 
search  as  well  as  erudition.  In  Etruscan  Re¬ 
searches  (1874)  Taylor  tried  to  prove  that 
Etruscan  was  not  Indo-European,  but  was  prob¬ 
ably  akin  to  the  Ural-Altaic  (q.v.)  or  agglu¬ 
tinative  group  of  languages.  In  1879  he  pub¬ 
lished  his  Greeks  and  Goths,  in  which  he  devel¬ 
oped  his  theory  that  the  runes  were  of  Greek 
origin.  This  was  followed  by  his  best-known 
work  The  Alphabet  (2  vols.,  1883;  2d  ed.,  1899), 
on  which  his  scientific  reputation  mainly  rests. 


TAYLOR 


25 


TAYLOR 


In  1889  came  his  Origin  of  the  Aryans  (2d  ed., 
1902;  Fr.  trans.,  1895)  which  was  important  in 
overthrowing  Max  Muller’s  theory  that  central 
Asia  was  the  primitive  home  of  the  Indo-Euro¬ 
pean  races.  His  last  important  publication  was 
Names  and  their  Histories  (1896;  2d  ed.,  1897). 

TAYLOR,  Isidore  Justin  S^verin,  Baron 
(1789-1879).  A  French  antiquarian  and  artist. 
The  son  of  an  English-born  French  citizen,  he 
was  educated  in  Paris;  he  devoted  his  life  chiefly 
to  travel,  though  in  1838  he  was  appointed  In¬ 
spector  General  of  Fine  Arts.  His  life  work  is 
mainly  embodied  in  a  marvelous  series  of  24 
folio  volumes  entitled  Voyages  pittoresques  et 
romantiques  de  Vancienne  France,  the  publica¬ 
tion  of  which  covered  the  entire  period  from 
1820  to  1863,  and  engaged  the  services  of  such 
artists  as  G6ricault,  Ingres,  H.  Vernet,  and 
Viollet-le-Duc  (qq.v. )  besides  Baron  Taylor’s 
own  drawings  and  the  editorial  assistance  of 
Charles  Nodier  and  A.  de  Cailleux.  The  art  of 
lithographic  illustration  with  the  aid  of  the 
camera  lucida  was  carried  to  the  highest  perfec¬ 
tion,  especially  in  the  later  volumes,  and  al¬ 
though  the  original  plan  of  the  work  was  never 
completed,  its  influence  in  stimulating  interest 
in  the  national  monuments  of  France,  especially 
those  of  the  Middle  Ages,  can  hardly  be  over¬ 
estimated.  Baron  Taylor  also  published  illus¬ 
trated  volumes  of  travel  in  Spain  and  Portugal 
(3  vols.,  1826-32)  ;  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Palestine 
(3  vols.,  1835);  Jerusalem  (1841);  Switzer¬ 
land  and  the  Pyrenees  (1843). 

TAYLOR,  James  Knox  (1857-  ).  An 

American  architect,  born  in  Knoxville,  Tenn. 
He  studied  architecture  in  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  (1877-79),  and  in  archi¬ 
tects’  offices  as  draftsman  for  three  years  there¬ 
after  ;  and  practiced  his  profession  independently 
in  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  from  1882  until  1892  and 
then  for  three  years  in  Philadelphia.  Entering 
the  service  of  the  supervising  architect  of  the 
United  States  Treasury  in  Washington  in  1895, 
he  became  senior  draftsman  in  1896  and  from 
1'897  to  1912  was  supervising  architect.  Under 
his  incumbency  the  office  of  the  supervising 
architect  at  Washington  was  raised  to  a  high 
plane  of  artistic  and  practical  efficiency,  and 
the  Federal  buildings  designed  by  that  office  or 
erected  under  its  supervision  from  plans  of  other 
architects  were  uniformly  creditable  to  the  gov¬ 
ernment.  In  1912  Taylor  became  director  of 
the  department  of  architecture  of  the  Massa¬ 
chusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

TAYLOR,  James  Monroe  (1848-1916).  An 
American  educator.  He  was  born  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  and  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Rochester  in  1868  and  from  the  Rochester  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary  in  1871.  Between  1873  and 
1886  he  was  pastor  of  Baptist  churches  at  South 
Norwalk,  Conn.,  and  Providence,  R.  I.  There¬ 
after  until  1914  he  served  as  professor  of  ethics 
in  and  president  of  Vassar  College.  In  1910- 
14  he  was  a  trustee  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation 
for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching.  The  art 
building  given  to  Vassar  by  C.  M.  Pratt  in  1914 
was  named  in  honor  of  Dr.  Taylor.  He  wrote: 
Elements  of  Psychology  (1892);  A  New  World 
and  an  Old  Gospel  (1901)  ;  Before  Vassar  was 
Opened  (1914);  Vassar  (1915),  with  E.  H. 
Haight. 

TAYLOR,  Jeremy  (1613-67).  An  English 
prelate  and  author.  He  was  born  at  Cambridge, 
the  son  of  a  barber,  and  educated  at  Caius  Col¬ 
lege.  He  was  ordained  before  he  had  reached 


his  twenty-first  year,  and  attracted  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  Laud,  who  procured  him  a  fellowship  at 
All  Souls,  Oxford.  About  the  same  time  he  was 
made  chaplain  to  the  King,  and  in  1638  rector 
of  Uppingham.  His  first  notable  publication 
was  Episcopacy  Asserted  (1642).  His  stand  on 
the  Church-and-King  side  cost  him  his  living. 
For  a  while  he  accompanied  the  royal  army,  and 
then  retired  into  Wales,  where  he  opened  a 
school  at  Newton  in  Carmarthenshire  and  be¬ 
came  chaplain  to  the  Earl  of  Carbery.  Here  he 
produced  his  most  memorable  works — the  Lib¬ 
erty  of  Prophesying,  on  behalf  of  the  expelled 
Anglican  clergy,  in  1647 ;  the  Life  of  Christ  and 
the  Holy  Living  in  1649;  the  Holy  Dying  in 
1652;  and  a  number  of  other  devotional  and 
controversial  books.  In  1660,  with  a  dedication 
to  Charles  II,  appeared  his  Ductor  Dubitantium, 
or  the  Rule  of  Conscience  in  All  her  General 
Measures,  the  most  learned,  subtle,  and  curious 
of  all  his  works.  Promotion  was  a  matter  of 
course  to  one  who  was  at  once  a  stanch  royal¬ 
ist,  a  profound  theologian,  and  a  consummate 
writer;  and  before  the  year  was  out  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor.  He  was 
not  happy  in  his  Irish  see,  from  which  he  prayed 
to  be  delivered  as  from  “a  place  of  torment.” 
The  Scotch  Presbyterian  ministers  who  had  oc¬ 
cupied  the  livings  under  the  Commonwealth  dis¬ 
puted  his  belief  in  the  invalidity  of  their  ordina¬ 
tion,  and  were  only  ejected  with  difficulty.  He 
remained  at  his  post,  however,  until  his  death. 
Taylor,  sometimes  styled  the  English  Chrysostom 
on  account  of  his  golden  eloquence,  has  few 
equals  for  richness  of  fancy.  His  inexhaustible 
imagery,  full  of  tender  beauty,  touched  with  the 
characteristic  melancholy  of  the  age,  reminds  us 
of  Shakespeare  and  Spenser  and  Fletcher  rather 
than  of  a  sober  theologian.  His  style  is  per¬ 
haps  seen  at  its  best  in  his  sermons,  though  his 
Holy  Living  and  Holy  Dying,  for  their  deep  and 
practical  piety,  have  been  popular  devotional 
manuals  for  each  generation  since  his  time.  The 
best  complete  edition  of  his  works  is  that  by 
Eden  in  ten  vols.  (London,  1847-52),  with  a 
memoir  by  Bishop  Heber.  Consult  also  E.  H. 
May,  Dissertation  on  the  Life,  Theology  and 
Times  of  Jeremy  Taylor  (London,  1892)  ;  Ed¬ 
ward  Dowden,  in  Puritan  and  Anglican  (ib., 
1900)  ;  E.  W.  Gosse,  Jeremy  Taylor  (ib.,  1904)  ; 
George  Worley,  Jeremy  Taylor  (new  ed.,  ib., 
1907);  E.  A.  George,  in  Seventeenth  Century 
Men  of  Latitude  (New  York,  1908). 

TAYLOR,  John  (1580-1653).  An  English 
writer,  styled  by  himself  the  “King’s  water 
poet.”  He  was  born  at  Gloucester.  After 
studying  there  at  the  grammar  school,  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a  London  waterman.  Pressed 
into  the  navy,  he  served  under  Essex  at  Cadiz 
(1596),  and,  by  his  own  statements,  made  many 
voyages  in  the  Queen’s  ships.  Retiring  from  the 
navy  from  lameness,  he  became  a  waterman  on 
the  Thames,  and  superintended  river  pageants. 
As  trade  waned,  owing  largely  to  the  fashion  for 
coaches,  he  began  writing  doggerel,  which  at¬ 
tracted  attention  and  secured  him  the  patron¬ 
age  of  men  of  letters.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  (1642)  he  went  to  Oxford,  where  he 
opened  a  public  house.  Returning  to  London 
(1645),  he  took  the  Crown  Tavern  in  Long 
Acre.  There  he  died.  Though  hardly  a  poet, 
his  work  is  interesting  as  a  picture  of  contem¬ 
porary  manners.  Of  his  separate  publications, 
numbering  about  150,  may  be  mentioned  the 
Penniless  Pilgrimage  (1618),  an  account  of  a 


TAYLOR 


26 


TAYLOR 


trip  to  Scotland;  Laugh  and  Be  Fat  (1613); 
Praise  of  Hempseed  (1620),  an  account  of  a 
voyage  from  London  to  Queensborough,  in  Kent, 
in  a  brown-paper  boat;  and  Three  Weeks  .  .  . 
Travel  from  London  to  Hamburgh  (1617).  In 
1630  Taylor  brought  out  an  edition  of  his  writ¬ 
ings  under  the  title  All  the  Works  of  John  Tay¬ 
lor,  the  Water  Poet,  being  63  in  number.  This 
folio  was  reprinted  by  the  Spenser  Society  (three 
parts,  London,  1868-69).  Other  pamphlets  not 
contained  in  the  edition  of  1630  were  also  re¬ 
printed  by  the  same  society  (five  parts,  1870- 
78).  For  a  selection  consult  his  Early  Prose 
and  Poetical  Works  (London,  1888). 

TAYLOR,  John  (1750-1824).  An  American 
legislator  and  writer,  born  in  Virginia.  He 
graduated  at  William  and  Mary  College  in  1770, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate 
from  1792  until  1794,  for  two  months  in  1803, 
and  from  1822  until  his  death.  In  1798  lie 
moved  in  the  House  of  Delegates  the  “Virginia 
Resolutions.”  (See  Virginia  and  Kentucky 
Resolutions.)  He  published:  An  Inquiry  into 
the  Principles  and  Policy  of  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  (1814);  Aratos:  being  a  Se¬ 
ries  of  Agricultural  Essays,  Practical  and  Politi¬ 
cal  (6th  ed.,  1818)  ;  Construction  Construed  and 
the  Constitution  Vindicated  (1820)  ;  Neiv  Views 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  (1822). 
Disunion  Sentiment  in  Congress  in  1794  was 
published  in  1905.  In  his  works  he  was  an 
advocate  of  strict  construction  of  the  Consti¬ 
tution. 

TAYLOR,  John  (1808-87).  The  successor 
of  Brigham  Young  (q.v. )  as  president  of  the 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day  Saints. 
(See  Mormons.)  He  was  born  at  Winthrop, 
England,  became  a  Methodist  local  preacher,  and 
emigrated  to  Canada  in  1829.  In  1836  he  joined 
the  Mormon  church  and  was  elected  one  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles.  At  the  assassination  at 
Carthage  of  Joseph  Smith,  Jr.  (q.v.),  he  was 
himself  wounded,  but  was  one  of  those  who 
counseled  the  Mormons  to  keep  the  peace.  Op¬ 
posing  the  claims  of  Sidney  Rigdon  (q.v.)  to 
the  headship  of  the  church,  he  started  with  the 
first  emigrants  for  the  Salt  Lake  valley.  Ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  European  mission,  he  was  active 
in  Britain  and  France  for  several  years  and 
published  a  Mormon  monthly  in  Paris  and  trans¬ 
lated  the  Book  of  Mormon  into  French  and  Ger¬ 
man.  Returning  to  America  in  1852  he  was 
stationed  in  New  York  in  1854  as  superintendent 
over  the  eastern  churches  and  there  published 
the  Mormon.  Having  served  as  associate  justice 
of  the  inchoate  State  of  Deseret,  as  a  probate 
judge  of  Utah  County,  and  a  member  of  the 
Utah  Legislature,  in  1858  he  was  indicted  for 
treason  against  the  United  States  government. 
On  Oct.  6,  1880,  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
Mormon  church.  He  was  a  firm  believer  in 
polygamy,  for  which  he  was  indicted  in  1885, 
afterward  fleeing  to  avoid  criminal  prosecution 
and  living  in  seclusion  until  his  death. 

TAYLOR,  John  Louis  (1769-1829).  An 
American  jurist,  born  in  London,  England.  He 
removed  to  Fayetteville,  N.  C.,  and  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar.  From  1792  to  1794  he  was  a 
member  of  the  State  Legislature,  in  1798  was 
elected  a  judge  of  the  Superior  Court,  and  was 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  from  1808 
until  his  death.  In  1817  he  was  appointed  a 
commissioner  for  the  revision  of  State  statutes, 
the  work  being  published  in  1821.  His  publi¬ 
cations  include:  The  Forth  Carolina  Law  Reposi¬ 


tory  (2  vols.,  1814-16);  Term  Reports  (1818); 
and  On  the  Duties  of  Executors  and  Administra¬ 
tors  (1825). 

TAYLOR,  Joseph  ( ?1586-?1653) .  An  Eng¬ 
lish  actor,  mentioned  in  the  Shakespeare  folio  of 
1623  as  one  of  those  who  appeared  in  Shake¬ 
speare’s  plays.  His  Hamlet,  which  he  acted  af¬ 
ter  Burbage,  is  interesting  on  account  of  the 
tradition  that  Shakespeare  himself  trained  him 
in  the  part.  At  different  times  he  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  company  at  the  Globe  Theatre  and 
elsewhere,  and  later  in  life  he  was  appointed  to 
the  government  office  of  Yeoman  of  the  Revels. 
Consult  Collier,  Memoirs  of  the  Principal  Actors 
in  the  Plays  of  Shakespeare  (London,  1846). 

TAYLOR,  Laurette  ( n£e  Cooney)  (1887- 
) .  An  American  actress,  born  in  New  York 
City.  She  was  married  to  Charles  A.  Taylor, 
and  later  to  J.  Hartley  Manners  ( q.v. ) .  Hav¬ 
ing  made  her  first  appearance  on  the  stage 
while  a  child,  she  toured  and  for  a  time  played 
in  stock  at  Seattle,  Wash.,  and  in  1909  appeared 
in  New  York  in  The  Devil.  In  1912  she 
achieved  a  great  success  as  Luana  in  The  Bird 
of  Paradise.  Miss  Taylor  became  best  known 
in  the  Irish  comedy  role  of  Peg  in  her  hus¬ 
band’s  play,  Peg  o’  My  Heart,  which  ran  more 
than  600  performances  in  New  York  in  1912-14 
and  later  more  than  500  in  London.  During 
the  same  period  she  starred  in  a  sketch  by 
her  husband  called  Happiness. 

TAYLOR,  Nathaniel  William  (1786-1858). 
An  American  Congregational  theologian.  He 
was  born  at  New  Milford,  Conn.;  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1807.  He  studied  theology  five 
years  with  Dr.  Dwight  and  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  First  Church  (Congregational) ,  New  Ha¬ 
ven,  in  1812,  as  successor  of  Moses  Stuart.  In 
1822  he  was  elected  Dwight  professor  of  didactic 
theology  in  Yale  College,  and  held  the  position 
till  his  death.  In  1828  he  preached  in  New 
Haven  the  condo  ad  clerum,  presenting  views  on 
native  depravity  which  were  denounced  as  hereti¬ 
cal,  and  led  to  the  founding  of  what  later  be¬ 
came  Hartford  Theological  Seminary,  in  oppo¬ 
sition  to  his  views.  Dr.  Taylor  modified  the 
New  England  theology  (q.v.)  in  the  direction 
of  a  recognition  of  free  will.  After  his  death, 
four  volumes  of  his  works  were  edited  by  Presi¬ 
dent  Noah  Porter:  Practical  Sermons  (1858); 
Lectures  on  the  Moral  Government  of  God 
(1858);  Essays,  Lectures,  etc.,  upon  Select 
Topics  in  Revealed  Theology  (1859).  .His  Life 
was  published  at  New  Haven  in  1858.  Consult 
F.  H.  Foster,  Genetic  History  of  Few  England 
Theology  (Chicago,  1907). 

TAYLOR,  Philip  Meadows  (1808-76).  An 
Anglo-Indian  officer  and  novelist.  He  was  born 
in  Liverpool,  England,  and  when  15  years  old 
went  to  India  to  enter  commercial  life  in  Bom¬ 
bay,  but  instead  received  a  commission  in  the 
Nizam  of  Hyderabad’s  army.  In  1841  he  was 
commissioned  to  pacify  the  State  of  Shorapore 
and  was  appointed  administrator  during  the 
minority  of  the  ruler,  satisfying  in  this  both  the 
natives  and  the  British  government.  After  the 
Raja’s  accession  he  was  appointed  administrator 
of  the  ceded  districts  in  the  Western  Deccan,  his 
rule  during  the  perilous  time  of  the  Mutiny  be¬ 
ing  eminently  successful.  He  returned  to  Eng¬ 
land  in  1860  and  in  1869  was  made  a  Companion 
of  the  Star  of  India.  Besides  his  brilliant  ad¬ 
ministrative  services  Taylor  was  widely  known 
by  his  popular  novels  illustrative  of  stirring 
periods  in  the  history  of  India;  the  chief  of 


TAYLOR 


27 


TAYLOR 


them  are:  The  Confessions  of  a  Thug  (1839); 
Tippoo  Suttaun,  a  Tale  of  the  Mysore  War 
(1840);  Tara,  a  Mahratta  Tale  (1863);  Seeta 
(1872);  and  A  Noble  Queen  (1878),  the  last 
two  descriptive  of  the  Indian  Mutiny.  Consult 
his  autobiographical  Stoi'y  of  My  Life  (Lon¬ 
don,  1877). 

TAYLOR,  Richard  (1826-79).  A  Confeder¬ 
ate  soldier,  familiarly  known  as  ‘‘Dick”  Taylor. 
He  was  the  son  of  President  Zachary  Taylor, 
and  was  born  at  New  Orleans.  He  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1845,  and  was  for  a  time  with  his  father 
in  the  Mexican  War.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Louisiana  seceding  convention,  and  later  became 
colonel  of  the  Ninth  Louisiana  Regiment.  He 
was  soon  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier  gen¬ 
eral;  fought  under  Stonewall  Jackson  in  the 
Shenandoah  valley  campaign,  and  then  in  the 
Seven  Days’  Battles  before  Richmond;  was  pro¬ 
moted  to  the  rank  of  major  general,  and  was 
put  in  command  of  Louisiana,  the  western  part 
of  which  he  recovered  for  the  Confederacy.  On 
April  8,  1864,  he  defeated  General  Banks  at 
Sabine  Cross  Roads,  and  captured  22  guns  and 
about  2500  prisoners,  thereby  making  it  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  Federal  general  to  give  up  the  Red 
River  expedition  and  to  retreat.  On  the  follow¬ 
ing  day,  however,  Taylor  himself  sustained  a 
severe  repulse  at  Pleasant  Hill.  On  May  4, 
1865,  he  surrendered  to  General  Canby.  He 
published  Destruction  and  Reconstruction  ( 1879 ) . 

TAYLOR,  Robert  William  (1842-1908). 
An  American  physician.  He  was  born  at  Cov¬ 
entry,  England,  but  as  a  child  came  with  his 
parents  to  New  York.  He'  was  early  a  druggist, 
studying  medicine  during  leisure  and  graduating 
from  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  in 
1868.  He  then  commenced  practice  in  New  York 
City  and  turned  his  attention  to  dermatology 
and  venereal  diseases,  a  field  in  which  he  soon 
became  a  leading  surgeon.  From  1891  to  1905 
he  held  the  chair  of  genitourinary  and  venereal 
diseases  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur¬ 
geons.  He  published  various  important  papers 
and  books  on  his  specialty. 

TAYLOR,  Rowland  (?-1555).  An  English 
martyr.  He  was  born  at  Rothbury,  Northumber¬ 
land,  and  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he 
became  principal  of  Borden  Hastel  about  1531. 
He  was  associated  with  Cranmer  as  domestic 
chaplain,  and  received  in  succession  numerous 
ecclesiastical  appointments.  At  Cambridge  he 
had  become  acquainted  with  the  Protestant  man¬ 
ual  Unio  Dissidentium  and  was  a  firm  believer 
in,  and  adherent  to,  its  doctrines.  As  rector  of 
the  living  of  Hadleigh,  Suffolk,  to  which  he  had 
been  presented  by  Cranmer  in  1544,  he  opposed 
the  performance  of  mass  by  a  priest  in  1554, 
was  imprisoned  by  order  of  Queen  Mary,  con¬ 
demned  to  death,  and  on  Feb.  9,  1555,  was  burnt 
on  Aldham  Common,  near  Hadleigh. 

TAYLOR,  Samuel  Coleridge.  See  Coleridge- 
Taylor,  Samuel. 

TAYLOR,  Thomas  (1758-1835).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  classical  scholar  known  as  “the  Platonist.” 
He  was  born  of  humble  parents  in  London.  He 
studied  at  St.  Paul’s  School,  taught  school,  and 
at  length  obtained  a  clerkship  in  a  London  bank. 
His  spare  time  he  gave  to  the  study  of  chemis¬ 
try,  mathematics,  and  especially  Greek  phi¬ 
losophy;  and  soon  after  1780  he  began  his  lec¬ 
tures  on  Plato,  Plotinus,  and  the  Neo-Platonists. 
On  receiving  an  annuity  of  £100  from  a  friend, 
he  resigned  his  place  in  the  bank  and  began 
translating  and  expounding  the  ancient  classical 
Vol.  XXII.— 3 


authors,  a  work  for  which  he  was  ill  equipped. 
Among  his  translations  are:  Plato  (1804); 
Aristotle  (1806-12);  The  Mystical  .  .  .  Hymns 
of  Orpheus  (1787);  Apuleius;  Celsus;  Iambli- 
cus ;  Julian ;  Maximus  Typius ;  Pausanias ; 
Plotinus ;  Porphyry ;  and  Proolus.  Among  his 
miscellanies  are:  Vindication  of  the  Rights  of 
Brutes  (1792);  The  Eleusinian  and  Bacchic 
Mysteries  (1790);  and  Theoretic  Arithmetic 
(1816).  Taylor  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Pea¬ 
cock,  Romney,  and  Langton.  He  died  at  Wal¬ 
worth,  London.  He  figures  as  a  character  in 
Isaac  D’lsraeli’s  novel  Vaurien.  Consult  W.  E. 
A.  Axon,  Thomas  Taylor,  the  Platonist  (Lon¬ 
don,  1890). 

TAYLOR,  Sir  Thomas  Wardlaw  (1833- 
).  A  Canadian  lawyer  and  judge,  born  in 
Auchtermuchty,  Scotland.  He  studied  at  Edin¬ 
burgh  University,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Up¬ 
per  Canadian  bar  in  1858.  From  1872  to  1883 
he  was  Master  of  Chancery,  and  from  1883  to 
1887  puisne  judge  of  the  Manitoba  Court  of 
Queen’s  Bench.  In  1887-99  he  was  Chief  Justice 
of  Manitoba,  and  in  1890  and  1893  was  adminis¬ 
trator  of  the  provincial  government.  He  made 
an  extensive  study  of  equity  jurisprudence,  on 
which  subject  he  published  a  volume  of  Com¬ 
mentaries  (1875).  His  further  works  include 
Chancery  Statutes  and  Orders  and  The  Public 
Statutes  Relating  to  the  Presbyterian  Church. 

TAYLOR,  Tom  (Thomas  Proclus)  ( 1817— 
80) .  An  English  playwright  and  journalist,  and 
editor  of  Punch,  born  at  Bishop-Wearmouth, 
near  Sunderland.  After  attending  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Glasgow  he  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  elected  fellow  of  his 
college  (1842).  He  tutored  at  Cambridge  for 
two  years  and  was  then  (1845)  appointed  pro¬ 
fessor  of  English  literature  in  London  Univer¬ 
sity.  He  also  studied  law  at  the  Inner  Temple, 
where  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1846.  On 
the  creation  of  the  Board  of  Health  in  1850, 
he  became  its  assistant  secretary  and  afterward 
its  secretary.  He  began  early  to  write  for  vari¬ 
ous  London  periodicals,  but  chiefly  for  Punch, 
of  which  he  became  editor  in  1874.  Much  in¬ 
terested  in  art,  he  wrote  biographies  of  Benja¬ 
min  Robert  Haydon  (1853)  and  of  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  (1865),  and  edited  Charles  Robert 
Leslie’s  Autobiographical  Recollections  (1860) 
and  Pen  Sketches  by  a  Vanished  Hand  (1879),  a 
collection  of  essays  by  Mortimer  Collins.  He 
also  wrote  or  adapted  more  than  a  hundred 
dramatic  pieces.  In  them  he  showed  himself 
a  great  master  of  stagecraft.  Among  the  most 
popular  were:  Still  Waters  Run  Deep  (1855)  ; 
The  Overland  Route  (1860);  ’Twixt  Axe  and 
Crown  (1870);  The  Ticket- of -Leave  Man 
(1863)  ;  and  Lady  Clancarty  (1874).  In  Masks 
and  Faces  (performed  in  1852)  he  collaborated 
with  Charles  Reade. 

TAYLOR,  William  (1765-1836).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  pliilologian,  known  sometimes  as  William 
Taylor  of  Norwich.  He  was  born  in  Norwich, 
England.  He  became  an  enthusiast  for  the  lit¬ 
erature  of  Germany,  and  devoted  most  of  his 
life  to  making  it  known  to  his  countrymen. 
His  finest  production  was  a  translation  of  Bur¬ 
ger’s  Lenora  in  ballad  metre  (completed  1790; 
published  1796),  which  led  to  Scott’s  version. 
He  also  translated  Lessing’s  Nathan  the  Wise 
(1790;  printed,  1805),  Goethe’s  Iphigenia 
(1793),  and  some  of  Wieland’s  Dialogues  of  the 
Gods  (1795).  By  this  time  he  was  writing  on 
German  literature  extensively  for  the  reviews. 


TAYLOR 


28 


TAYLOR 


These  articles  were  collected  under  the  title 
Historic  Survey  of  German  Poetry  (3  vols., 
1828-30).  Though  interesting  for  his  many 
eccentricities,  Taylor  has  a  place  in  literary 
history  as  the  first  interpreter  of  German  litera¬ 
ture  for  England.  He  died  at  Norwich.  Con¬ 
sult  the  Memoir  by  Robberds  (London,  1843) 
and  Herzfeld’s  valuable  monograph,  William 
Taylor  von  Norwich  (Halle,  1897). 

TAYLOR,  William  (1821-1902).  An  Amer¬ 
ican  Methodist  Episcopal  missionary  bishop. 
He  was  born  in  Rockbridge,  Va.,  and  entered  the 
Baltimore  conference  in  1843.  A  missionary  to 
California  in  1849,  he  organized  the  first  Meth¬ 
odist  church  in  San  Francisco.  Between  1856 
and  1883  he  traveled  in  many  parts  of  the  world 
as  an  evangelist.  He  was  elected  Missionary 
Bishop  of  Africa  in  1884,  and  retired  in  1896. 
He  wrote:  Seven  Years’  Street  Preaching  in  San 
Francisco  (1857);  Christian  Adventures  in 
South  Africa  (1867)  :  Four  Years’  Campaign  in 
India  (1875);  Our  South  American  Cousins 
(1878);  Self-Supporting  Missions  in  India 
(1882)  ;  The  Story  of  My  Life  (1895)  ;  Flaming 
Torch  in  Darkest  Africa  (1898). 

TAYLOR,  William  Ladd  (1854-  ).  An 

American  illustrator,  born  at  Grafton,  Mass. 
He  studied  art  in  Boston  and  New  York,  and  in 
Paris  under  Boulanger  and  Lefebvre  in  1884- 
85.  His  drawings,  many  of  which  first  appeared 
in  magazines,  are  essentially  narrative  in  type 
and  show  keen  understanding  of  human  nature, 
with  careful,  historical  accuracy.  Taylor  pub¬ 
lished  several  volumes  of  his  work,  series  il¬ 
lustrating  the  nineteenth  century  in  New  Eng¬ 
land,  the  pioneer  West,  Longfellow,  the  Psalms, 
old  songs,  American  life,  American  literature, 
the  Old  Testament. 

TAYLOR,  William  Mackergo  (1829-95). 
An  American  Congregational  minister.  He  was 
born  at  Kilmarnock,  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  and 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow  (1849), 
and  at  the  divinity  hall  of  the  United  Presby¬ 
terian  Church,  Edinburgh  (1852).  He  was  pas¬ 
tor  of  churches  in  Britain  till  1872  (for  17  years 
of  one  in  Liverpool)  and  thereafter  of  the  Broad¬ 
way  Tabernacle  ( Congregational ) ,  New  York,  till 
1893,  when  he  retired  in  consequence  of  a  para¬ 
lytic  stroke.  Besides  biographies  of  Rev.  Mat¬ 
thew  Dickie  (1872)  and  of  John  Knox  (1885), 
he  published  numerous  volumes  of  sermons  and 
discourses,  of  which  those  of  a  biographical  char¬ 
acter.  on  Joseph,  Moses,  David,  Elijah,  Daniel, 
Paul  were  very  popular.  He  was  editor  of  The 
Christian  at  Work  (1876-80).  He  delivered  the 
Lyman  Beecher  lectures  at  Yale  in  1876,  The 
Ministry  of  the  Word;  the  L.  P.  Stone  lectures 
at  Princeton,  The  Gospel  Miracles  in  their  Re¬ 
lation  to  Christ  and  Christianity  (1880);  also 
published  The  Scottish  Pulpit  from  the  Reforma¬ 
tion  to  the  Present  Day  (1887).  A  brief  me¬ 
moir  appeared  in  New  York  in  1895. 

TAYLOR,  Zachary  (1784-1850).  The 
twelfth  President  of  the  United  States.  He  was 
born  in  Orange  Co.,  Va.,  on  Nov.  24,  1784,  and 
was  the  son  of  Col.  Richard  Taylor,  an  officer  of 
the  Revolutionary  War  and  one  of  the  first  set¬ 
tlers  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  whither  Zachary  was 
taken  in  early  childhood,  and  where  he  lived 
until  his  twenty-fourth  year,  working  on  a  plan¬ 
tation  and  receiving  only  an  elementary  educa¬ 
tion.  His  elder  brother,  who  had  received  a 
lieutenancy  in  the  army,  died  in  1808,  when  Tay¬ 
lor  was  appointed  to  the  vacant  commission.  In 
1810  he  was  promoted  to  a  captaincy;  and  in 


1812,  with  .  len,  two-thirds  of  whom  were  ill 
of  fever,  h  dended  Fort  Harrison,  on  the 
Wabash,  a g£  ,  a  large  force  of  Indians  led  by 
Tecumseh.  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major  for 
his  gallantry,  he  was  employed  during  the  war 
in  fighting  the  Indian  allies  of  Great  Britain. 

In  1822  he  built  Fort  Jesup.  With  headquarters 
at  Fort  Crawford,  Prairie  du  Chien,  Wis.,  from 
1832  to  1836,  Taylor  served  as  colonel  in  the 
Black  Hawk  War  and  later  as  Indian  agent 
at  Prairie  du  Chien.  In  1836  he  was  ordered 
to  Florida,  where  he  gained  an  important  victory 
over  the  Seminole  Indians  at  Okeechobee,  for 
which  he  was  appointed  brigadier  general,  and 
was  made  commander  of  the  United  States  forces 
in  Florida.  In  1840,  having  been  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Southwestern  Department, 
he  purchased  a  plantation  near  Baton  Rouge,  La.  . 
On  Feb.  28,  1845,  Congress  passed  the  resolu¬ 
tion  for  the  annexation  of  Texas,  formerly  a 
province  of  Mexico,  and  for  some  time  an  in¬ 
dependent  republic.  Texas  claimed  the  Rio 
Grande  for  her  southwestern  boundary;  Mexico 
insisted  that  there  could  be  no  claim  beyond  the 
Nueces,  and  prepared  to  defend  the  disputed 
territory,  even  if  she  could  not  reconquer  the 
whole  of  Texas.  General  Taylor  was  ordered 
to  Corpus  Christi.  This  point  he  occupied  in 
November  with  a  small  force  which  was  in¬ 
creased  by  reenforcements  to  4000  men.  On 
March  28,  1846,  he  had  moved  to  the  Rio  Grande, 
across  the  disputed  territory,  and  had  begun 
to  build  Fort  Brown,  opposite  and  commanding 
the  Mexican  port  of  Matamoros.  General  Ampu- 
dia,  the  Mexican  commander,  on  April  12,  de¬ 
manded  that  he  should  retire  beyond  the  Nueces, 
pending  negotiations;  and  on  the  refusal  of 
General  Taylor,  his  successor,  General  Arista, 
crossed  the  Rio  Grande  with  a  force  of  6000 
men  and  10  pieces  of  artillery.  On  May  8  he 
was  defeated  at  Palo  Alto  by  General  Taylor, 
with  a  force  of  2300;  and  on  the  next  dav  was 
driven  from  a  new  position  at  Resaca  de  la 
Palma  across  the  Rio  Grande.  War  was  de¬ 
clared  first  by  the  President,  and  later  by  Con¬ 
gress,  to  exist  by  the  act  of  Mexico;  and  50,000 
volunteers  were  called  for.  Taylor  was  made 
major  general,  was  reenforced,  and  ordered  to 
invade  Mexico.  On  September  9,  with  6600 
men,  he  attacked  Monterey,  which  was  defended 
by  about  10,000  regular  troops.  After  ten  days’ 
siege  and  three  days’  hard  fighting  it  capitu¬ 
lated.  General  Scott,  having  been  ordered  to  ad¬ 
vance  on  the  city  of  Mexico  by  Vera  Cruz,  with¬ 
drew  a  portion  of  the  troops  of  General  Taylor, 
leaving  him  only  5000  volunteers  and  500  regu¬ 
lars,  chiefly  flying  artillery,  to  meet  an  army 
of  20,000,  commanded  by  Santa  Anna.  He  took 
a  strong  position  at  Buena  Vista,  fought  a  des¬ 
perate  battle  on  Feb.  22  and  23,  1847,  and  won 
a  decisive  victory.  (See  Mexican  War.) 
This  victory,  against  enormous  odds,  created  the 
utmost  enthusiasm.  General  Taylor,  popularly 
called  “Old  Rough  and  Ready,”  was  nominated 
by  the  Wfilgs  in  1848  for  ^President  of  the  United 
States,  and  was  elected,  receiving  163  electoral 
votes,  while  General  Cass,  the  Democratic -can¬ 
didate,  received  127  electoral  votes,  and  Martin 
Van  Buren,  the  Free  Soil  candidate,  received 
none.  Entering  upon  the  presidency  in  1849,  he 
found  a  Democratic  plurality  in  Congress,  with 
a  small  but  vigorous  Free  Soil  party  holding  the 
balance  of  power,  while  the  most  exciting  ques¬ 
tions  connected  with  the  extension  of  slavery, 
as  the  admission  of  California,  the  settlement 


TAYLORVILLE 


2  9 


TCHAIKOVSKY 


of  the  boundaries  of  Texas,  the  organization  of 
the  other  newly  acquired  Mexican  territories, 
etc.,  were  agitating  the  country  and  threatening 
a  disruption.  On  July  4,  1850,  16  months  after 
his  inauguration,  he  was  attacked  with  bilious 
colic  and  died  on  the  9th.  Consult:  H.  0.  Ladd, 
The  War  wdth  Mexico  (NewT  York,  1883)  ;  0.  T. 
Howard,  General  Taylor  (ib.,  1892)  ;  J.  F. 

Rhodes,  History  of  the  United  States  (ib.,  1910)  ; 
J.  G.  Wilson,  editor,  Presidents  of  the  United 
States,  11 89-19 lb  vol.  ii  (ib.,  1914). 

TAY'LORVILLE.  A  city  and  county  seat 
of  Christian  Co.,  Ill.,  26  miles  southeast  of 
Springfield,  on  the  Wabash,  the  Chicago  and 
Illinois  Midland,  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Southwestern  railroads  (Map:  Illinois,  F  6). 
It  has  a  Carnegie  library,  St.  Vincent  Hospi¬ 
tal  (Roman  Catholic),  and  a  fine  courthouse. 
Taylorville  is  surrounded  by  a  productive  region 
engaged  in  farming,  stock  raising,  and  horse 
breeding,  and  has  two  large  coal  mines  and 
an  iron  foundry.  Paper,  chemicals,  brick,  tile, 
wagons,  bags,  and  agricultural  implements  con¬ 
stitute  the  principal  manufactures.  Pop.,  1900, 
4248;  1910,  5446. 

TAYRA,  or  TAIRA,  tl'ra  (South  American 
name).  A  plantigrade,  weasel-like  carnivore  of 
Central  and  South  America  ( Galictis  barbara) , 
closely  allied  to  the  grisons  (q.v.).  It  is  about 
three  feet  long,  nearly  half  of  this  belonging  to 
the  bushy  tail;  dark  brown  above,  yellowish  be¬ 
low;  preys  upon  small  animals,  and  often  gathers 
into  small  bands  which  hunt  in  company,  usually 
in  the  early  morning. 

TAYTAY,  ti-tF.  A  pueblo  and  the  chief 
town  of  the  Province  of  Paragua,  Palawan 
Island,  in  the  Philippines;  situated  in  the  south¬ 
west  angle  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name  in  the 
northeast  part  of  the  island.  The  Bay  of  Tay- 
tay  is  about  11  miles  long  and  6  miles  wide,  and 
affords  good  shelter  in  the  southwest  monsoon. 
There  is  a  fort  with  walls  30  feet  high  and  ac¬ 
commodations  for  700  men.  In  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  the  town  are  large  tracts  of  cultivated 
ground.  Pop.,  1903,  4992. 

TA  Yfj.  See  Yu. 

TAYUG,  ta-yoogC  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philip¬ 
pines,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Province  of 
Pangasinan,  situated  28  miles  east  of  Lingayen. 
Pop.,  1903,  10,400. 

TAZE'WELL,  Littleton  Waller  ( 1774— 
1860).  An  American  political  leader,  born  at 
Williamsburg,  Va.  He  graduated  at  William 
and  Mary  College  in  1792;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1796;  was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1801- 
03 ;  and  then  devoted  himself  to  the  practice  of 
law.  From  1824  until  1833  he  was  a  member 
of  the  United  States  Senate.  As  a  member  of 
the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations  he  wrote 
the  famous  report  on  the  Panama  mission.  He 
opposed  most  of  the  acts  of  Adams  and  of 
Jackson ;  was  an  enemy  to  the  policy  of  protec¬ 
tion;  denounced  nullification,  but  was  not  in 
sympathy  with  Jackson’s  method  of  suppressing 
it;  and  attacked  the  administration  for  remov¬ 
ing  the  United  States  Bank  deposits.  In  1834 
he  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia,  and  after 
one  term  withdrew  from  public  life.  His  prin¬ 
cipal  published  work  is  Review  of  the  Nego¬ 
tiations  between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain ■  Respecting  the  Commerce  of  the  Two 
Countries  ( 1829 ) . 

TCHAADAEV,  cha-da'yof,  Petr  (Piotr) 
Yakovlevitch  (1794-1856).  A  Russian  writer, 
born  at  Moscow.  On  graduation  from  Moscow 


University  (1812)  he  entered  the  army  and 
served  in  the  Napoleonic  wars.  The  main  thesis 
of  his  famous  Philosophical  Letters,  the  first  of 
which  appeared  in  1836  in  the  Moscow  Telescope, 
was  that  Russia  had  lagged  behind  Western 
countries  and  had  contributed  nothing  to  the 
world’s  progress.  He  therefore  concluded  that 
Russia  must  start  de  novo.  These*  strikingly 
uncomplimentary  views  caused  their  author  to  be 
adjudged  insane,  and  his  next  work  was  entitled, 
fittingly,  The  Vindication  of  a  Madman  (1837). 
In  this  brilliant  but  uncompleted  work  he 
maintained  that  Russia  must  follow  her  inner 
lines  of  development  if  she  was  to  be  true  to  her 
historical  mission.  The  Slavophils  at  first  mis¬ 
took  Tchaadaev  for  one  of  them,  but  later,  on 
realizing  their  mistake,  bitterly  denounced  and 
disclaimed  him.  Tchaadaev  really  fought  Slav¬ 
ophilism  all  his  life.  Most  of  his  works  have 
been  edited  by  his  biographer,  M.  Gershenzon 
(2  vols.,  Moscow,  1913-14),  whose  excellent  little 
study  of  the  philosopher  was  published  at  St. 
Petersburg  in  1908. 

TCHAD.  A  lake  of  Central  Africa.  See 
Chad. 

TCHAIKOVSKY,  chi-kofsld,  Nikolai  Vasi- 
levitch  ( 1850-  ) .  A  famous  Russian  revo¬ 

lutionist.  He  was  born  in  the  Province  of 
Saratov  and  studied  natural  science,  especially 
chemistry,  at  St.  Petersburg  University.  Sub¬ 
sequently  he  interested  himself  in  the  labor 
movement  and  became  a  prominent  revolutionary 
leader.  To  study  the  labor  question  in  its  in¬ 
ternational  aspects  he  traveled  much  abroad. 
While  in  the  United  States  he  founded  a  com¬ 
mune,  which,  however,  was  short  lived.  After 
the  revolutionary  events  of  1905-06,  Tchaikovsky 
returned  to  Russia  and  subsequently  resided  in 
London. 

TCHAIKOVSKY,  Peter  Ilyitch  (1840-93). 
The  greatest  composer  Russia  has  thus  far  pro¬ 
duced,  born  at  a  small  place  called  Votkinsk, 
in  the  Ural  mining  region,  on  May  7,  1840.  He 
studied  jurisprudence  in  St.  Petersburg,  and  in 
1859  obtained  a  position  in  the  Ministry  of. 
Justice.  In  company  with  a  young  poet  named 
Apukhtin,  who  greatly  influenced  his  future,  he. 
listened  to  Italian  opera  whenever  an  oppor-, 
tunity  presented  itself.  This  love  of  Italian  . 
music  left  its  traces  in  Tchaikovsky’s  scores.  t 
He  entered  the  conservatory,  where  Anton  Rubin¬ 
stein,  its  director,  was  attracted  by  the  young 
man’s  ability.  Tchaikovsky  resigned  his  gov¬ 
ernment  position,  studied  music  with  all  the 
vigor  of  his  nature,  and,  on  his  leaving  the  con¬ 
servatory  three  years  later,  he  continued  to  study 
orchestration  with  Rubinstein  and  took  up  the 
flute,  piano,  and  organ.  In  1866  he  accepted  the 
position  of  teacher  of  harmony  at  the  Mosco\t 
Conservatory.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he  met 
the  poet  Ostrovsky,  who  gave  him  the  libretto 
for  his  first  opera,  Voyevoda  (The  Chieftain). 

Tchaikovsky’s  first  musical  idols  were  Glinka, 
the  father  of  modern  Russian  music,  and  Mozart. 
He  venerated  Beethoven  and  admired  Schumann, 
but,  singularly  enough,  he  never  cared  much  for 
Chopin.  Schumann,  with  his  short-breathed 
phrases,  was  the  Russian’s  model  in  writing  for 
the  pianoforte.  Tchaikovsky  went  on  composing, 
undeterred  by  the  lack  of  appreciation  on  the 
part  of  both  the  Rubinsteins.  Even  the  brilliant 
and  effective  first  piano  concerto  was  picked  to 
pieces  by  Nicholas,  and  so  hurt  was  the  young 
composer  that  he  erased  the  dedication  to  Nicho¬ 
las  and  substituted  the  name  of  Hans  von  Bulow, 


t 


TCHAIKOVSKY 


TCHERKASSY 


who  rewarded  the  courtesy  by  producing 
concerto  in  Boston  on  the  occasion  of  hi 
visit  to  America  (1875-76).  Tchaikovsk- 


the  acquaintance  of  Balakireff,  who  urge'  a 

compose  the  Romeo  et  Juliette  fanta;  r- 

ture.  Now  flowed  forth  a  stream  of  s'  m- 

plionic  poems,  concertos,  symphoni  ras, 

chamber  music,  overtures,  dances,  n  .peri- 

mental  in  form,  much  that  was  med;  d  also 


some  genuine  masterpieces.  An  Hn.  y  mar¬ 
riage,  briefly  endured,  sent  him  into  a  retire¬ 
ment  at  Klin,  which  was  occasionally  interrupted 
by  trips  to  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Switzerland, 
and  England.  He  met  Brahms  and  liked  the 
man,  but  never  concealed  an  antipathy  for  his 
music.  He  admired  Wagner,  with  many  reserva¬ 
tions,  though  he  willingly  visited  Bayreuth.  But 
he  took  no  great  interest  in  the  music  drama, 
preferring  old-fashioned  operatic  forms.  All  his 
opinions,  musical  and  otherwise,  may  be  found 
in  his  Diary ,  and  in  his  musical  criticisms,  which 
were  edited  by  G.  A.  Laroche.  His  fame  grew 
apace,  and  in  the  spring  of  1891  he  visited 
America,  in  response  to  the  invitation  of  Walter 
Damrosch,  and  was  present  at  the  dedication  of 
Carnegie  Hall,  New  York.  On  Nov.  6,  1893, 
Tchaikovsky  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  after  a 
short  illness,  of  cholera.  His  death  evoked  uni¬ 
versal  sympathy,  and  Russia  learned  from  the 
western  world  that  she  had  lost  her  greatest 
composer. 

For  many  years  the  opposition  to  Tchaikovsky 
was  based  upon  the  allegation  that  he  was  not 
really  one  of  the  Neo-Russian  nationalists,  who 
with  Tolstoy  “went  to  the  people”  for  their 
themes.  Tchaikovsky,  like  Turgenev,  was  a 
traveled  man  of  culture,  and  a  cosmopolitan  on 
certain  sides  of  his  art;  but  there  was  no  truer 
patriot  than  this  fiery-souled  poet,  who  demon¬ 
strated  his  slavophilism  in  a  hundred  of  his 
compositions.  His  happiest  work  is  in  the  pure 
fantasy,  or  what  he  was  pleased  to  term  “over¬ 
ture  fantaisie.”  Thus  his  Manfred,  Romeo  et 
Juliette,  The  Tempest,  and  Francesca  da  Rimini 
give  us  Tchaikovsky  at  the  very  height  of  his 
powers.  The  unfailing  invention  which  marks 
•his  poetic  works  seemed  to  desert  him  when  he 
.attempted  absolute  music.  A  poet  first,  musi- 
.  cian  afterward,  Tchaikovsky  was  inspired  by  a 
definite  programme.  He  was  a  born  master  of 
orchestration.  The  timbres  of  his  instruments 
meant  for  him  so  many  voices,  and  so  his  works 
are  often  tone  dramas,  operas  without  words. 
Tchaikovsky’s  music  reveals  the  mighty  pes¬ 
simism  of  his  nation.  His  symphonies  are  often 
built  upon  typical  phrases,  taken  from  the  folk 
song;  he  is  Russian  in  his  operas,  with  their 
national  texts  and  treatment.  Some  of  his  songs 
—he  wrote  over  a  hundred — are  masterpieces. 
His  Florentine  string  sextet  is  warm  in  color, 
and  in  his  three  string  quartets  he  often  strays 
across  the  borders  into  the  pleasing  country  of 
the  operatic.  The  world  has  come  to  recognize 
the  last  movement  of  the  Pathetic  symphony  as 
an  unparalleled  embodiment  of  woe.  The  fifth 
symphony  is  more  homogeneous;  the  fourth,  in 
F  minor,  more  Russian.  There  are  three  piano 
concertos,  a  violin  concerto,  and  many  exquisite 
piano  pieces.  The  three  great  symphonies  (4, 
5,  6),  the  symphonic  overtures,  with  their  wealth 
of  musical  imagery,  their  dramatic  power  and 
thrilling  effects,  constitute  Tchaikovsky’s  claim 
to  immortality.  He  had  a  predilection  for  ballet 
music  and  left  charming  specimens  of  dance  mu¬ 
sic  in  Le  cassenoisette  suite  and  other  composi¬ 


tions  in  a  light  vein.  His  operas  are  seldom 
heard  outside  of  Russia.  Pique  Dame  (1890), 
immensely  popular  in  Russia,  is  the  only  one 
of  Tchaikovsky’s  ten  operas  ever  produced  in 
the  United  States  (Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
1910),  and  failed  to  impress.  Eugene  Onegin 
(1879),  no  less  popular  in  Russia  than  the  just- 
mentioned  opera,  had  two  complete  performances 
in  America  in  concert  form  (New  York, 
1908,  1911),  but  its  reception  was  not  such  as  to 
warrant  the  expense  of  scenic  production.  Be¬ 
sides  these,  the  Voyevoda  (1869),  The  Maid  of 
Orleans  (1881),  Mazeppa  (1882),  and  Iolanthe 
(1893)  met  with  success  in  Russia.  Other  note¬ 
worthy  works  include  the  incidental  music  to  the 
lyric  drama  Snowdrop ;  three  ballets,  Le  lac  dcs 
cygnes;  La  belle  an  bois  dormant  (1890);  and 
Le  cassenoisette ;  symphonies,  and  a  great  mass 
of  miscellaneous  compositions.  He  published  a 
Treatise  on  Harmony  (1872);  a  translation  of 
Gevaert’s  Traits  d’ instrumentation  (1866);  and 
also  wrote  Musilcalische  Erinnerungen  und 
Feuilletons  (1899).  A  complete  thematic  cata¬ 
logue  of  the  composer’s  works  was  published  by 
P.  Jurgenson  at  Moscow  (1897). 

Consult:  Iwan  Knorr,  Tschaikovsky  (Berlin, 
1900)  ;  E.  M.  Lee,  Tchaikovsky  (London,  1904)  ; 
Modest  Tchaikovsky,  Das  Leben  Peter  llyitch 
Tchaikovsky’s,  translated  from  the  Russian  by 
Paul  Juon  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1900-04)  ;  the  same 
translated  and  abridged  by  Rosa  Newmarch  as 
The  Life  and,  Letters  of  Peter  llyitch  Tchaikovsky 
(London,  1905)  ;  E.  Evans,  Tchaikovsky  (ib., 
1906)  ;  Rosa  Newmarch,  Tchaikovsky,  his  Life 
and  Works  (ib.,  1908). 

TCHAKA.  See  Ztjluland. 

TCHEKHOV,  Anton  Pavlovitch.  See 
Chekhov. 

TCHELXABINSK,  chel-ya-binsk'.  An  im¬ 
portant  district  town  in  the  Government  of 
Orenburg,  east  Russia,  363  miles  northeast  of 
Orenburg  ( Map  :  Russia,  K  3 ) .  As  the  western 
terminus  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  the  town 
has  considerable  commercial  importance.  On  its 
outskirts  are  special  barracks  for  Siberian  emi¬ 
grants,  of  whom  267,000  passed  in  1913.  Pop., 
1910,  70.472. 

TCHELYUSKIN,  chel-yoos'kin,  Cape.  See 

Severo  Cape. 

TCHENSTOCHOW.  See  Chenstochow. 

TCHER'EMIS'SES.  A  Finnish  tribe  of 
eastern  Russia,  living  in  the  region  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  middle  Volga — Vyatka,  Kazan,  and 
the  adjoining  governments.  They  number  about 
375,000.  Their  average  height  is  1.61  meters, 
the  cephalic  index  79.  In  general,  they  have 
red  hair  and  a  full  beard  of  the  same  color; 
their  eyes  are  sunken  and  of  blue,  greenish,  or 
chestnut  shade;  the  complexion  is  fair  and 
freckled,  the  cheek  bones  prominent,  the  face 
and  lips  thin,  the  chin  round,  and  the  nose 
straight.  Some  authorities  believe  that  they 
received  through  the  Bulgarians  the  Tatar  in¬ 
fluences  displayed  in  their  social  life,  their 
houses,  costumes,  social  organization,  and  re¬ 
ligious  ideas.  They  believe  in  evil  and  good 
gods,  and  in  spirits  of  the  dead  which  they  wor¬ 
ship  with  peculiar  rites.  They  have  also"  many 
magical  rites  to  ward  off  the  evil  influences  of 
the  spirits  of  the  wood,  river,  and  snow  and  to 
keep  the  ghosts  of  the  dead  in  their  graves.  Con¬ 
sult  Smirnov,  Mordves  et  Tcheremisses  (Paris, 
1895). 

TCHERKASK,  Novo-.  See  Novo-Tcherkask. 

TCHERKASSY,  cher-kas'se.  A  district  town 


TCHERKESSES 


3i 


TCHISTOPOL 


in  the  Government  of  Kiev,  South  Russia,  situ¬ 
ated  on  the  Dnieper,  126  miles  southeast  of  Kiev 
(Map:  Russia,  D  5).  It  trades  in  grain,  to¬ 
bacco,  and  sugar.  Pop.,  1910,  39,649. 

TCHERKESSES.  See  Circassians. 

TCHERNAYA,  chgr-na/ya.  A  small  river  in 
the  Crimea,  Government  of  Taurida,  South  Rus¬ 
sia,  flowing  into  the  Black  Sea  near  Sebastopol. 
On  Aug.  16,  1855,  a  Russian  army  advancing  to 
the  relief  of  Sebastopol  was  defeated  by  the 
allies  with  heavy  loss  on  the  banks  of  the 
Teller  nay  a. 

TCHERNAYEV,  cher-na'yef,  Mikhail 
Grigorievitcii  (1828-98).  A  Russian  general. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1847,  fought  in  the 
Crimean  War  and  in  the  Caucasus  and  went  to 
Turkestan  in  1864  as  major  general  and  captured 
Tashkent.  He  had  made  an  unsuccessful  at¬ 
tempt  on  this  town  the  year  before.  He  left  the 
army  in  1867,  commenced  the  practice  of  law  at 
Moscow,  and  became  an  ardent  advocate  of  Pan¬ 
slavism  (q.v.).  In  1876  he  received  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Servian  army  on  the  Morava,  and 
was  defeated  by  the  Turks  at  Alexinatz,  October 
29.  In  1879  he  tried  to  organize  a  revolution 
in  Bulgaria  and  was  sent  as  prisoner  to  Adri- 
anople  and  thence  brought  to  Russia.  From  1882 
to  1884  he  was  Governor-General  of  the  Military 
Department  of  Tashkent  in  Turkestan. 

TCHERNIGOV,  cher-ne'g6f.  A  government 
in  southwest  Russia.  Area,  20,233  square  miles 
(Map:  Russia,  D  4).  The  surface  is  level,  and 
in  the  north  marshy.  It.  is  watered  by  the 
Dnieper  and  the  Desna.  The  chief  occupation, 
is  agriculture  and  the  principal  products  are 
rye,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  wheat,  and  tobacco. 
Stock  raising  is  also  important.  There  is  an 
abundance  of  porcelain  clay,  which  is  used  ex¬ 
tensively  for  the  production  of  porcelain  ware; 
woodenware  is  also  largely  manufactured.  There 
are  a  number  of  sugar  refineries  and  distil¬ 
leries.  Pop.,  1912,  3,083,500,  consisting  largely 
of  Little  Russians.  Capital,  Tchernigov  (q.v.). 

TCHERNIGOV.  The  capital  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  same  name,  in  Russia,  situated  on 
the  Desna,  476  miles  southwest  of  Moscow  (Map : 
Russia,  D  4 ) .  Almost  all  the  trade  and  com¬ 
merce  of  the  government  is  concentrated  in  this 
city.  It  has  two  cathedrals,  dating  from  the 
eleventh  and  the  twelfth  centuries,  and  remains 
of  an  old  castle.  Pop.,  1910,  32,848.  Tchernigov 
rose  to  political  and  commercial  importance  as 
early  as  the  eleventh  century,  but,  falling  into 
the  path  of  the  Tatar  invasion,  it  lost  much  of 
its  prominence. 

TCHERNYSHEV,  cher'm-shef,  Alexander 
Ivanovitch,  Prince.  See  Chernyshev. 

TCHERNYSHEV,  Theodosei  Nikolaievitch 
(1856-1914).  A  Russian  geologist.  After  his 
studies  at  a  naval  academy  and  a  school  of 
mines,  he  made  a  geological  map  of  the  western 
slope  of  the  Ural  Mountains.  By  1903  lie  had 
become  director  of  the  Russian  Geological  Com¬ 
mittee,  many  of  whose  annual  expeditions  to  the 
Urals  he  superintended.  Later  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  an  expedition  to  northern  Russia, 
made  geological  studies  of  the  Donetz  basin,  ex¬ 
plored  Nova  Zembla,  and  headed  an  expedition  to 
determine  the  meridian  line  of  Spitzbergen.  Most 
of  Tchernyshev’s  published  work,  including  sev¬ 
eral  monographs  which  brought  him  the  highest 
prizes  from  scientific  societies,  is  embodied  in 
the  proceedings  of  those  societies. 

TCHERNYSHEVSKY,  Nikolai  Gavrilo¬ 
vitch.  See  Chernystievsky. 


TCHERTKOV,  chSrt'kof,  Vladimir  (1854- 
) .  A  Russian  writer,  born  in  Moscow.  He 
was  an  officer  in  the  Russian  Imperial  Life 
Guards  in  1874-81;  was  a  magistrate  in  South 
Russia;  and  organized  schools  and  self-help 
among  the  peasants.  Tchertkov  founded  a  pub¬ 
lishing  enterprise  called  Posrednik  for  dis¬ 
tributing  the  best  literature  among  the  people; 
circulated  private  editions  of  Tolstoy’s  works; 
and  disseminated  information  about  the  govern¬ 
ment’s  persecution  of  the  Sectarians.  For  pub¬ 
lishing  an  appeal  in  behalf  of  the  Doukhobor 
sect,  which  was  then  being  exterminated  by  the 
government,  he  was  exiled  in  1897,  and  there¬ 
after  lived  in  England,  where  he  became  editor 
of  the  Free  Age  Press  publications.  He  pub¬ 
lished  Christian  Martyrdom  in  Russia  (1897; 
2d  ed.,  1900)  and  A  Short  Biography  of  William 
Lloyd  Garrison  (1904),  with  Florence  Holah. 

TCHETCH'EN,  or  CHECHEN.  One  of  the 
eastern  groups  of  the  peoples  of  the  Caucasus, 
dwelling  between  the  Kabards  and  Lesghians 
( cephalic  index,  84.5 ) .  They  number  some 
300,000  and  comprise  the  Tchetchens  proper, 
Ingushes,  Itchkerians,  and  Kists  (q.v.).  They 
call  themselves  Nakhtche,  or  “people.”  They 
are  one  of  the  most  primitive  peoples  of  the 
Caucasus,  and  in  their  mountain  fastnesses  even 
now  resist  Russian  conquest.  Their  religion 
seems  to  be  Islamism  imposed  upon  an  earlier 
crude  form  of  Christianity  with  a  heathen  back¬ 
ground.  By  language  they  rank  as  an  independ¬ 
ent  stock. 

TCHIAM.  See  Indo-Chinese. 

TCHICHAGOV,  Pavel  Vassilievitch.  See 
Chiciiagov. 

TCHIGORIN,  chig'o-rin,  Michael  (1850- 
1908).  A  Russian  chess  master,  horn  in  St. 
Petersburg.  He  was  engaged  for  a  time  in 
the  Russian  civil  service,  but  early  became  in¬ 
terested  in  chess,  and  at  the  Berlin  tournament 
of  1881  increased  his  local  fame  as  an  expert 
by  following  Blackburn  and  Zukertort  in  the 
list  of  victors.  He  was  defeated  by  Steinitz  at 
Havana  in  1889,  although  two  years  afterward 
he  won  two  cable  matches.  In  1892  he  made 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  win  the  world’s 
championship.  At  the  Moscow  tournament  of 
1899  he  won  first  prize,  divided  the  first  honors 
in  1900  at  the  National  Russian  Tournament, 
and  was  third  in  the  International  Masters’ 
Tournament  held  at  Monte  Carlo  in  1901,  and 
first  in  the  Masters’  Tournament  at  St.  Peters¬ 
burg  in  1904. 

TCHIKHACHEV,  Peter  Alexandrovitch. 
See  Chikhachev. 

TCHING-PAO.  See  Newspaper. 

TCHIRIKOV,  che're-kof,  Yevgeny  ( 1864— 
) .  A  popular  Russian  writer,  born  in 
the  Province  of  Simbirsk.  His  reputation  dates 
from  1893,  when  he  began  to  write  for  prominent 
monthlies.  Thereafter  he  was  a  prolific  writer 
of  stories,  sketches,  plays,  and  novels.  His  note¬ 
worthy  fiction  includes  The  Foreigners,  The  In¬ 
valids,  Faust,  The  Rebels,  In  the  Folds  of  Pas¬ 
sion,  and  The  Life  of  Tarkhanov  (3  vols.,  1914). 
His  plays,  popular  in  Russia,  include  For  Fame, 
Ivan  M irony tch,  Congenial  Friends,  The  Peas¬ 
ants,  Maria  Ivanovna,  and  The  Jews.  Tchirikov’s 
special  field  is  the  sombre  life  of  the  provinces. 
As  a  realist  he  belongs  to  the  school  of  Kuprin 
and  Korolenko. 

TCIIIRPAN.  See  Cirpan. 

TCHIRSK,  Nizhni.  See  Nizhni-Tchirsk. 

TCHISTOPOL,  ches-to'p61.  A  district  town 


TCHISTOPOL 


32 


TEA 


in  the  Government  of  Kazan,  Russia,  situated 
on  the  Kama,  90  miles  southeast  of  Kazan 
(Map:  Russia,  II  3).  It  has  flour  mills,  distil¬ 
leries,  and  cotton  mills,  and  is  the  chief  grain 
port  on  the  river  Kama.  Pop.,  1910,  24,921. 

TCHISTOPOL.  A  district  in  the  Govern¬ 
ment  of  Kazan,  east  Russia  ( Map :  Russia,  H 
3 ) .  Its  area  is  3592  square  miles.  The  princi¬ 
pal  industries  are  the  raising  of  cereals,  flax, 
and  hemp,  and  the  curing  and  manufacture  of 
leather.  Pop.,  1912,  387,500. 

TCHITA,  che'ta.  The  capital  of  the  Territory 
of  Transbaikalia  and  an  important  centre  of 
east  Siberia,  on  the  Tcliita  River  and  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway,  532  miles  by  rail  east  of 
Irkutsk  (Map:  Asia,  N  3).  Pop.,  1897,  11,480, 
largely  Buriats. 

TCHORLU,  chGrfloo.  A  town  of  the  Vilayet 
of  Rodosto,  in  European  Turkey,  on  the  Tchorlu 
River,  a  tributary  of  the  Ergene,  20  miles  north¬ 
east  of  Rodosto  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  F  4). 
There  are  Christian  churches  and  mosques. 
Wine  and  fruit  are  produced;  native  carpets 
and  woolen  cloth  are  manufactured.  Pop., 
about  11,500.  Tchorlu  was  the  scene  in  Novem¬ 
ber,  1912,  of  a  Bulgarian  victory  over  the  Turks 
in  the  Balkan  War  (q.v.). 

TCHUKTCHI,  chook'che,  or  CHUKCHI 
(from  chdwtcy,  rich  in  reindeer).  A  people  liv¬ 
ing  in  the  extreme  northeast  of  Asia,  numbering 
some  15,000.  The  reindeer  Tchuktclii  dwell  in 
the  interior  about  the  Kolyma  River;  the  sea 
(or  fishing)  Tchuktclii,  who  form  the  great  ma¬ 
jority,  inhabit  the  coast  of  the  Arctic  from 
Bear  Island  to  East  Cape,  while  on  the  Pacific 
side  they  have  mingled  with  the  Eskimo.  They 
are  tall,  well  built,  rather  light-skinned,  decid¬ 
edly  brachycephalic  in  part  (there  seem  to  be 
two  physical  varieties  among  them),  and  differ 
somewhat  in  form  and  features  from  the  typical 
Mongolians,  with  whom  they  are  allied  by 
speech.  Besides  an  interesting  Shamanism,  the 
Tchuktclii  have  a  wealth  of  folklore  and  my¬ 
thology  not  without  traces  of  Eskimo  influence. 
The  old  men  commit  suicide  with  great  cere¬ 
mony.  See  Borgoras,  The  Chukchee  (Leyden, 
1904).  See  Giliaks. 

TCHUST,  choost.  A  town  in  the  Territory  of 
Ferghana,  Russian  Turkestan,  110  miles  north¬ 
east  of  Khokand  (Map:  Persia,  O  2).  The 
natives  manufacture  knives  and  saddles.  Pop., 
1897,  13,686. 

TCHUVASHES,  chbo-vash'ez.  A  people  of 
eastern  Russia,  probably  of  Finnic  (Tcheremis- 
sian)  origin,  and  now  with  a  strong  Tatar  ad¬ 
mixture.  Their  seat  is  near  the  Volga  and  they 
number  some  850,000.  Their  language,  which  is 
distinct,  is  assigned  to  the  Ural-Altaic  (q.v.) 
stock.  They  are  industrious  and  orderly,  their 
chief  occupations  being  agriculture  and  cattle 
breeding.  The  Tchuvashes  are  nominally  Chris¬ 
tians,  but  more  primitive  Shamanistic  beliefs 
and  practices  are  still  prevalent  among  them. 
Consult  Schott,  De  Lingua  Tschuicaschorum 
(Berlin,  1841). 

TEA  (from  Fulikien  Chin,  te,  Chin,  ts’a,  ch’a, 
tea).  Tliea  sinensis  (Camellia  Thea)  is  a  small 
tree,  reaching  a  height  of  about  30  feet  in 
the  tropical  parts  of  Assam,  where  it  is  prob¬ 
ably  native.  The  young  leaves  when  properly 
handled  become  the  tea  of  commerce.  In  order 
to  increase  the  leaf  production  under  cultiva¬ 
tion,  the  plant  is  pruned  to  the  form  of  a  much 
branching  shrub,  from  2  to  5  feet  high.  Prop¬ 
agation  is  usually  from  seed  sown  in  the  fall 


in  especially  prepared  shaded  seed  beds.  In 
from  one  to  two  years  the  •  seedlings  are  large 
enough  to  transfer  to  the  field.  About  three 
years  after  planting,  the  tea  bush  is  large 
enough  to  give  a  small  yield,  which  increases 
until  the  full  crop  is  obtained  after  a  period 
of  from  five  to  ten  years  from  the  seed.  The 


garden  when  established  yields  tea  for  50  years 
or  more.  When  the  yield  falls,  more  or  less 
severe  pruning  is  resorted  to.  This  also  keeps 
.the  leaves  within  easy  reach  of  the  pickers. 
Tea  has  been  cultivated  in  China  and  Japan 
since  the  dawn  of  history  and  in  India  and 
Ceylon  since  1865.  It  requires  a  heavy  rain¬ 
fall,  thriving  best  in  a  rainfall  of  90-200  inches. 
In  dry  climates  the  “.flushes”  do  not  occur  often 
enough. 

Although  the  tea  plant  is  an  evergreen,  its 
leaves  are  used  for  tea  only  during  “flushes”  in 
which  active  growth  takes  place.  Leaves  are 
picked  from  10  to  25  times  a  year  in  Formosa 
or  every  10  or  12  days  in  Ceylon.  Only  the 
tip  of  the  shoot  or  one  or  two  of  the  youngest 
leaves  are  taken.  A  few  older  and  coarser 
leaves  go  into  the  cheaper  grades  of  tea.  The 
tender  upper  leaves  and  terminal  buds  are  picked 
by  hand,  according  to  one  of  several  systems  of 
plucking,  and  subjected  to  a  complicated  series 
of  processes  before  the  tea  of  commerce  is  pro¬ 
duced.  Formerly  nearly  all  the  work  of  manu¬ 
facturing  tea  was  done  by  hand,  but  in  more 
recent  times  the  use  of  machinery  has  greatly 
increased,  saving  personal  contact  and  reduc¬ 
ing  expense. 

The  difference  between  green  and  black  tea  is 
largely  due  to  the  method  of  manufacture,  al¬ 
though  the  leaves  of  some  varieties  of  tea  lend 
themselves  more  readily  to  the  manufacture  of 
black  or  fermented  tea  than  others.  It  has  been 
shown  recently  that  certain  oxidizing  ferments, 
oxidases,  present  in  the  tea  leaf,  acting  on  other 
substances  present  in  the  fresh  leaf,  produce  in 
the  presence  of  air  a  series  of  reddish  substances 
which  alter  both  the  taste  and  the  appearance 
of  the  tea  so  as  to  produce  the  black  tea  of 
commerce.  In  making  green  tea  the  freshly 
plucked  leaves  are  treated  to  a  degree  of  heat 
high  enough  to  destroy  the  oxidizing  ferments 
(about  250°  F.),  and  to  give  to  the  leaf  a 
thoroughly  limp  and  wilted  appearance.  This 
leaf  is  then  rolled  by  hand,  or  in  large  machine 
rollers,  holding  from  50  to  150  pounds  of  tea 


TEA 


1.  THE  LAST  PICKING 


2.  DRYING  THE  LEAVES  IN  A  TEA-HEATER 


THE  LI  CHARY 
OF  THE 

UWIVERbm  m  iwms 

c 


TEA 


33 


TEACHERS’  PENSIONS 


at  a  time.  The  rolling  gives  the  twisted  ap¬ 
pearance  to  the  leaf  and  brings  the  juices  to 
the  surface.  The  rolled  tea  then  goes  to  the 
firing  machine  where  it  is  heated  for  a  proper 
time  at  a  heat  sufficiently  high  to  drive  off  the 
water  from  the  leaf  and  develop  the  substances 
giving  fragrance  to  the  tea.  This  fragrance 
was  formerly  supposed  to  be  due  to  volatile 
oils  present  in  the  tea  plant,  a  theory  which 
has  been  proved  erroneous.  The  tea,  after  firing, 
is  stored  in  air-tight  bins  or  containers  until  it 
is  graded  and  packed  for  shipment  or  storage. 
In  making  black  tea  the  use  of  heat  prior  to 
the  final  firing  process  is  dispensed  with.  The 
fresh  leaves  are  spread  out  in  drying  lofts  until 
they  have  been  rendered  flaccid  by  the  evapora¬ 
tion  of  moisture.  They  are  then  rolled  as  just 
described  and  spread  out  on  tables  in  cool,  well 
ventilated  rooms  to  oxidize.  The  proper  reddish 
appearance  is  obtained  after  an  exposure  of 
two  to  10  hours  in  the  air,  when  the  leaf  is 
again  rolled  and  then  fired. 

Some  leaves  are  longer  and  larger  than  others 
and,  to  obtain  uniformity  of  appearance,  the  tea 
is  put  through  a  cutting  machine,  after  which 
it  is  sifted  and  graded  for  the  market.  Some¬ 
times  it  is  desirable  to  scent  the  tea  artificially. 
This  is  done  by  exposing  the  dried  tea  to  the 
fresh  blossoms  of  Olea  fra  grans,  the  sweet- 
scented  olive,  or  Aglaia  odorata,  used  especially 
in  scenting  of  Formosa  oolong  teas.  Still  other 
flowers  are  used  for  this  purpose.  In  some  cases 
it  is  thought  necessary  for  commercial  reasons 
to  improve  the  appearance  of  green  teas  arti¬ 
ficially.  This  is  done  by  facing  the  teas  with 
finely  powdered  talc,  Prussian  blue,  or  other  col¬ 
oring  agents.  After  a  period  of  experimentation 
by  private  parties,  notably  by  Dr.  Charles  U. 
Shepard,  and  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  the  culture  and  manufacture  of 
tea  has  been  established  on  a  small  scale  in 
South  Carolina.  An  excellent  grade  of  tea  of 
black,  green,  oolong,  and  other  sorts,  has  been 
manufactured,  and  finds  a  ready  market  in  the 
United  States.  New  and  improved  machinery 
has  been  invented,  and  the  ability  of  negro 
children  to  pick  tea  efficiently  has  been  demon¬ 
strated.  There  is  so  much  hand  labor  involved 
in  picking  the  leaves,  however,  that  it  remains 
quite  doubtful  whether  the  Southern  States  can 
compete  with  Ceylon,  Japan,  and  China  in 
growing  tea. 

The  largest  importation  of  tea  into  the 
United  States  comes  from  Japan,  including  For¬ 
mosa,  China  taking  second  place,  India  and 
Ceylon  third.  Japan  and  Formosa  teas  find 
their  largest  market  in  the  United  States.  Eng¬ 
land  and  Russia  are  large  consumers  of  black 
teas,  the  former  country  getting  its  supply 
chiefly  from  India  and  Ceylon,  the  latter  from 
China.  Some  tea  is  grown  by  Russia  in  the 
Caucasus  region.  The  total  annual  tea  exports 
from  the  tea-producing  countries  are  about  810,- 
000,000  pounds.  Ceylon  alone  has  400,000  acres 
of  tea  and  exports  190,000,000  pounds  annually. 
The  tendency  among  tea  consumers  is  decidedly 
towards  the  use  of  black  tea.  British  India 
and  Ceylon  produce  black  teas  almost  exclu¬ 
sively.  Some  of  the  sorts  of  tea  used  in  the 
United  States  are  here  enumerated:  Chinese — 
Greens:  Gunpowder  sorts,  Hyson  sorts,  Young 
Hyson  sorts.  Blacks:  Congous,  red  leaf  from 
south  China  and  black  leaf  from  north  China, 
as  well  as  Canton,  Pekoe,  and  other  sorts. 
Oolongs:  including  Amoy,  Foochow,  and  other 


sorts.  Scented  teas  of  various  sorts  in  limited 
amount.  Indian  (including  Ceylon  and  Java) 
— Greens:  colored  sorts:  Gunpowder,  Imperial, 
Young  Hyson,  Hyson,  etc.  Uncolored  sorts: 
Young  Hyson,  Hyson.  Blacks:  Pekoes,  of  vari¬ 
ous  sorts  and  grades,  Souchongs,  and  Congous. 
Japan  and  Formosa — Greens:  By  various  meth¬ 
ods  of  firing,  as  pan  fired,  basket  fired,  sun 
dried,  etc.  Oolongs:  From  Formosa,  according 
to  districts  and  treatment,  also  scented  pu- 
cliongs  in  small  amount.  See  Tea  Insects. 

Consult:  A.  J.  Wallis-Taylor,  Tea  Machinery 
and  Tea  Factories  (New  York,  1900)  ;  J.  M. 
Walsh,  Tea  Blending  as  a  Fine  Art  (Phila¬ 
delphia,  1902)  ;  id.,  Tea:  Its  History  and  Mys¬ 
tery  (ib.,  1902)  ;  United  States  Supervising  Tea 
Examiner,  Annual  Report  (Washington,  1914 
et  seq. ) . 

TEACH,  or  THATCH,  Edward  (  ?— 17 18). 
An  Anglo-American  pirate,  popularly  known  as 
Blackbeard.  He  became  widely  known  and 
feared  for  his  robberies  and  atrocities  through¬ 
out  the  West  Indies  and  along  the  coast  of 
Carolina  and  Virginia.  At  Pasquotank,  N.  C., 
in  1718,  he  was  attacked  by  two  small  sloops 
under  the  command  of  Lieutenant  Maynard  of 
the  British  navy,  and  by  a  successful  ruse  led 
to  board  the  vessels,  when  he  with  several  of  his 
men  was  killed.  Consult  C.  Johnson,  Lives  of 
the  Pirates  (1724),  and  S.  A.  Ashe,  “Our  Own 
Pirates,”  in  The  North  Carolina  Booklet,  vol.  ii, 
no.  2  (Raleigh,  1902). 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE.  An  institution  in 
New  York  City  for  the  training  of  teachers  and 
school  administrators,  and  for  study  and  re¬ 
search  in  the  field  of  education,  founded  in  1888, 
and  made  a  part  of  the  educational  system 
of  Columbia  University  (q.v. )  in  1898.  The 
college  is  an  integral  part  of  Columbia  Uni¬ 
versity  and  is  represented  by  its  dean  and 
faculty  delegates,  but  maintains  its  separate 
corporate  organization,  with  a  board  of  trustees 
who  assume  the  entire  financial  responsibility 
for  its  maintenance.  The  departments  of  in¬ 
struction  are  history  and  philosophy  of  edu¬ 
cation;  educational  administration,  psychology, 
and  sociology;  secondary,  elementary,  kinder¬ 
garten,  vocational,  religious,  and  rural  educa¬ 
tion;  English,  French,  German,  Greek,  and 
Latin;  history,  biology,  geography,  and  mathe¬ 
matics;  household  and  industrial  arts;  music 
and  speech ;  nursing  and  health ;  and  physical 
education  and  science.  No  department  under¬ 
takes  work  for  which  adequate  provision  is 
made  in  other  faculties  of  the  university.  The 
college  maintains  a  school  of  observation ;  the 
Horace  Mann  School,  with  kindergarten,  ele¬ 
mentary,  and  high-school  departments.  The 
college  inaugurated  the  system  of  extension 
teaching  now  conducted  bv  the  universitv,  and 
issues  a  number  of  educational  publications.  In 
1912  the  faculty  was  reorganized  into  two 
schools,  the  school  of  education,  which  was  placed 
on  a  graduate  basis,  and  the  school  of  practical 
arts.  The  buildings,  five  in  number,  are  valued 
at  $2,551,000.  The  total  registration  in  1914- 
15  was  5110,  including  870  in  summer  session, 
1833  special  students,  929  in  the  school  of  edu¬ 
cation,  and  1070  in  the  school  of  practical  arts. 
The  Brvson  Librarv  contains  58,881  volumes. 

TEACHERS’  PENSIONS.  In  all  European 
governments  which  supervise  school  systems  and 
regulate  the  appointment  of  teachers,  it  is  held 
that  teachers,  being  officers  of  the  state,  are 
as  such  entitled  to  pensions.  The  systems  vary 


TEACHERS’  PENSIONS 


34 


TEACHERS’  SALARIES 


in  the  different  countries  between  contributory 
and  noncontributory  principles.  Germany  has 
fairly  generally  adopted  the  latter  principle— 
the  state  bearing  the  whole  expense  of  the  pen¬ 
sions.  France  and  England  require  contribu¬ 
tions  from  their  teachers.  It  is  felt  usually 
that  under  a  noncontributory  system  salaries 
are  either  depressed  or  remain  stationary  longer 
than  under  the  other  system.  Germany  and 
France  provide  also  for  the  widows  and  orphans 
of  teachers. 

Pension  systems  for  teachers  in  the  United 
States  originated  late  in  the  nineteenth  century 
in  the  form  of  teachers’  mutual  benefit  associa¬ 
tions,  voluntary  clubs  paying  little  more  than 
burial  fees,  and  supported  by  assessments,  enter¬ 
tainments,  etc.  By  1895  the  States  of  Illinois, 
New  York,  and  California,  and  the  cities  of 
Detroit,  New  York,  and  St.  Louis,  had  provided 
for  the  aid  of  teachers’  retirement  funds  by  the 
use  of  public  money.  The  city  of  Brooklyn 
adopted  the  contributory  system  by  deducting 
1  per  cent  a  year  from  the  teacher’s  salary.  In 
1905  the  State  Legislature,  by  amending  the 
charter  of  the  city  of  New  York,  created  a  teach¬ 
ers’  pension  system  which  was  then  generally  re¬ 
garded  as  the  most  advanced  in  America.  Its 
later  development,  however,  belied  this  promise, 
for  in  1915  the  fund  was  reduced  so  low  that 
it  was  declared  bankrupt,  and  in  1916  a  new 
system  was  under  consideration,  formulated  by 
a  Commission  on  Pensions  which  was  appointed 
in  1913  to  consider  all  the  pension  systems  of 
the  city. 

Interest  in  pensions  for  teachers  as  for  other 
employees  has  but  recently  developed.  This  is 
evident  by  the  fact  that  of  the  21  State-wide 
systems  in  existence  in  1916,  15  were  established 
after  1910.  The  State-wide  systems  are  Ari¬ 
zona,  California,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Maine,  Mary¬ 
land,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Mon¬ 
tana,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota,  Rhode  Island, 
Utah,  Vermont,  Virginia,  and  Wisconsin.  Of 
these  only  Arizona,  Maine,  Maryland,  New 
Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  and  Virginia  have 
adopted  the  noncontributory  principle.  All  the 
others  require  contributions  from  teachers 
which  vary  in  amount  as  do  the  time  of  serv¬ 
ice  required  and  the  amount  of  the  pension. 
In  addition  to  the  above  systems  a  number  of 
States  have  permissive  pension  laws,  e.g.,  Kan¬ 
sas,  Kentucky,  and  Ohio,  while  in  others  city 
systems  have  been  established  under  special 
laws,  e.g.,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 

Pension  systems  in  the  United  States  labor 
under  a  number  of  disadvantages,  the  chief 
of  these  being  ignorance  of  the  social  basis 
and  the  actuarial  principles  that  should  underlie 
them.  The  result  is  that  a  large  number  of 
systems  must  either  prorate  the  promised  benefit 
or  else  become  bankrupt.  The  great  need  at 
present  is  for  sound  actuarial  information  on 
the  whole  subject,  since  the  social  basis  is  gen¬ 
erally  admitted.  This  latter  rests  on  the  recog¬ 
nition  that  teachers  are  not  paid  adequate  sala¬ 
ries,  that  the  ordinary  avenues  of  commercial 
gain  are  closed  to  them,  and  that  some  system 
of  superannuation  is  necessary  in  the  interests 
of  an  efficient  service.  But  what  must  yet  be 
established  is  the  relation  of  the  pension  to  final 
salary,  the  responsibility  for  the  contributions, 
length  of  service  required,  and  age  of  retirement, 
together  with  some  form  of  disability  grant  or 
insurance. 


In  1916  the  only  system  that  gave  promise 
of  permanence  was  that  of  Massachusetts.  Here 
the  teachers  were  compelled  to  make  annual  con¬ 
tributions  of  from  3  to  7  per  cent  of  their 
salaries  with  which  a  sum  was  accumulated  out 
of  which  annuities  are  paid.  The  State  collects 
and  administers  this  fund,  and  when  a  teacher 
is  retired  after  30  years  of  service  at  the  mini¬ 
mum  age  of  60,  the  amount  of  the  annuity  due 
is  doubled  by  a  grant  of  an  equal  amount  from 
the  State.  The  total  sum  may  not  be  as  large 
as  those  promised  in  other  schemes,  but  at  least 
has  the  elements  of  certainty. 

For  pensions  to  university  teachers  see  under 
Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement 
of  Teaching  which  discusses  the  subject  in  its 
annual  reports.  Consult:  C.  W.  Prosser,  The 
Teacher  and  Old  Age  (Boston,  1913)  ;  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education,  List  of  References 
on  Teachers’  Pensions  (Washington,  1914)  ;  New 
York  City,  Commission  on  Pensions,  Report 
(New  York,  1915);  Massachusetts  Teachers’ 
Retirement  Board,  Annual  Report  (Boston, 
1915). 

TEACHERS’  SALARIES.  Competition  of 
women,  the  temporary  employment  of  men,  the 
classification  of  teaching  with  menial  services, 
the  low  requirements  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  and  the  assumption  that  this  work 
should  be  done  for  the  love  of  it,  have  kept 
the  wages  of  teachers  in  America  at  or  below 
the  point  of  bare  subsistence.  The  larger  cities 
and  towns  have  adopted  schedules  of  salaries 
dependent  upon  the  teacher’s  merit,  length  of 
service,  and  grade  of  class  taught. 

In  1898  the  New  York  State  Teachers’  Asso¬ 
ciation  appointed  a  committee  to  investigate  the 
cost  of  living  in  the  various  cities  in  the  State, 
and  to  compare  the  figures  with  the  salaries 
paid  to  teachers.  The  committee  tabulated  what 
they  regarded  as  legitimate  living  expenses. 
This  tabulation,  with  slight  variations,  has  since 
been  used  by  the  teachers’  associations  of  many 
States  in  collecting  estimates  for  the  minimum 
salary  that  should  be  paid  teachers  in  a  given 
locality. 

In  New  York  it  was  decided  that  $600  per 
year  was  the  proper  living  wage.  Twenty-five 
dollars  a  year  increase  for  meritorious  service 
was  provided.  Promotion  to  higher  grades 
brought  higher  wages.  This  schedule  was 
adopted  by  the  Board  of  Education  in  1898.  It 
is  the  first  American  schedule  based  upon  a 
carefully  computed  estimate  of  the  cost  of  living 
in  the  community.  In  1899  a  law  amending  the 
charter  of  the  city  of  New  York  and  forbidding 
the  Board  of  Education  to  pay  any  teacher  less 
than  $600  per  annum,  the  living  wage,  was 
passed.  This  law  was  in  1900  strengthened  by 
the  provision  that  a  specific  appropriation  of 
four  mills  on  every  dollar  of  assessed  valuation 
of  the  taxable  property  of  New  York  City  must 
be  set  aside  each  year  as  a  fund  from  which  the 
salaries  of  the  teachers  may  be  drawn.  The 
New  York  City  public  schools  thus  illustrate 
these  principles  of  a  salary  system:  Legal  com¬ 
pulsion  that  the  Board  of  Education  shall  pay 
at  least  what  were  living  wages  in  1898;  encour¬ 
agement  of  permanent  teachers  by  means  of 
annual  increase  of  payments;  encouragement 
of  merit  by  withholding  from  unprogressive 
teachers  any  increase  after  the  fourth  year ; 
encouragement  of  teachers’  study  and  pro¬ 
fessional  growth  by  higher  salaries  for  higher 
grades  obtainable  by  examination;  retention  of 


TEACHING  OF  THE  APOSTLES 


35 


TEA  INSECTS 


men  by  salaries  permitting  the  support  of  a 
family;  protection  of  the  salary  fund  by  re¬ 
quiring  a  per  centum  appropriation  each  year. 

Improvements  of  the  detailed  working  out  of 
these  principles  have  been  suggested.  Living 
expenses  have  increased  30  per  cent  since  these 
schedules  were  made.  The  Board  of  Education 
has  the  power  to  increase  the  schedules  without 
limit  other  than  those  set  by  the  money  avail¬ 
able. 

Since  the  adoption  of  the  living-wage  sched¬ 
ule,  California,  Colorado,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Ken¬ 
tucky,  Maryland,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  New 
Jersey,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 
Rhode  Island,  Utah,  West  Virginia,  and  Wis¬ 
consin  have  passed  minimum  salary  laws  for¬ 
bidding  school  boards  to  pay  teachers  less  than 
specified  sums,  while  a  few  have  regulated  the 
maximum  salaries  for  certain  grades  of  cer¬ 
tificates,  e.g.,  New  Mexico,  North  Carolina,  and 
Texas.  Some  States,  such  as  California,  Nevada, 
and  Utah,  together  with  New  York  City,  are 
required  to  pay  equal  salaries  for  equal  services 
to  men  and  women  teachers. 

As  the  cost  of  living  varies  to  such  an  extent 
in  different  localities,  no  table  of  averages  of 


POPULATION 

Elemen¬ 

tary 

teachers 

Average 

salary 

High- 

school 

teachers 

Average 

salary 

250,000  and  over 

34,618 

$1,018 

5,067 

$1,746 

100,000  to  250,000 

9,817 

791 

1,896 

1,216 

50,000  to  100,000 

9,393 

688 

1,655 

1,069 

25,000  to  50,000 

9,335 

641 

1,941 

1,009 

10,000  to  25,000 

12,272 

602 

2,581 

897 

5,000  to  10,000 

9,948 

533 

2,342 

795 

teachers’  salaries  for  the  entire  country  is  of 
value.  The  preceding  table  shows  the  average 
salary  of  teachers  according  to  population  of  the 
cities. 

Bibliography.  Report  of  the  'National  Edu¬ 
cational  Association,  on  Salaries  of  Public  School 
Teachers  (Winona,  Minn.,  1905)  ;  also  C.  W. 
Bardeen,  Teaching  as  a  Business  ( Syracuse, 
1897)  ;  C.  B.  Dyke,  Economic  Aspect  of  T'eachers’ 
Salaries  (New  York,  1899);  C.  W.  Eliot,  More 
Money  for  the  Schools  (ib.,  1903)  ;  William 
McAndrew,  “Some  Suggestions  as  to  Teachers’ 
Salaries,”  in  Education  Review,  vol.  xxvii  (ib., 
1904)  ;  G.  C.  Strachan,  Equal  Pay  for  Equal 
Work  (ib.,  1910)  ;  Boykin  and  King,  compilers, 
Tangible  Rewards  of  Teaching  (Washington, 
1914)  ;  Baldwin  and  Mohr,  compilers,  Bibliog¬ 
raphy  of  Teachers’  Salaries  (ib.,  1914). 

TEACHING  OF  THE  TWELVE  APOS¬ 
TLES  (Gk.  didaxp  tuv  dudeKa  diroaToXuv,  di- 
dache  ton  dodeka  apostolon) ,  also  called  the 
Dida.che.  An  ancient  Christian  document,  writ¬ 
ten  in  Greek,  probably  between  120  and  150,  of 
great  value  for  the  study  of  organization,  be¬ 
lief,  and  worship  in  the  early  Church.  It  was 
found  in  1873  by  Bryennios  (q.v.),  Metropolitan 
of  Nicomedia,  in  an  eleventh-century  manuscript 
in  the  Monastery  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  Con¬ 
stantinople,  and  was  published  by  him  10  years 
later.  Modern  editors  include  it,  by  general 
consent,  among  the  Apostolic  Fathers  (q.v.). 
The  Teaching  was  apparently  compiled  from 
earlier  material,  for  use  as  a  church  manual. 
It  contains  a  description  of  the  Two  Ways,  one 
of  life,  the  other  of  death,  in  the  form  of  rules 
for  Christian  conduct.  Whether  or  not  this 
part  of  the  Teaching  was  originally  separate 
from  the  rest,  it  is  evident  that  it  was  used  in 


catechetical  instruction  to  prepare  converts  for 
baptism.  It  appears  in  slightly  different  form 
in  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas.  The  second  portion 
of  the  Teaching  sets  forth  the  proper  observance 
of  the  rites  of  baptism  and  the  Lord’s  Supper, 
with  directions  for  their  administration,  and  de¬ 
fines  the  office  and  duties  of  the  Christian  lead¬ 
ers,  especially  apostles,  prophets,  teachers, 
bishops,  and  deacons.  Ceremonial  and  organ¬ 
ization  are  alike  extremely  simple.  The  whole 
concludes  with  a  paragraph  announcing  the 
speedy  second  coming  of  Christ  and  the  final 
judgment. 

The  Teaching  was  held  in  high  honor  in  the 
early  Church,  and  is  quoted  by  Clement  of  Alex¬ 
andria  as  Scripture.  It  forms  the  basis  of  the 
seventh  book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions 
(q.v.),  and  bears  some  literary  relationship  to 
the  Shepherd  of  Hennas  and  perhaps  to  the 
Apology  of  Aristides.  Most  critics  are  inclined 
to  attribute  it  to  Syria  or  Egypt,  but  no  decisive 
argument  exists  for  either.  By  the  fourth 
century  the  Teaching  had  taken  its  place  defi¬ 
nitely  among  the  ecclesiastical  as  distinguished 
from  the  canonical  books. 

Bibliography.  J.  R.  Harris,  The  Teaching  of 
the  Apostles  (Baltimore,  1887,  contains  facsim¬ 
iles  of  the  manuscript)  ;  Philip  Schaff,  The 
Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  (3d  ed.,  New 
York,  1889)  ;  Kruger,  History  of  Early  Chris¬ 
tian  Literature  (ib.,  1897);  T.  C.  Cruttwell, 
Literary  History  of  Early  Christianity  (2  vols,, 
ib.,  1889,  contains  an  English  translation)  ;  Kir- 
sopp  Lake,  Apostolic  Fathers,  in  “Loeb  Classical 
Library”  (ib.,  1912).  The  text  will  be  found 
critically  edited,  in  Funk,  Patres  Apostolici 
(2d  ed.,  Tubingen,  1901). 

TEAGUE,  teg.  A  city  in  Freestone  Co.,  Tex., 
126  miles  north  of  Houston,  on  the  Trinity  and 
Brazos  Valley  Railroad.  It  is  in  a  productive 
cotton-growing  region,  and  has  a  cotton-oil  mill 
and  compress.  Railroad  repair  shops  are  situ¬ 
ated  here.  Pop.,  1910,  3288. 

TEA  INSECTS.  The  tea  plant  is  attacked 
by  several  injurious  insects,  as  the  fagot  worm 
( Eumeta  carmerii) ,  one  of 
the  bagworms,  whose  larva 
carries  a  case  made  up  of 
fragments  of  twigs  and  feeds 
upon  leaves  of  the  plant. 

The  tea  borer  ( Zenzera  cof- 
fece)  is  the  larva  of  a  cossid 
moth ;  it  bores  into  the 
stems  of  both  coffee  and  tea 
plants.  Three  species  of 
bark  lice  ( Aspidiotus  thece, 
flavescens  and  transparens ) 
also  occur  commonly  upon 
tea,  and  the  first  named  is 
one  of  the  most  serious 
enemies  of  the  growing 
plant,  very  noticeable  at 
the  time  of  pruning.  Three 
mites  feed  upon  the  leaves, 
one  of  them  a  red  spider 
(  Tetranychus  bimaculatus ) , 
another  the  five-legged  tea 
mite  ( Typhlodromus  cari- 
natus) ,  closely  related  to 
the  rust  mite  of  the  orange, 
lower  leaves.  The  yellow 
translucens)  feeds  upon  the  buds  and  produces 
the  condition  called  “sulky.”  Consult  Watt, 
The  Pests  and  Blights  of  the  Tea  Plant  (Cal¬ 
cutta,  1898). 


STICK-COVERED  COCOON 
OF  A  FAGOT  WORM. 

It  feeds  upon  the 
tea  mite  ( Acarus 


TEAK 


36 


TEASEL 


TEAK,  tek  (Malayan  tekka,  Tamil  tekku,  teak 
tree).  iSvo  kinds  of  timber,  valuable  for  ship 
building  and  other  purposes.  Indian  teak  ( Tec - 
tona  grandis)  belongs  to  the  family  Verbe- 
nacese;  African  teak  or  African  oak  (Oldfieldia 
africana )  to  the  Euphorbiacese.  The  former 
is  found  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Malabar 
and  other  parts  of  southeastern  Asia.  The  teak 
forests  of  India  are  mostly  under  governmental 
control  and  yield  a  considerable  revenue.  The 
usual  practice  is  to  girdle  the  trees  and  allow 
them  to  stand  for  two  years  to  season  thoroughly 
before  felling.  Teak  has  been  introduced  in 
some  parts  of  India  in  which  it  is  not  in¬ 
digenous.  It  is  a  beautiful  tree,  rising  above 
all  the  other  trees  of  the  East  Indian  forests, 
sometimes  attaining  a  height  of  200  feet.  Silk 
and  cotton  stuffs  are  dyed  purple  by  the  leaves. 
The  timber,  which  will  sink  in  water  unless 
dry,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  produced  in 
the  East;  it  resembles  coarse  mahogany,  is 
easily  worked,  strong,  durable,  and  not  liable 
to  the  attacks  of  insects.  It  is  largely  used 
for  furniture,  some  of  which  is  handsomely 
carved,  and  for  shipbuilding,  for  which  purpose 
it  is  exported.  The  teak  generally  grows  rather 
in  clumps  in  forests  than  in  forests  of  itself. 
African  teak  is  adapted  to  the  same  uses  as 
the  Indian  teak,  though  it  is  not  quite  as 
durable.  On  account  of  the  growing  scarcity  of 
teak  timber  other  species  are  sought  to  supply 
the  demand  for  similar  material.  Among  sub¬ 
stitutes  are  the  timbers  of  Sloetia  sideroxylon, 
Parinarium  oblongifolium,  and  a  tree  locally 
known  as  iron  wood.  All  are  found  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  Dutch  East  Indies.  Efforts  have 
been  made  to  grow  Indian  teak  in  Nigeria,  and 
tests  of  timber  from  young  planted  trees  have 
been  highly  satisfactory. 

TEAL,  tel  (connected  with  Dutch  teling,  teal, 
brood,  telen,  to  breed,  and  perhaps  with  AS. 
tiliun,  Eng.  till,  OHG.  zil,  Ger.  Ziel,  object). 
One  of  a  group  of  small  beautiful  fresh-water 
ducks,  mostly  in  the  genera  Nettion  and  Quer- 
quedula.  They  are  migratory,  going  to  the 
tropics  for  the  winter,  and  when  in  the  United 
States  are  shy  and  silent,  feeding  chiefly  at 
night  on  water  plants,  seeds,  worms,  and  in¬ 
sects.  They  make  their  nests  usually  at  some 
distance  from  water,  and  lay  greenish,  or  in 
some  species  cream-colored,  eggs.  Species  of 
these  two  genera  are  known  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.  The  commonest  North  American  species 
is  the  green-winged  teal  ( Nettion  carolinense) . 
This  fine  bird  is  nearly  the  same  as  the  common 
teal  ( Nettion  crecca)  of  the  northern  parts  of 
the  Old  World.  About  a  dozen  other  species 
are  met  with  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  South 
America,  all  favorites  among  gunners  and  epi¬ 
cures.  The  blue-winged  teal  ( Querquedula  dis- 
cors) ,  represented  in  Europe  by  the  garganey 
( q.v. ) ,  is  very  abundant  in  many  parts  of 
North  America.  It  is  rather  larger  than  the 
common  teal.  The  head  and  neck  are  blackish 
with  a  large  white  crescent  in  front  of  the  eye. 
The  wing  coverts  are  sky-blue,  and  the  under 
parts  are  purplish  gray  with  black  spots.  The 
cinnamon  teal  ( Querquedula  cyanoptera)  is  also 
blue-winged,  but  the  general  color  is  rich 
purplish  chestnut  and  there  is  no  white  on  the 
head..  This  is  a  South  American  duck,  which 
is  also  common  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  as 
far  north  as  Oregon.  Two  other  species  belong 
to  South  America.  Consult  authorities  and 
Plate  under  Duck. 


TEALL,  te'al,  Jethro  Justinian  Harris 
(1849-  ).  An  English  geologist,  born  at 

Northleach,  Gloucestershire.  He  studied  at  St. 
J ohn's  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  a  fel¬ 
low  in  1875-79.  Teall  served  as  director  of  the 
Royal  Geological  Survey  and  Museum  of  Prac¬ 
tical  Geology  in  1901-13  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Coal  Supplies  in 
1901-05.  He  was  highly  honored  by  scientific 
bodies,  being  president  (1900-02)  of  the  Geo¬ 
logical  Society  of  London,  from  which  he  re¬ 
ceived  the  Bigsby  and  Wollaston  medals  in 
1905;  president  of  Section  C  of  the  British  As¬ 
sociation  (1893),  vice  president  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  (1900-01),  and  Delesse  prize¬ 
man  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris  (1907). 
Besides  papers  on  geology  and  petrology  Teall 
wrote  British  Petrography :  with  Special  Refer¬ 
ence  to  the  Igneous  Rocks  (1888). 

TEANO,  ta-a'no.  A  city  in  the  Province  of 
Caserta,  Italy,  42  miles  north-northwest  of 
Naples,  at  the  foot  of  the  extinct  volcano  Rocca 
Monfina  (Map:  Italy,  D  4).  It  was  one  of 
the  leading  cities  of  Campania.  The  present 
town  is  interesting  for  its  old  ruins,  among 
them  a  castle.  Pop.  (town),  1911,  6067. 

TEARS  OF  THE  MUSES.  A  poem  by  Ed¬ 
mund  Spenser,  published  in  1591. 

TEASEL,  te'z’l  ( AS.  tcesel,  tcesl,  OHG.  zeisala, 
teasel,  from  AS.  tcesan,  Bavarian  Ger.  zaiscn,  to 
tease  wool),  Dipsacus.  A  genus  of  plants  of 
the  family  Dipsacacese.  The  only  valuable  spe¬ 
cies  is  the  fuller’s  or  clothier’s  teasel  ( Dip¬ 
sacus  fullonum) ,  a  native  of  southern  Europe, 


teasel  ( Dipsacus  sylvestris). 


naturalized  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  bien¬ 
nial,  several  feet  high,  with  s'essile  serrated 
leaves,  prickly  stems  and  leaves,  and  with 
cylindrical  heads  of  pale  or  white  flowers,  be¬ 
tween  which  are  oblong,  hook-pointed,  acum¬ 
inated,  rigid  bracts.  The  plant  is  cultivated  for 
the  heads,  which  are  cut  off  when  in  flower,  and 
are  used  for  raising  the  nap  of  cloth,  a  purpose 
for  which  no  mechanical  contrivance  has  been 
found  to  equal  them.  The  split  heads  are  fixed 
on  the  circumference  of  a  cylinder,  which  is 
made  to  revolve  against  the  surface  of  the  cloth. 
The  wild  teasel  ( Dipsacus  sylvestris),  from 
which  fuller’s  teasel  is  supposed  to  have  origi- 


TEA  TREE 


37 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


nated,  has  straight  instead  of  hooked  prickles 
on  the  heads.  It  is  a  common  and  troublesome 
weed  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 

TEA  TREE.  See  Cajeput. 

TEA-WATER  PUMP.  A  spring  famous  in 
New  York  during  the  eighteenth  and  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  It  was  situated  north  of  the 
present  City  Hall  Park,  on  Chatham  Street,  and 
was  for  a  long  time  the  chief  source  of  supply 
for  drinking  purposes,  owing  to  the  purity  of  its 
water. 

TEAZLE,  te'z’l,  Lady.  A  sprightly  country- 
bred  girl  who  is  married  to  an  exacting  but 
kind-hearted  old  gentleman,  Sir  Peter  Teazle,  in 
Sheridan’s  School  for  Scandal. 

TEBRIS.  See  Tabriz. 

TECKE  (tesh)  BAYOU.  A  bayou  in  Louisi¬ 
ana  (Map:  Louisiana,  F  6).  It  leaves  the 
Bayou  Courtablau,  in  St.  Landry  County,  and 
flows  southeast  in  a  course  of  about  100  miles, 
during  which  it  sends  off  numerous  branches  to 
the  Atchafalaya  Bayou,  and  finally  empties  into 
that  bayou  below  Grand  Lake,  sending  also  sev¬ 
eral  widely  separated  arms  directly  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  It  is  interesting  as  having  been  an¬ 
ciently  a  main  outlet  of  the  Red  River,  and  is 
lined  with  high  and  extensive  alluvial  banks 
which  form  excellent  agricultural  lands  safe 
from  inundations.  The  bayou  is  navigable  for 
steamers  to  St.  Martinsville,  about  90  miles. 

TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  (from  technic, 
from  Gk.  tcx^lkos,  technikos,  relating  to  art  or 
handicraft,  from  rex^r],  techne,  art,  handicraft, 
from  rUreiv,  tiktein,  to  bring  forth,  produce ) . 
The  term  technical  education,  strictly  speaking, 
embraces  all  instruction  that  has  for  its  object 
the  direct  preparation  for  a  career  or  vocation. 
In  common  use,  the  designation  is  applied  to 
such  instruction  as  bears  directly  upon  the 
industrial  arts.  The  field  of  such  education 
ranges  from  instruction  in  the  arts  and  sciences 
that  underlie  industrial  practice  in  its  broadest 
and  most  complex  relations  to  the  simple  train¬ 
ing  in  manipulation  needed  for  the  prosecution 
of  some  productive  trade.  This  wide  province 
naturally  calls  for  numerous  and  widely  diver¬ 
gent  types  of  schools. 

Technical  schools  may  conveniently  be  di¬ 
vided  into  three  classes:  (1)  Institutions  of  a 
collegiate  or  university  grade,,  to  which  the 
titles  engineering  schools,  institutes  of  tech¬ 
nology,  polytechnic  institutes,  and  schools  of  ap¬ 
plied  science  are  variously  given,  and  which  are 
devoted  to  instruction  in  advanced  mathematics 
and  science,  and  the  theory  and  practice  of  in¬ 
dustrial  operations.  (2)  Schools  in  which  the 
purpose  is  to  prepare  for  practical  work  in  some 
particular  field  of  industry  and  which  afford  in¬ 
struction  in  those  branches  of  science  and  art 
that  imderlie  its  special  problems.  This  class  is 
represented  by  schools  of  weaving,  dyeing,  build¬ 
ing,  and  machine  construction  and  drafting. 
The  term  technical  school  has  been  used  in  a 
specialized  sense  in  this  article  to  denote  institu¬ 
tions  of  this  character.  In  this  class  may  be 
grouped  schools  of  industrial  art  in  which  the 
study  of  design  is  supplemented  by  training 
in  manipulation.  Evening  continuation  schools 
which  afford  instruction  in  science,  art,  and  tech¬ 
nical  methods  may  also  be  considered  in  this 
group.  (3)  Trade  schools  which  supply  a  train¬ 
ing  in  the  practice  of  some  productive  trade. 
The  function  of  the  first  type  of  school  is  to  edu¬ 
cate  its  students  for  managers  and  superin¬ 
tendents  of  industrial  establishments,  consulting 


and  designing  engineers  and  architects,  etc. — in 
other  words,  to  supply  leaders  and  organizers  for 
the  industrial  world;  that  of  the  second,  to  pro¬ 
vide  foremen,  designers,  and  experts  in  special 
lines  of  industrial  practice;  and  that  of  the 
third,  to  train  craftsmen  for  practical  work  at  a 
trade. 

Engineering  Schools;  Schools  of  Applied 
Science;  Institutes  of  Technology.  The  ear¬ 
liest  establishment  of  this  type  of  school  oc¬ 
curred  in  France  and  Germany.  In  France  the 
Ecole  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees,  originally  started 
in  1747  as  a  drawing  school,  was  organized  in 
1760  for  the  training  of  engineers  for  the  gov¬ 
ernment  service.  In  1794  the  celebrated  Ecole 
Polytechnique  was  founded,  primarily  to  fit  men 
for  the  engineer  and  artillery  corps  of  the 
French  army.  Not  only  has  this  school  done 
much  to  set  the  standard  of  scientific  training  for 
the  state  service,  but,  from  the  fact  that  many 
of  its  graduates  have  engaged  in  private  work, 
it  has  exerted  a  strong  influence  upon  general 
industrial  practice.  Other  special  engineering 
schools  have  been  established  at  different  times 
by  the  French  government,  and  in  1829  the  Ecole 
Centrale  des  Arts  et  Metiers  was  founded  as  a 
private  institution.  The  standards  of  this  school 
have  always  been  of  the  highest  character.  In 
Germany  the  first  institution  that  approached 
a'  modern  engineering  school  was  the  School  of 
Mines  founded  at  Freiberg  in  1824,  in  order  to 
develop  engineers  for  working  the  mines  in  the 
neighborhood.  Later  in  the  century  came  the 
great  development  of  pure  science  in  the  German 
universities,  and  following  this  came  an  era  of 
equal  activity  in  the  field  of  applied  science, 
which  quickly  resulted  in  the  widespread  estab¬ 
lishment  of  polytechnics  or  Technische  Hoch- 
schulen.  Rivalry  between  the  various  states 
played  a  part  in  the  spread  of  these  schools, 
each  striving  to  outdo  the  others  in  magnificence 
of  buildings  and  completeness  of  equipment. 
These  institutions,  which  often  had  their  begin¬ 
nings  in  secondary  technical  or  trade  schools, 
have  now  become  foundations  coordinate  with  the 
universities,  requiring  equal  academic  prepara¬ 
tion  for  admission,  and  representing  specialized 
courses  in  engineering,  architecture,  industrial 
chemistry,  and  agriculture.  Schools  of  this  kind 
are  uniformly  supported  by  the  governments  of 
the  various  states,  and  present  a  very  highly  de¬ 
veloped  organization.  The  splendid  Technische 
Hochschule  at  Charlottenburg,  and  similar  insti¬ 
tutions  at  Munich,  Dresden,  Darmstadt,  Han¬ 
over,  Cassel,  Aachen,  and  Breslau  are  foremost 
examples  of  this  class.  Engineering  schools  of 
a  high  grade  are  maintained  also  by  the  govern¬ 
ments  of  Austria,  Italy,  Switzerland,  Sweden, 
and  Russia.  Great  Britain  awakened  more 
slowly  to  the  need  of  technical  education  than 
other  European  countries,  the  chief  stimulus  be¬ 
ing  interest  aroused  by  the  Exhibition  of  1851. 
In  1881  a  Royal  Commission  on  Technical  In¬ 
struction  was  appointed  to  investigate  the  entire 
subject.  Among  other  results  of  this  awakening 
was  the  foundation  of  the  City  and  Guilds  of 
London  Institute,  formed  by  a  union  of  many  of 
the  wealthy  corporations  of  the  old  London 
guilds.  The  scope  of  the  Institute  activities  in¬ 
cludes  the  support  and  management  of  three 
institutions  and  the  support  of  several  others 
in  the  city  of  London,  and  the  direction  of  a 
system  of  examinations  dealing  with  the  work 
of  technical  classes  throughout  England  and 
Wales,  and  represents  a  system  that  touches  all 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


38 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


the  important  phases  of  technical  instruction 
with  the  single  exception  of  the  trade  school. 
The  most  important  of  the  three  schools  estab¬ 
lished  in  London,  the  Central  Institution  of  the 
City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute,  a  well- 
organized  school  of  technology,  now  forms  a  part 
of  the  Imperial  College  of  Science  and  Technol¬ 
ogy,  and  is  recognized  as  a  school  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  London  in  the  faculty  of  engineering.  The 
Institute  gave  £100,000  for  buildings  and  equip¬ 
ment,  and  annually  contributes  £10,000  to  its 
support.  Courses  are  provided  for  training 
engineers,  architects,  industrial  chemists,  and 
technical  teachers.  Other  schools  of  an  ad¬ 
vanced  character  and  several  university  depart¬ 
ments  of  applied  science  have  come  to  the 
front  in  Great  Britain,  prominent  among  which 
are  the  University  of  Manchester,  the  Manches¬ 
ter  School  of  Technology,  the  University  of 
Birmingham,  the  University  of  Leeds,  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Sheffield,  Armstrong  College,  and  a 
number  of  others.  In  1913-14  the  Board  of 
Education  paid  grants  to  24  different  institu¬ 
tions  for  technological  and  professional  work, 
all  of  university  grade.  Schools  of  engineering 
are  maintained  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  University  College  of 
Dundee,  and  the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland 
Technical  College. 

In  the  United  States  the  development  of  the 
school  of  technology  has  been  exceedingly  rapid, 
and  has  resulted  in  a  type  of  institution  that 
in  some  respects  is  the  superior  of  anything  to 
be  found  abroad.  The  Rensselaer  Polytechnic 
Institute  (q.v. ),  founded  in  1824  by  Stephen 
Van  Rensselaer  as  a  school  of  theoretical  and 
applied  science,  was  the  first  establishment  in 
this  field.  The  work  of  this  school  has  been 
almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the  training  of 
civil  engineers.  In  response  to  the  growing  de¬ 
mand  for  scientific  instruction,  the  Sheffield 
Scientific  School  (1847)  at  Yale  and  the  Law¬ 
rence  Scientific  School  (1848)  at  Harvard  were 
founded.  Most  of  the  technical  schools,  how¬ 
ever,  date  from  the  later  years  of  the  Civil 
War.  In  1861,  through  the  efforts  of  Prof.  Wil¬ 
liam  B.  Rogers,  the  charter  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  (q.v.)  was  granted,  and 
in  1865  the  first  classes  were  organized.  The 
Worcester  Polytechnic  Institute  (q.v.)  was 
opened  to  students  in  1867.  This  was  the  first 
school  of  technology  in  the  United  States  to 
provide  systematic  instruction  in  workshop  prac¬ 
tice  as  an  element  of  the  course  in  mechanical 
engineering.  In  1864  the  first  courses  in  the 
School  of  Mines,  Columbia  University,  were  or¬ 
ganized,  and  from  this  have  developed  the  sev¬ 
eral  schools  of  applied  science  of  that  institution. 
In  1871  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology 
(q.v.)  at  Hoboken  was  opened.  The  beginnings 
of  the  Sibley  College  of  Mechanical  Engineering 
and  the  Mechanic  Arts  were  made  at  Cornell 
University  in  1872,  and  other  courses  in  applied 
science  were  soon  established  there.  In  the  next 
20  years  a  large  number  of  schools  of  the  first 
rank  were  founded  either  as  separate  institu¬ 
tions  or  as  departments  of  universities.  Notable 
among  those  of  the  first  kind  are  Purdue  Uni¬ 
versity  (q.v.),  Lafayette,  Ind.;  Rose  Polytechnic 
Institute  (q.v.),  Terre  Haute,  Ind.;  the  Michi¬ 
gan  School  of  Mines,  Houghton,  Mich.;  the  Case 
School  of  Applied  Science  (q.v.),  Cleveland, 
Ohio;  and  the  Armour  Institute  of  Technology 
(q.v.),  at  Chicago,  Ill.  Prominent  among  the 
second  group  are  the  engineering  departments  of 


Lehigh  University,  the  Ohio  State  University, 
Washington  LTniversity  (St.  Louis),  and  the 
universities  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota, 
Pennsylvania,  and  California.  The  State  land- 
grant  colleges  established  under  the  Morrill  Act 
of  1862  also  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  study 
of  engineering  and  mechanic  arts.  See  Morrill, 
Justin  S. 

The  history  of  these  schools  has  been  marked 
by  the  development  of  a  number  of  very  signifi¬ 
cant  features  of  instruction.  To  begin  with, 
emphasis  has  from  the  first  been  placed  upon 
the  laboratory  method  of  instruction,  as  opposed 
to  sole  reliance  upon  textbooks.  Following  the 
organization  of  instruction  in  pure  science  came 
that  in  applied  science.  Another  feature  that 
has  characterized  the  instruction  in  many  of 
these  institutions  is  the  degree  of  specialization 
in  the  instructing  staff  made  possible  by  the 
large  numbers  of  students.  The  courses  of  study 
of  American  schools  of  technologv  almost  uni- 
versallv  extend  through  four  years. 

Technical  and  Applied  Art  Schools;  Con¬ 
tinuation  Schools.  All  the  types  of  this  group 
of  institutions  have  reached  a  high  point  of  or¬ 
ganization  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Tech¬ 
nical  schools,  in  which  to  practical  training  in 
the  methods  of  a  special  craft  is  added  instruc¬ 
tion  in  the  scientific  principles  upon  which  they 
are  based,  appear  in  greatest  numbers  in  Austria, 
Germany,  and  France.  Some  have  been  estab¬ 
lished  by  guilds  or  masters’  societies,  some  by  a 
union  of  manufacturers  of  a  town  or  city  wishing 
to  improve  the  efficiency  of  their  establishments, 
and  others  by  action  of  the  local  authorities  or 
by  the  government.  A  steady  tendency  towards 
government  control  and  support  is  apparent  in 
all  the  continental  countries.  Prominent  among 
schools  of  this  type  are  the  special  schools  for 
weaving  and  dyeing,  of  which  frequent  examples 
are  found  in  various  parts  of  Germany.  The 
most  famous  institution  of  the  kind  is  located 
at  Krefeld,  in  Prussia.  In  this  model  institu¬ 
tion  very  thorough  study  is  made  of  the  chemis¬ 
try  and  technology  of  dyeing,  and  of  the  mecha¬ 
nism  and  pattern  designing  involved  in  weaving. 
The  Advanced  School  of  Weaving  at  Lyons, 
France,  the  School  of  Silk  Weaving  near  Zurich, 
Switzerland,  the  School  of  Weaving  and  Dyeing 
at  the  University  of  Leeds,  and  the  textile  de¬ 
partments  of  the  Manchester  School  of  Tech¬ 
nology  and  of  the  Bradford  Technical  College, 
are  other  examples  of  this  type  of  school.  In 
the  United  States  similar  schools  are  the  textile 
and  dyeing  schools  of  the  School  of  Industrial 
Art  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum  at  Philadel¬ 
phia  and  the  textile  schools  at  Lowell  and  New 
Bedford,  Mass. 

Another  type  of  technical  school  found  in  Ger¬ 
many  and  Austria  is  the  Baugewerbeschule  or 
building  trades  school.  These  schools  are  gen¬ 
erally  open  during  the  winter  months  alone. 
Only  students  are  admitted  who  have  had  prac¬ 
tical  experience  in  some  branch  of  the  trade, 
and  the  courses  deal  with  the  principles  and 
practice  of  building  construction,  the  nature  of 
materials,  mechanical  and  freehand  drawing, 
modeling,  science,  mathematics,  and  bookkeep¬ 
ing.  The  courses  generally  run  through  four 
terms  and  are  strictly  professional  in  character. 
Many  of  the  Fachschulen  of  Austria,  although 
aiming  at  trade  instruction,  might  well  be  classed 
as  technical  schools  on  account  of  the  character 
and  extent  of  the  technical  instruction  that  is 
offered  in  addition  to  the  practical  work. 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


39 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


Another  form  of  technical  school  is  represented 
by  a  class  of  institutions  of  the  secondary  grade, 
which  aim  to  prepare  rather  for  entrance  into 
industrial  work  than  for  direct  mastery  of  any 
one  special  branch.  In  these  schools  the  courses 
commonly  include  instruction  in  the  elements  of 
a  general  education,  as  well  as  the  study  of  ap¬ 
plied  science  and  practical  training  in  a  number 
of  representative  industrial  processes.  The  In- 
dustrieschulen  and  Gewerbes chul en  of  Germany 
and  Austria  are  examples  of  this  type.  Courses 
in  these  schools  are  generally  from  three  to  five 
years  in  length,  and  embrace,  besides  practical 
industrial  work,  instruction  in  mechanical  and 
freehand  drawing,  geography,  business  forms, 
mathematics,  bookkeeping,  .  science,  and  tech¬ 
nology.  Schools  of  this  kind  are  found  at  Diis- 
lin,  Chemnitz,  Cologne,  Diisseldorf,  Leipzig,  Mu¬ 
nich,  and  Nuremberg.  In  Austria  the  School  of 
the  Technological  Industrial  Museum,  at  Vienna, 
is  the  foremost  example,  and  serves  as  a  model 
for  all  other  schools  of  this  class  throughout  the 
Empire. 

France  has  a  very  important  and  highly  or¬ 
ganized  system  of  state  schools  for  the  training 
of  foremen  and  superintendents  in  mechanical  in¬ 
dustries  at  Chalons,  Aix,  Angers,  Cluny,  and 
Lille.  The  courses  are  three  years  in  length. 
The  instruction,  both  practical  and  theoretical, 
given  in  these  schools,  has  been  of  so  thorough 
a  character  that  the  result  in  large  part  has 
been  to  train  managers  and  mechanical  engineers 
rather  than  foremen.  Other  technical  schools  of 
an  advanced  character  in  France  are  the  Indus¬ 
trial  Institute  of  the  North  of  France,  at  Lille, 
and  the  Institution  Livet,  at  Nantes,  which  is 
a  private  foundation.  A  school  of  a  special 
type  exists  at  Lyons,  the  Ecole  Martiniere.  Dis¬ 
tinct  courses  are  provided  for  boys  and  girls. 
In  the  former  the  sciences  and  arts  are  studied 
in  their  relation  to  commerce  and  industry.  The 
object  is  not  to  prepare  for  any  special  trade, 
but  to  develop  general  capacity  for  an  industrial 
or  commercial  career.  The  course,  which  lasts 
for  three  years,  is  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
American  manual-training  schools.  The  courses 
for  girls  aim  to  furnish  a  trade  training  in 
commercial  accounting,  embroidery,  industrial 
drawing,  and  women’s  tailoring,  together  with  a 
general  education.  The  Finsbury  Technical  Col¬ 
lege,  in  London,  is  the  most  important  institu¬ 
tion  of  this  class  in  England.  Several  well- 
equipped  schools  of  this  general  type  exist  in 
other  parts  of  England,  among  which  are  the 
Manchester  School  of  Technology,  the  Birming¬ 
ham  Technical  School,  and  the  Sheffield  Technical 
School.  In  the  United  States  the  manual-train¬ 
ing  high  schools  (see  Manual  Training)  ap¬ 
proach  quite  close  to  this  last  category  of 
schools,  but  devote  a  larger  proportion  of  time 
to  general  branches ;  more  nearly  similar  are 
the  recently  developed  technical  and  vocational 
high  schools  that  have  been  established,  for 
example,  in  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  and  Fitchburg. 

Schools  of  industrial  or  applied  art  have  also 
reached  their  highest  point  of  development  on 
the  continent  of  Europe.  In  Austria  and  Ger¬ 
many  the  Kunstgewerbesohule,  often  connected 
with  an  extensive  and  admirably  filled  museum, 
is  found  in  all  the  large  cities.  Courses  in  draw¬ 
ing,  painting,  modeling,  and  design  are  provided, 
leading  to  some  special  branch  of  applied  art. 
In  some  schools,  notably  those  at  Munich  and 
Vienna,  the  handicraft  side  is  prominent  and 
much  attention  is  given  to  practical  work  at 


carving,  metal  chasing,  stained  glass,  leather 
embossing,  fresco  painting,  embroidery,  porce¬ 
lain  painting,  lithography,  smithing,  and  other 
lines.  In  France  are  to  be  found  not  only  the 
first  schools  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  archi¬ 
tecture  in  the  world,  but  also  the  most  thorough 
organized  provision  for  instruction  in  decora¬ 
tive  and  industrial  art.  The  government  lends 
liberal  support  to  the  art  schools,  and  assists  in 
establishing  new  ones  when  the  need  of  such  is 
manifest.  Some  are  supported  entirely  by  the 
state,  and  others  are  assisted  through  grants. 
All  are  under  the  direction  of  the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  and  Fine  Art.  Excellent 
schools  of  applied  art  are  to  be  found  in  all 
parts  of  France,  often  with  a  distinct  trend  of  in¬ 
struction  towards  the  industries  prominent  in  the 
locality,  as  in  the  case  of  ceramics  at  Limoges 
and  textiles  at  Roubaix.  In  Paris  there  are 
three  schools  which  afford  instruction  in  indus¬ 
trial  art — the  Ecole  Nationale  des  Arts  Decora- 
tifs,  the  Ecole  Germain-Pilon,  and  the  Ecole 
Bernard-Palissy ;  the  first  to  teach  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  design  in  relation  to  industrial  art  as  a 
whole,  the  last  with  direct  reference  to  certain 
trades,  with  a  liberal  amount  of  workshop  and 
laboratory  practice.  The  great  schools  of  the 
Government  Science  and  Art  Department  (now 
under  the  Board  of  Education  for  England 
and  Wales)  at  South  Kensington  represent 
the  most  important  provision  for  instruction  in 
industrial  art  in  Great  Britain.  The  work  of 
these  schools  consists  largely  of  drawing,  paint¬ 
ing,  and  modeling,  and  although  the  application 
of  art  to  industry  is  counted  as  the  main  purpose 
of  the  institution,  no  practical  work  is  at¬ 
tempted.  A  large  number  of  smaller  schools 
patterned  upon  the  same  model  exist  in  other 
parts  of  Great  Britain  under  the  guidance  and 
financial  assistance  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

In  the  United  States  schools  of  applied  art 
are  not  numerous,  and  in  few  cases  is  a  training 
in  the  practical  application  of  design  attempted. 
Prominent  among  the  institutions  affording  in¬ 
struction  in  this  field  are  the  Cooper  Union 
(q.v.),  of  New  York  City;  the  School  of  Indus¬ 
trial  Art  of  the  Pennsylvania  Museum ;  Pratt 
Institute  (q.v.),  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  Drexel  Insti¬ 
tute  (q.v.),  Philadelphia;  the  Maryland  Insti¬ 
tute,  Baltimore;  the  Art  Academy,  Cincinnati: 
the  Chicago  Art  Institute;  the  Rhode  Island 
School  of  Design,  Providence;  and  the  Lowell 
School  of  Design,  Boston. 

Evening  classes  in  science,  drawing,  design,  and 
technical  studies  may  well  be  considered  in  this 
second  general  group  of  schools.  The  Fortbil- 
dungsschulen  of  Germany  and  Austria  are  both 
day  schools  and  evening  schools.  By  the  Reichs- 
gewerbeordung  (Imperial  Industrial  Law)  of 
1891  and  1900  local  communities  may  make  at¬ 
tendance  upon  such  schools  compulsory  for  both 
boys  and  girls  between  14  and  17  years  old,  and 
such  attendance  is  often  a  condition  of  employ¬ 
ment.  This  law  merely  incorporated  in  the 
statutes  conditions  that  had  sprung  up  after  the 
Franco-Prussian  War.  Freehand  and  mechani¬ 
cal  drawing,  and  special  instruction  relating 
to  the  trades  of  the  locality,  are  the  principal 
subjects  taught  in  such  schools.  In  Vienna 
every  prominent  trade  is  represented  by  a  special 
Fortbildungsschule,  and  Berlin  supports  a  great 
number  and  variety  of  similar  schools.  The 
most  notable  development  in  this  field  has  taken 
place  in  Munich  under  Dr.  G.  Kerschensteiner. 
Attendance  at  a  continuation  school  is  here 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


40 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


compulsory  for  boys  up  to  18,  and  for  girls  for 
three  years.  Twelve  general  courses  for  un¬ 
skilled  laborers  and  errand  boys  and  more  than 
50  trade  schools  for  apprentices  have  been  estab¬ 
lished.  Close  relations  have  been  established  be¬ 
tween  the  schools,  local  trades,  and  industries, 
and  special  attention  has  been  given  to  develop¬ 
ing  suitable  methods  of  instruction,  courses  of 
study,  and  to  securing  the  right  type  of  teachers. 
The  best  state-wide  system  of  continuation 
schools  is  that  of  Wiirttemberg.  Evening  indus¬ 
trial  schools  played  an  important  part  in  the 
thickly  populated  manufacturing  centres  of  Bel¬ 
gium,  where,  in  such  towns  as  Liege,  Brussels, 
and  Seraing,  thousands  of  workmen  nightly  re¬ 
ceived  scientific  and  technical  instruction  bearing 
on  their  trades.  There  are  many  technical 
schools  in  Paris  and  other  cities  and  towns  of 
France  that  provide  evening  instruction.  In 
most  cases  such  evening  classes  are  supported  by 
commercial  or  industrial  societies  and  bear  upon 
the  local  industries. 

Nowhere  else  is  the  organization  of  evening 
industrial  classes  carried  to  so  high  a  point  as  in 
Great  Britain.  Through  the  system  of  examina¬ 
tions  and  grants  directed  formerly  by  the 
Science  and  Art  Department,  now  part  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  classes  in  drawing,  model¬ 
ing,  design,  mathematics,  and  many  branches  of 
science  and  technical  subjects  are  maintained 
throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  From  1879 
to  1890  the  City  and  Guilds  of  London  Institute 
performed  a  similar  function  for  technical  and 
industrial  classes.  By  their  liberal  financial 
assistance  through  examination  grants,  not  only 
were  all  manner  of  technical  courses  organized 
throughout  the  country,  but  practical  trade 
classes  were  opened  to  broaden  and  further  the 
experience  of  those  engaged  in  the  trades.  The 
Act  of  1889  which  authorized  local  authorities 
to  build  and  maintain  technical  schools,  and  to 
contribute  to  evening  technical  classes  out  of  the 
local  rates,  followed  by  the  Law  of  1890  which 
set  aside  a  portion  of  the  excise  duties  for  the 
support  of  such  schools,  rendered  the  financial 
assistance  of  the  Institute  no  longer  essential, 
and  since  1890  that  association  has  confined  its 
grants  to  classes  in  the  city  of  London.  The 
Institute  continues  its  functions  as  an  examin¬ 
ing  body,  and  is  recognized  as  setting  the 
standard  for  all  work  in  this  field.  Since  the 
beginning  of  the  century  the  tendency  has  been 
in  the  direction  of  organizing  evening  work  in 
courses  of  a  progressive,  nature  spread  over 
four  or  five  years,  in  order  to  secure  some  cor¬ 
relation  and  unity  and  to  prevent  a  scattering 
of  interest  and  energy. 

In  the  United  States  such  evening  schools 
rapidly  assumed  an  important  place.  The  free 
evening  classes  of  the  Cooper  Union  have  pro¬ 
vided  an  opportunity  for  thousands  of  young  men 
to  advance  themselves.  The  evening  classes  of 
the  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  represent 
an  important  and  highly  developed  example  of 
such  instruction.  Worthy  of  mention  are  also 
the  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia  :  the  General 
Society  of  Mechanics  and  Tradesmen,  New  York 
City;  the  drawing  school  of  the  Franklin  Insti¬ 
tute,  Philadelphia;  the  Lewis  Institute,  Chi¬ 
cago;  and  the  evening  classes  conducted  by 
Young  Men’s  Christian  Associations  all  over 
the  country. 

Trade  Schools.  These  institutions  have  come 
into  existence  almost  entirely  since  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  industrial  con- 

V 


ditions  produced  by  an  era  of  quantity  of  pro¬ 
duction  and  division  of  labor  have  developed 
the  real  problem  of  the  trade  school.  In  the 
days  of  the  old  guilds,  when  both  production 
and  exchange  were  in  the  hands  of  the  mas¬ 
ter  workman,  the  natural  provision  for  trade 
training  was  found  in  the  apprenticeship  system. 
As  soon,  however,  as  the  master  workman  ceased 
to  be  both  merchant  and  craftsman,  the  appren¬ 
tice  began  to  lose  his  natural  position  in  the 
industrial  order.  In  most  trades  the  master 
workman  has  developed  on  one  side  into  the 
director  of  an  industrial  establishment,  or  has 
become  the  foreman  of  a  large  number  of  work¬ 
men.  From  this  situation,  and  from  the  fact 
that  the  specialization  of  labor  in  most  trades 
dependent  upon  machinery  renders  any  compre¬ 
hensive  training  in  such  trades  under  ordinary 
conditions  impracticable,  and  also  because  of 
the  restrictive  regulations  of  trades-union  as 
to  apprentices,  arises  the  modern  demand  for 
the  trade  school.  Manual  dexterity  and  knowl¬ 
edge  of  processes  are  naturally  the  primary 
object  in  such  schools.  Examples  of  this  kind 
of  school,  in  spite  of  a  general  notion  to  the 
contrary,  are  not  numerous  even  on  the  con¬ 
tinent  of  Europe. 

In  Germany  and  Austria  it  is  considered  un¬ 
wise  to  introduce  purely  technical  instruction 
into  the  period  of  the  common  school,  so  that  all 
schools  for  technical  training  admit  only  pupils 
more  than  14  years  of  age.  Besides  the  Gevoer- 
beschulen,  of  a  secondary  grade,  are  the  Fach- 
schulen,  or  schools  which  deal  with  the  train¬ 
ing  for  some  one  special  trade.  These  schools 
are  distributed  in  industrial  centres  throughout 
the  two  empires  according  to  local  needs.  In 
some  of  these  schools  the  courses  range  from 
two  to  four  years,  and  include  instruction  in 
drawing,  elementary  mathematics,  science,  and 
the  technology  of  the  particular  trade.  From 
the  nature  and  range  of  instruction,  many  of 
these  would  be  more  properly  classified  as  tech¬ 
nical  schools,  and  even  in  the  cases  where  the 
object  is  simply  to  combine  the  elements  of  a 
general  education  with  the  training  of  a  crafts¬ 
man,  the  length  of  time  required  prevents  any 
large  attendance  of  the  artisan  class.  The 
actual  effect  is  consequently  to  train  a  few 
foremen  and  superior  workmen,  rather  than  to 
feed  the  ranks  of  the  large  army  of  workers. 
In  some  of  the  large  cities,  notably  in  Berlin 
and  Munich,  numerous  evening  trade  classes 
are  maintained,  which  afford  the  learner  al¬ 
ready  apprenticed  at  a  trade  most  practical  op¬ 
portunities  to  increase  his  skill,  as  well  as  to 
broaden  his  knowledge.  In  Belgium  several 
distinctive  trade  schools  exist,  among  which 
those  at  Tournay  and  Ghent  are  prominent.  To 
these  schools  are  admitted  boys  from  13  to  16 
years  old,  who  spend  three  years  in  the  practice 
of  a  particular  trade,  together  with  study  of 
general  branches  and  drawing.  Trade  schools 
for  girls  have  also  received  much  attention  in 
Belgium.  In  certain  special  trade  schools  in 
Belgium  the  experiment  of  paying  the  pupils 
for  coming  to  the  schools,  in  order  to  compen¬ 
sate  for  the  loss  of  wages,  has  been  made. 

But  it  is  in  France  that  the  question  of  train¬ 
ing  for  the  trades  has  received  the  greatest  offi¬ 
cial  attention  and  that  the  organization  of 
schools  for  such  training  has  reached 'the  highest 
point.  By  the  Law  of  1880  provision  was  made 
for  the  establishment  of  tcoles  manuelles  d’ap- 
prentissage  as  a  distinct  class  of  the  ecoles  pri- 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


4i 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


maires  supdrieures.  These  schools  were  intended 
either  to  prepare  for  or  to  shorten  the  period  of 
apprenticeship,  and  were  placed  under  the  joint 
control  of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction 
and  the  Ministry  of  Commerce  and  Industry.  In 
them  workshop  training  plays  a  prominent  part, 
but  a  liberal  amount  of  general  instruction  is 
also  given  during  the  three  years’  course.  Pupils 
are  admitted  when  12  or  13  years  old.  By  an 
administrative  blunder,  the  feature  of  the  Law 
of  1880  creating  such  schools  remained  inoper¬ 
ative  until  1888,  except  in  Paris,  where  the  mu¬ 
nicipality  early  equipped  and  developed  three 
successful  trade  schools,  one  for  wood  and  metal 
working,  one  for  furniture  making,  and  one  for 
the  book  industries.  After  1888  apprenticeship 
schools  began  to  appear  in  the  provinces,  but  in¬ 
asmuch  as  no  common  programme  has  been  de¬ 
fined,  the  amount  of  practical  instruction  varied 
considerably,  and  in  many  cases  was  far  too 
small  to  serve  as  a  substitute  for  apprenticeship. 
In  1892  the  failure  of  these  provincial  schools  to 
fulfill  their  intended  function  led  to  a  new  law, 
which  provided  that  all  the  ecoles  primaires  pro- 
fessionelles,  in  which  practical  work  formed  an 
important  part,  should  be  made  into  a  new  class 
of  schools  called  ecoles  pratiques  de  commerce  ou 
d’industrie,  to  be  placed  under  the  sole  control 
of  the  Ministry  of  Commerce  and  Industry.  The 
organization  of  such  schools,  in  which  the 
amount  of  practical  instruction  is  increased  to 
30  or  33  hours  a  week,  represents  a  deliberate 
attempt  to  establish  a  comprehensive  system  of 
primary  trade  schools  under  state  control.  In 
Switzerland  the  state  and  municipalities  sup¬ 
port  numerous  trade  schools,  mainly  for  watch¬ 
making,  in  which  the  training,  both  practical 
and  theoretical,  is  of  a  very  thorough  character. 
Another  feature  connected  with  trade  training 
in  Switzerland,  and  one  that  has  to  some  ex¬ 
tent  been  copied  in  Germany,  is  a  system  of 
apprentice  examinations  supervised  and  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  state.  These  examinations  in 
many  cantons  are  made  obligatory  upon  every 
apprentice,  and  consist  of  an  examination  held 
at  the  end  of  the  term  of  apprenticeship  upon 
the  practice  and  theory  of  his  trade.  The  trade 
school  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  gained  a  foot¬ 
hold  in  Great  Britain,  where  the  sentiment  al¬ 
most  universally  prevails  that  the  shop  is  the 
only  proper  place  for  learning  a  trade. 

In  the  United  States  a  distinctive  type  of 
trade  school  was  developed  in  the  foundation  of 
the  New  York  trade  schools  in  1881.  Both  day 
and  evening  classes  are  conducted  in  this  insti¬ 
tution.  The  evening  classes,  although  admitting 
beginners,  are  largely  made  up  of  young  men 
already  started  at  their  trades.  In  the  day 
classes  young  men  are  admitted  only  at  an  age 
— from  17  to  25 — when  they  will  be  able  to 
learn  rapidly,  and  so  acquire  sufficient  skill  in 
short  courses  of  four  months  to  enter  at  once 
upon  practical  work.  The  purpose  is  to  give 
a  thorough  grounding  in  the  practice  and  theory 
of  a  trade  which  may  be  perfected  by  later 
experience  in  regular  work.  The  school  instruc¬ 
tion  is  confined  entirely  to  practical  work.  Even¬ 
ing  schools  similar  to  those  of  the  New  York 
trade  schools  have  been  established  by  the  Pratt 
Institute,  Brooklyn,  the  Philadelphia  Master 
Builders’  Exchange,  and  the  Massachusetts 
Charitable  Mechanics’  Association  of  Boston. 
To  these  should  be  added  the  first  instance  of 
public  support  of  such  an  institution  in  the 
Evening  School  of  Trades  at  Springfield,  Mass. 


Another  type  of  trade  school  has  made  its  ap¬ 
pearance  in  the  United  States  in  the  Williamson 
Free  Schools  of  Mechanical  Trades  (q.v.)  near 
Philadelphia,  in  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Trade  School 
of  New  York.  A  number  of  public  trade  schools 
have  also  been  established  since  1907,  e.g.,  Mil¬ 
waukee  School  of  Trades,  and  others  at  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Portland,  Oreg.,  Worcester,  Mass.,  and 
Indianapolis.  Institutions  similar  in  plan  to 
some  of  the  European  trade  schools,  in  which 
the  aim  is  to  combine  the  teaching  of  a  trade 
with  a  general  education,  are  represented  by  the 
California  School  of  Mechanical  Arts  and  the 
Wilmerding  School  of  Industrial  Arts  of  San 
Francisco.  Of  a  lower  grade  are  the  preparatory 
schools  that  have  developed  since  1908,  when 
the  first  school  of  type  was  founded  at  Roches¬ 
ter,  N.  Y.,  to  give  some  knowledge  of  industries 
and  shop  methods  to  boys  between  the  ages  of 
14  and  10.  A  number  of  similar  schools  have 
been  established  in  Massachusetts. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  institutions,  noted 
above,  several  instances  exist  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States  of  factory  or  employees’  schools. 
These  schools  are  almost  uniformly  conducted  in 
the  evening,  although  the  practice  is  not  un¬ 
common  of  allowing  time  off  to  younger  em¬ 
ployees  to  attend  school  during  working  hours, 
and  in  the  main  provide  instruction  of  a  nature 
related  to  the  practical  work  of  the  employees, 
such  as  drawing  and  mathematics.  Examples  of 
such  schools  in  the  United  States  are  those  con¬ 
ducted  by  R.  Hoe  &  Co.,  printing-press  manu¬ 
facturers,  of  New  York  City,  and  the  Cleveland 
Twist  Drill  Co.  The  Ludlow  Manufacturing 
Co.,  of  Ludlow,  Mass.,  which  employs  large 
numbers  of  women  and  girls,  supports  an  even¬ 
ing  school  giving  instruction  in  cooking,  sew¬ 
ing,  and  physical  culture.  Somewhat  similar 
classes  are  carried  on  by  the  National  Cash 
Register  Co.,  of  Dayton,  Ohio.  Employees’ 
schools  in  which  specialized  technical  instruction 
is  given  are  conducted  by  several  associations  of 
employees  and  also  by  individual  manufacturing 
concerns  in  various  parts  of  France.  Quite  dif¬ 
ferent  from  such  schools  are  the  schools  for  the 
children  of  employees,  which  are  maintained  by 
a  number  of  large  industrial  corporations  in 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Germany.  Notable 
among  these  are  the  schools  of  Lever  Brothers, 
Port  Sunlight,  England;  of  the  Krupp  Works, 
Essen,  Germany;  and  the  Trade  School  of  the 
Northern  Railway  Co.,  Paris. 

Bibliography.  Massachusetts  Commission  on 
Industrial  and  Technical  Education,  Reports 
(Boston,  1906,  1908)  ;  M.  E.  Sadler,  Continua¬ 
tion  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere  (Man¬ 
chester,  1908)  ;  A.  H.  Chamberlain,  The  Condi¬ 
tion  and  Tendencies  of  Technical  Education  in 
Germany  (Syracuse,  1908)  ;  P.  Damm,  Die 
technischen  Hochschulen  Preussens  (Berlin, 
1909)  ;  G.  Kerschensteiner,  Organisation  und 
Lehrplane  der  obligator ischen  Fach-  und  Fort- 
bildungsschulen  fur  Knaben  in  Munchen  (Mu¬ 
nich,  1910)  ;  E.  G.  Cooley,  Vocational  Education 
in  Europe  (Chicago,  1912)  ;  J.  Seath,  Education 
for  Industrial  Purposes  (Toronto,  1911)  ;  F.  W. 
Roman,  The  Industrial  and  Commercial  Schools 
of  the  United  States  and  Germany  (New  York, 
1915)  ;  also  National  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Industrial  Education,  Bulletins  and  Reports 
(New  York)  ;  Reports  of  the  United  States  Com¬ 
missioner  of  Education  (Washington,  annually)  ; 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  Seven¬ 
teenth  and  Twenty-fifth  Reports  (ib.)  ;  Reports 


TECK 


42 


TEETH 


of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Technical  Education 
for  Great  Britain  (London,  annually)  ;  Proceed¬ 
ings  of  the  International  Congresses  for  Techni¬ 
cal,  Commercial,  and  Industrial  Education ;  An- 
nuaire  de  la  jeunesse  (Paris). 

TECK,  Alexander,  Prince  of  (1874-  ). 

A  British  soldier.  He  was  born  at  Kensington 
Palace,  London,  the  third  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Teck  and  Princess  Mary  Adelaide,  and  a  brother 
of  Queen  Mary,  consort  of  George  V.  Educated 
at  Eton  and  at  the  Royal  Military  College,  Sand¬ 
hurst,  he  became  successively  a  captain  in  the 
Seventh  Hussars  and  in  the  Roval  Horse  Guards, 
and  later  was  brevetted  lieutenant  colonel  in 
the  Second  Life  Guards.  He  served  in  Matabele- 
land  in  1896,  in  the  South  African  War  in  1899- 
1900,  and  in  the  European  War  in  1914-15, 
being  mentioned  in  the  dispatches  in  each.  For 
services  in  the  South  African  War  he  also  gained 
the  Queen's  medal  with  five  clasps  and  was  made 
a  member  of  the  Distinguished  Service  Order. 
In  1914,  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  he  was 
appointed  Governor-General  of  Canada;  but  it 
was  later  decided  to  retain  the  Duke  of  Con¬ 
naught  in  this  office  until  the  end  of  the  war. 
Prince  Alexander  married  in  1904  Princess  Alice, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Albany  and  grand¬ 
daughter  of  Queen  Victoria. 

TECUCIU,  ta-kob'che.  A  town  of  Rumania, 
in  Moldavia,  40  miles  northwest  of  Galatz,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Berlad  River  (Map:  Bal¬ 
kan  Peninsula,  F  2).  It  has  an  active  trade. 
Pop.,  1900,  13,405. 

TECUM  A  ( ta/kbo-ma' )  PALM.  See  As- 

TROCARYUM. 

TECUM'SEH.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Johnson  Co.,  Neb.,  48  miles  by  rail  southeast  by 
south  of  Lincoln,  on  the  Nemaha  River,  and  on 
the  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  Railroad 
(Map:  Nebraska,  H  4).  It  is  the  trade  centre 
of  a  stock  and  farming  region.  Tecumseh  has 
a  Carnegie  library.  Pop.,  1900,  2005;  1910, 
1748. 

TECUMSEH  (Flying  Panther,  Meteor),  Te- 
cumthe,  or  Tecumtha  (c.1775-1813) .  A  fa¬ 
mous  Indian  chief,  born  near  the  site  of  the 
present  town  of  Springfield,  Ohio.  When  about 
35  years  of  age  he  formed  a  plan  for  a  great  con¬ 
federacy  of  the  Indians  against  the  whites,  which 
should  have  jurisdiction,  among  other  things, 
over  the  alienation  of  Indian  lands.  In  this 
work  he  was  assisted  by  his  brother  Elkswatawa 
or  Tenskwatawa  (q.v.),  commonly  known  as  The 
Prophet,  and  by  British  agents.  In  the  summer 
of  1808  Tecumseh  and  his  brother  established  a 
village  near  the  mouth  of  Tippecanoe  Creek  in 
Indiana,  and  here  Tecumseh  put  into  practice 
some  of  his  ideas  for  returning  to  the  virtuous 
primitive  condition  of  the  Indians  by  prohibiting 
the  use  of  whisky  and  other  demoralizing  prac¬ 
tices  introduced  by  the  whites.  Three  years  later 
he  went  on  a  visit  to  the  southern  Indians,  espe¬ 
cially  the  Choctaws,  Creeks,  Cherokees,  and 
Seminoles,  and  by  his  wonderful  eloquence  is 
considered  to  have  kindled  among  them  the  flame 
that  in  1813  burst  into  the  Creek  War.  In  his 
absence,  however,  his  followers  were  defeated  on 
Nov.  7,  1811,  by  a  force  under  Gen.  William 
Henry  Harrison.  ( See  Tippecanoe,  Battle  of.  ) 
In  the  following  year  he  joined  the  British  at 
Malden,  and  early  in  August  routed  a  force  of 
Ohio  militia,  but  was  defeated  and  wounded  in 
the  skirmish  of  Maguaga.  Despite  his  defeat, 
however,  he  was  commissioned  a  brigadier  gen¬ 
eral  in  the  British  army,  and  with  several  hun¬ 


dred  Indians  assisted  in  the  capture  of  Detroit. 
In  January,  1813,  he  played  an  important  part 
in  the  siege  of  Fort  Meigs  (q.v.),  and  prevented 
the  massacre  of  prisoners  taken  in  the  sortie 
from  the  fort.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle 
of  the  Thames  (q.v.),  while  bravely  resist¬ 
ing  the  attack  of  the  mounted  Americans  under 
Col.  Richard  M.  Johnson.  Tecumseh  was  a  man 
of  many  high  qualities,  with  impressive  manners 
and  wonderful  natural  eloquence.  Consult: 
Drake,  Life  of  Tecumseh  and  his  Brother,  the 
Prophet,  with  an  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Shaw¬ 
nee  Indians  (Cincinnati,  1841);  W.  J.  Arm¬ 
strong,  in  Heroes  of  Defeat  (ib.,  1905)  ;  Eggles¬ 
ton  and  Seelye,  Tecumseh  and  the  Shawnee 
Prophet  (New  York). 

TEDAS,  ta'daz.  The  northern  division  of  the 
Tibbus  (q.v.),  living  in  Tibesti  and  the  adjoin¬ 
ing  oases  of  the  eastern  Sahara,  and  connected 
with  the  outside  world  by  the  main  camel  route 
between  the  city  of  Tripoli  and  Lake  Chad.  In 
this  portion  of  the  great  desert  are  inexhaus¬ 
tible  supplies  of  rock  salt,  and  the  Tedas  em¬ 
ploy  thousands  of  camels  in  conveying  this  mate¬ 
rial  throughout  Central  Africa. 

TED'DINGTON.  A  residential  town  in 
Middlesex,  England,  on  the  Thames,  13  miles 
west  of  London  (Map:  London  and  Vicinity, 
F  4).  The  municipality  maintains  reading 
rooms  and  recreation  grounds,  and  provides  gar¬ 
den  allotments.  The  National  Physical  Labora¬ 
tory  was  inaugurated  here  in  1902.  Pop.,  1901, 
14,029;  1911,  17,847. 

TE  DE'UM.  A  well-known  hymn,  so  called 
from  its  opening  words  ( Te  Deum  laudamus,  Te 
Dominum  confitemur,  We  praise  Thee,  O  God,  we 
acknowledge  Thee  to  be  the  Lord ) ,  commonly 
sung  on  all  occasions  of  triumph  and  thanks¬ 
giving,  and  a  theme  upon  which  the  most 
celebrated  composers  have  exercised  their 
musical  genius.  The  hymn  is  one  of  the  most 
simple,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  solemn 
and  majestic  and  most  admired  in  the  whole 
range  of  hymnology.  Its  authorship  is  uncer¬ 
tain.  Picturesquely  and  uncritically  it  has 
been  described  as  the  joint  production  of  Saints 
Ambrose  and  Augustine,  into  which  they  both 
burst  forth  by  a  common  inspiration  on  occasion 
of  the  baptism  of  Augustine.  From  this  sup¬ 
posed  origin  the  Te  Deum  is  commonly  called 
the  Ambrosian  hymn.  It  has  been  ascribed  to 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  and,  in  recent  years,  to 
Nicetas  of  Remesiana  (c.400J.  Besides  its  gen¬ 
eral  use  on  occasions  of  joyous  celebrations,  the 
Te  Deum  forms  part  of  the  daily  matins  of  the 
Roman  breviary,  and  is  recited  at  the  end  of 
matins  on  all  festivals,  and  on  all  Sundays  ex¬ 
cept  those  of  Advent  and  Lent.  With  a  similar 
exception,  it  forms  part  of  the  morning  prayer 
of  the  Anglican  Prayer  Book,  being  sung  after 
the  first  lesson.  Its  use  dates  from  the  sixth 
century.  Consult  John  Wordsworth,  The  Te 
Deum:  Its  Structure  (2d  ed.,  London,  1903), 
and  Julian,  Dictionary  of  Hymnology,  new  edi¬ 
tion  (ib.,  1907). 

TEES,  tez.  A  river  of  north  England.  It 
rises  on  Cross  Fell,  Cumberland,  and  flows  east 
between  the  counties  of  Durham  and  York.  It 
enters  the  North  Sea  10  miles  below  Stockton, 
to  which  town  it  is  navigable  for  small  vessels. 
Length,  80  miles  (Map:  England,  E  2). 

TEE  TEE.  See  Titi  Monkey. 

TEETH  (AS.  tab,  Ger.  Zahn,  tooth;  con¬ 
nected  with  Bret.,  Welsh  dant,  Lat.  dens,  Skt. 
danta,  tooth).  Calcareous  organs  embedded  in 


TEETH 


43 


TEETH 


the  skin  within  or  near  the  mouth  in  most  ver¬ 
tebrates,  acting  primarily  for  the  prehension 
and  trituration  of  food.  Some  teeth,  such  as 
the  tusks  of  the  wild  boar  or  of  the  elephant, 
have  secondarily  acquired  another  function, 
viz.,  that  of  offensive  and  defensive  organs,  es¬ 
pecially  with  reference  to  combats  between  rival 
males. 

Teeth  are  dermal  structures,  homologous  with 
the  placoid  scales  or  denticles  which  cover  the 
entire  body  of  fishes  ( q.v. ) .  At  the  anterior  end, 
say  of  the  body  of  a  dogfish,  the  skin  turns  in 
to  form  the  lining  or  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth  and  with  it  the  scales  are  carried.  In 
fishes  these  dermal  denticles  appear  in  the  skin 
very  early  both  in  their  ontogenetic  and  phylo¬ 
genetic  history,  but  do  not  occur  in  Amphioxus 
or  in  cyclostomes.  They  first  appear  in  sela¬ 
chians  in  the  form  of  small  denticles  or  spines 
arranged  in  longitudinal  and  transverse  rows, 
each  attached  to  a  basal  plate,  and  directed 
caudad.  Both  ectoderm  and  mesoderm  take  part 
in  the  formation  of  these  dermal  denticles,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  teeth  of  the  higher  vertebrates. 
The  name  “tooth  germ”  is  given  to  the  tissue 
that  is  destined  to  develop  into  the  teeth.  The 
mesoderm  forms  a  papilla  which  secretes  dentine 
in  its  outermost  layer.  Within  the  dentine 
there  is  a  cavity  filled  with  mesodermal  tissue 
and  blood  vessels.  From  this  cavity  fine  tubules 
pass  into  the  dentine.  Outside  the  dentine  is  a 
layer  of  enamel  secreted  by  ectodermal  cells. 
The  first  impulse  towards  tooth  formation  seems 
to  reside  in  the  derma.  As  the  dermal  papilla 
grows  it  comes  to  be  covered  by  a  layer  of  large 
columnar  cells  from  the  epidermis.  The  enamel 
is  secreted  from  the  lower  surface  of  these  epi¬ 
dermal  cells.  As  the  dermal  cells  multiply 
they  give  rise  to  an  elongated  papilla  which 
projects  backward.  The  deep-lying  connective- 
tissue  layers  of  the  derma  at  the  same  time 
secrete  salts  of  lime  and  thus  a  sort  of  connec¬ 
tive-tissue  bone  (the  so-called  tooth  cement)  is 
produced,  and  by  means  of  it  the  spine  gains  a 
firm  support.  The  basal  plates  of  tooth  cement 
form  a  shield  of  considerable  protective  value, 
and  in  some  fishes,  such  as  the  bony  ganoids,  a 
hard  protective  skeleton  is  thus  produced.  In 
the  higher  vertebrates  this  bony  covering  is  lost 
over  most  of  the  body,  but  persists  in  the  head 
region,  and  becomes  some  of  the  most  important 
bones  of  the  skull. 

In  fishes  the  teeth  are  usually  abundant,  and 
are  either  spiny  or  blunt,  and  may  be  set  close 
together  like  a  cobblestone  pavement  (see  Ces- 
traciont)  to  fit  them  for  grinding  up  shells. 
In  the  swordfish  they  form  the  teeth  of  the 
sword.  Amphibians  possess  few  teeth.  They 
are  conical,  end  in  a  single  or  double  apex,  and 
are  usually  present  on  the  premaxilla,  maxilla, 
mandible,  vomer,  and  palatine  bones,  and  occa¬ 
sionally  on  the  parasphenoid.  They  occur  in 
additional  locations  in  the  larvae  of  some  forms. 
Teeth  are  present  in  all  groups  of  reptiles  ex¬ 
cept  the  Chelonia,  and  even  there  exist  for  a 
time  in  the  embryonic  stage  of  Trionyx,  showing 
that  the  toothless  state  has  been  secondarily  ac¬ 
quired  by  the  turtles.  The  reptilian  teeth  are 
usually  larger  and  stronger,  and  are  limited  to 
more  special  regions,  than  among  lower  verte¬ 
brates.  The  teeth  of  reptiles,  as  well  as  those 
of  fishes,  are  in  general  homodont,  or  alike 
throughout  the  series.  In  reptiles  the  teeth  are 
connected  with  their  support  in  two  ways: 
either  the  teeth  are  firmly  fused  to  the  bone  or 
Vol.  XXII.— 4 


else  they  lie  in  cup-sliaped  sockets  of  the  bone, 
the  alveoli.  This  condition  exists  in  the  so- 
called  thecodont  reptiles.  The  teeth,  which  are 
fused  to  the  bone,  mav  either  lie  in  a  furrow  at 
the  inner  side  of  the  jawbone  (pleurodont 
type)  or  else  they  arise  from  its  free  upper  edge 
(in  the  case  of  the  lower  jaw),  and  are  acro- 
dont.  In  many  kinds  of  snakes  certain  of  the 
maxillary  teetli  of  the  upper  jaw  are  differen¬ 
tiated  into  organs  of  offense  and  defense.  These 
are  the  fangs  or  poison-carrying  teeth.  (See 
Snake.  )  Birds  have  no  teeth.  Fossil  birds 
(see  Bird,  Fossil),  however,  possessed  teeth, 
which  were  either  embedded  in  grooves  ( Hes- 
perornis )  or  in  definite  alveoli  (Ichthyomis) . 

The  dentition  of  mammals  is  highly  variable, 
and  the  differentiation  of  the  teeth  in  the  va¬ 
rious  forms  is  to  be  explained  by  adaptation  to 
the  character  of  the  food.  All  the  teeth  are  em¬ 
bedded  in  alveoli  of  the  jawbones,  to  which  the 
growth  of  teeth  is  confined.  The  teeth  are  so 
arranged  that  those  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws 
alternate.  The  teeth  of  one  jaw  oppose  the  in¬ 
terspaces  between  the  teeth  of  the  other  jaw. 
Thus  each  tooth  presses  against  a  portion  of  two 
teeth  of  the  opposite  set.  When  all  opposing 
pressure  fails  the  tooth  thus  rendered  function¬ 
less  tends  to  be  extruded.  This  alternating  ar¬ 
rangement  prevents  the  loss  of  one  tooth  from 
greatly  affecting  the  teeth  of  the  opposite  set. 
Most  mammals  are  diphyodont — i.e.,  possess  two 
sets  of  dentition — viz.,  the  deciduous  or  milk 
dentition  and  the  permanent  teeth.  In  most  of 
the  fishes  as  well  as  in  many  of  the  Amphibia 
and  reptiles  the  teeth  can  be  renewed  indefinitely. 
A  few  mammals,  viz.,  the  Cetacea  and  Edentata, 
are  monophyodont,  i.e.,  possess  only  one  set  of 
teeth.  The  milk  teeth  are  supplanted  by  a  proc¬ 
ess  of  absorption  which  goes  on  in  certain  cases 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  root  is  practically 
removed.  This  removal  is  effected  by  giant  cells 
analogous  to,  if  not  identical  with,  the  osteo¬ 
clasts  that  tear  down  bone.  The  teeth  usually 
cease  to  grow  after  being  fully  formed,  but  in 
edentates  and  rodents  growth  continues  through¬ 
out  life,  and  is  necessary  in  order  to  supply  the 
wear  on  the  teeth  brought  about  by  the  gnawing 
habits  of  these  animals. 

Mammalian  teeth  are  classified  according  to 
their  shape  and  function  into  incisors,  canines, 
premolars,  and  molars.  The  four  front  teeth  in 
the  case  of  man  are  blunt,  flattened,  and  chisel¬ 
shaped,  and  are  fitted  for  cutting  or  dividing  the 
food.  They  are  the  incisors.  In  recently  cut 
incisors  the  cutting  edge  is  raised  in  three  scal¬ 
lops,  which  soon  wear  away.  The  edge  of  the 
incisor  is  formed  by  a  beveling  off  of  the  dentine 
on  the  inner  or  lingual  surface.  The  two  central 
upper  incisors  in  man  are  slightly  larger  than 
the  two  laterals.  This  difference  is  more  marked 
in  anthropoid  apes.  The  lower  central  incisors 
are  narrower  than  those  of  the  upper  jaw.  The 
lower  lateral  incisors  are  larger  than  the  lower 
central  pair.  The  two  canines  or  eyeteeth  on 
each  jaw  are  stronger  both  in  root  and  crown 
than  the  incisors.  The  crown  is  blunt  and 
pointed.  The  canines  are  succeeded  by  two  pre¬ 
molars  or  bicuspids  on  each  side  of  the  jaw, 
which  correspond  to  the  three  and  four  premo¬ 
lars  of  the  typical  mammalian  dentition.  Their 
crowns  possess  two  cusps.  The  root  is  normally 
single,  but  is  often  grooved  or  cleft  by  a  longi¬ 
tudinal  furrow  into  two  or  even  three  roots. 
The  preraolars  of  the  lower  jaw  are  smaller  than 
those  of  the  upper.  The  molars  are  three  in 


TEETH 


44 


TEFFT 


number  on  each  side  of  the  jaw.  The  form  of 
the  first  molar  is  the  most  constant.  The  roots 
are  three  in  number.  The  third  molar,  or  wis¬ 
dom  tooth,  is  the  most  variable  as  to  its  time  of 
appearance;  it  may  be  cut  almost  as  soon  as  the 
other  molars,  or  many  years  later,  or  not  at  all. 

In  existing  mammals  there  is  a  certain  degree 
of  gradation  between  the  forms  of  the  teeth. 
The  typical  number  of  mammalian  teeth  is  44. 
The  human  number  is  32  in  the  permanent  set 
and  20  in  the  milk  set.  In  the  human  set  the 
third  incisor  and  the  first  two  premolars  of  the 
typical  mammalian  set  are  absent,  hence  at  the 
canines  in  man  there  is  an  abrupt  change  both 
in  front  and  behind.  For  convenience  and  brev¬ 
ity  the  number  and  kinds  of  teeth  of  mammals 
are  usually  designated  by  means  of  a  formula 
as  follows: 

For  marsupials: 

if  c\  pm  |  m  £  =  44- 

For  eutlierian  mammals: 

if  c\  pm  %  m  j  =  44- 

Tor  man: 

i  i  c  \  pm  f  m  f  =  32. 

See  cut  in  Child,  Development  of. 

It  is  often  verv  difficult  to  determine  which 
teeth  are  to  be  accounted  incisors,  canines,  etc., 
and  the  following  rule  is  sometimes  employed: 

Incisors,  upper  jaw,  on  premaxilla. 

Incisors,  lower  jaw,  correspond  to  upper. 

Canines  of  upper  jaw,  next  tooth  immediately 
behind  suture  of  maxilla  and  premaxilla. 

Canines  of  lower  jaw,  close  in  front  of  upper 
canine. 

Premolars  replace  milk  molars. 

Molars,  behind  milk  molars  (when  present). 

A  tooth  is  usually  described  as  consisting  of 
three  parts — the  crown,  neck,  and  root — and  is 
composed  of  three  hard  secretions — the  dentine, 
enamel,  and  cement — and  a  central  pulp  cavity. 
The  human  tooth  fits  into  the  jawbone  much 
like  a  peg  into  its  socket.  This  manner  of  union 
is  termed  gomphosis.  The  tooth  does  not,  how¬ 
ever,  occupy  the  entire  socket,  for  there  is  be¬ 
sides  a  lining  of  periosteum,  which  at  the  root 
turns  upward  around  the  tooth  as  far  as  fihe 
neck,  where  it  becomes  continuous  with  the 
gums.  This  packing  around  the  tooth  is  some¬ 
what  elastic  and  allows  of  slight  motion.  The 
elasticity  of  the  packing  doubtless  diminishes 
the  shock  which  would  be  caused  in  mastication 
were  the  teeth  rigidly  attached  in  their  bony 
sockets.  When  the  periosteum  is  inflamed  the 
swelling  pushes  the  tooth  outward  in  the  socket 
and  loosens  it.  The  dentine  forms  the  great 
mass  of  the  tooth,  surrounds  the  pulp  cavity, 
and  is  covered,  in  the  human  tooth,  by  a  layer  of 
enamel,  the  hardest  of  animal  tissues;  in  other 
mammals  this  layer  of  enamel  may  cover  all  or 
only  a  part  of  the  exposed  portion  of  the  tooth 
or  may  be  absent.  The  condition  that  more 
commonly  prevails  is  that  the  enamel  envelops 
the  entire  crown  of  the  tooth  and  stops  rather 
abruptly  at  about  the  level  of  the  gum. 

In  its  finer  structure  dentine  is  in  some  cases 
difficult  to  distinguish  from  true  bone.  Typical 
dentine,  such  as  exists  in  human  teeth,  differs 
from  bone  both  in  structure  and  in  chemical 
composition,  and  is  known  as  hard  or  unvascular 
dentine.  It  is  hard,  elastic  substance  with  a 
yellowish-white  hue,  which  is  made  up  of  a 
number  of  minute,  wavy,  branching  tubules, 
parallel  to  one  another  and  opening  internally 


into  the  pulp  cavity.  These  tubuli  contain  finely 
cylindrical  prolongations  (dentinal  fibres)  from 
cells  in  the  pulp  cavity,  intimately  connected 
with  the  nerves  of  the  pulp.  The  different  kinds 
of  dentine  have  been  classified  as  ( 1 )  hard  or 
unvascular  dentine;  (2)  plicidentine;  (3)  vaso- 
dentine;  (4)  osteodentine.  The  unvascular 
dentine  has  been  described  above.  In  the  sec¬ 
ond  class  the  pulp  cavity  is  irregular  in  out¬ 
line,  with  many  tubes  and  canals  traversing  the 
dentine  in  various  directions,  some  carrying 
blood  vessels.  Such  a  condition  obtains  in  many 
of  the  lower  vertebrates  and  in  some  mammals. 
The  osteodentine  closely  approaches  bone  in 
structure.  In  it  pulp  and  calcified  tissue  are 
mixed  up,  for  there  is  no  distinct  pulp  cavity. 
Such  dentine  is  found  in  the  teeth  of  many 
sharks. 

The  cement  forms  a  coating  over  the  roots  of 
the  teeth  and  when  unusually  thick  may  even 
unite  the  roots  of  contiguous  teeth.  In  the  hu¬ 
man  teeth  it  extends  upward  to  cover  the  edge 
of  the  enamel.  It  covers,  at  first,  the  entire 
teeth  of  certain  vertebrates,  such  as  the  ele¬ 
phant,  and  covers  the  crowns  of  the  teeth  of 
ruminants.  It  is  derived  from  the  tooth  follicle 
and  is  closely  allied  to  bone. 

The  cavity  of  the  tooth  is  filled  with  the  tooth 
pulp,  which  is  composed  of  a  gelatinous  matrix 
and  contains  cells,  nerves,  and  blood  vessels. 
The  outermost  cells,  known  as  odontoblasts, 
form  a  layer  next  the  bone.  These  cells  are  con¬ 
nected  by  processes  with  one  another  and  with 
deeper-lying  cells,  and  on  the  periphery  the  proc¬ 
esses  extend  into  the  dental  tubuli. 

The  gums  are  continuous  with  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth,  but  are  much  thickened. 
Within  the  gums  are  tendinous  fasciculi,  and 
others  extend  up  into  them  from  the  periosteum. 
These  give  the  gums  hardness.  They  are  richly 
supplied  with  blood  vessels,  but  have  few  nerves. 
The  gums  are  continuous  with  the  periosteum  of 
the  alveoli,  a  connective  tissue  richly  supplied 
with  blood  vessels  and  nerves. 

Bibliography.  Richard  Owen,  Odontography, 
or  Teeth  of  Animals  (2  vols.,  London,  1845)  ; 
H.  F.  Osborn,  Evolution  of  Mammalian  Molar 
Teeth  (New  York,  1908)  ;  Symington  and  Ran¬ 
kin,  Atlas  of  Skiagrams  Illustrating  Develop¬ 
ment  of  the  Teeth  (ib.,  1908)  ;  B.  E.  Lischer, 
Principles  and  Methods  of  Orthodontics  (Phila¬ 
delphia,  1912)  ;  A.  Hopewell-Smith,  Introduction 
to  Dental  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  Descriptive 
and  Applied  (ib.,  1913)  ;  G.  V.  Black,  Work  on 
Special  Dental  Pathology  (Chicago,  1915)  ; 
F.  B.  Noyes,  Text-Book  of  Dental  Histology  and 
Embryology  (2d  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1915).  See 
Caries;  Dentistry;  Integument;  Skeleton. 

TEETHING.  See  Child,  Development  and 
Growth  of;  Teeth. 

TEFFIN,  Charles.  See  Armand. 

TEFFT,  Benjamin  Franklin  (1813-85).  An 
American  Methodist  Episcopal  clergyman.  He 
was  born  near  Utica,  N.  Y.,  and  graduated  at 
Wesleyan  University  in  1835.  He  served  as 
professor  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  languages  and 
literature  in  Indiana  Asbury  (now  De  Pauw) 
University  from  1843  to  1846;  as  editor  of  the 
Ladies’  Repository,  Cincinnati,  Ohio  (1846-50)  ; 
and  as  president  of  Genesee  College,  Lima,  N.  Y. 
(1851-54).  In  1862  he  became  United  States 
Consul  at  Stockholm  and  acting  Minister  to 
Sweden  and  later  was  commissioner  of  immigra¬ 
tion  from  the  north  of  Europe  for  the  State  of 
Maine.  From  1873  to  1878  he  edited,  at  Bangor, 


TEGEA 


45 


TEGXLER 


Me.,  the  Northern  Border.  He  wrote:  The  Shoul¬ 
der  Knot  ( 1850)  ;  Hungary  and  Kossuth  ( 1851)  ; 
Webster  and  his  Masterpieces  (1854);  Metho¬ 
dism  Successful  (1860);  The  Present  Crisis 
(1861);  Evolution  and  Christianity  (1885). 

TE'GEA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Te7ect).  An  ancient 
city  of  southeastern  Arcadia  (q.v. ).  Its  ter¬ 
ritory  included  the  southern  part  of  the  great 
eastern  plain  of  Arcadia,  of  which  the  northern 
part  was  occupied  by  Mantineia  (q.v.).  It  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  included  the  modern  villages  of 
Hagios  Sostis,  Palaio-Episkopi,  Piali,  and  Ib¬ 
rahim  Efl’endi,  south  of  Tripolitza,  though  but 
few  remains  are  visible,  partly  because  of  a  deep 
deposit  of  alluvium,  and  partly  from  the  de¬ 
struction  due  to  the  later  inhabitants.  The  most 
important  ruins  are  those  of  the  great  temple 
of  Athena  Alea,  built  by  Scopas  ( q.v. ) ,  excavated 
first  in  1879,  and  later,  in  1902  et  seq.,  by  the 
French  School  at  Athens.  The  dimensions  of  the 
temple  (about  163  X  70  feet)  and  important 
fragments  of  its  sculptures  were  determined  by 
Milchhofer  in  1879.  The  city  was  celebrated 
in  the  heroic  legends,  and  for  a  long  time  seems 
to  have  opposed  Sparta  on  equal  terms,  but 
during  the  sixth  century  b.c.  was  forced  to  join 
the  Spartan  League.  At  Thermopylae  there  were 
500  Tegeans,  and  at  Platsea  3000,  of  whom  one- 
half  were  hoplites.  Later  they  were  again  in¬ 
volved  in  war  with  Sparta,  and  after  two  defeats 
remained  true  allies  until  the  invasion  of  Epami- 
nondas  (370  b.c.),  when  a  democratic  government 
replaced  the  aristocracy,  and  the  city  joined  in 
the  foundation  of  Megalopolis  (q.v.).  Later  we 
find  Tegea  in  the  iEtolian  League,  in  alliance 
with  Sparta,  forced  into  the  Achaean  League,  at 
war  with  Sparta,  and  sharing  in  the  confused  poli¬ 
tics  which  mark  the  history  of  the  lesser  Pelopon¬ 
nesian  cities  during  the  third  and  second  cen¬ 
turies.  A  good  account  of  the  place  was  given 
by  Pausanias  (q.v.)  in  the  second  century  of 
our  era.  It  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  towns  of  Arcadia  till  it  was  sacked 
by  Alaric  ( q.v. ) .  Consult,  besides  the  larger 
works  on  the  Peloponnesus  (q.v.)  by  Dodwell, 
Leake,  Curtius,  and  others,  Schwedler,  De  Rebus 
Tegeaticis  (Leipzig,  1889)  ;  'laropla  rrjs  Teyeas, 
a  publication  of  the  Tegeatic  Syndesmos 
(Athens,  1896)  ;  and  the  article  “Tegea”  in 
Friedrich  Liibker,  Reallexikon  des  klassischen 
Altertums  (8th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914).  For  the 
fragments  of  sculpture  found  at  Tegea,  see  E.  A. 
Gardner,  A  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture  (2d 
ed.,  London,  1915).  See  Telephus. 

TEGERNSEE,  ta'gern-za'.  A  village  in 
Upper  Bavaria,  charmingly  situated  on  the  lake 
of  the  same  name,  with  an  imposing  castle,  for¬ 
merly  a  Benedictine  abbey,  founded  in  719  and 
suppressed  in  1804.  The  beautiful  walks  in  the 
environs  attract  numerous  visitors  in  the  sum¬ 
mer.  A  favorite  point  is  the  Grosse  Parapluie, 
2680  feet  high  and  affording  an  admirable  view 
of  the  lake  and  the  encircling  mountains.  The 
ophthalmic  clinic  established  by  the  late  Duke 
Karl  Theodor  of  Bavaria  is  still  much  frequented. 

TEGETMEIER,  teg'et-mi'er,  William  B. 
(1816-1912’).  An  English  naturalist  and  author, 
born  at  Colnbrook,  Buckinghamshire.  He  was 
educated  at  University  College,  London,  and  for 
a  time  studied  medicine,  but  turned  his  atten¬ 
tion  to  natural  history,  and  became  a  coworker 
with  Darwin  in  experiments  and  observations  on 
the  question  of  variation  (q.v.)  and  other  scien¬ 
tific  problems.  To  these  he  contributed  mainly 
by  study  of  domestic  animals  and  especially  of 


pigeons,  and  was  instrumental  in  advancing  the 
breeding  and  improvement  of  carrier  pigeons  and 
of  fine  poultry.  He  also  cooperated  with  Eleanor 
A.  Ormerod  (q.v.)  in  lessening  the  destructive 
influence  of  the  English  sparrow.  In  1857  he  be¬ 
came  a  leading  editor  and  essayist  of  The  Field 
(of  London),  with  which  he  was  connected  for 
50  years.  He  wrote:  The  Poultry  Book  (  1870)  ; 
The  Homing  Pigeon  (1872)  ;  Natural  History  of 
the  Cranes  (1881);  Pallas’s  Sand  Grouse 
(1888);  Table  and  Market  Poultry  (1895); 
Horses,  Zebras,  and  Mule  Breeding  (1895),  with 
C.  L.  Sutherland;  The  House  Sparrow  (1899); 
Pheasants  (5th  ed.,  1910). 

TEGETTHOFF,  ta'get-hof,  Wilhelm,  Baron 
(1827-71).  An  Austrian  admiral,  born  at  Mar¬ 
burg,  in  Styria.  He  entered  the  Austrian  navy, 
distinguished  himself  in  the  naval  encounter 
with  the  Danes  off  Helgoland  in  1864,  became 
rear  admiral,  and  in  the  war  of  1866  commanded 
the  Austrian  fleet  in  the  Adriatic.  On  the  20th 
of  July  he  attacked  and  defeated  the  Italian  fleet 
under  Admiral  Persano  oft'  the  island  of  Lissa, 
although  the  Italian  fleet  was  superior  in  num¬ 
ber  of  ironclads  to  the  Austrian.  For  this  vic¬ 
tory  Tegetthoff  was  promoted  vice  admiral.  In 
1867  he  was  sent  to  Mexico  to  obtain  from  the 
government  the  body  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian, 
and  in  1868  he  was  made  commander  in  chief  of 
the  navy. 

TEGKER,  teng-nar',  Esaias  (1782-1846).  A 
Swedish  poet  and  bishop,  born  at  Kyrkerud,  in 
Vermland.  Tegner  graduated  from  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Lund  (1802)  and  in  1805  became  sub¬ 
librarian  of  the  university  and  lecturer  on  aes¬ 
thetics.  In  1811  his  poem  on  Sweden  ( Svea ) 
won  him  universal  admiration  and  an  academic 
prize.  Already  his  war  songs  and  national  odes 
had  attracted  the  attention  of  the  King  and  gov¬ 
ernment.  In  1812  he  was  made  professor  of 
Greek  at  Lund,  and  for  the  next  decade  gave  him¬ 
self  almost  wholly  to  clerical  duties  and  theolog¬ 
ical  studies.  During  these  years  he  wrote  the 
remarkable  religious  idyls,  The  Pastor’s  Conse¬ 
cration  and  The  Children  of  the  Lord’s  Supper 
( Nattvardsbarnen ,  1820),  as  well  as  the  fine 
romantic  poem  Axel  (1822).  His  fame  rests  on 
the  Frithjof’s  Saga,  finished  in  1825,  the  most 
popular  poem  in  Swedish,  though  it  lacks  orig¬ 
inality  and  unity,  adhering  closely  to  the  legend 
on  which  it  is  founded  and  being  less  an  epic 
than  a  series  of  ballads  and  odes.  Even  while 
unfinished  it  had  sufficed  to  secure  for  Tegner 
the  nomination  of  the  clergy  to  the  bishopric 
of  Vexio  (1824).  In  1840  the  insanity  that 
afflicted  his  family  unmistakably  asserted  itself. 
After  a  period  in  an  asylum  he  returned  for  a 
while  to  active  work,  but  soon  became  paralytic 
and  so  lingered  till  death.  Thus  it  appears  that 
Tegn6r’s  significant  production  is  confined  to  the 
years  1811-25.  Frith jof  has  been  rendered  into 
almost  all  European  languages  and  19  times  into 
English,  best  by  Longfellow,  who  also  translated 
N attvardsbarnen.  It  was  effective  in  banishing 
classical  French  taste  from  Sweden  and  in  in¬ 
troducing  the  literary  ideals  of  the  Romantic 
school,  though  Tegner  always  kept  the  clearness 
and  artistic  finish  that  go  with  calm  objectivity. 
His  verse  is  melodious,  graceful,  dignified,  yet 
fresh,  vigorous,  and  not  without  national  or  re¬ 
ligious  enthusiasm.  See  Swedish  Language 
and  Literature. 

Tegn6r’s  Works  were  collected  in  seven  vol¬ 
umes  (Stockholm,  1847-51).  Three  volumes  of 
supplementary  writings  were  printed  (ib.,  1873- 


TEGUAN 


46 


TEHUELCHE 


74),  and  a  jubilee  edition  was  issued  in  seven 
volumes  (ib.,  1882-85).  The  more  impor¬ 

tant  poems  are  in  English,  French,  and  German 
translations.  A  Life  by  Bottiger  is  prefixed  to 
the  first  collected  edition  of  the  Works.  Consult 
also:  H.  L.  A.  Kippenberg,  Esias  Tegn6r  (Leip¬ 
zig,  1884)  ;  H.  H.  Boyesen,  Essays  on  Scandina¬ 
vian  Literature  (New  York,  1895);  Georg 
Brandes,  Eminent  Authors  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  English  translation  by  R.  B.  Anderson 
(ib.,  1896)  ;  Erdmann,  Esaias  Tegn£r  (Stock¬ 
holm,  1896). 

TEGUAN,  te-gwan',  or  TAGUAN.  One  of 
the  local  names  of  a  flying  phalanger  of  New 
South  Wales  (Petanrista  volans) ,  which  is  black 
and  about  the  size  of  the  large  Indian  flying 
squirrels.  It  resembles  the  other  flying  pha- 
langers  (q.v. )  in  the  possession  of  an  effective 
parachute,  and  in  its  habits. 

TEGUCIGALPA,  ta'gbo-sS-gal'pa.  The  capi¬ 
tal  of  Honduras,  Central  America,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  upper  course  of  the  Choluteca,  78 
miles  from  its  seaport,  Amapala,  on  the  Gulf 
of  Fonseca  (Map:  Central  America,  D  3).  It 
has  a  .healthful  location  on  a  table-land  3250 
feet  above  sea  level,  in  a  thickly  populated  por¬ 
tion  of  the  republic.  The  region  is  agricultural, 
and  has  mines  of  gold  and  silver  and  marble, 
though  the  latter  have  lost  their  former  impor¬ 
tance.  Its  cathedral  is  the  most  important  struc¬ 
ture  of  the  republic.  There  are  a  national  uni¬ 
versity  and  a  ladies’  seminary.  Tegucigalpa  was 
an  Aztec  city  and  a  place  of  some  importance 
during  the  eighteenth  century.  It  became  the 
capital  of  Honduras  in  1880.  Pop.  (est. ),  22,923. 

TEHAPHNEHES.  See  Tahpanhes. 

TEHERAN,  or  TEHRAN,  te-h’-ran'.  The 
capital  of  Persia  and  of  the  Province  of  Teheran, 
70  miles  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  on  a  sandy 
and  stony  plateau  90  by  40  miles  in  extent 
(Map:  Persia,  D  5).  Its  elevation  is  3800  feet. 
In  1869  the  Shah  caused  the  mud  walls  of  the 
city  to  be  torn  down  and  five  years  later  it  was 
surrounded  by  a  ditch  and  58  unequal  bastions, 
after  the  first  system  of  Vauban.  It  is  now  in 
the  form  of  an  irregular  octagon;  the  perimeter 
measures  a  little  over  12  miles,  incloses  an  area 
of  7  %  square  miles,  and  has  12  gates.  Several 
broad,  handsome  boulevards  have  been  laid  out, 
and  are  lighted  by  gas,  and  a  beginning  has  been 
made  in  the  Western  style  of  architecture,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  northern  part  of  the  city.  The  sani¬ 
tary  conditions  have  likewise  become  improved. 
There  are  7  miles  of  tramways,  and  a  railway 
(opened  in  1888)  to  Shah-Abdul-Azim,  6  miles 
south  of  the  capital.  The  Ark,  or  fortified  palace 
of  the  Shah,  in  the  middle  of  the  city,  contains 
prisons,  a  military  school,  beautiful  gardens, 
baths,  kiosks,  and  several  other  handsome  build¬ 
ings,  including  the  harem.  The  wealthy  citizens 
dwell  in  elaborate  establishments  with  gardens 
and  tiny  ponds.  South  of  the  Ark  are  the 
bazars,  the  centre  of  the  city’s  life.  The  town 
has  a  library,  founded  in  1850,  a  normal  school, 
a  military  college,  and  Kings’  College,  a  poly¬ 
technic  school  (1849),  with  European  professors, 
where  Arabic,  English,  French,  and  Russian, 
mathematics,  telegraphy,  engineering,  military 
tactics,  music,  and  painting  are  taught.  To 
some  of  the  many  mosques  are  attached  mad- 
rassehs  (colleges).  The  mosques  called  Masjid- 
i-Shad  (mosque  of  the  King),  with  a  beautiful 
enameled  facade,  the  Masjid-i-Madar-i-Shah 
(mosque  of  the  King’s  mother),  and  the  Masjid- 
i-Sipahsalar  deserve  mention ;  all  of  them  are 


modern.  There  are  many  baths,  Mohammedan 
and  Armenian,  the  Europeans  using  the  latter. 
During  the  summer,  on  account  of  unhealthful - 
ness  and  intolerable  heat,  the  embassies  and 
the  wealthier  inhabitants  move  to  the  mountain 
slopes. 

Water  is  furnished  by  underground  canals 
from  the  mountains.  The  supply,  though  abun¬ 
dant,  is  not  regulated,  because  of  private  owner¬ 
ship  of  many  canals,  and  the  city  accordingly 
suffers  from  a  lack  of  water  in  summer  and  a 
superfluity  in  winter.  Irrigation  is  thus  pro¬ 
vided,  however,  and  the  surrounding  country  has 
become  highly  productive.  Teheran  manufac¬ 
tures  cotton,  linen,  carpets,  shoes,  hats,  and  iron¬ 
work,  but  is  not  a  leading  centre  of  manufactur¬ 
ing.  It  has,  however,  an  important  general  cara¬ 
van  trade.  An  excellent  highway  217  miles  long, 
constructed  by  Russian  capital,  and  completed  in  , 
1899,  extends  from  Resht  on  the  Caspian  to 
Teheran.  The  latter  is  also  connected  by  car¬ 
riage  road  with  Kom,  91  miles.  To  the  south  of 
the  city  lie  the  ruins  of  Rei,  the  birthplace  of 
Harim  al  Rashid,  known  in  the  time  of  Alex¬ 
ander  the  Great  as  Rag®,  the  Rhages  of  Scrip¬ 
ture,  the  capital  of  Parthia.  The  population  is 
greatest  in  winter,  when  it  probably  reaches 
about  280,000,  including  about  4000  Jews,  4000 
Armenians,  600  Europeans,  and  a  garrison  of 
3000  to  4000. 

TEHRI,  ta're,  or,  more  properly,  Garhwal. 
A  native  state  of  British  India  included  terri¬ 
torially  in  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra  and 
Oudh  (Map:  India,  D  2).  It  borders  upon 
Tibet,  and  lies  wholly  within  the  Himalaya, 
around  the  sources  of  the  Ganges,  being  a  highly 
elevated  and  rugged  mountain  region.  Area, 
4180  square  miles.  Pop.,  1901,  268,885;  1911, 
300,819.  Capital,  Tehri. 

TEHUANTEPEC,  ta-wan'ta-pek',  Isthmus 
of.  The  narrowest  portion  of  Mexico  as  well  as 
of  the  American  continent  north  of  Costa  Rica 
(Map:  Mexico,  M  10).  It  stretches  in  an  east 
and  west  direction  between  the  Gulf  of  Cam- 
peachy,  an  arm  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  west 
of  Yucatan,  on  the  north,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Tehuantepec,  an  arm  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on 
the  south.  Its  least  width,  from  Coatzacoalcos 
to  the  head  of  the  Lago  Superior,  is  120  miles. 
The  plateaus  of  Mexico  and  Guatemala  are  here 
separated  by  a  depression  falling  to  an  altitude 
of  680  feet.  This  fact  as  well  as  the  geographical 
position  of  the  isthmus  has  led  to  numerous 
plans  and  projects  for  some  means  of  interoce- 
anio  communication  at  this  point,  including  a 
possible  scheme  for  a  ship  canal.  A  railroad 
of  standard  gauge  and  150  miles  long  was  built 
across  the  isthmus  by  an  English  firm  and  was 
opened  in  1907.  It  is  operated  under  a  partner¬ 
ship  between  the  Mexican  government  and  the 
constructing  company.  Its  terminal  ports  are 
Puerto  Mexico  (Coatzacoalcos)  on  the  Gulf  and 
Salina  Cruz  on  the  Pacific. 

TEHUELCHE,  ta-wel'cha.  A  general  term 
for  several  different  Patagonian  tribes.  There  is 
evidence  that  the  Tehuelches  are  immigrants 
from  more  northern  portions  of  South  America, 
but  their  origin  is  doubtful.  They  occupy  a  rela¬ 
tively  small  territory  between  the  Strait  of  Ma¬ 
gellan  and  the  Santa  Cruz  River.  They  are  con¬ 
sidered  the  tallest  of  human  races.  Accurate  ob¬ 
servations  on  this  point  are  few,  but  the  average 
stature  of  male  Tehuelches  is  about  1.75  m.  They 
are  also  very  brachycephalic  in  head  form.  In  cul¬ 
ture  they  are  low.  Consult  Masters,  At  Home 


TEIAS 


47 


TEKNONYMY 


with  the  Patagonians  (London,  1871),  and  Lista, 
Viage  al  pais  de  Tehuelches  ( Buenos  Aires, 
1878). 

TEIAS.  See  Teja. 

TEICHNER,  Heinrich  der.  See  Heinrich 
der  Teichner. 

TEIGNMOUTH,  tm'miith.  A  seaport  and 
watering  place  on  the  south  coast  of  Devonshire, 
England,  situated  on  the  English  Channel,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Teign,  15  miles  south  of  Exeter 
(Map:  England,  C  6).  There  is  a  considerable 
sea  and  river  fishery.  An  average  of  1200  small 
vessels  clear  the  port  annually.  The  town  re¬ 
ceived  a  market  grant  from  Henry  III.  It  was 
burnt  by  the  Danes  in  970  and  by  the  French  in 
1340  and  1690.  Pop.,  1901,  8636;  1911,  9215. 

TEIGNMOUTH,  John  Shore,  first  Baron 
(1751-1834).  An  Anglo-Indian  statesman.  He 
was  born  in  London,  was  educated  at  Harrow, 
and  in  1769  entered  the  civil  service  of  the  East 
India  Company.  From  1775  to  1780  he  was  a 
member  of  the  revenue  council  at  Calcutta,  and 
was  appointed  by  Warren  Hastings  one  of  the 
committee  of  revenue  which  superseded  the  coun¬ 
cil.  After  a  visit  to  England  in  1785-86  he  re¬ 
turned  to  India  in  1787  as  a  member  of  the 
supreme  council  of  Bengal.  The  organization  of 
the  revenue  and  judicial  systems  of  Bengal  and 
the  measure  on  Zamindari  proprietorship  of  the 
soil  which  was  ratified  by  Lord  Cornwallis  were 
largely  due  to  Shore’s  initiative,  and  on  Corn¬ 
wallis’  retirement  in  1793  Shore  was  made 
Governor-General  of  India.  He  was  created  a 
baronet  in  1792.  On  his  retirement  in  1798  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Teignmouth. 
He  wrote  Memoirs  of  the  Life ,  Writings,  and 
Correspondence  of  Sir  William  Jones  (1804). 
Consult  C.  J.  S.  Teignmouth,  Life  and  Corre¬ 
spondence  of  John  Shore,  first  Baron  Teignmouth 
(2  vols.,  London,  1843). 

TEISSEIDRE,  Francois  Louis.  See  Fleury, 
Marquis  de. 

TEISSERENC  DE  BORT,  ta's’  -raNr  de  bor', 
Leon  (1855-1913).  A  French  meteorologist, 
born  at  Paris.  He  was  in  the  government  serv¬ 
ice  from  1882  to  1890,  when  he  resigned  to  do 
experimental  work.  He  fitted  out  the  Otarie, 
which  made  fruitful  cruises  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  tropical  Atlantic.  At  the  meteorological 
observatory  which  he  established  at  Trappes 
(Seine  et  Oise),  many  important  discoveries  in 
aerology  were  made.  His  work  was  several 
times  crowned  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  to 
which  he  was  elected  in  1910.  Most  of  his  writ¬ 
ings  appeared  in  the  Annales  du  bureau  central 
meteor ologiqwe,  but  he  published,  besides,  Distri¬ 
bution  de  nebulosite  d  la  surface  du  globe  ( 1884)  ; 
Etude  de  la  synthese  sur  la  repartition  des 
pressions  a  la  surface  du  globe  (1887)  ;  Mesure 
des  hauteurs  des  nuages  par  la  photographic 
(1895)  ;  Etude  de  V atmosphere  marine  par  son- 
daqes  aeriens  ( 1909 ) . 

TEIXEIRA  DE  MATTOS,  ta-sha'ra  da 
mat'tbs,  Alexander  Louis  (1865-  ).  An 

English  journalist,  born  at  Amsterdam.  In 
1874  he  settled  in  England,  and  later  was  Lon¬ 
don  correspondent  for  Dutch  newspapers.  He 
served  as  editor  of  Dramatic  Opinions  in  1891, 
and  as  assistant  editor  and  editor  of  the  Candid 
Friend  in  1901-02.  He  became  widely  known 
for  his  translations  from  the  Danish,  Dutch, 
Flemish,  French,  and  German,  and  especially  for 
those  of  Maurice  Maeterlinck,  Carl  Ewald,  Mau¬ 
rice  Leblanc,  and  J.  H.  C.  Fabre  (qq.v. ). 

TE'JA,  or  TEIAS.  The  last  King  of  the 


Ostrogoths.  He  was  chosen  King  after  the  death 
of  Totila  (q.v. ),  who  fell  in  battle  against  the 
Byzantines  under  Narses,  at  Tadino,  552  a.d. 
The  Gothic  Kingdom  received  its  deathblow  in 
that  battle  and  it  was  left  to  Teja  only  to  prolong 
the  hopeless  struggle.  He  sought  to  gain  the 
aid  of  the  Frankish  King  Theudebald,  but  failed. 
While  marching  to  the  relief  of  Cumse  he  was 
met  by  the  Imperial  army  under  Narses  and 
thereupon  took  up  an  impregnable  position  near 
the  foot  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  where  the  Goths 
were  invested  by  the  enemy.  After  two  months 
want  of  food  compelled  the  Goths  to  abandon 
their  position  and  they  retired  to  the  Lactavan 
Hill,  whence  they  made  a  desperate  onslaught  on 
the  Romans.  In  the  two  days’  battle  Teja  per¬ 
ished  after  performing  wonderful  deeds  of  valor 
(553).  The  remnant  of  the  Goths  were  per¬ 
mitted  to  leave  Italy.  Consult  Cambridge  Medi¬ 
eval  History,  vol.  ii  (New  York,  1913).  See 
Goths. 

TEJADA,  ta-Ha'Da,  Lerdo  de.  See  Lerdo  de 
Tejada. 

TEJEND  (tej'end)  RIVER.  See  Heri-Rud. 

TEJON,  ta-non'.  The  Mexican  name  of  the 
local  species  of  badger  (q.v.). 

TEJU,  te-yoo/  (abbreviation  of  Tejuguacu,  the 
native  name).  A  large  and  powerful  South 
American  lizard  of  the  family  Tejidae,  and  espe¬ 
cially  of  its  principal  genus,  Tupinambis.  This 
family  comprises  nearly  40  genera  with  more 
than  100  species,  and  exhibits  great  diversity, 
from  its  wide  range,  covering  all  South  and  Cen¬ 
tral  America,  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  and  the 
southwestern  United  States.  The  largest  of  the 
family  ( Tupinambis  teguexin )  is  3  feet  long 
to  the  end  of  its  long,  terete,  tapering  tail;  is 
bluish  black  with  irregular  yellow  crossbands, 
and  reddish  yellow  underneath.  They  frequent 
woodlands  and  plantations,  living  in  burrows. 
They  are  carnivorous  and  are  able  by  swiftness 
and  agility  to  capture  small  animals. 

TEKELI,  tek'e-li.  An  Hungarian  patriot. 
See  Tokoly. 

TEKIYE,  ta-ke'ye.  A  Mohammedan  mon¬ 
astery  inhabited  by  dervishes  (q.v.)  or  other 
ascetics.  The  larger  tekiye  are  built  about  an 
arcaded  court,  beyond  which  are  the  chambers, 
sometimes  covered  with  domes;  the  smaller  ex¬ 
amples  are  often  mere  ordinary  houses.  Well- 
known  examples  are  the  tekiye  of  the  whirling 
dervishes  at  Pera,  that  of  the  howling  dervishes 
at  Scutari  (Constantinople),  and  the  one  built 
near  Damascus  by  Sultan  Selim  I  in  1516. 

TEKNON'YMY  (from  Gk.  rervov,  teknon, 
child  J-  owya,  onyma,  ovoya,  onoma,  name).  A 
custom  found  among  certain  savage  groups 
whereby  a  father  (in  some  cases  both  parents) 
after  the  birth  of  a  child  is  known  as  the  par¬ 
ent  of  so-and-so.  The  custom  is  seen  most  com¬ 
pletely  developed  in  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
Celebes,  and  the  neighboring  islands.  It  is  also 
found  among  Arabs  and  Persians,  in  Alaska, 
among  the  Cree,  Hopi,  and  Zuni  of  North  Amer¬ 
ica,  in  Oceania,  Australia,  and  South  Africa. 
The  more  commonly  accepted  explanation  of  the 
custom  is  that  the  assumption  by  the  father  of 
his  child’s  name  is  an  assertion  on  his  part  of 
his  fatherhood  and  is  indicative  of  the  growth  of 
the  patriarchal  idea.  Another  view  is  that  it  is 
the  result  of  migration,  the  children  of  immi¬ 
grants  who  have  intermarried  with  older  resi¬ 
dent  populations,  forming  a  natural  bond  between 
the  two  distinct  races,  wherefore  the  strange 
names  of  their  fathers  would  be  supplemented 


TEKUTCHIU 


48 


TELEGRAPH 


by  expressions  simply  designating  them  as  the 
parents  of  their  offspring.  The  probabilities  are 
that  a  number  of  customs  of  diverse  origin  are 
included  under  the  term.  Consult  E.  B.  Tylor, 
in  Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Institute,  vol. 
xviii  (London,  1889),  and  W.  H.  R.  Rivers,  The 
History  of  Melanesian  Society,  vol.  i  (Cam¬ 
bridge,  1915). 

TEKUTCHIU,  ta-kbo'clie.  A  town  of  Ruma¬ 
nia.  See  Tecuciu. 

TEL'AMON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  TeXa/jubv).  In 
Greek  mythology,  the  son  of  iEacus.  Having 
been  driven  out  of  iEgina  ( q.v. )  for  helping 
Peleus  (q.v.)  to  kill  their  half  brother  Phocus, 
he  married  Glauce,  daughter  of  the  King  of 
Salamis,  and  became  King  of  the  island.  He 
was  the  father  of  Ajax  the  Greater  (see  Ajax), 
took  part  in  the  hunt  of  the  Calydonian  Boar 
(q.v.)  and  the  Argonautic  expedition  (see  Ar¬ 
gonauts  ) ,  and  went  with  Hercules  ( q.v. )  against 
Troy  and  the  Amazons. 

In  architecture  the  term  is,  for  some  obscure 
reason,  often  applied  to  male  human  sculptured 
figures  supporting  entablatures,  balconies,  or 
the  like,  more  often  and  more  properly  called 
atlantes.  See  Atlas. 

TELANG,  te-liing',  or  TELANGA,  te-lan'ga, 
Ivashinath  Trimbak  (1850-93).  A  Hindu 
judge.  He  was  born  and  educated  at  Bombay. 
In  1872  he  was  enrolled  as  a  barrister.  In  1881 
he  became  a  syndic  of  the  University  of  Bombay, 
and  in  1889  was  appointed  to  a  seat  on  the  high- 
court  bench.  In  1892  he  became  vice  chancellor 
of  the  university  and  president  of  the  Bombay 
branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  Among  his 
works  may  be  mentioned  the  translation  into 
English  prose  and  verse  of  the  Bhagavad-Cita 
(q.v.)  in  the  “Sacred  Books  of  the  East,'*’  vol.  viii 
(1898),  and  a  criticism  of  Weber’s  theory  that 
the  Ramayana  (q.v.)  showed  Homeric  influence. 
He  edited  the  Niti-  and  Vdirdgya-gatanas  (1874) 
of  Bhartrihari  (q.v.),  and  the  Mudrdrdksasa 
(1884)  of  Vi&akhadatta  (q.v.).  He  also  trans¬ 
lated  into  Marathi  ( q.v. ) ,  his  native  dialect, 
Lessing’s  Nathan  the  Wise  and  an  essay  on 
Social  Compromise. 

TELAU'TOGRAPH  (from  Gk.  rrjXe,  tele , 
afar  +  avros,  autos,  self  -f-  7 pacfeLv,  graphein, 
to  write).  An  autographic  writing  telegraph 
invented  by  Elisha  Gray.  This  system  com¬ 
prises  a  transmitter,  receiver,  and  circuit  con¬ 


nections.  A  typical  station  equipment  is  shown 
in  the  illustration.  Two  wires  are  employed 
to  connect  transmitting  and  receiving  stations. 
The  operating  mechanisms  and  simple  circuit 
connections,  not  inclusive  of  the  announcing 
buzzer  and  inking  details,  are  shown  in  the 
diagram.  At  the  transmitter,  the  pencil  P  is 
attached  by  lever,  ll^,  to  two  circuit  contact 
rollers,  rr,  which  bear  against  the  surface  of 
two  inversely  placed  horn-shaped  rheostats. 


The  transmitted  current  from  each  rheostat 
varies  with  the  position  of  its  respective  roller, 
such  position  shifting  with  motion  of  the  send¬ 
ing  pencil.  These  varying  currents  are  led  by 
circuits  to  coils,  CC,  at  the  receiving  instru¬ 
ment;  these  are  wound  on  copper  bobbins  and 
suspended  in  strong  uniform  magnetic  fields. 
As  the  transmitted  current  varies  in  size  owing 
to  shifting  of  the  pencil  at  the  transmitting 
station,  the  coils  shift  their  positions.  The 
pen,  P',  of  the  receiver  is  attached  to  the 
arms  of  crank  levers,  which  are  in  frictional 
contact  with  the  supports  of  coils,  CC.  Thus, 
as  the  coils  shift  position  owing  to  the  change 
of  current  in  them,  the  resulting  motion  of  the 
pen  corresponds  to  that  of  the  sending  pencil 
and  the  handwriting  of  the  operator  is  repro¬ 
duced.  This  device  is  quite  extensively  employed 
in  banking  houses,  department  stores,  clubs,  and 
government  offices  for  the  transmission  of  orders 
or  instructions  from  one  department  to  another. 

TELAV,  tye-laf'.  An  old  district  town  in  the 
Government  of  Tiflis,  Russian  Transcaucasia,  63 
miles  east-northeast  of  Tiflis  (Map:  Russia,  G 
6).  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  Kachetia 
and  has  ruins  of  old  palaces.  Pop.,  1910,  15,231, 
chiefly  Armenians  and  Georgians. 

TELEDU,  tePe-dbo.  See  Badger. 

TELEG'ONUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  TtjX^ows ) . 
The  son  of  Ulysses  ( q.v. )  by  Circe  ( q.v. ) .  Hav¬ 
ing  been  sent  to  Ithaca  to  find  his  father,  he 
failed  to  recognize  him  in  combat  and  slew  him, 
afterward  taking  the  body  home,  together  with 
Telemachus  (q.v.)  and  Penelope  (q.v.),  whom  he 
married.  He  was  looked  upon  as  the  founder  of 
the  Italian  cities  Tusculum  (q.v.)  and  Prseneste 
(q.v.),  and,  through  his  daughter  Mamilia,  as 
the  ancestor  of  the  Roman  Mamilii.  His  story  is 
the  theme  of  the  Telegonia  or  Telegony.  See 
Cyclic  Poets;  Trojan  War. 

TELEG'ONY  (from  Gk.  rrjXe,  tele,  afar  -f- 
-7 ovia,  -gonia,  generation,  from  yovos,  gonos, 
seed,  from  yiyvecrQcu,  gignesthai,  to  become,  to  be 
born ) .  The  influence  of  the  first  or  of  a  pre¬ 
vious  sire  on  the  subsequent  progeny  obtained 
by  other  sires.  That  the  first  impregnation  has 
a  lasting  influence  has  been  generally  accepted 
by  breeders.  Weissmann,  however,  states  that 
the  most  competent  judges  in  Germany,  such  as 
Stettegast,  Nathusius,  and  Ktihn,  in  spite  of 
their  extensive  experience  in  breeding  and  cross¬ 
ing,  have  never  known 
a  case  of  telegony,  and 
doubt  its  reality.  See 
Breeding. 

TELEGRAPH 
(from  Gk.  rijXe,  tele, 
afar  -f-  7 paepeu',  gra¬ 
phein,  to  write). 
Strictly  defined  the 
word  “telegraph” 
means  to  write  at  a 
distance,  though  to¬ 
day  the  word  is  em¬ 
ployed  to  designate 
any  means  whereby  a  message  is  transmitted  by 
signs  or  sounds  other  than  the  spoken  word. 
Thus,  generally  speaking,  the  smoke  and  flame 
signaling  used  since  biblical  times  (Ex.  xiii. 
21),  heliographs,  semaphores,  etc.,  would  be 
considered  telegraphing.  However,  these  devices, 
discussed  under  Signaling  and  Telegraphing, 
Military,  will  not  be  treated  in  the  present 
article,  which  deals  with  the  electric  telegraph. 

History.  The  earliest  reference  to  the  use  of 


TELEGRAPH 


49 


TELEGRAPH 


electricity  for  the  sending  of  signals  is  found  in 
an  article  in  the  Scots  Magazine  of  February, 
1753,  which  suggested  the  use  of  frictional  elec¬ 
tricity.  In  1774  Le  Sage  of  Switzerland  con¬ 
structed  a  telegraph  system  about  1  mile  long, 
which  comprised  24  line  wires,  one  for  each  let¬ 
ter,  with  pith  balls  suspended  at  each  terminal, 
utilizing  the  well-known  phenomenon  that  light 
substances  are  repelled  upon  electrification. 
Through  the  use  of  frictional  electricity  applied 
at  the  sending  end  of  the  wires,  Le  Sage  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  transmitting  intelligible  signals  to  the 
receiving  end.  Francis  Ronalds  later  (1815)  de¬ 
vised  an  alphabetical  telegraph  system  which 
also  employed  frictional  electricity  as  the  actu¬ 
ating  agent.  Synchronously  rotating  dials  were 
placed  at  the  sending  and  receiving  terminals, 
and  back  of  these  dials  the  letters  of  the  alpha¬ 
bet  were  arranged  in  a  circle.  A  slot  was  cut  in 
the  face  of  each  dial  through  which,  as  the  dials 
rotated,  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  could  be  seen. 
Upon  a  certain  signal  the  rotating  mechanisms 
of  the  dials  were  set  in  motion,  and  as  the 
windows  exposed  a  desired  letter  the  current 
was  applied,  and  pith  balls  suspended  at  the 
terminals  of  a  wire  connecting  the  stations  were 
caused  to  swing;  in  this  manner  the  message  was 
spelled  out.  In  1839  DeHerr  of  Holland  pro¬ 
posed  a  system  employing  the  physiological  ef¬ 
fect  of  the  electric  current.  In  this  scheme  10  > 
wires  were  employed  between  two  stations.  At 
the  receiving  end  the  operator  placed  his  fingers 
and  thumbs  on  the  10  terminals  respectively,  and 
with  the  passage  of  the  current  in  a  predeter¬ 
mined  manner  the  shock  would  indicate  the  mes¬ 
sage  sent.  Telegraph  systems  depending  upon 
the  use  of  frictional  electricity  are,  however, 
very  uncertain  on  account  of  the  great  leakage 
of  current  and  their  extreme  sensitiveness  to 
atmospheric  conditions. 

Allesandro  Volta  (q.v.),  professor  of  physics 
at  Como,  discovered  (1774)  that  electricity  could 
be  generated  by  chemical  means.  Following  this, 
several  more  or  less  successful  attempts  were 
made  between  1806  and  1830  to  employ  the 
electrochemical  action  of  the  voltaic  current  to 
record  messages.  Dyar’s  recorder  of  1826  em¬ 
ployed  the  action  of  electric  currents  on  iodine 
solutions  as  a  means  of  recording  messages. 

Oersted  (q.v.)  of  Copenhagen  (1820)  made 
the  great  discovery  that  a  magnet  needle  would 
be  deflected  from  its  normal  position  when  placed 
parallel  to  a  wire  conveying  an  electric  current, 
and,  further,  that  the  deflection  was  to  the  right 
or  left,  depending  upon  the  direction  of  current 
flow.  Employing  a  coil  of  wire  within  which 
the  magnetic  needle  was  suspended,  the  effect 
is  multiplied  and  a  sensitive  current-indicating 
device  or  galvanometer  (q.v.)  is  produced.  Fol¬ 
lowing  this  epoch-making  disclosure,  many 
needle-telegraph  systems  came  into  existence 
and  were  at  one  time  extensively  employed  in 
Europe,  those  of  Gauss  and  Weber  in  Germany 
and  of  Wheatstone  and  Cooke  in  England  being 
the  most  important.  Sturgeon  in  England 
(1824)  discovered  that  when  a  current  of  elec¬ 
tricity  was  caused  to  flow  in  a  coil  of  insulated 
wire,  surrounding  a  bar  of  soft  iron,  the  latter 
became  a  strong  magnet,  and  that  upon  inter¬ 
ruption  of  the  current  the  bar  immediately  lost 
its  magnetism.  Joseph  Henry  (q.v.)  of  Albany, 
N.  Y.  (1831),  set  up  the  first  experimental 
electromagnetic  telegraph  system,  employing 
as  elements  a  voltaic  battery  and  an  electro¬ 
magnet.  It,  however,  remained  for  Dr.  Samuel 


F.  B.  Morse  (q.v.)  of  New  York  (1837)  to  in¬ 
vent  the  telegraph  system  which  in  one  form  or 
another  is  the  basis  of  most  modern  land  systems. 
The  apparatus  first  used  by  Morse  lias  but  slight 
resemblance  to  the  instrument  used  to-day.  The 
original  Morse  relay  weighed  about  300  pounds, 
that  employed  to-day  weighs  about  3  pounds. 

Up  to  about  1870  the  Morse  single-message 
systems  were  the  only  practical  ones.  The 
duplex  method,  the  sending  of  two  messages 
simultaneously  in  opposite  directions,  was  not 
perfected  until  1872  by  J.  B.  Stearns.  The  di- 
plex,  used  to  send  two  messages  simultaneously 
in  one  direction,  was  invented  by  Thomas  A. 
Edison  in  1873,  and  the  quadruplex  system, 
sending  four  messages  in  pairs  of  two  in  oppo¬ 
site  directions  simultaneously,  was  invented  by 
him  in  1874.  To-day  the  duplex,  quadruplex,  and 
multiplex  systems  are  extensively  used  in  prac¬ 
tice,  and  the  field  of  electric  telegraphy  has  been 
extended  until  it  includes  municipal  fire  and 
police  alarm  systems,  stock-quotation  tickers, 
typewriting  and  autograph  telegraphs,  while  the 
submarine  telegraph,  as  first  exemplified  by 
Cyrus  W.  Field’s  commercial  cable,  has  been  in 
extensive  use  since  1865. 

Practice.  The  essential  elements  of  an  elec¬ 
tric  telegraph  system  are :  ( 1 )  means  for  pro¬ 
ducing  the  electric  current — the  battery  or  the 
generator;  (2)  means  for  conducting  the  elec¬ 
tric  current — the  line  wires;  (3)  means  for  con¬ 
trolling  the  duration  and  sometimes  the  direction 
of  the  current — the  key  or  transmitter;  (4) 
means  actuated  by  the  current  to  indicate  or  re¬ 
cord  the  messages — sounders,  recorders,  etc.  Thus 
the  art  of  electric  telegraphy  consists  in  the  pro¬ 
duction,  control,  and  organization  of  electrically 
actuated  signals,  these  being  either  visible  or 
audible.  Visible  signals  may  be  momentary  and 
vanishing,  as  in  the  earlier  forms  of  mirror  gal¬ 
vanometers,  or  they  may  be  permanent,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Morse  register  or  siphon  re¬ 
corder;  whereas  audible  signals  are  produced  by 
the  sounder  or  other  similar  device. 

A  simple  electric  circuit  is  represented  in 
Fig.  1,  wherein  W  is  the  conductor  circuit,  B 
the  electric  battery,  K  the  transmitting  key,  and 
R  the  receiver. 

Fig.  1  represents  a  complete  metallic  circuit, 
but  since  Steinheil  (1838)  showed  that  the  earth 
is  a  good  conductor,  the  dictates  of  economy 
lead  to  the  use  of  an  electric  circuit  for  tele¬ 
graphic  purposes,  one  side  of  which  comprises  a 
copper  conductor  and  the  other,  the  earth,  as  a 


R 


return;  i.e.,  a  grounded  circuit  is  used,  and  such 
a  circuit  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2,  wherein 
B,  K,  R,  and  W  have  the  same  significance  as  in 
Fig.  1,  while  G  and  G'  represent  the  ground 
plates.  These  are  copper  sheets  buried  well  be¬ 
low  the  surface  in  a  normally  moist  soil. 

Types  of  Circuits.  There  are  two  general 
ways  in  which  a  telegraph  circuit  may  be  ar¬ 
ranged.  The  source  of  electricity  may  only  be 


TELEGRAPH 


50 


TELEGRAPH 


connected  to  the  line  when  a  message  is  to  be 
sent  or  the  generator  may  be  in  the  line  con¬ 
stantly  with  a  continuous  flow  of  the  current 


along  the  line,  the  message  being  sent  by  open¬ 
ing  the  circuit  and  interrupting  the  current 
flow.  These  methods  are  known  as  the  open- 
circuit  and  the  closed-circuit 
respectively. 

An  open-circuit  telegraph  line  comprising  three 
stations  is  represented  in  Fig.  3.  Each  station 
is  provided  with  a  controlling  key,  K,  a  battery, 


arrangements 


X 

/r 

X 

7  r 

± 

B  — 

L 

m 

1  b~t~ 

um 

i 

B.  -  _ 

mm  i 

Fig.  3.  open-circuit  telegraph. 

B,  and  a  receiver,  R.  The  receiver  and  the  bat¬ 
tery  are  in  different  branch  lines.  When  the  key, 

K,  at  any  station  is  up,  the  normal  condition, 
the  receiving  device  at  the  corresponding  station 
is  in  the  circuit.  When  the  key  is  pressed  down, 
the  receiving  device,  sounder,  or 
relay  is  cut  out,  and  the  corre¬ 
sponding  battery  is  placed  to  the 
circuit;  current  then  flows  over 
the  line  wire,  actuating  the  other 
receiving  devices,  causing  their 
movable  members,  the  armatures, 
to  be  drawn  forward.  In  this 
arrangement,  therefore,  each  sta¬ 
tion  will  transmit  signals  by  in- 
serting  its  own  battery  into  cir¬ 
cuit  at  the  proper  intervals,  and 
the  current  flow  thus  established  actuates  the 
receiving  devices  at  the  other  stations.  This 
arrangement  is  not  employed  in  America,  but 
is  encountered  in  European  practice. 

A  closed-circuit  telegraph  line 
three  stations  is  represented  in  Fig 


tained  if  a  battery  be  grouped  at  each  terminal 
station.  The  cells  of  the  battery  are  always  in 
the  line,  the  current  passing  normally  through 
the  rear  contacts  of  the  keys  and  through  the 
receiving  instruments  at  all  the  stations.  The 
circuit  is  interrupted  by  the  depression  of  any 
of  the  keys,  the  current  ceases  to  flow,  and  a 
signal  is  simultaneously  given  by  all  the  receiv¬ 
ing  instruments,  their  levers  or  armatures  being 
drawn  away  from  the  magnets  by  spring  action. 

The  primary  advantages  of  the  open-circuit 
system  are  that  in  the  case  of  audible  messages, 
received  with  a  sounder,  as  described  below,  the 
sound  is  made  on  the  forward  stop,  which  is 
clearer  than  that  given  out  by  the  armature 
striking  the  rear  stop ;  also  less  battery  material 
is  consumed  because  the  current  only  flows  when 
the  message  is  being  sent.  The  closed-circuit 
system,  however,  has  the  great  advantages  that 
the  line  is  under  constant  test,  the  operator 
hears  his  own  message,  and  the  battery  attend¬ 
ance  is  simplified,  as  the  power  plants  are  only 
at  terminal  stations. 

The  American  modification  of  the  Morse  sys¬ 
tem  is  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
This  is  the  standard 
arrangement  employed 
in  the  United  States, 
Canada,  and  Mexico. 
It  differs  from  the 
closed-circuit  system 
in  that  the  current 
does  not  pass  through 
the  back  stop  or  con¬ 
tact  of  the  operator’s 
key,  but  through  lever 
contact  or  plug,  as  shown  at  X.  This  is  in  prac¬ 
tice  part  of  the  operator’s  key  (Fig.  6).  To 
send  a  message  by  the  American  modification, 
the  circuit  is  first  opened  by  removing  the  plug 
at  X,  and  the  signals  thereafter  are  made  by 


kti 

5J_. 

▲ 

[ 

m 

M 

□  R  c 

i  V 

▲ 

qr  arm* 

-B 


-=— B 


H 


comprising 
4.  In  this 


K 


,  X 

J 


1 


Fig.  4.  closed-circuit  telegraph. 

depressing  the  key  to  close  the  circuit  at  the 
front  stop.  This  system  has  the  main  advan¬ 
tages  of  both  the  preceding  arrangements.  It 
has,  however,  a  serious  weakness  of  its  own, 
viz.,  an  operator  may  fail  to  close  the  circuit 
at  X  after  completing  his  message.  This  leaves 

the  system  inoperative,  just  as 
much  as  though  the  line  itself 
had  been  broken.  Many  auto¬ 
matic  schemes  have  been  sug¬ 
gested  to  remedy  this,  but  the 
most  effective  protection  has 
been  dismissal  of  the  individual 
who  failed  to  close  up  the  line. 

A  typical  Morse  key  of  the 
Bunnell  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 
A  is  the  lever  between  the  trun¬ 
nions  TT ;  the  lever  has  a  small 
up  and  down  motion,  limited  re¬ 
arrangement  a  battery  need  not  be  used  at  every  spectively  by  the  set  screw  8  at  the  rear  and  by 
station;  it  may  be  concentrated  all  at  one  end  the  contact  points  C  and  C'  at  the  front.  The 

of  the  line,  though  a  better  distribution  is  ob-  circuit  leads  go  to  the  binding  posts  PP’ .  The 


m 


nm 


Fig.  5.  American  standard  telegraph  circuit. 


TELEGRAPH 


5i 


TELEGRAPH 


circuit  is  normally  closed  by  the  side  lever  X , 
making  contact  with  the  tongue  attached  to  C. 
When  the  operator  wishes  to  send  a  message,  X 


Fig.  6.  American  telegraph  key. 


is  pushed  away  from  C  and  the  circuit  made  by 
pressing  down  on  A  to  make  C  and  C"  come  into 
contact. 

Code.  The  message  is  transmitted  by  the 
duration  of  time  of  contact  between  C  and  C". 
The  Morse  code  was  devised  by  Alfred  Vail 
(1837)  and  is  made  up  of  a  combination  of  ele¬ 
ments  :  the  dot,  the  dash,  the  ordinary  space, 
the  letter  space,  the  word  space,  and  the  sentence 
space.  The  dash  is  equal  to  two  dots  in  dura¬ 
tion  ;  the  ordinary  space  is  equal  to  the  dot  in 
duration;  the  letter  space  is  equal  to  two  dots 
in  duration;  the  word  space  is  equal  to  three 
dots,  and  the  sentence  space  is  equal  to  five 
dots.  The  typical  codes  are  shown  herewith 


circuit  and  American  modification  the  signal 
dot  or  dash  is  given  by  the  point  of  the  stop 
L'  striking  the  frame  Ii  on  its  downward  stroke. 
On  short-line  circuits  40  to  50  miles  in  length 
the  sounder  may  be  directly  in  the  main  circuit; 
in  such  cases  the  magnet  coils  of  about  1800 
turns  have  a  resistance  of  about  20  ohms,  and 
a  current  of  about  0.125  ampere  is  needed  to 
actuate  it. 

Relay  and  Local  Circuit.  When  the  line  is 
of  considerable  length  and  resistance,  and  its 


Fig.  9.  relay. 


insulation  only  fair,  it  is  most  difficult  to  main¬ 
tain  a  current  sufficiently  strong  to  actuate  a 
main-line  sounder.  This  is  overcome  by  intro¬ 
ducing  an  auxiliary  receiving  instrument,  the 
relay,  into  the  main  line  ( Fig.  9 ) .  The  arma¬ 
ture  is  very  light,  and  so  delicately  balanced  that 


AMERICAN  MORSE  CHARACTERS  CONTINENTAL  MORSE  ALPHABET 


•  E 

—  T 

•  E 

—  T 

I 

- M 

••  I 

- M 

...  g 

- 5 

...  g 

- O 

....  H 
....  p 

... .  6 

L 

- cipher 

....  h 

•—  A 
- W 

- Ch 

- N 

- D 

*—  A 

- 8 

- J 

— ...  p 

•—  U 

—  •  N 

- U 

- G 

•—  V 

- D 

- v 

- Z 

.  _  4 

- B 

- R 

- K 

O 

- G 

- L 

- C 

R 

- -  f 

- P 

- Y 

•  •  •  & 

- -  7 

- p 

- X 

C 

- W 

- Q 

•  •  •  z 

•  -  -  •  1 

1, - 

6, - 

.  ..  Y 

• - “Period” 

7, - 

—  •  F 

- —  K 

3,  •  - - 

8, - 

- Q 

- j 

4, - 

9, - 

- 3 

- “Comma” 

5, . 

0, - 

- X 

- 9 

Period, . 

- 2 

.  ? 

Comma,  •  —  •  —  •  — 

Fig.  7.  morse  alphabets. 


(Fig.  7).  The  Morse  code  is  used  in  America; 
the  Continental  on  cable  work,  wireless,  and  in 
Europe  and  in  all  countries  except  those  of 
North  America. 

Sounder.  A  typical  sounder  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8.  In  this  the  lever  or  armature  A  is 
attracted  by  the  magnet  E  when  the  current  flows 


through  the  winding.  The  motion  of  the  arma¬ 
ture  is  adjusted  between  the  stop  limits  L  and  // 
and  the  strength  by  the  spring  S.  In  the  open- 


only  a  small  current  is  required  to  actuate  it. 
However,  owing  to  the  lightness  it  does  not  give 
out  a  clear  sound,  hence  it  is  employed  to  open 
and  close  a  local  circuit  in  which  the  sounder  is 
located.  The  line  current  needed  to  actuate  such 
a  relay  is  about  0.02  ampere;  the  local  circuit 
contains  one  or  two  cells,  the  local  sounder  and 
connections;  while  the  current  in  the  local  cir¬ 
cuit  to  actuate  the  sounder  is  about  0.25  ampere. 

Way  Station.  The  simplest  combination  of 
apparatus  is  that  employed  at  an  intermediate 
or  way  station  of  a  single-line  circuit.  It  com¬ 
prises  a  key,  relay,  local  battery,  sounder,  light¬ 
ning  arresters,  protector  fuses,  and  the  various 
connecting  wires.  The  arrangement  of  the  ap¬ 
paratus  is  represented  in  Fig.  10. 

Telegraph  Line.  Telegraph  lines  while  origi¬ 
nally  of  iron  wire,  are  now  generally  of  copper, 
varying  from  0.1"  diameter  (No.  10  B.  and  S. 
gauge)  to  0.14"  in  diameter  (No.  7  B.  and  S. 
gauge).  The  line  wires  are  carried  on  wooden 
poles,  spaced  about  20  to  40  per  mile,  depending 
upon  the  nature  of  the  country.  At  each  point 
of  support  the  line  wires  are  attached  by  a  loop 
to  an  insulator  on  a  cross  arm.  The  function  of 


TELEGRAPH 


52 


TELEGRAPH 


the  insulator,  usually  of  glass  in  the  United 
States  and  earthenware  or  porcelain  in  other 
lands,  is  to  prevent,  in  so  far  as  possible,  the 


Fig.  10.  SINGLE-LINE  WAY  STATION  SHOWING  RELAY. 


leakage  of  current  to  the  ground.  A  typical 
telegraph  line  insulator  is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 

The  length  of  a  continuous  telegraph  circuit 


Fig.  11.  TYPICAL  ^AMERICAN  GLASS  INSULATOR. 

which  may  be  operated  satisfactorily  depends 
upon  the  resistance  of  the  line,  the  effectiveness 
of  the  line  insulation,  the  weather  conditions,  the 


fective  insulation  necessitate  shortening  the  line. 
The  greater  the  continuous  length  of  the  line, 
the  slower  the  speed  with  which  the  message 
can  be  sent.  Thus  it  has  become  the  practice 
to  divide  long  telegraph  lines  into  sections  of 
300  to  500  miles,  repeating  the  message  from 
one  section  to  the  next.  This  was  formerly 
done  by  an  operator  but  is  now  performed  by  a 
device  or  instrument  called  the  repeater. 

Repeater.  Repeaters  are  simply  combinations 
of  electromagnetic  devices  in  which  the  relay 
receiving  signals  through  one  section  opens  and 
closes  the  circuit  of  the  next  section  in  the  man¬ 
ner  that  a  relay  opens  and  closes  a  local  circuit. 
The  combination  must,  however,  so  function  that 
the  repeating  of  messages  from  one  section  of 
line  to  another  may  be  performed  in  either  direc¬ 
tion.  There  are  many  forms  of  automatic  re¬ 
peaters.  A  very  simple  and  effective  one  is  the 
Toye  repeater  (Fig.  12).  This  comprises  two 
relays,  Re  and  Rw,  two  transmitters,  Te  and  TW} 
two  terminal  batteries,  Be  and  Bw,  two  rheostats, 
8e  and  Sw,  various  wire  connections,  local  bat¬ 
teries,  etc.  By  reference  to  Fig.  12  it  will  be 
seen  that  when  the  distant  eastern  operator 
opens  his  key  to  prepare  to  send  a  message  to 
the  west,  the  relay  Re  will  become  demagnetized, 
its  lever  arm  falls  away  and  opens  the  local  cir¬ 
cuit,  controlling  the  western  transmitter  Tw. 
As  this  transmitter  becomes  demagnetized,  its 
armature  is  drawn  up  at  the  inner  end  by  a 
spring  and  the  western  line  is  opened  between 
the  post  P  and  the  tongue  t.  When  this  occurs, 
if  it  were  not  for  a  preventive  feature,  the 
western  relay  at  the  repeater  station  would  also 
become  demagnetized,  its  lever  armature  would 
fall  away,  opening  its  local  circuit  containing 
the  transmitter  winding  Te,  which  action  would 
in  turn  open  the  eastern  line  at  the  correspond¬ 
ing  tongue  and  post,  with  the  result  that  the 
whole  line  would  be  as  inoperative  as  though 
the  wires  were  down.  In  the  Toye  arrangement 
relay  Rw  is  prevented  from  opening  by  the  fact 
that  the  western  battery  when  not  connected  to 
the  main  line  is  given  a  path  to  earth,  through 
8W  by  way  of  the  tongue  and  lip  of  Tw,  thus  hold¬ 
ing  closed  the  local  circuit  of  Rw,  controlling  Te. 
When  the  distant  eastern  operator  closes  his 
sending  key  to  transmit  a  dot  or  dash,  the  relay 
Re  becomes  magnetized,  its  armature  is  drawn 
forward,  and  the  local  circuit  controlling  Tw  is 
closed,  the  western  battery  being  placed  to  the 
western  line  by  post  P,  making  contact  with 
tongue  t  and  the  current  impulse  of  duration 
desired  sent  out  along  the  western  line.  When 


Fig.  12.  diagram  of  circuit  of  toye  repeater. 


number  of  way  stations  through  which  the  line  a  distant  western  operator  transmits  east,  the 
loops,  the  mode  of  sending,  and  the  speed  of  oper-  action  of  the  relays  and  transmitters  is  the  con¬ 
ation  desired.  The  difficulties  arising  from  de-  verse  of  the  action  described  above. 


TELEGRAPH 


53 


TELEGRAPH 


Multiplex  Telegraphy.  Within  a  generation 
from  the  commercial  introduction  of  the  tele¬ 
graph  the  multiplication  of  wires  on  the  prin- 


The  principle  of  the  bridge  duplex  is  illus¬ 
trated  in  Fig.  15.  The  four  resistances  a,  b,  c, 
and  d  constitute  the  four  arms  of  a  Wheatstone 
bridge,  and  no  current  of  the  home  battery  flows 
through  the  home  relay  when  the  local  "key  is 
closed,  the  points  x  and  y,  across  which  the  relay 


cipal  lines  became  so  marked  as  to  be  seriously 
objectionable.  To  correct  this  difficulty  and  to 
increase  the  earning  capacity  of  through  lines, 
the  multiplex  systems  of  telegraphy  were  de¬ 
vised.  The  most  generally  useful  are  the  duplex 
or  contraplex,  the  diplex  and  the  quadruplex. 

Duplex  Telegraphy.  There  are  two  systems 
of  duplex  telegraphy,  viz.,  the  differential  and 
the  bridge.  The  former  is  used  in  America  and 
the  latter  in  Europe,  particularly  in  England; 
it  is  also  to  some  extent  employed  in  connection 
with  submarine-cable  working.  (See  Teleg¬ 


raphy,  Submarine.  )  The  differential  duplex 
makes  use  of  the  differential  relay,  and  the 
principle  is  shown  in  Fig.  13.  The  battery  cur¬ 
rent  divides  equally  between  the  similar  branches 
C  and  D,  the  two  equal  parts  passing  in  opposite 
directions  through  the  two  windings  a  and  6  re¬ 
spectively;  thus  the  core  of  the  relay  is  not 
magnetized  when  the  key  is  closed.  The  resist¬ 
ance  G  represents  the  line  and  apparatus  at 
the  distant  station,  and  that  at  D,  the  artificial 
line,  is  equal  in  resistance  and  electrostatic  ca¬ 
pacity  to  C.  The  connections  of 
a  Stearns  duplex  system  are 
shown  in  Fig.  14.  The  key  at 
the  home  station  actuates  the 
relay  at  the  distant  station, 
while  the  home  relay  is  caused 
to  operate  by  the  opening  and 
closing  of  the  sending  key  at  the 
distant  station.  The  keys  em¬ 
ployed  are  of  the  continuity  type, 
so  as  to  insure  a  constant  line 
resistance,  the  battery  not  be¬ 
ing  removed  until  the  resistance 
replaces  it.  A  second  form  of  differential  du¬ 
plex  is  known  as  the  polarized  duplex.  This 
employs  polarized  differential  relays,  and  in¬ 
stead  of  responding  to  changes  in  current 
strength  these  are  actuated  by  reversal  of  cur¬ 
rent  direction. 


is  placed,  being  of  the  same  potential.  The 
resistance  c  represents  the  line  and  distant-sta¬ 
tion  apparatus,  while  d  represents  an  artificial 
line  balancing  the  line  c,  in  all  respects.  An  ac¬ 
tual  arrangement  of  the  bridge  duplex  is  illus¬ 
trated  in  Fig.  16. 

Diplex  Telegraphy.  This  system  of  teleg¬ 
raphy  depends  upon  the  use  of  two  forms  of 

relays,  viz.,  the  ordinary 
or  neutral  relay,  provided 
with  a  stiff  spring,  and  a 
polarized  relay,  the  arma¬ 
ture  of  which  responds 
only  to  reversals  of  cur¬ 
rent*  The  adjustment  of 
the  two  relays  is  such  that 
the  neutral  one  requires 
for  its  actuation  three  to 
four  times  as  much  cur¬ 
rent  as  the  polarized  one. 
The  general  arrangement 
of  a  polarized  relay  is 
shown  in  Fig.  17.  It 
comprises  an  ordinary 
electromagnet,  with  its  soft  iron  cores  mounted 
on  one  pole  of  a  U-shaped  permanent  magnet 
and  a  light  iron  lever,  L,  pivoted  at  P.  This 
light  lever  is  given  a  definite  polarity  induc¬ 
tively  by  the  permanent  magnet.  When  cur¬ 
rent  flows  through  the  coils  of  the  electromag¬ 
net,  one  of  its  poles,  say  Nlf  is  greatly  strength¬ 
ened  and  attracts  L ;  if,  however,  the  current 
is  reversed,  the  other  pole,  N2,  is  strengthened 
and  will  attract  L.  Accordingly,  lever  L  is  at¬ 
tracted  towards  Nt  or  AT2,  depending  upon  cur¬ 


rent  direction,  and  consequently  it  may  be  used 
to  open  and  close  a  local  circuit  in  response 
to  reversals  of  the  line  current.  A  general 
arrangement  of  the  diplex  circuits  is  shown 
in  Fig.  18.  This  comprises  the  battery,  the 
intensity  key,  Klf  the  pole-changing  key,  K2, 


TELEGRAPH 


54 


TELEGRAPH 


at  the  home  station,  as  well  as  the  neutral 
and  polarized  relays,  N  and  P,  at  the  distant 
station,  the  local  sounders  are  not  shown.  The 


Fig.  17.  polarized  relay. 


action  is  as  follows:  The  neutral  relay  re¬ 
sponds  to  increase  of  current  strength  by  the 
intensity  key,  Ku  cutting  out  the  added  re¬ 
sistance,  Ru  while  the  polarized  relay  responds 
to  reversals  of  current  upon  manipulation  of  the 
polarity  key,  K2.  To  prevent  the  operator  from 
dragging  his  message  or  from  holding  the  keys  in 
a  midway  position,  which  would  be  fatal  to  the 
diplex  operation,  the  transmitting  keys  are  actu¬ 
ated  by  electromagnetic  means.  Diplex  teleg¬ 
raphy  is  seldom,  if  ever,  used  per  se;  its  usual 
appearance  is  as  one  of  the  constituent  elements 
of  the  quadruplex  system. 

Quadruplex  Telegraphy.  The  transmission 
of  four  messages,  two  each  way,  over  one  line 
simultaneously  is  the  function  of  the  quadruplex. 
This  is  accomplished  by  making  both  the  neutral 
and  polarized  relays  of  the  diplex  system  of  the 
differential  type  and  combining  them  in  series  as 
in  the  duplex  system.  Quadruplex  circuits  may 
be  of  the  differential  type  or  they  may  be  of 
the  bridge  type.  The  arrangement  of  apparatus 

LINE  | 


Fig.  18.  diplex  circuit. 

for  the  differential  form  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  19. 
In  this  illustration  manipulation  of  the  intensity 
key,  Ku  at  the  home  station  actuates  the  neu¬ 
tral  relav  at  the  distant  station,  whereas  move- 
ment  of  the  home  polarity  key  is  duplicated 
by  the  action  of  the  polarized  relay  at  the  far 
station. 

The  repeating  of  messages  over  quadruplex 
lines  does  not  call  for  special  repeating  appa¬ 
ratus  as  in  the  case  of  single-message  circuits. 
The  adjacent  terminal  apparatus  is  cross  con¬ 
nected  and  the  intensity  relay  of  one  line  actu¬ 
ates  the  polarity  key  of  the  next  section,  while 
the  polarity  relay  of  the  first  section  is  employed 
to  operate  the  intensity  key  of  the  second  sec¬ 
tion,  and  conversely.  This  transfer  from  polar¬ 
ity  to  intensity  sides  and  converse  is  made  to 
balance  up  the  speed  of  both  sides. 


A  system  of  multiplex  telegraphy  invented  by 
Delany  and  employed  in  Europe  provides  for  the 
simultaneous  transmission  of  a  number  of  mes¬ 
sages  either  in  the  same  direction  or  part  in  one 
direction  and  the  remainder  in  the  opposite  di¬ 
rection.  The  apparatus  consists  of  a  number  of 
contact  pieces  arranged  on  a  circular  disk  or 


table,  some  of  which  are  connected  with  the  sep¬ 
arate  sending  or  transmitting  instruments, 
while  others  are  connected  with  local  relays  and 
batteries  and  the  ground.  A  trailer  or  rapidly 
revolving  arm  connected  with  the  line  wire 
passes  over  these  contact  points  so  that  the 
circuit  is  successively  completed  through  the 
different  instruments  at  one  station,  while  a 

similar  device  at  the 
other  station,  revolv¬ 
ing  synchronously 
with  the  first,  makes 
connections  with  an 
equal  number  of  in¬ 
struments.  The  speed 
of  revolution  of  the 
trailers  is  regulated 
by  two  tuning  forks 
or  vibrating  reeds  of 
the  same  pitch,  and 
an  ingenious  synchro¬ 
nizing  device  keeps 
them  always  in  uni¬ 
son.  In  this  way  it 
is  possible  to  operate  12  different  sets  of  Morse 
transmissions  over  one  wire,  and  it  is  accom¬ 
plished  in  the  following  manner.  The  first  op¬ 
erator  closes  his  key,  and,  as  the  trailer  passes 
around,  it  will  make  contact  with  the  line  wire 
and  his  instrument  will  be  connected  about  36 
times  in  one  second,  thus  transmitting  that  num¬ 
ber  of  impulses.  Now,  if  he  desires  to  send  a 
signal  corresponding  to  a  dot,  he  would  close  his 
key  for  a  brief  interval,  which  may  be  one- 
twelfth  of  a  second,  thus  allowing  three  impulses 
of  current  to  be  transmitted  over  the  line  wire 
to  the  corresponding  instrument  at  the  other 
station,  which  is  only  in  a  position  to  receive 
the  signals  from  the  one  transmitter.  The  same 
is  true  for  the  other  operators  and  their  instru¬ 
ments,  each  one  employing  the  wire  for  a  cer¬ 
tain  fraction  of  the  time. 


TELEGRAPH 


55 


TELEGRAPH 


Automatic  Sending  and  Receiving.  The 

speed  of  transmission  of  an  average  telegraph 
operator  is  from  30  to  40  words  per  minute, 


o  o  o  o  o  o  o 

oooooooooooooooo 
o  o  o  o  o  o  o 

and 

Fig.  20.  punched  tape  for  wheatstone  transmitter. 

while  the  characteristics  of  both  line  and  receiv¬ 
ing  apparatus  allow  of  a  much  greater  rapidity. 
To  utilize  these  possibilities  to  the  utmost,  auto¬ 
matic  sending  and  receiving  equipments  have 
been  devised.  One  of  the  most  effective  of  these 
is  known  as  the  Wheatstone  automatic,  and  by 


its  use  a  message  speed  of  300  to  400  words 
per  minute  may  be  attained.  The  message  to  be 
transmitted  is  prepared  on  a  special  tape,  and 
this  is  passed  through  a  transmitter  which  is  a 
pole-changing  switch.  The  messages  are  received 
by  means  of  an  inking  polarized  relay  which 
records  the  same  in  Morse  code  upon  a  receiving 
tape.  A  dot  appears  on  the  transmitter  ribbon 
as  three  vertically 
spaced  holes;  a  space 
as  one  or  more  small 
holes  along  the  cen¬ 
tral  line,  depending 
upon  the  space  dura¬ 
tion  ;  and  a  dash  is 
formed  by  four  holes, 
two  space  or  guide 
holes  and  two  other 
holes,  one  above  the 
first  space  hole  and 
the  other  below  the 
second  one.  A  por¬ 
tion  of  perforated 
tape  is  shown  in  Fig. 

20,  with  correspond¬ 
ing  Morse  code  char¬ 
acters  and  letters.  A  tape  punch  or  perforator  is 
shown  in  Fig.  21,  the  punch  operated  by  the 
button  at  the  left  forms  the  dot  character,  the 
middle  one  the  space  hole,  and  the  right-hand 
one  forms  the  four  holes  representing  the  dash. 
When  the  perforator  is  properly  adjusted,  120 
guide  or  centre-line  holes  are  formed  per  inch  of 
tape.  These  engage  with  the  points  of  a  star 


wheel  which  feeds  the  tape  forward  as  the  char¬ 
acters  are  punched.  The  general  arrangement  of 
a  simple  Wheatstone  system,  though  it  is  also 
operative  in  duplex  with  modifications  of  con¬ 
nections,  is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  The  sending 
mechanism  is  shown  at  the  left  and  the  receiving 
apparatus  at  the  right.  The  perforated  sending 
tape  is  moved  to  the  left  over  a  slotted  table, 
by  means  of  the  spur  wheel,  TV7,  and  a  guide 
wheel,  not  shown,  serves  to  press  the  tape 
against  the  table.  Rods  P  and  N  pass  through 
holes  in  guide  plate  so  that  they  are  aligned 
with  the  front  and  back  holes  on  the  tape;  their 
longitudinal  spacing  is  the  distance  between  ad¬ 
jacent  guide  holes.  The  walking  beam,  R,  carry¬ 
ing  these  upright  rods  is  provided  with  two  pro¬ 
jecting  pins,  XX,  which  limit  the  upward  thrust 
of  rods  PN  as  caused  by  the  tension  of  spring  8. 
The  crank,  K,  driven  by  clockwork  or  motor, 
which  also  drives  the  spur  wheel,  W,  rocks  the 
beam  through  a  small  arc.  The  tape  is  moved 
forward  one  space  with  each  down  stroke  of  rod 
P,  and  the  motion  of  the  rods  is  transmitted  to 
the  pole-changing  switch,  8,  by  the  bell  crank. 
A  quick  snap  is  given  to  the  switch  blade  as  it 
passes  over  the  centre  position  by  the  flat  spring- 
supported  roller;  this  is  done  to  prevent  drag¬ 
ging  and  sparking  at  switch  contact  point  Q. 
When  the  rod  P  is  at  the  top  of  its  stroke,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration,  the  plus  terminal  of 
the  battery  is  connected  to  line  and  the  negative 
to  ground,  while  with  rod  N  at  the  top  of  its 
stroke  the  battery  connections  are  reversed. 
When  the  sending  tape  is  passing,  rods  P  and  N 
can  travel  full  strokes  only  if  the  holes  in  the 
paper  are  such  as  will  allow  them  to  pass 
through  it.  These  current  reversals,  transmitted 
over  the  line  to  the  polarized  relay,  P.R,  cause 
the  armature  of  the  same  to  vibrate,  and  this 
motion  is  transmitted  to  the  shaft  of  the  ro¬ 
tating  print  wheel,  t.  Thus,  when  the  negative 
terminal  of  the  battery  is  placed  to  the  line,  the 
action  of  the  relay,  P.R,  is  to  draw  the  print 
wheel  against  the  inking  wheel,  i,  and  when 
the  plus  terminal  of  battery  is  placed  to  the 
line  the  relay  causes  the  print  wheel  to  move 
towards  the  tape  and  record  a  code  character 
thereon;  the  particular  symbol  depending  upon 
the  lapse  of  time  between  current  reversals, 


as  controlled  by  the  perforations  in  the  sending 
tape. 

In  the  Pollak-Virag  high-speed  telegraph  the 
messages  transmitted  are  reproduced  in  a  kind 
of  italic  script.  It  uses  two  live  wires  and  an 
earth  return,  but,  unlike  writing  telegraphs  in 
general,  it  does  not  involve  the  maintenance  ot 
synchronism  between  the  receiver  and  the  trans- 


TELEGRAPH 


56 


TELEGRAPH 


mitter.  At  the  sending  end  the  messages  are 
sent  by  means  of  a  perforated  paper  tape  which 
has  been  previously  punched  with  two  sets  of 
holes.  The  tape  is  a  nonconductor  of  electricity, 
and  is  passed  over  a  roller  made  up  of  six  elec¬ 
trically  insulated  sections;  and  metal  brushes, 
pressing  on  the  roller,  form  electrical  connection 
with  one  or  another  of  these  sections  whenever  a 
perforation  comes  opposite  them.  The  currents 
thus  allowed  to  pass  vary  in  intensity,  and  those 
from  one  group  of  three  sections  go  to  one  tele¬ 
phone  receiver  at  the  receiving  end,  while  those 
from  the  other  group  of  three  go  to  the  second 
telephone  receiver.  To  the  diaphragms  of  these 
two  telephone  receivers,  which  are  placed  close 
together,  a  mirror  is  connected,  and  is  so  sus¬ 
pended  that  it  is  free  to  move  both  horizontally 
and  vertically,  in  unison  with  the  movements  of 
the  diaphragms.  Now  the  perforations  which 
energize  one  telephone  are  arranged  to  represent 
the  vertical  motion  necessary  in  writing  a  char¬ 
acter  or  figure,  while  the  other  set  of  perfora¬ 
tions  similarly  represents  the  horizontal  com¬ 
ponent.  Hence  the  twro  telephones  together  re¬ 
produce  these  components,  and  the  result  is  that 
under  their  combined  influence  the  mirror  moves 
in  such  a  way  that  its  motions  mark  out  the  com¬ 
plete  characters.  These  motions  are  impercep¬ 
tible  directly  to  the  eye,  but  when  a  pencil  of 
light  is  permitted  to  fall  on  the  mirrors  the 
movement  of  the  reflected  ray  of  course  increases 
in  amplitude  as  the  surface  upon  which  it  is  re¬ 
ceived  is  further  and  further  removed  from  the 
mirrors,  so  that  the  characters  described  may  be 
enlarged  to  practically  any  size.  At  the  point 
where  the  size  is  as  large  as  desired,  the  reflected 
ray  is  made  to  impinge  upon  a  photographically 
sensitized  tape  of  paper,  and  so  gives  a  perma¬ 
nent  record  of  its  movements. 

Ticker  or  Stock  Quotation  Telegraphs. 
These  systems  usually  comprise  one  master 
transmitter  and  a  number  of  receiving  instru¬ 
ments,  tickers,  connected  in  series;  these  latter 
print  the  message  in  ordinary  type  on  a  paper 
tape.  The  various  forms  encountered  in  prac¬ 
tice  differ  in  details,  but  the  fundamental  oper¬ 
ating  principles  are  quite  similar.  In  the  case 
of  a  simple  ticker  transmitter  26  pins  are  uni¬ 
formly  spaced  in  helical  arrangement  around  a 
metal  cylinder;  and  this  is  rotated  by  a  small 
electric  motor  or  clock  work  acting  through  fric¬ 
tion  drive.  A  bank  of  26  letter  keys  is  placed 
above  this  cylinder,  so  arranged  that  when  a  key 
is  pressed  it  intercepts  its  corresponding  pin  and 
stops  the  rotation  of  the  cylinder.  At  one  end 
of  this  cylinder  is  a  commutator  arrangement 
for  reversing  the  battery  current  52  times  per 
revolution.  This  alternating  current  passes  over 
the  transmission  line  and  through  the  coils  of 
two  electromagnets.  One  of  these  is  of  the  polar¬ 
ized  type,  and  therefore  responds  to  the  current 
alternations;  the  other  is  of  the  neutral  type, 
with  a  heavy  armature  which,  on  account  of  its 
inertia,  is  not  influenced  by  the  alternating  cur¬ 
rent.  The  armature  of  the  polarized  relay  act¬ 
ing  through  a  light  escapement  turns  the  type 
wheel  in  synchronism  with  the  distant  transmit¬ 
ting  cylinder.  When  the  transmitter  cylinder  is 
stopped  by  the  operator  pressing  down  the  key, 
the  current-reversing  mechanism  stops  and  a 
steady  current  passes  over  the  line.  The  polar¬ 
ized  relay  also  ceases  to  actuate  its  escapement, 
and  the  type  wheel  stops  at  the  letter  correspond¬ 
ing  to  that  struck  by  the  operator.  The  steady 
current  flowing  actuates  the  neutral  relay,  which 


pushes  the  paper  against  the  type  wheel,  record¬ 
ing  the  letter  selected.  When  the  key  at  the 
sending  station  is  released,  the  cylinder  again 
rotates,  the  alternating  current  again  flows,  and 
the  printing  wheel  rotates  in  synchronism,  as 
before;  at  the  same  moment  the  neutral  relay  is 
released  and  then  actuates  the  tape-feeding  mech¬ 
anism  so  that  it  is  moved  forward  for  the  next 
letter. 

Autograph  or  Writing  Systems  of  Teleg¬ 
raphy.  There  are  various  forms  of  writing 
telegraphs,  but  probably  the  most  complete  is 
that  devised  by  Elisha  Gray,  and  known  in  the 
art  as  the  telautograph  (q.v. ).  There  are  also 
various  devices  for  the  transmission  of  drawings 
and  pictures,  but  few  of  these  have  been  devel¬ 
oped  beyond  the  experimental  stage.  In  most 
cases  they  depend  upon  the  varying  sensitiveness 
to  light  manifested  by  selenium. 

Municipal  Telegraphs.  Signaling  systems 
are  installed  in  cities  and  towns  to  enable  rapid 
communication  to  fire  department  and  police 
headquarters.  See  Fire  Alarm. 

American  Telegraph  Companies.  In  the 
United  States  the  telegraph  service,  excepting 
municipal  alarm  systems,  is  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  private  companies.  The  first  company  was 
organized  in  1845  under  the  name  of  the  Mag¬ 
netic  Telegraph  Company  by  Morse  supporters 
and  associates.  In  that  year  a  telegraph  line 
was  constructed  between  Philadelphia  and  Mor¬ 
ristown,  N.  J.,  and  in  the  following  year  it  was 
extended  to  New  York  City.  In  1856  the  West¬ 
ern  Union  Company  was  formed  by  a  combina¬ 
tion  of  the  Erie  and  Michigan  Telegraph  Com¬ 
pany  with  the  New  York  and  Mississippi  River 
Valley  Printing  Telegraph  Company.  From  this 
time  combination  and  consolidation  were  carried 
on,  the  efficiency  of  the  service  increasing.  In 
1862  a  telegraph  line  across  the  North  American 
continent  was  completed  and  put  in  operation. 
In  1885  the  Postal  Telegraph  Commercial  Cable 
system  was  established  by  John  W.  Mackay, 
beginning  with  a  few  wires  between  the  largest 
commercial  centres  in  the  Eastern  and  Western 
States  and  one  transatlantic  cable.  In  1916 
this  company  reached  every  important  city  in 
North  America,  and  it  operated  seven  trans¬ 
atlantic  cables,  a  Pacific  cable,  and  cables  to 
the  West  Indies.  In  1916  there  were  26  com¬ 
panies  doing  business  in  the  United  States,  but 
about  98  per  cent  of  commercial  telegraph  serv¬ 
ice  was  handled  by  the  affiliated  Western  Union 
and  Postal  Telegraph  Cable  companies.  The 
average  toll  rate  per  message  in  1870  was  75*4 
cents,  the  cost  of  transmission  was  51.2  cents. 
In  1912  these  figures  were  49  cents  and  39  cents 
respectively.  The  land-line  rates  for  a  10- word 
preferred  telegram  in  1916  varied,  from  25  cents 
between  points  250  miles  apart  to  $1  for  a  trans¬ 
continental  message. 

Statistics.  The  following  telegraph  statis¬ 
tics  were  compiled  from  the  United  States  Sen¬ 
ate  Document  No.  399  and  Census  Report  of 
1912. 

The  lowest  charge  per  message  in  the  large 
countries  as  indicated  by  the  table  (page  57)  is 
made  in  France;  the  maximum  charge  occurs  in 
the  United  States.  This  is  due  in  part,  un¬ 
doubtedly,  to  the  fact  that  the  distances  covered 
in  the  United  States  are  very  much  greater,  the 
mileage  of  wire  being  more  than  5  times  as  great 
for  the  United  States.  Of  the  2,214,000  miles  of 
telegraph  circuit  in  the  United  States  1,300,000 
are  operated  by  railway  companies,  and  about 


TELEGRAPHER’S  CRAMP 


57 


TELEGRAPHY 


260,000,000  company  messages  are  handled  per 
annum  over  these  circuits. 


TELEGRAPH  STATISTICS  OF  DIFFERENT 
NATIONS 


COUNTRY 

Messages 

Average 
charge  per 
message 

Number 

of 

offices 

Miles  of 
line 

Austria . 

20,840 

Cents 

22.5 

4,480 

143,850 

Belgium . 

1,768,725 

14.2 

1,630 

25,400 

Denmark . 

3,447,547 

14.0 

560 

8,700 

France . 

64,287,600 

12.0 

20,300 

421,000 

Germany . 

58,556,000 

18.0 

45,850 

1,120,000 

Great  Britain.  . 

93,360,000 

17.2 

13,550 

556,000 

Hungary . 

12,532,900 

25.0 

4,620 

88,000 

Italy . 

17,875,000 

19.3 

7,660 

124,000 

Japan . 

29,839,770 

12.3 

4,290 

99,470 

Holland . 

6,700,000 

15.0 

1,390 

22,400 

New  Zealand .  . 

8,513,120 

15.7 

1,970 

39,100 

Norway . 

3,360,050 

13.4 

1,585 

32,000 

Russia . 

38,000,000 

42.0 

8,350 

425,000 

Sweden . 

4,236,000 

15.3 

2,855 

19,600 

Switzerland .... 

5,820,000 

17.2 

2,880 

15,900 

United  States. . 

106,532,500 

49.0 

30,860 

2,214,000 

Government  Ownership.  In  striking  con¬ 
trast  to  the  system  of  corporate  ownership  in  the 
United  States  is  the  governmental  control  of  the 
telegraphs  as  practiced  in  Great  Britain  and 
other  European  countries.  This  is  reflected  in 
the  low  average  cost  of  messages  to  be  noted  in 
the  above  table.  In  the  various  European  nations 
the  telegraph  is  usually  combined  with  the  post 
office,  and  this  has  been  the  rule  from  the 
earliest  times.  In  Great  Britain,  previous  to 
1870,  the  telegraph  business  was  controlled 
by  private  corporations,  but  in  1868  a  bill 
was  introduced  into  Parliament,  and  passed 
in  the  following  year,  whereby  the  lines  and 
property  were  acquired  by  the  government  at  an 
expense  of  £6,750,000.  In  1869  there  were  about 
7,000,000  messages  sent,  which  increased  to 
22,459,775  in  1879  and  93,873,000  in  1913.  In 
this  last  year  the  receipts  from  telegraphs  were 
£3,100,000,  and  a  net  deficit  oi  £957,566  for  tele¬ 
graph  service.  With  governmental  ownership 
have  come  improved  service  and  reduced  rates. 
Where  in  1870  it  cost  from  3  to  6  shillings  to 
send  a  message  from  London  to  Dublin,  now  a 
message  of  12  words  can  be  sent  anywhere  in  the 
United  Kingdom  for  sixpence.  In  1913  the  Post 
Office  Department  controlled  14,129  telegraph 
offices,  including  2509  railway  offices  and  11,620 
post-office  stations. 

Bibliography.  A.  E.  Loring,  Handbook  of 
the  Electro- Magnetic  Telegraph  (4th  ed.,  New 
York,  1900)  ;  A.  C.  Crehore,  Synchronous  and 
Other  Multiple  Telegraphs  (ib.,  1905)  ;  Houston 
and  Kennelly,  Electric  Telegraphy  (2d  ed.,  ib., 
1906)  ;  William  Maver,  American  Telegraphy : 
Systems,  Apparatus,  Operations  (4th  ed.,  ib., 
1909)  ;  id.,  American  Telegraphy  and  Encyclo¬ 
pedia  of  the  Telegraph  (ib.,  1911)  ;  Donald  Mc- 
Nicol,  American  Telegraph  Practice  (ib.,  1913)  ; 
Harold  Pender,  editor,  American  Handbook  for 
Electrical  Engineers  (ib.,  1914)  ;  Preece  and 
Sivewright,  Telegraphy  (ib.,  1914)  ;  A.  V.  von 
Haskaier,  Testing  Telegraph  Cables  (3d  ed.,  ib., 
1915)  ;  Erich  Hausemann,  Telegraph  Engineer¬ 
ing  (ib.,  1915)  ;  United  States  Bureau  of  the 
Census,  Telephones,  Telegraphs,  and  Municipal 
Signalling  Systems  (Washington,  1915).  See- 
Telautograph ;  Telegraphy,  Submarine;  Wire¬ 
less  Telegraphy.  < 

TELEGRAPHER’S  CRAMP.  See  Neurosis. 

TELEG'RAPHONE  (from  Gk.  rijXe,  tele, 


afar  +  ypacpeiv,  graphein,  to  write  +  <tnowr), 
plume,  sound).  A  device  for  recording  and  re¬ 
producing  sound  by  means  of  the  transverse 
magnetization  of  a  steel  wire  or  disk,  based 
on  the  principle  of  local  magnetization  devised 
by  Valdemar  Poulsen  (q.v. ).  The  essential  parts 
of  the  apparatus  are  an  ordinary  telephone  trans¬ 
mitter,  to  which  is  connected  an  electromagnet, 
between  the  poles  of  which  a  steel  wire  or  disk 
passes  or  revolves.  Words  spoken  into  the  trans¬ 
mitter  set  up  currents  of  varying  intensity, 
which,  passing  through  the  electromagnet,  im¬ 
press  upon  each  point  of  the  wire  or  disk  a  trans¬ 
verse  magnetization  of  corresponding  strength. 
The  wire  or  disk  can  then  be  made  to  pass  by  the 
poles  of  the  same  or  a  similar  electromagnet 
connected  to  a  telephone  receiver,  when  the  vary¬ 
ing  magnetization  of  the  wire  or  disk  will  set 
up  currents  of  like  intensity  as  produced  the 
magnetization,  when  the  receiver  will  produce 
the  original  speech.  Records  formed  on  disks,  it 
was  claimed,  could  be  sent  through  the  mails  in 
ordinary  envelopes. 

TELEGRAPHY,  Submarine.  In  submarine 
telegraphy  there  are  many  variations  from  the 
practice  on  land  lines.  (See  Telegraph.)  The 
problem  involves  the  transmission  of  current 
along  a  conductor  of  great  length  and  necessarily 
small  cross  section  with  of  course  considerable 
resistance.  In  a  long  cable  we  have  to  consider 
the  effect  of  the  electrostatic  inductive  capacity 
as  well  as  its  conductivity.  As  it  takes  a  per¬ 
ceptible  time  for  a  cable  of  considerable  length 
to  be  charged  and  discharged  when  a  current  is 
sent  through  it,  there  is  a  certain  limit  to  the 
speed  of  transmission  of  signals  without  their 
becoming  confused  and  unintelligible.  This  slow 
speed  of  operation  makes  cabling  very  expensive, 
and,  despite  several  important  inventions,  the 
difficulty  has  not  been  overcome.  In  fact,  no 
submarine  cable  in  a  day  of  24  hours  can  trans¬ 
mit  more  matter  than  could  be  read  in  an  hour 
from  ordinary  print. 

When  the  first  Atlantic  cable  was  used  the 
ordinary  Morse  code  was  employed;  but  it  was 
soon  found  that  the  strength  of  current  needed 
to  actuate  the  Morse  receiving  apparatus  re¬ 
duced  the  speed  of  signaling  to  one  or  two  words 
per  minute.  This  retardation  of  the  speed  is 
occasioned  by  the  fact  that  a  cable  of  several 
thousand  miles,  with  its  core,  insulation,  and 
sheathing,  constitutes  a  condenser  of  consider¬ 
able  capacity.  The  action  upon  the  current  flow 
through  the  presence  of  this  condenser  is  as  fol¬ 
lows:  The  instant  the  battery  is  connected  to  a 
cable  a  very  large  current  flows,  the  major  part 
of  which  goes  to  satisfy  the  capacity  of  the  cable, 
and  as  the  cable  becomes  charged  this  current 


settles  to  a  steady  value  determined  by  the 
ohmic  resistance  of  the  line.  At  the  distant 
end  of  the  circuit  a  very  small  current  begins 
to  flow  almost  simultaneously  with  the  connec¬ 
tion  of  the  battery,  and  as  the  cable  becomes 
charged,  this  outflowing  current  rises  in  mag¬ 
nitude  until  it  attains  a  steady  value  approxi- 


TELEGRAPHY 


58 


TELEGRAPHY 


mating  the  incoming  current.  When  the  battery 
is  disconnected  the  entering  current  ceases  at 
once,  but  the  outflowing  current  slowly  drops  to 
zero  as  the  charge  flows  out  of  the  cable.  In  case 
the  ordinary  Morse  arrangement  of  dot  and 
dash  were  employed  to  transmit  a  message  per 
submarine  cable,  the  result  obtained  would  be 
substantially  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  blocks 
a,  a,  a  represent  three  short  current  impulses 
impressed  upon  the  cable  at  the  sending  end, 
whereas  the  cable  not  having  time  to  discharge 
between  impulses  will  have  an  outflowing  cur¬ 
rent  as  in  curve  b.  This  outflowing  current,  not 
falling  to  zero  between  impulses,  could  not  ob¬ 
viously  be  received  by  means  of  an  ordinary 
relay  or  sounder.  Neither  could  it  be  accu¬ 
rately  read  through  deflections  of  a  galvan¬ 
ometer.  To  differentiate  clearly  between  the  cur¬ 
rent  pulses  on  a  submarine  line,  the  sending  key 
is  arranged  to  send  dots  by  current  impulses 
in  one  direction  and  dashes  by  current  impulses 


in  the  opposite  direction,  the  cable  being  cleared 
out  or  discharged  between  consecutive  signals 
by  grounding. 

So  faint  are  the  current  impulses  at  the  end 
of  a  cable  of  considerable  length,  even  under 
good  conditions,  that  the  reflecting  galvanometer 
(q.v.)  or  some  modified  or  special  form  used 
for  receiving  signals  must  be  of  considerable 
sensitiveness.  The  amount  and  direction  of 
the  deflection  of  the  suspended  mirror  to 
which  the  needles  are  attached  depend  on  the 
intensity  and  direction  of  the  current.  A  gal¬ 
vanometer  with  a  suspended  coil,  provided  it  is 
sensitive  enough,  may  also  be  used,  or,  what  is 
more  usual,  some  form  of  siphon-recording  re¬ 
ceiver.  The  siphon  recorder  was  invented  by 
Lord  Kelvin  in  1867  and  has  since  been  greatly 
modified  and  improved  by  various  cable  en¬ 
gineers. 

A  typical  siphon-recorder  arrangement  is  il¬ 
lustrated  in  Fig.  2.  The  galvanometer  coil  G, 
pivoted  on  fine  agate  bearings,  is  restored  to 
zero  by  the  use  of  delicate  springs  SS.  The 
siphon  consists  of  a  very  fine  capillary  glass 
tube,  several  thousandths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
A  small  piece  of  iron  is  attached  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  tube,  very  close  to  the  paper  tape 
P,  but  not  in  contact  therewith.  This  record 
tape  passes  over  a  magnetic  table  T,  which  is 
magnetized  by  being  in  contact  with  the  electro¬ 
magnet  EM.  Magnetic  fluctuations  or  vibra¬ 
tions  are  set  up  in  the  table  by  means  of  the 
vibrator  reed  R,  which  applies  different  values 
of  current  to  the  coils  of  EM.  When  the  period 


of  these  vibrations  has  been  adjusted  by  varying 
the  weight  of  the  reed  to  be  the  same  as  the 
natural  period  of  the  siphon,  the  latter  is  also 
caused  to  vibrate,  as  would  be  indicated  by  a 
series  of  fine  dots  appearing  upon  the  moving 
tape,  and  signals  are  recorded  by  marks  to  the 
right  or  left  of  zero.  The  siphon  is  connected  to 
the  movable  coil  of  the  galvanometer  through 
the  agency  of  the  delicately  mounted  cradle  I, 
which  is  caused  to  rock  by  the  motion  of  the 


Fig.  3.  specimen  record  from  siphon  recorder. 

galvanometer  coil  transmitted  through  the  fine 
wire  F. 

In  Fig.  3  is  shown  a  specimen  of  signals  as  re¬ 
ceived  over  a  thousand-mile  section  of  an  Atlan¬ 
tic  cable.  The  characteristics  as  indicated  by 
the  underlined  dots  and  dashes  represent  a  part 
of  the  International  code.  (See  Telegraph.) 
To  indicate  which  signals  are  dots  or  dashes,  it 
is  sufficient  that  one  deflection  should  climb  be¬ 
yond  the  other  in  one  direction  with  only  a 
slight  fall  between  each  crest.  A  change  in 
character  of  the  signal  is  indicated  by  a  pro¬ 
nounced  fall  or  rise  beyond  a  preceding  peak  or 
valley.  To  produce  a  signal  equivalent  to  a 
dot  or  the  letter  e  a  positive  current  is  sent 
through  the  line  and  an  upward  curve  is  pro¬ 
duced  on  the  record.  Reversing  the  current  or 
sending  a  negative  impulse  gives  the  equivalent 
of  a  dash  or  the  letter  t. 

The  simple  key  used  in  sending  the  signals  con¬ 
sists  of  a  pole-changing  device  by  which  a  cur¬ 
rent  in  either  direction  can  be  sent  over  the  cir¬ 
cuit  by  simply  pressing  one  of  two  keys.  In 
automatic  transmission,  used  on  the  transatlan¬ 
tic  cables  and  other  busy  lines,  the  operator 
first  punches  in  a  paper  strip  holes  correspond¬ 
ing  to  the  proper  signals.  This  tape  is  then 
fed  into  an  apparatus  where,  guided  by  a  central 
line  of  holes,  it  is  passed  through  mechanically, 
and  contact  is  made  through  the  agency  of 
blunt  needles  or  brushes  through  the  holes.  These 
devices,  however,  can  only  be  used  on  cables  hav¬ 
ing  heavy  cores,  but  by  their  use  a  rate  of  50 
words  or  more  a  minute  may  be  obtained. 

In  working  submarine  cables  it  was  found 
as  early  as  1862  by  Cromwell  Varley  that  the 
sharpness  and  clearness  of  the  signals  was  in¬ 
creased  and  the  effect  of  earth  currents  elimi¬ 
nated  by  inserting  a  condenser  (q.v.)  of  proper 
capacity  between  the  transmitting  instrument 
and  the  line.  This  idea  was  embodied  in  a 
patent  in  1862  and  put  in  practice  in  1866. 
When  first  used  at  the  receiving  end  it  was 
found  that  the  speed  was  considerably  increased, 
and  when  placed  at  both  ends  the  efficiency  of  the 
cable  was  practically  doubled.  Greater  distinct¬ 
ness  in  the  transmission  of  the  signals  was  ob¬ 
tained  as  well  as  increased  rapidity.  The  opera¬ 
tion  of  a  simple  cable  circuit  will  be  seen  from 
the  diagram  on  page  59. 

The  cable  connected  with  a  condenser  at  either 
end  is  shown  above.  From  the  opposite  plates  of 
the  condenser  connection  is  made  with  a  switch 
through  which  the  current  may  pass  either  to 
the  earth  through  a  galvanometer  or  recorder 
or  to  a  transmitting  key,  K,  and  then  to  the 
battery  and  earth,  depending  on  whether  signals 
are  being  sent  or  received  at  the  particular  sta¬ 
tion.  At  E  and  K'  either  pole  of  the  battery 


TELEGRAPHY 


TELEGRAPHY 


59 

can  be  connected  at  will  to  the  line,  or  rather  ment  and  sends  along  the  signal  as  received  from 
to  the  condenser,  and  the  cable  charged  indue-  the  first  cable  over  a  second  cable  or  land  line, 
tively.  The  corresponding  signals  are  produced  The  Heurtley  relay,  which  is  used  on  the 

Pacific  cable  to  magnify  the  signals 

Switch  Cable  Switch 

| - oN 

Condenser  Condenser  Q 


K^- . . Pole -changing  Switch 


Battery 
Earth 


Earth 


Earth 


Hil'M 

Battery 

Earth 


DIAGRAM  OF  SIMPLE  CABLE  CIRCUIT. 

at  the  distant  station,  the  galvanometer  being 
connected  to  the  line  by  the  switch. 

Duplex  Working.  Cables  can  also  be  worked 
duplex  with  facility  and  messages  sent  over  a 
single  cable  in  opposite  directions.  This  af¬ 
fords  an  increased  capacity  of  at  least  90  per 
cent  in  handling  the  traffic  and  is  the  approved 
method  of  working  all  busy  lines.  The  duplex 
system  was  devised  in  1873  by  J.  B.  Stearns, 
and  in  1875  and  1876  was  improved  by  Muirhead 
and  Taylor.  It  was  first  used  on  the  Atlantic 
cable  in  1878.  The  connections  of  one  end  of  a 
submarine  cable  for  duplex  working,  which  is 
the  normal  condition,  are  shown  in  Fig.  4, 
wherein  K  is  the  sending  key,  putting  the  cable 
to  the  ground  when  neither  button  is  pressed, 
BR  is  auxiliary  balancing  resistance  for  fine  ad¬ 
justments,  the  artificial  line  substantially  equal 
to  the  cable  in  resistance  and  capacity  is  indi¬ 
cated  as  is  the  siphon  recorder,  while  C,  C,  and 
C  represent  condensers  inserted  to  prevent  the 
earth  currents  from  in¬ 
terfering,  which  may 
otherwise  produce  a 
wandering  zero  or  dis¬ 
turb  the  incoming 
signals. 

With  duplex  work  es¬ 
tablished  the  next  con¬ 
sideration  is  some  form 
of  automatic  repeater 
or  relay  to  transmit 
signals  at  intermediate 
points,  e.g.,  at  New¬ 
foundland  and  Ireland 
in  the  line  from  Amer¬ 
ica  to  England,  or  at 
Honolulu,  Midway,  and 
Guam  on  the  route 

from  San  Francisco  to 
Manila.  These  instruments  not  only  must 

be  as  sensitive  as  receivers,  but  must  pro¬ 

vide  for  sending  along  the  signals  over  a 
further  stretch  of  cable  or  telegraph  line.  The 
usual  types  of  relays  employed  over  long  cables 
are  those  of  Brown,  Heurtley,  and  Orting.  In 
the  Brown  drum  relay  there  is  a  rotating 
cylinder  across  which  a  pointer  similar  to 

the  ink  tube  of  the  siphon  recorder  may  move 
under  the  influence  of  the  current  in  the  coil. 
This  pointer  normally  rests  on  a  central  insu¬ 
lated  or  neutral  portion,  but  as  it  moves  from 
side  to  side  it  establishes  contact  with  a  con¬ 
ducting  surface  through  which  a  circuit  is  com¬ 
pleted  with  a  local  battery  in  a  direction  cor¬ 
responding  to  the  swing  of  the  pointer.  This 
of  course  operates  a  local  transmitting  instru- 
Vol.  XXII.— 5 


on  Fanning  Island,  especially  those 
from  Vancouver  Island,  resembles  a 
siphon  recorder  without  the  paper 
band  driving  mechanism  and  the 
pen.  The  movement  of  the  recorder 
affects  a  light  lever  of  glass  over 
which  a  bronze  wire  is  stretched. 
Normally  this  fine  wire  is  cooled  by 
an  air  current,  but  with  any  move¬ 
ment  of  the  pointer  the  wires  are 
moved  away  from  the  slit  through 
which  the  air  comes,  and  the  resist¬ 
ance  is  changed  so  that  the  local 
recorder  is  affected.  In  the  Muir¬ 
head  relay,  which  served  to  reduce  the  time 
of  transmission  from  New  York  to  Buenos 
Aires  from  20  to  3  minutes,  and  the  num¬ 
ber  of  manual  retransmissions  from  6  to  1,  the 
moving  element  is  a  vane  which  causes  a  gold 
wire  to  oscillate  between  two  contact  pegs  of 
gold  and  silver.  In  addition  to  the  relays  men¬ 
tioned  there  are  also  the  vibrating  relav  of 
Gulstad  used  for  nearly  a  quarter  century  by  the 
Great  Northern  Telegraph  Company,  and  other 
types  designed  by  S.  G.  Brown,  which  have  been 
used  with  more  or  less  success,  as  well  as  a 
number  for  which  patents  have  been  secured. 

The  methods  outlined  for  submarine  signaling 
have  involved  the  use  of  direct  current,  with 
the  limitations  already  discussed.  Very  early 
efforts  were  made  to  transmit  signals  by  the 
use  of  inverse  currents  to  either  annihilate  the 
discharge  current  or  at  least  to  diminish  it  con¬ 
siderably.  In  other  words,  this  meant  the  chang¬ 
ing  of  the  polarity  of  successive  impulses;  and 


attempts  were  m$de  to  use  this  fundamental 
idea  as  early  as  1856.  Soon  after  1880  a  method 
was  adopted  of  using  an  inverse  current  regu¬ 
lated  as  to  its  strength  and  time  of  duration, 
so  that  on  short  cables  an  inverse  current  of 
only  two-thirds  the  strength  of  the  outgoing 
current  was  employed,  a  polarized  relay  being 
an  essential  feature  of  the  system.  The  most 
important  system,  however,  was  devised  by 
Picard  in  1898,  a  method  that  has  been  used 
between  Algiers  and  Marseilles,  and  even  be¬ 
tween  Algiers  and  Paris,  1120  land  miles,  of 
which  about  one-half  was  submarine  cable.  By 
this  method  a  Baudot  type  printer  was  worked 
over  cables  900  kilometers  (559.2  miles).  By 
various  improvements  type-printing  apparatus 
can  be  worked  over  nearly  1000  miles  of  subma- 


TELEGRAPHY 


60 


TELEGRAPHY 


rine  cables.  In  this  system  the  outgoing  im¬ 
pulses  are  equal  in  time  and  are  of  short  dura¬ 
tion,  and  two  impulses  sent  one  after  another 
have  a  contrary  polarity.  After  each  impulse 
the  sending  end  of  the  cable  is  insulated.  In 
the  Picard  method  the  messages  were  sent  in 
Morse  code,  and  were  received  by  a  very  sensi¬ 
tive  dynamometer  relay,  which  was  connected 
by  a  stronger  type-printer  relay.  Various  other 
schemes  for  using  inverse  currents  were  pro¬ 
posed,  but  with  the  exception  of  Picard’s  work 
nothing  of  any  considerable  importance  was  done 
until  the  invention  of  the  Gott  method,  whereby 
ordinary  Morse  signals  could  be  relayed  from 
a  land  line  to  a  submarine  cable,  and  vice  versa, 
and  a  number  of  sections  of  lines  of  various 
kinds  united  for  direct  transmission.  In  fact 
signals  were  sent  over  this  line  from  Bamfield 
on  the  western  coast  of  British  America  to  Lon¬ 
don,  without  any  manual  retransmission.  In  the 
Gott  method,  brought  out  in  1913  by  the  Com¬ 
mercial  Cable  Company,  the  direction  of  the  cur¬ 
rent  is  changed  after  each  signal  by  the  use  of  a 
polarized  relay  of  suitable  sensitiveness  and 
similar  to  that  employed  on  land  lines.  While 
this  method  was  used  with  success  the  taxing  of 
all  available  facilities  of  the  cables  due  to  the 
Great  War  rendered  it  impossible  to  perfect  the 
system  for  continuous  commercial  use.  At¬ 
tempts  have  been  made  to  employ  alternating 
currents  but  without  sufficient  success  to  war¬ 
rant  their  continued  use. 

History  and  Statistics.  The  feasibility  of 
laying  a  line  for  the  transmission  of  signals 
along  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  seems  to  have 
been  first  suggested  in  1795  by  a  Spaniard 
named  Salvia.  Eight  years  later  a  nephew  of 
the  famous  electrician  Galvani  performed  ex¬ 
periments  of  a  similar  nature  in  the  deep  sea 
off  Calais.  The  first  really  important  experi¬ 
ments,  however,  bearing  directly  upon  this  sub¬ 
ject  are  believed  to  have  been  those  of  Som- 
mering  and  Schilling,  who  in  1811  applied  a  solu¬ 
ble  insulating  material  to  a  conductor  which 
was  laid  across  the  river  Isar  near  Munich. 
These  investigators  also  used  a  submarine  con¬ 
ductor  to  explode  gunpowder  by  an  electric  cur¬ 
rent.  In  1813  an  Englishman  named  John 
Sharpe  transmitted  signals  through  7  miles 
of  insulated  copper  wire  laid  on  the  bottom  of 
a  pond,  but  the  first  practical  attempt  to  use 
such  a  conductor  to  transmit  telegraphic  signals 
was  by  Colonel  Paisley  of  the  Royal  Engineers 
at  Chatham,  England,  in  1838.  He  surrounded 
his  conductor  with  strands  of  tarred  rope  and 
wrapped  the  whole  with  pitched  yarn.  In  1839 
Dr.  W.  O’Shaughnessy  at  Calcutta  laid  across 
the  Hugli  River  copper  wire  covered  with  bam¬ 
boo  and  then  coated  with  cotton  and  tar.  In 
1840  Wheatstone  proposed  a  Scheme  similar  to 
those  of  the  last  two  inventors,  and  later  sug¬ 
gested  the  use  of  gutta-percha  as  a  covering  for 
the  wire,  but  was  unable  to  put  his  idea  into 
practice.  Prof.  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  of  New  York, 
laid  an  insulated  cable  between  Castle  Garden 
and  Governor’s  Island,  and  as  a  result  of  his 
experiments  came  to  the  conclusion  “that  a  tele¬ 
graphic  communication  on  his  plan  might  with 
certainty  be  established  across  the  Atlantic.” 
The  idea  that  submarine  conductors  for  tele¬ 
graphic  purposes  could  be  constructed  was  rap¬ 
idly  taking  root,  and  in  1845  the  Messrs.  Brett, 
who  were  active  in  the  construction  of  the  first 
telegraphic  lines  across  the  English  Channel  and 
the  first  Atlantic  cable,  registered  a  “General 


Oceanic  Telegraphic  Company”  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  telegraphic  communication  be¬ 
tween  England  and  America.  In  1850  an  ex¬ 
perimental  line  was  laid  across  the  English 
Channel  by  the  Messrs.  Brett,  and  this  was  fol¬ 
lowed  in  1851  by  a  permanent  cable  of  such  ex¬ 
cellent  construction  that  it  survived  for  a  num¬ 
ber  of  years.  Several  longer  lengths  of  subma¬ 
rine  cable  were  laid  within  the  next  few  years. 
Italy  was  connected  with  Corsica  and  Sardinia, 
and  Sardinia  with  Africa.  A  Black  Sea  cable  was 
laid  in  1855,  but  operated  only  a  short  time. 

Thus  far  attempts  to  lay  submarine  tele¬ 
graph  lines  had  been  confined  to  comparatively 
short  distances.  In  1858,  after  repeated  un¬ 
successful  experiments,  telegraphic  communica¬ 
tion  was  established  across  the  Atlantic.  After 
something  over  a  hundred  messages  had  been 
sent  back  and  forth,  the  cable  ceased  to  work. 
Although  this  cable  was  a  comparative  failure, 
yet  its  brief  success  proved  two  things :  ( 1 ) 

that  a  cable  could  be  laid  through  3000  miles  of 
deep  sea;  (2)  that  the  electric  current  could  be 
transmitted  through  a  wire  of  that  length.  It 
was  not  until  1866  that  a  permanent  cable  was 
laid  across  the  Atlantic.  (The  detailed  history 
of  this  undertaking  is  described  under  Atlantic 

THE  SUBMARINE  CABLES  OF  THE  WORLD  TO 

JAN.  31,  1914 


(From  Electrical  Trades  Directory,  London,  1914) 


SUMMARY  OF  CABLES  OWNED 
BY  GOVERNMENT  ADMIN¬ 
ISTRATIONS 

Cables 

with 

LENGTH  IN  NAUTICAL 
MILES 

more 

cores 

Of  cables 

Of  con¬ 
ductors 

Argentine  Republic . 

22 

84.000 

240.000 

Austria . 

87 

713.535 

814.000 

Bahamas . 

1 

211.000 

211.000 

Belgium . 

4 

100.900 

462.216 

Brazil . 

30 

44.441 

80.798 

British  Guiana . 

8 

23.000 

50.000 

British  India . 

7 

1,987.409 

1,987.409 

Bulgaria . 

1 

0.538 

0.538 

Canada . 

51 

277.000 

277.000 

Ceylon  and  India  (J  oint) .... 

2 

66.000 

66.000 

China . . 

Denmark  (Telegraphs  and 

3 

955.400 

955.400 

Telephones) . 

147 

436.442 

1,548.765 

France  and  Algeria . 

France  (Principal  Interna¬ 
tional  and  French  Colonial 

49 

3,161.639 

3,161.639 

Cables) . 

(French)  Dahomey  and  De- 

16 

8,479.839 

8,479.839 

pendencies . 

’  97 

1.078 

1.078 

Germany . 

2,954.178 

6,242.049 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland .  .  . 

222 

3,037.522 

9,555.169 

Greece . 

13 

59.702 

58.818 

Holland . 

32 

241.543 

780.449 

Inter-Colonial  System . 

6 

9,279.000 

9,279.000 

Italy . 

58 

1,738.599 

1,892.859 

Japan  . 

Mexico . 

149 

4,248.004 

5,076.775 

6 

357.698 

434.681 

Netherlands  (Indies) . 

17 

2,741.900 

2,741.900 

New  South  Wales . 

239 

73.996 

505.272 

New  Zealand . 

36 

369.852 

375.590 

Norway . 

927 

1,555.111 

2,576.942 

Portugal . 

4 

115.050 

115.050 

Queensland . 

22 

53.510 

56.930 

Rumania . 

Russia  in  Europe  and  the 

.  .  . 

177.000 

189.000 

Caucasus . 

21 

928.541 

1,058.676 

Russia  in  Asia . 

1 

19.585 

58.243 

South  Australia . 

3 

54.000 

54.000 

Spain . 

25 

3,129.813 

3,129.813 

Sweden . 

26 

198.491 

363.749 

Switzerland . 

2 

10  685 

15.057 

Tasmania . 

6 

8.500 

23.000 

Tunis . 

4.312 

4.312 

Turkey  in  Europe  and  Asia.  . 

24 

365.174 

386.759 

Uruguay . 

5 

8.954 

8.954 

Victoria . 

3 

380.995 

380.995 

Western  Australia . 

3 

13.550 

23.350 

Total . 

2,375 

48,667.486 

63,723.074 

TELEGRAPHY 


61 


TELEGRAPHY 


SUMMARY  OF  CABLES  OWNED  BY 
PRIVATE  COMPANIES 

Cables 
with  one 
or  more 
cpres 

Length  of 
cables  in 
nautical 
miles 

African  Direct  Telegraph  Company  .  .  . 

9 

3,044 

Amazon  Telegraph  Company . 

20 

1,388 

Anglo-American  Telegraph  Company .  . 

18 

9,509 

Canadian  Pacific  Railroad  Company. .  . 
Central  and  South  American  Telegraph 

10 

102  43 

Company . 

22 

12,546 

Commercial  Cable  Company . 

15 

17,274 

Commercial  Cable  Company  of  Cuba  . 

1 

1,285 

Commercial  Pacific  Cable  Company.  . 
Compagnie  Francaise  des  Cables  T616- 

6 

10,010 

graphiques . 

24 

11,430 

Cuba  Submarine  Telegraph  Company  . 
Deutsch-Atlantische  Telegraphen-Ge- 

12 

1,540 

sellschaft . 

Deutsch-N iederlandische  Telegraphen- 

5 

9,661 

Gesellschaft . 

Deutsch  Sudamerikanische  Telegra- 

3 

3,416 

phen-Gesellschaft . 

5 

7,386 

Direct  Spanish  Telegraph  Company.  .  . 

2 

707 

Direct  United  States  Cable  Company. . 

3 

3,19443 

Direct  West  India  Cable  Company. . .  . 
Eastern  and  South  African  Telegraph 

2 

1,276 

Company . 

Eastern  Extension  Australasia  and 

18 

10,538 

China  Telegraph  Comnany . 

33 

26,219 

Eastern  Telegraph  Company . 

140 

46,613 

Europe  and  Azores  Telegraph  Company 

2 

1,060 

Great  Northern  Telegraph  Company.  . 

30 

8,405 

Halifax  and  Bermudas  Cable  Company 

1 

851 

Indo-European  Telegraph  Company . . . 

3 

21 

Mexican  Telegraph  Company . 

Osteuropaische  Telegraphen  -  Gesell- 

3 

2,069 

schaft . 

1 

185 

River  Plate  Telegraph  Company . 

4 

220 

South  American  Cable  Company . 

United  States  and  Hayti  Telegraph  and 

7 

3,779 

Cable  Company . 

1 

1,41543 

West  African  Telegraph  Company.  .  .  . 
West  Coast  of  America  Telegraph 

8 

1,471 

Company . 

West  India  and  Panama  Telegraph 

7 

1,973 

Company . 

22 

4,355 

Western  Telegraph  Comnany . 

40 

23,835  43 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Company. . . 

9 

10,796 

486 

237,575 

General  Summary 

Government  Administrations .  2,375  48,66743 

Private  Companies .  486  237,575 


Total .  2,861  286,242  43 


Telegraph.)  A  second  Atlantic  cable  was  in¬ 
augurated  immediately  after,  the  one  which  had 
broken  in  the  laying  in  1865  having  been  re¬ 
paired.  In  1859,  after  the  first  Atlantic  cable 
had  ceased  to  work,  the  Red  Sea  and  East  In¬ 
dian  Telegraph  was  laid,  over  a  route  3043  miles 
long,  but  this  also  proved  a  dismal  failure  and 
was  finally  abandoned.  The  Malta-Alexandria 
cable  was  laid  in  1861,  and  was  in  use  till  1872, 
when,  from  repeated  breakages  in  shallow  water, 
its  use  was  discontinued.  The  core  consisted  of 
a  strand  of  seven  copper  wires,  covered  by  three 
layers  of  gutta-percha;  outside  of  this  was  a 
serving  of  tarred  yarn;  and,  finally,  18  iron 
wires  constituted  the  sheathing.  This  was  the 
first  long  cable  successfully  laid  ( its  total  length, 
in  three  sections,  being  1331  miles)  ;  and  it  was 
also  the  first  properly  tested  under  water  before 
being  laid,  and  carefully  constructed  with  con¬ 
stant  watchfulness  as  to  its  electrical  and  me¬ 
chanical  conditions.  In  1869  a  cable  2328  miles 
long  was  laid  from  Brest,  France,  to  the  island 
of  Saint-Pierre,  south  of  Newfoundland;  in  1873, 
one  from  Lisbon  to  Pernambuco,  Brazil.  In  1874 
another  transatlantic  cable  was  laid,  and  from 
that  time  there  have  been  numerous  subma¬ 
rine  lines  established  whose  history  is  discussed 
under  Atlantic  Telegraph.  The  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Company  in  1900  laid  a  new  cable 


of  the  heaviest  and  most  improved  type  be¬ 
tween  Newfoundland  and  Penzance,  England. 
In  1914  before  the  war  there  were  17  cables 
operated  between  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
One  of  the  earliest  hostile  acts  in  the  war  was 
the  cutting  of  the  German  cables  to  America. 
This  left  the  Teutonic  allies  without  direct  serv¬ 
ice  to  America  and  acted  greatly  to  their  disad¬ 
vantage. 

In  1902  the  British  Pacific  cable  between 
Australia  and  British  Columbia,  7800  nautical 
miles  in  length,  was  completed,  and  in  1903 
the  first  American  cable  was  laid  across  the 
Pacific,  with  a  length  of  7846  nautical  miles, 
by  the  Commercial  Cable  Company,  between  San 
Francisco  and  the  Philippines.  This  cable 
touches  at  Hawaii,  Midway  Island,  and  Guam. 
Later  it  was  extended  from  Manila  to  Shanghai 
and  to  Japan  by  way  of  the  Bonin  Islands.  In 
1914  the  total  length  of  submarine  cable  was 
stated  at  286,242.5  miles,  representing  an  out¬ 
lay  of  over  $350,000,000. 

Construction  of  Cable.  A  submarine  cable 
consists  of  four  parts :  ( 1 )  The  central  conduc¬ 
tor,  or  core,  to  carry  the  current.  This  is  made 
of  copper  wire,  either  solid  or  in  strands.  (2) 
A  covering  of  insulating  material  to  prevent  the 
current  from  being  dissipated.  This  is  usually 
made  of  gutta-percha,  although  for  some  subma¬ 
rine  cables  rubber  has  been  used  instead.  (3) 
An  outer  covering  to  protect  the  insulating 
material  from  injury.  This  is  usually  of  yarn, 
tape,  or  canvas.  (4)  The  sheathing  or  spiral 
armoring  of  steel  wires,  laid  on  closely.  The 
cable  is  generally  divided  into  three  sections: 
the  deep-sea,  section,  the  intermediate  portion, 
and  the  shore  end.  The  last  portion  has  to  be 
constructed  with  greatest  care  and  strength,  as 
in  shallow  water  there  is  more  danger  of  in¬ 
jury  from  rocks  and  other  causes.  It  is  esti¬ 
mated  that  a  deep-sea  cable  weighs  about  one 
ton  per  nautical  mile.  Cables  cost  from  $350  in 
deep  sea  to  $1500  at  the  shore  end  per  mile. 
The  cost  of  maintenance  is  often  heavy  and  re¬ 
quires  the  services  of  specially  equipped  vessels. 

Bibliography.  Charles  Bright,  Submarine 
Telegraphy  (London,  1898)  ;  H.  M.  Field,  Story 
of  the  Atlantio  Telegraph  (New  York,  1898). 
For  statistics:  Bela  Gati,  “Submarine  Cable 
Rapid  Telegraphy;  Ocean  and  Intercontinental 
Telephony,”  in  Transactions  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  vol.  xxxiv 
(New  York,  1915)  ;  “Submarine  and  Land  Tele¬ 
graph  Systems  of  the  World,”  in  Monthly  Sum¬ 
mary  of  Commerce  and  Finance  of  the  United 
States,  July,  1903  (Washington,  Treasury  De¬ 
partment)  ;  Pierre  Jouhannaud,  Les  cables  sous- 
marins,  leur  protection  en  temps  de  paix  et  en 
temps  de  guerre  (Paris,  1904),  containing  a  bib¬ 
liography;  Fisher  and  Darby,  Students’  Guide 
to  Submarine  Cable  Testing  (4th  enl.  ed.,  New 
York,  1908)  ;  H.  D.  Wilkinson,  Submarine  Cable 
Laying,  Repairing,  and  Testing  (ib.,  1909)  ; 
Charles  Bright,  Imperial  Telegraphic  Communi¬ 
cation  (London,  1911)  ;  S.  G.  Brown,  “Cable  Re¬ 
lays,”  in  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Institution  of 
Great  Britain,  vol.  xix  (ib.,  1911);  and  “Cable 
Systems  of  the  World,”  in  Elelctro-technische 
Zeitsclirift,  Nov.  27,  1913;  London  Electrician 
(London,  annual)  ;  Electrical  Trades  Directory 
(ib.,  annual)  ;  and  various  papers  in  Trans¬ 
actions  of  American  Institute  of  Electrical  En¬ 
gineers  (New  York,  current)  ;  United  States 
Bureau  of  the  Census,  Telephones  and  Telegraphs, 
1912  (Washington,  1915). 


TELEPATHY 


TELEGRAPHY 

TELEGRAPHY,  Wireless.  See  Wireless 
Telegraphy. 

TEL  EL  AMARNA.  See  Tell  el  Amarna. 

TEL  EL  KEBIR.  See  Tell  el  Kebir. 

TELEMACHUS,  te-lem'a-kus  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
Tr]\efiaxos) .  In  Greek  legend,  the  son  of  Ulysses 
(q.v. )  and  Penelope  (q.v. ).  At  the  opening  of 
the  Odyssey  he  is  represented  as  led  by  Athena, 
who  had  appeared  to  him  in  the  guise  of  Mentor, 
a  trusted  Ithacan  friend  of  Ulysses,  in  search  of 
tidings  of  his  long-absent  father,  since  he  was 
unable  alone  to  expel  the  insolent  suitors  of  his 
mother.  Having  visited  Pylos  and  Sparta, 
Telemachus  returned  to  Ithaca,  where  he  found 
his  father  in  the  guise  of  a  beggar,  at  the  hut  of 
the  faithful  swineherd  Eumseus.  After  Ulysses 
had  revealed  his  identity  to  his  son,  they  carried 
out  a  plan  for  the  slaying  of  the  suitors.  In 
post-Homeric  legend,  after  the  death  of  Odysseus 
Telemachus  and  his  mother  accompanied  Tele- 
gonus  (q.v.)  to  the  island  of  Circe  (q.v.),  where 
Telegonus  wedded  Penelope,  and  Telemachus 
Circe. 

TELEMACHUS.  A  Syrian  monk  who  in 
404  a.d.  leaped  into  the  arena  of  the  Coliseum 
during  a  gladiatorial  combat,  attempting  to  sepa¬ 
rate  the  contestants.  He  was  stoned  to  death, 
but  his  heroic  protest  led  Honor ius  to  suppress 
gladiatorial  fights;  at  least  there  is  no  evidence 
of  their  taking  place  after  this  time. 

TELEMAQUE,  ta/lfi/mak',  Aventures  m3 
(Fr.,  Adventures  of  Telemachus).  A  romance, 
with  some  political  significance,  by  Fenelon 
(1699),  founded  on  the  adventures  of  the  son  of 
Odysseus  and  largely  influenced  by  Barclay’s 
Argenis  (q.v.). 

TELEM'ETER  (from  Gk.  rrjXe,  tele,  afar  + 
yerpov,  metron,  measure).  An  instrument  for 
measuring  the  distance  to  a  remote  object,  used 
in  surveying  and  in  military  operations  by  engi¬ 
neers  and  artillerists.  There  are  many  forms 
of  telemeter;  which  consist  for  the  most  part 
of  telescopes  and  mirrors  by  means  of  which 
angles  can  be  read  and  the  distance  computed. 
The  telemeter  of  the  United  States  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey  is  more  generally  known  among 
American  engineers  as  the  stadia  (q.v.),  and 
in  Great  Britain  as  a  tachometer.  It  consists 
of  a  mounted  telescope  with  two  extra  hori¬ 
zontal  cross  wires  or  stadia  hairs  that  intercept 
a  certain  number  of  divisions  on  the  image  of 
the  graduated  rod  held  upright  at  the  distant 
point.  The  distance  of  the  rod  from  the  in¬ 
strument  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  reading 
by  a  constant  factor  which  depends  upon  the 
construction  of  the  telescope.  Stadia  measure¬ 
ments  are  particularly  useful  in  making  a  rapid 
survey  or  reconnaissance  and  are  accurate  to 
about  one  part  in  700.  Consult  I.  O.  Baker, 
Engineer’s  Surveying  Instruments  (2d  ed.,  New 
York,  1892).  See  Range  Finder;  Surveying. 

TEL'EQL'OGY  (from  Gk.  reXos,  telos,  end, 
completion  +  -Xoyia,  -logia,  account,  from 
Xeyeip,  legein,  to  say).  A  term  used  in  philos¬ 
ophy  to  denote  any  theory  which  explains  the 
world  as  in  some  way  controlled  by  intelligent 
purpose.  The  question  teleology  answers  in 
the  affirmative  is  whether  in  the  universe  as  a 
whole,  or  even  in  the  phenomena  of  terrestrial 
organic  life,  there  is  some  actually  purposed 
end  controlling  the  course  of  events.  It  is 
certain  that  the  tendency  to  interpret  actions 
teleologically  appears  in  very  early  childhood. 
Primitive  animism  (q.v.)  seems  to  rest  on  a 
deep-seated  instinct,  and  a  mechanistic  (see 


62 

Mechanism)  conception  even  in  limited  ap¬ 
plication  was  achieved  with  great  difficulty. 
The  prevailing  trend  of  Greek  thought  was 
teleological  and  it  culminated  in  the  systems 
of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  The  more  mechanistic 
views  which  resulted  in  the  materialism  of 
Leucippus  and  Democritus  did  not  meet  with 
general  acceptance.  It  was  reserved  for  modern 
science  to  develop  a  thoroughgoing,  systemati¬ 
cally  and  experimentally  grounded  mechanism. 
Probably  the  greatest  blow  to  teleology  was  the 
appearance  of  Darwin’s  Origin  of  Species. 

At  present  teleology  is  maintained  mainly  in 
idealistic  circles  in  philosophy.  For  instance, 
James  Ward,  Josiah  Royce,  Bernard  Bosanquet, 
and  Hugo  Munsterberg  are  all  teleologists. 
They  do  not  deny  the  partial  value  of  the  mech¬ 
anistic  hypothesis,  but  they  subordinate  mech¬ 
anism  to  teleology.  For  them  mechanism  is 
a  descriptive  device,  but  as  reality  is  at  heart 
spiritual  in  nature,  teleology  is  the  more  ade¬ 
quate  point  of  view. 

Bergson  has  attempted  to  develop  a  view  ac¬ 
cording  to  which  neither  mechanism  nor  teleol¬ 
ogy  has  ultimate  validity.  For  him  teleology  is 
only  an  inverted  mechanism,  belying  the  spon¬ 
taneity  and  unforeseeableness  of  vital  develop¬ 
ment,  and  yet  nearer  the  truth  than  the  mechan¬ 
ism  of  efficient  causation.  “The  future  appears 
as  expanding  the  present :  it  was  not  therefore 
contained  in  the  present  in  the  form  of  a  repre¬ 
sented  end.  And  yet,  once  realized,  it  will 
explain  the  present  as  much  as  the  present  ex¬ 
plains  it,  and  even  more;  it  must  be  viewed 
as  an  end  as  much  as,  and  more  than,  a 
result.”  Consult:  Paul  Janet,  Final  Causes f 
Eng.  trans.  from  2d  Fr.  ed.  by  William  Affleck 
(New  York,  1883);  Franz  Erhardt,  Meehan- 
ismus  und  Teleologie  (Leipzig,  1890)  ;  Max 
Adler,  “Kausalitiit  und  Teleologie  im  Streite 
und  die  Wissenschaft,”  in  Marx  Studien,  vol.  i 
(Vienna,  1904)  ;  Bernard  Bosanquet,  “Meaning 
of  Teleology,”  in  Proceedings  of  the  British 
Academy  (London,  1905-06).  See  also  Ma¬ 
terialism  ;  Mechanism,  and  references  there 
given. 

TEL'EOSAU'RUS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  reXeos, 
teleos,  reXeios,  teleios,  complete  +  aaiipos,  sauros, 
lizard).  An  extinct  crocodile,  fossil  skeletons 
of  which  are  found  in  the  Jurassic  rocks  of 
Europe.  The  animal  was  small  and  had  a  much 
elongated  tubelike  snout  armed  with  numerous 
small  outward-curving  teeth.  The  body  was 
covered  by  tuberculated  scutes.  See  Crocodile. 

TELEP'ATHY  (from  Gk.  rgXe,  tele ,  afar  + 
-7 radeia,  -patheia,  from  it  ados,  pathos,  feeling). 
A  term  coined  by  members  of  the  Society  for 
Psychical  Research:  “We  venture  to  introduce 
the  words  Telaesthesia  and  Telepathy  to  cover 
all  cases  of  impression  received  at  a  distance 
without  the  normal  operation  of  the  recognized 
sense  organs.”  (See  Psychical  Research,  So¬ 
cieties  for.)  E.  Gurney,  F.  Myers,  and  F.  Pod- 
more  in  Phantasms  of  the  Living  (1886)  say 
that  “under  particular  conditions  of  excitement 
— the  rationale  of  which  we  probably  do  not 
understand,  though  insensibility  and  the  near 
approach  of  death  are  apparently  some  of  the 
most  effectual  of  these  conditions — certain  per¬ 
sons  seem  to  have  the  faculty  of  communicating 
to  other  persons  at  a  distance  what  is  happening 
to  them,  often  without  any  intention  or  con¬ 
sciousness  of  doing  so  on  their  own  parts,”  and 
further,  that  “certain  small  experimental  re¬ 
sults  can  be  produced,”  and  that  “certain  im- 


TELEPHONE 


63 


TELEPHONE 


pressive  spontaneous  phenomena  are  shown  to 
belong  to  the  same  class.”  Hyslop  uses  the  term 
to  cover  “coincidences  between  two  living  per¬ 
sons’  thoughts  which  are  not  due  to  chance  coin¬ 
cidence  or  to  normal  sense  perception.”  He 
thus  defines  it  negatively  as  a  “name  for  the 
facts  that  baffle  normal  explanations,  and  indi¬ 
cate  our  ignorance,  not  our  knowledge.”  Most 
of  the  investigators  in  the  field,  while  admitting 
a  bias,  profess  their  willingness  to  rest  their 
case  upon  the  experimental  findings.  Every  at¬ 
tempt  is  made  to  control  the  conditions;  and 
cases  which  are  not  properly  attested,  or  which 
can  be  explained  by  muscle  reading,  hypersensi¬ 
tivity,  etc.,  are  eliminated. 

The  actual  evidence  upon  which  the  belief  in 
telepathy  now  rests  may  be  classified  as  ( 1 ) 
experimental,  the  communication  from  agent  to 
percipient  of  simple  visual  impressions — dia¬ 
grams,  and  color,  suit,  and  number  of  playing 
cards,  etc.;  (2)  certain  striking  cases  of  the 
induction  of  sleep  at  a  distance,  notably  that 
of  Madame  B.,  or  Leonie,  reported  by  J.  Ochoro- 
wicz;  (3)  statistics  of  what  are  known  as 
veridical  hallucinations,  i.e.,  apparitions  of  a 
person  to  some  distant  friend  at  the  time  of 
the  person’s  death;  (4)  the  performances  of 
certain  test  mediums,  especially  of  one,  Mrs. 
Piper,  whose  case  has  been  investigated  at 
length  by  the  Society  for  Psychical  Research; 
and  (5)  results  of  cross  correspondences,  i.e., 
cases  in  which  two  mediums  at  a  distance  from 
each  other  simultaneously  produce  automatic 
script  which  is  meaningless  until  the  two  speci¬ 
mens  are  put  together. .  All  this  evidence  itself 
rests  upon  the  assertion  that  the  number  of  coin¬ 
cidences  exceeds  the  number  attributable  to 
chance  according  to  the  law  of  probability;  e.g., 
veridical  hallucinations  are  said  to  be  440 
times  more  numerous  than  they  should  be  ac¬ 
cording  to  chance  alone.  The  verdict  of  science 
is  still,  however,  “not  proven.” 

Bibliography.  G.  M.  Beard,  The  Study  of 
Trance,  Muscle-Reading,  and  Allied  Nervous 
Phenomena  (New  York,  1882)  ;  J.  Oehorowicz, 
De  la  suggestion  mental e  (Paris,  1887)  ;  Frank 
Podmore,  Apparitions  and  Thought  Transfer¬ 
ence  (New  York,  1896)  ;  E.  Parish,  Zur  Kritik 
des  telepathischen  Beiveismaterials  (Leipzig, 
1897)  ;  Joseph  Jastrow,  Fact  and  Fable  in 
Psychology  (Boston,  1900)  ;  Camille  Flamma- 
rion,  The  Unknown  (New  York,  1900)  ;  N.  \V. 
Thomas,  Thought  Transference:  A  Critical  and 
Historical  Review  of  the  Evidence  for  Telep¬ 
athy,  with  a  Record  of  New  Experiments  (Lon¬ 
don,  1905)  ;  J.  H.  Hyslop,  Psychical  Research 
and  Survival  (ib.,  1913).  See  Clairvoyance. 

TEL'EPHONE  (from  Gk.  rrj\e,  tele,  afar  -f- 
(pcovy,  phone,  sound).  An  instrument  for  the 
transmission  and  reproduction  of  articulate 
speech  between  two  or  more  distant  points.  The 
idea  of  transmitting  sound  to  a  distance  found 
its  first  practical  expression  in  the  speaking  tube 
and  later  in  the  string  telephone.  The  latter 
comprises  two  hollow  cylinders,  one  end  of  each 
being  covered  by  a  taut  membrane  and  con¬ 
nected  with  the  other  by  a  stretched  string. 
The  vibrations  of  the  diaphragm  of  one  cylinder 
caused  by  the  sound  waves  striking  it  are 
transmitted  through  the  string  to  the  other 
membrane.  Hooke  referred  to  such  a  combina¬ 
tion  when  in  1667  he  stated  that  by  the  help 
of  a  tightly  drawn  wire,  sound  could  be  propa¬ 
gated  to  a  considerable  distance,  even  through 
stone  walls  and  surrounding  buildings.  Sir 


Charles  Wheatstone  described  in  the  Repository 
of  Arts,  September,  1821,  an  instrument  for 
transmitting  sounds,  which  he  called  the  tele¬ 
phone.  This  device  consisted  of  a  number  of 
solid  rods  connecting  musical  instruments  with 
sounding  boards,  which  were  placed  at  a  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  instruments,  and  it  is  stated 
that  the  sound  was  successfully  reproduced. 

The  present  article,  however,  deals  with  the 
electrical  reproduction  of  articulate  speech. 
The  discovery  of  Oersted  in  1819,  showing  the 
relation  between  electricity  and  magnetism,  that 
of  Sturgeon  of  1824  showing  how  a  magnet 
was  produced  when  current  circulated  around 
a  coil  of  wire  surrounding  an  iron  core,  and  that 
of  Sir  Michael  Faraday  showing  that  electricity 
was  induced  in  a  conductor  when  moved  in  a 
magnetic  field,  are  all  of  extreme  importance 
to  the  development  of  the  electrical  telephone. 
The  germ  of  the  telephone  may  be  dated  back 
as  far  as  1837,  when  Page  of  Boston  found  that 
a  bar  or  needle  of  iron  would  give  out  sound 
when  subjected  to  rapid  cycles  of  magnetization 
and  demagnetization. 

Charles  Bourseul  in  L’  Illustration,  Paris, 
1854,  prophesied  the  transmission  of  speech: 
“I  have  asked  myself,  for  example,  if  the  spoken 
word  itself  could  not  be  transmitted  by  elec¬ 
tricity;  in  a  word,  if  what  was  spoken  in 
Vienna  may  not  be  heard  in  Paris?  It  is  prac¬ 
tically  this  way:  suppose  that  a  man  speaks 
near  a  movable  disk,  sufficiently  pliable  to  lose 
none  of  the  vibrations  of  the  voice,  that  this 
disk  alternately  makes  and  breaks  the  connec¬ 
tion  from  a  battery;  you  may  have  at  a  dis¬ 
tance  another  disk  which  will  simultaneously 
execute  the  same  vibrations.” 

The  first  electrical  apparatus  described  as 
a  telephone  by  its  inventor  was  devised  by 
Philipp  Reis  (q.v.)  of  Germany  in  1861.  This 
embodied  the  suggestions  of  Bourseul  and  the 
Page  effect.  The  elements  of  the  Reis  telephone 
are  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  flexible  disk  of  mem- 


Fig.  1.  ELEMENTS  OF  REIS  TELEPHONE. 


brane  D  mounted  over  the  opening  of  a  box 
carried  a  small  piece  of  platinum  P  at  its 
centre;  near  this  is  the  spring  S  with  which  the 
platinum  alternately  made  and  broke  contact 
when  the  membrane  was  caused  to  vibrate  by 
the  sound  waves.  These  contacts  form  the 
terminals  of  a  circuit  containing  a  battery 
B  and  the  receiver  R.  The  making  and  break¬ 
ing  of  the  circuit  between  P  and  S  caused 
intermittent  currents  to  flow  through  the  coil 
of  the  receiver,  these  producing  molecular 
vibrations  in  the  needle  giving  out  sound  as 
noted  by  Page.  This  sound  was  con¬ 
siderably  amplified  by  the  sounding  box  on 
which  the  needle  was  mounted.  By  such  means 
the  pitch  of  any  sound  may  be  reproduced  at  a 
distance,  but  this  is  only  one  characteristic, 
for,  besides  it,  sound  has  quality  or  timbre, 
which  makes  it  distinctive,  and  degrees  of  loud¬ 
ness  or  intensity.  To  transmit  articulate  speech 
these  three  elements  must  be  reproduced,  and 
this  cannot  be  done  by  any  apparatus  which 
functions  through  current  interruptions.  Hence 
the  Reis  telephone  failed  to  reproduce  any  but 


TELEPHONE 


TELEPHONE 


64 


pure  musical  notes  and  then  only  as  regards 
pitch. 

Invention  of  Bell.  No  apparent  advance  was 
made  in  working  out  the  problem  of  the  articu¬ 
lating  telephone  for  about  16  years  after  Reis’s 
work,  but  on  Feb.  14,  1876,  Prof.  Alexander 
Graham  Bell  of  Boston  applied  for  United 
States  patent  rights  on  new  and  useful  im¬ 
provements  in  telegraphy  in  which  a  method 
for  transmitting  vocal  sounds  was  described  and 
claimed.  United  States  patent  number  174465 
covering  this  method  was  granted  March  7,  1876. 
Prof.  Elisha  Gray  applied  for  a  patent  on  the 
same  day  for  a  similar  instrumentality.  Ex¬ 
tensive  and  long-drawn  litigation  over  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  priority  resulted,  but  Bell’s  claims  were 
ultimately  sustained  by  the  Supreme  Court. 
The  principle  of  the  Bell  instrument  is  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  and  when  using  this  the  speaker  talks 


D 


Fig.  2.  elements  oe  bell  telephone. 


at  a  thin  sheet-iron  diaphragm  which  vibrates 
in  synchronism  with  the  sound  waves  impinging 
upon  it.  This  vibration  is  transmitted  elec¬ 
trically  to  a  similar  device  at  the  distant  sta¬ 
tion.  The  diaphragm  I)  is  placed  behind  a 
conical  mouthpiece  which  the  speaker  holds 
close  to  his  mouth  and  the  listener  close  to 
his  ear.  A  magnet  M  is  placed  back  of  the  dia¬ 
phragm  and  upon  its  forward  pole  piece,  which 
is  very  close  to,  but  not  in  contact  with,  the 
disk,  is  located  a  coil  C  of  many  turns  of  very 
fine  insulated  wire.  The  ends  of  the  coils 
are  connected  to  the  transmitting  wires  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  One  instrument  serves  as  the 
transmitter  and  the  second  as  a  receiver,  though 
their  functions  are  reversible.  No  battery  is 
needed,  for  the  transmitting  instrument  gener¬ 
ates  the  actuating  currents  as  follows:  the 
magnet  M  causes  a  certain  number  of  magnetic 
lines  to  pass  through  coil  C ;  many  find 
their  way  into  the  iron  diaphragm  and  when 
this  vibrates  it  produces  a  change  in  the  num¬ 
ber  of  magnetic  lines  passing  through  the  coil 
G,  increasing  as  D  approaches  the  pole  tip  and 
diminishing  as  it  recedes.  This  variation  of 
magnetic  lines  induces  a  voltage  and  current 
in  coil  C  in  accordance  with  Faraday’s  discov¬ 
ery  of  electromagnetic  induction  in  1832.  As 
the  current  flows  through  the  coil  at  the  receiv¬ 
ing  instrument,  it  either  momentarily  strength¬ 
ens  or  weakens  the  magnet.  This  change  causes 
the  diaphragm  of  the  receiver  to  vibrate  in 
synchronism  with  the  actuating  disk  and  thus 
the  sound  is  reproduced.  The  receiver  of  to-day 
is  in  principle  the  same  as  the  original  Beil 
receiver  with  detail  mechanical  improvements. 
For  instance,  a  compound  magnet  may  replace 
the  single  bar,  or  a  bipolar  magnet  with  coils 
on  each  of  its  pole  tips  as  in  Fig.  3  may  be 
used.  This  latter  form  is  more  sensitive  and 
responds  to  currents  of  less  than  one  millionth 
of  an  ampere. 

Transmitters.  The  Bell  transmitter,  while 
perfectly  satisfactory  for  short  lines,  was  not 
powerful  enough  to  satisfy  the  requirements  of 
longer  lines  and  it  was  consequently  replaced 
by  another  form,  now  known  as  the  carlxm 


transmitter.  In  this  device  a  change  in  contact 
resistance  between  carbon  elements  is  produced 
by  the  sound  waves,  altering  the  pressure  be¬ 
tween  the  contact  surfaces;  and  this  sets  up 
current  pulsations  in  synchronism  with  the 
sound  waves.  Previous  to  this,  however,  both 
Bell  and  Gray  invented  electrolytic  transmitters 


D 


Fig.  3.  bell  receiver. 


of  almost  the  same  character.  These  comprised 
needles  mounted  at  the  centre  of  vibrating  dia¬ 
phragms  dipping  into  a  liquid  of  rather  low 
conductivity.  The  current  passed  through  the 
needle  and  the  liquid,  and  the  resistance  of 
the  circuit  varied  with  the  depth  of  immersion 
of  the  needle  into  the  liquid  as  influenced  by 
the  vibrations  of  the  diaphragm.  The  next  trans¬ 
mitter  was  that  of  Berliner,  1877,  based  on  the 
variation  of  resistance  with  pressure.  A  dia¬ 
phragm  vibrated  in  contact  with  a  metal  knob, 
and  Edison  at  about  the  same  time  devised  a 
transmitter  wherein  a  button  of  compressed 


Insulating  Block 
Front  Elect rodeTerminal /< 


Sound-receiving 

Diaphregrn^ 


HartFruLbei 

^Mouthpiea 


Beet  roae  Casing 


amping  Nuts‘S 
rent  Electrode 


Back 

Jectrode 


Mica  Washer 
Carbon  Granules 


Soft-rubber  ring 


- 


Bracket 
Back  Casing- 


Front  Casing 


Fig.  4.  white  solid-back  transmitter. 


carbon  was  in  contact  with  a  small  disk  of 
platinum  on  the  diaphragm.  The  microphone  of 
Hughes,  1878,  wherein  two  bodies  are  in  loose 
contact,  has  furnished  the  type  of  modern  trans¬ 
mitters  and  in  these  the  carbon  is  in  the  form 


TELEPHONE  65 

of  finely  divided  granules  held  between  two  con¬ 
ducting  plates,  one  of  which  is  the  diaphragm 
on  which  the  sound  waves  strike.  The  trans¬ 
mitter  in  most  general  use  at  present  is  the 
White  or  solid-back  transmitter,  Fig.  4.  In 
this  the  carbon  granules  are  placed  between  two 


TELEPHONE 


Q 

Fig.  5.  induction  coil  in  transmitter  circuit. 

carbon  disks,  one  being  in  contact  with  the  solid 
back  of  the  instrument,  while  the  other  is  car¬ 
ried  by  the  diaphragm  with  which  it  vibrates. 
The  rear  disk  forms  one  electrode  while  the 
front  one,  insulated  from  the  rest  of  the  ap¬ 
paratus  excepting  through  the  carbon  granules, 
is  connected  to  the  opposite  pole  of  the  circuit. 

The  variation  in  the  resistance  of  a  trans¬ 
mitter  should  produce  a  marked  degree  of 
variation  in  the  current,  and  to  accomplish 
this  it  is  necessary  that  the  resistance  of  the 
circuit  containing  the  transmitter  shall  be 
small;  to  this  end  Edison  introduced  an  induc¬ 
tion  coil  into  the  transmitter  circuit.  As  em¬ 
ployed  the  induction  coil  comprises  a  primary 
winding  of  a  few  layers  of  moderately  heavy 
copper  wire,  a  concentrically  wound  coil  or  sec¬ 
ondary  of  a  larger  number  of  turns  of  finer 
wire,  and  a  core  of  soft  iron  wire.  The  primary 
coil  P  is  placed  in  series  with  the  transmitter 
T  and  the  battery  B;  the  secondary  coil  is 
connected  to  the  transmitting  line  as  shown  in 
Fig.  5.  Any  difference  of  intensity  in  current 
caused  by  a  change  of  resistance 
in  the  transmitter  circuit  will 
induce  currents  in  the  secondary 
which  will  alter  the  magnetism  of 
the  distant  receiver  and  the  orig¬ 
inal  vibrations  of  the  sound 
waves  will  be  reproduced.  The 
addition  of  the  induction  coil 
makes  the  apparatus  more  effec¬ 
tive  and  the  increase  in  voltage 
caused  by  the  many  turns  of  the 
secondary  enables  the  message  to 
be  transmitted  a  much  greater 


vigorous  turns  of  a  crank  and  a  current  of  75- 
100  volts  transmitted  over  the  lines  to  the  ex¬ 
change,  at  which  point  a  drop  or  buzzer  is 
actuated.  The  apparatus  of  a  subscriber’s 
equipment  on  a  local  battery  system  is  some¬ 
times  arranged  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  When  the 
receiver  is  on  the  hook,  the  line  connections  are 
such  that  the  bell  and  magneto  are  in  circuit. 
The  magneto  on  account  of  its  high  resistance  is 
automatically  short  circuited  when  not  in  use. 
The  subscriber  when  signaling  central  leaves 
the  receiver  on  the  hook  and  turns  the  crank 
of  the  magneto.  When  he  is  ready  to  talk  the  re¬ 
ceiver  is  taken  off  the  hook,  the  signaling  cir¬ 
cuit  is  cut  out,  and  the  talking  circuit,  includ¬ 
ing  the  transmitter  and  receiver,  is  introduced. 
In  the  figure  the  dotted  lines  show  the  portions 
cut  out  by  the  hook  in  its  various  positions. 

In  the  ordinary  or  multiple  switchboard  when 
a  party  calls  his  signal  is  shown  at  a  drop  near 
what  is  termed  the  answering  jack  in  the  ex¬ 
change  and  when  a  party  is  called  the  connec¬ 
tion  is  made  to  what  is  termed  the  ringing 
or  multiple  jack.  Only  one  answering  jack 
exists  per  subscriber,  but  each  subscriber  has  a 
large  series  of  multiple  jacks,  the  number  de¬ 
pending  upon  the  size  of  the  exchange.  In  the 
case  of  the  multiple  type  of  board,  the  sub¬ 
scribers’  answering  jacks  are  arranged  over 
various  panels,  but  only  one  for  each  subscriber, 
and  at  these  are  placed  the  corresponding  indi¬ 
cator  drops  or  lamp  signals  actuated  when  the 
subscriber  calls.  The  multiple  jacks,  however, 
are  usually  so  arranged  that  every  operator 
has  one  for  every  subscriber  within  arm’s  length. 
For  instance,  if  say  3000  subscribers  are  con¬ 
nected  to  an  exchange,  about  300  answer  jacks 
are  arranged  per  panel,  or  10  operators’  panels 
would  be  needed  with  two  extra  end  panels. 
Above  the  answer  jacks  are  the  multiple  or  call¬ 
ing  jacks,  1000  for  each  panel.  Three  panels 


distance. 

The  telephone  was  at  first  in¬ 
tended  for  private  use,  but  very 
early  in  the  history  of  its  devel¬ 
opment,  1877,  G.  G.  Hubbard 
(q.v.)  recognized  that  its  scope 
could  be  greatly  extended  by  the 
establishment  of  telephone  ex¬ 
changes,  to  which  the  instru¬ 
ments  of  subscribers  could  be 
connected  and  at  which  any 
one  subscriber  could  be  con¬ 
nected  to  another  by  appropriate  switching 
arrangements.  Thus  a  complete  telephone 
equipment  must  be  provided  with  signaling  de¬ 
vices  so  that  the  operator  at  a  central  station 
can  call  the  subscriber  or  the  converse.  In  the 
case  of  a  local  battery  equipment,  the  sub¬ 
scriber's  outfit  is  provided  with  a  magneto  and 
bell.  The  magneto  is  a  small  electric  generator 
in  which  the  armature  is  revolved  by  a  few 


Fig.  6.  subscriber’s  equipment,  local  battery  system. 


comprising  a  section  would  have  the  entire 
number  of  subscribers  placed  upon  them.  At 
the  extreme  right  of  the  board  there  would 
be  a  panel  without  answer  jacks  and  similarly 
at  the  extreme  left.  The  multiple  jacks  on 
the  left  hand  panel  would  number  2001  to  3000, 
on  the  second  panel  they  would  number  1  to 
1000,  and  on  the  third  panel  they  would  number 
1001  to  2000.  Hence  the  operator  sitting  at 


TELEPHONE 


66 


TELEPHONE 


MULTIPLE  OR 
CALLING  JACK 


the  second  panel  would  have  within  her  reach 
multiple  jacks  of  every  subscriber.  Each  sec¬ 
tion  is  comprised  of  three  panels.  The  con¬ 
nection  between  subscribers  during  a  conversa¬ 
tion  is  made  by  means  of  a  cord  circuit  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  7.  When  a  call  is  received 
the  current  coming  in  on  the  line  wire  causes 
the  drop  to  fall,  thus  announcing  the  number 
of  the  calling  sub¬ 
scriber;  central  op¬ 
erator  then  inserts 
the  answering  plug 
into  the  corre¬ 
sponding  jack  and 

presses  the  listen-  _ 

ing  key,  thus  plac-  _ 

ing  her  instrument 
into  circuit.  She 
then  inserts  the 
ringing  or  calling 
plug  of  the  cord 
circuit  into  the 
nearest  calling  jack 
belonging  to  the 


energy  or  common  batten^  system  employed  by 
the  Bell  companies.  To  signal  the  central  station 
the  subscriber  simply  removes  his  receiver  from 
the  hook,  thus  closing  a  circuit  which  acts  upon 
a  relay  and  causes  an  incandescent  lamp  to  glow. 
The  circuit,  starting  from  a,  continues  along 
wire  c,  through  lamp  relay,  to  line  Z/L,  to 
This  gives  the  signal  to  the  central 


ground. 


MULTIPLE  OR 
CALLING  JACK 


LISTENING 

KEY 


RING  OFF 
DROP 


RING  KEY 


ANSWER  JACK 


ANSWERING 
PLUG 


DROP 


r 


4_fl^ 

OPERATOR’S 

SET 


RINGING 

MAGNETO 


DROP 


Fig.  7.  circuit  on  operator’s  board,  local  battery  system. 


6  o 

line  of  the  desired  or  called  subscriber  and 
by  pressing  the  ringing  key  sends  a  signal  to 
the  latter’s  instrument.  When  the  conversa¬ 
tion  between  the  connected  parties  on  the  mag¬ 
neto  or  local  battery  system  is  completed,  the 
subscribers  ring  off  by  placing  their  receivers 
back  on  the  hooks  and  turning  the  magneto 
cranks;  this  sends  a  current  through  the  clear¬ 
ing-out  drop  connected  across  the  cord  circuit, 
which  buzzes  and  indicates  to  central  that  the 
conversation  is  completed. 

Common  Battery  Systems.  The  use  of  a 
common  battery  at  a  central  station  has  been 
an  important  development  in  the  telephone 
exchange,  as  it  does  away  with  the  magneto 
call  at  the  subscriber’s  instrument,  which  is 
the  most  expensive  part  of  the  equipment,  and 
assures  reliability  of  signals,  as  that  is  ac¬ 
complished  automatically  when  the  receiver  is 
removed  from  the  hook.  Further  there  is  a 
saving  in  using  one  large  battery  centrally  lo¬ 
cated  in  place  of  separate  sets  at  the  various 
subscribers’  instruments.  Placing  the  talking 


RING  KEY  LISTENING 


RING  PLUG 


Fig.  8.  circuit  on  operator’s  board,  central  energy  system. 

(Hayes’s  arrangement.) 


battery  at  a  distance  from  the  transmitter 
tends  to  introduce  difficulties  in  the  clearness 
of  speech  transmission.  Various  systems  have 


operator,  who  immediately  makes  the  talking 
connection  by  inserting  the  answer  plug  into 
the  answer  jack  and  pressing  her  listening  key; 
then  having  obtained  the  number  of  the  de¬ 
sired  subscriber,  the  operator  tests  the  sleeve 
of  the  nearest  multiple  jack  of  the  called  party 
with  the  tip  of  the  calling  plug,  and  if  no 
click  is  heard  (showing  the  battery  is  not 
connected  to  the  socket  of  the  jack,  i.e.,  line 
not  busy)  she  pushes  the  plug  all  the  way  into 
the  jack  and  presses  the  ringing  key,  exactly 
as  in  the  case  of  the  multiple  board  in  the 
local  battery  system.  The  diagram,  Fig.  8, 
shows  the  circuit  when  the  line  is  not  arranged 
for  talking.  The  sides  of  the  line  are  repre¬ 
sented  by  L  and  I/,  the  central  office  battery, 
usually  a  storage  battery  of  24  volts,  by  Bt. 

P  and  S  are  the  pri¬ 
mary  and  secondary 
windings  of  the  sub¬ 
scribers’  induction 
coil.  Between  the 
points  x  and  g  at 
each  subscriber,  a  bell 
B  and  a  condenser 
C  are  permanently 
bridged.  At  the  point 
e  a  tap  runs  to  one 
side  of  the  receiver 
R  through  the  induc¬ 
tion  coil  winding  P 
to  the  L '  side  of  the 
line  through  8.  The 
hook  switch  makes 
contact  at  l.  The 
transmitter  T  is  in¬ 
serted  between  the 
hook  switch  H  and 
the  point  g.  The  con¬ 
nections  at  both  ends 
of  the  line  are  iden¬ 
tical.  Assume  the 
transmitter  T  to  be 
at  rest,  the 


LAMP 
CUT  OFF 
RELAY 


answer 

plug  to  be  in  and  the  hook  up;  it  has  a  certain 
resistance,  and  owing  to  the  battery  voltage,  a 
current  will  flow  from  the  positive  side  in  the  di 


been  devised  by  Stone,  Hayes,  Kellogg,  Dean,  rection  of  the  arrow,  along  the  L  side  of  the  line, 
Carty,  and  others  which  largely  eliminate  the  through  the  transmitter  T  to  the  book  switch, 
trouble.  Hayes’s  arrangement  (Fig.  8)  illus-  thence  to  the  negative  side  of  the  battery.  Be- 
trates  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  central  tween  the  points  e  and  g  there  will  be  a  certain 


TELEPHONE 


TELEPHONE 


67 


difference  of  potential  and  the  condenser  C  will 
be  charged  to  the  same’  pressure.  Suppose  the 
transmitter  be  spoken  to  and  its  resistance  sud¬ 
denly  decreased,  not  only  will  a  greater  current 
liow  through  the  path  just  described,  but  in  addi¬ 
tion  a  portion  of  the  charge  in  the  condenser  will 
pass  from  the  positive  side  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow,  through  the  winding  P  of  the  induction 
coil,  and  thence  to  the  negative  side  of  the  con¬ 
denser,  the  same  direction  as  before.  This  cur¬ 
rent,  traversing  the  winding  P  in  the  direction  of 
the  arrow,  will  induce  a  current  in  the  wind¬ 
ing  8.  The  condenser  thus  increases  the  line 
current,  which  in  turn  increases  the  effect 
in  the  receiver  at  the  other  end  of  the  line. 
The  coils  I,  at  the  exchange,  which  may  be 
either  impedance  coils  or  special  induction  coils 
(called  repeating  coils),  prevent  the  talking 
current  from  being  shunted  through  the  battery. 

In  the  case  of  a  10,000  subscriber  switch¬ 
board  the  storage  battery  must  be  capable  of 
giving  an  average  current  of  500  amperes,  and 
to  insure  proper  working  condition  it  must  give 
a  discharge  of  not  less  than  2000  amperes.  For 
charging  such  a  battery  as  this,  suitable  genera¬ 
tors  must  be  employed,  and  these  must  deliver 
a  charging  current  to  the  battery  of  at  least 
1000  amperes.  The  introduction  of  such  cur¬ 
rents  as  these  has  resulted  in  power  plants  at 
central  offices,  upon  which  the  operation  of  the 
telephone  switchboard  and  apparatus  is  wholly 
dependent.  All  of  the  various  systems  for  cen¬ 
tral  energy  in  actual  practice  are  necessarily 
exceedingly  complex  and  are  subject  to  im¬ 
portant  modifications  and  improvements. 

In  most  large  cities  the  greater  number  of 
telephone  calls  originating  in  one  exchange  are 
for  subscribers  connected  to  some  other  exchange. 
For  instance,  in  cities  like  New  York  and  Lon¬ 
don,  probably  80  per  cent  of  the  telephone  calls 
are  trunked  from  one  exchange  to  another.  The 
procedure  in  such  a  case  is  substantially  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Various  trunk  lines  run  from  one  ex¬ 
change  to  another  and  these  are  in  charge  of 
trunk-line  operators.  When  a  local  operator 
receives  a  message  for  an  exchange  other  than 
her  own,  the  trunk  operator  is  called  up,  con¬ 
nections  made  between  the  answer  plug  and  the 
trunk  operator’s  line,  who  in  turn  connects 
to  the  central  designated.  The  trunk  operator 
at  the  second  central  connects  the  selected 
trunk  line  and  notifies  the  local  operator  at  that 
exchange  to  connect  in  with  the  party  called. 
In  the  case  of  an  ordinary  multiple  board  the 
multiplication  of  the  ringing  jacks  or  multiple 
jacks  varies  substantially  as  the  square  of  the 
subscribers  connected.  For  instance,  in  an  ex¬ 
change  of  3000  subscribers,  with  300  per  panel, 
there  would  be  30,000  multiple  jacks;  with  an 
exchange  of  9000  subscribers  arranged  in  the 
same  manner,  there  would  be  270.000  multiple 
jacks  or  nine  times  as  many  as  in  the  first  case. 
Thus  the  multiple  board  soon  reaches  its  limit 
and  it  is  estimated  that  10,000  is  the  maximum 
number  of  subscribers  that  can  be  satisfactorily 
connected  to  such  type  of  board. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  such  a  large  per¬ 
centage  of  calls  originate  in  one  exchange 
and  terminate  in  some  other  exchange,  the 
later  types  of  board  have  been  modified  to  re¬ 
semble  in  their  action  the  trunking  arrange¬ 
ment.  This  form  of  board  is  known  as  the 
transfer,  express,  or  A  and  B  type;  and  in  this 
there  are  no  multiple  jacks,  simply  the  answer 
jacks,  the  signaling  device,  and  transfer  lines. 


In  most  of  them  the  annunciators,  or  more 
usually  lamps,  and  the  answering  jacks  are 
combined  at  a  special  board  designated  the  call 
or  B  board,  while  the  answering  and  the  giving 
of  instructions  for  connections  are  done  at  the 
order  or  A  board.  Transfer  lines  are  run  be¬ 
tween  the  two  boards  fitted  with  signaling  ap¬ 
paratus  to  insure  prompt  attention.  In  operat¬ 
ing,  the  call  is  received  at  B  board  and  at  once 
transferred  by  the  B  operator  without  answer¬ 
ing  through  a  transfer  line  to  the  order  (A) 
board,  a  lamp  lighting  to  show  the  call.  The 
A  operator  ascertains  the  number  required  and 
instructs  by  order  wire  a  B  operator  at  the 
proper  B  board  to  connect  the  required  number. 
This  second  B  operator  selects  the  proper  trans¬ 
fer  line  to  be  used  and  notifies  the  A  operator 
who  in  turn  again  advises  the  first  B  operator 
what  connecting  lines  or  transfer  lines  have 
been  selected  for  the  call  originating  at  her 
board.  In  this  arrangement,  therefore,  three 
operators  instead  of  one  handle  the  call.  This 
requires  somewhat  longer  time,  but  since  in 
practice  records  show  that  the  time  of  answer¬ 
ing  a  call  on  the  part  of  an  exchange  is  from 
three  to'  five  seconds,  the  delay  incurred  is  not 
excessive. 

Lines.  The  connections  between  subscribers 
and  exchanges  in  most  telephone  circuits,  and 
particularly  in  all  telephone  circuits  outside 
of  rural  communities,  are  entirely  metallic  and 
of  copper.  The  disturbances  introduced  by 
grounded  circuits  are  such  that  clear  conversa¬ 
tion  is  most  difficult.  When  a  single  telephone 
wire  swings  in  the  earth’s  field,  voltage  is  in¬ 
duced  therein  which  will  cause  a  flow  of  current, 
varying  in  direction  as  the  wire  swings  back  and 
forth,  introducing  false  tones.  Also  when  any 
difference  of  potential  exists  between  terminals 
of  the  grounded  line,  earth  currents  flow 
through  the  telephone  wire,  again  interfering 
with  the  signal  or  conversation  by  producing 
buzzing  and  humming  in  the  line.  When  double 
circuits,  i.e.,  entirely  metallic  ones,  are  used, 
there  is  also  trouble,  common  as  well  to 
grounded  circuits,  which  is  technically  defined 
as  induction  disturbance.  When  telephone  wires 
run  close  to  power  transmission  lines,  the  vary¬ 
ing  magnetic  field  around  the  power  wires  in¬ 
terlinks  with  the  former  and  induces  in  them 
a  voltage  of  the  same  frequency  as  the  power 
current.  Passing  storm  clouds  charged  with 
electricity  will  also  produce  current  flow  in  the 
telephone  conductors  by  static  influence.  These 
phenomena  also  cause  buzzing  and  humming  in 
the  instruments.  Similarly  there  is  electro¬ 
magnetic  induction  between  neighboring  tele¬ 
phone  wires  which  results  in  the  production  of 
what  is  known  as  cross  talk.  To  prevent  such 
noises  and  cross  talk,  the  wires  of  a  telephone 
line  are  usually  transposed  every  quarter  of 


- 1 — 

1 

-dr- 

— 1 — 

1 

— r~ 

— 1 — 

1 

— 1 — 

1 

1 

— 1 - 

1 

1 

1 

_  1 

- V - 

1 

1 

! 

- 1 - 

1 

1 

1 

— r- 

• 

1 

1 

— I - 

1 

1 

1 

— v — 

1 

1 

— 1 - 

1 

1 

1 

- V - 

1 

1 

1 

— 1 — 

1 

1 

— v - 

Fig.  9.  transposition  of  line. 

a  mile.  Fig.  9  shows  a  common  transposi¬ 
tion  scheme.  The  vertical  lines  represent  the 
cross  arms  of  the  poles  where  the  transposi¬ 
tions  are  made.  In  all  cases  two  adjacent  tele¬ 
phone  circuits  must  not  be  transposed  at  the 
same  points,  the  transposition  points  being 


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68 


TELEPHONE 


staggered  or  alternated  with  respect  to  each 
other;  on  very  busy  lines  the  transportation  is 
carried  on  so  frequently  that  the  circuits  become 
twisted  wires  with  about  10  twists  per  mile. 

Long-Distance  Telephony.  This  was  first 
made  possible  in  1885  when  the  American  Bell 
Telephone  Company  organized  the  American 
Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company.  For  several 
years  previously  experimental  lines  with  metal¬ 
lic  circuits  of  hard-drawn  copper  were  operated 
between  New  York  and  Boston.  In  1885  a 
regular  line  between  New  York  and  Philadel¬ 
phia  wras  constructed  and  so  great  was  its  suc¬ 
cess  that  within  two  years  lines  were  estab¬ 
lished  between  New  York  and  Boston,  Albany 
and  Rochester,  Chicago  and  Milwaukee,  Boston 
and  Providence,  and  New  York  and  New  Haven. 
The  New  York  and  Chicago  circuit,  950  miles 
distant  and  having  1900  miles  of  wire,  was 
opened  in  1902,  and  the  circuit  connecting  New 
York  and  San  Francisco,  with  about  6800  miles 
of  wire,  was  opened  Jan.  25,  1915. 

In  long-distance  circuits  various  added  dif¬ 
ficulties  were  encountered,  known  as  attenua¬ 
tion  and  distortion.  Attenuation  is  a  simple 
falling  away  of  the  amplitude  of  the  vibration 
due  to  the  ohmic  resistance  loss  in  the  con¬ 
ductor.  This  in  itself  is  not  harmful  if  not 
carried  too  far  and  it  may  be  avoided  to  some 
extent  by  the  use  of  large  conductors.  Distor¬ 
tion  is  due  to  the  fact  that  waves  of  different 
periods  or  rates  of  vibration  are  unequally  af¬ 
fected.  As  already  pointed  out,  speech  waves 
are  made  up  of  the  combination  of  waves  of 
various  frequencies  (pitch)  and  of  various 
shapes  (timbre).  If  the  relative  proportions  or 
positions  of  the  waves  are  altered  in  telephonic 
transmission,  distortion  results  and  the  special 
quality  of  the  sound  is  lost.  In  fact  the  words 
may  become  indistinguishable  even  though  the 
volume  of  the  sound  is  large.  In  about  1885 
Oliver  Heavyside  showed  mathematically  that  by 
adding  inductance  to  a  line  having  an  excessive 
capacity,  as  most  long  telephone  lines  have,  and 
particularly  so  if  they  are  underground,  the 
distortion  of  the  telephonic  waves  might  be 
prevented  and  the  speaking  improved. 

Pupin  Loading  Coils.  Various  attempts  to 
introduce  this  inductance  properly  have  been 
made,  but  the  practical  application  of  inductance 
appears  to  have  been  neglected  until  1900,  when 
Dr.  M.  I.  Pupin  of  New  York  took  out  patents 
for  improving  the  speaking  on  long  telephone 
lines.  The  essential  part  of  his  discovery  was 
the  determination  of  the  amount  of  correcting  in¬ 
ductance  to  be  added  and  the  points  at  which 
this  inductance  should  be  joined  in  series  to  the 
line.  The  mitigation  of  the  distortion  trouble 
in  accordance  with  the  Pupin  method  is  to-day 
termed  loading  the  line.  It  has  been  a  com¬ 
mon  mistake  to  suppose  that  this  method  de¬ 
pends  upon  the  so-called  neutralizing  or  balanc¬ 
ing  of  capacity  by  inductance  reaction.  As 
a  matter  of  fact  the  condition  of  resonance  ob¬ 
tained  when  the  inductance  multiplied  by  the 


capacity  is  equal  to 


(27T f) 


is  not  at  all  desirable 


in  telephony  as  it  would  tend  to  exaggerate  one 
particular  frequency  and  damp  out  the  others, 
this  being  fatal  to  telephonic  transmission  of 
speech.  The  Pupin  invention  depends  upon 
entirely  different  physical  principles;  in  fact 
the  higher  the  inductances  within  reasonable 
limits  the  better  the  results,  which  proves  that 
the  method  does  not  depend  upon  obtaining  a 


certain  value  or  balance  of  the  inductance  re¬ 
actance  and  the  capacity  reactance. 

This  inductance  could  be  theoretically  uni¬ 
formly  distributed,  as  was  attempted  by  Heavy- 
side,  but  it  becomes  practically  impossible  to  do 
so,  or  it  may  be  applied  at  points,  provided 
these  points  are  not  too  far  apart.  In  other 
words,  there  should  be  several  coils  per  wave 
length.  This  is  the  essential  feature  of  the 
Pupin  invention.  Considering  the  Pupin  in¬ 
vention  from  the  purely  electrical  standpoint, 
we  have  only  three  possible  reactions  in  any 
electrical  circuit:  First,  resistance  reaction; 
second,  inductance  reaction ;  and  third,  capacity 
reaction.  The  resistance  reaction  is  absolutely 
destructive  of  energy  and  causes  the  attenuation. 
The  inductance  and  capacity  reactions  on  the 
other  hand  do  not  represent  a  dissipation  of 
energy  excepting  so  far  as  resistance  is  un¬ 
avoidably  present.  These  reactions,  themselves, 
if  free  from  resistance  would  represent  only  the 
storage  of  energy  without  loss.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  the  loss  of  energy  and  the  at¬ 
tenuation  of  the  wave  are  increased  by  increase 
of  resistance.  Inductance,  on  the  other  hand, 
represents  no  essential  loss  of  energy  and  the 
total  amount  applied  to  one  end  of  the  line 
would  be  given  out  at  the  other,  so  far  as  this 
reaction  is  concerned.  It  is  also  a  fact  that 
it  is  essential  to  have  stored  energy  present  in 
order  that  a  wave  may  be  transmitted  at  all. 
The  energy  of  the  wave  is  self-contained  and 
each  wave  or  portion  of  a  wave  must  be  carried 
along  by  the  energy  originally  applied  to  form 
it,  since  it  receives  no  fresh  impulse  after  once 
leaving  the  source  of  the  electromotive  force. 
The  energy  represented  by  inductance  is  equal 
to  Y2 Li2;  with  a  large  value  of  L,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  have  a  considerable  value  of  cur¬ 
rent.  This  is  a  great  gain,  since  the  loss  of 
energy  is  entirely  due  to  the  resistance  and  is 
proportional  to  i2.  This  is  the  very  secret  of 
the  Pupin  invention,  which  enables  us  to  have 
a  considerable  amount  of  energy  present  by  in¬ 
creasing  the  inductance  to  a  higher  value,  but 
keeps  the  current  upon  which  the  loss  of 
energy  depends  at  a  small  value.  The  question 
naturally  arises,  why  not  increase  the  capacity 
reactance,  which  also  represents  a  storage  of 
energy  and  not  a  loss  of  it?  The  answer  is 
that  a  large  capacity  gives  a  small  capacity 
reactance  and  therefore  a  large  current,  and 
hence  increasing  the  capacity  increases  also 
the  current  and  the  loss  of  energy,  which  is 
proportionate  to  the  square  of  that  current. 

The  loading  coils,  as  the  added  inductances  are 
called,  are  merely  turns  of  insulated  wire  wound 
on  very  finely  laminated  iron  cores  incased 
in  water-tight  boxes,  which  may  be  mounted  on 
poles  if  used  with  aerial  lines  or  if  used  in 
cable  lines  may  be  placed  in  manholes.  In  long 
overhead  lines  a  coil  is  generally  inserted  in 
series  at  intervals  of  2%  miles;  on  underground 
lines  at  intervals  of  every  1000  feet.  These 
coils  have  a  resistance  of  2.4  ohms  and  an 
inductance  of  about  0.25  henry.  The  same  ef¬ 
ficiency  of  speech  transmission  can  be  obtained 
by  loaded  lines  of  the  same  length  as  nonloaded 
ones  and  with  one  quarter  the  weight  of  copper. 

Another  factor  which  has  made  possible  tele¬ 
phonic  transmission  of  speech  over  very  great 
distances  and  which  compensates  for  attenua¬ 
tion  is  the  repeater.  The  function  of  a  re¬ 
peater  as  in  telegraphy  is  to  break  up  con¬ 
tinuous  circuit  lengths,  thus  reduce  the  capacity 


TELEPHONE 


TELEPHONE 


of  the  line,  and  at  the  same  time  actuate  the 
second  section  by  the  impulses  impressed  upon 
the  first  section.  These  relays  must  be  capable 
of  operating  in  both  directions.  Electromag¬ 
netic  and  mechanical  repeaters  have  been  at¬ 
tempted  in  telephony,  but  they  have  not  proved 
at  all  satisfactory.  The  vacuum  repeater  simi¬ 
lar  to  that  used  in  wireless  telegraphy  and 


Fig.  10.  vacuum  repeater,  audion  type. 

telephony  has  been  employed  with  success  on 
the  New  York-San  Francisco  line.  The  form 
of  vacuum  repeater  which  is  most  widely  known 
is  that  of  the  so-called  audion  type,  developed 
originally  by  Lee  De  Forest  in  1902.  It  con¬ 
sists  of  an  evacuated  bulb  containing  a  hot 
cathode,  usually  a  lamp  filament  heated  by  the 
passage  of  current,  an  anode  in  the  form  of  a 
plate,  and  a  third  electrode  in  the  form  of  a 
grid  or  mesh  interposed  between  the  cathode  F 
and  the  anode  A.  Fig.  10  illustrates  the  method 
of  using  such  a  tube  for  amplifying  weak  elec¬ 
trical  impulses.  The  operation  of  the  device 
is  as  follows :  Current  from  battery  B  heats 
the  filament  F,  which  thereupon  emits  negative 
ions  or  electrons.  The  battery  B  maintains 
the  anode  at  a  potential  of  25  volts  or  more 
with  respect  to  the  filament,  so  that  electrons 
emitted  by  the  filament  pass  across  the  tube 
to  the  anode,  creating  a  steady  flow  of  current 
through  the  telephone  T.  The  value  of  this 
current  is  dependent,  among  other  things,  upon 
the  potential  of  the  grid  with  respect  to  the 
filament  and  it  may  be  varied  within  wide 
limits  by  changing  the  grid  potential.  Fig.  11 


TERMINAL  OF  FILAMENT 

Fig.  11.  CURRENT  CURVE  IN  AUDION  REPEATER. 

illustrates  this  characteristic  of  the  tube.  It 
is  evident  that  a  negative  charge  imparted  to 
the  grid  reduces  the  plate  current  while  a  posi¬ 
tive  charge  increases  it.  The  action  of  the 


system  indicated  by  Fig.  10  when  an  alternat¬ 
ing  voltage  curve  A  is  impressed  upon  the  grid 
is  shown  diagrammatically  by  the  curves  of 
Fig.  12;  curve  B  shows  the  pulsating  current 
through  the  telephone  T.  As  the  energy  re¬ 
quired  on  the  input  side  to  operate  the  repeater 
is  only  that  which  is  needed  to  charge  the 


FlG.  12.  VARIATION  IN  CURRENT  DUE  TO  CHANGE  IN  GRID 
POTENTIAL.  AUDION  REPEATER. 

grid,  the  ratio  of  energy  output  to  energy  input 
is  extremely  large.  An  amplification  of  energy 
of  the  order  of  1000  to  1  is  readily  obtained. 
When  greater  amplification  is  needed,  two  or 
more  tubes  may  be  connected  in  cascade.  The 
use  of  repeaters  of  this  type  on  telephone  lines 
is  attended  with  considerable  complication  and 
if  the  amplification  is  carried  too  high  the  line 
will  howl,  i.e.,  the  application  of  too  large  an 
amount  of  energy  to  the  line  which  is  being  re¬ 
peated  into  will  react  upon  the  actuating 
line  and  create  noises  therein,  the  condition 
being  one  of  an  unstable  balance.  The  principle 
of  the  repeater  connection  for  telephonic  lines 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  13,  in  which  a  single 
tube  is  shown  in  a  two-way  system. 

Party  Lines.  One  of  the  best  advance  agents 
of  the  telephone  companies  is  the  party  line, 


Fig.  13.  repeater  connections  in  two-way  system. 

whereby  two  or  four  subscribers  are  connected 
to  the  same  circuit,  receiving  their  service  at 
a  reduced  rate  on  account  of  the  economy  in 
line  conductors.  In  order  to  advise  which  one  of 
the  subscribers  is  wanted  when  a  signal  is  to  be 
sent  from  the  exchange,  different  methods  of 
calling  have  been  devised  and  these  have  been 
termed  selective  and  nonselective.  On  nonselec- 
tive  lines  a  signal  for  any  party  operates  the 


TELEPHONE 


70 


TELEPHONE 


ringers  at  all  stations,  each  subscriber  having  a 
particular  signal  or  group  of  periods  of  bell 
ringing,  which  signal  he  only  is  meant  to  an¬ 
swer.  This  is  quite  objectionable;  for  even 
though  one  party  is  called,  others  on  the  line 
hearing  the  signal  may  listen  in.  To  avoid  this 
difficulty,  selective  signals  have  been  devised 
and  in  these  each  station  is  equipped  with  a 
ringer  which  will  respond  to  its  own  call,  the 
others  remaining  silent.  Three  different  prin¬ 
ciples  for  party-line  selective  calls  have  been 
devised.  These  are  known  as  the  harmonic, 
the  biased-bell,  and  the  step-by-step  arrange¬ 
ments.  In  the  case  of  the  harmonic  selective 
system,  each  ringer  has  a  spring-supported 
armature  which  will  respond  to  but  one  fre¬ 
quency  of  current  and  no  other.  In  the  biased- 
ringer  system  polarized  bells  are  used  with 
springs  connected  to  their  armatures  so  that 
they  will  respond  only  to  currents  flowing  in 
certain  directions  and  these  are  arranged  for 
four-party  calls  as  shown  in  Fig.  14.  The  bells 


are  normally  disconnected  from  the  lines,  and 
are  only  connected  when  they  are  to  be  rung, 
and  then  by  means  of  relays  inserted  in  the 
branches  in  series  with  condensers.  These  re¬ 
lays  are  operated  by  alternating  currents  sent 
through  the  circuit  by  closing  the  desired  ring¬ 
ing  key.  This  connects  the  bells  to  the  line  and 
when  this  occurs  the  desired  pulsating  current 
is  superimposed  upon  the  proper  line  side  to 
ring  the  bell  of  the  selected  subscriber  through 
relay  contact  and  ground.  Step-by-step  party¬ 
line  systems  select  the  desired  subscriber  bv  the 
*/  «/ 

operation,  one  after  another,  of  a  set  of  switches 
at  the  subscriber’s  station  by  current  impulses 
sent  out  from  the  central  office. 

Automatic  Telephone  Systems.  In  auto¬ 
matic  telephony  the  subscribers  are  enabled  to 
secure  intercommunication  without  the  assist¬ 
ance  of  an  exchange  operator.  Strowger,  an 
electrical  engineer  and  mechanician  of  Chicago, 
in  1891,  introduced  the  first  automatic  telephone 
system,  and  shortly  afterward  several  small  ex¬ 
changes  wTere  installed.  The  earliest  of  his 
devices  were  necessarily  crude  in  design,  com¬ 
plex  in  operation,  and  imperfect  in  service,  but 
they  served  to  demonstrate  the  fact  that  the 
fundamental  principles  involved  were  correct, 
and  that  it  was  possible  to  evolve  a  commercially 
perfect  system.  After  several  years  of  per¬ 
sistent  effort  and  constant  experimenting,  a 
system  was  provided  in  which  the  design  was 
so  greatly  improved  and  simplified  that  the  re¬ 
sulting  exchange  was  but  little  more  compli¬ 
cated  than  the  ordinary  manual  switchboard. 
Another  and  more  recent  advance  was  to  ex¬ 
tend  the  limits  of  the  capacity  of  the  device  so 
that  the  largest  city  can  be  handled  as  conven¬ 
iently  as  that  of  the  smallest  village.  As  in 
the  case  of  the  manually  operated  switchboard, 
it  is  difficult  to  describe  in  a  lucid  and  brief 


manner  the  mechanism  of  the  operation.  The 
entire  system  comprises  the  usual  transmitter, 
receiver,  bells,  soifrce  of  energy,  and  induction 
coils,  but  there  is  also  involved  a  calling 
dial,  at  each  subscriber’s  instrument,  formed  of 
a  metal  disk,  on  the  circumference  of  which  are 
10  finger  holes  numbered  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  0. 
When  a  subscriber  wishes  to  make  a  call  he 
removes  the  receiver  from  the  hook,  when  he 
is  connected  with  the  trunk  line  of  the  exchange 
in  which  are  located  the  connector  switches. 
Assuming,  e.g.,  that  the  number  he  wishes  is 
532,  he  places  his  finger  in  the  hole  marked  5 
and  turns  the  dial  around  to  the  stop  and  then 
releases  it,  when  it  will  restore  itself,  through 
the  action  of  a  spring,  to  its  normal  position ; 
similarly,  for  the  following  number,  he  turns 
the  dial  to  3  and  to  2.  This  done,  he  presses  a 
button,  when  the  bell  of  the  subscriber  desired 
is  rung  and  the  line  closed  for  conversation.  If 
the  telephone  of  the  subscriber  called  is  busy 
a  buzzing  sound  in  the  receiver  held  by  the  per¬ 
son  making  the  call 
notifies  him  of  the 
fact.  The  automatic 
switch  at  the  central 
exchange  is  a  mech¬ 
anism  comprising  a 
pair  of  relays  and 
three  pairs  of  mag¬ 
nets  with  their  at¬ 
tendant  accessories, 
mounted  on  a  cen¬ 
tral  vertical  rod. 
These  are  so  ar¬ 
ranged  that  when  the  electrical  impulses  are 
sent  from  the  subscriber’s  telephone  who  is 
calling,  wiping  or  contact  fingers,  correspond¬ 
ing  to  the  number  indicated,  are  brought 
into  connection  with  complementary  brass 
contacts  which  are  arranged  in  semicircu¬ 
lar  banks,  thus  selecting  the  number  desired. 
Among  the  numerous  advantages  claimed  for 
the  automatic  system  are,  ( 1 )  that  the  sub¬ 
scriber  himself  connects  his  telephone  with  that 
of  the  person  with  whom  he  wishes  to  converse, 
and  the  apparatus  is  so  constructed  that  it  is 
impossible  for  another  subscriber  to  cut  in  or 
in  any  way  interfere  with  the  line  he  is  using; 
(2)  that  the  service  which  the  automatic  system 
gives  is,  unlike  that  of  the  manual  system,  ab¬ 
solutely  secret,  each  subscriber  having  a  private 
wire  on  which  to  transmit  his  communication — 
an  advantage  that  cannot  be  overestimated  by 
the  general  business  man,  as  well  as  by  the 
broker,  lawyer,  and  physician. 

Phantom  Lines.  This  method  of  connecting 
telephone  instruments  is  frequently  employed, 


so  that  two  complete  metallic  circuits  may  be 
made  to  serve  three  subscribers  in  place  of 
two.  It  is  accomplished  by  bridging  the  lines 
with  repeating  coils  and  connecting  the  third 
equipment  between  the  centre  points  of  the  coils. 


TELEPHONE 


71 


TELEPHONE 


as  shown  in  Fig.  15.  The  impedance  of  the  certain  extent  and  there  has  been  agitation  in 
coils  is  so  high  that  it  does  not  short  circuit  this  direction  in  the  United  States.  For  the 
the  line  across  which  it  is  connected,  but  the  most  part,  such  public  ownership  of  telephones 
current  to  actuate  the  middle  telephone  passes  is  national,  rather  than  municipal,  and  is  chiefly 
towards  the  centre  of  the  relay  coil  and  this  confined  to  countries  where  private  owner- 
neutralizes  the  impedance  thereof.  ship  of  franchises  is  far  less  common  than  pub- 

Combined  Telephone  and  Telegraph.  Mixed  lie  ownership.  Actual  statistics  are  not  readily 
circuits,  as  these  are  called,  are  particularly  available,  and  are  constantly  changing,  but  an 
useful  for  railway  working,  as  noise¬ 
less  telephone  lines  may  be  obtained 
from  combinations  of  ordinary  tele¬ 
graph  lines.  This  is  accomplished 
by  connecting  two  lines  as  shown  in 
Fig.  16.  The  condensers  in  the  tele¬ 
phone  legs  shut  off  the  low-frequency 
telegraphy  currents,  and  the  high 
reactance  coils  in  the  telegraphy  legs 
shut  out  the  high-frequency  tele¬ 
phone  currents.  A  and  B  are  ter¬ 
minal  telegraph  stations  and  G  is 
a  way  station.  The  upper  line  may 
also  serve  as  a  telegraph  line,  but 
the  instruments  are  not  shown. 

They  would,  however,  be  connected 
in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the 
lower  line. 

Statistics.  In  1916  the  American  Bell  Tele¬ 
phone  Company  did  the  major  portion  of  the 
telephone  business  in  the  United  States,  though 
a  number  of  strong  independent  companies  had 
been  organized.  The  remarkable  growth  of  the 
telephone  industry  since  its  establishment  in 
the  United  States  is  shown  in  table  below,  ab¬ 
stracted  from  the  United  States  Census  reports 
of  1912. 


0 

0 

U 

i 

1 

Fig.  16.  combined  telephone  and  telegkaph. 


UNITED  STATES 


CEN¬ 

SUS 

Number 

of 

systems 

and 

lines 

Miles  of 
wire 

Number  of 
telephones 

Estimated  num¬ 
ber  of  messages 
or  talks  per 
annum 

1912 

32,233 

20,248,326 

13,735,658,245 

1907 

22,971 

12,999,369 

6,118,578 

11,372,605,063 

1902 

9,136 

4,900,451 

2,371,044 

5,070,554,553 

1890 

53 

240,412 

233,678 

453,200,000 

1880 

148 

34,305 

54,319 

BELL  TELEPHONE  SYSTEM 


1912 

176 

15,133,186 

5,087,027 

9,133,226,836 

1907 

175 

8,947,266 

3,132,063 

6,401,044,799 

1902 

44 

3,387,924 

1,317,178 

3,074,530,060 

ALL  OTHER  SYSTEMS 


1912 

32,157 

5,115,140 

3,642,565 

4,602,431,409 

1907 

22,796 

4,052,09S 

2,986,515 

3,999,389,159 

1902 

9,092 

1,512,527 

1,053,966 

1,996,024,493 

The  marked  increase  in  the  business  of  the 
independent  companies  has  largely  been  due  to 
the  expiration  of  the  original  patents  granted 
to  Bell  on  his  receiver  and  others  relating  to 
transmitters.  The  independent  telephone  move¬ 
ment  began  in  1893,  but  owing  to  the  monopoly 
of  the  art  held  by  the  Bell  companies,  the 
movement  progressed  very  slowly.  Prior  to  the 
independent  movement  the  Bell  Company  had 
paid  very  little  attention  to  providing  rural 
localities  with  telephone  service,  but  in  recent 
years  the  homes  of  farmers  throughout  the 
country  have  been  connected  by  well-constructed 
lines  and  modern  instruments. 

Public  Ownership  of  Telephones.  In  Eu¬ 
rope  public  ownership  of  telephones  exists  to  a 


admirable  summary  of  the  ownership  of  tele¬ 
phones  in  various  countries,  made  by  U.  N. 
Bethell,  general  manager  of  the  New  York  and 
New  Jersey  Telephone  Company  (see  Bibliog¬ 
raphy  below),  is  as  follows: 

“All  over  Europe,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the 
industry  is  controlled  and  owned  by  states  or 
municipalities  (see  table  at  end  of  article).  In 
Belgium,  France,  Switzerland,  Germany,  Aus¬ 
tria,  and  Hungary  the  central  government  oper¬ 
ates  the  industry.  In  Holland  the  state  operates 
the  trunk  lines;  in  the  two  principal  cities,  Am¬ 
sterdam  and  Rotterdam,  the  municipalities 
operate  the  local  systems;  and  at  The  Hague  a 
private  company  operates.  In  Denmark  and 
Norway  private  enterprise  under  government 
control  operates  the  industry,  while  in  Sweden 
the  state  operates  it,  except  that  in  Stockholm 
and  vicinity  a  private  company  since  1890  has 
been  in  active  competition  with  the  state.  In 
Great  Britain,  in  most  places,  private  enterprise 
operates  the  local  systems  under  license  from 
the  state;  in  a  few  places  municipalities  operate 
or  are  preparing  to  operate  local  systems;  the 
state  operates  the  trunk  lines.” 

Municipal  telephone  systems  were  in  use  or 
under  construction  in  Great  Britain  early  in 
1893  at  Glasgow,  Portsmouth,  Swansea,  Brigh¬ 
ton,  and  Hull.  The  general  movement  for  munic¬ 
ipal  telephones  in  Great  Britain  followed  a 
parliamentary  Act  of  1899,  authorizing  munici¬ 
pal  construction.  Tunbridge  Wells  and  Glas¬ 
gow,  in  1901,  were  the  first  to  install  and  oper¬ 
ate  systems  under  the  Act,  but  after  an  active 
campaign  against  public  ownership  in  Tun¬ 
bridge  Wells  the  municipal  plant  was  sold  to 
the  National  Telephone  Company,  its  private 
competitor,  in  the  latter  part  of  1902.  It  should 
be  added  that  in  1911  all  telephone  licenses 
granted  to  private  companies  in  Great  Britain 
expired,  and  in  the  following  year  all  the  lines 
of  the  National  Telephone  Company  were  taken 
over  by  the  Post-Office  Department,  which  had 
had  a  monopoly  of  the  telegraph  business  since 
1869.  See  Municipal  Ownership. 

The  general  question  of  municipal  ownership 
has  been  discussed  at  length  under  that  head. 
The  public  interests  demand  that  the  business 
shall  be  conducted  as  a  monopoly,  under  public 
control.  Public  control  does  not  exist  in  the 


TELEPHONE 


72 


TELESCOPE 


United'  States  to  the  extent  that  might  be  sup¬ 
posed,  but  that  is  largely  the  fault  of  the  legisla¬ 
tive  and  executive  departments  of  the  several 
States,  and  to  some  extent  of  the  municipalities 
also.  In  many  States  public-service  commissions 
are  empowered  to  supervise.  Finally,  the  long¬ 
distance  lines  would  be  a  troublesome  factor  in 
municipal  ownership  in  America,  unless  they,  as 
in  some  countries  abroad,  were  owned  by  the 
general  government.  This  has  been  proposed  in 
some  quarters,  notably  by  Postmaster-General 
Burleson  of  President  Wilson's  cabinet. 


TABLE  OF  STATISTICS 
(Abstracted  from  J.  E.  Kingsbury.  See  Bibliography) 


COUNTRY 

Owner¬ 

ship 

Instruments 

connected 

Capital 

invested 

Argentina . 

P 

75,000 

$16,000,000 

Austria . 

G 

173,000 

39,400,000 

Belgium . 

G 

65,000 

14,500,000 

Canada . 

P 

& 

G 

500,000 

74,500,000 

France . 

G 

330,000 

82,000,000 

Germany . 

G 

1,420,000 

2S0,000,000 

Great  Britain . 

G 

780,500 

144,000,000 

Holland . 

P 

& 

G 

86,500 

13,000,000 

Hungary . 

84,000 

16,400,000 

Italy . 

P 

& 

G 

62,000 

12,100,000 

Japan . 

G 

220,000 

24,000,000 

Russia . 

P 

& 

G 

375,000 

51,000,000 

United  States ..... 

P 

*9,542,000 

*1,150,000,000 

P,  corporate  ownership.  G,  government  control. 

*  1914. 


Bibliography.  H.  L.  Webb,  Telephone  Hand- 
hook  (new  ed.,  Chicago,  1901);  W.  J.  Hopkins, 
Telephone  Lines  and  Their  Properties  (new  rev. 
ed.,  New  York,  1901);  A.  V.  Abbott,  Tele¬ 
phony:  A  Manual  of  the  Design ,  Construction, 
and  Operation  of  Telephone  Exchanges  (6  vols., 
ib.,  1903-05)  ;  K.  B.  Miller,  American  Telephone 
Practice  (4th  ed.,  ib.,  1905)  ;  Houston  and  Ken- 
nellv,  Electric  Telephone  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1906)  ; 
Poole,  The  Practical  Telephone  Handbook  (ib., 
1912)  ;  McMeen  and  Miller,  Telephony  (Chicago, 
1912)  ;  J.  C.  Slippy,  Telephone  Cables  (Pitts¬ 
burgh,  1913)  ;  F.  C.  Allsop,  Telephones:  Their 
Construction  and  Fitting  (8th  ed.,  New  York, 

1914)  ;  Radcliffe  and  Cushing,  Telephone  Con¬ 
struction  Installation,  Wiring,  Operation,  and 
Maintenance  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1914)  ;  J.  E.  Kingsbury, 
The  Telephone  and  Telephone  Exchange  (ib., 

1915)  ;  J.  C.  Slippy,  Telephone  Appraisal  Practice 
(Pittsburgh,  1915).  For  discussion  of  the  pub¬ 
lic  ownership  of  telephones  consult  some  of  the 
references  under  Municipal  Ownership;  also 
papers  by  Bethell  (against),  Parsons  (for),  and 
Bennett  (as  to  Great  Britain)  in  “Proceedings 
of  National  Convention  upon  Municipal  Opera¬ 
tion  and  Public  Franchises,”  in  Municipal  Af¬ 
fairs,  vol.  vi,  No.  4  (New  York,  1902-03)  ; 
Hemenway  on  “Municipal  Telephones,”  in  Pro¬ 
ceedings  Seventh  Annual  Convention  League  of 
American  'Municipalities  (Des  Moines,  Iowa, 
November,  1903)  ;  K.  B.  Judson,  comp.,  Selected 
Articles  on  Government  Oumership  of  Telegraph 
and  Telephone  (White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  1914). 
For  statistics:  United  States  Census,  Telephones 
and  Telegraphs,  1912  (Washington,  1915),  and 
statistical  reports  of  the  American  Telegraph 
and  Telephone  Company  (New  York).  See 
Public  Utilities,  Regulation  of. 

TELEPHONE,  Wireless.  See  Wireless 
Telegraphy  and  Telephony. 

TEL'EPHUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  T^Xe^os).  In 
Greek  legend,  a  king  of  Teuthrania,  in  southern 


Mysia  ( q.v. ) .  Auge,  the  daughter  of  King 
Aleos  of  Tegea  (q.v.),  was  loved  by  Hercules 
and  bore  him  a  son,  Telephus.  In  anger  her 
father  inclosed  mother  and  child  in  a  chest  and 
cast  them  into  the  sea.  The  chest  floated  across 
the  ^Egean  to  the  mouth  of  the  Caeus,  where 
Teuthras  married  Auge  and  brought  up  Tel¬ 
ephus,  who  succeeded  him  on  the  throaie.  This 
early  version  was  modified  by  the  tragedians. 
Auge  became  priestess  of  Athena,  and  the  child 
was  born,  or  at  any  rate  exposed,  on  Mount 
Parthenion,  where  it  was  suckled  by  a  doe,  and 
(in  one  version)  found  by  Hercules.  Auge 
meanwhile  was  cast  into  the  sea  and  brought  to 
Mysia,  where  she  was  adopted  by  Teuthras. 
Latef,  Telephus  came  to  Mysia  on  account  of  an 
oracle,  helped  Teuthras  against  powerful  ene¬ 
mies,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  hand  of  Auge. 
On  the  marriage  night  mother  and  son  recog¬ 
nized  each  other.  When  the  Greeks  were  on 
their  way  to  Troy  they  landed  by  mistake  in 
the  territory  of  Telephus  and  harried  the  coun¬ 
try.  Telephus  defeated  the  invaders,  but  was 
himself  wounded  by  Achilles.  As  an  oracle  in¬ 
formed  him  that  only  the  man  who  had  wounded 
him  could  cure  him,  he  went  to  Greece,  and, 
as  the  Greeks  needed  his  guidance  to  reach  Troy, 
they  yielded  and  Achilles  healed  the  wound  with 
rust  from  his  spear.  Telephus  then  guided  the 
Greeks  to  Troy  but  refused  to  take  part  in 
the  war,  since  his  wife,  Astyoche,  was  a  daughter 
(or  sister)  of  Priam.  The  whole  story  of  Tel¬ 
ephus  was  represented  on  the  smaller  frieze 
of  the  Great  Altar  of  Pergamon  (see  Pergamon, 
Great  Altar  of  ) ,  and  his  battle  with  Achilles 
in  the  west  pediment  of  the  Temple  of  Athena 
Alea  at  Tegea  (q.v.).  Consult:  Jahn,  Telephus 
und  Trottos  (Kiel,  1841);  id.,  Telephus  und 
Troilos  und  sein  Ende  (ib.,  1859)  ;  Pilling, 
Quomodo  Teleplii  fahulam  et  scriptores  et  arti¬ 
fices  veteres  tractaverint  (Halle,  1886). 

TELESCOPE  (from  Gk.  ryXeaKoiros,  tele- 
skopos,  far-seeing,  from  rrjXe,  tele,  afar  -f- 
cKoireiv,  skopein,  to  look).  Essentially  a  lens  or 
mirror  to  form  an  image  of  a  distant  object,  to¬ 
gether  with  a  microscope  to  enable  the  observer 
to  examine  this  image  in  detail,  or  a  photo¬ 
graphic  camera  or  some  form  of  spectroscopic 
apparatus.  The  invention  of  the  telescope  was 
doubtless  accomplished  in  Holland,  but  there  is 
some  confusion  and  controversy  to  be  en¬ 
countered  in  attempting  to  determine  the  origi¬ 
nal  inventor.  Tradition  has  it  that  early  in 
the  seventeenth  century  one  Jansen,  a  spectacle 
maker  of  Middelburg,  Holland,  constructed  a 
telescope  about  16  inches  long  which  he  exhibited 
to  Prince  Maurice  and  the  Archduke  Albert, 
who,  appreciating  the  importance  of  the  discov¬ 
ery,  paid  him  a  sum  of  money  to  keep  it  con¬ 
cealed.  Another  spectacle  maker,  Lippershey, 
made  application  (1608)  to  the  States  General 
for  a  patent  for  a  telescope,  as  also  did  Metius, 
a  professor  of  mathematics,  but  in  the  former 
instance,  at  least,  it  was  refused,  as  the  appara¬ 
tus  was  already  known.  It  seems  certain  that 
the  instrument  was  known  more  or  less  about 
Europe,  but  the  honor  of  its  invention  is  usually 
given  to  Galileo,  who  was  the  first  to  describe 
it  and  exhibit  it  in  a  complete  form  (May, 
1609).  Galileo  having  heard  that  a  device  to 
magnify  distant  objects  had  been  constructed  in 
France  or  Holland,  immediately  set  to  work  to 
produce  such  an  instrument.  His  telescope, 
similar  in  form  to  the  modern  opera  glass  (q.v.) 
and  composed  of  a  convex  object  glass  and  a 


TELESCOPE 


73 


TELESCOPE 


concave  eyepiece,  as  first  constructed  had  a 
magnifying  power  of  3  times,  but  this  was  sub¬ 
sequently  increased  to  30  times,  and  Galileo 
was  able  to  discover  the  satellites  of  Jupiter, 
the  mountains  of  the  moon,  and  other  celestial 
objects.  To  Kepler  we  owe  the  discovery  of  the 
principle  of  the  astronomical  telescope  with  two 


verted  and  is  merely  magnified  by  the  eyepiece. 
In  what  is  known  as  the  terrestrial  telescope 
there  is  an  additional  lens  or  lenses  added  to 
erect  or  invert  the  image  so  that  it  will  appear 
to  the  eye  in  its  natural  position,  the  erecting 
lens  and  the  eyepiece  being  in  reality  a  compound 
microscope  to  view  the  image  furnished  by  the 


convex  lenses,  and  the  description  of  such  an 
instrument  is  contained  in  his  Catoptrics 
(1611).  This  idea  was  actually  employed  in  a 
telescope  constructed  by  Father  Schemer  ( Rosa 
Ursma,  1630),  and  such  telescopes  were  used  in 
increasing  numbers  until  the  middle  of  the  sev¬ 
enteenth  century,  when  they  were  practically 
universal,  and  improved  construction  made  pos¬ 
sible  Huygens’s  discovery  of  Titan,  the  brightest 
satellite  of  Saturn. 

In  the  accompanying  diagram  C  represents  a 
convex  lens,  the  object  glass  of  a  telescope;  A 
is  a  distant  object  and  B  is  a  real  and  inverted 
image  formed  by  the  lens.  From  the  discussion 
of  lenses  in  the  article  on  Light  (q.v. )  it  will 
appear  that  in  order  to  obtain  a  large  image  a 
lens  of  long  focal  length  is  essential,  so  that  for 
a  telescope  an  object  glass  with  large  radii 
of  curvature  is  needed.  This,  however,  is  not 
feasible  in  actual  practice  beyond  a  certain 
point,  as  was  found  by  the  early  astronomers 
after  experiences  with  telescopes  having  focal 


objective.  In  the  diagram  C  is  the  object  glass, 
B  is  the  inverted  image  formed  by  the  rays  com¬ 
ing  from  a  distant  object  in  the  direction  A ,  E 
and  G  serve  merely  to  invert  the  image  B  and 
form  it  anew  and  erect  at  H,  where  it  is  observed 
by  the  eyepiece  D. 

Other  arrangements  of  the  terrestrial  eyepiece 
could  be  mentioned,  but  the  one  described  is 
one  of  the  earliest  and  simplest. 

While  the  greatest  care  must  be  expended  on 
calculating  and  constructing  the  object  glass, 
the  eyepiece  is  by  no  means  unimportant.  As 
the  magnifying  power  of  the  telescope  (the 
ratio  of  the  angles  formed  by  lines  drawn  to  the 
extremities  of  the  image  and  the  object)  is 
equal  to  the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the 
focal  length  of  the  objective  by  that  of  the  ocu¬ 
lar,  it  would  be  of  advantage  to  use  a  lens  of 
comparatively  large  curvature;  but  here  again 
chromatic  and  spherical  aberration  must  be  con¬ 
sidered,  for  sharpness  and  distinctness  are  as 
essential  as  high  magnification.  In  practice 


lengths  as  great  as  600  feet;  and  lenses  of  shorter 
focal  length  but  of  improved  construction  were 
adopted.  The  next  question  involved  is  the  size 
of  the  object  glass,  technically  called  its  aper¬ 
ture.  The  larger  the  lens  the  greater  will  be  the 
amount  of  light  transmitted.  The  pupil  of  the 
eye  through  which  the  light  producing  an  image 
passes  normally  is  about  %  of  an  inch  in  diam¬ 
eter,  consequently  as  much  more  light  will  pass 
through  the  telescope  as  the  square  of  the 
diameter  of  the  object  glass  is  times  greater 
than  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the  pupil. 
But  if  the  image  formed  is  too  large,  then  the 
light  will  be  distributed  and  the  image  will  lack 
brilliancy  and  not  be  plainly  visible.  Taking 
these  facts  into  consideration,  it  would  appear 
that  the  greater  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  and 
the  greater  its  surface,  the  more  satisfactory 
would  be  the  image  produced.  This  would  be  the 
case  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  both  spherical 
and  chromatic  aberration  (q.v.)  increase  with 
the  aperture  of  a  lens,  and  that  the  larger  the 
piece  of  glass,  the  greater  the  difficulty  of  secur¬ 
ing  homogeneity  and  freedom  from  imperfec¬ 
tions.  Increasing  the  focal  length  increases  the 
difficulties  involved  in  mounting  the  telescope  as 
well  as  in  the  manufacture  of  the  objective  itself. 

The  image  furnished  by  the  object  glass  is  in¬ 


eyepieces  vary  considerably,  depending  on  the 
use  to  which  they  are  to  be  put.  Generally  they 
consist  of  two  achromatic  lenses,  one  convex, 
known  as  the  field  lens,  which  brings  together 
the  outer  rays  of  the  beam,  while  the  lens  near¬ 
est  to  the  eye  may  be  either  positive  (convex)  or 
negative  (concave).  In  case  a  micrometer  is 
used  to  measure  the  image  a  positive  lens  is 
employed  and  the  combination,  which  is  known 
as  a  Ramsden  eyepiece,  though  not  quite  achro¬ 
matic,  has  a  flat  field.  For  mere  observation  the 
Huygenian  eyepiece,  with  a  negative  lens  of 
one-third  of  the  focal  length  of  the  field,  lens, 
is  preferable.  The  addition  of  lenses  to  the  eye¬ 
piece  diminishes  the  supply  of  light  and  destroys 
the  brightness  of  the  image.  Accordingly  in 
the  terrestrial  telescope,  while  the  erecting  lens 
inverts  the  image  to  its  proper  position,  yet  the 
image  is  not  as  bright  as  in  the  case  of  the 
opera  glass,  which  has  far  less  magnifying 
power. 

The  difficulties  due  to  spherical  aberration 
were  early  experienced  by  opticians  and  astron¬ 
omers,  and  in  an  attempt  to  obviate  them  astro¬ 
nomical  telescopes  were  constructed  of  consider¬ 
able  focal  length  and  power.  From  observations 
made  with  such  instruments  by  Huygens,  who 
was  the  pioneer  in  this  line,  he  was  able  to 


TELESCOPE 


74 


TELESCOPE 


present  the  first  explanation  of  Saturn’s  rings 
(1659).  He  constructed  a  telescope  300  feet  in 
length,  which  magnified  600  times,  while  the  tel¬ 
escope  used  by  Cassini  to  discover  the  fifth  satel¬ 
lite  of  Saturn  (Rhea)  was  built  by  Campani 
of  Rome  and  magnified  about  150  times.  The 
diameter  of  Venus  was  determined  in  1722  by 
Bradley  with  a  telescope  of  212  feet  focal  length. 
These  telescopes  of  extreme  length  were  known 
as  aerial  telescopes,  and  naturally  their  mount¬ 
ing  and  manipulation  presented  many  difficulties. 
In  spite  of  these  awkward  conditions,  valuable 
observations  were  made  and  ingenious  appliances 
introduced  to  facilitate  the  operations.  It  was 
proposed  by  Prof.  David  P.  Todd  as  late  as  1911 
to  construct  a  long-focus  open-air  telescope  of 
steel  box-girder  construction  so  reenforced  as 
to  be  unyielding  and  rigid.  With  this  it  was 
hoped  to  cut  down  spherical  aberration  just 
as  was  done  by  the  earlier  astronomers  and 
secure  the  advantages  of  long-focus  lenses  under 
modern  conditions. 

The  invention  of  the  achromatic  object  glass 
by  Dollond  in  1757-58  and  the  improvement  of 
optical  flint  glass,  which  commenced  in  1754, 
soon  made  possible  the  construction  of  improved 
telescopes;  but  these  were  all  of  modest  dimen¬ 
sions,  and  until  well  into  the  nineteenth  century 
few  if  any  object  glasses  were  constructed  greater 
than  12  inches  in  diameter.  The  discovery  of 
methods  of  making  large  disks  of  flint  glass  was 
made  by  Guinand,  a  Swiss  mechanic,  who  then 
became  associated  with  Fraunhofer  (q.v.),  and 
telescopes  as  large  as  10  inches  aperture  were 
readily  made.  His  successors  made  instruments 
with  object  glasses  15  inches  across.  The  next 
successful  manufacturer  of  telescope  lenses  was 
Alvan  Clark  ( q.v. ) ,  of  Cambridgeport,  Mass., 
who,  from  the  time  when  an  object  glass  manu¬ 
factured  in  his  shop  was  purchased  by  the  Rev. 
W.  R.  Dawes  of  England,  gradually  achieved  the 
highest  rank  as  a  maker  of  telescope  lenses. 
With  him  was  associated  his  son  Alvan  G. 
Clark  ( q.v. ) .  At  the  Cambridgeport  works  were 
constructed  the  lenses  not  only  for  the  leading 
American  observatories,  but  also  for  the  Impe¬ 
rial  Russian  Observatory  at  Pulkova  and  other 
European  institutions.  To-day  there  are  other 
makers  of  refracting  telescopes  in  the  United 
States,  notable  among  whom  are  Brashear,  War¬ 
ner,  and  Swazey,  while  in  Europe,  Grubb  of 
Dublin,  Henry  Brothers  of  Paris,  and  Steinheil 
in  Germany  are  notable  for  their  work. 

The  formation  of  an  image  by  a  concave  mir¬ 
ror  has  been  made  use  of  in  the  reflecting  tele¬ 
scope,  of  which  numerous  varieties  have  been 
devised  and  with  which  many  of  the  most  im¬ 
portant  astronomical  discoveries  have  been  made. 
The  principle  of  this  instrument  will  be  apparent 
from  the  following  diagram  and  explanation: 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  FORMATION  OF  AN  IMAGE  BY  A  CONCAVE 

MIRROR. 

C  is  a  concave  mirror  on  which  rays  from  a 
point  of  a  distant  object,  A,  fall.  Following  the 
law  of  reflection,  these  rays  will  be  reflected  and 
will  be  united  at  B,  the  focus  for  rays  from  the 
given  point.  The  object  A  is  made  up  of  a  num¬ 


ber  of  such  points;  consequently  at  B  there  will 
be  a  number  of  points  where  the  rays  from  A 
are  collected  and  an  image  of  the  original  object 
will  be  formed.  If  the  rays  come  from  an  object 
infinitely  distant,  or  in  other  words  are  paral¬ 
lel,  they  will  converge  at  the  principal  focus, 
which  is  one-half  of  the  radius  of  curvature. 
This  will  be  the  case  in  a  mirror  of  large  radius 
and  for  rays  that  are  incident,  not  far  from  the 
axis;  but  if  the  mirror  is  large,  then  the  rays 
near  its  circumference  will  not  be  brought  to  a 
focus  at  the  point  B,  but  nearer  to  the  mirror, 
and  consequently  a  blurred  image  will  be  pro¬ 
duced.  This  is  known  as  spherical  aberration 
and  is  discussed  under  that  head.  Theoretically 
this  could  be  remedied  by  the  construction  of  a 
mirror  of  parabolic  section,  as  the  configuration 
of  such  a  mirror  is  such  that  all  parallel  rays 
are  brought  to  a  focus  in  the  same  point.  This 
is  extremely  difficult  of  attainment,  as  the  most 
minute  amounts  of  material  must  be  removed 
from  a  spherical  surface  in  order  to  make  it 
parabolic;  nevertheless,  modern  opticians,  by  re¬ 
finements  in  working  and  testing,  are  able  prac¬ 
tically  to  realize  this  condition.  When  an  image 
is  formed  in  this  way  it  can  be  viewed  either  by 
being  received  on  a  screen  or  it  can  be  observed 
with  an  eyepiece  or  a  simple  microscope. 

Father  Zucchi,  an  Italian  Jesuit,  was  the  first 
to  use  an  eye  lens  to  view  the  image  produced 
by  a  concave  mirror  ( 1616-1652),  but  to  Gregory 
is  due  the  first  description  of  a  telescope  with 
a  reflecting  mirror,  and  the  instrument  has  since 
been  known  by  his  name.  Gregory  (1638-75), 
with  others,  realized  the  shortcomings  of  a  tele¬ 
scope  with  lenses  and  believed  that  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  concave  mirrors  would  be  attended  with 
far  less  difficulty.  An  actual  working  instru¬ 
ment  based  on  this  principle  was  devised  and 
constructed  by  Isaac  Newton.  With  a  telescope 
formed  by  a  mirror  of  6^  inches  focal  length, 
which  magnified  38  times,  he  was  enabled  to 
make  important  observations.  In  these  tele¬ 
scopes  the  great  difficulty  was  viewing  the  image, 
as  the  eyepiece  and  the  head  of  the  observer 
would  cut  off  a  large  portion  of  the  incident 
rays.  In  the  Gregorian  telescope  this  was  obvi¬ 
ated  by  the  interposition  of  a  second  concave 
mirror,  which  reflected  the  rays  to  the  eyepiece, 
as  is  shown  in  the  following  diagram: 


Newton  used  a  plane  mirror  placed  at  an  angle 
of  45°  to  the  axis,  which  reflected  the  rays  into 
an  eyepiece  arranged  as  in  diagram  below. 


Draper  used  a  total  reflection  prism  instead 
of  the  plane  mirror  with  considerable  success, 
being  one  of  the  few  astronomers  in  the  United 


REFLECTING  TELESCOPE 


MOUNT  WILSON  SOLAR  OBSERVATORY 

60-INCH  REFLECTING  TELESCOPE.  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF  WASHINGTON 


TOWER  TELESCOPE 


MOUNT  WILSON  SOLAR  OBSERVATORY 

150-FOOT  TOWER  TELESCOPE,  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION  OF  WASHINGTON 


TELESCOPE 


75 


TELESCOPE 


States  to  construct  a  reflecting  mirror.  Casse¬ 
grain  employed  a  convex  mirror  instead  of  a 
concave  one. 

Herschel  obtained  satisfactory  results  by  tilt¬ 
ing  his  mirror  and  placing  the  eyepiece  below 
the  axis  of  the  instrument,  so  that  it  was  not  in 


the  way  of  the  incident  rays.  Herschel’s  mirrors 
were  as  large  as  4  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  tube 
40  feet  in  length. 

The  reflecting  telescope  was  extensively  used 
because  there  was  no  chromatic  aberration  caused 
by  refraction.  Spherical  aberration  was,  how¬ 
ever,  present  and  was  a  serious  drawback.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  geometrical  calculations,  as  has  been 
said,  there  would  be  no  spherical  aberration  if  a 
parabolic  mirror  was  used,  as  all  the  rays  from 
a  distant  object  would  come  to  a  focus  at  one 
point.  The  grinding  of  a  parabolic  mirror,  how¬ 
ever,  was  attended  by  many  difficulties  and  was 
practically  impossible  except  to  a  few  opticians. 

The  mirrors  for  reflecting  telescopes  were  usu¬ 
ally  made  of  speculum  metal,  which  is  composed 
of  a  mixture  of  copper  and  tin,  until  Liebig  dis¬ 
covered  the  method  of  depositing  a  film  of  silver 
on  a  glass  surface. 

The  use  of  silvered  glass  for  mirrors  was  sug¬ 
gested  by  Steinheil,  and  later  by  Foucault,  and 
has  met  with  general  adoption,  as  it  not  only 
facilitates  the  construction  of  the  mirror,  but 
makes  possible  its  resilvering  at  any  time  with¬ 
out  the  destruction  of  its  configuration.  The 
reflecting  telescope  is  available  for  photographic 
or  spectroscopic  work,  as  well  as  for  visual  ob¬ 
servation,  but  the  chief  defects,  as  mentioned, 
are  the  difficulty  of  grinding  the  metal  or  glass 
to  true  parabolic  shape  and  the  deformation  of 
the  mirror  in  its  mounting,  owing  to  its  great 
mass. 

For  many  years  the  most  celebrated  reflecting 
telescope  was  that  of  Lord  Rosse,  whose  mirror 
was  6  feet  across.  This  was  completed  in  1845 
and  erected  at  Birr  Castle,  Parsonstown,  in 
Ireland.  While  famous  for  its  size,  except  for 
studies  of  the  spiral  form  of  nebulae  this  tele¬ 
scope  has  never  been  used  in  making  discoveries 
of  prime  importance.  In  1914  it  was  presented 
to  the  South  Kensington  Museum  of  Science  as 
an  historic  relic.  Of  much  greater  scientific  im¬ 
portance  as  well  as  of  large  size  are  the  reflec¬ 
tors  of  Harvard  College,  Mount  Wilson  Solar  Ob¬ 
servatory,  and  the  Canadian  Observatory  near 
Victoria,  British  Columbia.  The  Harvard  Col¬ 
lege  reflector  belonged  originally  to  the  late 
Dr.  A.  A.  Common  of  Ealing,  England.  Using 
the  largest  glass  disk  that  could  be  obtained, 
5  feet  in  diameter,  Dr.  Common  produced  a  per¬ 
fect  mirror,  which  is  mounted  equatorially.  This 
telescope  is  of  the  Newtonian  type  and  has  been 
particularly  useful  in  celestial  photography. 

In  recent  years  an  important  use  was  made  of 
a  reflecting  telescope  to  photograph  the  nebulae 
with  the  3-foot  Crossley  reflector  of  the  Lick 
Observatory  (q.v. ).  This  instrument  was  made 
by  Dr.  A.  A.  Common  and  was  presented  to 
Lick  Observatory  by  Edward  Crossley.  Prof. 
James  T.  Keeler,  the  director,  remounted  this 
Vol.  XXII.— 6 


instrument  and  in  1899  made  a  remarkable  series 
of  photographs  which  indicated  the  formation 
and  general  character  of  the  nebulae. 

This  work  was  followed  by  some  notable  re¬ 
searches  at  the  Mount  Wilson  Solar  Observatorv, 
where  there  were  installed  the  largest  reflecting 
telescopes  yet  to  be  constructed.  These  were 
employed  both  photographically  and  spectro¬ 
scopically  for  the  study  of  the  sun,  stars,  and 
nebulae.  The  first  of  these  telescopes  was  the 
GO-inch  reflector,  made  from  a  plate  of  glass  8 
inches  in  thickness  and  weighing  1  ton.  The 
glass  was  cast  at  the  French  Plate  Glass  Works 
of  St.  Gobain,  but  the  disk  was  ground  and 
polished  at  the  shop  of  the  Mount  Wilson  Obser¬ 
vatory.  This  instrument  was  completed  in  1908, 
and  it  and  its  mounting  proved  most  satisfac¬ 
tory,  especially  for  photographic  and  spectro¬ 
scopic  work.  With  an  80-foot  Cassegrain  com¬ 
bination  this  telescope  was  effectively  used  in 
the  determination  of  stellar  parallax.  The 
success  of  the  60-inch  telescope  led  to  the  de¬ 
sire  for  a  still  larger  reflector  and  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  one  of  100  inches  in  diameter  was 
attempted,  a  suitable  disk  of  glass  20  centi¬ 
meters  in  thickness  being  secured  after  great 
trouble  at  the  French  works  at  St.  Gobain. 
This  was  properly  ground  and  figured  and  the 
60-inch  plane  mirror  required  for  its  testing 
made  at  the  instrument  shop  of  the  Mount  Wil¬ 
son  Observatory  at  Pasadena.  The  mounting 
for  this  telescope  required  the  most  refined  me¬ 
chanical  engineering  in  order  to  support  and 
move  the  heavy  disk  of  glass,  and  it  was  found 
that  by  proper  control  of  the  temperature  of 
the  mounting  that  much  of  the  distortion  could 
be  eliminated.  * 

The  new  reflector  of  the  Dominion  Observa¬ 
tory,  near  Victoria,  British  Columbia,  has  a  mir¬ 
ror  6  feet,  1  inch  in  diameter,  weighing  almost  2 
tons.  It  was  made  by  John  A.  Brashear  Com¬ 
pany  of  Pittsburgh  and  is  supplied  with  an  equa¬ 
torial  mounting.  This  telescope  and  observatory 
were  reaching  completion  in  1916. 

The  mounting  of  telescopes  has  also  kept  pace 
with  the  improvement  of  lenses  and  mirrors. 
Newton  used  a  ball  and  socket  joint  to  mount 
his  small  reflector,  and  then  various  arrange¬ 
ments  of  framework  were  employed  for  the  aerial 
telescopes  and  later  for  the  large  reflectors.  The 
first  equatorial  (q.v.)  mounting  is  ascribed  to 
Lassel.  In  England  telescopes  were  mounted  by 
having  the  polar  axis  supported  at  each  end, 
but  the  German  system,  where  the  mounting  is 
in  the  centre  and  the  weight  of  the  telescope  is 
balanced  by  counterpoises,  is  now  generally  used 
for  large  refractors,  and  a  modified  form  is  em¬ 
ployed  for  reflectors,  as  shown  in  the  accom¬ 
panying  plate. 

The  modern  telescope  is  not  merely  an  instru¬ 
ment  for  visual  observation,  but  in  connection 
with  photography  and  the  use  of  the  spectro¬ 
scope  (q.v.),  especially  in  its  adaptation  to  the 
spectroheliograph  and  other  kindred  instru¬ 
ments,  its  field  has  been  widely  increased. 
Fraunhofer,  who  first  used  the  spectroscope  in¬ 
stead  of  the  visual  eyepiece,  was  able  to  record 
the  spectra  of  Venus  and  Sirius,  and  since  that 
time  the  combination  of  telescope  and  spectro¬ 
scope  has  made  possible  some  of  the  most  im¬ 
portant  advances  in  astronomy.  One  of  the 
earliest  applications  of  photography  was  to  the 
heavens,  and  the  object  glass  of  the  telescope 
was  used  with  the  eyepiece  removed,  the  image 
being  formed  directly  on  the  plate.  In  the  early 


TELESCOPE 


76 


TELESCOPE 


stages  of  this  work  botli  reflecting  and  refracting 
telescopes  were  used,  but  with  the  latter  it  was 
found  that  special  lenses  were  necessary  in  which 
the  correction  for  chromatic  aberration  was  ar¬ 
ranged  with  regard  for  the  actinic  rather  than 
the  visual  rays.  The  green,  yellow,  and  red  rays, 
which  affect  the  human  eye  the  most,  do  not  pro¬ 
duce  the  chemical  effects  on  the  photographic 
plate,  which  must  be  placed  at  the  focus  of  the 
violet  rays,  and  consequently  a  photographic 
objective  is  constructed  so  as  to  bring  the  blue 
and  violet  rays  to  a  single  focus.  One  of  the 
first  telescopes  constructed  for  this  purpose  was 
by  Lewis  M.  Rutherfurd  ( q.v. ) ,  with  which  many 
fine  pictures  of  the  moon  were  made.  At  the 
Lick  Observatory  photographic  work  with  the 
large  telescope  has  been  accomplished  most  suc¬ 
cessfully  by  using  an  extra  lens  at  the  objective, 
which  brings  the  photographic  rays  to  a  focus 
instead  of  the  visual  rays.  At  the  Yerkes  Ob¬ 
servatory  of  the  University  of  Chicago  this  diffi¬ 
culty  has  been  overcome  by  the  use  of  color 
screens.  The  color  screen  is  mounted  in  the 
plate  holder  and  is  of  a  greenish-yellow  tint, 
which  cuts  off  the  blue  rays.  Orthochromatic 
plates  are  used  and  are  affected  by  the  rays  in 
the  middle  part  of  the  spectrum.  So  important 
is  the  photographic  use  of  the  telescope  that  in 
1900  there  were  18  photographic  telescopes  in 
various  parts  of  the  world  engaged  in  making 
photographs  for  an  International  Star  Chart  to 
cover  the  entire  heavens.  By  1909  some  of  the 
observatories  had  completed  their  assigned  work, 
and  with  normal  conditions  in  Europe  it  was 
believed  that  the  entire  chart  would  be  com¬ 
pleted  by  1920.  See  Astrophotography. 

Of  tile  modern  telescopes  of  interest  the  in¬ 
strument  known  as  the  equatorial  coude  of  the 
Paris  Observatory  is  worthy  of  mention.  The 
observer  and  instrument  are  in  an  ordinary  build¬ 
ing,  while  mirrors  are  so  arranged  as  to  reflect 
the  light  into  the  telescope  and  then  to  the 
eyepiece.  The  tube  of  the  telescope  is  in  the 
form  of  an  elbow,  whence  its  name,  with  one 
arm  forming  the  polar  axis.  This  instrument 
has  both  visual  and  photographic  object  glasses 
23^4  inches  in  diameter. 

The  great  telescope  of  the  Yerkes  Observatory 
of  the  University  of  Chicago  at  Williams  Bay, 
Lake  Geneva,  Wisconsin,  is  the  largest  refract¬ 
ing  telescope  with  an  equatorial  mounting.  This 
instrument  was  mounted  in  a  special  observa¬ 
tory.  (For  illustration,  see  Observatory.) 
The  objective,  which  is  40  inches  in  diameter 
and  has  a  focal  length  of  nearly  62  feet,  weighs, 
when  mounted  in  its  cell,  about  1000  pounds. 
The  crown-glass  lens,  which  is  2%  inches  thick 
at  the  centre  and  %  inches  at  the  circumference, 
weighs  200  pounds,  and  is  separated  from  the 
flint-glass  concave  lens  by  8%  inches.  The  latter 
weighs  over  300  pounds  and  is  about  l1/^  inches 
thick  at  the  centre  and  2  inches  thick  at  the 
edges.  The  telescope  itself  is  mounted  on  a 
cast-iron  column  of  four  sections  bolted  together 
and  resting  on  a  cast-iron  foot,  which  in  turn 
rests  on  a  concrete  foundation.  The  clock  room 
is  located  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cast-iron  col¬ 
umn  and  contains  the  mechanism  for  driving  the 
telescope.  The  observatory  is  provided  with  a 
rising  floor  for  the  convenience  of  the  observer, 
who  is  thus  able  to  use  the  telescope  in  comfort, 
irrespective  of  its  elevation. 

In  an  attempt  to  secure  a  still  larger  refractor 
an  instrument  of  quite  different  form  was  built 
for  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900  by  M.  Gauthier. 


The  object  glasses  were  49  inches  in  diameter 
and  the  tube  197  feet  in  length,  fixed  in  a 
horizontal  position,  its  axis  being  due  north 
and  south.  Light  was  reflected  into  the  tube 
by  a  siderostat,  an  instrument  invented  by 
Foucault,  on  which  the  direct  rays  from  the 
heavens  fall.  Instead  of  the  telescope  being 
moved  about  its  polar  axis,  as  would  happen 
with  an  equatorial,  the  mirror  of  the  siderostat 
is  given  such  a  motion  that  it  neutralizes  the 
movement  of  the  earth.  Each  lens  of  the  Paris 
Exposition  telescope  weighed  half  a  ton  and 
they  were  constructed  by  M.  Gauthier,  who  also 
made  those  for  the  University  of  Chicago  tele¬ 
scope.  Although  in  the  horizontal  telescope  there 
is  no  elaborate  mounting  with  mechanical 
devices,  yet  as  much  care  must  be  expended  on 
the  siderostat  as  on  the  object  glasses.  The 
mirror  forming  the  essential  part  of  this  in¬ 
strument  was  7814  inches  in  diameter,  was  11 

LIST  OF  LARGE  TELESCOPES  IN  EXISTENCE  OR 
UNDER  CONSTRUCTION  IN  1916 

REFRACTORS  20  INCHES  AND  UPWARD 


Inches 

Paris  (Exhibition) .  49.2 

Yerkes .  40.0 

Lick . 36.0 

Meudon . . .  32.5 

Nikolaev,  Russia .  32.0 

Potsdam,  Germany .  31.5 

Nice .  30.3 

Pulkova,  Russia .  30.0 

Allegheny  Observatory .  30.0 

Paris .  28.9 

Greenwich .  28.0 

Berlin .  27.5 

Vienna .  27.0 

Greenwich . 26.0 

McCormick  Observatory,  Virginia .  26.0 

Washington,  United  States .  26.0 

Johannesburg,  South  Africa .  26.0 

Newall’s,  Cambridge,  England .  25.0 

Meudon .  24.4 

Cape  of  Good  Hope .  24.0 

Harvard . 24.0 

Lowell  Observatory,  Arizona .  24.0 

Cordoba,  Argentina .  24.0 

Santiago,  Chile .  24.0 

Detroit,  Mich .  24.0 

Oxford,  England .  24.0 

Swarthmore  College,  Pennsylvania .  24.0 

Hamburg .  23.6 

Paris .  23.6 

Princeton,  N.  J .  23.0 

Edinburgh  (City  Observatory) .  21.2 

Mount  Etna .  21.8 

Mount  Porro,  Turin  (Italy) .  20.5 

Chamberlin  Observatory,  Denver,  Col.  . .  20.0 

Manila,  Philippine  Islands .  20.0 

Oakland,  Cal .  20.0 

REFLECTORS  2  FEET  6  INCHES  AND  UPWARD 

Ft.  In. 

Mount  Wilson .  8  4 

Victoria,  British  Columbia .  6  1 

Lord  Rosse .  6 

Dr.  Common  (Harvard  Observatory) .  5 

Mount  Wilson .  5 

Melbourne .  4 

Paris .  4 

Toulouse .  2  8.5 

Simeis,  Crimea .  3  4 

Lowell  Observatory,  Mexico .  3  4 

Carre,  near  Geneva .  3  3.4 

Mendun .  3  3.0 

Hamburg .  3  3.0 

Ann  Arbor .  3  1.5 

Santiago,  Chile .  3  0.6 

Cambridge  University .  3 

Birr  Castle,  Ireland .  3 

South  Kensington .  3 

Crossley  (Lick  Observatory) .  3 

Marseilles .  2  7.5 

La  Plata,  Argentina .  2  7.5 

Greenwich .  2  6.0 

South  Kensington .  2  6.0 

Allegheny .  2  6.0 

Helwan,  Egypt .  2  6.0 

D’Esterres  Observatory,  Surrey,  England .  2  6.0 

Sidmouth,  England .  2  6.0 


TELESCOPE 


THE  FORTY-INCH  YERKES  TELESCOPE  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO 


TK-T  f 
OF  THE 

y  ut  n  i  inois' 


TELESCRIBE 


77 


TELFORD 


inches  in  thickness,  and  weighed  3600  kilograms 
(nearly  8000  pounds).  So  far  as  is  known  this 
telescope  never  was  entirely  completed  for  sci¬ 
entific  observations,  though  used  by  visitors  at 
the  Exposition. 

The  telescope  with  fixed  tube,  as  used  in  the 
more  or  less  extemporized  arrangements  of  the 
transit  of  Venus  expedition  of  1882,  and  in 
the  uncompleted  instrument  of  the  Paris  Expo¬ 
sition,  however,  developed  into  a  series  of  inter¬ 
esting  and  valuable  instruments  at  the  Mount 
Wilson  Observatory,  especially  in  connection 
with  the  photographic  study  of  the  sun  and  with 
the  spectrograph  and  spectroheliograph  as  well 
as  with  other  work.  Instead  of  the  siderostat 
a  ccelostat,  a  similar  device,  but  with  a  second 
mirror,  was  employed,  where  the  movable  plane 
mirror  made  a  complete  revolution  but  once  in 
48  hours  and  reflected  its  beam  into  a  second 
plane  mirror,  whence  it  was  reflected  to  the  tele¬ 
scope  proper,  which  may  be  either  a  reflector 
or  a  refractor.  The  Snow  reflector  of  the  Mount 
Wilson  Observatory  is  a  horizontal  reflector  pro¬ 
vided  with  mirrors  that  will  give  an  image  of 
the  sun  either  6.7  inches  in  diameter  or  16  inches 
in  diameter.  The  first  of  these  mirrors  is  of 
60  feet  focal  length  and  the  second  of  143  feet. 
The  ccelostat  is  mounted  on  a  masonry  pier,  and 
the  instrument  is  protected  by  a  ventilated  cov¬ 
ering  which  keeps  off  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 
This  horizontal  telescope  can  be  used  either 
directly,  or  with  the  spectroheliograpli,  for 
photographing  the  sun.  In  addition  to  the 
horizontal  telescope,  there  are  at  Mount  Wilson 
two  vertical  or  tower  telescopes,  one  carried  on  a 
60-foot  tower  and  used  with  a  30-foot  spectro¬ 
graph  and  spectroheliograph,  and  the  other  on 
a  150-foot  tower  with  a  75-foot  spectrograph 
and  spectroheliograph.  In  these  two  telescoped 
the  ccelostat  is  mounted  at  the  summit  platform 
and  the  beam  is  reflected  down  vertically 
through  a  lens.  These  telescopes  have  various 
lenses  for  special  purposes,  varying  in  focal 
length,  as  needed.  The  vertical  tubes  of  the 
two  telescopes  have  a  double  sheathing  of  metal, 
and  chambers,  or  wells,  excavated  in  the  solid 
rock  on  which  the  towers  are  founded  afford 
constant  temperature  for  the  mirrors,  prisms, 
and  gratings  of  the  spectroscopes. 

Bibliography.  Drude,  Theory  of  Optics 
(London,  1902)  ;  Chauvenet,  Spherical  and  Prac¬ 
tical  Astronomy ,  vol.  ii  (Philadelphia,  1863)  ; 
for  history  and  theory,  consult  Lockyer,  Star¬ 
gazing,  Past  and  Present  (London,  1878)  ;  Agnes 
M.  Clerke,  History  of  Astronomy  (London, 
1908)  ;  G.  W.  Ritchey,  “On  the  Modern  Reflect¬ 
ing  Telescope  and  the  Making  and  Testing  of 
Optical  Mirrors,”  Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge,  vol.  xxxiv,  No.  1459  (Washington, 
1904).  For  more  recent  developments  consult 
various  articles  in  the  Astrophysical  Journal, 
especially  by  the  following:  Wadsworth,  Reese, 
Ritchey,  and  Hale;  also  Observatory .  (London), 
especially  June  and  July,  1898,  and  June,  1914. 
See  Astronomy;  Observatory;  Light;  Mount 
Wilson  Solar  Observatory;  Spectrograph; 
etc. 

TEL'ESCRIBE  (from  Gk.  rrjXe,  tele,  afar  -f- 
Lat.  scribere,  to  write) .  An  invention  of  Thomas 
A.  Edison  brought  out  in  1914  to  record  perma¬ 
nently  on  a  phonograph  a  conversation  carried 
on  over  a  telephone  line.  The  apparatus  oper¬ 
ates  by  placing  the  ordinary  telephone  receiver 
on  the  box  of  the  telescribe  in  proximity  to 
the  receiving  diaphragm  of  a  loud-speaking  tele¬ 


phone  transmitter  whose  vibrations  are  trans¬ 
mitted  to  the  receiving  diaphragm  of  a  dictating 
machine  or  phonograph.  There  is  also  a  watch- 
case  receiver  connected  with  the  telescribe  and 
the  telephone  line  which  is  used  by  the  hearer. 
The  vibrations  of  the  diaphragm  in  the  tele¬ 
phone  receiver  when  placed  on  the  telescribe 
transmitter  are  duly  transmitted  to  the  re¬ 
corder  of  the  talking  machine  or  phonograph. 
When  the  telephone  receiver  is  placed  on  the 
telescribe  box  an  automatic  switch  is  operated 
and  the  talking  machine  is  put  in  operation  re¬ 
cording  the  conversation.  It  is  possible  to  re¬ 
cord  only  as  much  of  the  conversation  as  the 
hearer  desires,  and  at  the  same  time  every 
word  that  is  spoken  in  the  ordinary  use  of  the 
telephone  can  be  heard.  The  record  made  on 
the  telescribe  can  be  repeated  as  often  as  de¬ 
sired  and  the  instrument  was  thought  to  be  an 
important  adjunct  to  the  practical  use  of  the 
telephone. 

TEL'ESXL'LA  OF  AR'GOS  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
Te\e<rt\\a)  (c.510  B.c.).  A  Greek  poet.  She 
was  born  at  Argos  and  is  said  to  have  served  in 
the  Argive  army  against  Sparta.  Her  lyrics  are 
lost  except  for  two  lines  found  in  Bergk’s  Poctce 
Lyrici  Creed,  vol.  iii  (5th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914). 

TELESIO,  te-la/zyo,  Bernardino  (1509-88). 
An  Italian  philosopher,  born  at  Cosenza  near 
Naples.  He  studied  at  Rome  and  Padua,  lec¬ 
tured  for  a  time  at  Naples,  and  later  founded  the 
Academy  of  Cosenza.  Telesio  headed  the  great 
southern  Italian  revolt  against  the  mediaeval 
Aristotelianism,  thus  paving  the  way  for  more 
scientific  methods  of  thought.  His  greatest 
work,  De  Rerum  Natura  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  1910- 
13),  appeared  at  Rome  in  1565.  His  psychology 
was  of  rationalistic  tendency.  After  his  death 
his  works  were  placed  on  the  Index  by  the 
church.  Consult  Bartholmess,  Dissertatio  de 
B.  Telesio  (Paris,  1849). 

TELETS  ( te-lets' )  LAKE.  See  Altin. 

TELETFTOSPORE.  The  winter  spore  of 
rusts.  See  Uredinales. 

TEL'FORD,  John  (1851-  ).  An  English 

Wesleyan  Methodist  clergyman  and  editor,  born 
at  Wigton,  Cumberland.  He  graduated  from 
Didsbury  College  in  1873,  entered  the  ministry, 
and  was  elected  to  the  Legal  Hundred  in  1906. 
From  1905  he  was  editor  of  the  Wesleyan  Meth¬ 
odist  Magazine  and  connectional  editor,  and  he 
published:  Life  of  John  Wesley  (1886;  new  ed., 
1910)  ;  A  History  of  Lay  Preaching  in  the 
Christian  Church  (1897;  2d  ed.,  1912)  ;  A  Popu¬ 
lar  History  of  Methodism  (3d  ed.,  1899)  ;  A 
Sect  that  Moved  the  World  (1907)  ;  Man’s  Part¬ 
nership  with  Divine  Providence,  the  Fernley  lec¬ 
ture  of  1908;  The  Life  of  James  Harrison  Rigg 
(1909).  Telford  edited  Wesley’s  Veterans  (5 
vols.,  to  1913 ) . 

TELFORD,  Thomas  (1757-1834).  An  emi¬ 
nent  Scottish  engineer,  born  in  Eskdale,  Dum¬ 
friesshire.  At  the  age  of  14  he  became  a  stone¬ 
mason.  In  1780  he  removed  to  Edinburgh,  and 
in  1783  he  repaired  to  London,  where  he  was 
appointed  in  1784  to  superintend  the  erection 
of  the  resident  commissioner’s  house  at  Ports¬ 
mouth  dockyard.  In  1787  he  was  appointed 
surveyor  of  public  works  for  Shropshire;  and 
his  two  bridges  over  the  Severn  at  Montford 
and  Buildwas  and  other  works  gained  for  him 
the  planning  and  superintendence  of  the  pro¬ 
jected  Ellesmere  Canal,  to  connect  the  navigation 
of  the  Severn,  Dee,  and  Mersey  (1795-1805). 
In  1801  he  was  retained  by  the  government  to 


TELFORD  ROAD 


78 


TELLER 


report  on  desirable  public  works  for  Scotland. 
As  a  consequence,  the  plan  of  a  canal  from 
Inverness  to  Fort  William  was  revived,  and  its 
planning  and  construction  intrusted  to  Telford. 
(See  Caledonian  Canal.)  He  constructed 
more  than  1000  miles  of  road  in  the  Highlands, 
Lanarkshire,  and  Dumfriesshire  and  about  1200 
bridges,  besides  churches,  manses,  harbors,  etc. 
He  superintended  the  construction  of  the  road 
from  London  to  Holyhead,  including  the  erec¬ 
tion  of  numerous  bridges — among  others,  the 
Menai  Straits  suspension  bridge.  His  life,  en¬ 
titled  The  Life  of  Thomas  Telford,  Civil  Engi¬ 
neer,  written  by  himself,  was  published  in  1838. 
In  America  Telford  is  chiefly  known  for  the 
system  of  road  construction  that  bears  his  name. 
Consult  Samuel  Smiles,  Lives  of  the  Engineers, 
vol.  iii  (new  ed.,  New  York,  1905).  From  its 
foundation  in  1818  he  served  as  president  of 
the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  which  body 
awards  a  Telford  gold  medal.  See  Road. 

TELFORD  ROAD.  See  Road. 

TEL'HAEMO'NIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
TrjXe,  tele,  afar  +  ap/xovia,  harmonia,  joint, 
concord,  harmony).  The  name  applied  by 
the  inventor,  Dr.  Thaddeus  Cahill,  to  a  device 
for  the  production  of  music  at  any  distance 
from  the  performer,  by  means  of  electric  cur¬ 
rents.  The  fundamental  idea  involved  in  Cahill’s 
system  is  the  combination  at  will  of  alternating 
currents  of  any  frequency  and  amplitude, 
thereby  producing  a  current  having  a  wave 
shape  of  the  form  corresponding  to  any  musical 
note  of  any  timbre.  This  composite  current, 
if  allowed  to  pass  through  a  telephone  receiver, 
will  then  cause  the  diaphragm  to  vibrate,  pro¬ 
ducing  a  sound  wave  corresponding  exactly  to 
the  current  wave.  The  sources  of  current  are  a 
number  of  small  alternators,  each  alternator 
producing  a  sine-wave  current  of  a  definite  fre¬ 
quency.  The  keyboard  is  similar  to  that  of 
an  organ;  the  keys  operate  switches  so  as  to 
bring  the  several  alternators  into  action  on  the 
lines  or  mains  as  required.  The  notes  produced 
are  of  remarkable  purity,  being  surpassed  only 
by  that  of  a  good  string.  The  performer  has 
absolute  control  over  the  notes,  both  as  to  ex¬ 
pression  and  timbre;  he  can  produce  at  will  the 
note  of  practically  any  instrument,  and  even 
notes  of  an  entirely  new  quality.  Since  any 
number  of  receivers  can  be  connected  to  a  single 
keyboard,  it  is  possible  for  a  single  performer 
to  be  heard  in  practically  any  number  of  places  at 
one  time,  and  a  distribution  system  was  planned 
whereby  music  could  be  transmitted  to  a  large 
number  of  subscribers.  Daily  concerts  with  an 
approved  programme  in  this  way  would  be 
available. 

TELINGS,  te-llngz',  or  TELINGAS,  te-lln'- 

gaz.  See  Klings;  Telugus. 

TELL,  William.  The  hero  of  a  Swiss  legend, 
in  its  main  features  common  to  all  Aryan 
peoples.  It  is  found  in  the  Icelandic  Thidrek- 
saga,  in  Saxo  Grammaticus,  in  old  English  bal¬ 
lads,  in  Persian  poetry,  and  elsewhere.  All 
tell  of  a  master  marksman  and  of  a  tyrant 
who  compels  him  to  pit  faith  in  his  skill  against 
his  natural  instinct  as  a  father.  The  Swiss 
legend,  narrated  with  much  circumstance,  is 
that  a  mythical  Austrian  bailiff,  Gessler,  de¬ 
manded  homage  to  the  cap  of  Austria  (1307)  in 
the  market  place  at  Altdorf.  Tell  refused  this, 
was  condemned  to  death,  but  permitted  to  ran¬ 
som  himself  by  shooting  an  apple  from  his  son’s 
head.  On  signifying  his  intent  to  have  killed 


Gessler  if  he  had  shot  his  son,  Tell  was  fettered 
and  carried  to  the  bailiff's  boat.  A  storm  arose 
and  Tell  was  released  that  he  might  save  the 
boat.  This  he  did,  then  leaped  ashore,  and 
killed  Gessler.  The  story  then  speaks  of  a  re¬ 
volt  in  which  Tell  takes  part  and  by  which 
the  Forest  Cantons  gain  independence.  The  old¬ 
est  chroniclers  know  nothing  of  the  tale.  It 
appears  timidly,  late  in  the  fifteenth  century,  in 
Das  weisse  Buch,  and  more  boldly  in  Tschudi's 
Chronicon  (c.1550).  The  most  famous  version 
of  the  story  is  Schiller’s  drama  Wilhelm  Tell 
(1804).  Consult:  Rotlie,  Die  dramatischen 
Quellen  des  Schillerschen  Tell,  in  “Forschung  en 
zur  deutschen  Philologie”  (Leipzig,  1894)  ;  Ferdi¬ 
nand  Schmidt,  William  Tell,  Eng.  trans.  G.  P. 
Upton  (Chicago,  1904)  ;  and  for  historical  criti¬ 
cism  of  the  saga,  E.  L.  Rochholz,  Tell  und  Gess¬ 
ler  (Heilbronn,  1877). 

TELL  CITY.  A  city  in  Perry  Co.,  Ind.,  53 
miles  by  rail  east  of  Evansville,  on  the  Ohio 
River,  and  on  the  Southern  Railway  (Map: 
Indiana,  D  9 ) .  There,  are  chair,  desk,  and  fur¬ 
niture  factories,  a  woolen  mill,  and  a  foundrv. 
Tell  City  was  founded  by  the  Swiss  Colonization 
Society  in  1857.  Pop.,  1900,  2680;  1910,  3369. 

TELL  EL  AMARNA,  tel  el  a-miir'na.  A 
place  in  Middle  Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Nile,  about  midway  between  Thebes  and  Mem¬ 
phis.  It  includes  the  Arab  villages  Hagg-Kandil 
and  Et  Tell  and  is  the  site  of  the  ancient  city 
of  Akhetaten,  founded  by  the  heretic  King 
Amenophis  IV  (q.v. ),  also  known  as  Akhenaten, 
who  abandoned  Thebes  and  removed  his  residence 
thither.  A  splendid  temple  and  palace  were 
built,  and  the  city  increased  so  fast  that  it  ex¬ 
tended  to  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Nile;  but  its 
existence  was  brief.  After  the  death  of  Ameno- 
pliis  and  the  triumph  of  the  orthodox  religion, 
the  royal  residence  was  transferred  to  Thebes 
and  the  new  city  rapidly  fell  into  decay.  The 
ruins  of  the  temple  and  palace  are  to  be  seen, 
and  in  the  vicinity  are  interesting  rock-hewn 
tombs,  constructed  for  the  courtiers  of  the  royal 
founder  of  the  city.  In  the  winter  of  1887-88 
the  archive  chamber  of  Amenophis  was  discovered 
by  some  natives,  and  in  it  were  found  a  number 
of  cuneiform  tablets  containing  the  correspond¬ 
ence  of  the  King  and  of  his  father,  Amenophis 
III,  with  the  governors  and  kings  of  western 
Asia.  (See  Amarna  Letters.)  The  site  was 
explored  by  Petrie  in  1891-92.  Consult:  W.  M. 
Flinders  Petrie,  Tel  el- Amarna  (London,  1895)  ; 
N.  de  G.  Davies,  “Rock  Tombs  of  El  Amarna,” 
in  Archceological  Survey  of  Egypt,  Memoir, 
13-18  (6  vols.,  ib.,  1903-08)  ;  Baedeker,  Egypt 
(7th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914). 

TELL  EL  KEBIR,  tel  el  ka-ber'.  A  village 
of  northeastern  Egypt,  on  the  SweetWater  Canal, 
18  miles  east  by  south  of  Zagazig,  noted  as  the 
scene  of  a  battle  between  the  English  under 
Lord  Wolseley  and  the  Egyptian  insurgents  un¬ 
der  Arabi  Pasha  (q.v.),  Sept.  13,  1882.  See 
Egypt. 

TELHjER,  Henry  Moore  (1830-1914).  An 
American  politician  and  cabinet  officer,  born 
at  Granger,  N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at  Alfred 
University,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1856, 
in  1858  removed  to  Illinois,  and  in  1861  to  Colo¬ 
rado.  He  was  a  Republican  member  of  the 
United  States  Senate  from  1876  until  April, 
1882,  when  he  entered  the  cabinet  of  President 
Arthur  as  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  At  the 
close  of  Arthur’s  administration  he  again  en¬ 
tered  the  Senate  and  was  reelected  in  1890  as  a 


TELLER 


79 


TELPHERAGE 


Republican.  A  strong  advocate  of  free  silver, 
with  33  others  he  left  the  Republican  national 
convention  in  1896,  having  broken  with  the 
party  on  this  question  as  early  as  1893.  In 
1897  he  was  returned  to  the  Senate  as  an  inde¬ 
pendent  Silver  Republican,  and  in  1902  was  re¬ 
elected  as  the  regular  Democratic  nominee.  He 
retired  from  the  Senate  in  1909. 

TEL'LER,  Wilhelm  Abraham  (1734-1804). 
A  German  Lutheran  theologian,  born  at  Leip¬ 
zig.  In  1761  he  became  pastor,  general  super¬ 
intendent,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Helrn- 
stedt.  His  Lehrbuch  des  christlichen  Glaubens 
(1764)  aroused  a  storm  of  disapproval  by  its 
strong  rationalistic  doctrines.  In  1767  Teller 
became  supreme  consistorial  councilor  and  pro¬ 
vost  of  Kolln  at  Berlin,  where  he  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  Among  his  notable 
writings  was  Die  Religion  der  V ollkommeneren 
(1792). 

TELLEZ,  tel'yath,  Gabriel  (c.1571-1648)  . 
A  Spanish  cleric,  prose  writer,  and  dramatist, 
known  under  the  pseudonym  of  Tirso  de  Molina. 
He  was  well  known  as  a  comic  playwright  before 
1610.  At  his  death  he  was  prior  of  the  mon¬ 
astery  at  Soria.  His  best  tales,  and  some  of 
his  best  plays,  are  contained  in  the  miscellane¬ 
ous  collection  entitled  Cigarrales  de  Toledo, 
licensed  in  1621,  but  apparently  not  published 
until  1624.  A  second  collection  is  the  Deleitar 
aprovechando  (1635).  Eighty-six  plays  are  ex¬ 
tant,  although  he  is  known  to  have  written 
more  than  400.  The  Burlador  de  Sevilla,  the 
first  work  of  great  merit  to  bring  Don  Juan 
on  the  boards,  has  long  been  attributed  to 
Tellez.  To  him  we  owe  also  a  splendid  treat¬ 
ment  of  a  profound  philosophical  enigma  in  El 
condenado  por  desconfiado.  He  was  also  a  mas¬ 
ter  in  the  handling  of  historical  subjects  {La 
prudencia  de  la  mujer)  and  of  witty  dialogue 
and  intricate  intrigue  ( Don  Gil  de  las  calzas 
rerdes  and  El  vergonzoso  en  palacio) .  Consult 
his  Teatro  escogido,  edited  by  Hartzenbusch  (12 
vols.,  Madrid,  1839-42)  ;  his  Comedias  escogidas, 
also  edited  by  Hartzenbusch,  in  the  Biblioteca  de 
autores  espanoles,  vol.  v  (4th  ed.,  ib.,  1903)  ; 
and  the  Comedias  de  Tirso  de  Molina,  edited  by 
Emilio  Cotarelo  y  Mori  in  the  Nueva  biblioteca 
de  autores  espanoles,  vols.  iv  and  ix  (ib.,  1900- 
07 ) ,  with  a  good  biography  and  an  analytical 
catalogue  of  Tirso’s  plays.  See  also  Ramon 
Menendez  Pidal,  El  condenado  por  desconfiado 
(Madrid,  1902,  and  in  the  Bulletin  hispanique, 
Paris,  1904)  ;  Alfred  Morel-Fatio,  “La  prudence 
chez  la  femme:  drame  historique  de  T.  de  M.,” 
in  Etudes  sur  VEspagne  (3d  series,  Paris, 
1904)  ;  Victor  Said  Armesto,  La  leyenda  de  Don 
Juan  (Madrid,  1908)  ;  Blanca  de  los  Rios  de 
Lamperez,  Del  Siglo  de  oro  (ib.,  1910);  and 
Theodor  Schroder,  Die  dramatischen  Bearbei- 
tungen  der  Don  Juan-Sage  (Halle,  1912). 

TELLEZ-GIROH,  Pedro.  See  Osuna,  P. 
Tellez-Gtron,  third  Duke  of. 

TEL'LICHER'RI,  or  TEL'LICHER'RY.  A 
seaport  in  the  District  of  Malabar,  Madras,  In¬ 
dia,  90  miles  south  by  east  of  Mangalore,  on  the 
Arabian  Sea  (Map:  India,  C  7).  Pop.,  1901, 
27,883;  1911,  29,372. 

TELLIER,  tel'ya',  Charles  (1828-1913).  A 
French  engineer,  born  in  Paris.  He  early  made 
a  study  of  motors  and  compressed  air.  in  1868 
he  began  experiments  in  refrigeration,  which 
resulted  ultimately  in  the  refrigerating  plant  as 
used  on  ocean  vessels,  to  preserve  meat  and  other 
perishable  food.  In  1911  Tellier  was  awarded 


the  Joest  prize  by  the  French  Institute  and  in 
1912  he  was  made  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  He  wrote  Histoire  d’une  invention 
m  odcrne,  le  frigoHfi que  (1910). 

TELLIER,  Francois  Michel  le.  See  Lou- 
vois,  Marquis  de. 

TEL'LURIDE.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  San  Miguel  Co.,  Colo.,  45  miles  south  of  Ridg- 
way,  on  the  San  Miguel  River  and  on  the  Rio 
Grande  Southern  Railroad  (Map:  Colorado,  B 
4).  The  city  is  situated  in  the  Rocky  Moun¬ 
tains  at  an  altitude  of  8756  feet.  Mining  is  the 
principal  industry.  The  average  annual  produc¬ 
tion  in  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  copper  is  $6,- 
500,000,  chiefly  in  gold.  Pop.,  1900,  2446; 
1910,  1756. 

TEL'TiURXTE.  A  mineral  tellurium  dioxide 
crystallized  in  the  orthorhombic  system.  It  has 
a  subadamantine  lustre,  and  is  of  a  yellowish- 
white  or  yellow  color.  It  occurs  as  an  incrus¬ 
tation  with  native  tellurium  in  Transylvania 
and  at  various  localities  in  Boulder  Co.,  Colo. 

TELLU'RIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  tellus, 
earth ) .  A  nonmetallic  element  discovered  by 
Reichenstein  in  1782,  but  first  isolated  by  Klap¬ 
roth  in  1798.  The  element  is  found  native  in 
small  quantities  at  various  localities  in  Hun¬ 
gary,  Transylvania,  Virginia,  and  California. 
It  is  also  found  as  tellurium  dioxide  or  tellurite, 
as  silver  and  gold  telluride  or  sylvanite,  as  bis¬ 
muth  telluride  or  tetradymite,  and  in  the  form 
of  other  minerals,  of  more  complex  composition. 
It  may  be  prepared  by  cautiously  heating  tetra¬ 
dymite  with  potassium  carbonate  and  charcoal  in 
a  covered  crucible,  extracting  the  resulting  po¬ 
tassium  telluride  (K2Te)  with  water  free  from 
air,  and  then  passing  a  current  of  air  through 
the  solution,  the  metal  being  thus  deposited  in 
the  form  of  a  powder. 

Tellurium  (symbol,  Te;  atomic  weight  127.5) 
is  a  white  shining,  crystalline,  brittle  solid  that 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  6.27,  and  melts  at  452° 
C.  (846°  F. ).  Like  selenium,  which  it  greatly 
resembles,  it  exists  in  amorphous  and  crystalline 
modifications,  the  conversion  of  the  former  into 
the  latter  being  accompanied  by  an  evolution  of 
heat.  There  is  also  an  increase  of  electric  con¬ 
ductivity  under  the  influence  of  light,  though  not 
so  marked  as  in  the  case  of  selenium.  Tellurium 
combines  with  oxygen  to  form  a  monoxide 
(TeO),  a  dioxide  (Te02),  and  a  trioxide  (Te03), 
the  last  two  of  which  combine  with  water  to 
form  tellurous  and  telluric  acids  (H2Te03  and 
H2Te04  respectively),  which  in  turn  yield  series 
of  salts  called  respectively  tellurites  and  tel- 
lurates.  Hydrogen  telluride  (H2Te)  is  an  evil¬ 
smelling,  inflammable  gas  similar  to  hydrogen 
sulphide  in  its  chemical  behavior.  For  a  re¬ 
markable  anomaly  exhibited  by  tellurium  see 
Periodic  Law. 

TEL'LUS  (Lat.,  earth),  more  commonly 
Tellus  Mater,  and,  later,  Terra  Mater.  The 
Roman  goddess  of  the  fields,  who,  as  coworker 
with  Ceres  (q.v.),  brought  to  maturity  the  seed. 
At  her  festival  in  January,  cakes  were  offered  to 
her,  a  pregnant  sow  was  sacrificed,  and  prayers 
were  offered  to  her  for  the  protection  of  the 
seed  from  bird  and  beast  and  disease.  Consult 
W.  W.  Fowler,  Roman  Festivals  (London,  1899)  ; 
Georg  Wissowa,  Religion  und  Kultus  der  Rbmer 
(2d  ed.,  Munich,  1912).  See  G.ea. 

TEL'MANN,  Konrad.  See  Zitellmann, 
Konrad. 

TEL'PHERAGE  (from  telpher,  from  Gk. 
rijXe,  tele,  afar  -f-  cfepeiv,  pherein,  to  bear).  A 


TELUGUS 


80 


TEMPERA 


form  of  cableway  transportation  (see  Cable- 
way)  in  which  the  supporting  grooved-wheel 
trolleys  or  trucks  are  equipped  with  electric 
motors,  so  that  each  unit  is  self-propelling.  The 
trolley,  or  telpher,  as  it  is  usually  called,  is 
supplied  with  current  by  an  independent  wire 
apart  from  the  supporting  aerial  cable,  and  the 
current  may  be  controlled  by  switches  at  points 
along  the  line  either  by  an  operator,  or  the 
switches  may  be  made  automatic  and  be  operated 
by  the  passing  of  the  car  with  its  load.  Telpher¬ 
age  is  used  in  quarries  or  mineral  storage  plants, 
for  loading  and  unloading,  and  in  warehouses. 
It  has  the  advantage  over  haulage  systems  that 
the  mass  of  actuating  haulage  wire  does  not 
have  to  be  supported  and  guided  as  well  as  kept 
in  motion. 

TELUGUS,  tel'db-godz,  or  Telingas.  The 
northeastern  division  of  the  Dravidian  family, 
numbering  over  23,000,000.  They  present  the  typi¬ 
cal  aspect  of  the  race — medium-statured,  mesoce- 
phalic  to  dolichocephalic  in  head  form.  The 
Yanadis  of  Nellore,  considered  by  some  authori¬ 
ties  to  be  the  primitive  Telugus,  both  with  re¬ 
spect  to  physical  characteristics  and  general  cul¬ 
ture  status,  are  markedly  dolichocephalic,  broad¬ 
nosed,  short-statured,  and  dark-skinned.  The 
castes  of  the  Telugus,  adopted  through  Hindu 
influence,  run  down  from  the  Brahmans  to  the 
despised  Madigas,  who  are  leather  workers. 
Other  divisions  are  the  Palayyakkarans  and 
Tottlyans  (cultivators);  the  Komatis  (traders), 
who  have  their  sacred  book,  the  Kanyakapuran ; 
the  Boyas  (hunters)  ;  the  Bestas  (hunters  and 
fishers).  Hinduism  has  largely,  even  among 
such  primitive  tribes  as  the  Yanadis,  superseded 
the  old  animistic  religion  of  the  Telugus. 
About  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  some  of 
the  Telugus  made  their  way  into  Ceylon. 

In  its  linguistic  structure  Telugu  coincides  in 
the  main  with  Tamil,  although  it  differs  widely 
from  its  older  cognate  in  phonology  and  vocabu¬ 
lary,  which  is  strongly  influenced  by  Sanskrit. 
The  literature,  which  is  outlined  under  the  title 
Dravidian s,  is  abundant  and  of  much  stylistic 
merit. 

Bibliography.  Brown,  Telugu-English  and 
English-Telugu  Dictionary  (London,  1852-54)  ; 
Henry  Morris,  Simplified  Grammar  of  Telugu 
(ib.,  1890)  ;  Sankaranarayana,  English-Telugu 
and  Telugu-English  Dictionary  (ib.,  1900)  ;  A. 
H.  Arden,  Progressive  Grammar  of  the  Telugu 
Language  (2d  ed.,  Madras,  1906)  ;  Edgar  Thurs¬ 
ton,  Castes  and  Tribes  of  Southern  India  (ib., 
1909)  ;  L.  D.  Barnett,  comp.,  Catalogue  of  the 
Telugu  Books  in  the  British  Museum  (Lon¬ 
don,  1912)  ;  R.  Caldwell,  Comparative  Grammar 
of  the  Dravidian  or  South  Indian  Family  of 
Languages  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1913)  ;  J.  Clough,  Social 
Christianity  in  the  Orient  (New  York,  1914). 

TEM'BULAND.  One  of  the  Transkeian  ter¬ 
ritories  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Province. 
It  is  situated  south  of  East  Griqualand  and  has 
an  area  of  4129  square  miles.  Population  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  census  of  1911:  total,  236,086; 
white,  8138;  colored,  227,948;  females,  127,211. 
Tembuland  was  annexed  to  the  Cape  Colony 
Aug.  26,  1885. 

TEMERAIRE,  t&'m&'r&r',  The.  A  French 
battleship  captured  by  the  English  in  the  battle 
of  the  Nile  in  1798.  In  1805  she  took  part  in 
the  battle  of  Trafalgar  and  was  destroyed  in 
1838.  The  “Fighting  TemtraAre”  (1839),  a 
painting  by  J.  M.  W.  Turner  (q.v.),  hangs  in 
the  National  Gallery,  London. 


TEMESVAR,  tem'esh-var.  A  royal  free  city 
and  capital  of  the  county  of  Temes,  Hungary, 
on  the  Bega  Canal,  62  miles  southeast  of  Szegedin 
(Map:  Hungary,  G  4).  It  consists  of  an  outer 
and  an  interesting  inner  town  or  fortress.  There 
are  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  built  by  Marie 
Theresa,  a  Greek  cathedral,  immense  barracks, 
and  an  arsenal  (the  castle  built  by  Hunyady 
in  1442).  The  commander’s  palace,  the  Greek 
Orthodox  Bishop’s  palace,  and  a  Gothic  column 
( 40  feet  high ) ,  by  Max,  erected  to  the  memory 
of  the  town’s  defenders  of  1849,  are  among  the 
noteworthy  structures.  There  is  a  museum  of 
art,  natural  history,  and  antiquities.  The  town 
has  a  royal  tobacco  factory  and  manufactures 
cloth,  matches,  fertilizers,  paper,  and  leather. 
Temesvar  became  a  town  in  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Tatars  in  1242. 
From  1552  to  1716  it  was  held  by  the  Turks, 
from  whom  it  was  taken  by  Prince  Eugene.  In 
1849  it  successfully  resisted  the  attack  of  the 
Hungarian  insurgents  under  Vecsey.  On  Aug. 
9,  1849,  the  Hungarians  under  Bern  and  Dem- 
binski  were  defeated  near  Temesvar  by  the  Aus¬ 
trians  under  Haynau.  Pop.,  1900,  59,229;  1910, 
72,555,  mostly  German  Catholics. 

TEMME,  tem'me,  Jodocus  Donatus  Huber- 
tus  (1798-1881).  A  German  criminologist,  pol¬ 
itician,  and  novelist,  born  at  Lette,  Westphalia. 
He  studied  law  at  Munster  and  Gottingen,  and 
became  vice  president  of  the  Provincial  Court  of 
Appeals  at  Munster  in  1848.  His  attitude  as  a 
leader  of  the  Extreme  Left  in  the  Prussian  as 
well  as  in  the  German  National  Assembly  in¬ 
volved  him  in  a  trial  for  high  treason,  and,  al¬ 
though  acquitted,  he  was  dismissed  from  gov¬ 
ernment  service  in  1851.  In  the  following  year 
he  accepted  the  professorship  of  criminal  law  at 
Zurich.  He  was  best  known  as  the  author  of 
more  than  150  novels  and  stories,  artisticallv 
of  little  importance,  dealing  with  criminal 
schemes,  among  them:  Deutsche  Kriminalnovel- 
len  (1858-59),  Kriminalnovellen  (10  vols.,  1860- 
64 ) ,  Dunkle  Wege  ( 1862 ) ,  Schioarzort  (1863 ) , 
Die  Heimat  (1868),  and  Die  Generalin  (1877). 
Consult  S.  Born,  Erinnerungen  von  J.  D.  H. 
Temme  (Leipzig,  1882),  and  A.  Lichtenstein,  Der 
Kriminalroman  (Munich,  1908). 

TEM'PE  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Te/nry) .  A  narrow 
mountain  defile,  about  four  and  a  half  miles 
long,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Thessaly,  be¬ 
tween  the  precipitous  sides  of  Mount  Olympus 
(q.v.)  and  Ossa  (q.v.),  through  which  the  river 
Peneus  rushes  to  the  Gulf  of  Saloniki.  At 
places  the  rocky  walls  retire,  leaving  room  for 
little  glades  and  openings.  Tempe  was  cele¬ 
brated  as  one  of  the  favorite  haunts  of  Apollo. 
It  was  from  the  earliest  times  noted  for  its 
beauty  and  picturesqueness  and  was  constantly 
praised  in  song.  The  name  finally  came  to  be 
applied  to  any  beautiful  and  sequestered  vale. 

TEMPELTEY,  tem'pel-ti,  Eduard  von  (1832- 
) .  A  German  dramatist,  born  in  Berlin. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  sub¬ 
sequently  took  up  journalism.  In  1862  he  en¬ 
tered  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Coburg.  Among 
his  other  duties  was  the  superintendence  of  the 
court  theatre.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
dramas,  popular  in  their  day,  among  them 
Clytemnestra  (1857)  and  Cromwell  (1883). 

TEMTERA  (It.,  from  Lat.  temperare,  to 
proportion,  modify),  or  Distemper.  In  its  origi¬ 
nal  sense  tempera  signifies  any  fluid  medium 
with  which  pigments  may  be  mixed;  but  the 
term  is  usually  restricted  to  a  glutinous  medium, 


TEMPERAMENT 


81 


TEMPERANCE 


such  as  egg,  size,  or  gums,  as  distinguished  from 
oil;  and  especially  to  that  in  which  the  yolk 
of  eggs  is  the  chief  ingredient.  Various  mediums 
have  been  used,  such  as  the  juice  of  young  sprouts 
of  the  fig  tree,  vinegar,  and  honey.  Tempera 
differs  from  fresco  in  that  the  pigments  are  not 
applied  to  the  fresh  plaster,  but  to  the  dry  sur¬ 
face;  they  may  be  applied  to  any  kind  of  sur¬ 
face.  When  tempera  paintings  have  been  coated 
with  an  oil  varnish  for  purposes  of  preserva¬ 
tion,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  them  from  oils. 
They  are  usually  clear  and  brilliant  in  color, 
precise  in  form  and  outline;  the  rapid  drying  of 
the  color  preventing  any  blending  of  color  or 
outline. 

Tempera  is  probably  the  most  venerable  kind 
of  painting,  having  been  used  in  ancient  Egypt, 
Babylon,  and  Nineveh,  and  by  the  Greeks  *  for 
interior  decoration.  It  was  the  favorite  medium 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  even  for  wall  deco¬ 
ration.  During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen¬ 
turies  the  increased  technical  skill  led  to  the 
more  frequent  use  of  fresco,  which  had  to  be 
executed  with  great  rapidity  (see  Fresco)  ; 
but  tempera  was  used  for  the  finishing  touches. 
It  continued  to  prevail  for  panel  paintings  until 
the  perfection  of  the  new  oil  medium  by  the  Van 
Eycks  (q.v. )  displaced  it  in  the  north.  In 
Italy  its  use  lingered  until  about  1500,  nearly 
all  of  the  greatest  paintings  of  the  early  Renais¬ 
sance  which  are  not  frescoes  being  executed  in 
this  medium.  In  recent  years  tempera  has  been 
revived  with  some  success,  particularly  since  the 
publication  and  translation  of  Cennino  Cennini’s 
treatise,  which  embodied  the  methods  used  by 
the  early  Italians;  in  Germany  by  Baron  von 
Pereira  at  Stuttgart,  and  in  France  by  Vibert 
and  others.  In  England  the  Tempera  Society 
has  held  exhibitions  since  1005.  Consult: 
Pereira,  Leitfaden  fur  de  Temperainalerei 
(Stuttgart,  1893)  ;  The  Book  of  the  Art  of 
Cennino  Cennini  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1899)  ; 
P.  G.  Hamerton,  Graphic  Arts  (new  ed.,  Boston, 
1902)  ;  Friedlein,  Tempera  und  Temper atechnik 
(Munich,  1906). 

TEM'PER  AMENT  (Lat.  temperamentum , 
due  proportion,  from  temperare,  to  proportion, 
modify,  from  tempus,  time,  season).  Emotional 
constitution,  i.e.,  disposition  towards  a  given 
type  of  emotional  reaction.  An  individual’s 
temperament  is  said,  e.g.,  to  be  impulsive  if  he 
responds,  as  a  rule,  quickly  and  with  feeling  to 
situations ;  the  temperament  of  the  opposite  type 
is  said  to  be  cold  and  sluggish.  The  usual  classi¬ 
fication  of  temperaments  is  that  formulated  by 
Galen:  choleric  (energetic,  objective),  sanguine 
(warm,  impressionable,  changeable),  melancholic 
(sentimental  and  subjective),  and  phlegmatic 
(quiet,  slow,  and  persistent).  The  manner  in 
which  these  differ  both  in  strength  and  in  the 
rapidity  of  alteration  in  the  affective  reaction 
may  be  expressed  as  follows: 

Strong  Weak 

Quick . Choleric  . Sanguine 

Slow . Melancholic  . Phlegmatic 

The  word  is  used  more  'widely  to  cover  any 

general  mental  characteristic  or  aptitude;  e.g., 

nervous  or  musical  or  artistic  temperament. 

Bibliography.  Francis  Galton,  Natural  In¬ 
heritance  (New  York,  1889)  ;  James  Sully,  The 
Human  Mind  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1892)  ;  A.  Fouill6e, 
Temperament  et  caractere  (Paris,  1895)  ;  Her¬ 
mann  Lotze,  Microcosmus :  An  Essay  Concern¬ 
ing  Man  and  his  Relation  to  the  World;  Eng. 


trans.  by  Hamilton  and  Jones  (4th  ed.,  2  vols., 
ib.,  1897 ;  5th  Ger.  ed.,  3  vols.,  Leipzig,  1888- 
1905)  ;  W.  M.  Wundt,  Physiologische  Psycholo¬ 
gic  (6th  Ger.  ed.,  Leipzig,  1908-11);  0.  Kiilpe, 
Outlines  of  Psychology ;  Eng.  trans.  by  E.  B. 
Titchener  (new  ed.,  London,  1909);  N.  Ach, 
Ueber  den  Willensakt  u.  das  Temperament  (Leip¬ 
zig,  1910)  ;  E.  Meumann,  V orlesungen  zur  Ein- 
fiihrung  in  der  experiment elle  Piidagogik,  vol.  ii 
(ib.,  1913)  ;  Joseph  Jastrow,  Character  and  Tem¬ 
perament  (New  York,  1915).  See  Disposition; 
Mental  Constitution;  Tendency. 

TEMPERAMENT.  In  music,  a  system  of 
compromise  in  keyed  instruments  for  the  avoid¬ 
ance  of  the  necessity  presupposed  by  the  strict 
relation  of  musical  intervals  of  having  a  sepa¬ 
rate  row  of  keys  corresponding  to  each  tonic. 
Taking  C  as  keynote,  the  ratios  of  the  notes  of 
the  diatonic  scale,  as  derived  from  the  number 
of  vibrations  in  a  given  time  of  a  string  sound¬ 
ing  that  note,  are: 

CDEFGABC 

24  27  30  32  36  40  45  48 

The  intervals  between  these  notes  are  by  no 
means  equal,  and  may  be  thus  expressed  in 
numbers  by  logarithms: 

CDEFGABC 

51  46  28  51  46  51  28 

We  have  here  three  species  of  intervals,  of  which 
those  represented  by  51  are  called  major  tones; 
those  by  46,  minor  tones;  and  the  smaller  in¬ 
tervals  represented  by  28,  semitones.  These  in¬ 
tervals  will  evidently  only  serve  with  C  as  key¬ 
note.  If,  e.g.,  we  start  from  D  instead  of  C, 
we  find  E  a  tolerable,  though  not  quite  correct, 
second  to  D;  but  the  third  and  seventh  of  the 
scale  are  entirely  wrong.  Were  the  major  and 
minor  tones  equal,  and  each  semitone  exactly 
half  a  tone,  the  insertion  of  a  note  in  the  middle 
of  each  tone  dividing  the  seven  intervals  would 
make  it  immaterial  where  the  scale  began,  any 
one  of  the  12  notes  becoming  alike  available  as 
a  keynote;  and  though  such  equality  is  contrary 
to  the  immutable  principles  of  harmony,  an 
arrangement  based  on  it  is  found  practically  to 
give  but  little  offense  to  the  ear.  In  what  is 
called  the  equal  temperament,  the  12  intervals 
are  all  of  the  same  length,  and  no  advantage  is 
given  to  one  key  over  the  rest.  This  is,  in 

theory  at  least,  the  temperament  adopted  in  the 

pianoforte.  By  means  of  this  equal  tempera¬ 
ment  it  is  possible  to  start  from  any  tone  of  the 
scale  and,  going  always  by  the  interval  of  a 
fifth,  arrive  at  the  same  tone  six  octaves  above 
or  below  the  starting  tone.  Acoustically,  c6  is 
74-73  higher  than  the  sixth  octave  of  C.  In¬ 
stead,  therefore,  of  using  the  acoustic  fifth  the 

tempered  fifth  is  used,  which  makes  b4  identical 
with  c5.  Hence  the  possibility  of  free  modula¬ 
tion  through  all  keys,  which  in  recent  times  has 
led  to  the  recognition  of  tonality  (q.v.).  As 
soon  as  the  principle  of  equal  temperament  was 
understood  the  modern  system  of  major  and 
minor  modes  displaced  the  old  church  modes. 
Two  of  the  most  active  champions  of  equal  tem¬ 
perament  were  Rameau  and  J.  S.  Bach.  The 
former  was  chiefly  the  theorist,  the  latter  the 
practical  composer.  Bach’s  immortal  Wohltem- 
periertes  Elavier  was  written  with  the  special 
purpose  of  introducing  the  new  system  of  equal 
temperament.  See  Comma. 

TEMPERANCE  (Lat.  temperantia,  modera¬ 
tion,  sobriety,  self-control,  from  temperare,  to 


TEMPERANCE 


82 


TEMPERANCE 


proportion,  modify).  Primarily,  a  moderate  use 
and  enjoyment  of  all  good  things.  In  modern 
days  the  word  is  often  used  to  designate  great 
moderation  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  beverages,  or 
even  total  abstinence  from  them. 

Among  uncivilized  races,  ancient  and  modern, 
intoxication  has  been  associated  with  religious 
ideas  and  has  been  encouraged  as  an  incident  of 
religious  festivity.  As  a  common  vice  of  appe¬ 
tite  it  has  always  been  condemned,  and  in  almost 
all  communities  in  one  way  or  another  punished. 
The  earliest  attempt  at  temperance  reform  is 
claimed  bv  the  Chinese,  who  affirm  that  in  the 
eleventh  century  b.c.  one  of  their  emperors  or¬ 
dered  all  the  vines  in  the  Kingdom  to  be  up¬ 
rooted.  Early  reforms  are  attributed  also  to  the 
priests  of  India  and  of  Persia.  The  Carthagin¬ 
ians  forbade  wine  in  their  camps,  and  to  magis¬ 
trates  holding  public  office.  Among  the  He¬ 
brews  there  were  sects  and  orders  which  ab¬ 
stained  from  intoxicants.  The  Buddhists  taught 
total  abstinence.  The  Christian  Church  made 
attempts  to  bring  about  a  more  moderate  use 
of  the  wine  cup.  St.  Gildas  dealt  out  severe 
punishment  to  any  churchman  guilty  of  drunken¬ 
ness.  Dunstan  is  said  to  have  labored  in  the 
cause  of  temperance  in  England  to  the  end  that 
King  Edgar  at  his  instance  restricted  the  num- 
ber  of  taverns  and  the  quantity  of  intoxicants 
that  might  be  sold.  By  a  law  of  1285  taverns 
in  London  were  required  to  close  at  curfew. 
Erom  1603  legislation  against  alehouses  and 
drunkenness  increased.  In  1736  Parliament  at¬ 
tempted  to  restrict  the  use  of  gin  by  means  of 
a  prohibitory  tax,  which,  however,  only  brought 
about  an  illicit  trade. 

United  States.  In  April,  1808,  a  society  was 
formed  at  Moreau,  Saratoga  Co.,  New  York, 
with  43  members,  which  provided  in  its  consti¬ 
tution  that  “no  member  should  drink  rum,  gin, 
whisky,  wine,  or  distilled  spirits,  .  .  .  except 
by  advice  of  a  physician  or  in  case  of  actual 
disease  (also  excepting  at  public  dinners),  un¬ 
der  penalty  of  25  cents;  .  .  .  provided  that 
this  article  shall  not  infringe  on  any  religious 
rites.”  This  society  existed  for  14  years,  but 
accomplished  little.  The  American  Temperance 
Society  was  founded  in  Boston,  February,  1826, 
and  the  New  York  State  Temperance  Society  in 
1829.  By  1830  the  latter  society  numbered  i00,- 
000  members.  In  1833  prominent  members  of 
Congress  organized  the  Congressional  Temper¬ 
ance  Society.  Before  the  Civil  War  many  secret 
societies  were  established  for  the  promotion  of 
temperance.  They  required  a  pledge  of  total 
abstinence,  advocated  prohibition,  and  tried  to 
educate  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  reform. 
They  also  provided  the  usual  beneficiary  features 
and  opportunities  for  self-culture.  The  Sons 
of  Temperance,  founded  in  1842,  grew  rapidly 
in  membership  and  influence.  (See  Temper¬ 
ance,  Sons  of.)  The  Independent  Order  of 
Good  Templars  was  started  in  New  York  in 
1851.  It  spread  over  the  world.  (See  Good 
Templars,  International  Order  of.)  The  Tem¬ 
plars  of  Honor  and  Temperance  (1845)  were 
strong  in  the  South.  Later  benefit  but  non¬ 
secret  societies  are  the  Royal  Templars  of  Tem¬ 
perance  (Buffalo,  1869),  and  the  Templars  of 
Temperance,  an  order  strong  in  England  and 
Scandinavian  countries.  After  the  Civil  War 
consolidation  of  societies  began.  In  1865  the 
National  Temperance  Society  and  Publication 
House  was  organized  at  Saratoga,  as  a  non¬ 
partisan  and  nonsectarian  society,  advocating 


total  abstinence.  This  society  published  and 
distributed  pamphlets,  textbooks,  and  papers, 
held  public  meetings,  and  called  national  and 
international  conferences.  The  Women's  Cru¬ 
sade  led  to  the  organization  in  1874  of  the 
Woman’s  Christian  Temperance  Union  (q.v.). 
In  1868  a  prohibition  party  was  organized  in 
Illinois  and  a  temperance  political  party  in 
Michigan.  The  call  for  a  convention  came  from 
the  Grand  Lodge  of  Good  Templars.  The  Na¬ 
tional  Prohibition  Party  was  organized  in  Chi¬ 
cago  in  September,  1869.  (See  Prohibition.) 
Law  and  Order  Leagues  were  established  to  see 
that  existing  legislation  is  properly  enforced 
(Chicago,  1872;  New  York,  1877;  Philadelphia, 
1880;  Massachusetts,  1882).  In  1883  the  gen¬ 
eral  society — the  Citizens’  Law  and  Order  League 
of  the  United  States — was  formed. 

Temperance  sentiment  developed  rapidly.  A 
number  of  temperance  organizations  were 
formed,  important  ones  being  the  Lincoln  Legion 
(1903),  a  total  abstinence  league,  and  the 
Loyal  Temperance  Legion,  a  temperance  organ¬ 
ization  for  juveniles.  The  Intercollegiate  Pro¬ 
hibition  Association  (1901)  has  an  enrolled 
membership  of  8800.  In  1914  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  issued  an  order  which  prohibited  the 
introduction  for  drinking  purposes  of  alcoholic 
liquors  on  board  any  naval  vessel  or  within  any 
navy  yard  or  station.  Most  of  the  railroads 
have  stopped  serving  liquor  on  their  trains. 
Railroads  and  industrial  concerns  are  refusing 
to  hire  men  who  drink.  Such  railroads  as  the 
Pennsylvania  have  rigid  rules  against  the  use 
of  intoxicants  at  any  time.  Industries  such  as 
the  American  Car  and  Foundry  Company,  Ameri¬ 
can  Sheet  and  Tin  Plate  Company,  and  the 
Lukens  Iron  and  Steel  Company  have  prohibited 
the  use  of  liquor  among  employees.  The  Anti- 
saloon  League  of  America  celebrated  its  twen¬ 
tieth  anniversary  in  1913.  Law  and  Order 
Leagues  have  been  formed  in  many  States  to  as¬ 
sist  in  enforcing  prohibition  legislation.  The 
Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union  of  America  has 
about  100,000  members. 

Great  Britain.  In  August,  1829,  a  temper¬ 
ance  society  was  started  at  New  Ross,  County  of 
Wexford,  Ireland,  whose  members  pledged  them¬ 
selves  to  abstain  from  liquors,  except  as  medicine. 
At  the  same  time  a  similar  movement  began  in 
the  north  of  Ireland.  Within  12  months  there 
were  60  societies,  with  3500  members.  The 
Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Temperance  So¬ 
ciety  was  founded  in  November.  Up  to  this 
time  moderate  use  of  liquor  was  permitted,  but 
John  Daire  and  others  of  the  Society  of  Dun¬ 
fermline  pledged  themselves  to  total  abstinence 
and  began  to  form  total  abstinence  societies. 
The  first  societies  in  England  were  at  Bradford, 
Warrington,  and  Manchester  in  1830.  The  Brit¬ 
ish  and  Foreign  Temperance  Society,  founded  in 
London  (June,  1831),  through  the  influence  of 
William  Collins  of  Glasgow,  was  for  some  years 
the  leading  temperance  society  in  England.  It 
was  the  first  to  start  a  crusade  against  beer. 
The  movement  for  total  abstinence  had  its  be¬ 
ginning  at  Prestom  in  Lancashire.  After  the 
formation  of  the  Youth’s  Temperance  Society 
at  Preston  in  1834,  and  its  extension  to  other 
forms,  a  conference  was  held  at  Manchester,  re¬ 
sulting  in  the  organization  of  the  British  Asso¬ 
ciation  for  the  Promotion  of  Temperance,  on  the 
Principle  of  Total  Abstinence  from  all  Intoxicat¬ 
ing  Liquors.  Thereupon  the  total  abstinence 
element  struggled  for  recognition  in  the  British 


TEMPERANCE 


83 


TEMPERANCE 


and  Foreign  Temperance  Society.  In  August, 
1836,  the  teetotal  society  was  merged  into  the 
New  British  and  Foreign  Society  for  the  Sup¬ 
pression  of  Intemperance.  The  later  periods  of 
temperance  work  in  Great  Britain  may  be 
designated  by :  ( 1 )  the  Father  Mathew  crusade 
in  1838,  during  which  in  twTo  years  1,800,000 
people  took  pledges  in  Ireland ;  (2)  the  beginning 
of  work  among  children  through  the  formation 
of  Bands  of  Hope,  in  1847;  (3)  the  John  B. 
Gough  (q.v. )  mission  in  1858;  (4)  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  Good  Templarism,  in  1868;  and  (5) 
the  organization  of  the  Blue  Ribbon  Army  on 
Feb.  10,  1878,  now  the  Blue  Ribbon  Gospel  Tem¬ 
perance  Movement  with  branch  organizations,  the 
Help  Myself  Societies  for  men  and  the  Help  One 
Another  Societies  for  women.  The  United  King¬ 
dom  Alliance  (1853)  urges  prohibition  upon 
Parliament. 

Great  Britain  has  a  large  number  of  impor¬ 
tant  temperance  societies.  A  few  of  the  more 
important  are:  British  Temperance  Legion, 
United  Kingdom  Alliance,  Army  Temperance 
Association,  Navy  Temperance  Association,  Tem¬ 
perance  Legislation  League,  Sons  of  Temperance, 
British  Medical  Temperance  Association,  British 
National  Woman’s  Temperance  Union,  and 
World’s  Woman’s  Christian  Temperance  Union. 
A  complete  list  of  the  important  temperance 
associations  is  given  in  Hazell’s  Annual,  1915. 

The  temperance  movement  in  America  and 
Great  Britain  has  been  characterized  by  the 
emotionalism  of  religious  revivals.  Prayer  and 
conversion  were  offered  as  aids  to  reform.  Many 
religious  organizations  as  such  have  interested 
themselves  in  temperance  work.  The  Methodist 
church  from  the  days  of  the  Wesleys  has  ad¬ 
vocated  total  abstinence.  The  Friends  were  op¬ 
posed  to  drinking,  and  among  the  Dunkards 
abstinence  was  a  test  of  fellowship.  Since  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Baptists,  Con- 
gregationalists,  and  Presbyterians  have  been  op¬ 
posed  to  drinking.  Among  the  general  church 
organizations  are:  The  Congregational  Total 
Abstinence  Association  (1874);  The  Baptist 
Total  Abstinence  Association  (1874)  ;  the  Total 
Abstinence  Society  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
of  England  (1892);  a  number  among  various 
Methodist  sects;  Church  of  England  Temperance 
Society  (1862,  reorganized  1873),  formed  to  pro¬ 
mote  temperance,  to  study  the  causes  of  the 
abuse  of  alcohol,  and  to  do  rescue  work.  The 
Roman  Catholic  church  advises  moderation,  but 
where  this  is  impossible,  total  abstinence.  The 
International  Antialcohol  Congress  has  been  held 
biennially  for  20  years.  In  1913  at  Paris  was 
held  the  first  meeting  of  the  International  Com¬ 
mittee  for  the  Study  of  the  Liquor  Question. 

Medical  men  have  formed  societies,  such  as 
the  British  Medical  Temperance  Association, 
(1872)  advocating  total  abstinence  and  making 
investigations,  and  the  American  Medical  Tem¬ 
perance  Association  (1891).  Some  labor  unions, 
especially  the  Knights  of  Labor,  have  discour¬ 
aged  the  use  of  intoxicants.  Farmers’  associa¬ 
tions,  such  as  the  National  Farmers’  Alliance 
and  the  National  Grange,  have  put  themselves  on 
record  as  opposed  to  the  liquor  traffic.  Among 
the  many  children’s  societies  that  have  been  or¬ 
ganized  are:  the  Cold-Water  Army  (1828); 
juvenilq  branches  or  cadets  of  secret  societies; 
Bands  of  Hope;  and  the  Loyal  Temperance  Le¬ 
gions  of  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  In  opposition  to  tem¬ 
perance  reformers,  liquor  manufacturers  and 
dealers  have  organized  to  prevent  hostile  legis¬ 


lation.  In  1862  the  United  States  Brewers’ 
Association  was  formed  to  oppose  the  internal 
revenue  taxes  and  prohibition.  In  Illinois  the 
brewers  organized,  purchased  saloon  sites  in 
Chicago,  and  established  cheap  saloons  conducted 
by  agents.  The  Liquor  Dealers’  and  Manufac¬ 
turers’  State  Protection  Association  of  Illinois 
is  another  association  of  liquor  men. 

In  August,  1846,  a  World’s  Temperance  Con¬ 
gress  was  held  in  London,  at  which  302  delegates 
were  present.  Since  then  there  have  been  other 
international  conventions,  notably  the  World’s 
Temperance  Congress  of  1893  at  Chicago.  At 
this  meeting  the  economic  aspects  of  the  problem, 
especially  the  cost  to  the  workingman,  were  em¬ 
phasized.  There  was  a  general  feeling  in  favor 
of  total  abstinence  among  English  and  Ameri¬ 
cans,  while  the  Europeans  advocated  moderation 
and  the  drinking  of  wine.  In  Australia  the 
movement  has  progressed  along  the  same  line 
as  in  England  and  America. 

Canada.  Various  societies,  including  the  In¬ 
dependent  Order  of  Good  Templars,  Sons  of  Tem¬ 
perance,  Dominion  Prohibition  Alliance  and  its 
provincial  branches,  Women’s  Christian  Temper¬ 
ance  Union,  Royal  Templars  of  Temperance,  and 
other  similar  organizations  did  much  to  mold 
Canadian  public  opinion  in  favor  of  temperance 
and  prohibition.  In  1864,  three  years  before 
confederation,  the  Dunkin  Act  provided  for  lo¬ 
cal  option  in  the  townships  and  smaller  munici¬ 
palities  of  Ontario  and  Quebec.  In  1878  the 
Canada  Temperance  Act,  commonly  known  as 
the  Scott  Act,  enlarged  the  scope  of  local  option 
by  providing  for  prohibition  in  entire  counties, 
many  of  which  adopted  it.  Ten  years  later  a 
reaction  against  this  law  caused  its  repeal  in 
numerous  cases,  and  this  was  followed  by  at¬ 
tempts  at  Dominion  and  provincial  prohibitory 
legislation.  Public  opinion  was  sounded  by 
plebiscites,  but  the  majorities  were  not  large 
enough  to  warrant  legislation.  A  majority  of 
the  provinces  then  enacted  local  option  laws,  but 
about  1912  a  renewed  demand  for  provincial 
prohibitory  laws  made  itself  felt.  In  1914-15 
abolition  of  the  bar  was  made  a  part  of  the 
Ontario  Provincial  Liberal  platform,  and  77.3 
per  cent  of  the  voters  favored  it  in  1916.  In 
the  same  year  nine-tenths  ,of  Nova  Scotia  was 
under  prohibition  by  local  option.  In  Quebec 
Province  the  same  held  true  of  480  municipali¬ 
ties,  but  compensation  is  provided  for  liquor 
license  holders  in  Quebec  and  Montreal  whose 
licenses  were  annulled  by  statute.  The  Province 
of  Saskatchewan  in  1915  abolished  the  bar, 
placed  all  liquor  stores  under  local  option  laws, 
and  forbade  them  to  be  kept  in  connection  with 
hotels.  Manitoba  passed  a  prohibitory  law  in 
1916.  Prohibition  was  in  force  in  1916  in  Prince 
Edward  Island.  Prohibitory  restrictions  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  Great  War  were  applied  in  the 
various  provinces  for  the  protection  of  the 
troops  and  to  aid  recruiting. 

Scandinavian  Countries.  Drunkenness  has 
been  a  serious  vice  in  Sweden  and  Norway. 
Various  temperance  societies  have  been  organized, 
and  the  efforts  to  solve  the  question  by  means 
of  the  Bergen  system  of  monopoly  in  Norway 
and  the  Gothenburg  system  ( q.v. )  in  Sweden 
have  received  much  comment.  Under  a  system 
of  local  option  half  the  towns  of  Norway  have 
prohibited  the  sale  of  alcoholic  liquors.  Iceland 
adopted  prohibition  in  1908. 

Germany.  The  German  Temperance  Society 
was  organized  in  1837,  but  the  national  custom 


TEMPERANCE 


84 


TEMPERANCE 


of  beer  drinking  lessens  the  importance  of  the 
liquor  problem  in  that  country.  As  a  war  meas¬ 
ure,  in  order  to  preserve  barley  for  bread,  the 
quantity  of  beer  which  could  be  brewed  through¬ 
out  the  Empire  was  limited  to  40  per  cent  of 
the  average  output;  local  authorities  were  given 
the  power  to  limit  or  prohibit  the  sale  of  spirits; 
in  certain  areas  spirits  could  not  be  sold  to 
soldiers  in  uniform. 

Austria.  Only  recently  has  a  temperance 
movement  been  organized.  The  Society  for 
Checking  Inebriety  was  started  in  1884.  As  a 
war  measure  the  malting  of  corn  was  prohibited, 
the  week-day  hours  for  the  sale  of  drink  limited 
to  from  9  a.m.  to  5  p.m.,  and  Sunday  closing 
imposed  where  nothing  but  liquor  was  sold. 

Belgium  has  several  temperance  societies, 
among  them  the  Association  against  the  Abuse 
of  Alcohol  (1878). 

Switzerland  has  a  total  abstinence  movement, 
superseding  societies  advocating  moderation. 
The  Blue  Cross  Federation  was  founded  in  1877. 
In  1908  the  importation  of  absinthe  was  pro¬ 
hibited. 

Latin  Countries.  Spain,  up  to  1860,  was  a 
sober  country.  Since  then  a  slight  increase  in 
drunkenness  has  been  due  to  the  adulteration  of 
wines,  which  has  caused  the  people  to  use  spirits. 
There  is  no  active  temperance  movement,  how¬ 
ever.  Since  the  destruction  of  the  vines  has  led 
the  poor  of  France  to  drink  adulterated  spirits, 
drunkenness  has  increased,  and  there  is  a  decided 
temperance  movement  in  favor  of  moderation 
rather  than  total  abstinence.  The  sale  of  ab¬ 
sinthe  was  prohibited  in  1914  as  a  war  measure. 

Russia.  Drunkenness  has  been  a  great  vice  in 
Russia.  The  peasant  drink  vodka  is  particularly 
intoxicating.  Various  temperance  societies  ex¬ 
ist.  In  1914  the  Russian  government  stopped 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  vodka,  with  re¬ 
markable  results  in  increase  of  savings  and  im¬ 
provement  in  public  order. 

General  Considerations.  1.  Economic  As¬ 
pects. — A  large  amount  of  capital  is  invested 
in  the  liquor  business — vast  manufacturing 
plants  (breweries  and  distilleries),  and  the  prop¬ 
erty,  fittings,  and  money  paid  for  bonds,  and 
licenses  necessary  for  the  retail  trade.  In  the 
United  States  from  the  1909  census  figures  the 
number  of  distilleries  was  613;  total  number  of 
persons  engaged  in  the  distilling  industry,  8328 ; 
average  number  of  wage  earners,  6430;  capital 
invested,  $72,450,336.  The  number  of  breweries 
was  1414;  the  total  number  of  persons  in  the 
industry  was  66,725;  the  average  number  of 
wage  earners  was  54,579;  capital  invested, 
$671,158,110.  The  number  of  vinous  liquor  es¬ 
tablishments  was  290;  total  number  of  persons 
in  the  industry  was  2726;  average  number  of 
wage  earners,  1911;  capital  invested,  $27,908,- 
487.  The  statistical  abstract  for  1913  shows  the 
consumption  of  wines  and  liquors  in  the  United 
States  for  the  preceding  year  to  be  2,233,420,461 
gallons.  The  per  capita  consumption  was  22.68 
gallons.  The  internal  revenue  collections  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1913,  were:  from 
spirits,  $163,879,324.54;  from  fermented  liquors, 
$66,266,989.60.  New  York  City’s  receipts  from 
liquor  revenue  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30, 
1915,  were  $11,743,240.87*.  The  annual  cost  of 
liquor  consumed  by  the  people  of  New  York  City 
is  more  than  $150,000,000.  An  important  eco¬ 
nomic  consideration  for  the  community  is  the 
cost  of  maintaining  criminals  and  paupers  made 
so  by  the  abuse  of  intoxicants. 


2.  Relation  to  Poverty. — Drunkenness  makes 
greater  ravages  among  artisans  than  among 
paupers.  Warner’s  tables  show  that  it  was 
the  direct  cause  of  distress  only  in  15.28  xper 
cent  of  the  cases  investigated.  Drinking  to 
excess  is  rather  a  symptom  than  a  source  of  de¬ 
generation,  and  develops  in  a  people  of  natural 
strength  exhausted  by  vice,  overwork,  and  con¬ 
ditions  of  life  that  undermine  health. 

3.  Legislative  Aspects. — Various  attempts 
have  been  made  to  control  the  liquor  traffic  by 
legislation,  while  certain  regulations  have  al¬ 
ways  been  considered  necessary.  The  national 
government,  since  1789,  has  placed  internal  rev¬ 
enue  taxes  and  some  customs  duties  upon  liquors. 
Congress  also  has  passed  laws  regulating  the 
sale  of  liquor  to  Indians  and  soldiers  and  the 
sale  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  requiring 
the  scientific  study  of  temperance  in  the  schools 
of  the  District  of  Columbia,  military,  Indian, 
and  territorial  schools.  In  the  States  the  meth¬ 
ods  used  to  control  the  liquor  traffic  are :  ( 1 ) 
licenses;  (2)  local  option ;  (3)  prohibition;  (4) 
dispensary  system.  It  has  been  customary  from 
the  earliest  times  to  license  the  sale  of  liquor. 
The  modern  issue  has  been  that  of  high  license 
($500  or  more),  which  its  advocates  claim  less¬ 
ens  the  number  of  saloons  and  improves  tbeir 
character.  High  licenses  prevail  in  large  cities. 
Local  option  has  the  advantage  of  the  support 
of  public  opinion.  The  earliest  laws  were  those 
of  Connecticut  (1839)  and  New  York  (1845). 
In  1912  the  ruling  went  into  effect  prohibiting 
the  importation  of  absinthe  into  the  United 
States.  In  1913  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
refused  to  issue  licenses  to  the  35  saloons  that 
had  existed  in  the  Canal  Zone.  The  Webb-Ken- 
yon  Law  prohibits  the  shipment  of  liquor  into 
territory  in  which  its  sale  is  forbidden  by  State 
or  local  laws.  A  prohibition  amendment  was 
submitted  to  Congress  in  1913  but  failed  to  re¬ 
ceive  the  necessary  two-thirds  vote  to  have  it 
submitted  to  the  States  for  ratification.  There 
are  now  19  prohibition  States  and  19  having 
local  option.  Among  the  prohibition  States  is 
South  Carolina  which  had  been  distinguished 
as  the  only  State  having  the  State  Dispensary 
System.  The  States  having  prohibition  are 
Alabama,  Arizona,  Arkansas,  Colorado,  Georgia, 
Idaho,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Maine,  Mississippi,  North 
Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  Oregon, 
South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  Washing¬ 
ton,  and  West  Virginia.  In  the  States  having 
county  or  municipal  local  option  much  of  the 
territory  is  without  the  saloon. 

Remedies.  The  arguments  advanced  against 
the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  have  been:  (1) 
Scriptural,  based  on  a  supposed  distinction  in 
the  Bible  between  fermented  and  unfermented 
wine,  as  shown  by  the  use  of  the  Hebrew  words 
yayin  and  tirosh;  (2)  physiological,  which 
claims  alcohol  to  be  a  poison  and  which  shows 
that  temperance  conduces  to  health ;  ( 3 )  so¬ 

cial,  viewing  alcohol  as  a  cause  of  crime,  vice, 
and  poverty;  and  (4)  economic,  in  that  the 
manufacture  and  consumption  of  alcohol  are 
nonproductive  and  a  great  waste  of  material. 
The  remedies  offered  by  the  early  temperance 
movement  were  reformatory  and  preventive. 
Moral  suasion  was  used,  and  drinkers  were 
urged  to  sign  the  pledge  and  to  strengthen  them¬ 
selves  by  the  aid  of  prayer  and  religion.  Total 
abstinence  was  demanded  of  the  strong  to  help 
the  weak.  Prohibition  was  urged  in  order  to 
remove  temptation.  Homes  and  asylums  were 


TEMPERANCE 

established,  as  the  Washingtonian  House  in  Chi¬ 
cago  and  the  Franklin  Home,  Philadelphia.  The 
prevention  work  was  largely  educational  through 
the  distribution  of  literature,  lectures,  the  form¬ 
ation  of  societies,  and  the  preparation  of  text¬ 
books  for  use  in  the  public  schools.  Business 
considerations  now  exert  an  important  influ¬ 
ence.  In  positions  of  responsibility  or  where 
accidents  are  likely  (such  as  engineers,  fore¬ 
men,  watchmen)  drinking  is  prohibited.  The 
habits  of  applicants  for  employment  are  care¬ 
fully  scrutinized,  especially  in  the  business  of 
transportation.  Even  where  moderation  is 
overlooked,  excess  is  never  tolerated.  Saloon 
property  pays  a  higher  insurance  rate.  Some 
life-insurance  companies  refuse  to  insure  men 
engaged  in  the  liquor  business. 

Important  contributions  to  the  study  of  the 
liquor  problem  have  been  made  by  the  Committee 
of  Fifty  formed  in  1893  and  comprising  repre¬ 
sentative  men  in  the  fields  of  education,  religion, 
and  sociology.  The  committee  had  its  origin  in 
a  group  of  men  who,  beginning  in  1889,  had 
associated  themselves  for  the  purpose  of  pursu¬ 
ing  the  study  of  practical  problems  in  sociology. 
Meetings  are  held  twice  a  year  in  New  York. 
Four  subcommittees  deal  with  the  different  as¬ 
pects  of  the  liquor  problem,  physiological,  legis¬ 
lative,  economic,  and  ethical. 

Bibliography.  J.  Samuelson,  History  of 
Drink  (2d  ed.,  London,  1878-80)  ;  Cyclopedia 
of  Tempet'ance  and  Prohibition  (New  York, 
1891)  ;  Sterns  (ed.),  Temperance  of  All  Nations 
(ib.,  1893)  ;  E.  L.  Fanshawe,  Liquor  Legislation 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada  (London, 
1893)  ;  Wines  and  Koren,  The  Liquor  Problem 
in  its  Legislative  Aspects  (Boston,  1897)  ; 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  Twelfth 
Annual  Report  (Washington,  1897)  ;  John 
Koren,  Economic  Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Problem 
(Boston,  1899)  ;  Raymond  Calkins,  Substitutes 
for  the  Saloon  (ib.,  1901);  Arthur  Shadwell, 
Drink,  Temperance,  and  Legislation  (New  York, 
1902)  ;  J.  S.  Billings,  Physiological  Aspects  of 
the  Liquor  Problem  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1903)  ; 
E.  A.  Pratt,  Licensing  and  Temperance  in  Swe¬ 
den,  Norway,  and  Denmark  (New  York,  1907)  ; 
“Regulation  of  the  Liquor  Traffic,”  in  American 
Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Annals, 
vol.  xxxii  (Philadelphia,  1908)  ;  Anti-Saloon 
League,  Yearbook  (Columbus,  Ohio,  1908  et 
seq. )  ;  W.  F.  Crafts,  World  Book  of  Temper¬ 
ance:  Temperance  Lessons,  Biblical,  Historical, 
Critical  (3d  rev.  ed.,  Washington,  1911);  E.  B. 
Gordon,  Anti- Alcohol  Movement  in  Europe  (New 
York,  1913)  ;  also:  American  Prohibition  Year 
Book,  United  States  Brewers’  Association  Year 
Book,  New  Encyclopedia  of  Social  Reform;  C.  B. 
Towns,  Habits  that  Handicap  (ib.,  1915)  ;  Vance 
Thompson,  Drink  and  be  Sober  (ib.,  1915)  ; 
Dodge  and  Benedict,  Psychological  Effects  of 
Alcohol,  published  by  the  Carnegie  Institution 
(Washington,  1915).  See  Gothenburg  System; 
Liquor  Traffic;  Prohibition. 

TEMPERANCE,  Sons  of.  An  order  founded 
in  New  York  in  1842  with  the  object  of  making 
the  great  temperance  movement  of  that  period 
permanent.  It  has  life  insurance,  sick  and 
funeral  benefit  features.  There  are  male  and 
female  members  and  there  is  a  cadet  branch  for 
boys  of  16  years,  who  are  known  as  the  Cadets 
of  Temperance,  and  who  subscribe  to  a  pledge 
which  binds  them  to  avoid  all  connection  with 
the  use,  sale,  or  manufacture  of  spirituous 
liquors.  There  are  five  grand  divisions  of  the 


85  TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  BODY 

order,  one  in  England,  where  it  was  introduced 
in  1846,  two  in  Australia,  one  in  New  Zealand, 
and  one  in  North  America.  About  one-half  of 
the  members  are  in  the  United  States  and  it  is 
estimated  that  3,000,000  members  have  been  on 
the  rolls  since  the  organization  of  the  order. 
The  membership  in  North  America  in  1916  was 
about  25,000,  of  which  12,000  were  in  the  United 
States.  The  ritual  is  very  impressive.  The 
order  is  now  established  in  Great  Britain,  Ire¬ 
land,  the  Bahamas,  Liberia,  New  Zealand,  Aus¬ 
tralia,  Scotland,  and  Wales. 

TEMPERANCE  LEAGUE,  Loyal.  See 

Loyal  Temperance  League. 

TEMPERATURE.  See  Heat. 

TEMPERATURE,  Critical.  See  Critical 
Point. 

TEMPERATURE,  Terrestrial.  The  distri¬ 
bution  of  beat  in  the  atmosphere  depends  to 
some  extent  on  its  direct  absorption  of  solar 
radiations,  and  especially  the  absorption  at  the 
upper  surface  of  the  clouds,  but  is  principally 
governed  by  the  angular  altitude  of  the  sun 
and  the  contact  of  the  air  with  the  ground 
and  the  ocean.  The  marked  irregularities  of 
temperature  give  rise  to  the  great  currents  of 
air  as  well  as  to  the  local  winds,  and  the  latter 
carry  the  heat  rapidly  from  one  part  of  the 
globe  to  the  other,  so  that  ultimately  the  at¬ 
mospheric  temperature  is  almost  equally  con¬ 
trolled  by  the  winds  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
oceans,  continents,  rain,  snow,  and  cloud  on  the 
other.  The  typical  continental  climates  experi¬ 
ence  great  diurnal  and  annual  ranges  of  tem¬ 
perature,  and  the  typical  oceanic  climates  show 
a  small  range. 

The  distribution  of  temperature  on  any  level 
surface  at  any  depth  below  or  height  above  sea 
level  is  shown  by  means  of  isotherms,  which  are 
drawn  through  all  places  that  have  the  same 
temperature  at  any  moment,  or  the  same 
monthly  or  annual  mean  temperature.  Charts 
showing  these  isotherms  have  been  published  by 
various  meteorological  services  for  the  air  and 
the  land,  and  by  various  hydrographic  offices  for 
the  oceans.  The  highest  mean  annual  tempera¬ 
tures  occur  within  the  tropics  and  especially 
over  the  land  areas  of  northern  Africa  and 
southern  Asia,  with  corresponding  small  regions 
in  Central  America  and  the  northern  portion  of 
South  America.  Abnormally  high  maximum 
temperatures  occur  in  limited  regions  outside 
the  tropics  but  are  the  result  of  peculiar  topo¬ 
graphic  conditions.  Thus  Death  Valley,  Cal., 
experienced  maximum  temperatures  of  120°  to 
134°  in  the  years  1911  to  1915,  the  reading  of 
134°  F.  in  July,  1914,  being  the  highest  known 
natural  air  temperature  in  the  United  States  and 
probably  in  the  world.  ( Monthly  Weather  Re¬ 
view,  June,  1915,  p.  278-280.)  The  lowest  mean 
annual  temperatures  are  found  in  northern  Si¬ 
beria  and  the  northern  portions  of  British  Amer¬ 
ica,  which  represent  the  southern  extension  of  a 
largeArctic  area  of  low  temperature.  SeeCLiMATE. 

TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  BODY.  The 
temperature  in  the  healthy  human  adult  aver¬ 
ages  from  98.4°  to  98.6°  F.,  but  97.5°  and  99° 
F.  are  within  normal  limits.  In  the  newborn 
child  the  temperature  is  slightly  above  the  aver¬ 
age,  as  it  is  in  old  age.  Race  has  but  a  slight 
influence,  a  difference  of  0.29°  F.  being  observed 
between  the  nations  of  southern  Europe  and 
those  of  the  northern  part.  The  temperature 
rises  slightly  after  a  meal  and  during  exercise. 
During  the  day  the  bodv  heat  varies  about  half 

O  «/  «/ 


TEMPERATURE  VARIETIES 


86 


TEMPEST 


a  degree,  being  highest  between  5  and  8  p.m., 
and  lowest  between  2  and  6  a.m.  In  childhood 
the  temperature  is  easily  and  rapidly  influenced, 
slight  ailments  causing  marked  febrile  reaction. 
The  temperature  is  registered  by  means  of  the 
clinical  thermometer,  which  is  self-registering, 
placed  in  the  mouth,  axilla,  fold  of  the  groin, 
the  rectum,  or  the  vagina.  The  surface  of  the 
body  is  slightly  cooler  than  the  interior.  A 
temperature  below  93°  or  above  108°  F.  is  al¬ 
most  always  fatal.  The  usual  range  in  fevers 
is  between  99.5°  and  105°  or  106°  F.  As  a 
rule  there  is  a  constant  relation  between  the 
amount  of  fever  and  the  rapidity  of  the  pulse 
(q.v. )  in  many  people.  A  pulse  of  80  indicates 
a  temperature  of  100°  F. ;  a  pulse  of  90,  a  tem¬ 
perature  of  101°  F.,  etc.  A  rise  of  temperature 
between  99°  and  102°  F.  is  termed  slight  or 
moderate  pyrexia;  from  101°  to  105°  F.  severe 
pyrexia ;  and  above  this  point  hyperpyrexia. 
Many  chronic  and  a  few  acute  diseases  are  char¬ 
acterized  by  a  subnormal  temperature.  This  is 
observed  in  hemorrhage,  starvation,  and  wasting 
from  chronic  diseases.  In  the  melancholia  of 
certain  mental  troubles  there  may  be  great  de¬ 
pression  botli  of  the  general  and  surface  heat. 
An  elevation  of  temperature  attends  most  acute 
and  some  chronic  diseases.  In  the  great  class 
of  the  acute  general  infections  (see  Nosology) 
an  elevation  of  the  body  heat  is  the  most  im¬ 
portant  symptom  and  is  proportional  to  the 
severity  of  the  disease.  Very  marked  elevation 
of  temperature  (hyperpyrexia)  is  seen  in  tet¬ 
anus,  acute  rheumatism,  pernicious  malarial 
fever,  and  after  injuries  to  the  spinal  cord.  In 
tetanus  the  thermometer  may  register  as  high 
as  112.5°  F.  In  sunstroke  or  heat  stroke,  an 
equally  high  point  has  been  reached.  Lastly, 
the  temperature  may  rise  just  before  death,  and 
after  it,  in  rigor  mortis.  See  Animal  Heat; 
Fever.;  etc. 

TEMPERATURE  VARIETIES.  Varieties, 
races,  or  subspecies  are  largely  differentiated  by 
variation  resulting  from  being  subjected  to  dif¬ 
ferent  influences,  principally  in  the  nature  of 
temperature  and  comparative  moisture.  It  is  a 
matter  of  universal  observation  that  widespread 
species  present  a  great  range  of  variability  in 
size,  proportion  of  parts,  color,  and  other  char¬ 
acteristics,  so  that  it  is  often  a  matter  of  doubt 
whether  a  variant  ought  to  be  classed  as  a  geo¬ 
graphical  subspecies,  or  as  a  distinct  species. 
When  it  appears  that  the  same  kind  of  varia¬ 
tion  affects  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  animals  of  a 
certain  class  in  a  region,  coincidently  with  the 
character  of  the  local  climate,  it  is  probable 
that  the  change  from  the  normal  noted  is  due 
to  local  climatic  influence.  Temperature  seems 
to  act  most  directly  in  producing  the  common 
form  of  seasonal  dimorphism,  which  affects  most 
of  the  higher  animals  that  dwell  in  the  tem¬ 
perate  zones,  and  are  called  upon  to  endure 
winter  cold  as  wrell  as  summer  heat.  This 
causes  a  semiannual  change  in  mammals  and 
birds  from  a  comparatively  thin  and  short  coat 
of  hair  or  feathers  in  warm  weather  to  a  thicker 
and  longer  covering  more  suitable  to  the  cold. 
In  addition,  there  is  a  greater  or  less  change 
of  color,  the  bright  dress  of  summer,  assumed 
after  the  spring  molt,  falling  out  in  the  autumn 
and  being  gradually  succeeded  by  a  plainer  color¬ 
ing  for  the  winter  months.  The  difference  is 
often  very  great;  and  in  the  Arctic  regions 
amounts  to  a  change  from  decided  colors  in  sum¬ 
mer  to  pure  white  in  winter. 


The  comparative  degree  of  average  moisture 
in  the  air  of  two  regions  will  be  reflected  in  the 
colors  and  other  features  of  the  same  species 
of  animals  inhabiting  them;  those  of  the  moist 
region  will  have  darker  colors,  and  a  tendency 
to  larger  size  and  proportionally  longer  exter¬ 
nal  parts,  as  bills,  legs,  and  tails,  than  the 
dry  land  species,  which  will  be  more  pale  in 
color  and  compact  in  form.  Dr.  J.  A.  Allen  has 
shown  this  very  conclusively  in  his  investigations 
upon  North  American  birds,  and  C.  W.  Beebe 
has  demonstrated  it  in  his  experiments  on  doves 
and  other  birds  in  the  New  York  Zoological 
Park.  Let  one  of  twro  districts  differing  in 
average  moisture  be  severed  for  a  considerable 
period  from  the  other  and  the  results  accredited 
to  isolation  (q.v.)  would  follow;  but  the  species 
so  formed  might  well  be  called  temperature 
species  in  reference  to  their  origin.  Geographi¬ 
cal  races  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  incipient 
species. 

That  changes  from  heat  to  cold,  wetness  to 
dryness,  or  the  reverse,  in  the  climates  of  re¬ 
gions  of  the  world  in  the  course  of  its  history 
since  animal  life  appeared  upon  it,  have  been 
efficient  factors  in  species  making,  may  well  be 
believed.  See  Evolution;  Melanism;  Isola¬ 
tion  ;  and  consult  authorities  there  mentioned. 

TEMPERING  STEEL.  Steel  is  hardened  by 
heating  to  a  cherry  red  which  is  slightly  above 
its  critical  point  (750°  C.),  and  suddenly  cool¬ 
ing.  The  hardness  varies  directly  with  the  per¬ 
centage  of  carbon  and  the  rate  of  cooling.  Steel 
quenched  in  water  is  very  hard  but  is  also 
brittle.  It  is  therefore  tempered  by  reheating 
to  200°-300°  C.,  whereby  the  metal  is  toughened 
with  some  loss  in  hardness.  If  tempering  be 
done  in  air  and  if  the  surface  is  free  from 
oxide,  the  process  can  be  followed  by  the  temper 
colors  which  form  on  the  surface,  viz. :  straw,. 
200°  C.;  golden  yellow,  245°  C. ;  brown,  265°  C.; 
purple,  280°  C.;  blue,  290°  C.;  dark  blue,  300°  C. 
Thus  a  razor  would  be  drawn  to  a  straw  color, 
while  an  axe  requires  a  blue. 

Tempering  can  be  done  in  liquids  such  as  oil, 
salt  baths,  molten  lead,  etc.,  the  temperature 
being  controlled  by  a  thermometer  or  pyrometer, 
immersed  in  the  bath. 

Instead  of  hardening  in  water,  the  metal  may 
be  quenched  in  liquids  which  abstract  the  heat 
more  slowly,  as,  e.g.,  oil  or  molten  lead,  the 
resulting  metal  being  less  hard  but  not  so 
brittle.  Steels  of  high  carbon  or  intricate  shape 
are  liable  to  crack  when  water  quenched  and  are 
usually  hardened  in  oil,  or  molten  lead  (oil 
hardening,  lead  hardening) ,  commonly  spoken 
of  as  oil  tempering  and  lead  tempering.  The 
word  “temper”  originally  meant  hardness 
( trempe ,  quenched)  and  we  still  use  it  to  mean 
carbon  content,  e.g.,  die  temper,  0.75  per  cent; 
chisel  temper,  1.0  per  cent;  razor  temper,  1.4 
per  cent.  See  Annealing  ;  Iron  and  Steel, 
Metallurgy  of;  Metallography. 

TEMPEST,  Marie  Susan  ( 1866-  ) .  An 

English  actress,  born  in  London  of  parents 
named  Etherington.  She  received  her  early  edu¬ 
cation  at  a  convent  in  Belgium,  and  later  stud¬ 
ied  music  in  Paris  and  London.  Her  first  ap¬ 
pearance  on  the  stage  was  at  the  Confedy  Thea¬ 
tre,  London,  in  1885,  as  Fiametta  in  Boccaccio. 
For  some  years  she  acted  chiefly  in  musical  plays, 
notably  in  Dorothy  (931  times),  but  with  her 
creation  of  the  part  of  Nell  Gwvn  in  English 
Nell  (1900)  and  Becky  Sharp  (1901),  she  was 
recognized  as  one  of  the  leading  comediennes 


TEMPEST 


TEMPLE 


of  the  English  stage,  a  position  which  she  con¬ 
tinued  to  hold.  Some  of  her  best-known  parts 
were  Polly  Eccles  in  Caste,  Peggy  O’Mara  in 
All-o f -a- Sudden  Peggy,  Becky  Warder  in  The 
Truth,  and  Kitty  in  The  Marriage  of  Kitty. 
She  visited  America  for  the  first  time  in  1800, 
playing  Kitty  Carroll  in  The  Red  Hussar,  at 
Palmer’s  Theatre,  New  York,  and  thereafter  was 
almost  as  well  known  in  the  United  States  as 
in  England.  In  1014  she  appeared  in  New  York 
in  the  title  role  of  Henry  Arthur  Jones’s  com¬ 
edy,  Mary  Goes  First,  a  part  in  which  she  had 
already  been  successful  in  London;  and  in  1015 
she  revived  The  Duke  of  Killiecrankie,  one  of 
her  former  successes.  Miss  Tempest  was  some¬ 
times  her  own  manager.  She  was  married  in 
1808  to  Cosmo  Gordon-Lennox. 

TEMPEST,  The.  A  play  by  Shakespeare, 
first  acted  in  1610,  and  first  printed  in  the  Folio 
of  1623.  The  sources  are  principally  books  of 
travel:  Eden’s  History  of  the  Travaile  (1577), 
Raleigh’s  Discovery  of  Guiana  (1506),  and  S. 
Jourdan’s  Discovery  of  the  Bermudas  (1600), 
telling  of  Sir  George  Somers’s  fleet  at  Bermuda 
in  1600. 

TEMPES'TA.  See  Mulier,  Pieter. 

TEM'PLARS,  Knigiits.  A  religious  and 
military  order  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  great 
rival  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 
In  1110  Hugues  de  Payens  and  Geoffrey  de  Saint- 
Ademar  ( Saint-Omer ) ,  with  six  companions, 
formed  a  military  band  to  protect  pilgrims  in 
Palestine.  They  adopted  a  monastic  rule,  and 
took  the  name  Knights  of  Christ.  But  as  quar¬ 
ters  were  assigned  to  them  in  the  palace  at 
Jerusalem,  known  as  Solomon’s  Temple,  they 
soon  were  called  Knights  of  the  Temple,  or 
Knights  Templars  ( milites  templi) .  In  1128  at 
the  Council  of  Troyes  a  rule,  inspired  by  St. 
Bernard,  and  closely  following  the  Cistercian, 
was  given  them. 

The  order  grew  rapidly.  At  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century  it  had  about  15,000  members, 
and  in  the  middle  of  that  century  it  is  said  to 
have  owned  9000  castles  and  manors.  It  was 
free  from  all  taxes  and  was  under  the  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  the  Pope  alone.  As  the  order  had  to 
make  regular  transfers  of  supplies  and  money 
from  Europe  to  Palestine,  they  developed  an 
effective  banking  system.  Their  strong  and  well- 
manned  temples  were  the  safest  places  for  de¬ 
positing  treasure  and  documents  and  for  a  time 
the  Templars  were  the  bankers  of  Europe.  There 
were  three  ranks  in  the  order,  knights,  chap¬ 
lains,  and  servants.  The  knights,  few  in  num¬ 
ber,  were  the  real  Templars.  They  directed  the 
affairs  of  the  order;  they  alone  could  wear  the 
white  mantle  with  its  red  cross.  At  the  head 
of  the  order  was  the  grand  master.  The  capital 
o'f  the  order  was  at  Jerusalem  till  1187,  and 
then  successively  at  Antioch,  Acre,  and  Caesarea, 
and  after  the  extinction  of  the  Christian  power 
in  Syria  (1291),  in  Cyprus.  Their  standard, 
called  Beauseant,  was  half  black,  half  white, 
with  the  motto  Non  nobis  Domine.  The  Tem¬ 
plars’  wealth,  pride,  and  power  brought  them 
into  conflict  with  Church  and  State.  With  the 
decay  of  the  crusading  spirit  their  activity  was 
feared,  and  in  the  latter  half  of  the  thirteenth 
century  opposition  grew.  They  had  made  ene¬ 
mies  in  other  military  orders  and  among  the 
monastic  orders.  Their  adoption  of  Oriental 
customs  and  the  secrecy  of  their  rites  impressed 
popular  imagination.  They  were  charged  with 
evil  and  sacrilegious  practices.  The  direct  at- 


87 

tack  on  them  came  in  France.  Philip  IV,  under 
the  influence  of  Guillaume  de  Nogaret.  saw  his 
chance  to  be  rid  of  an  insubordinate  order,  and 
to  increase  his  wealth.  He  got  Pope  Clement  V 
to  aid  him.  On  Oct.  13,  1307,  the  grand  master, 
Jacques  de  Molay  (q.v.),  and  many  other  Tem¬ 
plars,  were  arrested  without  warning.  Their 
trial  was  in  charge  of  the  Inquisitor  for  France. 
Most  of  them  under  torture  confessed  to  some 
or  all  of  the  charges  against  the  order.  Many 
afterward  retracted,  including  Molay.  A  large 
number  were  burned  at  the  stake,  Molay  being 
spared  for  a  number  of  years.  In  1311  Clement 
called  the  General  Council  of  Vienne,  chiefly 
for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  the  order.  When 
the  council  persisted  in  demanding  that  the 
question  should  be  tried  strictly  as  a  judicial 
question  without  any  regard  for  policy,  Clement 
held  a  secret  consistory,  March  22,  1312,  at 
which  the  suppression  was  decreed.  On  April  3 
the  bull  Vox  in  excelso  was  published  declaring 
the  reasons  for  the  papal  condemnation.  On 
May  2  the  bull  Ad  providam  was  issued  decree¬ 
ing  the  final  abolition  of  the  order.  Its  property 
went  to  the  Hospitalers;  but  the  seizures  of 
Philip  were  confirmed  to  him.  Jacques  de  Molay 
was  burned  in  1314. 

Consult:  Henri  de  Curzon,  La  regie  du  temple 
(Paris,  1886)  ;  Julius  Gmelin,  Schuld  oder  Un- 
sohuld  des  Tempelordens  (Stuttgart,  1893)  : 
H.  C.  Lea,  History  of  the  Inquisition,  vol.  iii 
(new  ed.,  New  York,  1906)  ;  Heinrich  Finke, 
Papsttum  und  Untergang  des  Tempelordens, 
vol.  i  (Munster,  1907)  ;  Marquis  d’Albon,  Car- 
tulaire  generate  de  I’ordre  de  Temple,  vol.  i 
(Paris,  1913). 

TEMPLE.  A  building  consecrated  to  reli¬ 
gious  worship,  especially  among  pagan  peoples. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  chief  sanctuary 
of  the  Jews  (see  Temple  at  Jerusalem),  to 
Christian  churches  belonging  to  the  Knights 
Templars,  and  in  France  to  Protestant  places 
of  worship.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  meeting- 
places  of  certain  Masonic  bodies,  and  to  build¬ 
ings  having  the  form  or  character  of  an  antique 
temple.  A  temple  was  usually  dedicated  to  some 
deity,  whose  image  it  contained;  the  interior 
was  accessible  to  priests,  but  not  to  the  general 
body  of  worshipers.  Among  most  ancient  peoples 
the  temple  was  the  principal  architectural  fea¬ 
ture,  as  in  Greece,  where  the  history  of  temple 
construction  is  practically  the  history  of  archi¬ 
tecture.  The  subject  is  therefore  best  treated 
under  the  general  title  Architecture,  and  in 
the  subdivision  Architecture  in  such  articles  as 
Assyrian,  Babylonian,  Chinese,  Egyptian, 
Greek,  Indian,  Japanese,  and  Roman  Art; 
also  under  Architecture,  Ancient  American; 
and  Baalbek.  In  general,  it  may  be  observed 
that  the  ancient  temples  (excepting  those  of 
Chaldaea- Assyria)  had  these  elements  in  com¬ 
mon:  a  sanctuary  containing  the  effigy  or  some 
other  sacred  symbol  of  the  deity  or  deities  wor¬ 
shiped;  colonnades  to  shelter  worshipers  outside 
the  sanctuary;  one  or  more  courts  or  inclosures 
with  important  gateways;  and  sometimes  such 
adjuncts  as  a  lake,  grove,  fountain,  or  well  sacred 
to  the  deity.  The  Pantheon  (q.v.)  at  Rome 
was  dedicated  “to  all  the  gods.”  Temples  of 
fame  are  a  modern  product;  such  are  the  Wal- 
halla  (q.v.)  near  Ratisbon,  the  Ruhmeshalle  at 
Munich,  and  the  Temple  of  Fame  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  New  York,  which  is  really  an  open 
colonnade.  See  Hall  of  Fame  for  Great 
Americans. 


TEMPLE 


88 


TEMPLE 


TEMPLE.  A  city  in  Bell  Co.,  Tex.,  35  miles 
south  by  west  of  Waco;  on  the  Gulf,  Colorado, 
and  Santa  Fe  and  the  Missouri,  Kansas,  and 
Texas  railroads  (Map:  Texas,  D  4).  It  has  a 
Carnegie  library,  Temple  Sanitarium,  King’s 
Daughters’  Hospital,  and  the  Gulf,  Colorado, 
and  Santa  Fe  Railroad  Hospital.  Cottonseed- 
oil  mills,  cotton  gins  and  compresses,  foundries 
and  machine  shops,  bottling  works,  a  large  cold- 
storage  plant,  flouring  mill,  and  a  candy  and 
chewing-gum  factory  are  among  the  leading 
industrial  establishments.  The  Gulf,  Colorado, 
and  Santa  Fe  Railroad  maintains  shops  here. 
Pop.,  1900,  7065;  1910,  10,993;  1915  (U.  S. 
est.),  13,104;  1920,  11,033. 

TEMPLE,  Bakon  Mount-.  See  Mount- 
Temple,  Baron. 

TEMPLE,  Frederick  (1821-1902).  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  born  at  Leukas,  in  the 
Ionian  Islands,  and  educated  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford.  He  was  principal  of  Kneller  Hall,  and 
then  inspector  of  church  training  colleges,  until 
he  was  elected  head  master  of  Rugby,  where 
his  administration  was  very  successful.  In  1860 
his  name  was  prominent  as  one  of  the  authors 
of  Essays  and  Reviews,  a  book  supposed  to  have 
a  rationalizing  tendency,  though  Temple’s  own 
essay  on  ‘‘Education  of  the  World”  contained 
little  that  would  be  considered  dangerous  nowa¬ 
days.  The  suspicion  of  heterodoxy  clung  about 
him  and  found  expression,  when  Gladstone  in 
1869  nominated  him  as  Bishop  of  Exeter,  in  a 
formal  protest  against  his  confirmation.  This 
distrust  died  away,  and  he  acquired  a  reputation 
for  absolute  justice  and  impartiality,  while  in 
many  respects  his  later  career  associated  him 
rather  with  the  High  Church  party  than  with 
the  Broad.  In  1885  he  was  transferred  to  the 
see  of  London,  and  in  1896  became  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  and  a  year  afterward  stood  out 
as  a  champion  of  the  Church  of  England  in  a 
learned  and  dignified  reply  to  the  papal  decision 
declaring  the  invalidity  of  Anglican  ordination. 
He  officiated  at  the  coronation  of  Edward  VII. 
His  most  important  published  work  is  The  Rela¬ 
tion  between  Science  and  Religion  (1884). 
Consult:  C.  H.  Dant,  Archbishop  Temple  (Lon¬ 
don,  1903)  ;  F.  J.  Snell,  Early  Associations  of 
Archbishop  Temple  (New  York,  1905)  ;  Memoirs 
of  Archbishop  Temple  by  Seven  Friends,  edited 
by  E.  G.  Sandford  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1906)  ;  H.  C. 
Potter,  Reminiscences  of  Bishops  and  Arch¬ 
bishops  ( ib.,  1906). 

TEMPLE,  Henry  John,  third  Viscount  Pal¬ 
merston.  See  Palmerston. 

TEMPLE,  Sir  Richard  (1826-1902).  An 
English  politician  and  author,  born  at  Kemp- 
sey,  near  Worcester,  and  educated  at  Rugby. 
Having  entered  the  Indian  service  in  1847,  he 
rose  quickly,  becoming  Finance  Minister  of 
India  (1868),  Lieutenant  Governor  of  Bengal 
(1874),  and  Governor  of  Bombay  (1877-80). 
On  his  return  to  England  in  1880  he  became 
financial  member  of  the  London  School  Board 
(1886-94)  and  president  of  the  Social  Science 
Congress.  From  1885  to  1895  he  sat  in  Parlia¬ 
ment  as  a  Conservative.  For  his  services  he 
was  made  Baronet  in  1876.  His  publications 
include:  hvdia  in  1880  (1881)  ;  Men  and  Events 
of  my  Time  in  India  (1882);  Oriental  Experi¬ 
ence  (1883)  ;  Cosmopolitan  Essays  (1886)  ;  Pal¬ 
estine  Illustrated  (1888)  ;  Memoir  of  John  Law¬ 
rence  (1889);  Story  of  my  Life  (1896);  A 
Bird’s-Eye  View  of  Picturesque  India  (1898)  ; 
and  Letters  and  Character  Sketches  from  the 


House  of  Commons,  1886-87  (published  post¬ 
humously  in  1912). 

TEMPLE,  Richard  Temple  Grenville,  Earl 
(1711-79).  An  English  statesman.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Richard  Grenville  of  Wotton  Hall, 
Buckinghamshire,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
privately.  In  1734  he  was  returned  to  Parlia¬ 
ment  for  Buckingham.  On  the  death  of  Vis¬ 
count  Cobham  in  1749  his  mother  was  created 
Countess  Temple  and  upon  her  death  in  1752 
Grenville  succeeded  to  the  Temple  earldom.  He 
was  a  political  associate  of  William  Pitt,  who 
married  Grenville’s  sister  Hester,  and  he  held 
the  position  of  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty, 
1756-57,  and  Lord  Privy  Seal,  1757-61.  He 
was  afterward  in  frequent  opposition  to  the 
King  and  was  a  violent  promoter  of  factions. 
Consult  the  Grenville  Papers  (1852-53),  which 
consist  of  the  correspondence  between  Pitt  and 
George  and  Richard  Temple  and  throw  muck 
light  on  the  political  and  court  life  of  the  period. 

TEMPLE,  The.  1.  A  former  stronghold  of 
the  Templars  in  Paris,  built  in  1212.  When  the 
order  was  suppressed  in  1312  it  was  used  as  a 
royal  treasury  and  subsequently  as  a  prison. 
During  1792  and  1793  Louis  XVI  and  his  fam¬ 
ily  were  confined  in  it.  The  last  remains  of  the 
building  were  removed  in  1871  and  its  site  is 
now  occupied  by  the  Marche  du  Temple.  2.  A 
former  lodge  of  the  Templars  in  London,  dating 
from  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  now 
represented  by  Temple  Church  (q.v. )  and  the  Inns 
of  Court,  known  as  the  Inner  and  Middle  Temple, 
which  stand  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  building, 
the  former  within  the  precincts  of  the  city. 
The  Temple  became  crown  property  when  the 
order  was  dissolved,  was  presented  to  the  Earl 
of  Pembroke,  and  then  passed  to  the  Knights  of 
St.  John,  who  leased  it  to  law  students. 

TEMPLE,  Sir  William  (1628-99).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  statesman  and  essayist,  born  in  London. 
He  was  reared  by  an  uncle,  Dr.  Henry  Ham¬ 
mond,  rector  of  Penshurst,  in  Kent.  He  entered 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1644;  but  he 
left  four  years  later  without  a  degree,  and  set 
out  for  France.  On  this  journey  he  met  Doro¬ 
thy  Osborne  (q.v.).  In  1665  Temple  was  sent 
to  Westphalia  on  a  secret  mission  to  the  Prince 
Bishop  of  Munster.  On  his  return  (1666)  he 
was  created  Baronet,  and  appointed  Resident 
at  the  court  of  Brussels.  His  most  important 
diplomatic  success  was  the  famous  treaty  of 
1668,  known  as  the  Triple  Alliance,  by  which 
England,  Holland,  and  Sweden  bound  themselves 
to  unite  in  curbing  the  ambition  of  France. 
Temple  was  long  Ambassador  at  The  Hague  and 
helped  to  bring  about  the  marriage  of  the  Prince 
of  Orange  with  the  Princess  Mary  (1677).  In 
1679  Charles  II  urged  him  to  become  his  Sec¬ 
retary  of  State.  Though  Temple  refused  this 
post,  he  attempted  to  reform  the  government  by 
establishing  a  privy  council  of  30  members,  by 
whom  the  King  promised  to  be  guided  in  all 
public  affairs,  but  this  council  proved  an  utter 
failure.  Temple  soon  abandoned  politics  and 
retired,  first  to  Sheen,  and  then  to  Moor  Park 
in  Surrey,  where  for  the  last  10  years  of  his  life 
he  devoted  himself  to  landscape  gardening  and 
to  literature.  During  this  period  he  received 
into  his  household  as  amanuensis,  and  afterward 
as  secretary,  Jonathan  Swift  (q.v.),  who  ulti¬ 
mately  became  his  literary  executor. 

As  a  writer  Temple  is  now  known  chiefly  by 
his  historical  Memoirs  (unauthorized  ed.,  1691; 
1709)  and  his  Miscellanea  (1680;  1692).  In 


TEMPLE  AT  JERUSALEM 


89 


TEMPLE  AT  JERUSALEM 


the  series  of  1692  first  appeared  the  famous 
essay  on  “Ancient  and  Modern  Learning,”  which 
deals  with  the  comparative  merits  of  ancient 
and  modern  literature.  The  outcome  of  the 
spirited  controversy  in  England  was  Swift’s 
Battle  of  the  Books  (1704).  (See  Battle  of 
the  Books.)  Temple  has  been  considered  one 
of  the  reformers  of  English  style.  According  to 
Dr.  Johnson  he  was  the  first  writer  to  give 
cadence  to  English  prose.  During  the  eight¬ 
eenth  century  Temple’s  essays  were  regarded  as 
models;  his  English  was  particularly  pleasing 
to  Charles  Lamb,  who  comments  upon  it  in  his 
“Essay  on  the  Genteel  Style.”  Consult :  his 
Life  and  Works  (4  vols.,  London,  1814),  includ¬ 
ing  the  Letters ;  T.  P.  Courtenay,  Memoirs  .  .  . 
of  Sir  William  Temple  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1836)  ;  Macau¬ 
lay’s  article  on  this  biography  in  the  Edinburgh 
Review  for  October,  1838  (reprinted  in  Essays )  ; 
M.  L.  R.  Beaven,  Sir  William  Temple,  Gladstone 
essay,  1908  (Oxford,  1908)  ;  E.  S.  Lyttel,  Sir 
William  Temple,  Stanhope  essay,  1908  (ib., 

1908)  ;  Letters  from  Dorothy  Osborne  to  Sir 
William  Temple,  edited  by  E.  A.  Parry,  in  “The 
Wayfarer’s  Library”  (New  York,  1915). 

TEMPLE  AT  JERUSALEM.  The  sanc¬ 
tuary  erected  by  Solomon  (c. 993-953  b.c.)  on 
the  eastern  hill,  between  the  Tyropaeon  and  Kid- 
ron  valleys,  north  of  the  original  city  of  David 
on  the  Ophel  hill,  and  opposite  the  Mount  of 
Olives.  According  to  2  Cliron.  iii.  1  it  was 
built  on  the  threshing  floor  which  David  had 
purchased  from  Oman  (elsewhere  Araunah  and 
Ornajah,  perhaps  originally  Adonijah),  the 
Jebusite.  Here  the  angel  ceased  smiting  Israel, 
indicating  that  it  was  a  sacred  place.  Probably 
this  sanctity  already  adhered  to  it  in  the 
Amarna  period  (c.1400  b.c.).  The  construction 
of  Solomon’s  temple  was  begun  c.990  b.c.  and 
seven  years  later  it  was  dedicated.  It  was  made 
possible  by  the  friendly  relations  between  Solo¬ 
mon  and  Hiram  of  Tyre,  who  furnished  skilled 
workmen  as  well  as  cedars  and  firs  from  the 
Lebanon.  In  the  account  ( 1  Kings  vi,  somewhat 
expanded  in  2  Chron.  iii-iv)  of  the  building 
certain  features  of  the  design  are  clearly  set 
forth,  others  are  wholly  passed  over,  so  that  ef¬ 
forts  to  restore  it  from  these  descriptions  have 
produced  an  extraordinary  variety  of  results. 
The  references  to  earlier  sanctuaries  at  Shechem, 
Ophrah,  Dan,  and  Shiloh  are  too  meagre  to  be 
of  any  assistance,  and  the  description  of  the 
tabernacle  in  Ex.  xxv.  ff.  is  regarded  by  most 
modern  scholars  as  a  projection  into  the  past  of 
the  Solomonic  temple  itself,  and  an  idealization 
of  the  humbler  tent  which  actually  had  sheltered 
the  palladium  of  Israel.  The  temple  proper  of 
Solomon  measured  60  cubits  in  length,  the  outer 
sanctuary  or  holy  place  being  20  by  40  cubits 
in  size  and  the  holy  of  holies  20  by  20  cubits; 
both  were  20  cubits  high.  Within  the  latter 
was  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  under  two  cheru¬ 
bim  (see  Cherub)  with  outspread  wings;  in 
the  holy  place  were  the  altar  of  incense,  the 
shewbread  table,  the  seven-branched  candle¬ 
stick,  and  10  smaller  tables  and  candlesticks. 
Both  chambers  were  wainscoted  with  cedar  and 
wholly  covered  with  gilding;  they  were  separated 
by  a  veil  or  fixed  curtain  fitted  with  an  olive- 
wood  doorway  and  doors.  It  was  this  veil  that 
is  said  to  have  been  “rent  in  twain”  at  the  cruci¬ 
fixion  (Matt,  xxviii.  51;  Mark  xv.  38;  Luke 
xxiii.  44).  The  golden  candlestick  carried  by 
Titus  to  Rome  in  70  a.d.  is  figured  in  a  relief  on 
the  Arch  of  Titus. 


In  front  of  the  temple  porch  were  two  columns 
of  bronze,  Jachin  and  Boaz,  23  cubits  high; 
and  against  its  side  and  end  walls  were  three 
stories  of  small  chambers  for  the  priests.  The 
court  immediately  surrounding  the  temple  was 
reserved  for  the  priests,  and  contained  the 
brazen  altar  of  burnt  offering  and  the  great 
bronze  sea,  or  tank,  borne  on  12  bronze  oxen; 
these,  with  the  cherubim  in  the  holy  of  holies, 
being  the  only  examples  of  free  sculpture  in 
Jewish  art.  A  second  court  was  the  place  of 
general  assembly  for  all  Jewish  worshipers;  it 
preceded  or  surrounded  the  first;  but  whether 
built  by  Solomon  or  encircled  at  a  later  date 
is  not  certain.  Solomon’s  palace  and  the  House 
of  the  Cedars  of  Lebanon  adjoined  the  temple 
court.  Dependencies  and  outbuildings  were 
added  at  various  times  to  the  main  group.  Of 
the  architectural  style  of  the  temple  little  is 
known ;  but  its  builders  were  chiefly  Phoenicians, 
and  the  combination  of  an  Egyptian  type  of  plan 
with  such  Assyrian  decorative  details  as  palms, 
cherubim,  and  knops  and  flowers  is  quite  in 
harmony  with  the  mixed  style  of  Phoenician 
work  in  general.  Hittite  motives  have  also  been 
suggested. 

Solomon’s  temple  was  destroyed  by  Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar  in  586  b.c.  Encouraged  by  the  prophets 
Haggai  and  Zechariah,  Zerubbabel,  the  Persian 
governor,  himself  a  descendant  of  the  old  Davidic 
family,  rebuilt  the  temple,  which  was  finished 
in  516  b.c.,  with  the  permission  of  Darius  Hys- 
taspis.  The  temple  proper  was  a  reproduction 
of  the  original  edifice,  but  far  inferior  to  it  in 
splendor  of  ornament  and  gilding.  This  second 
temple  was  desecrated  by  Antiochus  IV  Epiph- 
anes  and  dedicated  to  Zeus  Qlympius  in  168 
b.c.,  but  rededicated  again  to  Yahwe  in  165  b.c. 
Both  the  first  and  second  edifices,  were,  however, 
surpassed  in  architectural  splendor  by  the  third 
temple  which  Herod  began  to  erect  in  20  b.c. 
and  which  was  completed  in  64  a.d.  The  area 
of  the  temple  terrace  was  greatly  enlarged  by 
new  substructures  built  with  masonry  of  colossal 
magnitude,  a  section  of  which  forms  the  present 
place  of  wailing  of  the  Jews.  Marble  was  pro¬ 
fusely  used  for  colonnades,  gates,  and  walls,  and 
the  magnificence  of  Roman  carved  decoration 
and  architectural  detail  was  blended  with  the 
Oriental  arrangement  of  the  plan,  which  repro¬ 
duced  essentially  the  disposition  of  the  two 
preceding  structures,  but  with  an  additional 
exterior  court  of  the  Gentiles.  A  three-aisled 
portico  of  vast  dimensions  occupied  the  south 
side  of  the  inclosure;  Solomon’s  porch  was  re¬ 
erected  in  the  form  of  a  colonnade  along  the 
east  front,  in  which  was  perhaps  the  Gate  Beau¬ 
tiful  (Acts  iii.  2).  This  temple,  from  which 
Jesus  expelled  the  money  changers  and  mer¬ 
chants,  was  destroyed  during  the  pillage  of  the 
city  by  Titus,  70  a.d.,  but  contrary  to  his  orders. 
After  the  insurrection  of  Simon  Bar-Kokba  (q.v. ) 
had  been  quelled,  an  altar  or  shrine  seems  to 
have  been  erected  in  its  place  to  Jupiter  Capi- 
tolinus  by  Hadrian,  in  front  of  which  there 
were  two  statues  of  the  Emperor,  one  at  least 
equestrian.  Neither  Constantine  nor  his  mother 
Helena  appears  to  have  paid  any  attention  to 
these  structures.  Julian  gave  a  permission  to 
the  Jews  to  rebuild  their  temple,  but  his  brief 
reign  did  not  allow  this  project  to  be  carried 
out.  On  the  temple  area,  called  by  the  Arabs 
Haram  el  sherif,  Abd  el  Melek,  who  reigned 
from  685  to  705,  erected  a  splendid  mosque,  the 
Kabbet  el  Sakhrah,  or  Dome  of  the  Rock,  com- 


TEMPLE  AT  JERUSALEM 


go 


TEMPLETON 


monly  known  as  the  Mosque  of  Omar.  Except 
for  two  intervals  in  the  period  of  the  Crusades 
the  place  has  since  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  Moslems. 

All  three  temples  must  have  presented  an 
aspect  of  mixed  architectural  styles,  due  to  the 
general  lack  of  skill  in  the  plastic  arts  among 
the  Jews,  and  their  consequent  dependence  on 
the  arts  of  neighboring  nations.  Solomon’s 
temple  was,  under  these  circumstances,  a  re¬ 
spectable  achievement;  though  of  course  not  to 
be  compared  with  the  great  temples  of  Egypt  or 
Babylonia ;  but  it  was  far  surpassed  in  scale 
and  in  magnificence  of  external  architecture  by 
Herod’s  temple. 

The  Temple  Service.  The  Solomonic  temple 
was  primarily  intended  to  be  a  Yahwe  sanc¬ 
tuary,  as  is  evident  from  1  Kings  viii.  13.  But 
during  the  period  of  the  Davidic  dynasty  many 
other  divinities  were  worshiped  in  it.  (See,  e.g., 
Ezek.  viii.,  2  Kings  xviii.,  xx.)  The  temple  of 
Zerubbabel  appears  to  have  been  devoted  solely 
to  Yahwe.  In  168  b.c.  the  sanctuary  was  dedi¬ 
cated  to  Zeus  Olympius  and  remained  a  Zeus 
temple  for  three  years  ( 1  Macc.  i.  54 ;  iv.  52 ) . 
The  magnificent  temple  of  Herod  was  until  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  the  great  centre  of  the  Jewish 
sacrificial  cult,  having  no  rival  except  Onias’s 
temple  (q.v. )  at  Leontopolis,  and  was  devoted 
exclusively  to  the  imageless  worship  of  Yahwe. 

In  the  regal  period  the  King  was  the  chief 
priest  officiating  in  the  temple.  Whether  there 
was  a  ceremony  corresponding  to  the  seizing  of 
the  hands  of  Bel  by  the  Babylonian  kings,  can¬ 
not  be  determined.  But  the  annual  entrance 
into  the  holy  of  holies  by  the  high  priest  of  the 
Persian  period  may  have  developed  out  of  such 
a  custom.  David  set  the  example  of  appointing 
liis  own  sons  as  priests  (2  Sam.  xviii.  8).  There 
was  no  distinction  yet  between  priests  and  Le- 
vites.  Even  in  the  Deuteronomic  code,  intro¬ 
duced  about  620  b.c.,  the  Levites  are  priests 
whose  function  it  is  to  offer  sacrifices.  In  the 
Persian  period  a  high  priest  was  at  the  head  of 
the  hierarchy;  and  only  families  claiming  de¬ 
scent  from  Aaron  were  permitted  to  offer  sacri¬ 
fices.  The  Levites  were  a  class  by  themselves 
and  were  not  allowed  to  present  the  sacrifices, 
while  musicians  and  doorkeepers  formed  a  still 
lower  class.  The  Levites  as  well  as  the  priests 
were  divided  into  24  courses.  Next  to  the  high 
priest  ranked  the  Segan,  or  captain  of  the 
temple  police,  then  came  the  heads  ' of  the  24 
courses,  and  a  large  number  of  other  officials. 
While  in  earlier  times  even  the  common  people 
seem  to  have  had  access  to  the  inner  court,  in 
later  times  the  Levites  and  lower  ministers  were 
forbidden  to  enter  it.  Non-Israelites  were  not 
permitted  to  enter  any  part  of  the  temple,  but 
representatives  of  the  people  of  Israel  were  re¬ 
quired  to  attend  in  turn  the  daily  offerings  in 
the  outer  court. 

The  Tamid,  or  the  daily  offering,  presented 
every  morning  and  evening,  was  the  most  im¬ 
portant  of  the  many  sacrifices  of  a  public  char¬ 
acter.  The  number  of  sacrifices  was  increased 
on  Sabbaths  and  festivals.  The  ceremony  was 
preceded  by  lustrations  and  solemn  choice  of 
officiating  priests.  It  consisted  of  the  slaughter 
of  the  victim,  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood  on  the 
altar,  the  removing  of  the  blood  from  the  altar 
of  incense  in  the  holy  place,  the  trimming  of  the 
lamps  on  the  candlesticks,  the  carrying  of  the 
different  parts  of  the  victim  to  the  foot  of  the 
altar,  the  presentation  of  the  flour  offering,  the 


baked  meal,  and  the  libations  of  wine.  During 
the  celebration  of  this  sacrificial  service,  the 
Shema  Israel  (Deut.  vi.  4-9;  xi.  13-21;  and 
Num.  xv.  37-41 ) ,  the  Ten  Commandments,  and 
three  blessings  were  pronounced  by  the  priests. 
The  offering  of  incense  was  accompanied  with 
prayer.  Then  the  Levitic  choir,  to  the  accom¬ 
paniment  of  stringed  instruments,  sang  the 
psalm  of  the  day,  divided  into  three  sections. 
At  the  end  of  each,  priests  blew  three  blasts  on 
the  silver  trumpets,  and  the  people  prostrated 
themselves.  This  ritual  goes  back  at  least  to 
Hasmonsean  times,  and  the  music  and  singing 
no  doubt  formed  a  part  of  the  daily  service 
long  before  sections  of  the  present  Psalter  were 
in  use.  After  the  public  sacrifice,  private 
sacrifices  began. 

Bibliography.  E.  Meyer,  Der  Tempel  Salo- 
mos  (Berlin,  1830);  Canina,  Ricerche  sull’ 
architettura  degli  anticlii  Giudei  (Rome,  1845)  ; 
Edward  Robinson,  Biblical  Researches  (2d  ed., 
London,  1856  )  ;  M.  de  Vogue,  Le  temple  de  Jeru¬ 
salem  (Paris,  1866)  ;  A.  Fergusson,  Temples  of 
the  Jews  and  Other  Buildings  on  the  Haram 
Area  (London,  1874)  ;  the  elaborate  and  su¬ 
perbly  illustrated  discussion  of  the  first  and 
second  temples  in  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire 
de  I’art  en  Judee,  etc.  (Paris,  1889).  The  resto¬ 
ration  of  Zerubbabel’s  temple,  by  Chipiez,  in 
this  work,  is  a  remarkable  example  of  construc¬ 
tive  archaeology.  Also  T.  Friedrich,  Tempel  und 
Palast  Salomos  (Innsbruck,  1887)  ;  Emanuel 
Schmidt,  Solomon’s  Temple  in  the  Light  of 
Other  Oriental  Temples  (Chicago,  1902)  ;  Carl 
Mommert,  Topographie  des  Alten  Jerusalem 
(Leipzig,  1902,  1907)  ;  G.  A.  Smith,  Jerusalem 
(London,  1907);  I.  Benzinger,  Hebraische 
Archaologie  (2d  ed.,  Tubingen,  1907)  ;  W.  S. 
Caldecott,  Solomon’s  Temple:  Its  History  and 
Structure  (2d  ed.,  London,  1908)  ;  Selah  Merrill, 
Ancient  Jerusalem  (New  York,  1908)  ;  L.  B. 
Paton,  Jerusalem  in  Bible  Times  (Chicago, 
1908)  ;  Gustaf  Dalman,  in  PaUistinajahrbuch 
(Jerusalem,  1909)  ;  Hugo  Gressmann,  “Heilig- 
tiimer  Israels,”  in  Die  Religion  in  Geschichte 
und  Gegenwart  (Tubingen,  1910). 

TEMiPLE  BAR.  A  noted  gateway  between 
Fleet  Street  and  the  Strand,  London,  built  in 
1670  by  Wren,  and  marking  the  boundary  of  the 
city.  Here  the  sovereign,  on  entering  the  city, 
was  obliged  to  ask  from  the  Lord  Mayor  per¬ 
mission  to  pass.  The  structure  was  removed  in 
1878  to  make  a  way  for  the  enormous  traffic 
and  its  place  was  supplied  by  the  memorial  bear¬ 
ing  statues  of  Queen  Victoria  and  of  Edward 
VII,  then  Prince  of  Wales. 

TEMPLE  CHURCH.  The  church  connected 
with  the  former  house  of  the  Knights  Templars 
in  London,  and  the  only  portion  of  the  original 
group  of  buildings  remaining.  It  consists  of  a 
Norman  round  church,  58  feet  in  diameter,  dat¬ 
ing  from  1185,  with  a  choir  added  in  1240.  It 
has  a  richly  painted  ceiling  and  interesting 
tiled  flooring,  and  contains  nine  monuments  of 
Templars.  See  Temple,  The. 

TEMPLER  UND  JUDIN,  tem'pler  unt 
yu'dln  (Ger.,  Templar  and  Jewess).  An  opera 
by  Marschner  (q.v.),  first  produced  at  Leipzig, 
Dec.  22,  1829. 

TEMPLE  SOCIETY.  See  Friends  of  the 
Temple. 

TEM'PLETON.  A  town  in  Worcester  Co., 
Mass.,  15  miles  west  by  south  of  Fitchburg,  on 
the  Boston  and  Albany  Railroad  (Map:  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  C  2 ) .  Noteworthy  features  are  the 


TEMPLE  UNIVERSITY 


91 


TEMPORAL  POWER 


Templeton  Inn,  State  School  for  the  Feeble 
Minded,  Hospital  Cottages  for  Crippled  Chil¬ 
dren,  and  the  Boynton  Public  Library.  There 
are  manufactories  of  chairs,  baby  carriages, 
playground  apparatus,  and  post-office  furniture. 
Pop.,  1900,  3489;  1910,  3756.  Templeton  con¬ 
stituted  part  of  the  grant  given  the  survivors 
of  King  Philip’s  War  (see  Philip,  King),  and 
was  once  known  as  Narragansett  Number  Six. 

TEMPLE  UNIVERSITY.  An  institution 
founded  in  Philadelphia  in  1888.  It  had  its 
beginning  in  the  desire  to  provide  opportunities 
for  study  to  ambitious  young  men  who  were 
obliged  to  study  at  night.  Two  years  after  its 
founding  the  increase  in  the  number  of  students 
necessitated  the  removal  to  a  separate  building. 
In  1891  the  power  to  confer  degrees  was  con¬ 
ferred  upon  the  institution,  and  in  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year  a  day  department  was  opened. 
On  Dec.  12,  1907,  the  charter  was  amended, 
changing  the  name  of  the  college  from  Temple 
College  to  Temple  University.  The  Theological 
School  was  formed  in  1893,  the  Law  School  in 
1895,  the  Medical  School  in  1901,  and  in  1907 
the  Philadelphia  Medical  College  was  federated 
with  the  university.  In  1916  there  were  18  de¬ 
partments  with  66  different  courses  offered  to 
the  students.  The  university  conducts  classes 
morning,  afternoon,  and  evening  during  the  aca¬ 
demic  year.  The  courses  include  those  from 
kindergarten  grades  up  to  the  highest  university 
grades.  These  are  given  to  the  young  people 
of  the  city  for  a  normal  fee,  and  with  hours  con¬ 
venient  to  those  who  are  employed  either  day  or 
night.  The  university  is  nonsectarian,  but  is 
kept  under  a  strong  moral  and  religious  influ¬ 
ence.  The  total  attendance  in  all  departments 
of  the  university  in  1915  was  3579.  Of  these 
987  were  in  the  Department  of  Commercial  Edu¬ 
cation,  606  in  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts  and 
Sciences,  182  in  the  Department  of  Theology, 
243  in  the  Department  of  Elementary  Educa¬ 
tion,  and  511  in  the  Preparatory  Department. 
The  remainder  were  divided  among  the  other 
courses.  The  faculty  numbered  290.  The  library 
contains  about  9200  volumes.  The  university 
has  no  endowment.  The  college  grounds  and 
buildings  are  valued  at  about  $565,000.  The 
annual  income  is  about  $150,000.  The  president 
in  1916  was  Russell  H.  Con  well,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

TEM'PO  (It.,  time).  The  degree  of  rapidity 
with  which  a  piece  of  music  is  to  be  executed. 
The  rhythmical  proportions  of  notes,  as  indicated 
by  their  form,  give  them  only  a  relative  value, 
and  have  no  reference  to  the  absolute  speed  at 
which  the  entire  composition  is  to  be  played. 
The  varying  rates  of  speed  at  which  different 
compositions  or  their  divisions  are  to  be  played 
are  usually  indicated  by  certain  terms  called 
tempo  marks.  These  terms  are  not  always  used 
with  exact  precision,  and  sometimes  apply  more 
to  the  character  than  to  the  absolute  speed  of 
performance.  The  following  are  the  most  com¬ 
mon  terms,  in  the  order  of  increasing  speed : 
Grave,  Lento,  Largo,  Adagio  (slow)  ;  Andante, 
Moderodo,  Allegretto  (moderate)  ;  Allegro,  Vivo 
{vivace),  Presto  (fast).  Gradual  increase  in 
speed  is  indicated  by  accelerando,  stringendo ; 
gradual  decrease  by  rallentando,  ritardando . 

The  tempo  is  indicated  with  far  greater  ex¬ 
actness  by  references  to  the  beats  of  the  metro¬ 
nome  (q.v. ).  It  is  not,  however,  uncommon  for 
composers  to  express  the  tempo  by  reference  to 
some  well-known  musical  form  which  has  a  char¬ 
acteristic  movement,  as  tempo  di  marcia,  tempo 
Vol.  XXII.— 7 


di  valse,  tempo  di  minuetto,  etc.  Schumann  and 
Wagner  discarded  the  Italian  nomenclature  and 
indicated  the  tempo  by  means  of  German  terms. 
In  this  they  have  been  followed  by  a  few  other 
composers,  but  the  German  terms  are  not  well 
enough  known  to  be  free  from  a  certain  vague¬ 
ness.  The  Italian  terms  came  into  use  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Before  that, 
the  means  of  expressing  the  general  speed  at 
which  a  composition  was  to  be  played  were  very 
limited.  In  mensurable  music  (q.v.)  each  note 
had  a  certain  average  time  value  (integer 
valor)  ;  but  in  the  course  of  years  the  unit  of 
measure  changed  so  frequently  that  great  con¬ 
fusion  ensued.  In  transcribing  works  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century  in  modern  notation  all  notes 
must  usually  be  reduced  to  about  half  their 
face  values;  in  still  older  works  the  reduction 
should  be  to  a  quarter  or  an  eighth  of  the  orig¬ 
inal  value.  Tempo  rubato  (stolen  time)  char¬ 
acterizes  a  performance  to  which  a  restless 
movement  is  imparted  by  protracting  one  note 
beyond  its  proper  duration,  and  curtailing  an¬ 
other  so  that  the  aggregate  duration  of  each 
measure  remains  unchanged.  Modification  of 
tempo  is  a  term  first  used  by  Richard  Wagner, 
in  his  article  “Ueber  das  Dirigieren,”  to  indicate 
that  a  composition  cannot  be  played  throughout 
in  strict  metronome  time.  This  is  especially 
true  in  dramatic  music,  and  throws  the  re¬ 
sponsibility  for  interpretation  upon  the  conduc¬ 
tor  (q.v.).  For  detailed  information  regarding 
the  above  Italian  terms,  see  the  separate  ar¬ 
ticles.  See  Rubato,  Tempo. 

TEM'PQRALISM.  In  philosophy  a  term 
coined  to  designate  a  philosophic  system  which 
lays  emphasis  on  the  fundamental  character  of 
time  in  the  constitution  of  the  universe,  as  op¬ 
posed  to  the  philosophies  which  slur  over  or  deny 
the  validity  of  time,  such  as  the  philosophies  of 
Spinoza  and  the  Hegelians.  William  James,  TI. 
Bergson,  and  A.  O.  Lovejoy  in  recent  philos¬ 
ophy  are  uncomprising  temporalists.  Consult 
Lovejoy,  “The  Problem  of  Time  in  Recent  French 
Philosophy,”  in  Philosophical  Review  (Boston, 
1912).  See  Time. 

TEMPORAL  POWER  (Lat.  temporalis,  re¬ 
lating  to  time)  of  the  Pope.  The  sovereign 
power  which  the  Pope  possessed  as  ruler  of  the 
Papal  States  (q.v.),  which,  although  modified 
in  its  exercise  by  his  spiritual  character,  was  in 
substance  the  same  as  that  of  any  arbitrary 
sovereign.  Many  of  the  mediaeval  sectaries  held 
the  incompatibility  of  the  spiritual  with  the 
temporal  power  in  the  same  person,  not  only  in 
relation  to  the  Pope,  but  also  as  to  the  other 
ecclesiastics  who,  were  feudal  lords.  Such  were 
the  doctrines  of  the  Vaudois,  of  Pierre  de  Bruys, 
and  above  all  of  Arnold  of  Brescia  (qq.v.). 
Through  the  centuries  which  followed,  the  anti- 
papal  controversies  turned  so  entirely  upon  doc¬ 
trine  that  there  was  little  room  for  the  discus¬ 
sion  of  this  question,  and  it  is  a  mistake  to  sup¬ 
pose  that  it  entered  into  the  conflict  of  Gallican 
and  Ultramontane  principles.  Even  the  great 
Gallican  champion  Bossuet  (q.v.)  not  only  ad¬ 
mitted  the  lawfulness  of  temporal  sovereignty, 
but  contended  that  it  was  in  some  sense  neces¬ 
sary  to  the  free  exercise  of  his  spiritual  power, 
and  to  the  independence  of  his  ecclesiastical  gov¬ 
ernment.  It  was  not  until  the  aggression  of  the 
French  Republic  upon  Rome,  and  the  annexation 
of  the  papal  provinces  called  the  legations  to 
the  Cisalpine  Republic,  and  afterward  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy,  by  Bonaparte,  that  the  con- 


TEMRYUK 


92 


TENCIN 


troversy  assumed  practical  interest.  For  a  few 
years  all  of  the  papal  territories  were  in  the 
liands  of  Napoleon.  More  recently,  upon  the 
incorporation  of  the  whole  of  the  Papal  States 
in  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  the  question  once  more 
agitated  the  Catholic  world,  and  is  still  a  prac¬ 
tical  one.  Most  Roman  Catholics,  while  admit¬ 
ting  that  the  possession  of  temporal  sovereignty 
is  no  essential  part  of  the  privileges  of  the  suc¬ 
cessor  of  St.  Peter,  regard  the  possession  of 
a  sovereignty  independent  of  any  particular 
sovereign  as  the  means  providentially  estab¬ 
lished  for  the  protection  of  the  spiritual  inde¬ 
pendence  of  the  Pope,  and  of  the  free  exercise 
of  his  functions  as  spiritual  ruler  of  the 
Church. 

TEMRYUK,  tyem-ryook/.  A  seaport  in  the 
Province  of  Kuban,  Ciscaucasia,  Russia,  on  an 
inlet  of  the  Sea  of  Azov,  90  miles  west  of  Ye- 
katerinodar  (Map:  Russia,  E  5).  It  has  an 
extensive  export  trade  in  grain  and  flour.  Pop., 
1910,  17,731. 

TEMUCO,  ta-moo'ko.  The  capital  town  of 
the  Province  of  Cautfn,  Chile,  140  miles  south¬ 
east  of  the  port  of  Concepcion,  with  which  it 
has  railway  communication,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  river  Imperial  or  Cautfn  ( Map :  Chile,  E 
5).  The  town  has  tanneries  and  breweries  and 
carries  on  an  important  trade  with  the  Arau- 
canians  of  the  vicinity.  Pop.,  1910,  16,037. 

TEN,  Council  of.  See  Council  of  Ten. 

TENAFLY,  ten'a-fli.  A  borough  in  Bergen 
Co.,  N.  J.,  16  miles  north  of  New  York  City, 
on  the  Erie  Railroad  (Map:  New  Jersey,  E  2). 
It  contains  the  Mary  Fisher  Home  for  the  Aged, 
the  Retlnnore  Home  for  Children,  and  the  Happy 
Land  Home  for  Children.  Tenafly  is  essentially 
a  residential  place,  but  has  manufactures  of 
shades  and  decorative  cloths.  Pop.,  1900,  1746; 
1910,  2756;  1915  (State  census),  3050. 

TENAILLE,  tg-naF.  In  fortification,  a  low 
work  situated  in  the  reentering  angle  formed  in 
the  enceinte  ditch  by  the  curtain  and  flanks  of 
the  bastioned  system.  It  is  isolated,  from  these 
parts  of  the  enceinte  by  a  ditch,  and  is  de¬ 
signed  to  serve  as  a  mask,  protecting  the  scarp 
walls  of  this  reentering  angle  from  fire,  as  well 
as  the  outlets  to  the  enceinte  ditch.  A  tenailled 
line,  the  reentering  angles  of  which  are  between 
90  and  100  degrees,  and  the  salient  angles  not 
less  than  60  degrees,  forms  a  tenailled  system. 
Consult  Mahan,  revised  by  James  Mercur,  Per¬ 
manent  Fortifications  (New  York,  1888).  See 
Fortification. 

TENANCY,  Joint.  See  Joint  Tenancy. 

TENANCY  AT  SUFFERANCE  (OF.  ten- 
ance,  from  Lat.  tenere,  to  hold,  retain ) .  A  legal 
term  defining  the  occupation  o*f  land.  When  a 
tenant  enters  upon  land  lawfully,  but  continues 
in  possession  through  the  neglect  of  the  land¬ 
lord,  he  is  a  tenant  at  sufferance.  Such  is  a 
holding  over  after  a  lease  has  expired,  or  the 
possession  of  land  under  a  parol  agreement  of 
sale. 

The  distinction  between  such  a  tenancy  and  a 
tenancy  at  will  has  been  lost  sight  of  in  modern 
law.  The  statutes  of  various  states  have  de¬ 
fined  the  relationship  of  landlord  and  tenant, 
and  in  what  manner  a  tenancy  may  be  termi¬ 
nated  and  possession  recovered.  See  Landlord 
and  Tenant;  Tenancy  at  Will. 

TENANCY  AT  WILL.  A  tenancy  \Vhich  is 
terminable  at  any  time  by  either  the  landlord  or 
the  tenant.  The  term  is  used  indiscriminately 
with  tenancy  at  sulferance  (q.v.),  but  the  latter 


means  a  holding  without  the  expressed  consent 
of  the  landlord,  and  the  former  a  tenancv  whose 
duration  is  uncertain.  The  death  of  either  party 
or  the  alienation  of  the  land,  by  deed  or  written 
lease,  effects  a  termination  of  the  tenancy.  At 
common  law  a  tenant  at  will  was  not  entitled  to 
notice  to  quit.  It  is  now  usually  required.  Any 
knowledge  brought  home  to  the  tenant  that  may 
be  construed  as  a  notice  to  quit  is  sufficient, 
such  as  a  demand  of  possession.  Modern  statutes 
provide  the  exact  steps  to  be  taken  to  dis¬ 
possess  a  tenant  at  will.  There  being  no  definite 
term,  assignments  of  leases  at  will  are  not 
valid,  and  operate  as  a  notice  of  the  tenant’s 
election  to  terminate  the  tenancy.  See  Land¬ 
lord  and  Tenant. 

TENANCY  BY  ENTIRETY.  See  Entirety, 

Tenancy  by. 

TENANCY  IN  COMMON.  An  interest  or 
estate  in  real  or  personal  property  resting  in 
joint  possession  and  held  by  several  persons  at 
the  same  time  by  several  and  distinct  titles. 
See  Common,  Tenancy  in;  Joint  Ownership; 
and  consult  authorities  referred  to  under  Real 
Property 

TENANT  FOR  LIFE.  See  Life  Estate. 

TENANT  RIGHT.  In  English  law  a  cus¬ 
tom  which  is  recognized  in  some  districts  in  Ire¬ 
land,  under  which  a  tenant  is  conceded  the  right 
to  continue  to  occupy  land  upon  which  he  has 
made  improvements,  practically  indefinitely 
without  the  payment  of  an  increased  rent.  By 
the  Land  Act  of  1870  the  custom  was  recog¬ 
nized.  See  Landlord  and  Tenant. 

TENAS'SERIM.  Tie  southernmost  division 
of  Lower  Burma  ( see  Burma  ) ,  bordering  on 
Siam,  and  comprising  the  districts  of  Sal  win, 
Amherst,  Tavoy,  Thaton,  Toungu,  and  Mergui 
(Map:  Burma,  C  4).  Tenasserim  is  a  narrow 
strip  of  coast  about  500  miles  long,  with  a  vary¬ 
ing  breadth  of  from  40  to  80  miles,  extending 
from  the  Pakchan  River  northward  to  the  Sal- 
win.  Area,  36,086  square  miles.  Pop.,  1901, 
1,137,776;  1911,  1,406,264. 

TEN  BRINK,  Jan.  See  Brink,  Jan  Ten. 

TENCH  (OF.  tenche,  Fr.  tanche,  from  ML. 
tenca,  Lat.  tinea,  tench ) .  A  small  European 
cyprinoid  carplike  fish  ( Tinea  vulgaris) ,  an  in¬ 
habitant  of  ponds  and  stagnant  waters.  It  is 
deep  yellowish  brown  and  usually  about  a  foot 
long.  Its  flesh  is  poor.  See  Plate  of  Carps  and 
Allies. 

TENCIN,  taN'sfiN',  Claudine  Alexandrine 
G-uerin  de  (1681-1749).  A  French  novelist, 
prominent  in  the  literary  society  of  the  Regency. 
She  was  born  at  Grenoble,  and  was  placed  in 
the  Convent  of  Montfleury  as  a  novice,  whence  a 
sympathetic  Lothario  rescued  her.  She  next  ap¬ 
peared  at  Paris  as  an  unscrupulous  friend  of 
Cardinal  Dubois  (1714),  gathering  about  her  a 
crowd  of  admirers,  among  them  Fontenelle,  Law, 
and  the  Regent.  With  the  death  of  the  Regent 
Orleans  (1723)  her  influence  waned.  In  1726 
she  suffered  a  brief  imprisonment  in  the  Bastille 
because  a  desperate  lover  had  killed  himself  in 
her  house.  Later  her  reputation  revived;  she 
became  decorous  and  popular  with  her  former 
friends,  including  Duclos,  Lamotte,  Marivaux, 
Marmontel,  Montesquieu.  She  wrote  three  nov¬ 
els,  mingling  history  with  fiction :  Les  m6- 
moires  du  comte  de  Comminges  (1735),  Le  siege 
de  Calais  (1739),  and  Les  malheurs  de  Vamour 
(1747),  the  last  a  bit  of  psychic  autobiography. 
The  strength  of  these  tales  lies  in  their  scenes 
of  dread  and  gloom.  Her  nearest  literary  an- 


TEN  COMMANDMENTS 


93 


TENDRAC 


alogue  is  Madame  de  La  Fayette  (q.v.).  Madame 
de  Tencin  was  the  mother,  through  one  of  her 
many  illicit  connections,  of  D’Alembert  (q.v.). 
Her  correspondence  with  her  brother,  Cardinal 
de  Tencin  (1680-1758),  appeared  in  Paris  in 
1780,  that  with  the  Duke  de  Richelieu  in  1806. 
Alleged  M6moires  secrets  were  published  by 
BarthSlemy  (Grenoble,  1790).  Tencin’s  CEuvres, 
with  those  of  Madame  de  Fontaines,  were  pub¬ 
lished  by  ’Gamier  (Paris,  1864). 

TEN  COMMANDMENTS.  See  Decalogue. 

TENDA,  ten'da,  Col  ui.  A  pass  over  the 
Maritime  Alps  in  Italy  near  the  boundary  of 
France  and  25  miles  from  the  Mediterranean 
coast  (Map:  Italy,  A  2).  Its  altitude  is  6145 
feet,  and  it  carries  the  railroad  from  Cuneo  to 
Ventimiglia.  The  carriage  road  from  Cuneo  to 
Nice  passes  here  through  a  tunnel  nearly  two 
miles  long  and  lighted  by  electricity. 

TENDAI-SHU,  ten-di'shoo'  (Chin.  T’len-tai 
Tsung,  name  of  a  mountain  in  China  where  the 
founder  of  the  sect  studied).  A  sect  of  Japanese 
Buddhists,  established  towards  the  end  of  the 
eighth  century  by  a  Japanese  priest  named  Den- 
gyo  Daishi.  Like  all  Japanese  sects,  it  is  of  the 
Northern  School,  and  is  based  upon  the  Sad- 
dharma  Pundarika,  or  Lotus  of  the  Good  Law. 
Salvation  lies  in  the  perception  of  the  original 
and  absolute  Buddha,  of  whom  the  historic 
Buddha  is  one  manifestation.  The  means  of  sal¬ 
vation  are  meditation  and  wisdom.  It  has  an 
exoteric  teaching  for  the  vulgar,  while  its  eso¬ 
teric  doctrines  are  reserved  for  the  monks,  al¬ 
though  the  highest  truths  are  recognized  as 
transcending  human  comprehension.  The  sect  is 
eclectic,  and  various  Buddhas  are  worshiped  in 
its  temples.  It  completed  the  triumph  of  Bud¬ 
dhism  in  Japan  by  declaring  that  the  Shinto 
deities  are  manifestations  of  Buddha.  As  it 
attempted  in  its  teachings  to  reconcile  contradic¬ 
tory  doctrines,  it  gave  rise  to  schism  and  became 
the  mother  of  many  sects.  Its  centre  was  on  the 
mountain  near  Kyoto  called  Hiyei-zan.  Its 
priests,  though  devoted  by  profession  to  medita¬ 
tion,  became  very  warlike  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Nobunaga  (q.v.)  in  1571  a.d.  destroyed  the  mon¬ 
astery,  and  killed  the  inhabitants.  The  sect 
never  regained  its  commanding  position.  Con¬ 
sult  Nanjo,  Short  History  of  the  Twelve  Japa¬ 
nese  Buddhist  Sects  (London,  1887)  ;  W.  E.  Grif¬ 
fis,  The  Religions  of  Japan  (New  York,  1895)  ; 
G.  W.  Knox,  The  Development  of  Religion  in 
Japan  (ib.,  1907). 

TENDENCY  (from  Lat.  tendens,  pres.  p. 
of  tendere,  to  stretch,  tend;  connected  with  Gk. 
relveiv,  teinein,  to  stretch).  A  term  in  psycho¬ 
physics  denoting  the  nervous  disposition  which 
underlies  some  phase  of  mental  constitution. 
Thus,  perseverative  tendency  is  the  tendency  of 
a  nervous  impression  to  persist,  and  of  the  cor¬ 
related  mental  formation  to  reemerge.  Associ¬ 
ative  tendency  is  a  connection  between  two  im¬ 
pressions  such  that,  if  the  one  is  reexcited  the 
other  tends  to  be  excited.  Determining  tendency 
(q.v.)  represents  a  set  of  the  nervous  elements 
such  that  a  course  of  successive  associative 
tendencies  is  directed  to  some  single  end. 

Tendencies  are  either  natural,  i.e.,  based  on 
inheritance  and  transmitted  through  the  nervous 
system,  or  they  are  acquired  during  the  lifetime 
of  the  organism.  The  conditions  for  setting  up 
impressional  and  associative  tendencies  are  the 
secondary  laws  of  association  (see  Association 
of  Ideas),  and  determining  tendencies  are  ac¬ 
quired  either  through  habit  or  as  the  result 


of  some  salient  experience.  See  Disposition; 
Habit;  Memory;  Mental  Constitution;  Tem¬ 
perament. 

TENDER  (from  ME.  tender,  OF.,  Fr.  tendre, 
from  Lat.  tendere,  to  stretch,  extend).  As  a 
legal  term  the  formal  offer  to  perform  an  ob¬ 
ligation  under  such  circumstances  as  to  make  no 
further  act  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  person 
making  the  tender. 

The  term  is  frequently  used  with  reference  to 
the  payment  of  money,  but  it  includes  any  act, 
such  as  an  offer  to  perform  or  to  deliver  goods. 
If  the  obligation  is  to  pay  money  it  must  be  made 
in  legal  tender  (q.v.).  The  rule  has  been  relaxed 
in  some  states  and  a  tender  of  a  check  or  bill  of 
exchange  is  good  unless  the  debtor  rejects  the 
tender  on  the  ground  that  it  is  not  lawful  money. 
If  the  creditor  prevents  or  specifically  waives 
the  tender  the  necessity  is  dispensed  with.  If 
the  tender  is  a  fulfillment  of  the  obligation  it  is 
a  complete  defense  to  an  action. 

The  debtor  must  keep  the  tender  good  and  be 
ready  at  all  times  to  perform.  By  statutes  in 
many  states,  even  after  action  is  brought,  he 
may  pay  into  court  the  sum  he  admits  to  be  due 
with  interest  and  costs  up  to  date.  The  sum  so 
paid  becomes  the  property  of  the  creditor.  If  he 
does  not  accept  it  he  proceeds  at  the  risk  of 
having  costs  awarded  against  him  should  the 
court  determine  such  tender  was  sufficient.  Con¬ 
sult  A.  P.  Hunt,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Tender 
(St.  Paul,  1903).  See  Legal  Tender;  Mort¬ 
gage;  Pledge. 

TENDILLA,  Count  of.  See  Mendoza,  An¬ 
toine  de. 

TENDON  (from  ML.  tendo,  tendon,  from 
Lat.  tendere,  to  stretch,  extend).  A  term  em¬ 
ployed  in  anatomy  to  designate  the  structure 
of  white  fibrous  tissue  reaching  from  the  end 
of  a  muscle  to  bone  or  some  other  structure 
which  is  to  serve  as  a  fixed  attachment  for  it,  or 
which  it  is  intended  to  move.  In  accordance 
with  their  form,  tendons  have  been  divided  into 
the  three  following  varieties :  ( 1 )  Funicular, 

or  ropelike,  as  the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps 
muscle  of  the  arm;  (2)  fascicular,  as  the 
short  tendon  of  that  muscle,  and  as  most  tendons 
generally;  and  (3)  aponeurotic,  or  tendinous 
expansions,  sometimes  of  considerable  extent, 
and  serviceable  in  strengthening  the  walls  of 
cavities,  as,  for  example,  the  tendons  of  the  ab¬ 
dominal  muscles. 

The  tendons  begin  by  separate  fasciculi  from 
the  end  of  each  muscular  fibre,  and  they  similarly 
terminate  by  separate  fasciculi  in  distinct  de¬ 
pressions  in  the  bones,  besides  being  closely  in¬ 
corporated  with  the  periosteum.  Tendons,  to¬ 
gether  with  their  sheaths,  are  subject  to  acute 
and  chronic  inflammations  and  to  tumor  forma¬ 
tion.  The  ordinary  acute  form  of  inflammation 
known  as  acute  tenosynovitis  is  usually  brought 
about  by  injury,  such  as  a  blow  or  by  overuse. 
The  chronic  form  of  inflammation  is  usually 
tuberculous,  though  a  rheumatic  diathesis  some¬ 
times  occurs.  The  tumors  commonly  observed  in 
tendons  are  small  fibrous  and  cartilaginous  en¬ 
largements.  Such  growths  occasionally  assume 
a  malignant  character.  When  separation  of  a 
tendon  occurs  either  by  rupture  or  incision,  if 
the  divided  ends  are  not  too  widely  separated, 
repair  takes  place  by  the  deposition  of  new 
fibrous  tissue,  closely  resembling  true  tendon 
tissue.  This  repair  is  usually  complete  at  the 
end  of  three  weeks. 

TENDRAC.  See  Tenrec. 


TENDRIL 


94 


TENEMENT-HOUSE  PROBLEM 


TEN'DRIL  (Fr.  tendrille,  from  tendre,  tender, 
from  Lat.  tener,  delicate;  connected  with  tenuis, 
Gk.  Ta.va.6s,  tanaos );  A  slender,  usually  cylin¬ 
drical  organ  of  higher  plants  used  for  climbing. 
As  to  their  origin,  tendrils  may  occupy  the  po¬ 
sition  of  leaflets,  or  of  leaves,  normally  sub¬ 
tended  by  branches,  or  of  branches  usually  sub¬ 
tended  by  leaves.  The  last  two  sorts,  however, 
are  not  always  easily  distinguished.  Some  ten¬ 
drils  are  coiled  when  young,  unrolling  as  they 
mature;  others  are  merely  bent,  or  straight,  or 
variously  folded.  At  maturity  they  are  usually 
slightly  hooked  near  the  apex. 

Structurally,  tendrils  contain  vascular  bundles, 
surrounded  by  a  cortex  of  thin  walled  and  some¬ 
what  elongated  parenchyma  cells,  covered  by  a 
delicate  epidermis.  (See  Histology.)  Physio¬ 
logically,  they  are  sensitive  to  friction,  often 
remarkably.  Sensitiveness  is  ordinarily  greatest 
on  the  concave  side  of  the  curved  tip,  though 
some  tendrils  are  sensitive  on  the  flanks  and 
others  sensitive  on  all  sides.  In  tendrils  sensi¬ 
tive  on  the  concave  flank  a  single  stroke  on  this 
flank  is  followed  by  a  rapid  growth  on  the  con¬ 
vex  flank  exactly  opposite,  also  a  great  increase 
in  the  rate  of  growth  in  the  middle  line.  This 
reaction  is  followed  a  little  later  by  an  auto¬ 
tropic  straightening.  Therefore,  the  total  result 
of  a  single  stroke  leaves  the  tendril  unaltered  in 
shape.  It  is  only  by  repeated  strokes  along 
much  of  the  concave  flank  that  the  tendril  finally 
closely  grasps  the  support.  The  petioles  of 
some  leaves,  e.g.,  Clematis,  show  a  similar  but 
less  acute  sensitiveness  to  friction,  making  one 


a,  a  tendril  that  has  attached  itself  and  is  coiling,  with  re¬ 
versal  of  coils  in  centre;  b,  a  recently  attached  tendril,  the 
unequal  growth  just  beginning;  c,  one  just  attached;  d,  one 
just  straightened  out;  e,  one  still  coiled  from  the  bud. 

turn  about  a  support.  Uncaria  has  short  conical 
hooks,  which  are  stimulated  by  contact  and 
friction  to  grow  in  such  a  way  that  they  en¬ 
large  greatly  and  curve  about  a  support.  Ten¬ 
drils  of  wall-climbing  ivies  often  form  glandular 
disks  that  attach  them.  After  a  tendril  has 
laid  hold  of  an  appropriate  support  the  portion 
between  the  support  and  the  axis  of  the  plant  is 
brought  under  strain,  to  which  it  responds  by 
unequal  growth  on  opposite  flanks  (on  one  side). 
By  this  means  it  is  thrown  into  a  spiral  with 
one  or  more  points  of  reversal  (a  mechanical 
necessity  when  a  once  straight  cylindrical  body 


elongates  on  one  side  and  so  coils  up).  The 
coils  develop  mechanical  tissues,  and  the  most 
perfect  tendril  thus  becomes  a  strong,  uniformly 
coiled,  elastic  spiral  spring  which  supports  the 
plant.  See  Lianas. 

TEN'EBR-ZE  (Lat.,  darkness).  A  service  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  church ;  the  matins  of 
Thursday,  Friday,  and  Saturday  in  Holy  Week, 
generally  sung  on  the  preceding  evening.  The 
name  is  taken  from  the  opening  of  the  Respon- 
sorium  following  the  fifth  lesson  on  Good  Fri¬ 
day,  Tenebrce  factce  sunt.  The  service  consists 
of  sixteen  psalms  and  a  canticle  from  the  Old 
Testament,  sung  with  their  proper  antiphons  in 
fourteen  divisions,  nine  lessons,  nine  respon- 
sories,  the  canticle  Benedictus,  and  the  Miserere. 
Most  of  the  service  is  in  unisonous  plain  chant. 
At  the  conclusion  of  each  psalm  and  antiphon 
one  of  the  fifteen  candles  in  the  triangular 
candlestick  used  for  this  special  service  is  ex¬ 
tinguished  with  ceremony.  During  the  sing¬ 
ing  of  the  Benedictus  the  six  altar  candles  are 
put  out  one  by  one.  The  only  light  remaining  is 
the  candle  at  the  apex  of  the  candlestick.  This 
is  removed  and  carried  behind  the  altar.  After 
the  singing  of  the  antiphon,  Christus  factus  est 
pro  nobis  obediens  usque  ad  mortem,  a  silence 
follows  during  which  the  Paternoster  is  whis¬ 
pered  in  secret;  after  the  Miserere  a  prayer  is 
made  and  the  candle  is  brought  from  behind  the 
altar.  Then,  according  to  the  rubric,  ‘‘all  rise 
and  depart  in  silence.” 

TEN'EDOS.  An  island  in  the  Aegean  Sea, 
five  miles  from  the  northwest  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  Its  situation  near  the  entrance  of  the 
Dardanelles  gives  it  strategic  importance  (Map: 
Greece,  G  4).  Area,  16  square  miles.  The  only 
town  which  bears  the  name  of  the  island  is  in¬ 
closed  by  walls  and  has  an  old  castle  and  re¬ 
mains  of  the  storehouses  erected  by  Justinian. 
The  surface  of  the  island  is  uneven  and  rocky, 
but  the  soil  is  fairly  fertile.  Wine  is  the  most 
important  product,  about  5,000,000  gallons  being 
annually  exported.  Population,  about  4000,  two- 
thirds  of  whom  are  Greeks.  Tenedos  was  succes¬ 
sively  under  the  control  of  Persia,  Athens,  Rome, 
the  Byzantine  emperors,  and  Venice.  It  figured 
in  the  Trojan  War.  Since  1455  it  has  been  a 
Turkish  possession,  and  is  included  in  the  Archi¬ 
pelago  Vilayet. 

TEN'EMENT  (Lat.  tenementum,  a  holding, 
fief,  from  tenere,  to  hold,  retain ) .  In  the  strict 
legal  sense,  anything  of  a  permanent  nature, 
corporeal  or  incorporeal,  which  may  be  held  or 
be  an  object  of  tenure  (q.v.).  In  the  law  of 
real  property  the  term  is  used  in  a  broad  sense 
and  denotes  any  estate  or  interest  in  land.  Pop¬ 
ularly,  tenement  means  any  rented  house.  See 
Real  Property. 

TENEMENT-HOUSE  AND  HOUSING 
REGULATION.  See  Town  Planning  and 

Housing. 

TENEMENT-HOUSE  LAW.  The  name  by 
which  are  known  various  laws  passed  by  munici¬ 
palities  in  an  effort  to  prevent  unhealthful  con¬ 
gestion  of  population.  Perhaps  the  best  known 
of  these  is  the  New  York  Tenement  House  Law 
of  1901,  sometimes  known  as  the  “New  Law.” 
See  Apartment  House;  Building  Laws;  City 
Planning;  Housing  Problem;  Town  Plan¬ 
ning  and  Housing. 

TENEMENT-HOUSE  PROBLEM.  The 

problem  of  the  making  possible  a  healthful 
human  existence  under  the  conditions  of  dense 
population  in  our  modem  cities.  With  the 


TENERANI 


95 


TENIERS 


growth  of  great  cities,  a  double  movement  of 
population  takes  place.  The  well-to-do  are  driven 
from  former  residential  districts  by  the  en¬ 
croachments  of  business,  while  working  people 
crowd  into  their  vacated  houses.  Rear  tene¬ 
ments  are  built  behind  the  old  houses;  new 
structures  are  put  up  solely  for  use  as  tene¬ 
ments;  and  the  whole  process  is  left  in  the 
hands  of  private  builders  and  landlords,  ill  regu¬ 
lated  by  the  municipality,  until  its  two  most 
obvious  evils,  the  danger  from  epidemics  and  the 
danger  from  fire,  force  themselves  upon  public 
attention. 

The  first  step  in  reform  is  legislation  com¬ 
pelling  the  destruction  or  renovation  of  existing 
dwellings  that  are  unsanitary,  but  it  is  equally 
important  to  provide  for  rehousing  the  displaced 
population,  and  to  see  that  new  tenements  are 
properly  built.  These  problems  have  been  at¬ 
tacked  by  sociologists  and  legislators  in  nearly 
all  centres  where  there  is  great  congestion  of 
population  and  are  discussed  under  Apartment 
House  ;  Building  Laws  ;  City  Planning  ;  Hous¬ 
ing  Problem;  Town  Planning  and  Housing. 

Bibliography.  “Slums  of'the  Great  Cities,” 
in  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor,  Sev¬ 
enth  Annual  Report  (Washington,  1894)  ;  J.  A. 
Riis,  A  Ten  Years’  War  (Boston,  1900)  ;  E. 
R.  L.  Gould,  Housing  of  the  Working  People 
(Washington,  1895)  ;  J.  S.  Nettlefold,  Practical 
Housing  (London,  1910)  ;  “Improved  Housing,” 
in  New  York  School  of  Philanthropy,  Bul¬ 
letin  No.  6  (New  York,  1906)  ;  American  Insti¬ 
tute  of  Architects,  Journal  (Harrisburg,  Pa., 
1914)  ;  Georges  Risler,  Housing  of  the  Working 
Classes  in  France  (San  Francisco,  1915)  ;  Na¬ 
tional  Housing  Conference,  Proceedings  (Cam¬ 
bridge,  Mass.,  annually). 

TENERANI,  ta'na-ra'ne,  Pietro  (17  89— 
1869).  An  Italian  sculptor,  born  at  Torano, 
near  Carrara.  He  studied  at  the  Carrara  Acad¬ 
emy  and  later  in  Rome  under  Thorvaldsen,  to 
whom  he  became  a  favorite  assistant,  and  by 
whom  he  was  strongly  influenced.  Tenerani  was 
appointed  professor  at  the  Academy  of  St. 
Luke  and  was  the  leader  of  Roman  art  during 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  His  work 
is  in  the  classicist  style  and  is  characterized  by 
dignity,  refinement,  and  harmony  of  line.  Among 
his  best -known  sculptures  are  the  group  “Cupid 
and  Venus”  (Chatsworth)  ;  the  bas-reliefs  of 
“Charity”  (Castle  Ashby  Church,  Northampton¬ 
shire)  ;  the  “Deposition  from  the  Cross,”  in  the 
Lateran  (Rome)  ;  an  “Angel  of  the  Resurrec¬ 
tion,”  in  Santa  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  Rome 
(replica  in  the  Friedenskirche,  Potsdam)  ;  and 
the  tomb  of  Pius  VIII  in  St.  Peter’s.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  Italian  sculptors  to  use 
modern  costume  for  his  fine  portrait  statues, 
which  include  those  of  Bolivar  (Colombia,  South 
America)  and  of  Pellegrino  Rossi  (Carrara). 

•TEN'ERIFFE/  (Sp.  Tenerife).  The  largest 
of  the  Canary  Islands  (q.v. ),  a  little  west  of  the 
centre  of  the  group,  between  the  islands  of 
Palma  and  Gran  Canaria  (Map:  Spain,  F  4). 
Area,  782  square  miles.  It  consists  of  a  nearly 
circular  main  portion  from  which  a  peninsula 
projects  northeast.  The  latter  consists  of 
ancient,  eroded,  and  forest-covered  mountains, 
while  the  main  portion  rises  into  the  magnifi¬ 
cent  Peak  of  Tener iffe  or  Pico  de  Teyde,  a  dor¬ 
mant  volcano  12,192  feet  high.  The  base  of  this 
enormous  cone  consists  of  pasture  land  inter¬ 
spersed  with  forests  of  chestnut  and  oak,  but  the 
steep  upper  slopes  are  covered  with  volcanic 


scoriae,  the  summit  being  capped  with  snow  in 
winter.  The  last  serious  eruption  of  the  volcano 
occurred  in  1910.  The  climate  is  mild  and 
healthful,  and  dates,  coconuts,  and  other  tropical 
and  northern  fruits  are  cultivated,  as  well  as 
grain,  cotton,  sugar,  and  grapes.  Pop.,  1900, 
137,302;  1910,  180,307.  The  capital  of  the 

island  and  of  the  whole  archipelago  is  Santa 
Cruz  de  Tenerife  (q.v.). 

TENERIFFE,  Marquis  of.  See  Weyler, 
N.  V. 

TENES/MUS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  tenesmos, 
from  Gk.  Teiveagos,  teinesmos,  a  straining  at 
stool,  from  re Lveiv,  teinein,  to  stretch).  Pain 
referred  to  the  rectum  or  bladder,  due  to  the 
spasmodic  contraction  of  the  sphincter  ani  or 
sphincter  vesicae,  and  associated  with  an  unsuc¬ 
cessful  desire  to  evacuate  the  bowels  or  bladder. 
Rectal  tenesmus  is  a  constant  symptom  of  dys¬ 
entery  (q.v.),  and  may  accompany  hemorrhoids, 
fissure,  fistula,  or  malignant  disease  of  the  lower 
rectum.  Causes  of  vesical  tenesmus  are  chiefly 
cystitis  ( q.v. )  and  pressure  on  the  bladder. 
Treatment  will  depend  on  the  disease  of  which 
tenesmus  is  a  symptom,  but  cold  or  hot  applica¬ 
tions,  enemas  containing  laudanum,  or  supposi¬ 
tories  of  opium,  cocaine,  belladonna,  or  hyoscy- 
amus  will  relieve  the  pain. 

TE'NIA.  See  Tapeworm. 

TENIERS,  te-ners';  often,  as  Fr.,  te-nya',  or, 
as  Eng.,  ten'yerz,  David,  the  Elder  (1582-1649). 
A  Flemish  genre  and  landscape  painter.  He  was 
born  at  Antwerp,  and  studied  with  his  brother 
Juliaen,  under  Rubens,  and  then  with  Elsheimer 
at  Rome.  Many  of  his  early  sub  jects,  painted  in 
the  manner  of  Elsheimer,  were  landscapes  with 
mythological  figures,  of  which  eight  are  in  the 
Vienna  Museum.  He  essayed  also  religious 
and  mythological  subjects,  but  his  chief  impor¬ 
tance  is  as  a  genre  painter,  particularly  of  peas¬ 
ant  scenes,  kermesses,  and  the  like,  rendered  with 
wholesome  humor  and  in  an  individual  style. 
Typical  examples  of  his  work  are  the  “Tempta¬ 
tion  of  Saint  Anthony”  (Berlin  Museum)  ; 
“Peasants  Carousing  in  Front  of  a  Tavern” 
(Darmstadt  Gallery)  ;  and  “A  Dutch  (properly 
Flemish)  Kitchen”  (Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York).  He  is  well  represented  also  at  Brussels, 
Munich,  Dresden,  St.  Petersburg,  Madrid,  and 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 

TENIERS,  David,  the  Younger  (1610-90). 
The  principal  genre  painter  of  the  Flemish 
school.  He  was  born  at  Antwerp,  the  son  and 
pupil  of  the  preceding.  Before  he  was  twenty 
his  work  bore  the  stamp  of  maturity,  and  in 
1633  he  entered  the  guild  as  master.  His  early 
manner  and  choice  of  subjects  is  represented  by 
such  examples  as  “The  Prodigal  Son”  (Pinako- 
thek,  Munich),  “The  Five  Senses”  (Brussels 
Museum ) ,  “A  Merry  Repast”  ( Berlin  Museum ) , 
and  “The  Misers”  ( 1634,  National  Gallery,  Lon¬ 
don).  The  delineations  from  peasant  life,  which 
thenceforth  were  his  chief  productions,  show 
the  influence  of  Adrian  Brouwer,  although  there 
is  no  evidence  of  Teniers  having  been  his 
pupil.  Of  more  than  100  such  pictures  which 
Teniers  painted,  some  of  the  most  characteristic 
are:  the  “Interior  of  Village  Inn,”  “Flemish 
Tap-Room”  (1643);  “Peasants’  Dance”  (1645); 
“The  Smokers”  (1650,  all  in  the  Pinakothek, 
Munich)  ;  “Hour  of  Rest”  (Amsterdam) ,  “Smok¬ 
ing  Club”  (Dresden),  and  “Backgammon  Play¬ 
ers”  (1641,  Berlin).  Brouwer’s  spirit  also  pre¬ 
vails  in  subjects  like  “The  Dentist”  and  “The 
Barber  Shop”  (both  in  Cassel),  “The  Village 


TENIMBER 


96 


TENNANT 


Doctor”  (Brussels)  ;  also  in  various  treatments 
of  “The  Alchemist”  ( The  Hague  and  Dresden ) , 
and  of  the  “Temptation  of  Saint  Anthony” 
(Brussels,  Dresden,  and — dated  1647 — Berlin). 

In  1637  Teniers  married  Anna  Breughel,  the 
daughter  of  Jan  Breughel  and  ward  of  Rubens, 
who  was  one  of  the  marriage  witnesses.  Soon 
after  the  death  of  Brouwer  in  1638  the  influence 
of  Rubens  became  apparent  in  Teniers’s  coloring, 
which  changed  to  a  warm  golden  tone  with  rich 
and  luminous  local  colors,  and  in  the  dramatic 
life  animating  his  large  compositions.  This 
phase  is  well  exemplified  by  a  “Peasants’  Dance” 
(1640,  Berlin)  and  the  “Flemish  Kinness” 
(1641,  Dresden,  Vienna,  Madrid;  1652,  Brussels 
and  Amsterdam).  Especially  remarkable  for  the 
number  of  figures  is  “The.  Great  Italian  Fair” 
(Munich),  and  interesting  portrait  groups  are 
represented  in  “The  Artist  and  his  Family” 
(c.1645,  Berlin)  and  “Teniers  in  Front  of  his 
Castle  near  Perck”  (National  Gallery,  London). 
In  1642  he  was  commissioned  to  paint  for  St. 
George’s  Guild  an  “Archers’  Festival”  ( St. 
Petersburg),  containing  45  characteristic  por¬ 
trait  figures.  A  few  scenes  from  military  life 
are  depicted  in  the  fine  “Guard  Room”  (Amster¬ 
dam),  “Robbers  Plundering  a  Village”  (1648, 
Vienna),  and  “Relief  of  Valenciennes  by  the 
Spaniards”  ( Antwerp ) .  His  few  religious  paint¬ 
ings  are  unimportant. 

After  Teniers  had,  about  1643,  become  lord  of 
the  manor  of  Dry  Toren  (Three  Towers),  near 
Brussels,  he  seems  to  have  been  more  than  ever 
absorbed  in  rural  life  and  work,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  “Cow  Stable,”  and  “Goat  House”  (Vi¬ 
enna),  especially  noteworthy  for  their  chiaros¬ 
curo.  In  1644  he  was  chosen  head  of  the  painters’ 
guild  in  Antwerp,  appointed  court  painter  to 
Archduke  Leopold  William,  Regent  of  the  Neth¬ 
erlands.  He  removed  to  Brussels  in  1650.  He 
depicted  notable  events  in  the  life  of  the  Arch¬ 
duke  and  his  consort,  Isabella,  including  the 
“Shooting  Match  at  Brussels”  (1652,  Vienna), 
containing  more  than  470  figures.  As  director 
of  Leopold’s  gallery  he  was  in  charge  of  ex¬ 
tensive  purchases,  and  he  painted  a  series  of  in¬ 
teriors,  faithfully  representing  these  treasures 
to  the  minutest  detail  (Munich,  Vienna,  Madrid, 
and  Brussels ) .  Among  the  works  of  Teniers’s 
later  period  are  rural  scenes  and  landscapes,  be¬ 
sides  his  parodistic  monkey  pictures,  of  which 
three  are  in  the  Pinakothek,  Munich.  Unique 
among  his  works  is  the  “Sacrament  of  the  Mir¬ 
acle  of  St.  Gudule”  (Berlin),  painted  on  white 
marble,  the  grain  of  which  is  visible  through  the 
colors.  The  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York, 
possesses  a  “Marriage  Festival”  and  a  “Temp¬ 
tation  of  Saint  Anthony,”  and  four  others,  two 
being  landscapes  after  Bassano. 

Teniers  left  in  all  about  900  paintings.  Con¬ 
sult:  Alfred  von  Wurzbach,  “David  Teniers 
der  Jtingere,”  in  Robert  Dohme,  Kunst  und 
Kunstler  des  Mittelalters,  vol.  xx  (Bielefeld, 
1877);  Adolph  Rosenberg,  “David  Teniers  der 
Jungere,”  in  Kunstler  Monographien,  No.  8  (ib., 
1895)  ;  Masters  in  Art,  vol.  viii  (Boston, 
1907);  Roger  Peyre,  David  Teniers:  Biographie 
Critique,  in  “Les  Grands  Artistes”  (Paris, 
1911);  Oscar  Schellekens,  Les  trois  David  Te¬ 
niers  (Termonde,  1912). 

TENIM'BER.  A  group  of  islands  in  the 
Malay  Archipelago.  See  Timorlaut. 

TENINO,  ta-ne'nd.  A  tribe  of  Shahaptian 
stock  (q.v. )  formerly-  claiming  most  of  the 
Deschutes  River  country  of  northern  Oregon, 


and  now  gathered  with  other  tribes  upon  Warm¬ 
spring  reservation  in  the  same  region.  In  1855 
they  made  their  first  treaty  with  the  govern¬ 
ment,  and  agreed  to  come  upon  their  present 
reservation.  See  Shahaptian  Stock. 

TEN  KATE,  Jan  J.  L.  See  Kate,  Jan  J.  L. 
Ten. 

TEN'LIE.  See  Jackal. 

TEFNANT,  Charles  (1768-1838).  A  Brit¬ 
ish  chemist.  He  was  born  in  Ochiltree,  Scot¬ 
land,  and  followed  the  trade  of  bleaching.  While 
experimenting,  he  found  that  by  passing  chlorine 
into  lime  suspended  in  water,  a  product  was  ob¬ 
tained  that  possessed  similar  properties  to  the 
javelle  water,  then  generally  used  as  a  bleaching 
agent.  The  new  product  was  found  to  be  much 
the  cheaper.  He  was  given  a  patent  for  his 
process  in  1798,  but  was  unable  to  protect  it 
against  frequent  infringement.  Later  he  pat¬ 
ented  a  process  for  making  bleaching  powder  by 
passing  chlorine  over  slaked  lime,  a  method  that 
is  still  of  commercial  value  and  extended  use. 
In  1800  he  -founded  the  St.  Rollox  Chemical 
Company  in  Glasgow. 

TENNANT,  Frederick  Robert  (  J866-  ) . 

A  British  theologian,  born  at  Burslem,  Stafford¬ 
shire.  He  was  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  after  teaching  held  various  livings 
in  the  Church.  At  Cambridge  he  was  Hulsean 
lecturer  in  1901,  lecturer  on  the  philosophy  of 
religion  in  1907,  and  lecturer  on  theology  and 
fellow  of  Trinity  College  after  1913.  His  publi¬ 
cations  include:  The  Origin  and  Propagation  of 
Sin  (1902;  2d  ed.,  1906);  Sources  of  the  Doc¬ 
trine  of  the  Fall  and  Original  Sin  (1903)  ;  The 
Concept  of  Sin  (1912). 

TENNANT,  Smithson  (1761-1815).  An 
English  chemist.  He  was  born  in  Selby,  York¬ 
shire,  and  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  and  Cam¬ 
bridge  (M.D.,  1790).  Devoting  himself  to  scien¬ 
tific  investigation,  especially  in  agriculture  and 
chemistry,  he  made  a  famous  discovery  of  the 
elements  iridium  and  osmium,  which  he  found  in 
the  residues  obtained  in  the  purification  of  na¬ 
tive  platinum.  In  1813  he  was  called  to  a  chair 
of  chemistry  in  Cambridge. 

TENNANT,  William  (1784-1848).  A  Scot¬ 
tish  poet.  He  was  horn  at  Anstruther,  Fife- 
shire,  Scotland.  A  cripple  almost  from  his  birth, 
he  naturally  turned  to  study.  In  1799  he  entered 
the  University  of  St.  Andrews,  which  he  left 
after  two  years  to  become  clerk  to  his  brother, 
a  corn  agent.  The  business  proving  unsuccessful, 
he  was  glad  to  accept  in  1813  the  situation  of 
parish  schoolmaster  at  Dunino,  a  small  village 
about  four  miles  from  St.  Andrews,  with  a 
salary  of  £40  a  year.  In  1812  he  had  published 
his  Anster  Fair,  a  poem  of  much  sprightliness 
and  humor.  The  piece  gradually  made  its  way, 
aided  by  a  highly  laudatory  notice  in  the  Edin¬ 
burgh  Pevieio,  from  the  pen  of  the  then  omnipo¬ 
tent  Jeffrey.  In  1816  Tennant  became  teacher  of 
a  school  at  Lasswade,  near  Edinburgh,  whence 
three  years  afterward  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Dollar  Academy  in  Clackmannanshire.  His  at¬ 
tainments  as  a  linguist  were  by  this  time  ex¬ 
traordinary.  In  1834  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  in  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews.  In  connection  with  his  new  duties  he 
published  a  Syriac  and  Chaldee  Grammar 
(1840).  He  died  at  Devon  Grove,  Oct.  14,  1848. 
Besides  other  miscellanies  in  verse,  Tennant 
published:  The  Thane  of  Fife,  a  Poem  (1822)  ; 
Cardinal  Beaton,  a  Tragedy  (1823);  and  John 
Baliol,  a  Drama  (1825).  None  of  these  later 


DAVID  TENIERS— THE  RUSTIC  WEDDING 

FROM  THE  PAINTING  IN  THE  PINAKOTHEK,  MUNICH 


TENNENT 


97 


TENNESSEE 


productions  increased  the  literary  reputation 
which  his  first  work  had  won  for  him.  Consult 
Conolly,  Life  of  William  Tennant  (Edinburgh, 
18G1 ) . 

TEFNENT,  Gilbert  (1703-G4).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  Presbyterian  minister,  born  in  County  Ar¬ 
magh,  Ireland.  In  1718  he  came  to  America  with 
his  father,  William  Tennent,  who  is  known  as 
the  founder  of  a  theological  school  at  Neshaminy, 
Pa.,  called,  because  of  the  way  it  was  housed, 
the  Log  College.  Many  eminent  clergymen  were 
trained  there.  Gilbert  early  assisted  his  father, 
studied  medicine  and  theology,  and  was  ordained 
pastor  of  a  church  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  in 
1726.  This  connection  he  continued  until  1743, 
though  traveling  and  preaching  with  Whitefield 
in  New  England  for  several  months.  Then  he 
founded  and  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  Phila¬ 
delphia,  with  which  he  remained  until  his  death. 
In  1753  he  visited  England  with  President  Davies 
to  obtain  aid  for  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (later 
Princeton)  and  raised  £1500.  He  published 
many  sermons.  For  notices  of  Gilbert  and  other 
prominent  members  of  the  Tennent  family,  con¬ 
sult  W.  B.  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  American 
Pulpit ,  vol.  iv  (New  York,  1858). 

TENNENT,  Sir  James  Emerson  (1804-69). 
A  British  traveler,  politician,  and  author,  born 
at  Belfast,  Ireland.  He  traveled  through  the 
Levant  and  Greece  in  1824-25,  and  was  a  Liberal 
member  of  Parliament  from  1832  to-  1834,  but 
from  the  latter  year  until  1845  was  a  Liberal- 
Conservative  and  follower  of  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
In  1842  he  secured  the  passage  of  the  bill  grant¬ 
ing  copyrights  to  designers.  He  was  secretary 
to  the  India  Board  (1841-43)  ;  civil  secretary  to 
the  Ceylon  colonial  government  (1845-50)  ;  and 
shortly  after  his  return  to  England,  again  en¬ 
tered  Parliament  (1852).  There  he  was  succes¬ 
sively  secretary  for  the  Poor  Law  Board  (1852) 
and  a  joint  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
( 1852-67 ) .  After  resigning  the  latter  post  he 
was  made  Baronet.  Under  his  original  name  of 
Emerson,  to  which  he  had  added  his  wife’s  name, 
Tennent,  Sir  James  published  a  number  of  books, 
including:  A  Picture  of  Greece  in  1825  (1826)  ; 
Christianity  in  Ceylon  (1850)  ;  Ceylon:  An  Ac¬ 
count  of  the  Island  (2  vols.,  1859)  ;  Sketches  of 
the  Natural  History  of  Ceylon  (1861)  ;  and  The 
Story  of  the  Guns  (1865). 

TENNESSEE,  ten'  e-se'.  A  south  central 
State  of  the  United  States,  popularly  called  the 
Volunteer  State.  It  lies  between  lat.  34°  59'  and 
36°  41'  N.  and  between  long.  81°  37'  and  90° 
17'  27"  W.,  and  has  an  extreme  length  of  491.12 
miles  and  an  extreme  breadth  of  113.55  miles;  its 
area  is  42,022  square  miles,  of  which  335  are 
water.  It  ranks  as  the  thirty-fifth  State  in  size. 

Topography.  The  surface  is  divided  into 
seven  well-marked  topographical  regions.  The 
easternmost  is  a  belt  with  a  maximum  width 
of  10  to  15  miles — the  Appalachian  Mountain 
region.  It  is  formed  by  the  Great  Smoky  and 
Unaka  Mountains,  whose  main  ridges  average 
5000  feet  in  elevation  and  in  places  exceed  6000 
feet.  Mount  Guyot  has  an  elevation  of  6636  feet. 
Next  westward  is  the  Great  valley  of  East  Ten¬ 
nessee,  a  depression  30  to  60  miles  wide,  con¬ 
sisting  of  an  alternate  succession  of  parallel 
ridges  and  valleys.  Next  to  the  west  is  the 
Cumberland  plateau,  with  an  average  elevation 
of  about  2000  feet  and  an  extreme  elevation  of 
3550  feet.  The  eastern  edge  of  this  plateau  is  a 
straight,  abrupt  scarp,  but  its  western  edge  has 
been  deeply  crenulated  by  headwater  stream 


erosion.  Next  is  the  highland  rim  or  plain, 
with  an  elevation  of  about  1000  feet  along  its 
eastern  border  and  600  or  800  feet  along  its 
western  margin,  which  lies,  for  the  most  part, 
a  few  miles  west  of  the  Tennessee  River  in  its 
northern  course  across  the  State.  Within  the 
highland  plain  and  300  to  400  feet  below  its 
level,  in  middle  Tennessee,  there  is  an  oval  de¬ 
pression  about  125  miles  long  and  60  miles  wide, 
known  as  the  central  basin.  West  of  the  high¬ 
land  plain  is  the  West  Tennessee  plain,  600  to 
800  feet  high  on  its  eastern  border,  with  a  west¬ 
ward  slope  to  300  or  400  feet  where  it  overlooks 
the  alluvial  plain  of  the  Mississippi.  This  latter 
is  a  narrow'  belt,  largely  swamp}^  with  a  depressed 
area  in  the  north  containing  Reelfoot  Lake. 

Hydrography.  The  drainage  of  the  entire 
State  reaches  the  Mississippi  River.  The  eastern 
portion  is  drained  by  the  Tennessee  River,  which 
flow's  southwestward  into  Alabama,  then  turns 
and  flows  northward  across  the  State.  The  Cum¬ 
berland,  heading  in  southeastern  Kentucky,  flows 
southwestward  into  the  central  basin,  turns 
northw'ard,  like  the  Tennessee,  and  flows  across 
western  Kentucky  to  the  Ohio.  The  West  Ten¬ 
nessee  plain  is  drained  directly  into  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  through  the  Wolf,  IJatchie,  Forked  Deer, 
and  Obion  rivers.  The  Cumberland  and  Tennes¬ 
see,  with  a  few  of  the  larger  tributaries  of  the 
latter  in  East  Tennessee,  are  navigable,  but  are 
undergoing  further  improvement.  Much  power 
has  been  developed  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
Tennessee  River  and  much  more  awaits  develop¬ 
ment  both  on  it  and  on  the  Cumberland. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  usually  mild  and 
equable.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is 
58°  F.,  and  the  variation  from  this  is  not  over 
2  or  3  degrees  in  any  section,  except  the  Appa¬ 
lachian  region,  w'here  the  mean  is  45°  F.  July, 
with  a  mean  of  78°  F.,  is  the  hottest  month,  and 
January,  with  a  mean  of  38°  F.,  the  coldest. 
The  maximum  rarely  exceeds  100°  F.,  but  has 
reached  106°  F.;  and  the  minimum  seldom  falls 
below  10°  F.,  though  zero  is  reached  occasionally, 
and  —  30°  F.  has  been  recorded  in  the  Cumber¬ 
land  plateau.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  about 
50  inches  and  is  well  distributed  geographically. 
The  average  annual  snowfall  is  about  8  inches. 
The  prevailing,  winds  are  from  the  south  and 
southwest. 

Soils.  The  soils  of  the  various  topographic 
regions  differ  greatly  because  of  differences  in 
the  nature  of  the  underlying  rocks.  The  alluvium 
of  the  Mississippi  and  other  river  bottoms  forms 
the  richest  soil.  The  uplands  along  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  bluffs  have  a  fertile  soil  of  loess  and  brown 
loam  that  to  the  east  becomes  sandy,  and  near 
the  Tennessee  River  is  in  places  barren.  Where 
the  rocks  of  the  highland  plain  are  siliceous 
shales  the  soils  are  poor,  but  where  they  are 
limestone  fertile  soils  result.  The  central  basin 
and  the  eastern  valley  have  very  fertile  limestone 
soils;  the  Cumberland  plateau  is  poor  and 
sandy;  and  the  Appalachian  region  thin  and 
stony  on  steep  slopes  and  rich  and  deep  in  coves. 

Fiora.  Numerous  species  of  oak,  as  wrell  as 
poplar  ( Liriodendron  tulipifera) ,  chestnut, 
maple,  beech,  hickory,  walnut,  locust,  persim¬ 
mon,  and  dogwood  are  common  throughout  the 
State.  In  the  higher  mountains  white  pine, 
birch,  ash,  and  hemlock  are  also  found.  In  the 
Cumberland  plateau  short-leaf  pine  is  common. 
Red  cedar  is  common  in  the  central  basin,  and 
in  the  river  swamps  of  the  west  cypress,  red  gum, 
swamp  oak,  and  cottonwood  are  characteristic. 


TENNESSEE 


98 


TENNESSEE 


About  55  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the  State  is 
forested.  The  most  valuable  timber  is  in  the 
mountain  coves  and  the  Mississippi  swamps. 

Geology.  Differences  in  the  kind  and  atti¬ 
tude  of  the  rocks  correspond  with,  and  are  largely 
responsible  for,  differences  in  topography.  The 
only  igneous  rocks  are  small  areas  of  Archean 
granite,  gneiss,  and  schist  in  the  northern  half  of 
the  high  ranges  of  the  eastern  boundary.  Else¬ 
where  along  this  eastern  border  the  rocks  are 
much  folded  and  metamorphosed  siliceous  sedi¬ 
ments  of  Cambrian  age.  The  rocks  of  the  Great 
valley  are  chiefly  of  Cambrian  and  Ordovician 
age,  though  the  Silurian  and  Devonian  also  oc¬ 
cur.  Limestones  and  dolomite  form  the  valleys 
and  sandstones,  cherts  and  shales  the  interven¬ 
ing  ridges.  The  rocks  of  the  Cumberland  plateau 
are  of  Pennsylvanian  age,  chiefly  sandstones  and 
shales.  They  and  all  to  the  west  of  them  are 
flat-lying,  while  all  to  the  east  are  highly  folded 
and  faulted.  Mississippian  limestones  and  shales 
form  the  highland  plain,  an,d  with  Silurian  and 
Devonian  rocks  form  the  rim,  while  Ordovician 
limestones  form  the  floor,  of  the  central  basin. 
The  Silurian  and  Devonian  rocks  are  prominent 
in  the  western  valley  of  the  Tennessee  River. 
The  West  Tennessee  plain  consists  of  uncon¬ 
solidated  sands-  and  clays,  the  eastern  part  of 
which  overlap  the  Paleozoics  of  the  highland 
plain  and  are  of  Cretaceous  age,  while  farther 
west  they  are  of  Tertiary  and  more  recent  age. 

Mineral  Resources.  A  belt  of  limonite  iron 
ore  occurs  in  the  western  part  of  the  highland 
plain,  while  another  occurs  along  the  eastern 
edge  of  the  Great  valley,  and  elsewhere  in  this 
valley  are  large  deposits  of  zinc,  marble,  and 
bauxite,  which  along  its  western  side  is  an  im¬ 
portant  belt  of  red  hematite.  Large  copper  de¬ 
posits  occur  in  the  extreme  southeast.  The  Cum¬ 
berland  plateau  contains  a  number  of  valuable 
coal  seams,  while  phosphate  is  found  in  the 
central  basin  and  large  clay  deposits  occur  in 
West  Tennessee.  In  1914  Tennessee  ranked 
twenty-fifth  among  the  States  in  value  of  mineral 
products.  Coal  is  the  most  important  of  the 
minerals,  and  in  1914,  5,943,258  tons,  valued  at 
$6,776,573,  were  mined.  Copper  ranks  second 
among  the  State’s  minerals,  and  in  1914  there 
were  produced  18,737,656  pounds,  valued  at 
$2,492,108.  The  metal  is  obtained  from  pyritic 
ores,  from  which  a  large  quantity  of  sulphuric 
acid  is  obtained  as  a  by-product.  In  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  phosphate  rock  Tennessee  ranks  second  in 
the  Union,  and  in  1914  produced  483,203  tons, 
valued  at  $1,822,770.  Clay  products  were  pro¬ 
duced  to  the  value  of  $1,546,315.  The  produc¬ 
tion  of  iron  ore,  chiefly  hematite  and  brown 
ore,  amounted  to  330,214  tons,  valued  at  $466,- 
523.  The  pig  iron  produced  was  valued  at 
$2,150,452.  This  is  not  included  in  the  total 
of  the  State’s  production.  Quarrying  is  another 
of  Tennessee’s  important  mineral  industries. 
The  principal  products  are  marble  and  limestone, 
the  former  of  which  stands  in  high  repute  for 
interior  decoration.  The  value  of  the  stone 
products  in  1914  was  $1,932,462.  Other  mineral 
products  of  varying  importance  are  clay  prod¬ 
ucts,  zinc,  mineral  waters,  and  silver,  cement, 
and  lime.  The  total  value  of  the  mineral  pro¬ 
duction  in  1914  was  $19,645,213. 

Agriculture.  The  total  land  area  of  Ten¬ 
nessee  is  approximately  26,679,680  acres,  of 
which  20,041,657  were  in  farms  in  1910,  10,890,- 
484  acres  being  improved  land.  The  number  of 
farms  in  that  year  was  246,012,  averaging  81.5 


acres.  The  total  value  of  all  farm  property, 
including  land,  buildings,  implements,  and  ma¬ 
chinery,  domestic  animals,  and  bees  was  $612,- 
520,836.  The  average  value  of  land  per  acre  was 
$18.53  in  that  year.  Of  the  total  number  of 
farmers  in  1910,  144,951  were  owners  and  man¬ 
agers  and  101,061  tenants.  The  white  farmers 
numbered  207,704  and  the  nonwhites  38,308,  of 
whom  73,504  and  27,557  respectively  were  ten¬ 
ants.  The  total  acreage  operated  by  whites  was 
18,435,579  and  by  nonwhites  1,606,078. 

The  acreage,  production,  and  value  of  some  of 
the  principal  crops  as  estimated  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1915  are 
as  follows: 


CROPS 

Acreage 

Production 
in  bushels 

Value 

Corn . 

3,500,000 

94,500,000 

$54,810,000 

Wheat . 

860,000 

9,030,000 

9,752,000 

Oats . 

357,000 

8,746,000 

4,373,000 

Rye . 

18,000 

189,000 

195,000 

Potatoes  (Irish) . 

36,000 

3,168,000 

1,996,000 

Sweet  potatoes . 

27,000 

2,835,000 

1,673,000 

Hay . 

950,000 

*  1,396,000 

19,404,000 

Tobacco . 

92,900 

169,675,000 

4,390,000 

Cotton . 

780,000 

t  295,000 

15,957,000 

*  Tons.  |  Pounds.  J  Bales  of  500  pounds  gross  weight. 


The  total  value  of  all  crops  in  1909  was  $120,- 
706,211.  The  leading  crops  in  that  year  in  order 
of  importance  were  corn,  cotton,  hay  and  for¬ 
age,  wheat,  tobacco,  cottonseed,  and  oats.  In 
1909  corn  had  an  acreage  of  3,146,348  and  a 
production  of  67,682,489  bushels,  valued  at  $45,- 
819,093.  The  acreage  of  cotton  harvested  was 
787,516,  and  the  production  amounted  to  264,- 
562  bales,  valued  at  $17,966,517.  Under  hay 
and  forage  were  cultivated  1,052,816  acres, 
which  produced  1,077,836  tons,  worth  $12,617,- 
538.  Wheat  had  an  acreage  of  619,861,  the  pro¬ 
duction  amounting  to  6,516,539  bushels,  valued 
at  $6,913,335.  The  area  cultivated  for  tobacco 
was  90,468  acres,  from  which  were  produced 
68,756,599  pounds,  valued  at  $5,661,681.  To  po¬ 
tatoes  were  devoted  40,963  acres;  the  production 
was  2,922,713  bushels,  valued  at  $1,790,233. 
Sweet  potatoes  and  yams  had  an  acreage  of 
26,216  and  a  production  of  2,504,490  bushels, 
estimated  at  $1,625,056.  Vegetables  other  than 
potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  and  yams  were  grown 
over  100,055  acres,  the  production  being  valued 
at  $7,015,686.  Small  fruits  produced  in  1909 
amounted  to  13,895,493  quarts,  valued  at  $923,- 
613.  The  acreage  devoted  to  these  was  12,539. 
Strawberries  were  the  most  important  of  the 
small  fruits.  Of  the  orchard  fruits,  apples 
and  peaches  were  the  most  important.  The 
total  production  in  1909  was  6,484,550  bushels, 
value  $3,459,077.  Other  fruits  grown  were 
grapes,  pears,  plums,  cherries,  quinces,  mul¬ 
berries,  and  figs.  Total  of  sorghum  cane  and 
sirup  produced  in  1909  was  $1,146,000. 

Live  Stock  and  Dairy  Products.  In  1910 
the  total  number  of  domestic  animals  reported 
was  4,465,500,  valued  at  $106,608,122.  The  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  estimated 
that  on  Jan.  1,  1916,  horses  numbered  349,000, 
value  $35,249,000;  mules  numbered  272,000, 
value  $30,736,000;  milch  cows  numbered  366,000, 
value  $14,457,000;  other  cattle  numbered  518,000, 
value  $11,707,000;  sheep  numbered  661,000,  value 
$2,710,000;  swine  numbered  1,531,000,  value 
$10,411,000.  The  production  of  wool  in  1915 
was  1,953,000  pounds.  In  1910  the  number  of 


THE 

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TENNESSEE 


99 


TENNESSEE 


fowls  was  reported  as  8,056,145,  value  $3,757,- 
337.  These  produced  39,352,433  dozens  of  eggs, 
value  $6,793,640.  The  milk  produced  was  re¬ 
ported  at  117,101,970  gallons,  and  the  butter 
made  at  39,827,906  pounds.  Total  value  of  all 
milk,  cream,  and  butter  fat  sold  and  butter  and 
cheese  made  in  1909  was  reported  at  $8,715,441. 

Forest  Products.  Tennessee  is  one  of  the 
most  active  lumbering  States  of  the  South.  In 
1908  there  were  about  15,000,000  acres  of  forest 
land  whose  trees  represented  over  100  varieties. 
(See  Flora.)  The  number  of  active  mills  re¬ 
ported  in  1913  was  1155,  which  produced 
872,3]  1  M  feet  board  measure.  Forest  products 
produced  on  farms  in  1909  were  valued  at  $8,- 
510,710.  The  total  value  of  lumber  and  timber 
products  in  1909  was  $30,457,000.  About  83 
per  cent  of  the  products  were  hard  wood.  Most 
of  this  was  oak,  in  the  production  of  which  Ten¬ 
nessee  led  the  Union  in  that  year.  It  also  led 
in  the  production  of  yellow  poplar  and  hickory. 

Manufactures.  In  1909  Tennessee  ranked 
twenty-sixth  in  the  Union  in  value  of  its  manu¬ 
factured  products  and  the  value  per  capita  was 
$82.  The  following  table  gives  the  more  impor¬ 
tant  details  regarding  manufactures  for  the  10 
leading  industries  in  1909  and  1904: 


the  value  of  their  products  in  1909  are:  Mem¬ 
phis,  $30,241,519;  Nashville,  $29,649,697;  Chat¬ 
tanooga,  $16,036,455;  Knoxville,  $8,149,377,  and 
Jackson,  $2,709,773.  For  further  details,  see 
these  titles. 

Transportation.  Considerable  water  trans¬ 
portation  is  obtained  on  the  Mississippi,  Ten¬ 
nessee,  and  Cumberland  rivers.  A  number  of 
trunk-line  railroads  cross  the  State,  most  of 
them  centring  at  Memphis  and  Nashville.  The 
total  mileage  of  all  railroads  in  1915  was  4165. 
The  principal  roads  and  their  mileage  are  the 
Nashville,  Chattanooga,  and  St.  Louis,  900;  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville,  861 ;  the  Southern,  764; 
the  Tennessee  Central,  292 ;  the  Cincinnati,  New 
Orleans,  and  Texas  Pacific,  142. 

Banks.  The  first  bank  in  the  State  was  the 
Nashville  Bank,  established  in  1807,  with  a  capi¬ 
tal  of  $200,000.  In  1838  the  Bank  of  Tennessee 
was  organized  with  a  capital  of  $5,000,000,  all  of 
which  was  to  be  supplied  by  the  State,  partly 
from  funds  on  hand  and  partly  by  sale  of  bonds. 
It  started  with  an  actual  capital  of  only  $2,073,- 
355,  which  was  all  the  State  could  get  together. 
In  1866,  by  order  of  the  Legislature,  the  Bank  of 
Tennessee  was  formally  placed  in  liquidation, 
when  its  assets  of  $12,478,483  were  found  to 


SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURES  FOR  1909  AND  1904 

THE  STATE  - TEN  LEADING  INDUSTRIES 


Num- 

PERSONS  ENGAGED 

IN  INDUSTRY 

Capital 

Wages 

Value 

of 

products 

Value 
added  by 
manufac- 

INDUSTRY 

Census 

ber  of 
establish- 

Wage 

ture 

\ 

ments 

Total 

earners 

(average 

number) 

Expressed  in  thousands 

All  industries . 

1909 

4,609 

87,672 

73,840 

$167,924 

$28,252 

$180,217 

$76,201 

Cars  and  general  shop  construe- 

1904 

3,175 

69,287 

60,572 

102,439 

22,806 

137,960 

58,608  • 

tion  and  repairs  by  steam-rail- 

1909 

17 

5,884 

5,566 

4,035 

3,252 

6,777 

3,661 

road  companies. 

1904 

16 

4,939 

4,760 

2,029 

2,617 

5,839 

2,861 

Cotton  goods,  including  cotton 

1909 

17 

3,164 

3,078 

7,454 

857 

5,201 

1,857 

small  wares. 

1904 

16 

2,362 

2,294 

5,113 

531 

3.561 

1,320 

Flour-mill  and  gristmill  products 

1909 

454 

2,658 

1,577 

8,511 

559 

29,070 

3,784 

1904 

387 

2,429 

1,595 

6,927 

591 

25,351 

3,439 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  prod- 

1909 

124 

4,694 

4,041 

9,253 

2,006 

9,190 

4,630 

ucts. 

1904 

100 

3,716 

3,313 

4,616 

2,482 

6,124 

3,270 

Hosiery  and  knit  goods . 

1909 

22 

3,229 

3,117 

3,055 

724 

3,565 

1,445 

1904 

16 

1,855 

1,810 

1,160 

341 

1,628 

659 

Iron  and  steel,  blast  furnaces. . . . 

1909 

13 

1,268 

1,143 

7,122 

519 

4,653 

1,272 

1904 

13 

1,486 

1,358 

5,688 

546 

3,428 

819 

Lumber  and  timber  products. . . . 

1909 

1,977 

26,283 

22.389 

30,159 

6,906 

30,457 

16,816 

1904 

1,122 

19,705 

17,277 

20,431 

6,456 

26,864 

15,274 

Oil,  cottonseed,  and  cake . 

1909 

20 

957 

806 

3,371 

290 

6,583 

1,392 

1904 

20 

819 

701 

2.914 

245 

3,744 

660 

Patent  medicines  and  compounds 

1909 

76 

998 

433 

2,225 

148 

3,515 

2,174 

and  druggists’  preparations. 

1904 

47 

739 

489 

1,317 

143 

2,789 

1,888 

Printing  and  publishing . 

1909 

413 

4,442 

2,914 

6,493 

1,701 

7,173 

5.219 

1904 

340 

3,373 

2,330 

4,415 

1,231 

5,091 

3,768 

The  production  of  lumber  and  timber  products 
is  the  most  important  industry  in  value  of  prod¬ 
ucts,  number  of  persons  employed,  and  number 
of  establishments.  In  1909,  1,223,849  M  feet 
board  measure  of  rough  lumber,  31,179,000  lath, 
and  35,392,000  shingles  were  produced.  (See 
Forest  Products.)  In  1909  the  flour  and  grist 
mills  produced  2,999,501  barrels  of  white  flour, 
valued  at  $17,218,719;  1,981,746  barrels  of  corn 
meal  and  corn  flour,  valued  at  $6,505,710;  and 
26,720,930  pounds  of  hominy,  valued  at  $441,371. 

Of  the  total  number  of  wage  earners  64,648 
were  male.  The  wa°fe  earners  under  16  vears  of 
age  numbered  2445  of  whom  813  were  female. 
The  prevailing  hours  of  labor  for  about  half  the 
wage  earners  are  60  a  week,  and  for  about  one- 
fourth  from  54  to  60  a  week.  Leading  cities  and 


consist  mainly  of  Confederate  bonds,  certificates, 
treasury  bonds,  etc.  In  1883  the  State  finally 
assumed  the  liability  for  the  bank  notes,  and 


ITEMS 

National  banks 

State  banks 

Number 

Capital  . 

116 

$14,375,000 

5,753,000 

5,178,000 

62,932,000 

73,387,000 

404 

$14,897,911 

5,625,392 

13,190,955 

62,778,993 

62,904,763 

Surplus  . 

Cash,  etc . 

Deposits . 

Loans . 

they  were  redeemed  for  special  certificates  of 
indebtedness.  The  depositors  of  the  bank,  in¬ 
cluding  the  State  school  fund,  never  realized  any- 


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thing.  The  constitution  prohibits  the  State 
forming  a  bank;  or  even  holding  stock  in  one. 
The  condition  of  the  various  banks  in  1914  is 
shown  on  page  99. 

Government.  The  constitution  adopted  in 
1870  has  not  been  amended  in  any  important 
particulars.  Amendments  which  may  be  pro¬ 
posed  in  either  house  must  be  passed  by  two 
consecutive  assemblies  and  submitted  to  the 
people  for  approval.  The  Legislature,  however, 
may  not  propose  amendments  to  the  constitution 
oftener  than  once  every  six  years,  but  it  may  at 
any  time  submit  to  the  people  the  question  of 
calling  a  convention  to  alter,  reform,  or  abolish 
the  constitution. 

Legislative. — The  legislative  authority  is  vested 
in  a  general  assembly,  consisting  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  members  of  which 
hold  office  for  two  years.  The  membership  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  must  never  exceed 
99.  Senators  are  proportioned  among  the  coun¬ 
ties  and  districts  and  must  not  exceed  one-third 
the  number  of  Representatives. 

Executive. — The  supreme  executive  power  is 
vested  in  the  Governor,  elected  for  two  years, 
who  must  be  30  years  of  age,  and  a  resident  of 
the  State  seven  years  before  his  election.  The 
Secretary  of  State  is  appointed  by  joint  vote  of 
the  General  Assembly  and  commissioned  for  a 
term  of  four  years. 

Judiciary. — The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a 
supreme  court,  and  a  circuit  court,  chancery,  and 
other  inferior  courts.  The  Supreme  Court  con¬ 
sists  of  five  judges,  of  whom  not  more  than  two 
may  reside  in  any  one  of  the  grand  divisions, 
and  who  are  elected  by  the  qualified  voters. 
Candidates  must  be  35  years  of  age  and  must 
have  been  residents  of  the  State  for  five  years. 
The  term  of  service  is  eight  years. 

Suffrage  and  Elections. — Every  male  citizen 
21  years  of  age  or  over,  who  has  been  a  resident 
of  the  State  for  12  months  and  of  the  county 
for  six  months,  is  entitled  to  vote.  A  State 
board  of  elections  has  general  charge  of  conduct¬ 
ing  all  elections.  In  all  counties  of  50,000  in¬ 
habitants  and  over,  and  in  all  civil  districts  cf 
2500  inhabitants  or  over,  registration  is  an  es¬ 
sential  for  voting.  General  registrations  are 
held  every  two  years.  A  corrupt  practices  act 
was  passed  in  1907. 

Local  and  Municipal  Government. — The  unit 
of  local  government  is  the  county.  County 
officers  are  coroner  and  ranger.  New  counties 
may  be  established  by  the  Legislature  to  consist 
of  not  less  than  275  square  miles,  with  a  popula¬ 
tion  of  at  least  700  qualified  voters.  Cities  and 
towns  are  permitted  to  adopt  a  commission  form 
of  government.  In  1916  the  cities  of  Chatta¬ 
nooga,  Knoxville,  Memphis,  Nashville,  Bristol, 
Jackson,  Lafolette,  Lebanon,  Murfreesboro,  and 
Springfield  had  adopted  this  form  of  civic 
administration. 

Miscellaneous  Statutory  and  Constitutional 
Provisions. — The  Legislature  has  no  power  to 
grant  divorces,  but  may  authorize  the  courts  of 
justice  to  grant  them.  Intermarriage  between 
whites  and  negroes  is  forbidden.  No  person  shall 
at  any  time  be  required  to  perform  any  duties 
in  the  State  on  any  day  set  apart  by  his  religion 
as  a  day  of  rest.  Gambling  on  horse  races  is 
prohibited.  The  State  is  under  prohibition.  See 
History  # 

Finances.  The  history  of  the  public  debt  con¬ 
stitutes  the  most  important  and  interesting  part 
of  the  financial  history  of  the  State.  The  first 


debt  was  created  in  1832  and  1838  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  establishing  State  banks.  Between  1840 
and  1850  the  State  inaugurated  the  system  of 
public  improvements.  Bonds  were  issued  to 
turnpike  and  railroad  companies  for  construc¬ 
tion,  and  first  mortgages  were  the  usual  guaran¬ 
tees.  In  1861  the  total  amount  of  bonds  out¬ 
standing  was  over  $18,000,000,  and  a  war  loan 
of  $3,000,000  was  added.  The  four  years  of  the 
Civil  War  destroyed  the  sources  of  State  income, 
made  payment  of  interest  impossible,  and  swelled 
the  total  indebtedness  considerably.  In  1865  it 
rose  to  $25,277,406,  out  of  which  $5,169,740  was 
interest  overdue.  The  current  interest  charges 
alone  amounted  to  $1,185,048,  while  the  revenue 
was  far  below  it,  taxation  inadequate,  and  the 
amount  actually  collected  considerably  less  than 
the  sum  assessed.  Most  of  the  companies  to 
which  the  bonds  were  issued  failed  to  pay  the  in¬ 
terest.  The  carpet-bag  regime  that  followed  the 
Civil  War  did  not  improve  matters.  New  bonds 
to  the  amount  of  $3,408,000  were  issued  to  14 
railroad  companies  in  1868,  interest  remained 
unpaid,  and  in  1869  the  total  debt  reached  $39,- 
S96,504.  Measures  of  relief  were  then  passed  by 
the  Legislature;  sale  of  the  delinquent  roads 
was  authorized,  and  the  solvent  railroads  were 
permitted  to  pay  their  debts  in  State  bonds 
which  were  below  par.  By  these  means  the  debt 
was  rapidly  reduced  to  $27,920,386  in  1874.  Yet 
even  then  the  State  was  unable  to  meet  its  obli¬ 
gations.  Repudiation  began  to  be  talked  of 
towards  1880,  and,  frightened  by  this  agitation, 
the  bondholders  began  to  offer  various  plans  of 
settlement.  A  plan  of  refunding  at  50  per  cent 
was  agreed  to  by  the  bondholders  and  the  Legis¬ 
lature  in  1879,  but  was  rejected  by  popular  vote. 

In  that  year  the  debt  question  was  the  main 
campaign  issue,  and  the  repudiation  party  lost. 
A  final  settlement  was  reached  in  1883,  when  the 
State  debt  proper  was  scaled  down  20-24  per 
cent  and  the  railroad  guarantee  bonds  50  per 
cent.  The  total  debt  was  reduced  bv  this  opera¬ 
tion  from  $28,000,000  to  about  $15,000,000.  The 
conversion  was  completed  in  1890.  On  Dec.  20, 
1914,  the  total  State  debt  was  $11,752,667.  The 
cash  balance  on  Dec.  20,  1912,  was  $785,120,  the 
balance  on  Dec.  20,  1914,  was  $172,410.  The 
receipts  during  this  period  amounted  to  $9,166,- 
870  and  the  disbursements  to  $9,779,579. 

Militia.  Males  of  militia  age  in  1910  num¬ 
bered  428,088.  The  organized  militia  in  1915 
included  110  officers  and  1703  enlisted  men.  It 
consisted  of  a,  regiment  of  infantry,  two  separate 
battalions,  a  separate  company  of  colored  troops, 
a  troop  of  cavalry,  and  a  detachment  of  sanitary 
troops,  including  a  field  hospital. 

Population.  The  population  of  Tennessee  by 
periods  is  as  follows:  1790,  35,691;  1810,  261*- 
727;  1830,  681,904;  1850,  1,002,717;  1870,  1,- 
258,520;  1890,  1,767,518;  1900, 2,020,616 ;  1910, 
2,184,789;  1915,  2,271,379;  1920,  2,337,885.  In 
1910  the  State  ranked  seventeenth  in  the  Union, 
the  density  per  square  mile  being  52.4.  The  urban 
population  was  441,045.  In  that  year  there  were 
1,71 1,432  whites  and  473,088  negroes;  foreign- 
born  whites  formed  only  0.8  per  cent  of  the  total. 
By  sex  the  population  was  divided  into  1,103,491 
males  and  1,081,298  females.  Of  the  native  popu¬ 
lation  13.5  were  born  outside  of  the  State,  most 
of  whom  came  from  Mississippi.  The  males  of 
voting  age  numbered  552,668  in  1910.  Memphis 
is  the  largest  city;  its  population  in  1910  was 
141,105  and  in  1915  jest.)  146,113.  Other  cities 
with  their  populations  in  1910  and  as  estimated 


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IOI 


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for  1915  are  Nashville,  110,304  and  115,978; 
Chattanooga,  44,604  and  58,570;  Knoxville,  36,- 
340  and  38,300;  Jackson,  15,779  and  17,069. 

Education.  In  1910  the  percentage  of  illit¬ 
eracy  in  the  population  ten  years  of  age  and 
over  was  13.0  per  cent.  The  total  number  of 
illiterates  in  1910  was  221,071.  Among  native 
whites  of  native  parentage  the  percentage  of  il¬ 
literacy  was  9.7  in  1910,  among  negroes  it  was 
27.3.  Of  the  school  population  563,158  were  na¬ 
tive  whites,  10,099  were  foreign-born  whites,  and 
163,397  were  negroes.  The  report  of  the  State 
Superintendent  of  Education  for  1914  shows  that 
on  June  30  of  that  year  the  school  population 
of  the  State  was  776,895.  The  total  enrollment 
in  the  public  schools  on  the  same  date  was 
593,437.  The  total  expenditure  for  schools  dur¬ 
ing  the  year  was  $6,064,353.  The  total  enroll¬ 
ment  of  white  children  in  1914  was  468,106  and 
of  colored  children  115,381.  The  average  daily 
attendance  of  whites  was  346,676  and  of  colored 
children  83,077.  There  were  in  the  State,  in 
1914,  134  high  schools,  in  which  were  492  teach¬ 
ers.  The  pupils  in  these  schools  were  9950,  with 
an  average  daily  attendance  of  7400.  Legisla¬ 
tion  aiming  to  bring  about  the  consolidation  of 
schools  has  been  in  force  since  1912.  There  is 
a  compulsory  educational  law.  A  uniform  ex¬ 
amination  law  for  teachers  was  put  into  effect 
in  1914.  Industrial  work  in  high  schools  and 
in  elementary  schools  in  some  instances  has  been 
inaugurated  with  satisfactory  results.  Several 
counties  employ  supervisors  for  rural  schools. 
Preferential  schools  have  also  been  established  in 
several  counties.  State  institutes  are  held  each 
year  for  white  and  colored  persons. 

There  are  four  normal  schools  in  the  State: 
the  East  Tennessee  State  Normal  School  at 
Johnson  City,  the  Middle  Tennessee  State  Normal 
School  at  Murfreesboro,  the  West  Tennessee 
State  Normal  School  at  Memphis,  and  the  Agri¬ 
cultural  and  Industrial  State  Normal  School 
for  colored  pupils  at  Nashville.  There  are  a 
large  number  of  institutions  of  collegiate  rank. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  the  University 
of  Tennessee,  which  is  a  part  of  the  State  system 
of  education,  situated  at  Knoxville,  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Chattanooga  at  Chattanooga,  Lincoln 
Memorial  University  at  Cumberland  Gap,  Cum¬ 
berland  University  at  Lebanon,  Maryville  Col¬ 
lege  at  Maryville,  Vanderbilt  University  at 
Nashville,  Burritt  College  at  Spencer,  Milligan 
College  at  Milligan,  and  Carson  and  Newman 
at  Jefferson  City.  These  are  all  coeducational. 
Colleges  for  men  only  are  King  College  at 
Bristol,  Southwestern  Presbyterian  University 
at  Clarksville,  Christian  Brothers  College  (Ro¬ 
man  Catholic)  at  Memphis,  and  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  the  South  at  Sewanee.  Colleges  for 
women  are  Sullins  College  at  Bristol,  Howard 
College  for  Young  Ladies  at  Gallatin,  Memphis 
Conference  Female  Institute  at  Jackson,  Tennes¬ 
see  College  at  Murfreesboro,  Ward-Belmont  Col¬ 
lege  for  Young  Women  at  Nashville,  Boscobel 
College  at  Nashville,  Synodical  College  for  Fe¬ 
males  at  Rogersville.  Colleges  for  negroes  are 
Knoxville  College  at  Knoxville,  Fisk  University 
at  Nashville,  and  Waldon  University  at 
Nashville. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  Charitable  and 
correctional  institutions  under  the  control  of 
the  Board  of  State  Charities  include  the  Eastern 
Hospital  for  the  Insane  and  the  Tennessee  Deaf 
and  Dumb  School  at  Knoxville,  Western  Hos¬ 
pital  for  the  Insane  at  Bolivar,  the  Central  Hos¬ 


pital  for  the  Insane,  the  Tennessee  Reformatory, 
the  Tennessee  Industrial  School,  Tennessee 
School  for  the  Blind,  and  the  two  State  prisons, 
all  at  Nashville,  and  a  branch  prison  at  Petros. 

History.  Probably  De  Soto  (q.v.)  reached 
the  Mississippi  at  the  present  site  of  Memphis  in 
1541.  La  Salle,  about  1682,  built  a  fort  at  this 
point,  and  called  it  Fort  Prud'homme.  The  place 
was  again  occupied  by  the  Frencli  in  1714.  The 
grant  by  Charles  II  to  the  Lords  Proprietors  of 
Carolina  of  the  territory  between  lat.  29°  and 
36°  30'  N.  in  1665  included  this  territory. 
(See  North  Carolina.)  The  first  English  set¬ 
tlement  was  Fort  Loudon,  built  in  1756,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Governor  Loudon  of  Virginia,  and 
garrisoned  by  royal  troops,  but  afterward  cap¬ 
tured  by  the  Cherokees.  Before  this,  however, 
Dr.  Thomas  Walker  with  a  party  of  Virginians 
had  named  the  Cumberland  River  and  Moun¬ 
tains,  and  Daniel  Boone  (q.v.)  and  others  had 
entered  the  wilderness,  then  regarded  as  a  com¬ 
mon  hunting  ground  by  the  Cherokees,  Creeks, 
Miamis,  Choctaws,  and  Chickasaws.  In  1768  the 
Iroquois,  who  claimed  sovereignty  by  conquest, 
ceded  their  claim  to  the  English,  and  in  1769 
William  Bean’s  cabin  on  the  Watauga  marked 
the  first  settlement.  James  Robertson  (q.v.)  and 
others  came  in  1770,  another  settlement  was 
made  near  Rogersville  in  1771,  and  soon  after 
Jacob  Brown  opened  a  store  on  the  Nolichucky. 
After  the  defeat  of  the  Regulators  (q.v.)  in  North 
Carolina  a  number  of  settlers  came,  supposing 
the  territory  to  be  Virginia  soil.  When  the  ter¬ 
ritory  was  found  to  be  within  North  Carolina, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  first  two  settlements  met 
in  1772  and  formed  the  Watauga  Association 
(q.v.),  which  served  as  a  form  of  government 
for  several  years.  In  1775  Col.  Richard  Hender¬ 
son  (q.v.)  bought  from  the  Indians  the  territory 
between  the  Cumberland  and  the  Kentucky 
rivers.  More  settlers  came  in  1778-79  and  in 
1780  a  compact  of  government  was  drawn  up  at 
Nashborough,  by  Colonel  Henderson,  who  had 
been  Chief  Justice  of  North  Carolina,  and  James 
Robertson,  who  had  been  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  Watauga  Association.  These  two  compacts 
were  much  alike  and  served  their  purpose  ex¬ 
cellently. 

The  Watauga  settlers  in  1775  or  1776  gave 
the  name  Washington  District  to  their  colony, 
and  in  1776  it  was  annexed  to  North  Carolina, 
though  some  had  dreamed  of  a  separate  State. 
The  number  of  settlers  increased  rapidly,  and 
nearly  500  men  under  John  Sevier  (q.v.)  and 
Isaac  Shelby  (q.v.)  went  across  the  mountains 
and  took  part  in  the  attack  on  the  British  under 
Ferguson,  at  King’s  Mountain  (q.v.),  in  1780. 
All  this  time  the  settlers  were  harassed  by  severe 
Indian  wars.  In  1784  North  Carolina  ceded  to 
the  general  government  all  the  territory  of  the 
present  State  on  condition  that  the  cession  be 
accepted  within  two  years,  but  retained  until 
that  time  full  sovereignty.  The  inhabitants, 
indignant  at  being  transferred  without  their  con¬ 
sent,  and  thinking  that  they  had  been  abandoned, 
elected  delegates  from  each  military  company, 
who  met  at  Jonesboro,  Aug.  23,  1784,  and  formed 
the  State  of  Franklin,  or  Frankland ;  John  Sevier 
was  chosen  Governor.  Congress  ignored  the  re¬ 
quest  to  be  recognized  as  a  State  and  North  Caro¬ 
lina  promptly  repealed  the  act  of  cession  and 
asserted  its  jurisdiction.  Civil  war  Avas  averted 
by  the  tact  of  the  North  Carolina  governors. 
Confusion,  howe\7er,  reigned,  as  there  were  two 
bodies  of  officers,  and  many  settlers  neglected  to 


TENNESSEE 


102 


TENNESSEE 


pay  taxes  to  either,  though  furs,  skins,  and  other 
articles  were  made  legal  tender  by  the  infant 
State.  At  the  expiration  of  Sevier’s  term  in 
1788  the  State  of  Franklin  ended.  In  this  at¬ 
tempt  at  statehood  the  Cumberland  settlers  did 
not  join.  Davidson  County  was  laid  out  in  1783 
and  the  Davidson  Academy  (now  the  University 
of  Nashville)  was  founded  in  1785.  Indian 
troubles  threatened  the  life  of  the  settlement, 
and  the  intrigues  of  the  Spaniards,  who  still 
held  Louisiana  and  the  Mississippi,  made  the 
position  more  difficult.  See  McGillivray,  Alex¬ 
ander. 

In  February,  1790,  North  Carolina  again  ceded 
the  territory  to  the  general  government,  stipu¬ 
lating  that  all  the  advantages  of  the  Ordinance 
of  1787  (q.v. )  should  be  preserved  to  the  inhab¬ 
itants,  except  that  slavery  should  not  be  prohib¬ 
ited.  The  act  of  government  for  the  territory 
south  of  the  Ohio  was  passed  in  April,  1790, 
and  the  seat  of  government  was  moved  from 
Rogersville  to  Knoxville.  The  Indians  were  se¬ 
verely  punished  in  1794  and  the  Spanish  influ¬ 
ence  was  broken.  In  the  same  year  the  first  ter¬ 
ritorial  assembly  met.  In  1795,  as  the  territory 
was  found  to  contain  more  than  60,000  white 
inhabitants,  a  constitutional  convention  was 
called,  which  met  in  January,  1796.  A  constitu¬ 
tion  for  the  State  of  Tennessee  modeled  after 
that  of  North  Carolina  was  adopted  without  sub¬ 
mission  to  popular  vote;  the  first  General  As¬ 
sembly  met  March  28,  and  the  State  was 
admitted  June  1,  1796.  Almost  from  the  date  of 
admission  there  was  a  sharp  distinction  between 
East  and  Middle  (West)  Tennessee,  which  was 
recognized  in  the  appointment  of  the  judi¬ 
ciary.  In  wealth  and  material  progress  the 
mountainous  eastern  part  lagged.  The  western 
part  of  the  State  began  to  fill  up  after  1818, 
Memphis  was  laid  out  in  1819,  and  three  sec¬ 
tions  came  now  to  be  recognized  in  law.  The 
State’s  progress  was  rapid,  though  growth  was 
almost  entirely  along  agricultural  lines.  Con¬ 
struction  of  internal  improvements  began  early. 
Turnpike  roads  were  built  in  1804,  and  after 
1823  roads  and  canals  were  pushed  forward. 
The  first  railroad  was  chartered  in  1831,  but  the 
Memphis  and  Charleston  road  was  not  built 
until  1857.  Much  State  aid  was  voted  the  rail¬ 
roads,  and  the  redemption  of  the  bonds  issued 
for  this  was  a  political  issue  as  late  as  1882. 
The  eastern  part  of  the  State  did  not  share 
equally  in  these  benefits. 

There  was  a  strong  Union  party  in  Tennessee 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and  in  Febru¬ 
ary,  1861,  the  people  refused  to  hold  a  conven¬ 
tion  to  consider  secession,  but  with  President 
Lincoln’s  call  for  troops  sentiment  changed,  and 
through  the  influence  of  Governor  Harris  the 
State  declared  itself  by  popular  vote  out  of  the 
LTiion,  June  8,  though  East  Tennessee  had 
voted  against  secession  more  than  two  to  one. 
On  June  17  a  Union  convention  of  delegates 
from  the  eastern  counties  and  a  few  middle 
counties  met  at  Greeneville  and  petitioned  to  be 
allowed  to  form  a  separate  State.  The  request 
was  ignored  by  the  Legislature,  and  the  presence 
of  a  Confederate  army  prevented  further  action 
on  the  part  of  the  Unionists.  During  the  war 
the  State  furnished  about  115,000  soldiers  to  the 
Confederate  cause  and  31,092  to  the  Federal 
army.  When  the  advance  of  Federal  troops 
drove  Governor  Harris  from  Nashville,  Andrew 
Johnson  (q.v.),  who  had  refused  to  resign  his 
seat  in  the  United  States  Senate  on  the  secession 


of  the  State,  was  appointed  military  governor. 
He  attempted  to  reorganize  the  State  in  1864, 
and  set  up  Lincoln  electors,  who  were  rejected 
by  Congress.  In  1865  the  radical  Legislature 
proceeded  to  extreme  measures.  Suffrage  was 
extended  to  negroes  under  the  Constitution  of 
1834,  which  gave  that  right  to  every  freeman. 
The  State  was  readmitted  July  23,  1866,  but 
there  was  much  disorder.  The  Ivu-Klux  Klan 
(q.v.)  appeared,  and  in  1869  nine  counties  in 
Middle  and  West  Tennessee  were  declared  under 
martial  law.  For  a  time  after  the  war  the 
recovery  of  the  State  was  slow,  but  more  recent 
development  has  been  exceedingly  rapid.  The 
principal  events  have  been  the  conflicts  between 
convict  and  free  labor  in  the  mines  in  1891-93, 
and  the  Tennessee  Centennial  Exposition  ( q.v. ) , 
held  at  Nashville  in  1897. 

The  vote  for  President  in  1908  was  Bryan, 
135,819;  Taft,  118,519;  for  Governor,  Patterson, 
Democrat,  113,913;  G.  M.  Tillman,  Republican, 
113,033.  A  State-wide  prohibition  bill  was 
passed  over  the  Governor’s  veto  in  1909,  and  the 
same  Legislature  enacted  measures  prohibiting 
the  manufacture  of  intoxicants  within  the  State 
after  Jan.  1,  1910. 

Opposition  to  Governor  Patterson  divided  his 
party  with  the  result  that  the  governorship  went 
to  the  Republicans  in  the  election  of  1910. 
Captain  B.  W.  Hooper  defeated  Robert  L. 
Taylor  by  a  vote  of  133,999  to  121,674.  Gover¬ 
nor  Hooper  was  reelected  in  1912,  defeating 
Benton  McMillin.  In  the  presidential  election 
of  that  year  Wilson  received  135,399  votes, 
Taft,  60,674,  and  Roosevelt,  53,986.  The  Demo¬ 
crats  regained  their  strength  and  in  the  election 
of  1914  Thomas  C.  Rye  defeated  Governor  Hooper 
by  a  vote  of  136,816  to  115,821. 

In  the  presidential  elections  Tennessee  chose 
Democratic-Republican  electors  from  1796  to 
1824.  In  1828  and  again  in  1832  the  only  issue 
was  Jackson,  and  the  voters  were  almost  unani¬ 
mous  for  him.  In  1836,  however,  Hugh  Lawson 
White,  the  States-Rights  Democrat,  was  success¬ 
ful  in  spite  of  Jackson’s  efforts.  From  1840 
to  1852  Whig  electors  were  chosen,  Clay  re¬ 
ceiving  the  vote  in  1844,  though  Polk  was  a 
resident  of  the  State.  In  1856  the  vote  was  cast 
for  Buchanan.  The  constitutional  Union  ticket 
headed  by  John  Bell  was  successful  in  1860.  The 
State  voted  for  Grant  in  1868.  The  State  has 
been  consistently  Democratic  since  then,  with 
the  exceptions  of  1880  and  1910  when  Republi¬ 
can  governors  were  elected.  From  the  State 
have  come  many  men  of  national  reputation, 
including  three  Presidents,  Jackson,  Polk,  and 


Johnson. 

GOVERNORS  OF  TENNESSEE 
STATE  OF  FRANKLIN 

John  Sevier . . . 1785-88 

TERRITORY  SOUTH  OF  THE  OHIO 
William  Blount . 1790-96 


STATE  OF  TENNESSEE 

John  Sevier . Democratic-Republican . 1796-1801 

.  1801-08 
. 1803-09 
.1809-15 
, 1815-21 
, 1821-27 
1827-29 
1829 


Archibald  Roan . 

John  Sevier . 

Willie  Blount.  :  .  . 
Joseph  McMinn. . 
William  Carroll .  . 
Sam  Houston .... 
William  Hall  (acting) 


William  Carroll . Democrat . 1829-35 

Newton  Cannon . States-Rights  Democrat.  !  1835-39 

James  K.  Polk . Democrat . 1839-41 

James  C.  Jones . Whig . 1841-45 

Aaron  V.  Brown . Democrat . 1845-47 

Neil  S.  Brown . Whig . 1847-49 


TENNESSEE 


103 


TENNIEL 


GOVERNORS  OF  TENNESSEE  —  Continued 

William  Trousdale . Democrat . 1849-51 

William  B.  Campbell . Whig . 1851-53 

Andrew  Johnson . Democrat . 1853-57 

Isham  G.  Harris .  “  . 1857-62 

Andrew  Johnson . Military . 1862-65 

Interregnum . 4th  March,  5th  April,  1865 

William  G.  Brownlow.  . .  .Republican . 1865-69 

DeWitt  C.  Senter . Conservative-Republican.  1S69-71 

John  C.  Brown . Democrat . 1871-75 

James  D.  Porter .  “  1875-79 

Albert  S.  Marks .  “  1879-81 

Alvin  Hawkins . Republican . 1881-83 

William  B.  Bate . Democrat . 1883-87 

Robert  L.  Taylor .  “  1887-91 

John  P.  Buchanan .  “  1891-93 

Peter  Turney .  “  1893-97 

Robert  L.  Taylor .  “  1897-99 

Benton  McMillin .  “  1899-1903 

James  B.  Frazier .  “  1903-05 

John  I.  Cox .  “  1905-07 

Malcolm  R.  Patterson _  “  1907-11 

Ben  W.  Hooper . Republican . 1911—15 

Thomas  C.  Rye . Democrat . 1915-19 

A.  H.  Roberts .  “  1919-21 

H.  A.  Taylor . Republican . 1921- 


Bibliography.  General :  Killebrew  and  Saf- 
ford,  Introduction  to  the  Resources  of  Tennessee 
(Nashville,  1874)  ;  Killebrew,  Tennessee,  its  Ag¬ 
ricultural  and  Mineral  Wealth  (ib.,  1877)  ; 

Wright,  ‘‘Antiquities  of  Tennessee,”  in  Smith¬ 
sonian  Institution,  Annual  Report  for  1874 
(Washington,  1875)  ;  Jones,  “Explorations  of 
the  Aboriginal  Remains  of  Tennessee,”  in  Smith¬ 
sonian  Institution,  Contributions  to  Knowledge, 
vol.  xxii  (ib.,  1876)  ;  Gates,  West  Tennessee,  its 
Advantages  and  its  Resources  (Jackson,  Tenn., 
1885)  ;  Thruston,  The  Antiquities  of  Tennessee 
(2d  ed.,  Cincinnati,  1897).  History:  John  Hay¬ 
wood,  Civil  and  Political  History  of  Tennessee 
(Nashville,  1891);  Allison,  Dropped  Stitches  in 
Tennessee  History  (ib.,  1897);  J.  W.  Fertig, 
Secession  and  Reconstruction  of  Tennessee  (Chi¬ 
cago,  1898)  ;  Temple,  East  Tennessee  and  the 
Civil  War  (Cincinnati,  1899)  ;  Theodore  Roose¬ 
velt,  Winning  of  the  West  (new  ed.,  4  vols., 
New  York,  1904)-;  J.  W.  Caldwell,  Studies  in 
the  Constitutional  History  of  Tennessee  (2d  ed., 
Cincinnati,  1907)  ;  G.  R.  McGee,  History  of  Ten¬ 
nessee  from  1663  to  1911  (New  York,  1911); 
and  publications  of  the  Tennessee  Historical 
Society. 

TENNESSEE,  The.  A  formidable  Confeder¬ 
ate  ram  crippled  by  the  Hartford  of  Admiral 
Farragut’s  fleet,  and  taken  in  Mobile  Bay  on 
Aug.  5,  1864. 

TENNESSEE,  University  of.  A  coeduca¬ 
tional  State  institution,  founded  in  1794  as 
Blount  College.  Its  title  was  changed  in  1807 
to  East  Tennessee  College,  in  1840  to  East  Ten¬ 
nessee  University,  and  in  1879  to  its  present 
name.  The  institution  comprises  a  graduate 
department,  a  college  of  liberal  arts,  a  college 
of  engineering,  a  college  of  agriculture,  a  college 
of  law,  a  school  of  commerce,  and  a  school  of 
education,  all  located  at  Knoxville;  and  a  col¬ 
lege  of  medicine,  a  college  of  dentistry,  and  a 
school  of  pharmacy,  located  at  Memphis.  There 
are  the  usual  four-year  courses  in  arts,  engineer¬ 
ing,  agriculture,  commerce,  medicine,  etc.  In 
addition  to  these  there  is  a  three  years’  course 
in  law  and  one  in  dentistry,  and  two  years’ 
courses  in  agriculture,  pharmacy,  and  prelim¬ 
inary  to  medicine.  Short  courses  are  offered  to 
farmers,  extending  through  six  weeks  in  the 
winter.  The  Summer  School  of  the  South  is 
conducted  at  the  University  of  Tennessee.  It 
has  very  successful  sessions,  the  attendance  gen¬ 
erally  reaching  nearly  two  thousand,  this  num¬ 
ber  having  been  several  times  exceeded.  The 


University  has  a  liberal  system  of  accrediting 
schools,  whose  certificates  are  accepted  in  place 
of  the  usual  entrance  examinations.  Tuition  in 
liberal  arts,  engineering,  agriculture,  commerce, 
and  education  is  free  to  Tennesseans.  The  at¬ 
tendance  in  1916  was  about  1200,  and  the  faculty 
numbered  over  200.  The  library  contained  about 
40,000  volumes.  The  endowment  was  about 
$425,000,  and  the  income  about  $250,000.  The 
grounds  and  buildings  are  valued  at  more  than 
$1,000,000.  The  President  in  1916  was  Brown 
Ayres,  Pli.D.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  who  was  elected  in 
1904. 

TENNESSEE  CENTENNIAL  EXPOSI¬ 
TION.  An  exposition  held  in  Nashville,  Tenn., 
May  1  to  Oct.  30,  1897,  to  celebrate  the  one 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  admission  of  the 
State  into  the  Union.  The  site  covered  about 
200  acres,  and  a  characteristic  feature  of  the 
landscape  plan  was  the  sward  planted  with  the 
famous  blue  grass  of  the  region.  The  buildings, 
of  which  there  were  over  a  hundred,  included 
those  devoted  to  agriculture,  commerce,  educa¬ 
tion,  fine  arts,  history,  machinery,  minerals  and 
forestry,  and  transportation,  as  well  as  those  in 
which  the  special  exhibits  pertaining  to  children, 
negroes,  the  United  States  government,  and 
women  were  shown.  The  total  attendance  was 
1,786,714,  of  which  the  total  paid  attendance 
was  1,166,692.  The  total  receipts  were  $1,101,- 
285,  and  the  disbursements  $1,101,246.  Consult 
Justi,  Official  History  of  the  Tennessee  Cen¬ 
tennial  Exposition  (Nashville,  1898). 

TENNESSEE  RIVER.  The  largest  tribu¬ 
tary  of  the  Ohio  River.  It  is  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  the  IJolston  and  the  French  Broad 
rivers,  about  four  miles  east  of  Knoxville  ( Map  r 
Tennessee,  F  3 ) .  Thence  it  flows  southwestward,. 
enters  into  Alabama  about  40  miles  below  Chat¬ 
tanooga,  Tenn.,  and  after  crossing  the  northern 
part  of  Alabama  again  enters  Tennessee  in 
Harding  County,  whence  it  flows  northward 
across  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and  enters  the 
Ohio  at  Paducah,  about  40  miles  above  Cairo. 
Including  the  Holston,  its  length  is  about  1200 
miles.  Its  drainage  basin  includes  about  39,000 
square  miles.  A  canal  having  been  constructed 
(1889)  around  the  Muscle  Shoals,  between  Flor¬ 
ence  and  Decatur,  Ala.,  the  main  stream  is  now 
navigable  for  673  miles  from  its  mouth.  Its 
chief  affluents  are  the  Clinch,  Hiawassee,  Se¬ 
quatchie,  Elk,  and  Duck  rivers.  The  river  takes 
its  name  from  the  old  Cherokee  Indian  town, 
Tennassee,  which  stood  near  the  present  town  of 
Lenoirs,  Tenn. 

TENNIEL,  ten'yel,  Sir  John  (1820-1914). 
An  English  cartoonist  and  illustrator.  He  was 
born  in  London,  and  was  practically  self-taught. 
In  1845  he  won  a  prize  in  the  competition  for 
the  decoration  of  Westminster  Palace,  with  a 
cartoon,  “Allegory  of  Justice,”  the  success  of 
which  also  secured  for  him  the  commission  to 
paint  a  fresco,  Dryden’s  “Saint  Cecilia,”  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  but  he  soon  devoted  his  time 
entirely  to  work  in  black  and  white,  upon  which 
his  success  rests.  From  1851  to  1901  he  was 
cartoonist  for  Punch,  executing  about  2300  car¬ 
toons,  and  also  innumerable  small  drawings  and 
designs  for  Punch’s  Almanac  and  Punch’s  Poclcet- 
boohs.  His  work  is  characterized  by  correct 
draftsmanship,  and  by  originality  and  freshness 
of  invention,  combined  with  dignity  of  concep¬ 
tion.  His  satire  is  genial,  and  the  statuesque 
beauty  of  his  ideal  subjects  shows  German 
influence.  He  was  knighted  in  1893.  Among 


TENNIS 


104 


TENNYSON 


his  principal  book  illustrations  are  those 
for  AEsop's  Fables  (1848);  Moore’s  Lalla 
liookh  (1861);  Lewis  Carroll’s  Alice’s  Ad¬ 
ventures  in  Wonderland  (1860)  and  its  se¬ 
quel,  Through  the  Looking  Glass  (1870); 
the  Ingoldsby  Legends ;  and  his  classical  illus¬ 
trations  to  the  Legendary  Ballads.  In  collab¬ 
oration  he  illustrated :  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (1857);  Poe’s  Works  (1859);  the 
Arabian  Nights  (1863);  Legends  and  Lyrics 
(1865). 

TENNIS.  A  game  played  with  racquet  and 
ball  in  a  covered  court,  inclosed  by  four  walls. 
A  net  with  each  end  higher  than  the  middle  is 
stretched  across  the  court  midway  between  the 
end  walls.  The  divisions  made  by  the  net  are 
termed  the  “service  side”  and  the  “hazard  side.” 
Points  of  vantage  reserved  for  the  spectators 
include  the  “dedans,”  an  opening,  covered  with 
netting,  in  the  wall  at  the  service  end.  The 
main  wall  (on  the  right  of  the  service  side)  is 
clear,  with  the  exception  of  a  buttress  (called  the 
“tambour”)  on  the  hazard  side.  The  other  three 
walls  have  penthouses,  whose  roofs  slope  down¬ 
ward.  The  walls  should  be  30  feet  high,  the  length 
of  the  court  about  94  feet,  and  its  width  about 
31  feet  at  the  dedans  wall  and  about  30  feet  at 
the  grille  wall,  exclusive  of  the  penthouses.  The 
racquets  used  are  strong  and  heavy,  with  long 
handles,  large  face,  and  a  bulging  side.  The 
interior  of  the  ball  is  of  cloth  and  it  is  therefore 
heavier,  though  of  the  size  and  of  the  same 
color  as  the  lawn-tennis  ball. 

The  play  is  too  complicated  to  be  described 
here  in  detail,  but  in  a  general  way  it  may  be 
explained  that,  to  be  fairly  served,  the  ball 
must  be  struck  from  the  service  court  directly 
onto  the  roof  of  the  left  penthouse,  or  to  the 
wall  above  it,  and  must  then  rebound  into  the 
hazard  side  in  the  court  bounded  by  the  pass 
line  and  the  winning  (last)  gallery;  otherwise 
it  is  a  pass  or  a  foul.  If  the  ball  goes  to  the 
grille  side  of  the  pass  line  the  play  is  termed  a 
“pass.”  LTnless  a  pass  has  occurred,  the  striker- 
out  may  volley  a  service,  provided  the  ball  has 
not  touched  the  penthouse  on  the  grille  side,  and 
if  there  is  no  danger  of  injuring  the  server.  The 
serve  is  counted  as  in  lawn  tennis  ( q.v. ) .  Con¬ 
sult  Court  Games,  edited  by  F.  R.  Toombs,  in 
“Spalding’s  Athletic  Library”  (ib.,  issued  annu¬ 
ally),  and  “Tennis,”  in  the  Encyclopedia  of 
Sport  (London,  1911) 

TENNIS  ELBOW.’  See  Neurosis. 

TENNO,  Jimmu.  See  Jimmu  Tenno. 

TEN'NYSQN,  Alfred,  first  Baron  Tennyson 
(1809-92).  The  most  representative  English 
poet  of  Victoria’s  reign.  He  was  born  on  August 
6,  1809,  at  Somersby,  in  Lincolnshire,  a  village 
of  which  his  father  was  rector.  Two  of  his 
brothers  also  displayed  no  slight  poetic  gifts, 
Frederick  (q.v.),  and  Charles,  afterward  known 
as  Charles  Tennyson  Turner  (q.v.).  Alfred 
spent  four  years  (1816-20)  at  the  grammar 
school  of  Louth,  a  few  miles  from  his  home,  and 
for  the  next  eight  years  his  education  was 
directed  by  his  father,  a  man  of  some  literary 
talent.  He  roamed  the  country  round,  delight¬ 
ing  in  the  rural  charm  of  the  neighborhood,  and 
laying  the  foundations  of  that  full  and  minute 
knowledge  of  nature  for  which  his  verse  is  con¬ 
spicuous,  read  extensively,  and  tried  his  hand 
in  the  manner  of  Pope,  Thomson,  Scott,  Moore, 
and  Byron.  Fragments  of  this  early  work  found 
their  way  into  Poems  by  Two  Brothers  (1827; 
reprinted  1893),  written  in  conjunction  with  his 


brother  Charles.  In  1828  the  two  brothers  en¬ 
tered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  to  which  Fred¬ 
erick  had  gone  a  year  earlier.  At  the  university 
Tennyson  was  associated  with  a  remarkable 
group  of  young  men,  most  of  whom  formed  the 
famous  society  known  as  The  Apostles.  To 
this  group  belonged  Thackeray,  Spedding, 
Trench,  Monckton  Milnes,  afterward  Lord 
Houghton,  Merivale,  Alford,  and  Arthur  Henry 
Hallam,  son  of  the  historian,  who  discerned  his 
friend’s  genius  and  in  1829  told  Gladstone  that 
Tennyson  “promised  fair  to  be  the  greatest  poet 
of  our  generation,  perhaps  of  our  century.” 

In  that  same  year,  with  Timbuctoo,  a  poem  in 
blank  verse,  Tennyson  won  the  Chancellor’s  gold 
medal,  and  while  still  in  residence  published  the 
epoch-making  volume  of  Poems,  Chiefly  Lyrical. 
In  1830,  when  the  slim  little  book  appeared, 
poetry  seemed  to  be  dead,  and  the  novel,  under 
the  impulse  of  the  unprecedented  success  of  the 
Waverley  series,  held  the  field.  Showing  the 
influence  of  Coleridge  and  Keats,  the  poems  in 
this  volume  were  by  no  means  essentially  imita¬ 
tive;  rather,  they  contain  in  germ  nearly  all  of 
Tennyson’s  great  original  qualities.  In  the  same 
year  he  traveled  in  the  Pyrenees  with  Hallam, 
and  there,  in  the  valley  of  Cauterets,  he  wrote 
parts  of  “CEnone.” 

He  left  Cambridge  without  a  degree  in  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1831,  for  various  reasons,  but  chiefly  the 
ill  health  of  his  father,  who  died  a  few  weeks 
later.  The  family,  however,  remained  at  Som¬ 
ersby  for  six  years  longer.  The  second  volume 
of  Poems  (1833)  contained  many  of  his  choicest 
minor  pieces:  “The  Lady  of  Shalott,”  “The 
Miller’s  Daughter,”  “The  Palace  of  Art,”  “The 
Lotos-Eaters,”  and  “A  Dream  of  Fair  Women.” 
Except  by  his  friends,  the  collection  was  not  well 
received ;  Lockhart  wrote  an  especially  brutal 
review  in  the  Quarterly  for  April.  In  Septem¬ 
ber  a  lifelong  sorrow  fell  upon  the  poet  in  the 
death  of  Hallam,  his  dearest  friend,  who  was 
engaged  to  his  sister  Emily.  For  ten  years  he 
remained  silent,  reading  largely,  revising  old 
poems,  and  writing  new  ones.  By  1836  he  had 
definitely  given  his  heart  to  his  future  wife, 
Emily  Sarah  Sellwood,  the  sister  of  his  brother 
Charles’s  wife.  But,  though  deficiency  of  in¬ 
come  seemed  an  insuperable  bar  to  marriage, 
and  though  her  relatives  forbade  even  corre¬ 
spondence,  Tennyson  had  no  thought  of  deserting 
the  art  to  which  his  life  belonged  to  take  up  a 
profession  more  lucrative. 

In  1842  he  gained  his  public  with  Poems  in 
two  volumes,  representing  a  wide  range  of  theme 
and  metrical  structure.  Here  first  appeared 
“Morte  d’ Arthur,”  the  first  sketch  of  the  Idylls 
of  the  King ;  “Ulysses,”  “Locksley  Hall,”  “Go- 
diva,”  “Break,  break,  break,”  and  “The  Two 
Voices.”  Tennyson’s  place  in  English  poetry 
was  now  secure;  but  fortune  seemed  far  off.  His 
capital  was  shattered  by  a  strange  investment 
in  wood-carving  machinery;  and  in  1845  Peel 
was  moved  by  Lord  Houghton  to  grant  him  a 
civil-list  pension  of  £200.  In  1847  appeared 
The  Princess,  a  romantic  medley  in  musical 
blank  verse,  marked  by  his  “curious  felicity”  of 
style,  and  containing,  in  its  third  (1850)  edition, 
some  wonderful  lyrics.  The  year  1850  has  been 
called  his  annus  mirabilis.  In  June  he  published 
In  Memoriam,  a  tribute  to  the  memory  of  Arthur 
Hallam.  At  first  not  well  understood,  it  has 
now  definitely  taken  its  place  with  Lycidas,  Ad- 
onais,  and  Thyrsis  among  the  great  English 
elegies.  In  the  same  month  he  married  Miss 


TENNYSON 

FROM  AN  ETCHING  BY  PAUL  RAJON 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  Of  1111*018 


TENNYSON 


105 


TENNYSON 


Sell  wood  (with  whom,  he  said  afterward,  “the 
peace  of  God  came  into  my  life”)  ;  and  in  No¬ 
vember  he  was  appointed  poet  laureate,  succeed¬ 
ing  Wordsworth.  He  settled  with  his  bride  at 
Twickenham,  where  he  lived  until  (in  1853)  he 
leased  and  shortly  afterward  purchased  the  es¬ 
tate  of  Farringford,  near  Freshwater,  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight,  where  he  was  wont  to  live  for  a  part 
at  least  of  each  year  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
After  1870  he  divided  his  time  between  Farring¬ 
ford  and  Aldworth,  a  house  which  he  built  on 
Blackdown  Hill,  near  Haslemere. 

In  1855  appeared  Maud,  and  Other  Poems. 
“Maud,”  a  great  favorite  with  Tennyson,  puzzled 
the  critics,  who  tried  to  find  in  it  the  result 
of  the  author’s  own  experience,  though  it  is 
rather  a  vivid  dramatic  conception,  rare  with 
Tennyson.  “No  modern  poem,”  said  Jowett, 
“contains  more  lines  that  ring  in  the  ears  of 
men.”  The  same  volume  contained  the  popular 
“Brook”  and  “The  Charge  of  the  Light  Bri¬ 
gade.”  Returning  to  Arthurian  legend,  Tennyson 
published  in  1859  four  of  the  Idylls  of  the  King ; 
others  were  added  in  1869,  and  in  1872  they 
were  arranged  in  sequence,  with  a  completion  in 
“Balin  and  Balan”  (1885).  Though^  his  concep¬ 
tion  of  the  Arthurian  romances  has  been  severely 
criticized,  and  though  it  must  be  confessed  that 
his  favorite  heroes  have  here  something  of  the 
aspect  of  carpet  knights,  the  Idylls  still  remain 
on  the  whole  a  fine  achievement  and  in  scattered 
passages  quite  above  criticism.  Enoch  Arden 
(1864)  was  the  most  immediately  popular  of  all 
his  volumes;  sixty  thousand  copies  were  sold, 
and  the  title  poem  was  translated  into  eight 
languages.  From  the  epic  Tennyson  turned  to 
the  drama,  producing  Queen  Mary  (  1875),  Har¬ 
old  (1876),  and  Bechet  (1844).  Besides  these 
imposing  historical  pieces  are  The  Falcon 
(1884),  The  Cup  (1884),  The  Promise  of  May 
(1886),  and  The  Foresters  (1892),  of  which 
The  Cup  was  the  most  successful  as  an  acting 
play.  Tennyson’s  productive  imagination  contin¬ 
ued  active  throughout  his  last  years.  His  last 
volumes  were  Ballads  and  Other  Poems  (1880), 
containing  “Rizpah”  and  “The  Northern  Cob¬ 
bler”;  Tiresias  and  Other  Poems  (1885);  De¬ 
meter  and  Other  Poems  (1889),  containing 
“Crossing  the  Bar”;  and  the  posthumous  Death 
of  CEnone  and  Other  Poems  (1892). 

In  1884,  after  some  hesitation,  the  poet  ac¬ 
cepted  a  peerage.  He  died  at  Aldworth,  Oct. 
6,  1892,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

No  English  poet  has  produced  masterpieces  in 
so  many  different  kinds  as  Tennyson;  he  is  the 
representative  figure  in  literature  of  the  Victo¬ 
rian  era,  because  he  touched  and  reconciled  a 
greater  number  of  its  diverse  interests  than  any 
other  writer.  Yet  he  is  in  constant  protest 
against  the  individualism  which  that  period  in¬ 
herited  from  the  Romantic  revival.  The  most 
salient  feature  of  his  mental  attitude  is  his 
sense  of  law;  it  is  the  “reign  of  law”  as  shown 
by  modern  science  which  most  attracts  him  to 
scientific  subjects.  The  consummate  artistic  ex¬ 
cellence  of  his  verse,  resembling  in  many  of  its 
qualities  that  of  Vergil,  gives  him  an  abiding 
place  in  literature.  No  better  example  exists 
in  English  of  the  eclectic  style  made  up  of 
elements  inherited  from  many  of  his  great  pred¬ 
ecessors,  emulating  “by  turns  the  sweet  felicity 
of  Keats,  the  tender  simplicity  of  Wordsworth, 
the  straightforward  vigor  of  Burns,  the  elusive 
melody  and  dreamlike  magic  of  Coleridge,  the 
stormy  sweep  of  Byron,  the  large  majesty  of 


Milton”;  and  he  expressed,  with  such  an  in¬ 
strument,  a  teaching  which  was  uniformly  pure, 
noble,  and  consoling. 

Bibliography.  Standard  editions  of  Tenny¬ 
son's  Complete  Works:  Cambridge  ed.,  by  W.  J. 
Rolfe  (Boston,  1898);  Household  ed.  ( ib., 

1899) ;  Cabinet  ed.  (I  vol.,  ib.,  1899;  the  same, 
12  vols.,  ib.,  1902);  Riverside  ed.  (7  vols.,  ib., 

1904)  ;  New  Popular  ed.  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1906)  ; 
Popular  ed.  (ib.,  1907);  Globe  ed.  (New  York, 

1907)  ;  Eversley  ed.,  by  Hallam,  Lord  Tenny¬ 
son  (6  vols.,  ib.,  1908)  ;  in  Everyman’s  Library 
(ib.,  1910)  ;  Works  of  Tennyson,  with  Notes  by 
the  Author,  edited  with  Memoir  by  Hallam, 
Lord  Tennyson  (ib.,  1913).  Concordances  and 
bibliographies:  D.  B.  Brightwell,  Concordance 
to  the  Entire  Works  of  Alfred  Tennyson  (Lon¬ 
don,  1870)  ;  R.  H.  Shepherd,  Bibliography  of 
Tennyson  (ib.,  1896)  ;  J.  C.  Thomson,  Bibliog¬ 
raphy  of  the  Writings  of  Tennyson  (New  York, 

1905)  ;  T.  J.  Wise,  Bibliography  of  the  Writings 
of  Alfred,  Lord  Tennyson  (2  vols.,  London, 

1908)  ;  A.  E.  Baker,  Concordance  to  the  Poetical 
and  Dramatic  Works  of  Alfred,  Lord  Tenny¬ 
son  (ib.,  1914).  Biographies:  the  authorized 
life  of  Tennyson  is  Hallam,  Lord  Tennyson, 
Alfred,  Lord  Tennyson:  A  Memoir  (2  vols.,  New 
York,  1898;  new  ed.,  ib.,  1905;  in  1  vol.,* 
ib.,  1911)  ;  see  also  Mrs.  A.  T.  Ritchie,  Records 
of  Tennyson,  Ruskin,  and  Browning  ( Lon¬ 
don,  1896)  ;  Sir  A.  C.  Lyall,  Tennyson,  in  “Eng¬ 
lish  Men  of  Letters  Series”  (London,  1902)  ; 
Andrew  Lang,  Alfred  Tennyson  (ib.,  1901);  A. 
C.  Benson,  Alfred  Tennyson  (ib.,  1907)  ;  A. 
Turnbull,  Life  and  Writings  of  Lord  Tennyson 
(ib.,  1915)  ;  T.  R.  Lounsbury,  The  Life  and 
Times  of  Tennyson  from  1809  to  1850  (New 
Haven,  1915).  General  criticism,  etc.:  Edward* 
Dowden,  “Tennyson  and  Browning,”  in  Studies 
in  Literature  (5th  ed.,  London,  1889)  ;  Mrs.  A. 
T.  Ritchie,  Tennyson  and  his  Friends  (ib., 
1893)  ;  J.  C.  Walters,  Tennyson :  Poet,  Philoso¬ 
pher,  Idealist  (ib.,  1893)  ;  S.  A.  Brooke,  Tenny¬ 
son:  His  Art  and  Relation  to  Modern  Life 
(2d  ed.,  ib.,  1894)  ;  G.  E.  B.  Saintsbury,  in 
Corrected  Impressions  (New  York,  1895)  ;  V*.  D. 
Scudder,  in  Life  of  the  Spirit  in  the  Modern 
English  Poets  (Boston,  1897)  ;  E.  L.  Cary, 
Tennyson :  His  Homes,  his  Friends,  and  his 
Work  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Henry  van  Dyke, 
The  Poetry  of  Tennyson  (10th  ed.,  ib.,  1898); 
A.  H.  Strong,  Great  Poets  and  their  Theology 
(Philadelphia,  1899)  ;  E.  H.  Sneath,  The  Mind 
of  Tennyson  (New  York,  1900)  ;  Frederic  Har¬ 
rison,  Tennyson,  Ruskin,  and  Mills  (ib.,  1900)  ; 
J.  C.  Collins,  Early  Poems  of  Tennyson,  with 
Bibliography  and  Various  Readings  (London, 

1900)  ;  S.  A.  Brooke,  “Browning  and  Tenny¬ 
son,”  in  Poetry  of  Robert  Browning  (ib.,  1903)  ; 
R.  H.  Hutton,  “Tennyson,”  in  Literary  Essays 
(ib.,  1893)  ;  Morton  Luce,  Handbook  to  the 
Works  of  Alfred,  Lord  Tennyson  (New  York, 
1908);  P.  E.  More,  in  Shelburne  Essays  (7th 
series,  ib.,  1910)  ;  E.  W.  Gosse,  in  Portraits 
and  Sketches  (London,  1912)  ;  Hallam,  Lord 
Tennyson,  Tennyson  and  his  Friends  (ib., 
1912)  ;  H.  D.  Rawnsley,  Memoirs  of  the  Tenny- 
sons  (New  York,  1912)  ;  Oliver  Huckel,  Through 
England  ioith  Tennyson  (ib.,  1913). 

TENNYSON,  Charles.  See  Turner,  Charles 
Tennyson. 

TENNYSON,  Frederick  (1807-98).  An 
English  poet,  brother  of  Alfred  Tennyson  (q.v.), 
born  at  Louth,  in  Lincolnshire.  In  1827  he  left 
Eton,  as  captain  of  the  school,  and  went  up  to 


TENNYSON 


106 


TENSKWATAWA 


Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
in  1832.  He  passed  most  of  his  time  for  many 
years  on  the  Continent,  living  for  a  long  period 
at  Florence.  In  1859  he  settled  in  the  Isle  of 
Jersey,  where  he  remained  until  1896.  He  then 
removed  to  Kensington,  where  he  died.  With 
his  brothers,  Alfred  and  Charles,  Frederick 
wrote  verse  before  his  college  days.  To  their 
Poems  by  Two  Brothers  (1827)  he  contributed 
four  poems.  In  1854  he  published  Days  and 
Hours,  which  contained  several  beautiful  and 
noble  lyrics.  In  1890  appeared  The  Isles  of 
Creece  ;  in  1891,  Daphne  and  Other  Poems ;  and 
Poems  of  the  Day  and  Year  (1895).  His  Short¬ 
er  Poems,  with  an  introduction  by  Charles  B.  L. 
Tennyson,  were  collected  in  1913.  Alfred  Tenny¬ 
son  said  that  his  brother’s  poems  “were  organ- 
tones  echoing  among  the  mountains.” 

TENNYSON,  Hallam,  second  Bakon  Tenny¬ 
son  ( 1852-  ) .  Eldest  son  of  the  poet,  Alfred, 

Lord  Tennyson  (q.v. ).  He  was  born  at  Twicken¬ 
ham,  was  educated  at  Marlborough  College,  and 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  studied  law 
at  the  Inner  Temple,  after  which  he  was  for  some 
years  his  father’s  private  secretary.  To  the 
Contemporary  Review  for  November,  1876,  he 
contributed  a  translation  of  the  old  English 
song  of  Brunanburh,  which  was  afterward 
turned  into  verse  by  his  father.  In  1880  he 
edited,  with  an  introduction,  the  sonnets  and 
lyrics  of  his  uncle  Charles  Tennyson  Turner 
(q.v.)  ;  and  in  1897  he  published  the  authorized 
life  of  his  father,  under  the  title  Alfred,  Lord 
Tennyson :  A  Memoir.  Governor  of  South  Aus¬ 
tralia  from  1899  to  1902,  he  was  then  Governor- 
General  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia  for 
two  years.  He  received  the  G.C.M.G.  and  honor¬ 
ary  degrees  from  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  In 
1908  he  brought  out  the  Eversley  edition  of  his 
father’s  complete  works,  which  contained  notes 
by  his  father  and  by  himself;  and  in  1912  ap¬ 
peared  Tennyson  and  his  Friends,  edited  by 
him,  a  work  abounding  in  personal  anecdote 
and  literary  reminiscence. 

TENOCHTXTLAN,  ta-noch'tet-lan'.  The 
ancient  capital  of  the  Aztecs,  occupying  the  site 
of  the  present  city  of  Mexico  (q.v.). 

TENOR  (OF.  tenour,  teneur,  from  ML.  tenor, 
chief  melody,  highest  male  voice  to  which  this 
was  assigned,  Lat.  tenor,  a  holding,  tone,  accent, 
from  tenere,  to  hold,  retain).  In  music,  one  of 
the  classes  into  which  voices  are  divided  in  re¬ 
spect  to  their  compass.  It  is  the  highest  adult 
male  voice,  with  an  approximate  range  from  c 
to  a1.  Music  for  tenor  voices  is  generally  writ¬ 
ten  .in  the  treble  clef,  or  an  octave  higher  than 
its  true  pitch.  The  sign  of  the  C  clef  is  also 
often  used,  but  it  is  not  placed  on  the  second 
line,  but  second  space,  so  that  the  music  is  read 
as  in  the  treble  clef,  but  an  octave  lower.  Two 
classes  of  tenors  can  be  recognized,  the  heroic 
and  lyric  tenors  ( tenore  robusto,  tenore  di 
grazia) .  The  heroic  tenors  have  something  of 
the  sonorous  quality  of  the  barytone  in  the 
lower  register. 

TE'NOS,  or  TINOS,  te'nos.  An  island  in  the 
yEgean  Sea  belonging  to  the  Cyclades  (q.v.)  and 
known  as  one  of  the  most  productive  in  the 
group  (Map:  Greece,  G  6).  It  has  an  uneven 
surface  and  covers  an  area  of  79  square  miles. 
On  the  south  coast  is  the  little  town  of  the  same 
name,  called  also  Hagios  Nikolaos  (St.  Nich¬ 
olas).  It  is  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town  of 
Tenos,  the  remains  of  whose  temple  of  Poseidon 
were  laid  bare  in  1902.  The  chief  industries  are 


wine  making  and  marble  quarrying.  Corn  grows 
in  abundance  and  fig  exportation  is  important. 
Pop.,  1906,  12,300.  Tenos  played  an  active  part 
in  the  struggle  between  the  Greeks  and  Persians, 
as  well  as  in  the  Greek  revolution  of  1821-27. 

TENOT'OMY  (from  Gk.  revwv,  tenon,  tendon, 
from  reiveLv,  teinein,  to  stretch,  strain  -f-  ropy, 
tome,  a  cutting,  from  repveiv,  temnein,  to  cut). 
The  division  of  a  tendon ;  a  surgical  procedure 
which  usually  has  for  its  object  the  relief  of 
some  variety  of  deformity  by  severing  a  perma¬ 
nently  contracted  muscle  at  its  tendinous  por¬ 
tion.  The  affections  in  which  tenotomy  is  most 
frequently  found  useful  are  clubfoot  (q.v.), 
contractions  of  the  extremities  following  paraly¬ 
sis,  deformity  from  contraction  of  the  palmar 
fascia,  wryneck  (q.v.),  ankylosis  of  the  joints, 
and  strabismus  ( q.v. ) . 

TEN  PERSECUTIONS  OF  THE  CHRIS¬ 
TIANS.  See  Persecutions  of  the  Christians, 
The  Ten. 

TEN'REC  (Malagasy  name).  An  insectivore 
of  the  African  family  Centetidse.  Of  the  seven 
genera  and  many  species,  the  best  known  is  the 
tenrec  (also  spelled  tendrac  and  tanrec),  which 
is  about  a  foot  long,  and  owes  its  specific 
name  ( Centetes  ecaudatus)  to  having  no  tail. 
Its  hairs  are  rather  spiny,  but  actual  spines  ap¬ 
pear  only  in  the  young,  which  have  three  lines 
of  them  along  the  back,  shed  at  the  time  of  the 
arrival  of  the  permanent  teeth.  The  tenrecs  are 
nocturnal  animals,  natives  of  Madagascar  and 
the  Mascarene  isles.  Three  other  species  exist. 
They  feed  mainly  on  earthworms,  aestivate  dur¬ 
ing  the  hot  season,  and  produce  many  young, 
sometimes  more  than  20.  The  flesh  is  edible, 
and  the  animal  is  so  useful  in  the  destruction  of 
worms  and  insects  that  it  has  been  introduced 
into  Mauritius  and  Bourbon.  See  Plate  of  Por¬ 
cupines  and  Hedgehogs. 

TENSA.  See  T;ensa. 

TENSE.  In  grammar  (q.v.),  the  change  in 
the  form  of  a  verb  which  marks  the  time  of  the 
action.  See  Conjugation;  Verb;  Grammar; 
Philology,  Syntax. 

TENSKWATAWA,  ten-skwa'ta-wa,  or  ELK- 
SWAT  AW  A,  elk-swa/ta-wa  (the  open  door) 

( c.  1775-1834 ) .  A  Shawnee  prophet,  younger 
brother  of  Tecumseh  (q.v.).  Fie  attracted  no 
special  notice  in  his  tribe  until  November,  1805, 
when,  at  the  ancient  town  of  Wapakoneta,  in 
what  is  now  northwestern  Ohio,  he  made  public 
proclamation  of  a  vision  during  a  recent  trance, 
in  which  he  claimed  to  have  been  taken  up  to  the 
spirit  world  and  to  have  received  there  a  reve¬ 
lation  from  the  God  of  the  Indians,  by  which 
they  wTere  commanded  to  return  to  their  primi¬ 
tive  condition  and  customs.  In  a  short  time  his 
followers  were  numbered  by  the  thousands 
throughout  the  region  of  the  Ohio  valley  and 
the  upper  lakes.  He  was  believed  to  be  the  liv¬ 
ing  incarnation  of  Manabozho  (q.v.),  the  great 
culture  god  of  the  Algonquian  race.  In  the 
spring  of  1808  he  removed,  together  with  his 
brother,  from  Greenville,  Ohio,  to  a  more  central 
location  on  the  Wabash  just  below  the  entrance 
of  the  Tippecanoe,  the  new  settlement  being 
familiarly  known  as  Prophet’s  Town.  Here  the 
prophet  continued  to  preach,  but  the  battle  of 
Tippecanoe,  Nov.  7,  1811,  broke  his  power 

and  prestige.  His  followers  scattered  to  their 
tribes  until  again  summoned  to  battle  by  the 
English.  Everywhere  denounced  as  a  liar  and 
deceiver,  he  finally  found  refuge  with  the  Wyan¬ 
dot.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  1812  he 


TENSON 


107 


TENURE 


crossed  over  into  Canada,  but  returned  when 
peace  was  declared  and  rejoined  his  tribe  in 
Ohio,  removing  with  them  to  the  West  in  1827. 

TENSON.  See  Tenzon. 

TENT.  A  portable  structure  of  canvas,  skin, 
or  other  fabrics,  designed  for  shelter.  Animal 
skins  and  foliage  doubtless  formed  the  earliest 
coverings,  for  which  textile  fabrics  have  been 
substituted.  In  the  Book  of  Genesis  the  patri¬ 
archs  are  represented  as  dwelling  in  tents,  prob¬ 
ably  the  same  as  the  modern  Arab  tents,  large 
rude  structures,  low,  but  covering  a  considerable 
space  of  ground.  The  early  Greek  and  Mace¬ 
donian  military  tents  were  small  coverings  of 
skin,  each  tent  sheltering  two  soldiers.  The  Ro¬ 
mans  used  two  sorts  of  tents,  one  of  canvas,  con¬ 
structed  with  two  upright  poles  and  a  ridgepole 
between,  similar  to  the  camping  tent  of  to-day; 
the  other  resembling  a  light  hut — a  wooden 
skeleton,  covered  by  bark,  hides,  thatch,  or 
other  material  affording  warmth  or  protection. 
This  latter  type,  it  may  be  presumed,  was  only 
employed  in  the  winter  or  for  more  permanent 
camps.  Each  tent  sheltered  ten  soldiers  with 
their  decanus.  Possibly  the  tent  has  reached  its 
highest  perfection  in  Persia,  where  there  are 
many  tribes  who  dwell  in  tents.  They  are  nearly 
hemispherical,  over  a  wooden  framework,  and 
covered  with  felt,  with  worked  hangings  cover¬ 
ing  the  entrance.  The  Chinese  lower  classes  also 
live  much  in  tents,  and  while  their  construction 
is  invariably  of  matting,  they  are  usually  of 
great  size  and  comfortable  in  design.  Mod¬ 
ern  military  tents  are  made  of  cotton  canvas, 
and  latterly,  since  the  adoption  of  the  khaki  and 
olive-drab  color  and  its  wide  use  in  military 
uniforms,  tents  made  in  this  color  have  been 
very  largely  employed  both  in  England  and  in 
America  as  being  cooler  than  those  of  white 
canvas.  The  largest  military  tents  are  those 
used  for  hospital  purposes.  They  are  oblong  in 
shape,  with  high  side  walls.  The  tent  most  com¬ 
monly  used  in  military  camps  is  conical  or  py¬ 
ramidal,  about  12  feet  in  diameter  and  10  feet 
high,  affording  sleeping  accommodation  to  about 
16  men.  In  the  United  States  army  live  kinds  of 
tents  are  employed :  hospital,  wall,  A,  pyramidal, 
and  shelter.  Where  possible  a  fly  or  outer  roof 
is  used  over  the  tent  proper.  The  shelter  or 
“dog  tent”  is  a  small,  easily  carried  contrivance 
which  affords  a  degree  of  shelter  for  two  men. 
Whether  field  troops  should  be  supplied  with 
tents  or  not  is  a  much  discussed  question.  In 
a  thickly  settled  country  they  may  not  be  needed. 
They  are  needed,  however,  under  conditions  re¬ 
quiring  the  semipermanent  occupation  of  a 
sparsely  settled  region  (e.g.,  the  Mexican  border, 
1914-16).  The  leading  consideration  is  one  of 
transportation,  as  the  tentage  of  a  modern  army 
would  add  enormously  to  the  transport  facilities 
needed.  See  Encampment. 

TENTACULITES,  ten'tak-u-li'tez  (Neo-Lat. 
nom.  pi.,  from  tentaculum,  tentacle,  feeler,  from 
Lat.  tentare,  to  touch,  test,  try ) .  An  important 
genus  of  fossil  shells  found  in  Silurian  and  De¬ 
vonian  rocks  and  often  so  abundant  that  they 
constitute  the  greater  portion  of  thin  limestone 
beds.  The  shells  are  of  delicate,  elongate  conic 
form  with  the  outer  surface  marked  by  regular 
transverse  striations  of  either  the  same  or  alter¬ 
nate  sizes,  and  also  by  very  delicate  longitudinal 
lines  in  the  hollow  between  the  striations.  The 
species  range  from  ^4  to  3  inches  in  length.  See 
Pteropoda. 

TENT  CATERPILLAR.  The  larvse  of  four 
Vol.  XXII.— 8 


species  of  silk-spinning  moths  of  the  genus  Mala- 
cosoma  (formerly  Clisiocampa) .  The  female 
of  the  apple-tree  tent  caterpillar  ( Malacosoma 
americana) ,  a  dull  reddish-brown  moth  with 
two  oblique  pale  stripes  on  the  fore  wings,  lays 
eggs  in  ringlike  masses  fastened  to  small  twigs 
of  apple,  cherry,  thorn,  etc.  The  caterpillars 
hatch  in  early  spring  in  the  nearest  fork  of  the 
twigs  and  spin  a  web  or  tent  in  which  they  live 
in  company,  but  which  they  leave  when  hungry, 
to  feed  upon  leaves.  The  tent  is  enlarged  as  the 
creatures  grow.  They  hibernate  in  the  egg 
stage.  The  eggs  are  easily  seen  in  the  winter 
and  may  be  destroyed  and  the  caterpillars  killed 
just  at  nightfall  within  the  tents  by  burning  or 
spraying  with  kerosene.  The  so-called  forest 
tent  caterpillar,  or  forest  army  worm  ( Malaco - 
soma  disstria) ,  has  similar  habits,  but  the  ring 
of  eggs  is  perfectly  cylindrical  instead  of  being 
rather  elliptical  as  with  the  former.  Both  of 
these  species  are  of  Eastern  distribution.  On 
the  Western  coast  the  larva  of  Malacosoma  con- 
stricta  infests  fruit  trees  in  the  late  summer, 
and  the  larva  of  Malacosoma  californica  is  found 
upon  oaks  early  in  the  season.  An  incredible 
amount  of  damage  is  done  by  these  larvse  every 
year  to  forest  and  fruit  trees  in  America. 

TEN'TERDEN,  Charles  Abbott,  first  Baron 
(1762—1832).  An  English  lawyer  and  jurist, 
born  at  Canterbury.  Abbott  graduated  at  Cor¬ 
pus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  in  1785,  *and  soon 
afterward  was  made  a  fellow.  After  being  a 
student  of  the  Inner  Temple  he  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1796.  He  joined  the  Oxford  circuit, 
and  rapidly  acquired  a  lucrative  practice.  He 
published,  in  1802,  his  treatise  on  Merchant 
Ships  and  Seamen,  in  all  respects  the  best- 
written  book  which  had  till  then  appeared  on 
one  department  of  English  law  and  still  a  stand¬ 
ard  authority.  In  1816  he  accepted  a  puisne 
judgeship  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas;  and 
in  1818  he  was  knighted,  and  chosen  to  succeed 
Lord  Ellenborough  as  Chief  Justice  of  the  King’s 
Bench.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1827  as 
Baron  Tenterden  of  Hendon. 

TEN  THOUSAND,  Retreat  of  the.  See 
Anabasis  ;  Xenophon. 

TEN  THOUSAND  A  YEAR.  A  novel  by 
Samuel  Warren  (1841). 

TENURE  (OF.,  Fr.  tenure,  from  Lat.  tenere, 
to  hold,  retain).  The  manner  in  which  a  person 
holds  or  owns  real  property.  The  word  implies 
something  less  than  an  absolute  and  unqualified 
ownership.  Before  the  development  of  the  feudal 
system,  an  individual  could  own  a  piece  of  land 
absolutely,  and  such  allegiance  as  he  might  owe 
to  a  superior  power  was  a  personal  matter.  How¬ 
ever,  at  the  very  basis  of  the  feudal  system  were 
the  ideas  of  protection  and  service,  of  the  do¬ 
minion  of  the  King  and  the  dependence  and  sub¬ 
ordination  of  the  subject.  Out  of  these  ideas 
originated  the  feudal  doctrine  that  the  King 
should  own  all  the  land,  and  that  his  subjects 
were  only  entitled  to  hold  such  portions  of  it  as 
he  might  parcel  out  to  them,  and  on  such  con¬ 
ditions  as  he  might  impose.  The  Anglo-Saxons 
held  their  lands  allodially,  i.e.,  by  absolute  and 
unqualified  ownership;  but  when  the  Conqueror 
assumed  the  throne  he  parceled  out  the  country 
to  his  men  as  if  it  were  his  private  estate  and 
introduced  the  intricate  feudal  tenures  which 
had  grown  up  on  the  Continent.  See  Feudalism. 

With  respect  to  their  character  and  dignity, 
tenures  under  the  feudal  system  in  England  may 
be  classified  as  free  and  base  or  nonfree  tenures. 


TENURE 


108 


TEOSINTE 


The  most  common  of  the  free  tenures  was  that 
by  knight’s  service,  which  involved  allegiance, 
military  service,  and  other  duties  to  the  King 
or  overlord.  This  tenure  was  created  by  a 
solemn  ceremony,  in  which  the  prospective  ten¬ 
ant  was  said  to  pay  homage  to  his  lord,  who 
thereby  became  bound  to  protect  him  in  exchange 
for  his  promises  of  service  and  fealty.  The  chief 
service  was  performed  by  actual  military  duty 
when  necessary,  although  at  a  later  period  a 
practice  of  making  payments  or  sending  sub¬ 
stitutes,  instead  of  the  personal  service,  was 
sanctioned.  Other  heavy  burdens  incident  to 
this  tenure  were  known  as  reliefs,  aids,  ward¬ 
ships,  and  marriage  (qq.v. ),  which  yielded  a 
large  revenue  to  the  great  men  of  the  realm. 

Less  common,  but  of  greater  dignity,  was  the 
tenure  by  grand  sergeanty,  which  involved  som’e 
personal  service  to  the  King,  usually  something 
other  than  military  duty,  as  to  be  his  cupbearer, 
chief  justice,  standard  bearer,  etc.  Petty  ser¬ 
geanty  did  not  usually  involve  personal  service, 
but  some  tribute,  such  as  rendering  to  the  King 
annually  a  weapon  or  a  pair  of  spurs.  See 
Grand  Sergeanty. 

Lands  were  frequently  conveyed  to  the  clergy 
on  condition  that  they  sing  masses  for  the  souls 
of  the  poor  or  distribute  alms  at  certain  inter¬ 
vals.  This  was  known  as  tenure  by  frankal¬ 
moign  or  free  alms.  In  early  times  such  land 
also  remained  subject  to  the  burdens  of  feudal 
tenure. 

As  the  rigor  of  the  feudal  system  relaxed  ten¬ 
ure  by  socage  became  the  common  and  popular 
manner  of  holding  land.  See  Socage. 

Gavelkind,  borough  English,  and  burgage  ten¬ 
ures  were  merely  forms  of  socage  tenure,  changed 
somewhat  by  local  custom.  The  Statute  of  Mili¬ 
tary  Tenures  in  1640  converted  the  military  ten¬ 
ures  into  free  and  common  socage. 

During  the  Norman  era  there  existed  in  Eng¬ 
land  a  large  class  of  people  known  as  villeins, 
who  were  practically  serfs,  and  were  generally 
attached  to  the  land.  They  were  given  small 
plots  to  cultivate  and  were  required  to  perform 
the  most  menial  services  for  the  lord  at  his  will. 
This  was  known  as  the  tenure  of  villeinage  and 
was  a  base  or  nonfree  tenure.  It  became  the 
custom,  however,  to  note  the  succession  of  a  son 
to  his  father,  and  the  character  of  services  per¬ 
formed  by  the  latter,  on  the  rolls  or  records 
of  the  court  baron  of  the  manor.  By  this  cus¬ 
tom  the  services  required  of  villeins  in  each 
manor  assumed  a  more  certain  and  definite  char¬ 
acter,  and  they  were  said  to  hold  by  virtue  of  a 
‘‘copy  of  the  rolls  of  the  court.”  At  a  later 
period  the  payment  of  rent  in  some  form  was 
substituted  for  menial  services,  and  the  copy- 
hold  tenant,  as  he  came  to  be  called,  became  a 
respectable  member  of  the  community.  Many 
copyhold  tenures  still  prevail,  and  the  old  prac¬ 
tice  of  resorting  to  the  “custom  of  the  manor” 
to  ascertain  their  character  or  incidents  still 
obtains. 

In  the  United  States  most  of  the  lands  origi¬ 
nally  granted  by  the  crown  and  proprietors  of 
plantations  were  held  in  free  and  common  soc¬ 
age,  and  a  modified  form  of  this  tenure  still 
obtains  in  a  few  States.  In  most  of  the  States, 
however,  all  feudal  tenures  have  been  abolished 
and  lands  are  held  allodially,  i.e.,  absolutely  and 
subject  only  to  the  right  of  eminent  domain  in 
the  State. 

Bibliography.  James  Kent,  Commentary  on 
American  Law  (14th  ed.,  4  vols.,  Boston,  1896)  ; 


Sir  K.  E.  Digby,  History  of  the  Law  of  Real 
Property  (5th  ed.,  Oxford,  1897)  ;  Encyclopedia 
of  the  Laws  of  England  (London, ,  1897-98)  ; 
Sir  William  Blackstone,  Commentaries  (4tli 
Amer.  ed.,  2  vols.,  Chicago,  1899)  ;  Pollock  and 
Maitland,  History  of  English  Law  Before  the 
Time  of  Edward  l  (2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  Cambridge, 
1903)  ;  Joshua  Williams,  Principles  of  the  Law 
of  Real  Property  (21st  ed.,  London,  1910). 

TENURE  IN  CHIVALRY.  See  Chivalry, 
Court  of;  Feudalism;  Knight;  Tenure. 

TENURE  OF  OFFICE  ACT.  A  measure 
growing  out  of  the  controversy  between  Congress 
and  President  Johnson  and  passed  over  his  veto 
on  March  2,  1867,  providing  that  the  consent  of 
the  Senate  should  be  necessary  to  the  dismissal 
of  any  officer  appointed  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  that  body.  Cabinet  officials  were 
also  included  in  this.  This  was  a  complete  re¬ 
versal  of  the  policy  of  the  government  with  re¬ 
gard  to  removals  from  office,  and  the  President’s 
disregard  of  the  law  in  removing  Secretary 
E.  M.  Stanton  (q.v. )  was  the  main  cause  of  his 
impeachment  by  the  House  of  Representatives. 
(See  Impeachment;  Johnson,  Andrew.)  With 
the  accession  of  General  Grant  to  the  presidency 
in  1869  the  more  objectionable  features  of  the 
Act  were  stricken  out,  and  finally,  in  1887,  the 
Act  as  a  whole  was  repealed. 

TENU-TERU.  See  Teru-teru. 

TENZON,  ten'zon,  or  Tenson  (Prov.  tenso, 
from  Lat.  tensio,  stretching,  contention,  from 
tendere,  to  stretch ) .  In  Provengal  poetry,  a  de¬ 
bate  in  verse  between  two  poets,  and  hence  a 
special  metrical  form  adopted  for  the  purpose. 
See  PROVENgAL  Literature. 

TEOCALLI,  ta'6-kal'ye  (Nahuatl,  house  of 
the  god ) .  The  ancient  Mexican  term  for  a  tem¬ 
ple  and  place  of  sacrifice  and  worship.  The 
teocallis  were  commonly  low,  truncated,  four¬ 
sided  pyramids  of  earth,  stone,  or  adobe  brick, 
with  a  small  temple  on  the  flat  summit.  There 
was  also  as  a  rule  a  sacrificial  stone  on  the 
summit,  where  public  sacrifices  were  made.  The 
term  has  come  to  be  applied  more  specifically 
to  the  teocalli  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  This 
famous  structure,  completed  in  1487,  was  a 
double  pyramid  with  one  temple  to  the  Aztec 
god  of  war,  Huitzilopoclitli,  and  the  other  to  the 
god  of  rain,  called  Tlaloc.  The  teocalli  was  in 
the  Tecpan  or  temple  inclosure,  a  great  cere¬ 
monial  centre  which  also  contained  many  smaller 
temples.  Human  sacrifice  reached  the  most  hor¬ 
rible  extreme  on  the  sacrificial  stones  of  this 
teocalli  that  it  ever  reached  anywhere  in  the 
world.  The  Codex  Telleriano-Remensis,  an  Aztec 
document,  records  that  20,000  captives  were  sac¬ 
rificed  at  the  dedication  ceremonies  of  the  great 
teocalli. 

TE'OS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tews).  An  ancient 
Ionian  city  on  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
situate  on  a  peninsula  projecting  into  the  Gulf 
of  the  Cayster,  northwest  of  Ephesus.  Here 
was  a  celebrated  temple  of  Dionysus  and  a  the¬ 
atre,  of  which  remains  still  exist,  while  the  walls 
of  the  modern  town  of  Sigliajik  contain  many 
interesting  inscribed  stones  from  the  ancient 
site.  Teos  was  prosperous  till  the  Persian  con¬ 
quest,  when  a  large  part  of  its  inhabitants  with¬ 
drew  to  their  colony  of  Abdera  (q.v.)  in  Thrace. 
It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  lyric  poet  Anacreon 
(q.v.).  The  place  regained  some  importance  in 
Roman  times. 

TEOSINTE,  te'6-sin'te  (Mexican  name), 
Euchlena  mexicana.  A  tall,  spreading,  leafy 


TEOTOCHI 


TERATOLOGY 


annual  closely  related  to  maize  or  Indian  corn. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  from  whence  it  has  been 
introduced  as  a  forage  crop.  The  plant  requires 
a  rich,  moist  soil  and  a  long,  hot  season.  In  its 
native  habitat  it  grows  rapidly,  often  attaining 
a  height  of  10  to  15  feet  in  a  few  months.  The 
stalks  bear  tassels  of  staminate  flowers  and  a 
number  of  small,  flattened,  poorly  filled  ears,  the 
grain  of  which  seldom  matures  farther  north  than 
lat.  30°.  On  account  of  its  extensive  tillering 
(30-50  stalks  often  springing  from  a  single  root) 
and  its  very  leafy  habit,  teosinte  produces  as 
much  green  fodder  upon  a  given  area  as  any 
other  grass.  The  stalks  are  tender,  and  the 
whole  plant  is  readily  eaten  by  stock.  The 
plants  may  be  cut  several  times  during  the  sea¬ 
son,  but  a  single  cutting  just  before  the  advent 
of  autumn  frosts  is  said  to  yield  about  as  much 
forage  as  the  more  frequent  cuttings.  Teosinte 
grows  best  in  the  United  States  in  the  region  of 
the  Gulf  coast.  In  Texas,  where  it  is  grown  for 
green  forage  and  hay,  it  produces  three  crops  a 
year  and  matures  seed  only  in  the  extreme 
southern  part  of  the  State.  An  analysis  of  the 
green  fodder  shows  it  to  contain:  water,  66.77 
per  cent;  ash,  3.97;  protein,  2.54;  fibre,  12.33; 
nitrogen-free  extract,  13.60;  fat,  0.79.  Consult 
C.  V.  Piper,  Forage  Plants  and  their  Culture 
(New  York,  1914). 

TEOTOCHI,  Isabella.  See  Albrizzi, 
Countess  d\ 

TEPARY.  See  Bean. 

TEPEHUAN,  ta'pa-hwan'  (mountaineer,  or 
conqueror).  A  brave  and  warlike  tribe  of  Piman 
stock  (q.v. )  formerly  occupying  a  considerable 
territory  in  the  Sierra  Madre,  south  of  the  Taru- 
mari  (q.v.),  but  now  restricted  to  the  moun¬ 
tainous  region  in  the  extreme  northwestern  por¬ 
tion  of  Durango,  with  adjoining  portions  of 
Chihuahua  and  Sinaloa,  Mexico.  In  former 
times  they  were  reputed  the  bravest  people  of 
Mexico,  and  they  are  still  extremely  jealous  of 
their  tribal  rights.  They  are  an  industrious, 
agricultural  people,  living  in  houses  of  logs  or 
stone  set  in  clay  mortar,  or  frequently  utilizing 
the  mountain  caves  for  shelter.  They  cultivate 
cotton,  which  they  weave  into  fabrics  of  beauti¬ 
ful  texture  and  colors.  They  are  now  reduced  to 
a  mere  remnant. 

TEPIC,  ta-pek'.  A  territory  in  western 
Mexico  (Map:  Mexico,  F  6,  7).  Area,  11,275 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  low  on  the  coast 
and  mountainous  toward  the  eastern  frontier. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry,  the  principal 
products  being  wheat,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  sugar. 
Gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead  are  found.  Pop., 
1910,  171,173,  mostly  semi-independent  Indians. 
Capital,  Tepic  (q.v.).  The  Nayarit  population 
long  resisted  the  Spanish  sway  and  were  not 
subdued  until  1722,  and  then  only  nominally. 
In  1872  they  rebelled  against  the  Mexican  gov¬ 
ernment,  but  were  subdued  after  a  bloody 
struggle.  The  Territory  of  Tepic  was  organized 
in  1889. 

TEPIC.  The  capital  of  the  Territory  of 
Tepic,  Mexico,  28  miles  east  of  the  port  of  San 
Bias,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  railway 
( Map :  Mexico,  F  7 ) .  Situated  on  a  plateau 
3069  feet  above  the  sea,  it  commands  a  fine  view 
of  the  Pacific;  its  climate,  mild  and  healthful, 
attracts  many  summer  residents  from  San  Bias. 
It  has  cotton  and  cigar  manufactures.  Pop., 
1910,  16,778.  It  was  founded  in  1531  by  Nufio 
de  GuzmSn. 


TEPIDARIUM.  See  Bath. 

TEP'LITZ,  or  TOPLITZ,  tepTits.  A  town  of 
Bohemia,  Austria,  46  miles  northwest  of  Prague, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Biela,  between  the  Erzge¬ 
birge  and  the  Mittelgebirge  ranges  (Map:  Aus¬ 
tria,  Cl).  It  is  a  favorite  watering  place, 
famous  for  its  hot  springs,  which  range  in  tem¬ 
perature  from  97°  F.  to  120°  F. ;  they  are  almost 
free  from  mineral  properties  and  are  visited  as 
an  aftercure  by  patients  from  Marienbad,  Carls¬ 
bad,  etc.  The  most  important  building  is  the 
castle  of  Prince  Clary,  which,  with  its  sur¬ 
rounding  park  and  gardens,  constitutes  the  chief 
resort  of  the  town.  Teplitz  has  important  manu¬ 
factures  of  machinery,  hardware,  buttons,  cotton 
and  india-rubber  goods,  chemicals,  glass,  pottery, 
and  sugar.  The  springs  have  been  celebrated 
since  the  eighth  century.  The  town  is  known 
for  the  treaty  of  alliance  signed  here  Sept.  9, 
1813,  by  the  monarchs  of  Russia,  Prussia,  and 
Austria  against  Napoleon.  Pop.,  1900,  24,117; 
1910,  26,775. 

TERAI.  See  Tarai. 

TER'AKTOG'ENOS  KTJR'ZII.  A  large 
tree,  40  to  60  feet  in  height,  belonging  to  the 
family  Bixaceae.  It  is  most  abundant  in  Chitla- 
gong  and  Burma,  the  seeds  furnishing  the  true 
chaulmoogra  oil,  instead  of  Gynocardia  odorata, 
as  formerly  reported.  The  seeds  are  marketed 
largely  in  Calcutta  and  are  found  in  two  forms, 
mature  brown  seeds  rich  in  oil  and  immature 
seeds  black  in  color,  poor  in  oil.  Chaulmoogra 
oil  has  long  been  used  in  India  for  cutaneous 
diseases,  and  it  has  attained  some  repute  in  the 
treatment  of  rheumatism,  scrofula,  and  leprosy 
(qq.v.). 

TERAMO,  taTa-mO.  The  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Teramo,  Italy,  32  miles  northwest 
of  Chieti,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tordino  and 
Vazzola  rivers  (Map:  Italy,  D  3).  It  lies 
amid  attractive  mountain  scenery,  and  has  in¬ 
teresting  Roman  remains.  The  fourteenth-cen¬ 
tury  cathedral  was  restored  in  1898.  The 
Church  of  Sant’  Agostino  is  a  handsome  Gothic 
structure.  Pottery,  leather,  fine  furniture, 
straw  hats,  and  cream  of  tartar  are  manufac¬ 
tured.  The  Gran  Sasso  d’ltalia  is  often  as¬ 
cended  from  here.  Pop.  (commune),  1901,  24,- 
563;  1911,  24,312. 

TER'APHIM.  A  Hebrew  word,  plural  in 
form  but  of  obscure  origin,  designating  a  cer¬ 
tain  kind  of  images  used  for  oracular  pur¬ 
poses.  The  teraphim  appear  to  have  been  of 
various  shapes,  in  some  instances  small  enough 
to  be  hidden  in  the  camel  litter — as  in  the  story 
of  Rachel’s  theft  of  the  teraphim  belonging  to 
her  father,  Laban  (Gen.  xxxi.  19,  34),  while  in 
others  they  had  a  human  form  and  were  large 
enough  to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  a  man, 
as  in  the  story  of  Michal’s  successful  deception 
of  her  father,  Saul,  by  placing  a  teraph  in 
David’s  bed  (1  Sam.  xix.  13-16).  The  reverence 
paid  to  the  teraphim  as  household  deities  lent 
a  persistence  to  the  practices  connected  with 
them  that  survived  even  Josiah’s  reform  (2 
Kings  xxiii.  24),  and  we  find  teraphim  in 
vogue  even  in  the  Greek  period  ( Zech.  x.  2 ) . 
Connected  in  some  way  with  ancestor  worship, 
it  is  not  unlikely  that  there  is  some  relationship 
between  teraphim  and  Rephaim  (q.v.) — the 
shades  of  the  dead.  Consult  Schwally,  Das 
Leben  nach  dem  Tode  (Giessen,  1892)  ;  I.  Ben- 
zinger,  Hebrdische  Archaologie  (2d  ed.,  Tubin¬ 
gen,  1907 ) . 

TER'ATOL'OGY.  The  study  of  the  abnormal 


TERBIUM 


no 


TEREBRATULA 


structures  of  plants,  arising  from  any  cause. 
Conspicuous  among  causes  are  parasitic  fungi 
and  insects,  resulting  in  hypertrophies,  some  of 
which  are  known  as  galls.  Many  unusual  struc¬ 
tures  arise  in  plants,  however,  which  cannot  be 
referred  to  such  obvious  causes.  See  Malforma¬ 
tion;  Monstrosity. 

TERBIUM,  ter'bi-um  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Yt- 
terb-y,  in  Sweden ) .  A  very  rare  metallic  ele¬ 
ment  discovered  by  Mosander  in  1843,  but  first 
isolated  from  other  metals,  in  the  form  of  its 
pure  oxide,  by  Urbain  in  1904.  It  was  origi¬ 
nally  found  with  erbia,  yttria,  and  other  rare 
earths,  in  the  mineral  gadolinite  from  Ytterby, 
Sweden.  The  chemical  symbol  of  terbium  is  Tb; 
its  atomic  weight  is  159.2.  It  forms  a  white 
oxide  of  the  formula  Tb203  and  a  dark-brown 
peroxide  of  the  formula  Tb407. 

TERBORCH,  ter'borK  (Ter  Borch,  Ter- 
burg),  Gerard  (1617-81).  One  of  the  most 
eminent  genre  and  portrait  painters  of  the 
Dutch  school.  Born  at  Zwolle,  he  was  first 
instructed  by  his  father,  an  artist’  of  some 
ability.  In  1632  he  went  to  Amsterdam,  and 
in  1634  he  was  at  Haarlem,  the  chief  pupil 
of  Pieter  Molyn.  The  influence  of  the  grand 
master  of  Haarlem,  Frans  Hals,  is  noticeable 
in  his  first  dated  picture,  “Consultation”  ( 1635, 
Berlin  Museum ) .  To  the  same  period  may  be 
assigned  the  “Knife-Grinder’s  Family”  (ib.), 
and  “Boy  with  a  Dog”  (Pinakothek,  Munich). 
In  1635  he  went  to  England,  where  he  painted 
several  portraits  of  William  III;  in  1649  he 
was  at  Rome,  and  in  1645  again  at  Amsterdam. 
Thence  in  1646  he  went  to  Munster,  Westphalia, 
where  he  painted  his  most  celebrated  work,  the 
•“Peace  Congress  of  Munster”  (1648,  National 
Gallery,  London),  containing  60  likenesses,  a 
perfect  specimen  of  miniature  portrait  paint¬ 
ing,  and  one  of  the  most  imposing  historical 
works  in  Dutch  art.  Accompanying  Count 
Peneranda,  one  of  the  Spanish  envoys,  to  Ma¬ 
drid,  he  achieved  high  success,  and  is  credibly 
reported  to  have  portrayed  Philip  IV.  By 
1650  he  was  back  in  Holland.  In  1654  he 
settled  at  Deventer,  where  he  resided  till  his 
death.  Terborch’s  work  falls  into  two  stylistic 
periods — an  early,  resembling  that  of  the  earlier 
Amsterdam  genre  painters,  Codde,  Duck,  and 
Duyster;  and  a  later,  beginning  with  1651, 
strongly  reminiscent  of  Metzu.  A  comparison 
of  his  paintings  before  and  after  the  Spanish 
visit  does  not  confirm  the  supposed  influence 
of  Velazquez.  From  1651  till  1680  he  painted 
a  series  of  genre  and  small  portrait  subjects, 
unexcelled  in  Dutch  or  any  other  art.  Among 
the  best  known  are:  “The  Reading  Lesson,” 
“An  Offer  of  Money,”  and  “The  Concert”  (all 
in  the  Louvre)  ;  “The  Despatch”  (The  Hague)  ; 
“Paternal  Admonition”  (c.1655,  Amsterdam  and 
Berlin)  ;  “Trumpeter  Delivering  Love-Letter” 
(Munich);  “Officer  Writing  Letter”  and  “Of¬ 
ficer  Reading  Letter”  (both  in  Dresden)  ;  and 
the  “Guitar  Lesson”  (National  Gallery,  Lon¬ 
don).  From  1669  his  style  became  more  delicate 
and  simple,  as  may  be  seen  in  such  works  as: 
“The  Music  Lesson”  (1660,  Louvre);  “Lute 
Player”  (Antwerp,  Cassel,  and  Dresden)  :  “The 
Concert”  (Berlin)  ;  “Lady  Washing  Her  Hands” 
(Dresden)  ;  “Paring  an  Apple”  (Vienna)  ;  and 
“The  Letter”  (Buckingham  Palace,  London), 
one  of  his  most  distinguished  delineations.  A 
striking  example  of  fine  modeling  and  masterly 
textures  is  “The  Smoker,”  in  the  Berlin  Mu¬ 
seum.  His  “Meeting  of  the  Town  Council” 


(1667,  Town  Hall,  Deventer)  ranks  next  to  his 
Munster  picture  as  regards  the  number  of 
figures.  He  painted  also  a  large  number  of 
excellent  single  portraits,  about  180  of  which 
survive,  masterly  alike  in  characterization  and 
in  execution.  Perhaps  the  most  celebrated  of 
these  is  the  portrait  of  himself  at  The  Hague. 
There  are  four  excellent  examples  in  the  Berlin 
Museum,  and  one  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York,  which  possesses  also  “A  Lady  Play¬ 
ing  the  Theorbo”  ( Altman  collection )  and  “The 
Toilet,”  a  wonderful  arrangement  in  rose,  loaned 
by  J.  P.  Morgan.  Terborch  is  one  of  the  most 
perfect  technicians  in  Dutch  or  any  art.  He 
excels  in  all  pictorial  qualities,  line,  composi¬ 
tion,  color,  treatment  of  light,  and  atmosphere. 
His  exquisitely  finished  detail  never  distracts 
from  the  general  effect,  and  his  textures  are 
especially  fine.  Consult:  Michel,  Terburg  et 
sa  famille  (Paris,  1888)  ;  Rosenberg,  Terborch 
and  Jan  Steen  (Leipzig,  1897)  ;  Masters  in  Art, 
vol.  ii  (Boston,  1901,);  Wilhelm  Bode,  Great 
Masters  of  Dutch  and  Flemish  Painting  (New 
York,  1909)  ;  Hofstede  de  Groot,  A  Catalogue 
of  Dutch  Painting  (London,  1913). 

TERCE.  See  Breviary. 

TERCEIRA,  ter-sVe-ra.  The  second  largest 
island  of  the  Azores  (q.v.)  (Map:  Portugal, 
B  4).  Area,  223  square  miles.  It  is  of  volcanic 
origin.  The  coast  is  lined  with  precipitous  cliffs 
of  lava  and  the  diversified  surface  attains  a 
maximum  altitude  of  3500  feet  in  Caldeira  de 
Santa  Barbara.  Wine,  lumber,  and  archil  are 
produced  and  largely  exported.  Angra  do 
Heroismo  (q.v.),  the  chief  town  of  the  island, 
is  also  the  seat  of  government  for  the  entire 
group.  The  population  of  Terceira  in  1900  was 
48,920. 

TER'CEL.  See  Peregrine  Falcon. 

TER'CENTEN'NIAL  EXPOSITION  AT 
JAMESTOWN.  A  military,  naval,  marine,  and 
historic  exhibition  in  commemoration  of  the 
first  permanent  settlement  of  English-speaking 
people  in  America,  on  Hampton  Roads,  near 
Norfolk,  Virginia,  held  from  April  26  to  Nov. 
30,  1907.  A  site  at  Sewall’s  Point  covering 
400  acres  of  land  space,  with  three  miles  of 
water  front,  was  selected  on  which  buildings 
were  erected  chiefly  in  the  Colonial  style  of 
architecture  for  the  purpose  of  displaying  ex¬ 
hibits  pertaining  to  army  and  navy,  art,  food 
products,  historic  art,  machinery  and  transpor¬ 
tation,  manufactures  and  liberal  arts,  medicine, 
sanitation  and  hygiene,  mines  and  metallurgy, 
mothers  and  children,  the  negro,  United  States 
government,  and  Virginia  manufactures.  State 
buildings,  as  well  as  an  Auditorium  and  Con¬ 
vention  Hall,  and  an  Arts  and  Crafts  Village, 
contained  Colonial  articles  in  metals,  woods,  and 
fabrics.  The  history  of  the  United  States  from 
the  settlement  of  Jamestown  was  portrayed.  The 
government  appropriated  $1,575,000  in  aid  of 
the  exhibition,  and  of  this  amount  $50,000  was 
for  a  permanent  monument  at  Jamestown. 

TER/EBRAT'ULA  (Neo-Lat.,  nom.  pi.,  di¬ 
minutive  of  Lat.  terebratus,  p.p.  of  terebrare,  to 
bore,  pierce).  A  name  properly  applicable  to 
certain  species  of  the  Mesozoic  and  Tertiary  fos¬ 
sil  shells  which  are  closely  allied  to  Terebratula 
phillipsi  of  the  Middle  Jurassic.  This  group 
appeared  in  the  Devonian,  and,  with  a  great  ex¬ 
pansion  during  the  Mesozoic,  it  continues  to  the 
present  day.  As  a  rule  the  shells  have  a  pentag¬ 
onal  or  oval  outline,  with  both  valves  convex, 
the  ventral  beak  prominent  and  arching  over  the 


TEREDO 


hi 


TERESA 


dorsal  beak  and  perforated  by  an  unusually 
large  foramen.  The  earlier  species  are  smooth- 
surfaced  shells,  while  those  of  the  Mesozoic  are 
sometimes  striated  and  in  a  few  instances  pli¬ 
cated. 

TERE'DO.  A  small  Lamellibranch  mollusk 
of  the  genus  Teredo.  The  common  shipworm 
( Teredo  navalis )  is  found  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  oceans,  where  it  inhabits  long 
and  complicated  borings  which  it  makes  in  sub¬ 
merged  piles  of  wharfs,  floating  logs,  or  the 
exposed  bottoms  of  wooden  ships.  Wood  which 
is  attacked  by  teredos  is  soon  rendered  useless, 
and  much  damage  is  done  by  them  annually, 
especially  in  tropical  waters.  The  only  absolute 
protection  against  the  attack  of  the  teredo  is 
mechanical,  such  as  sheathing  the  wood  with 
copper,  or  with  broad-headed  short  iron  nails. 
Impregnating  the  wood  with  preservatives  (creo¬ 
sote,  etc.)  has  been  tried  with  widely  varying 
results.  See  Shipworm. 

TEREK,  ter'ek.  A  river  of  southeast  Russia, 
one  of  the  chief  streams  flowing  from  the 
Caucasus.  It  rises  in  a  glacier  near  the  sum¬ 
mit  of  Mount  Kazbec  at  an  altitude  of  nearly 
14,000  feet,  and  descends  the  north  slope  of  the 
Caucasus  in  a  tumultuous  course  through  deep 
and  narrow  gorges.  It  then  turns  east,  and 
after  a  flow  of  400  miles,  enters  the  Caspian 
Sea  through  a  large  delta.  The  river  is  navi¬ 
gable  254  miles  for  small  vessels. 

TEREK.  A  province  in  the  eastern  part  of 
north  Caucasia  (see  Caucasus)  bordering  on 
the  Caspian  Sea.  Area,  about  28,153  square 
miles  ( Map :  Russia,  F  6 ) .  It  is  bounded  on 
the  south  by  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  many  of 
whose  highest  peaks  it  contains.  The  interior 
is  occupied  to  a  large  extent  by  the  offshoots 
of  the  main  chain  and  slopes  towards  the 
Terek  and  the  coast,  which  is  low  and  marshy. 
The  region  is  watered  by  the  Terek  and  its  tribu¬ 
taries,  and  abounds  in  mountain  lakes.  In  the 
lowlands  along  the  coast  and  the  Terek  the  cli¬ 
mate  is  very  unhealthful.  Hence  most  of  the 
settlements  are  found  in  the  mountainous  dis¬ 
tricts.  Terek  produces  few  minerals  aside  from 
petroleum,  which  is  obtained  in  increasing 
quantities  in  the  Grozny  oil  field,  which  in  1913 
yielded  3275  tons  per  day.  At  Pyatigorsk  (q.v. ) 
are  the  best  known  of  the  mineral  springs. 
Agriculture  gives  occupation  to  about  80  per 
cent  of  the  inhabitants,  but  only  a  small  por¬ 
tion  of  the  cultivated  land  is  utilized.  The 
chief  products  are  wheat,  corn,  rye,  and  hemp. 
The  output  of  wine  is  extensive.  The  natives 
keep  large  numbers  of  horses  and  sheep.  Pop., 
1912,  1,231,600.  Capital,  Vladikavkaz  (q.v.). 

TER'ENCE  (Publius  Terentius  Afer) 
(c.190— c.159  b.c.).  A  Roman  writer  of  comedies. 
He  was  born  at  Carthage,  but  was  of  African 
(not  Phoenician)  origin.  He  was  brought  to 
Rome  as  the  slave  of  the  Roman  Senator  Teren¬ 
tius  Lucanus,  who  gave  him  a  good  education, 
and  finally  manumitted  him.  His  first  play 
was  the  Andria,  staged  in  166  b.c.  Its  success 
introduced  its  author  to  the  most  refined  so¬ 
ciety  of  Rome,  where  his  engaging  address  and 
accomplishments  made  him  a  particular  favor¬ 
ite.  His  chief  patrons  were  Lcelius  (q.v.)  and 
the  younger  Scipio  ( q.v. ) .  After  living  with 
them  in  great  intimacy  for  some  years  he 
went  to  Greece,  where  he  spent  a  year  in  study¬ 
ing  the  Greek  comedies  of  Menander,  Diphilus, 
Apollodorus,  and  others,  and  adapting  them  in 
Latin  for  the  Roman  stage.  He  never  returned. 


He  is  supposed  to  have  died  by  drowning.  Six 
comedies  are  extant  under  the  name  of  Teren¬ 
tius:  Andria,  Hecyra>  Ileautontimoroumcnos, 
Eunuchus,  Phormio,  and  Adelphi.  Terence  pre¬ 
served  a  sort  of  charmed  life  throughout  the 
dark  ages  when  classical  literature  was  almost 
forgotten,  and  on  the  revival  of  letters  was 
studied  as  a  model  by  the  most  accomplished 
playwrights,  e.g.,  by  Moliere  ( q.v. ) .  For  his 
influence  on  English  comedy  see  the  introduction 
to  the  edition  of  the  Heautontimoroumenos, 
by  F.  G.  Ballentine  (Boston,  1910).  His  lan¬ 
guage  is  pure,  almost  immaculate.  Though  he 
is  inferior  to  Plautus  in  comic  power,  he  is 
more  than  his  match  in  consistency  of  plot  and 
character  drawing,  in  tenderness,  in  wit,  and  in 
metrical  skill.  The  best  text  editions  are  those 
of  Wagner  (Cambridge,  1869),  Umpfenbach 
(Berlin,  1870),  Dziatzko  (Leipzig,  1884),  and 
Fleckeisen  (ib.,  1901).  Good  annotated  editions 
of  individual  plays  are  those  of  the  Andria 
by  H.  R.  Fairclough  (Boston,  1901);  Adelplii, 
by  K.  Dziatzko  (2d  ed.,  rev.  by  R.  Kauer, 
Leipzig,  1903)  ;  Phormio,  by  Dziatzko  (4th  ed., 
rev.  ed.,  by  E.  Hauler,  Leipzig,  1913)  ;  Eunuchus, 
by  P.  Fabia  (Paris,  1895).  A  convenient  an¬ 
notated  edition  of  all  six  plays  is  that  by  S.  G. 
Ashmore  (Oxford,  1908).  The  ancient  Scholia 
to  Terence  by  Donatus  ( q.v. )  were  edited  by 
P.  Wessner,  3  vols.  (Leipzig,  1902-05).  There 
are  English  translations  by  Colman  (London, 
1841);  Riley  (New  York,  1859);  Sargeaunt 
(London,  1912)  ;  and  of  the  Phormio  by  M.  H. 
Morgan  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1894).  Consult 
W.  Y.  Sellar,  The  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic 
(3d  ed.,  Oxford,  1889)  ;  W.  S.  Teuffel,  History  of 
Roman  Literature  (Eng.  trans.,  from  5th  Ger. 
ed.  by  G.  C.  W.  Warr,  London,  1891)  ;  Martin 
Schanz,  Geschiehte  der  romischen  Litteratur, 
vol.  i,  part  i  (3d  ed.,  Munich,  1907)  ;  J.  W.  Duff, 
A  Literary  History  of  Rome  (New  York,  1909)  ; 
M.  S.  Dimsdale,  A  History  of  Latin  Literature 
(New  York,  1915). 

T  ERE  NTI  ANUS  MAURUS,  te-ren'shi-a'nus 
ma'rus.  A  Roman  poet,  a  native  of  Mauretania 
( q.v. ) ,  who  flourished  at  the  end  of  the  second 
century  a.d.  We  have  three  poems  by  him,  in 
hexameters,  on  prosody  and  the  various  metres, 
entitled  Be  Litteris,  De  Syllabis,  and  De  Metric. 
This  work  was  much  used  by  later  writers. 
It  has  been  edited  by  Santen  and  Van 
Lennep  (with  commentary,  Utrecht,  1825), 
Lachmann  (Berlin,  1836),  Gaisford  (Oxford, 
1855),  and,  best  of  all,  by  IT.  Keil,  in  his  Granin 
matici  Latini,  vol.  vi  (Leipzig,  1871-74).  Con¬ 
sult  Martin  Schanz,  Geschiehte  der  romischen 
Litteratur,  vol.  iii  (2d  ed.,  Munich,  1905)  ;  W.  S. 
Teuffel,  Geschiehte  der  romischen  Literatur, 
vol.  iii  (6th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1913). 

TERE'SA,  Saint  (1515-82).  A  famous  Car¬ 
melite  nun  and  mystical  writer.  She  was  born 
at  Avila,  in  Old  Castile.  In  her  eighteenth 
year  she  entered  a  convent  of  the  Carmelite 
Order  in  her  native  city,  making  her  solemn 
vow  on  Nov.  3,  1534.  In  this  convent  she  con¬ 
tinued  to  reside  for  nearly  30  years.  After  a 
time  her  religious  exercises  reached  a  most 
extraordinary  degree  of  asceticism.  She  began 
her  work  of  reforming  the  Carmelite  Order  in 
the  Convent  of  Avila,  but  afterward  obtained 
permission  from  the  Holy  See,  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  Peter  of  Alcdntara,  to  remove  with  her 
little  community  to  St.  Joseph’s,  a  small  and 
very  humble  convent  in  the  same  city,  where 
she  established  in  its  full  rigor  the  ancient 


TEREUS 


1 12 


TERMITE 


Carmelite  rule,  with  some  additional  observ¬ 
ances.  This  new  convent  was  established  in  15G2. 
The  general  of  the  Carmelite  Order,  J.  B.  Rossi, 
was  so  struck  with  the  condition  of  the  con¬ 
vent  that  he  urged  upon  her  the  duty  of  ex¬ 
tending  throughout  the  Order  the  reforms  thus 
successfully  initiated.  Teresa  entered  upon  the 
work  with  great  energy,  and  succeeded  in  carry¬ 
ing  out  her  reforms.  (See  Carmelites.)  She 
died  at  Alba,  Oct.  4,  1582,  and  was  canonized  by 
Gregory  XV  in  1622,  her  feast  being  fixed  on 
October  15.  The  third  centenary  of  her  death 
was  celebrated  with  great  splendor  in  1882. 
Her  works  consist,  besides  her  famous  letters, 
mainly  of  ascetical  and  mystical  treatises.  Com¬ 
plete  editions  in  Spanish  were  published  at  Madrid 
in  1877  and  1881;  an  excellent  French  edition 
is  that  of  Bouix  (Paris,  1859).  English  trans¬ 
lations  of  her  Life  are  edited  by  David  Lewis 
(4th  ed.,  New  York,  1911)  and  by  J.  J.  Burke 
(ib.,  1911).  Consult  also:  H.  J.  Coleridge,  Life 
and  Letters  of  Saint  Teresa  (3  vols.,  London, 
1881-96)  ;  Alexander  Whyte,  Santa  Teresa 
(New  York,  1898)  ;  H.  H.  Colvill,  Saint  Teresa 
of  Spain  (ib.,  1909)  ;  Alice,  Lady  Lovat,  Life  of 
Saint  Teresa  (St.  Louis,  1912). 

TEREUS,  te're-us.  See  Philomela. 

TERGOES,  ter'Goos'.  A  seaport  of  the  Neth¬ 
erlands.  See  Goes. 

TERGOVISTE,  ter'go-vish'te,  or  Targu- 
vishtea.  The  capital  city  of  the  District  of 
Dimbovitza,  Rumania,  50  miles  northwest  of 
Bucharest,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jalomitza 
( Map :  Balkan  Peninsula,  E  2 ) .  As  the  former 
capital  of  Wallachia  it  had  a  population  of  60,- 
000  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  town  is  now 
an  important  strategic  point.  Pop.,  1900,  9398. 

TERHUNE,  ter-hun',  Mary  Virginia 
(Hawes)  (1831-  ).  An  American  novelist 

and  journalist,  born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  of  New 
England  ancestry.  She  married  in  1856  Rev. 
Edward  P.  Terhune  of  Brooklyn,  was  editorially 
connected  with  Babyhood,  Wide  Awake,  Saint 
Nicholas,  and  The  Home-Maker,  and  published 
under  the  name  of  Marion  Harland  many  domes¬ 
tic  manuals,  social  essays,  sketches  of  travel, 
novels,  and  short  stories,  among  which  may  be 
noted:  Alone,  A  Tale  of  Southern  Life  and 
Manners  (1854);  Husks  (1863);  Sunnybank 
(1866)  ;  At  Last  (1870)  ;  Common  Sense  in  the 
Household  (1872),  one  of  her  best-known  books; 
Judith  (1883);  A  Gallant  Fight  (1888); 
Dr.  Dale  (1900),  with  Albert  Payson  Ter¬ 
hune;  When  Grandmama  was  Fourteen  (1905)  ; 
Distractions  of  Martha  (1906);  Where  Ghosts 
Walk  (1st  series,  1908;  2d  series,  1910); 
Marion  Harland’s  Autobiography  (1910);  Look¬ 
ing  Westward  (1914);  The  Long  Lane  (1915). 

TERLIZZI,  ter-lit'se.  A  town  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Bari  delle  Puglie,  Italy,  20  miles  west 
by  north  of  Bari  and  about  7  miles  from  the 
Adriatic.  It  has  an  ancient  castle.  It  is  active 
commercially.  Wine  and  almonds  are  leading 
products.  Pop.  (commune),  1901,  23,232;  1911, 
22,874. 

TERM  (OF.  terme,  from  Lat.  terminus,  OLat. 
termo,  termen,  boundary,  limit).  In  the  law  of 
real  property,  the  time  during  which  a  tenant  is 
entitled  to  enjoy  an  estate,  according  to  his 
lease.  The  word  is  also  sometimes  employed  to 
denote  the  estate  or  interest  of  the  tenant.  See 
Landlord  and  Tenant. 

TERM.  See  Logic. 

TERM,  Connotation  of  a.  See  Connotation. 

TERM,  of  Court.  In  practice  the  word  “term” 


denotes  a  period  in  which  a  court  holds  a  ses¬ 
sion.  Under  the  common-law  system  in  England 
the  judicial  j^ear  was  divided  into  four  terms, 
the  names  of  which  indicated  the  time  of  the 
year  in  which  they  were  held,  viz. :  Hilary  term, 
Easter  term,  Trinity  term,  and  Michaelmas 
term.  These  terms  were  abolished  by  the 
Judicature  Acts.  In  the  United  States  the 
terms  of  court  are  ‘  arranged  with  reference  to 
the  number  of  judges  available  and  the  probable 
volume  of  judicial  business  to  be  disposed  of. 
It  is  usual,  however,  to  have  a  vacation  of 
several  months  during  the  summer.  The  phrase 
is  also  used  in  the  United  States  to  describe 
the  parts  of  the  court,  such  as  trial  and  special 
terms.  The  tendency  of  the  modern  system  of 
courts  is  to  divide  the  parts  or  terms  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  nature  of  the  litigation. 

TER'MINAL,  Railway.  See  Railways, 
Yards  and  Terminals. 

TER'MINATjIA.  See  Terminus. 

TERMINAL  SUGGESTION.  See  Hypno¬ 
tism. 

TERMINER.  See  Oyer  and  Terminer. 

TERMINI  IMERESE,  ter'me-ne  e'ma-ra'za. 
A  city  on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Palermo,  on  the  San  Leonardo,  21  miles 
east-southeast  of  Palermo  (Map:  Italy,  D  6). 
Though  of  archaeological  interest  the  modern 
town  is  flourishing  but  dull.  It  contains  a  col¬ 
lection  of  pictures  and  a  few  antiques,  besides 
a  library  and  school  of  seamanship.  There  are 
extensive  tunny  and  sardine  fisheries.  The  ex¬ 
ports  include  Sicilian  macaroni  (for  which  the 
town  is  famous),  besides  wine,  olive  oil,  fruits, 
grain,  and  rice.  The  warm  saline  springs  are 
much  frequented  for  bathing.  Pop.  (commune), 
1901,  18,650;  1911,  20,319.  Termini  Imerese, 
the  Roman  Termse  Himerenses,  was  founded  by 
the  Carthaginians  in  407  R.C.,  after  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  ancient  Himera  ( q.v. ) ,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  still  to  be  seen.  It  had  become 
largely  Hellenized  when  it  was  captured  by  the 
Romans  in  the  First  Punic  War. 

TER'MINOL'OGY,  Medical.  See  Nosology. 

TERM  INSURANCE.  See  Life  Insurance. 

TER'MINUS  (Lat.,  boundary,  limit).  A 
Roman  divinity  presiding  over  public  and  pri¬ 
vate  boundaries.  His  only  sanctuary  was  in  the 
Temple  of  Jupiter,  on  the  Capitol,  where  he  was 
honored  in  the  form  of  a  boundary  stone,  above 
which  was  an  opening  in  the  roof,  that  his  rites 
might  be  performed,  as  ritual  required,  in  the 
open  air.  Terminus  has  been  regarded  by  some 
as  an  early  god  who  later  yielded  to  Jupiter, 
by  others  as  a  later  schematizing  offshoot  from 
the  original  conception  of  Jupiter  as  the  guard¬ 
ian  of  all  boundaries.  The  Terminalia  seems 
to  have  been  simply  a  festival  of  neighbors  at 
their  common  boundary  lines.  We  hear  of  an¬ 
nual  sacrifices  also  at  the  frontier  ( real  or  as¬ 
sumed),  but  dedications  to  Terminus  are  un¬ 
known  before  the  days  of  the  Empire.  “Termini” 
or  “terminal  figures”  are  names  applied  to  bound¬ 
ary  marks  consisting  of  a  stele  or  upright  stone 
carved  at  the  top  into  the  likeness  of  the  head 
of  the  god.  Such  stones  were  imitated  in  the 
Renaissance  in  Italy  as  decorations  for  the  cor¬ 
ners  of  parterres  or  other  garden  divisions. 
Consult  W.  W.  Fowler,  Roman  Festivals  (Lon¬ 
don,  1899)  ;  Georg  Wissowa,  Religion  und  Kul- 
tus  der  Romer  (2d  ed.,  Munich,  1912). 

TER'MITE  (from  Lat.  termes,  tarmes,  wood¬ 
worm;  connected  with  terere,  Gk.  relpeiv,  teirein, 
to  rub).  Any  one  of  the  insects  of  the  order 


TERMITE 


TERNATE 


ii3 


Isoptera,  comprising  those  forms  known  as 
white  ants.  They  are  not  at  all  related  to  the 
true  ants,  but  their  general  appearance  and  the 
fact  that  they  live  in  societies  have  given  them 
the  popular  name.  For  an  account  of  the  com¬ 
munity  life  and  of  the  different  castes  of  the  ter¬ 
mites,  see  Insect,  Social  Insects. 

The  order  Isoptera,  which  is  most  numerously 
represented  in  the  tropics,  includes  only  the 
single  family  Termitidse,  whence  their  common 
name  “termite.”  They  undergo  practically  no 
transformation.  The  young  when  it  hatches 
from  the  egg  is  an  active,  crawling  creature 


American  northern  white  ant  ( Termes  flavipes) . 

1,  adult  male;  2,  worker;  3,  soldier;  4,  supplementary 
queen.  (After  Marlatt.) 

with  six  legs,  much  resembling  the  adult  except 
in  size.  All  species  are  social,  and  the  com¬ 
munities  consist  of  both  wingless  and  winged 
individuals.  The  males  and  females  which  are 
winged  have  very  long  membranous  longitudinally 
veined  wings,  in  repose  lying  flat  along  the  back, 
extending  far  beyond  the  abdominal  tip.  The 
hind  wings  are  of  nearly  the  same  shape  and 
size  as  the  front  wings,  and  across  the  base 
of  each  wing  is  a  line  of  weakness  indicating 
where  the  wing  breaks  after  the  nuptial  flight. 
The  nests,  often  built  of  earth,  are  hard  and 
persistent,  and  sometimes  more  than  12  feet 
high.  These  ant  hills  are  divided  into  chambers 
and  galleries,  and  there  are  generally  two  or 
three  roofs  within  the  dome-shaped  interior. 
The  thick  walls  are  perforated  by  passages  lead¬ 
ing  to  the  nurseries  and  storehouses.  Termites 
sometimes  attack  the  woodwork  of  houses  and 
soon  reduce  the  thickest  timbers  to  a  mere  shell. 
Those  species  which  live  in  trees  sometimes  con¬ 
struct  nests  of  great  size,  like  sugar  casks,  of 
particles  of  gnawed  wood  cemented  together  and 
very  strongly  attached  to  the  branches. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  comparatively 
few  species,  and  only  one  ( Termes  flavipes ) 
which  has  a  northward  range.  This  is  the  com¬ 
mon  white  ant  found  frequently  living  in  the 
joists  and  other  large  timbers  of  houses.  In 
these  they  make  innumerable  tunnels,  running 
usually  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  so  that, 
although  a  great  deal  of  the  substance  of  the 
wood  is  devoured,  the  main  longitudinal  fibres 
support  the  building  structure  for  a  long  time. 
In  fact,  their  presence  in  many  houses  would  not 
be  noticed  except  for  the  spring  flight  of  the 


winged  males  and  females.  This  species  is 
probably  native  to  North  America,  although  it 
was  accidentally  introduced  into  Europe.  A  spe¬ 
cies  known  as  Termes  tubiformans  occurs  in 
Texas,  and  makes  tubes  around  the  grass  stems 
and  stems  of  other  plants,  while  their  nests  are 
placed  deep  in  the  ground. 

The  origin  of  a  new  termite  colony  occurs 
after  the  nuptial  flight,  when  the  female’s 
(queen’s)  wings  break  off;  her  body  swells  with 
eggs,  grows  enormously,  .and  egg  laying  com¬ 
mences.  Unlike  the  true  ants  or  any  of  the 
other  social  Hymenoptera,  the  young  require 
very  little  care  from  the  workers.  Just  as  with 
the  true  ants  and  other  social  insects,  there 
are  many  termitophilous  or  guest  insects  to 
be  found  in  the  nests  of  termites.  The  damage 

o 

done  by  termites  in  tropical  regions  is  very 
great.  In  Central  America  it  is  almost  impos¬ 
sible  to  erect  wooden  telegraph  poles  which  will 
last  for  any  length  of  time,  as  they  are  tun¬ 
neled  by  these  insects  and  fall  very  soon.  Con¬ 
sult  David  Sharp,  “Insects,”  in  Cambridge 
Natural  Bistory,  vol.  v  (London,  1895),  and 
L.  O.  Howard,  The  Insect  Book  (new  ed.,  New 
York,  1914). 

TERMONDE,  ter'moNd'.  See  Dendermonde. 

TERN  (Dan.  terne,  Icel.  perna,  tern),  or  Sea 
Swallow.  One  of  a  group,  the  Stern inse,  of 
small  gulls  (q.v. ),  found  in  most  parts  of  the 
world,  and  essentially  gulls  in  habits  and  ap¬ 
pearance.  About  75  species  are  known,  varying 
in  size  from  the  Caspian  tern  ( Sterna  tsche- 
grava  or  caspia) ,  which  is  nearly  2  feet  long 
and  4^  feet  across  the  wings,  down  to  the 
dainty  least  tern  ( Sterna  antillarum) ,  which  is 
only  9  inches  long.  The  typical  color  of  the 
terns  is  blue-gray  above,  white  beneath,  and 
black  on  the  crown,  but  one  ,or  two  species 
are  pure  white,  some  are  black  and  white,  some 
sooty  brown,  and  some  almost  wholly  black. 
The  common  tern  is  Sterna  liirundo,  abundant 
on  the  coasts  of  the  whole  Northern  Hemisphere 
and  of  Africa.  It  breeds  locally  on  the  coast 
and  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  from  the  Gulf 
States  to  Greenland,  but,  owing  to  incessant  per¬ 
secution,  it  selects  only  unoccupied  sandy  islets 
for  its  breeding  places,  and  from  New  Jersey  to 
Maine  its  only  resorts  now  are  Gull  Island, 
N.  Y.,  and  Penikese,  Weepecket,  and  Muskeget 
Islands,  Mass.  The  Arctic  tern  ( Sterna  para- 
discea)  is  very  similar.  Its  egg  is  shown  on  Col¬ 
ored  Plate,  Eggs  of  American  Game  and  Water 
Birds,  and  is  typical  of  tern’s  eggs  generally. 
The  gull-billed  tern  (Gelochelidon  nilotica)  of 
the  Southern  States,  a  cosmopolitan  species;  the 
roseate  tern  {Sterna  dougalli )  of  the  Atlantic 
coast;  the  sooty  tern,  or  egg  bird,  of  the  West 
Indies  ( Stemo  fuliginosa  or  fuscata) ,  also 
southern;  and  the  elegant  tern  ( Sterna  elegans ) 
of  the  Pacific  coast  from  California  southward, 
are  the  most  interesting  among  the  15  or  16 
other  North  American  species. 

TERNATE,  ter-na'ta.  A  small  but  important 
island  of  the  Moluccas,  situated  off  the  west 
coast  of  the  island  of  Gilolo  (Map:  East  India 
Islands,  G  5).  Area,  about  25  square  miles.  It 
consists  of  an  active  volcanic  peak,  rising  5600 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  chief  town,  Ternate, 
has  a  population  of  about  9000  and  a  good  har¬ 
bor.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Sultan  of  Ternate, 
who  has  large  dominions  in  Celebes,  and  is  the 
capital  of  the  Dutch  Residency  of  Ternate, 
which  embraces  the  northern  Moluccas  and 
parts  of  New  Guinea  and  Celebes.  Its  climate 


TERNAUX-COMPANS 


TERPSICHORE 


114 


is  peculiar,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  determin¬ 
ing  whether  its  one  season  is  dry  or  wet.  See 
Moluccas. 

TERNAUX-COMPANS,  tar'no'  koN'paN', 
Henri  (1807-64).  A  French  historian,  bibli¬ 
ographer,  and  diplomatist,  born  in  Paris.  He 
is  best  known  for  his  remarkable  collection  of 
books  and  manuscripts  on  the  early  history  of 
America,  collected  during  diplomatic  employ¬ 
ment  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Brazil.  He  was 
also  once  a  member  of  the  French  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  He  published  a  catalogue  of  Ameri¬ 
cana  before  1700,  Bibliothequc  americaine 
(1836);  also  translations  of  documents  in  his 
collection  in  20  volumes,  Voyages,  relations  et 
memoires  originaux  pour  servir  a  Vhistoire  de 
la  decouverte  de  VAm&rique  (2  series,  1836—40)  ; 
and  other  works  of  less  significance. 

TERNAY,  tar'na',  Charles  Louis  D’Arsae 
de  (1722-80)  .  A  French  naval  officer,  born  at 
Ternay,  in  Normandy.  He  entered  the  navy 
in  1738  and  fought  at  Louisburg  in  the  French 
and  Indian  War.  In  1762,  in  command  of  a 
squadron,  he  attacked  Newfoundland,  and  cap¬ 
tured  St.  John’s  and  several  British  vessels. 
He  was  Governor  of  the  island  of  Bourbon 
(1772-79).  In  1780  he  commanded  the  French 
fleet  that  brought  over  to  America  Count  Ro- 
chambeau  and  his  forces.  He  died  at  Newport 
soon  after  his  arrival. 

TERNI,  teUng.  A  city  in  the  Province  of 
Perugia,  Italy,  59  miles  south  by  east  of  the 
city  of  Perugia,  on  the  Nera  River,  near  its 
confluence  with  the  Velino  (Map:  Italy,  D  3). 
The  many  Roman  remains,  including  an  amphi¬ 
theatre,  sculptures,  baths,  inscriptions,  etc.,  are 
interesting.  The  city  has  a  large  government 
arsenal  and  extensive  iron  and  steel  interests. 
Woolen  goods,  brick,  olive  oil,  and  wine  are  also 
manufactured.  Near  by  are  the  famous  falls 
of  Terni,  in  the  Velino  River — the  Cascate  delle 
Marmore — with  a  total  descent  of  650  feet,  sup¬ 
plying  power  to  the  city.  Pop.  (commune), 
1901,  30,641;  1911,  32,754.  Terni,  the  ancient 
Interamna,  was  of  considerable  importance 
under  the  Romans. 

TERNINA,  ter-ne'na,  Milka  (1864-  _  ). 

An  Austrian  dramatic  soprano,  born  at  Vezisce 
(Croatia).  At  12  she  began  her  vocal  studies 
with  Madame  Winterfeld,  and  in  1880  she 
entered  the  Vienna  Conservatory,  where  for  two 
years  she  studied  with  Gansbacher.  While  still 
a  student  she  made  her  debut  at  Agram  as 
Amelia  in  Verdi’s  Ballo  in  Maschera.  From 
1883  she  sang  successfully  at  Leipzig,  Graz,  and 
Bremen.  In  1890-99  she  was  a  member  of  the 
Court  Opera  at  Munich,  where  she  soon  was 
acknowledged  one  of  the  foremost  interpreters 
of  Wagner’s  heroines.  In  1896  she  made  her 
American  debut  with  Mr.  Damrosch’s  company, 
and  instantly  won  marked  favor.  In  1899-1904 
she  was  one  of  the  principal  attractions  of  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  House,  where  she  sang 
Kundry  in  the  first  American  performances  of 
Parsifal.  After  1899  she  appeared  frequently  in 
Bayreuth.  Owing  to  ill  health  her  appearances 
after  1906  were  rare.  Although  in  the  front 
rank  of  the  great  Wagner  interpreters,  she  won 
scarcely  less  fame  as  a  lieder  singer,  especially 
in  the  songs  of  Brahms. 

TERN'STRCEMIA'CEJE  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi., 
from  Ternstroemia,  named  in  honor  of  the 
Swedish  naturalist  Ternstrom ) .  A  family  of 
dicotyledonous  trees  and  shrubs,  including  about 
16  genera  and  160  species,  natives  of  warm  and 


tropical  regions.  The  best-known  representa¬ 
tives  are  the  tea  (q.v.)  plant  and  camellia  (q.v. ). 
The  family  is  represented  in  North  America 
by  -Stewartia  and  Gordonia  (q.v.),  the  latter 
being  called  loblolly  bay  or  tan  bay.  Another 
name  of  the  family  is  Theaceae  (tea  family), 
which  is  coming  into  common  use. 

TERPAN'DER  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tep-iravdpos, 
Terpandros ) .  A  Greek  musician  who  lived  in 
the  seventh  century  b.c.  He  was  born  at  An- 
tissa,  in  the  island  of  Lesbos,  went  to  Sparta, 
and  in  676  was  crowned  victor  in  the  first 
musical  contest  at  the  feast  of  Apollo  Carneius. 
He  established  there  the  first  musical  school  in 
Greece  and  is  credited  with  the  enlargement  of 
the  compass  of  the  lyre  to  an  octave.  He  was 
the  first  to  set  poetry  regularly  to  music. 

TERPENES.  Unsaturated  compounds  of  the 
composition  (C5H8)  yielded  by  plants  or  built  up 
by  organic  synthesis.  They  are  divided  into  the 
following  groups:  Hemiterpene,  C5H8,  consisting 
of  isoprene  chains  from  which  the  well-known 
geranial  or  citral  is  a  derivative.  Terpenes, 
C10H16,  ring  forms,  familiar  as  pinene  and  li- 
monene.  Sesquiterpene,  C15H24,  contained  in  oils 
of  clove,  cedar,  hops,  patchouli,  etc.  Polyter- 
penes,  C30H48,  principally  occurring  as  caoutchouc 
or  rubber.  Isoprene  or  methyl  butadiene,  C5H8, 
is  chiefly  important  as  the  starting  point  for 
the  synthesis  of  rubber.  By  heating  two  or  more 
equivalents  of  the  compound  in  the  presence 
of  weak  acetic  acid  from  100-200°  C.  (212- 
392°  F. )  rubber  is  formed.  According  to  Pickles, 
Journal  Chemical  Society  (London,  1910),  rub¬ 
ber  consists  of  a  long  chain  made  up  of  isoprene 
links— CH2  •  CCH3  •  CH  •  CH2  •  CH,  •  CCH3-- 
CH  •  CH2 — etc.  See  Rubber  ;  Synthetic  Rubber. 

The  terpene,  C10H16,  group  contains  two  im¬ 
portant  hydroaromatic  forms,  limonene  and 
pinene.  The  former  is  monocyclic  and  absorbs 
two  molecules  of  halogen  acid  or  four  atoms  of 
halogen,  the  latter  is  bicyclic  and  absorbs  one 
molecule  of  halogen  acid  or  two  atoms  of  halo¬ 
gen.  Pinene  occurs  in  American  oil  of  turpen¬ 
tine  as  the  dextrorotary  form  (australene)  and 
in  German  or  French  turpentine  as  the  levo- 
rotary  type  (terebenthene) .  Both  occur  in  vari¬ 
ous  essential  oils — rosemary,  sage,  juniper,  etc. 
Pinene  combines  with  dry  hydrogen  chloride  to 
form  an  addition  product  known  as  artificial 
camphor.  On  heating  the  hydrochloride  with 
alcoholic  potash,  camphene,  an  isomer  of  pinene, 
is  formed.  The  same  result  is  obtained  by  the 
action  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  on  turpentine. 
By  oxidation  with  chromic  acid  camphene  yields 
camphor,  C10H16O. 

Limonene  occurs  in  two  optically  active  forms: 
dextrolimonene  in  orange,  lemon,  and  caraway 
oils ;  levolimonene  in  firwood  oil.  Both  form 
liquid  hydrochlorides  with  two  molecules  of  HC1, 
and  take  four  atoms  of  bromine.  By  mixing 
equal  quantities  of  the  dextro  and  levo  forms 
a  racemic  type  is  obtained;  this  is  called  di- 
pentene  and  occurs  in  Russian  and  Swedish  tur¬ 
pentine.  Caroplivllene  of  cloves,  humulene  of 
hops,  cedrene  of  cedar  oil,  and  conimene  of  in¬ 
cense  resin  are  among  the  sesquiterpenes  isolated 
and  studied.  See  Hydrocarbons. 

TERPSICHORE,  terp-sik'6-re  (Lat.,  from 
Gk.  Tep\f/ix°PV>  fern.  of  repxf/ixopos,  terpsichoros, 
delighting  in  the  dance,  from  r<fpi/as,  terpsis,  en¬ 
joyment  -f-  X°P°S>  choros,  dance) .  In  Greek 
mythology,  one  of  the  nine  Muses  (q.v.).  She 
presided  over  the  choral  dance.  In  the  later 
assignment  of  functions  to  the  Muses,  she  was 


TERQUEM 


TERRA  COTTA 


ii5 


regarded  as  the  Muse  of  the  lesser  lyric  poetry, 
and  was  distinguished  by  the  lyre. 

TERQUEM,  tar'ka.N/,  Olry  (1782-1862).  A 
French  geometer,  born  at  Metz  of  Jewish  par¬ 
ents.  In  1804  he  was  called  to  Mainz  as  pro¬ 
fessor  of  mathematics  in  the  Lyceum,  and  after¬ 
ward  to  a  similar  position  in  the  school  of 
artillery.  Returning  to  Paris  in  1814,  he  was 
appointed  librarian  in  the  artillery  depot  at 
Saint-Thomas-d’Aquin.  Terquem  was  a  distin¬ 
guished  geometer  and  is  well  known  for  his 
Nouvelles  annales  de  mathematiques,  a  publica¬ 
tion  which  he  founded  together  with  Gerono  in 
1842,  and  which  is  still  continued.  He  also 
wrote  a  work  entitled  Bulletin  de  bibliographic, 
d’histoire  et  de  biograpliie  mathematiques  (7 
vols.,  1855-61). 

TERRACE  (Fr.  terrasse,  from  It.  terraccia, 
terrazzo,  terrace,  from  terra,  from  Lat.  terra, 
earth).  1.  In  geology,  a  stretch  of  comparatively 
level  land  along  the  shore  of  a  lake  or  the 
ocean  or  bordering  a  river  course  and  elevated 
some  distance  above  water  level.  Terraces 
frequently  occur  in  series,  one  rising  above  the 
other  as  the  distance  from  the  shore  increases. 
River  terraces  owe  their  origin  to  the  cutting 
down  of  flood  plains;  as  a  river  channel  widens 
and  deepens  the  flood  plain  is  gradually  cut 
away  until  only  the  edges  near  valley  walls 
remain.  This  process  may  be  repeated  several 
times,  giving  rise  to  a  succession  of  terraces — 
the  oldest  having  the  highest  elevation  and 
being  farthest  removed  from  the  river.  The  drift 
terraces  so  common  in  the  northern  States  are 
remnants  of  flood  plains  that  were  formed  when 
the  overloaded  streams  of  the  Glacial  period 
filled  their  preglacial  valleys.  Lake  terraces 
mark  former  shore  lines  and  are  evidence  of 
a  shrinkage  in  the  volume  of  the  lakes.  They 
are  well  marked  around  most  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
on  the  shores  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  lakes  of 
the  Great  Basin.  Their  abundance  has  sug¬ 
gested  the  term  “Terrace  epoch”  to  designate 
the  geological  period  during  which  they  were 
produced.  See  Beaches,  Raised;  Lake;  Lake 
Agassiz;  River;  etc. 

2.  In  architecture  and  gardening,  a  terrace  is 
a  level  space  or  platform  of  earth  or  masonry, 
raised  or  embanked  above  the  surrounding  grade, 
or  partly  cut  out  and  partly  embanked  on  a 
slope  to  provide  a  horizontal  surface  for  plant¬ 
ing,  for  promenading,  or  for  decorative  build¬ 
ings.  In  formal  gardening  the  terrace  is  faced 
and  held  up  by  a  vertical  retaining  wall,  often 
of  decorative  design,  crowned  by  a  balustrade 
and  provided  with  stairways  from  the  next 
level  below.  English  country  houses  are  usually 
set  on  a  low  broad  terrace  projecting  in  front 
or  both  in  front  and  rear.  The  terraces  of  Ital¬ 
ian  gardens  are  adorned  with  flowers,  trees, 
grottoes,  fountains,  and  statuary,  and  consti¬ 
tute  their  most  distinctive  feature. 

TERRACINA,  t£r'ra-che'na.  A  city  in  the 
Province  of  Rome,  Italy,  76  miles  southeast  of 
the  city  of  Rome,  on  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  and 
at  the  south  end  of  the  Pontine  Marshes  ( Map : 
Italy,  D  4).  The  ancient  city  occupied  a  com¬ 
manding  position  on  the  crest  of  a  hill  over¬ 
looking  the  modern  site.  This  section  affords 
a  magnificent  view  and  has  interesting  remains 
of  the  Roman  period,  notably  those  of  the  im¬ 
posing  Temple  of  Venus,  which  until  1894  were 
supposed  to  belong  to  a  palace  of  Theodoric  the 
Ostrogoth,  and  an  amphitheatre.  The  Cathedral 
SS.  Pietro  and  Cesareo  in  the  modern  city,  oc¬ 


cupying  the  site  of  another  Roman  temple,  is 
of  much  architectural  beauty.  Pop.  (commune), 
1901,  11,310;  1911,  11,121  '(town,  7579).  Ter- 
racina,  the  Volscian  Anxur  and  the  Latin  Tar- 
racina,  was  of  considerable  military  importance 
under  the  Romans. 

TER'RA  COT'TA  (It.,  baked  earth).  Hard- 
fired  earthenware,  especially  that  which  is  used 
for  architectural  material. 

Greece.  Terra-cotta  statuettes  are  among  the 
most  charming  and  dainty  products  of  Greek 
art.  The  archaic  terra  cottas  are  numerous, 
especially  on  sacred  sites.  The  later  figurines 
from  the  fourth  century  b.c.  and  the  Hellenistic 
period  have  been  found  in  tombs  at  many  sites, 
but  the  earlier  group  is  best  represented  by  the 
statuettes  from  Tanagra  in  Breotia,  which  are 
strongly  influenced  by  the  art  of  Praxiteles  and 
his  contemporaries.  In  the  later  period  the 
characteristics  of  Hellenistic  art  are  seen  in 
terra  cottas  from  Asia  Minor  (especially 
Myrina),  Sicily,  and  southern  Italy.  The  at¬ 
tractiveness  of  these  figures  had  led  to  many 
imitations,  frequently  very  skillful.  The  an¬ 
cient  figures  were  made  in  molds,  sometimes  as 
many  as  16  being  employed  for  one  figure;  then 
after  baking  they  were  often  retouched  or  en¬ 
graved,  and  finally  painted  in  brilliant  colors  on 
a  coating  of  white  lime.  For  architecture  the 
pieces  were  finished  in  true  ceramic  painting, 
simple  but  excellent.  In  central  Italy,  especially 
in  Etruria  and  Latium,  crude  brick  seems  to 
have  been  largely  employed,  and  hence  terra 
cotta  was  used  for  decorative  purposes  in  impor¬ 
tant  buildings  at  a  time  when  in  Greek  lands  it 
had  been  largely  supplanted  by  stone.  In  this 
region  also  terra  cotta  seems  to  have  been  used 
much  more  extensively  for  large  figures  than 
among  the  Greeks. 

Middle  Ages  and  Renaissance.  Throughout 
the  Middle  Ages,  baked  clay  was  used  in  archi¬ 
tecture,  chiefly  for  floor  tiles,  but  also  for  roof- 
crestings  and  ornamental  finials.  In  the  great 
plain  of  north  Germany,  where  stone  was  rare 
and  fictile  clay  abundant,  a  whole  school  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  brick  grew  up  in  the 
fourteenth  century  and  continued  for  200  years; 
the  decorative  reliefs  modeled  in  clay  and  used 
as  capitals,  friezes,  etc.,  are  of  singular  in¬ 
terest.  Elaborate  decorative  gables  and  para¬ 
pets  were  made  of  this  material  and  baked  so 
hard  that  they  are  terra  cotta  rather  than  brick. 
In  Italy,  at  the  time  of  the  early  Renaissance, 
the  material  is  used  very  freely  in  elaborate 
detail  in  churches  and  in  private  dwellings. 
Another  epoch  of  art  during  which  terra  cotta 
was  freely  employed  was  of  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  when,  especially  in  France,  terra-cotta 
statuettes  and  groups  were  made  in  profusion, 
and  vases,  clocks,  etc.,  decorated  by  reliefs  and 
figures  in  the  round,  were  made  for  decorative 
effect.  Famous  masters  of  this  art  were  three 
sculptors  of  the  name  of  Adam  (Lambert  Sigis- 
bert,  and  his  brothers  Nicholas  S£bastien  and 
Francois  Gaspard),  and  especially  Claude 
Michel,  commonly  known  as  Clodion. 

Nineteenth  Century.  In  the  latter  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  the  use  of  terra  cotta  as 
a  building  material  was  resumed  in  connection 
with  the  Gothic  revival  and  increasing  demand 
for  decorative  detail.  Late  in  the  century  some 
slight  attempts  were  made  to  introduce  poly- 
chromv  of  a  permanent  kind  in  connection  with 
this  material.  Some  of  the  best  terra  cotta 
for  buildings  is  made  in  the  United  States;  and 


TERRA  DEL  EUEGO 


116 


TERRE  HAUTE 


here  also  color  has  been  sparingly  used.  Among 
its  advantages  as  a  building  material  are  the 
ease  with  which  it  may  be  molded  to  any  desired 
architectural  or  sculptural  form  and  indefinitely 
repeated,  its  durability,  lightness,  strength,  and 
cheapness.  It  may  be  made  in  almost  any  de¬ 
sired  color,  but  is  usually  dark  red. 

Manufacture.  A  better  grade  of  clay  is  re¬ 
quired  for  terra  cotta  than  for  brick.  Often¬ 
times  clays  from  different  localities  must  be 
mixed  to  secure  the  right  color,  while  vitrifying 
ingredients  (pure  white  sand,  old  pottery  or 
fire  brick  finely  ground)  are  added  to  secure 
partial  vitrification.  After  weathering,  the  se¬ 
lected  clay  is  ground  or  washed  (see  Clay,  Clay 
Mining  and  Working),  mixed  with  vitrifying 
ingredients  and  water;  next,  the  various  sorts 
of  clay  are  piled  in  layers.  Vertical  slices  from 
this  mass  are  taken  to  either  a  pug  mill  or 
rollers  for  tempering.  The  material  is  next 
sent  to  the  molding  room  in  cakes  of  convenient 
size.  If  only  one  piece  is  required,  the  clay 
may  be  modeled  by  hand,  ready  for  baking;  but 
if  the  design  is  to  be  repeated  a  model  is  made 
and  a  mold  taken,  into  which  the  clay  is  forced 
by  hand.  After  partial  drying  the  product  is 
turned  over  to  the  finisher,  who  may  be  more  or 
less  skilled,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
design.  After  drying,  the  forms  are  baked  or 
burned,  as  described  under  Kiln. 

Bibliography.  Greek,  etc.:  Reinhard  Kekule 
von  Stradonitz,  Griechische  Thonfiguren  aus 
Tanagra  (Stuttgart,  1878)  ;  id.,  Die  antiken 
Terra-Kotten  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1880-1903)  ; 
Camille  Lecuyer,  Terres  cuites  antiques  trou- 
vees  en  Grece  et  en  Asie-Mineur  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1882-85)  ;  Joseph  Cheret,  Die  Terrakotten  (Ber¬ 
lin,  1886)  ;  Edmond  Pottier,  Les  statuettes  de 
terre  cuite  dans  Vantiquite  (Paris,  1890)  ;  C.  A. 
Hutton,  Greek  Terra-Cotta  Statuettes  (London, 
1899)  ;  Henry  Strack,  Brick  and  Terra  Gotta 
Work  During  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renais¬ 
sance  in  Italy  (Boston,  1914)  ;  M.  B.  Huish, 
Greek  Terra-Cotta  Statuettes  (ib.,  1900).  The 
Etruscan  funeral  urns  are  treated  by  Brunn,  I 
rilievi  delle  urne  etrusche  (Rome,  1870  et 
seq. ) .  On  the  use  of  terra  cotta  in  architecture 
consult :  Dorpfeld,  Graber,  Borrmann,  and  Sie- 
bold,  Ueber  die  V erwendung  von  Terrakotten  am 
Geison  und  Dache  griechischer  Bauwerke  (Ber¬ 
lin,  1881).  For  application  of  ornamental  terra 
cotta  to  buildings,  consult  F.  E.  Kidder,  “Ma¬ 
son’s  Work,”  in  Building  Construction  and 
Superintendence,  part  i  (9th  rev.  ed.,  New  York, 
1909).  For  the  manufacture  of  the  various  wall 
and  floor  fireproofing  materials,  roof  coverings, 
and  other  clay  goods  often  going  under  the 
name  of  terra  cotta,  also  for  porous  terra  cotta 
and  terra-cotta  lumber,  see  Brick;  Tile.  For 
the  application  of  these  materials,  see  Fire¬ 
proof  Construction. 

TERRA  DEL  FUEGO,  ter'ra  del  fwa'go.  A 
corrupted  form  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  (q.v. ). 

TERRAMARE,  ter'ra-ma'ra  (from  It.  terra 
amara)  bitter  earth ) .  The  term  applied  to  cer¬ 
tain  low  mounds  with  level  tops  in  the  valley 
of  the  Po,  which  are  supposed  to  have  formed 
the  foundations  of  prehistoric  Italian  villages. 
In  them  are  found  fragments  of  bones,  pottery, 
tools,  implements  of  war,  and  the  like,  which 
cast  light  oii  the  ancient  civilization  of  Italy 
in  the  Neolithic  period.  See  Italy,  Ethnology ; 
Kitchen  Midden;  Lake  Dwellings. 

TERRANOVA,  ter'ra-no'va.  A  seaport  in 
the  Province  of  Caltanissetta,  Sicily,  75  miles 


by  rail  east  by  south  of  Girgenti  (Map:  Italy, 
E  6).  There  are  tunny  and  sardine  fisheries, 
and  manufactures  of  woolen  goods.  The  exports 
are  grain,  wine,  sulphur,  soda,  and  cotton.  Ter- 
ranova  was  built  by  Frederick  II  in  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century  on  the  site  of  Gela  (q.v.).  The 
ruins  of  the  ancient  necropolis  have  yielded 
numerous  vases,  and  the  excavations  of  1906 
uncovered  the  remains  of  an  important  temple. 
Pop.  (commune),  1901,  22,114;  1911,  22,019. 

TER'RAPIN  (probably  of  North  American 
Indian  origin).  Any  of  several  species  of  fresh- 


EDIBLE  TERRAPIN,  OR  DIAMOND-BACK. 


water  or  brackish-water  or  mud  turtles  of 
the  family  Emyidae,  natives  of  tropical  and  the 
warmer  temperate  countries.  The  neck  can 
be  wholly  retracted  within  the  shell;  the  head 
is  flat,  and  the  jaws  prolonged  into  a  beak. 
Terrapin  feed  partly  on  vegetable  food,  but  also 
devour  fish,  reptiles,  and  other  aquatic  animals. 
They  swim  very  well,  and  even  on  land  move 
with  much  greater  swiftness  than  land  tortoises. 
The  family  is  represented  in  the  United  States 
by  about  20  species.  The  word  “terrapin”  has 
no  exact  scientific  significance,  but  in  the  United 
States  it  is  more  commonly  applied  to  the  dia¬ 
mond-back  terrapin  ( Malacolemmys  centrata  or 
palustris) .  This  species  is  found  in  salt 
marshes  from  New  York  to  Texas,  and  is  gray 
with  black  markings.  Its  flesh  is  highly  es¬ 
teemed  as  a  table  delicacy,  and  in  some  places 
along  the  southern  coast  these  turtles  are 
reared  for  market  in  inclosures  in  large  numbers. 

TERRAZZO,  ter-rat'so.  A  kind  of  flooring 
much  used  in  modern  practice  for  corridors  and 
floors  of  public  buildings;  it  is  composed  of 
small  fragments  of  marble  set  in  a  white  cement 
and  rubbed  to  a  polish  after  it  has  set.  By  the 
use  of  fragments  of  different  colors  decorative 
effects  of  mosaic  may  be  produced.  The  process 
and  the  name  are  derived  from  Italy,  where  it  is 
called  “terrazzo  Veneziano.”  It  was  introduced 
into  the  United  States  towards  the  end  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

TERRE,  ter,  La  (Fr.,  The  Earth).  One  of 
Zola’s  Rougon-Macquart  novels  (1887),  in 
which  the  author  presents  a  brutally  realistic 
study  of  peasant  life. 

TERRE  HAUTE,  ter'e  hot'.  A  city  and  the 
county  seat  of  Vigo  Co.,  Ind.,  72  miles  west 
by  south  of  Indianapolis,  on  the  Wabash  River, 
and  on  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and 
St.  Louis,  the  Vandalia,  the  Chicago  and  East¬ 
ern  Illinois,  and  the  Chicago,  Terre  Haute,  and 
Southeastern  railroads  (Map:  Indiana,  C  6). 
Terre  Haute  is  the  seat  of  the  Rose  Polytechnic 
Institution,  Indiana  State  Normal  School,  and 
St.  Mary’s  Institute.  Other  noteworthy  insti¬ 
tutions  include  the  Rose  Orphans’  Home,  St. 
Ann’s  Orphans’  Home,  St.  Anthony’s  Hospital, 
Union  Hospital,  the  Elks’  and  Odd  Fellows’ 
lodges,  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  and  Rose  Dispen¬ 
sary.  The  Emeline  Fairbanks  Memorial  Li- 


TERRELL 


brary  has  about  47,000  volumes.  The  State 
Normal  Library  has  G5,000  volumes.  Terre 
Haute  carries  on  considerable  trade,  being  the 
centre  of  a  productive  region,  largely  devoted 
to  agriculture,  and  containing  valuable  coal, 
clay,  oil,  and  gas  deposits.  The  various  manu¬ 
factures  (1900  census)  had  $10,371,000  capital 
and  a  production  valued  at  $21,793,000.  There 
are  also  foundries  and  machine  shops,  flour  and 
hominy  mills,  clothing  factories,  rolling  mills, 
slaughtering  and  meat-packing  establishments, 
car  works,  breweries,  distilleries,  planing  mills, 
and  manufactures  of  carriages,  glass,  electric 
motors,  stoves,  brick,  enameled  ironware,  gun- 
stocks,  tools,  steel  castings,  wheels,  etc.  There 
are  three  large  ice  plants.  An  important  industry 
of  the  district  is  the  raising  of  fine  show  and 
harness  horses.  For  maintenance  and  operation 
the  city  spent,  in  1913,  $692,500,  the  principal 
items  being:  schools,  $270,000;  fire  department, 
$124,000;  police  department,  $78,000;  for  high¬ 
ways,  $64,000 ;  and  interest  on  debt,  $33  000. 
Pop.,  1900,  36,673;  1910,  58,157;  1915,  64,806; 
1920,  66,083.  Terre  Haute  was  founded  in  1816 
and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1833. 

TER'RELL.  A  city  in  Kaufman  Co.,  Tex., 
32  miles  east  of  Dallas,  on  the  Texas  and 
Pacific  and  the  Texas  Midland  railroads  (Map: 
Texas,  D  3).  It  is  the  seat  of  the  North  Texas 
Hospital  for  the  Insane,  and  has  a  military 
college  for  boys,  Carnegie  library,  and  an 
Elks’  Home.  Terrell  is  the  commercial  centre 
of  a  region  engaged  in  truck  farming,  cotton, 
wheat,  and  fruit  growing,  and  having  besides 
important  cattle-raising  and  lumber  interests. 
It  is  also  known  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton¬ 
seed  oil.  It  has  shops  of  the  Texas  Midland 
Railroad,  cotton  gins,  a  cotton  compress,  a  flour 
mill,  a  foundry,  a  canning  factory,  a  manufac¬ 
tory  of  cotton  goods,  etc.  The  city  has  adopted 
the  commission  form  of  government.  Pop.,  1900, 
6330;  1910,  7050. 

TERRESTRIAL  ELECTRICITY.  The 

science  pertaining  to  electrical  phenomena  ex¬ 
hibited  Ijy  the  earth  and  atmosphere.  Under 
normal  conditions  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
everywhere  negatively  charged,  and  the  magni¬ 
tude  of  the  charge  density  is  such  that  the 
potential  gradient,  or  increase  of  electrical  po¬ 
tential  per  meter  increase  of  altitude  above  the 
surface,  amounts  to  about  150  volts  per  meter. 
The  potential  gradient  shows  annual  and  diurnal 
variations  of  very  considerable  amount;  it  di¬ 
minishes  with  increase  of  altitude,  and  probably 
becomes  sensibly  zero  at  altitudes  of  little  more 
than  10  kilometers,  a  fact  which  leads,  by  a 
direct  application  of  the  fundamental  princi¬ 
ples  of  electrostatics,  to  the  conclusion  that 
there  is  a  positive  charge  in  the  atmosphere, 
sensibly  equal  in  total  amount  to  the  negative 
charge  on  the  earth. 

The  atmosphere  possesses  the  power  of  con¬ 
ducting  electricity  to  an  extent  which,  though 
extremely  small,  is  nevertheless  sufficient  to  in¬ 
sure  that  nine-tenths  of  the  charge  on  the  earth 
would  disappear  in  10  minutes  if  there  were  no 
means  of  replenishing  the  loss.  Although  many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  account  for  the 
permanent  existence  of  an  electrical  field  in  a 
conducting  atmosphere,  no  completely  satisfac¬ 
tory  theory  has  yet  been  evolved.  See  Atmos¬ 
pheric  Electricity. 

The  conductivity  of  the  atmosphere  arises  from 
the  presence  in  it  of  positive  and  negative  ions 
formed  by  the  splitting  up  of  neutral  gas  mole- 


117  TERRESTRIAL  ELECTRICITY 

cules.  These  ions  are  of  two  main  classes,  the 
so-called  small  ions,  which  contribute  the  greater 
part  of  the  conductivity,  and  large  ions;  the 
latter  move  in  a  unit  electrical  field  with  veloci¬ 
ties  only  about  l-3000th  of  that  of  the  former, 
and  are  probably  formed  by  the  combination  of 
small  ions  with  dust  nuclei.  The  usual  methods 
of  measurement  reveal  only  the  small  ions,  and 
about  800  pairs  of  these  are  usually  found  per 
cubic  centimeter. 

Since  ions,  when  left  to  themselves,  recombine 
at  a  rate  given  by  a n+n—  where  n  +  and  n_ 
are  the  numbers  of  positive  and  negative  ions 
per  cubic  centimeter  and  a  is  a  constant,  it  is 
necessary  to  suppose  that  in  the  steady  state 
they  are  produced  at  a  rate  q  per  cubic  centi¬ 
meter  per  second,  equal  to  this  amount.  If  we 
leave  the  large  ions  out  of  consideration,  the 
value  of  q  necessary  to  account  for  the  presence 
of  the  small  ions  is  about  1.6. 

Radioactive  substances  are  known  to  emit 
radiations  which  possess  the  power  of  ionizing  a 
gas  (see  Radioactivity),  and  the  radioactive 
materials  in  the  earth  and  atmosphere  over 
land  are  known  to  be  sufficient  to  account  for 
a  value  of  q  equal  to  about  4.3,  i.e.,  a  value  suf¬ 
ficiently  large  to  provide  for  all  of  the  measured 
ions  and  for  some  of  the  large  ions  as  well. 
There  is,  however,  another  important  source  of 
ionization  in  the  atmosphere. 

If  a  vessel  which  has  been  freed  from  radio¬ 
active  air  is  hermetically  sealed,  it  is  found 
that  over  land  about  10  ions  are  produced  in 
it  per  cubic  centimeter  per  second.  Calling  this 
quantity  in  any  particular  case  R,  a  portion  of 
R  must  be  considered  as  caused  by  radioactive 
impurities  in  the  walls  of  the  vessel  itself,  but 
the  phenomenon  which  is  responsible  for  the 
ionization  not  produced  in  this  way  is  called 
the  penetrating  radiation.  A  part  of  the  pene¬ 
trating  radiation  is  undoubtedly  nothing  more 
than  that  portion  (the  7  rays)  of  the  radiation 
from  the  external  radioactive  materials  in  the 
soil  and  air  which  is  sufficiently  penetrating  to 
pass  through  the  walls  of  the  containing  vessel; 
but  over  the  great  oceans,  where  the  radioactive 
material  in  the  sea  water  and  air  is  found  to 
be  insignificant  in  amount,  values  of  R  equal 
to  about  4  are  obtained,  and  these  must  conse¬ 
quently  be  attributed  to  some  other  cause.  That 
the  whole  effect  is  not  a  result  of  impurities 
in  the  walls  of  the  vessel  is  borne  out  by  the 
fact  that  R  increases  very  considerably  with 
altitude. 

The  numbers  of  ions  per  cubic  centimeter  have 
been  found  to  be  as  large  over  the  great  oceans 
as  over  land,  or  larger,  a  result  amply  confirmed 
by  the  recent  extensive  observations  made  on 
cruises  of  the  yacht  Carnegie,  belonging  to  the 
Department  of  Terrestrial  Magnetism  of  the  Car¬ 
negie  Institution  of  Washington.  The  result  is 
at  first  sight  surprising  when  it  is  remembered 
that  the  radioactive  material,  which  forms  so  im¬ 
portant  a  factor  in  the  ionization  over  land,  is 
almost  entirely  absent  over  the  great  oceans. 
It  is  probable  that  the  influence  of  the  greater 
value  of  q  which  must  certainly  exist  over  land 
is  offset,  as  far  as  the  measured  ionic  numbers 
are  concerned,  by  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
ions  produced  over  land  going  into  the  large 
type  as  a  result  of  combination  with  dust  nuclei, 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  over  the  large 
oceans  the  ions  are  practically  all  of  the  small 
type. 

Instrumental  Appliances.  The  appliances 


TERRESTRIAL  ELECTRICITY  118  TERRESTRIAL  ELECTRICITY 


for  potential-gradient  measurements  over  land 
are  described  in  the  article  on  atmospheric  elec¬ 
tricity  ( q.v. ) .  For  ocean  work  the  usual  forms  of 
“collector”  are  unsuitable  mainly  on  account  of 
the  difficulty  of  securing  satisfactory  insulation. 
In  the  apparatus  employed  on  the  Carnegie  a 
long  brass  tube,  carrying  a  sort  of  parasol  at¬ 
tachment  at  one  end,  is  mounted  on  insulated 
bearings  fixed  to  the  stern  rail  of  the  ship  in 
such  a  way  that  it  can  be  turned  in  a  vertical 
plane  containing  the  fore-and-aft  line.  Relative 
values  of  the  potential  gradient  are  obtained  by 
measuring  the  alteration  in  potential  which  the 
insulated  system  undergoes  when  it  is  turned 
through  a  fixed  angle  from  an  earthed  position. 

The  values  of  n+  and  W-  are  usually  measured 
by  drawing  air  at  a  measured  rate  through  the 
space  between  two  concentric  cylinders  charged 
to  a  difference  of  potential  sufficiently  high  to 
insure  that  all  of  the  ions  of  sign  opposite  to 
that  on  the  central  cylinder  are  drawn  thereto 
as  the  air  passes  through.  The  central  cylinder 
is  connected  to  an  electroscope,  and  the  altera¬ 
tion  in  potential  of  the  electroscope  during  the 
passage  of  a  known  amount  of  air,  combined  with 
a  knowledge  of  the  electrical  capacity  of  the 
apparatus  and  the  charge  e  on  a  single  ion,  leads 
directly  to  the  evaluation  of  n+  or  n-  as  the  case 
may  be. 

The  conductivities  A+  and  for  positive 

and  negative  ions  are  respectively  n+ev+  and 
n~ev-,  where  v+  and  v-  are  the  velocities  under 
unit  electrical  field  of  the  particular  ion  con¬ 
cerned.  They  are  usually  measured  by  a  method 
similar  to  that  for  measuring  n+  and  n_,  except 
that  the  space  between  the  cylinders  is  wider, 
and  the  potential  difference  between  them  is 
less  than  the  amount  necessary  to  extract  from 
the  air  all  of  the  ions  concerned.  Under  these 
conditions  the  theory  of  the  instrument  shows 
that  the  rate  of  alteration  of  the  potential  of 
the  central  insulated  system  is  independent  of 
the  velocity  of  the  air;  it  depends  only  upon  A  4. 
or  A_  as  the  case  may  be,  on  the  initial  poten¬ 
tial  difference  between  the  cylinders,  and  on  the 
capacities  of  certain  parts  of  the  instrument. 

Estimates  of  the  amount  of  radioactive  mate¬ 
rial  in  the  atmosphere  have  generally  been  made 
by  utilizing  the  fact  that  a  negatively  charged 
body  exposed  to  air  containing  radioactive  sub¬ 
stances  collects  an  active  deposit.  (See  Radio¬ 
activity.)  Measurements  of  the  activity  of  the 
deposit  obtained  under  specified  conditions  in 
this  way  afford  a  rough  means  of  obtaining 
relative  values  of  the  amount  of  active  material 
in  the  atmosphere.  More  accurate  measurements 
of  an  absolute  nature  are  made  by  drawing  the 
air  over  coconut  charcoal;  the  charcoal  absorbs 
the  emanation,  which  may  subsequently  be  ex¬ 
pelled  by  heat  and  measured  by  its  effect  in  pro¬ 
ducing  ionization  in  a  suitable  vessel. 

The  intensity  of  the  penetrating  radiation  is 
usually  ascertained  by  measuring  the  saturation 
current  /  in  a  hermetically  sealed  vessel  of 
volume  V,  provided  with  an  insulated  central 
electrode  connected  to  an  electroscope.  The 
value  of  R  is  then  equal  to  I /Ve,  where  e  is  the 
electronic  charge  (4.7  X  1010  E.S.U. ). 

Upper  Atmosphere.  Our  knowledge  of  the 
electrical  conditions  in  the  upper  atmosphere  is 
very  small,  and  is  for  the  most  part  a  matter  of 
conjecture,  but  many  considerations  suggest  that 
at  great  altitudes  the  conductivity  is  enormously 
greater  than  at  altitudes  which  are  attainable. 
The  chief  sources  of  ionization  in  the  upper  at¬ 


mosphere  are  probably  the  ultra-violet  light  from 
the  sun,  and  the  negatively  (and  possibly  posi¬ 
tively)  charged  particles  generally  supposed  to 
be  emitted  by  that  body.  These  corpuscles,  enter¬ 
ing  the  vicinity  of  the  earth’s  magnetic  field, 
will  be  deflected  thereby  according  to  known 
laws,  and  by  following  out  the  consequences  of 
this  view,  Birkeland  has  formulated  a  theory 
(illustrated  by  many  laboratory  experiments) 
in  which  the  aurora  is  explained  by  the  en¬ 
trance  into  our  atmosphere  of  high-speed  nega¬ 
tive  corpuscles  from  the  sun.  In  order,  how¬ 
ever,  to  account  for  the  necessary  magnitude 
of  the  magnetic  deviation,  and  for  the  extension 
of  the  aurora  to  low  altitudes,  it  is  necessary 
to  postulate  that  the  negative  corpuscles  have 
energies  very  much  greater  than  we  are  familiar 
with  in  laboratory  experiments.  These  diffi¬ 
culties  are  to  some  extent  lessened  by  supposing, 
as  Stoermer  and  Vegard  have  done,  that  the 
particles  concerned  are,  at  any  rate  in  part, 
positively  charged  atoms  of  great  energy,  simi¬ 
lar  to  or  identical  with  a  rays. 

Estimates  of  the  altitude  of  the  aurora  are 
attended  with  considerable  uncertainty;  some 
claim  to  have  observed  it  at  altitudes  as  low 
as  10  or  even  1  kilometer.  Stoermer  has  re¬ 
cently  made  precise  measurements  of  the  parallax 
of  its  beams  and  arches,  by  taking,  at  stations  a 
few  kilometers  apart,  simultaneous  photographs 
of  the  aurora  and  of  the  brightest  stars  appear¬ 
ing  through  it.  The  altitudes  obtained  range 
from  40  kilometers  to  260  kilometers.  More  re¬ 
cently  Stoermer  has  employed  the  cinematograph 
to  facilitate  the  following  of  rapid  changes  in 
the  aurora. 

Earth.  Currents.  During  periods  of  sun-spot 
activity  and  magnetic  storms  (see  Terrestriai. 
Magnetism)  earth  currents  may  attain  values 
sufficiently  great  to  render  them  a  source  of 
serious  trouble  in  telegraphy,  but  during  undis¬ 
turbed  periods  they  are  very  small,  the  potential 
difference  which  causes  them  being  only  of  the 
order  of  magnitude  of  0.1  volt  per  kilometer. 
The  general  direction  of  the  earth  current  in 
Europe  seems  to  be  from  southwest  to  northeast. 

Earth  currents  have  so  far  been  investigated 
mainly  by  measuring  the  current  obtained  in  a 
wire  terminating  in  two  large  plates  embedded 
in  the  soil  at  a  considerable  distance  apart; 
the  product  of  the  current  so  obtained  and  the 
resistance  of  the  wire  gives  the  potential  dif¬ 
ference  between  the  plates,  which  is  the  quantity 
of  primary  interest.  Lines  ranging  in  length 
from  a  few  meters  to  thousands  of  kilometers 
have  been  employed,  but  naturally  the  electro¬ 
lytic  effects  at  the  plates  become  a  source  of  se¬ 
rious  trouble  in  the  case  of  the  shorter  lines. 
The  most  extensive  series  of  observations  on 
earth  currents  are  those  of  Weinstein,  extending 
over  a  period  of  eight  years  and  made  on  two 
telegraph  circuits,  one  from  Berlin  to  Dresden, 
120  kilometers  nearly  N.S.,  and  the  other  from 
Berlin  to  Thorn,  262  kilometers  nearly  E.W. 
The  normal  earth  currents  show  decided  diurnal 
variations,  which  are  related  in  a  very  remark¬ 
able  way  with  the  diurnal  variation  of  the 
horizontal  intensity  of  the  earth’s  magnetic 
field. 

Bibliography.  B.  Weinstein,  Die  Erdstrome 
im  Deutschen  Reichstelegraphen-gebiete  (Bruns¬ 
wick,  1900)  ;  Kristian  Birkeland,  Noricegicin 
Aurora  Polaris  Expedition,  1902—03  (New  York, 
1909)  ;  Mache  and  Von  Schweidler,  Die  atmos- 
phiirische  Elelctrizitdt  (Brunswick,  1909);  A. 


TERRESTRIAL  EQUATOR 


119 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 


Nippoldt,  “Ueber  das  Wesen  des  Erdstromes,” 
in  Meteorologische  Zeitschrift,  vol.  xxviii  (Ber¬ 
lin,  1911);  Karl  Kiihler,  Luftelektrizitat  (ib., 

1913)  ;  Muller- Pouillets  Lehrbuch  der  Physik 
und  Meteorologie,  vol.  iv  (10th  ed.,  Brunswick, 

1914)  ;  L.  Steiner,  “On  Earth  Currents  and 
Magnetic  Variations,”  in  Journal  of  Terrestrial 
Magnetism  and  Atmospheric  Electricity,  vol.  xiii 
(Baltimore,  1908)  ;  Carl  Stoermer,  “Results  of 
the  Aurora-Polaris  Expedition  to  Bossekop, 
1913,”  in  Journal  of  Terrestrial  Magnetism  and 
Atmospheric  Electricity,  vol.  xx  (ib.,  1915). 
See  Aurora  Borealis  ;  Lightning. 

TERRESTRIAL  EQUATOR.  See  Equator, 
Terrestrial. 

TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM.  The  sci¬ 
ence  which  concerns  itself  with  the  magnetic 
properties  of  the  earth  and  the  various  phe¬ 
nomena  exhibited  in  consequence  of  these  prop¬ 
erties.  That  the  earth  has  magnetic  properties 
is  shown  by  the  behavior  of  a  magnetic  needle 
when  freely  suspended  at  any  one  place  on  the 
earth’s  surface;  it  is  found  to  take  a  definite 
direction,  to  which  it  invariably  returns  when 
displaced.  It  is  not  known  as  yet  whether  the 
earth’s  magnetism  arises  chiefly  from  substances 
in  the  magnetized  condition  exhibited  by  the 
natural  magnet,  the  lodestone  or  magnetic 
(q.v. ),  and  by  the  artificial  magnet  (q.v.),  or 
whether  it  has  arisen  as  the  result  of  electric 
currents  circulating  approximately  in  the  direc¬ 
tion  from  east  to  west  within  the  earth.  In 
brief,  we  do  not  know  as  yet  whether  the  earth 
is  a  magnet  or  an  electromagnet.  All  that  we 
can  say  is  that  the  earth  acts  like  a  magnet,  and 
that,  in  consequence,  it  is  surrounded  by  a  mag¬ 
netic  field  whose  lines  of  force  extend  far  out 
into  illimitable  space;  the  direction  taken  by 
the  freely  suspended  needle,  supposed  above,  is 
tangent  to  one  of  these  lines  of  force.  We  do 
know,  however,  the  following  definite  facts : 

a.  The  systems  of  magnetic  and  electric  forces 
which  may  be  responsible  for  the  earth’s  mag¬ 
netic  field  are  situated  almost  entirely  below  the 
earth’s  surface.  Indeed,  probably  not  over  5 
per  cent  of  the  earth’s  field  is  caused  by  systems 
located  in  the  regions  above  the  surface. 

5.  The  internal  system  of  forces  and  about 
half  of  the  external  system  (the  5  per  cent)  may 
be  referred  to  a  potential,  i.e.,  if  we  are  dealing 
with  electric  currents,  they  circulate  in  such  a 
manner  as  not  to  cut  the  earth’s  surface.  A 
system  of  electric  currents  cutting  the  earth’s 
surface,  so  as  to  pass,  e.g.,  from  the  atmosphere 
into  the  earth,  or  vice  versa,  is  at  present  sup¬ 
posed.  to  account  for  the  remaining  2  or  3  per 
cent  of  the  total  magnetic  field. 

c.  If  magnetized  substances  cause  the  earth’s 
magnetic  field,  then  they  probably  would  have 
to  be  confined  to  a  stratum  extending  down  not 
over  10  miles  below  the  surface,  for  beyond  this 
depth  temperatures  would  be  encountered  at 
which,  as  far  as  we  know,  substances  could  not 
exist  in  the  magnetized  state.  Whether  or  not 
the  increase  of  pressure  encountered  as  we  pene¬ 
trate  into  the  earth’s  interior  would  tend  to 
counteract  the  deleterious  effect  of  increased 
temperature  on  magnetized  substances  is  not 
definitely  known.  However,  the  increase  of  tem¬ 
perature  with  depth  would  be  conducive  to  the 
production  of  a  magnetic  field  caused  by  electric 
currents. 

d.  Roughly,  65  to  70  per  cent  of  the  earth’s 
magnetic  field  can  be  represented  by  a  formula 
based  on  some  kind  of  uniform  magnetization 


(see  Magnetism)  parallel  to  a  diameter  inclined 
about  11.5°  to  the  earth’s  axis  of  rotation.  At 
present  the  average  effective  intensity  of  mag¬ 
netization  (magnetic  moment  per  unit  of  volume) , 
in  C.  G.  S.  units,  is  about  0.07,  and  the  magnetic 
moment  of  the  entire  earth,  if  R  be  the  earth’s 
mean  radius,  0.32/23  =  0.32  X  ( 6.37  X  10s) 3  = 
8.3  X  102'’.  The  earth’s  average  intensity  of 
magnetization  is  about  ^,q00  that  of  very  highly 
magnetized  steel. 

e.  The  earth’s  magnetic  field  is  more  or  less 
unstable  and  is  in  a  continual  state  of  flux. 
External  causes  may,  in  a  moment,  cause  a 
change  amounting  at  times  to  as  much  as  5 
per  cent  of  its  apparently  permanent  intensity 
of  magnetization  ( p ).  Generally  this  derange¬ 
ment  may  be  regarded  as  being  caused  by  a 
demagnetizing  system,  the  effect  of  which  is 
equivalent  to  a  diminution  in  p  which  may 
last  for  a  comparatively  long  period.  Thus  it 
took  the  earth’s  magnetic  field  about  three 
months  to  recover  from  the  effect  of  the  ex¬ 
ceptionally  severe  magnetic  storm  of  Sept.  25, 
1909. 

The  earth’s  complex  magnetic  field  may  be 
resolved  into  the  following  main  magnetic  sys¬ 
tems:  (1)  The  polar  system — a  uniform  mag¬ 

netic  system,  symmetrical  about  and  parallel  to 
the  earth’s  axis  of  rotation,  oriented  so  as  to 
cause  the  north  end  of  a  magnetic  needle  to 
point  everywhere  north,  and  below  the  horizon, 
in  the  Northern  Hemisphere;  (2)  the  equatorial 
system — a  uniform  magnetic  system  of  about 
one-fifth  of  the  strength  of  ( 1 ) ,  symmetrical 
about  and  parallel  to  a  diameter  lying  in  the 
equatorial  plane,  oriented,  did  it  alone  exist, 
so  as  to  cause  the  north  end  of  a  magnetic  needle 
to  point  everywhere  at  present  towards  a  subsidi¬ 
ary  pole  on  the  equator  in  longitude  about  70° 
west  of  Greenwich;  (3)  the  distorting,  trans¬ 
verse  system  giving  rise  to  a  subsidiary  mag¬ 
netic  field  approximately  of  one-fifth  of  the 
strength  of  the  combined  system  (d) ,  composed 
of  ( 1 )  and  ( 2 ) ,  asymmetrical  both  about  the 
earth’s  axis  of  rotation  and  its  equatorial  plane, 
oriented  in  opposite  directions  in  the  Northern 
and  Southern  Hemispheres;  (4)  regional  and 
local  disturbance  systems.  Were  systems  1  and 
2  alone  existent,  magnetic  observations  at  but 
very  few  places  would  suffice  to  determine  the 
positions  of  the  magnetic  poles  (see  below)  and 
to  calculate  in  turn,  with  high  accuracy,  the 
values  at  all  other  places  on  the  earth  of  the 
magnetic  elements  (q.v.):  declination  (D),  in¬ 
clination  or  dip  (I),  and  horizontal  intensity 
( H ),  or  the  horizontal  component  of  the  total 
strength  of  the  field.  Owing,  however,  to  the 
effects  from  systems  3  and  4,  no  formula  has 
as  yet  been  established  which  will  yield  computed 
values  of  the  magnetic  elements  with  accuracy 
sufficient  for  even  the  purely  practical  purposes 
of  the  surveyor  and  the  navigator.  Nor  has  any 
one  as  yet  succeeded  in  establishing  laws  by 
means  of  which  reliable  values  of  the  magnetic 
elements  could  be  predicted  for  any  place  on  the 
basis  of  the  existing  values.  Hence  the  need 
of  magnetic  surveys  of  land  and  ocean  areas 
for  determining  by  actual  observation  the  prev¬ 
alent  values  of  the  magnetic  elements  at  suffi¬ 
cient  places  for  the  construction  of  magnetic 
charts. 

Magnetic  Charts.  Nearly  every  civilized 
country  has  organized  magnetic  services  for  the 
purpose  of  charting  the  magnetic  elements.  The 
most  extensive  work  of  this  kind  at  present  is 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 


120 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 


Deing  done  by  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash¬ 
ington,  through  its  Department  of  Terrestrial 
Magnetism.  This  organization  has  as  its  special 
aim  the  securing  of  magnetic  data  in  regions, 
either  not  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  one 
country,  or  where,  for  one  reason  or  another, 
there  are  no  existing  data  nor  any  likely  to  be 
obtained  in  the  near  future.  Since  1905  its 
expeditions  have  been  sent  to  almost  every 
region  of  the  globe,  and  magnetic  data  have  been 
secured  in  all  the  oceans  on  cruises  of  aggregate 
length  nine  times  that  of  the  earth’s  circum¬ 
ference.  The  specially  constructed  non-magnetic 


the  compass  direction  were  occurring  in  1916  in 
the  following  regions:  Along  the  northeastern 
coast  of  Brazil,  where  the  north  end  of  the  com¬ 
pass  was  moving  westward  at  the  annual  rate  of 
about  16';  along  the  extreme  southeastern  coast 
of  Africa,  where  the  north  end  of  the  compass 
was  moving  eastward  at  the  annual  rate  of  about 
14'.  The  largest  annual  change  in  the  magnetic 
dip  was  about  18'  (increase  of  dip  of  north  end 
of  needle  below  the  horizon ) ,  and  was  occurring 
in  Colombia,  South  America. 

The  curves  (Fig.  3)  represent  those  described 
in  the  course  of  time  by  the  north  end  of  freely 


Fig.  1.  Chart  showing  lines  of  equal  magnetic  inclination  for  the  earth  in  1905  (British  Admiralty).  The  north  end  of 
the  dip  needle  points  below  the  horizon  in  all  of  the  region  (north  magnetic  hemisphere)  north  of  the  zero  line  (magnetic 
equator),  and  above  the  horizon  in  all  the  region  (south  magnetic  hemisphere)  south  of  the  line. 


vessel,  the  Carnegie,  reached  the  parallel  of  80° 
N.,  off  Spitzbergen,  in  1914;  in  1915-16  she 
circumnavigated  the  region  between  the  parallels 
50°  to  60°  S.  By  the  end  of  1917  this  depart¬ 
ment,  it  is  expected,  will  be  able  to  undertake 
the  construction  of  world-magnetic  charts,  with 
an  accuracy  and  detail  not  heretofore  possible. 
The  accompanying  plate  shows  the  lines  of  equal 
magnetic  declination,  or  isogonic  lines  (q.v. ), 
and  of  equal  annual  change  for  the  United  States 
in  1915,  and  the  second  plate  similar  lines  for 
the  earth  in  1915.  Under  Declination  will  be 
found  a  table  of  Magnetic  Declinations  and  An¬ 
nual  Changes  in  the  United  States  for  Jan. 
1,  1910.  Fig.  1  shows  the  lines  of  equal  inclina¬ 
tion  or  isoclinics  (q.v.)  for  the  earth  in  1905. 
Similarly  there  are  charts  giving  the  lines  of 
equal  horizontal  intensity,  of  equal  vertical  in¬ 
tensity,  and  of  equal  total  intensity  of  the  earth’s 
magnetic  field.  See  Isodynamic  Lines  ;  Isomag- 
netic  Lines. 

Secular  Variation  of  the  Earth’s  Magnet¬ 
ism.  The  various  magnetic  elements  suffer  from 
year  to  year  more  or  less  progressive  changes 
which  continue  for  a  period  the  length  of  which 
is  not  known  at  present;  it  may  be  as  long  as 
1500  years  or  more.  It  is  not  even  known 
whether  or  not  the  secular  change  is  a  strictly 
periodic  one.  Suffice  it  to  sav  that  because  of 
this  long-period  change  the  earth’s  magnetic 
state  undergoes  such  remarkable  changes  that  it 
is  necessary,  even  for  the  purely  practical  pur¬ 
poses  of  navigation,  to  issue  new  magnetic  charts 
of  the  earth  at  intervals  preferably  not  longer 
than  five  years.  The  largest  annual  changes  in 


suspended  magnetic  needles  at  London,  Boston, 
and  Baltimore,  the  motion  being  viewed  by  an 
observer  supposed  to  be  standing  at  the  point 
of  suspension  of  the  needle.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  area  of  the  London  curve  is  considerably 
larger  than  those  of  the  United  States  stations, 


Fig.  2.  Showing  the  direction  assumed  by  a  dip  needle  in 
various  parts  of  the  earth.  Some  idea  of  the  complexity  of 
the  earth’s  magnetic  field  is  gained  by  the  amount  of  depar¬ 
ture  of  the  magnetic  equator  from  the  true  equator. 

or,  in  other  words,  the  secular  changes  in  declina¬ 
tion  and  inclination  appear  to  be  larger  for  Eng¬ 
land  than  for  the  United  States.  However,  we 
do  not  know  what  may  have  occurred  in  the 
United  States  prior  to  the  date  when  the  ob- 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 


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c  c 

i—  ° 


cd 

13 

C 

C 

cd 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 


LINES  OF  EQUAL  MAGNETIC  DECLINATION  FOR  THE  EARTH  IN'  1915 

Rag.-H  on  the  United  States  Hydrographic  Office  Chart,  with  additions 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 


121 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 


servations  began,  nor  can  we  predict  what  the 
future  changes  will  be.  For  example,  the  Lon¬ 
don  curve  may  not  close  itself,  if  it  ever  does, 
in  a  simple  manner;  there  may  be  introduced 
one  or  more  loops  of  area  smaller  than  that  of 


Fig.  3.  Curves  showing  the  secular  change  in  the  magnetic 
declination  and  in  the  inclination  (dip)  at  London,  Boston, 
and  Baltimore.  [Drawn  for  supposed  length  of  freely  sus¬ 
pended  magnetic  needle  of  about  37  centimeters,  or  nearly 
15  inches.] 

the  present  curve.  There  is  some  evidence  that 
such  loops  may  have  occurred  several  centuries 
ago,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  they  may  not 
occur  again. 

Table  I  shows  the  irregularities  in  the 
secular  change  from  year  to  year  at  a  typi¬ 
cal  station,  Cheltenham,  Md.,  where  a  mag¬ 
netic  observatory  is  in  operation  under  the 
auspices  of  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey. 

Magnetic  Poles.  The  approximate  position 
of  the  north  magnetic  pole  in  1916  was  lat. 
70°  N.,  long.  97°  W.,  and  of  the  south  magnetic 

TABLE  I 

ANNUAL  VALUES  AND  CHANGES  OF  THE  MAGNETIC  ELEMENTS 
AT  CHELTENHAM,  MD. 


(7  denotes  0.00001  of  a  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  field  intensity) 


DECLINATION 

INCLINATION 

HOR. 

INT. 

YEAR 

Value 

Change 

Value 

Change 

Value 

Change 

o  / 

/ 

o 

/ 

/ 

7 

7 

1902 

5  06.8W 

70 

21.9 

20,178 

3.2W 

+  0.8 

-40 

1903 

5  10.0W 

3.3W 

70 

22.7 

+  1.3 

20,138 

-37 

1904 

5  13.3W 

4.5W 

70 

24.0 

+  1.4 

20,101 

-37 

1905 

5  17.8W 

3.7W 

70 

25.4 

+  1.5 

20,064 

-40 

1906 

5  21.5W 

4.5W 

70 

26.9 

+2.1 

20,024 

-52 

1907 

5  26. 0W 

5.1W 

70 

29.0 

+  1.5 

19,972 

-50 

1908 

5  31. 1W 

5.3W 

70 

30.5 

+2.3 

19,922 

-59 

1909 

5  36.4W 

5.0W 

70 

32.8 

+2.6 

19,863 

-57 

1910 

5  41.4W 

4.2W 

70 

35.4 

+2.0 

19,806 

-61 

1911 

5  45. 6W 

4.4W 

70 

37.4 

+  1.7 

19,745 

-63 

1912 

5  50. 0W 

4.6W 

70 

39.1 

+2.0 

19,682 

-83 

1913 

5  54. 6 W 

5.2W 

70 

41.1 

+2.9 

19,599 

-89 

1914 

5  59. 8 W 

70 

44.0 

19,510 

pole,  lat.  72°  S.,  long.  153°  E.  A  straight  line 
connecting  these  two  poles  would  pass  through 
the  earth  750  miles  distant  from  the  centre.  We 
do  not  possess  observations  sufficiently  extensive, 


or  of  requisite  accuracy,  to  determine  definitely 
the  paths  followed  by  the  magnetic  poles  as  the 
result  of  the  secular  change  in  the  earth’s  mag¬ 
netism.  Nor  do  we  know  as  yet  the  precise 
cause  for  this  mysterious  change.  It  has  been 
shown,  however,  that  the  system  of  forces  caus¬ 
ing  the  changes  is  a  resultant  one,  composed  of 
a  system  inside  the  earth  and  of  another 
above  the  earth’s  surface.  It  is  also  known  now 
that  the  secular  change  is  caused  not  only  by 
a  change  in  the  direction  of  magnetization  but 
likewise  by  a  change  in  the  intensity  of  mag¬ 
netization.  The  earth’s  magnetic  moment  dur¬ 
ing  the  past  three-quarters  of  a  century  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  been  diminishing  at  the  average 
annual  rate  of  about  part.  But  it  is  not 

known  whether  this  apparent  decrease  will 
continue. 

Diurnal  Variation  of  the  Earth’s  Magnet¬ 
ism.  This  is  one  of  the  most  striking  of  the 
earth’s  magnetic  phenomena.  The  magnetic  ele¬ 
ments  run  through  a  certain  course  having  the 
solar  day  as  period,  the  ranges  of  the  changes 
being  greater  in  the  summer  months  than  in 
the  winter  months,  and  greater  during  periods 
of  maximum  sun-spot  activity  than  during 
periods  of  minimum  sun-spot  activity.  Table  II 
shows  the  diurnal  changes  for  a  typical  station, 

TABLE  II 


DIURNAL  VARIATION  OF  THE  MAGNETIC  ELEMENTS  AT  CHEL¬ 
TENHAM,  MD.,  IN  1912 

(y  denotes  0.00001  of  a  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  field  intensity) 


DECLINATION 

INCLINATION 

HOR. 

INT. 

HOUR 

Jan. 

Aug. 

Jan. 

Aug. 

Jan. 

Aug. 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

7 

7 

1  A.M. 

-0.1 

+  0.1 

+0.1 

-0.2 

-2 

+4 

2 

0.0 

+0.3 

+0.1 

-0.2 

-1 

+4 

3 

+0.3 

+  0.6 

0.0 

-0.1 

0 

+3 

4 

+  0.4 

+0.9 

0.0 

-0.1 

+  1 

+2 

5 

+  0.3 

+  1.8 

-0.1 

0.0 

+2 

+  2 

6 

+0.8 

+  3.6 

-0.1 

0.0 

+  1 

+  1 

7 

+  1.2 

+  5.2 

0.0 

+  0.5 

0 

-8 

8 

+  1.3 

+  5.3 

0.0 

+  1.1 

-1 

-21 

9 

+  1.0 

+3.3 

+  0.1 

+  1.5 

-3 

-SO 

10 

0.0 

-0.5 

+0.2 

+  1.3 

-6 

-28  . 

11 

-1.4 

-3.6 

+0.2 

+  0.5 

-7 

-14 

Noon 

-2.2 

-5.3 

+  0.2 

-0.2 

-5 

0 

1  P.M. 

-2.0 

-5.6 

+0.1 

-0.6 

-1 

+  10 

2 

-1.0 

-4.3 

-0.1 

—0.7 

+  3 

+  14 

3 

-0.2 

-2.2 

-0.2 

-0.5 

+  5 

+  12 

4 

+0.2 

-0.4 

-0.2 

-0.3 

+  5 

+8 

5 

-0.1 

+0.6 

-0.1 

-0.2 

+  3 

+  5 

6 

+  0.1 

+0.4 

-0.1 

-0.2 

+  3 

+  5 

7 

+  0.3 

-0.1 

-0.1 

-0.2 

+  2 

+  5 

8 

+  0.4 

-0.1 

-0.1 

-0.2 

+  2 

+4 

9 

+0.3 

-0.1 

+0.1 

-0.3 

-1 

+6 

10 

+  0.4 

-0.2 

+  0.1 

-0.3 

-2 

+  5 

11 

+  0.2 

+  0.1 

+  0.1 

-0.3 

-1 

+  6 

Mid’t 

-0.1 

-0.1 

+0.1 

-0.3 

-1 

_+6 

Range 

3.5 

10.9 

0.4 

2.2 

12 

44 

Cheltenham,  Md.,  for  a  summer  month  (August) 
and  a  winter  month  (January),  and  for  the 
year  1912,  near  the  epoch  (in  1913)  of  minimum 
sun-spot  activity.  A  +  sign  means  motion  of 
north  end  of  compass  needle  to  the  east,  motion 
of  north  end  of  dip  needle  downward,  and  an 
increase  in  the  horizontal  intensity.  Thus, 
at  Cheltenham  the  mean  values  of  the  magnetic 
elements  were,  in  1912:  declination,  D  =  5°  50.0' 
west;  inclination,  I  =  +  70°  39.1'  (  +  means 

north  end  of  dip  needle  down)  ;  horizontal  in¬ 
tensity,  H  =  0.19702  (C.  G.  S.  unit) .  At  8  a.m., 
on  the  average  in  August,  1912,  D  —  5°  44.7' 
west,  /  =  +  70°  40.2'  II  =  0.19681.  At  1  P.M., 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 


122 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 


on  the  average  in  August,  1912,  D  =  5°  55. 6' 
west,  I  =  70°  38.5'  H  =  0.19712.  The  turning 
points  (maxima  and  minima)  are  indicated  in 
the  table  by  heavy  black  figures  and  italicized 
figures.  The  ranges  (difference  between  maxi¬ 
mum  and  minimum  values)  are  given  at  the 
bottom  of  the  table. 

For  a  year  of  maximum  sun-spot  activity  the 
diurnal  ranges  are,  in  general,  increased,  the 
percentage  increase  being  greater  for  the  win¬ 
ter  months  than  for  the  summer  months.  The 


mean  annual  ranges  at  Cheltenham  were  ap¬ 
proximately  30  to  40  per  cent  greater  in  the 
year  of  maximum  sun-spot  activity  than  they 
were  in  the  year  of  minimum  sun-spot  activity. 

Confining  attention  chiefly  to  the  diurnal  var¬ 
iation  of  the  magnetic  declination  (Fig.  4)  at 
an  average  station  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere, 
we  may  say  broadly  that  the  north  end  of  the 
compass  needle  moves  eastward  in  the  morning 
hours  until  about  seven  or  eight  o’clock,  and 
then  turns  and  moves  westward  until  about  one 
o’clock  in  the  afternoon.  For  an  average  sta¬ 
tion  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  the  motion  just 
described  would  be  reversed  as  far  as  the  north 
end  of  the  compass  is  concerned,  though  for  the 
south  end  it  would  be  the  same. 

It  is  seen  (Table  II  and  Fig.  4)  that  the 
diurnal  variation  for  all  the  elements  is  de¬ 
veloped  chiefly  during  the  daylight  hours.  The 
seat  of  the  system  of  forces  causing  the  mag¬ 
netic  diurnal  variation  is  chiefly  above  the 
earth’s  surface,  though  a  large  percentage  of 
the  variation  arises  also  from  a  system  situated 
within  the  earth. 

Acyclic  Effect.  The  diurnal  variation  is  not 
a  strictly  cyclic  phenomenon,  i.e.,  the  mean 
daily  values  of  the  magnetic  elements,  even  on 
undisturbed  days,  are  not  necessarily  the  same 
on  one  day  as  they  were  the  preceding  day  or 
as  they  will  be  on  the  following  day.  One  cause 
of  this  is  of  course  the  slowly  progressing 
change.  But  there  is  a  more  serious  cause 
for  acyclicism,  which,  if  it  persisted  through¬ 
out  the  year,  would  give  a  secular  change 
10  to  100  times  larger  than  is  actually  found, 
i.e.,  if  a  pair  of  consecutive,  magnetically 
calm  days  be  selected,  then  it  is  found  that  the 
mean  daily  value  of  the  horizontal  intensity  on 
the  second  day  is,  on  the  average  for  the  year, 
slightly  greater  than  on  the  first  day;  this  ef¬ 
fect  is  known  as  the  acyclic  effect.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  general  effect  of  magnetic  per¬ 
turbations,  or  of  magnetic  storms,  is  to  dimin¬ 
ish  the  horizontal  intensity.  Now  the  mag¬ 
netically  disturbed  days  outnumber  the  quiet 
days  at  least  two  to  one.  The  acyclic  ef¬ 
fect  of  the  nondisturbed  days  is  thus  counter¬ 
balanced,  in  a  measure,  by  that  of  the  dis¬ 
turbed  days,  so  that  the  residual  effect  at  the 
end  of  the  year  is  reduced,  i.e.,  at  Cheltenham, 


Md.,  at  present  to  about  2  or  5  per  cent  of  the 
regular  secular  change. 

Annual  Variation  of  the  Magnetic  Ele¬ 
ments.  Aside  from  the  progressive  change 
throughout  the  year,  caused  by  the  secular  va¬ 
riation,  the  earth’s  magnetic  state  undergoes 
changes  varying  with  the  season  and  having  the 
year  as  period.  The  total  range  of  these  changes 
for  the  magnetic  declination,  or  for  the  magnetic 
inclination,  is  usually  about  a  minute  of  arc  or 
less.  The  most  instructive  feature  is  best  ex¬ 
hibited  by  the 
changes  in  the  hori¬ 
zontal  and  in  the 
vertical  intensities, 
when  grouped  as 
shown  in  Table  III. 
A  plus  sign  means 
that  the  value  of 
the  magnetic  ele¬ 
ment  was  at  the 
time  numerically 
greater  than  its 
mean  value  for  the 
year;  if  the  vertical 
intensity  be  given  the  plus  sign  for  the  northern 
magnetic  hemisphere,  and  the  minus  sign  for  the 
southern  magnetic  hemisphere,  then  the  signs 
in  the  table  for  this  element  should  be  reversed 
for  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

It  is  evident  from  this  table  that  the  magni¬ 
tude  and  signs  of  the  changes  depend  upon  the 
earth’s  motion  in  declination  during  the  year, 
and  that  the  changes,  for  the  same  time  of  year, 
are,  on  the  average,  of  opposite  signs  in  the 
Northern  and  Southern  hemispheres.  The  seat 
of  the  system  of  forces  giving  rise  to  the  annual 

TABLE  III 

ANNUAL  VARIATION  OP  THE  EARTH’S  MAGNETISM 


(y  denotes  0.00001  of  a  C.  G.  S.  unit  of  field  intensity) 


MONTHS 

NORTHERN  HEM¬ 
ISPHERE 

SOUTHERN  HEM¬ 
ISPHERE 

Hor.  In. 

Yer.  In. 

Hor.  In. 

Ver.  In. 

7 

7 

7 

7 

Nov.,  Dec.,  .Tan . 

-2.1 

+  2.1 

+  5.1 

-5.7 

Feb.,  Mar.,  Apr . 

-1.4 

+  3.3 

-0.9 

+  3.9 

May,  June,  July.  .  .  . 

+  5.7 

-1.7 

-2.7 

+  0.2 

Aug.,  Sept.,  Oct . 

-2.2 

-3.7 

-1.5 

+  1.6 

April  to  Sept . 

+2.5 

-1.7 

-2.6 

+0.3 

Oct.  to  March . 

-2.5 

+  1.7 

+2.5 

-0.3 

variations  of  the  magnetic  elements  is  chiefly 
above  the  earth’s  surface. 

Magnetic  Storms  and  Perturbations.  These 
are  sudden,  spasmodic  changes  in  the  earth’s 
magnetic  state,  of  greater  or  less  severity,  oc¬ 
curring  quite  frequently.  They  are  usually  ac¬ 
companied  by  displays  of  polar  lights  and  the 
generation  of  electric  currents  in  the  earth,  suf¬ 
ficiently  strong  to  interfere  seriously  with  trans¬ 
mission  of  telegraphic  signals.  ( See  Terres¬ 
trial  Electricity.)  During  periods  of  severe 
magnetic  storms,  such  as  occur  most  frequently 
near  times  of  maximum  sun-spot  activity,  com¬ 
passes  may  be  deflected  by  a  whole  degree  and, 
at  times,  by  several  degrees  at  places  even  in  me¬ 
dium  latitudes.  In  the  polar  regions,  during  such 
periods,  the  compass  deflection  may  be  many 
degrees.  Magnetic  storms  in  general  have  a 
wide  area  of  action  and  their  effects  may  be  felt 
all  over  the  earth  at  nearly  the  same  instant  of 


7  g  9  10  11  NOON  13  14  15  16  17  18  19  20  21  22  23  24 


— 

— 

— — 

I— 

— 

K 

o' 

-i' 

— 

- 

o 

-2 

1  -1 

I  r— 

Fig.  4.  Showing  the  diurnal  variation  of  the  magnetic  declination  at  Baldvdn,  Kan.,  in 
December  and  August,  1901. 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 


time.  Sometimes,  however,  there  are  storms, 
usually  less  severe  in  intensity,  which  may  be 
more  restricted  in  their  area  of  action,  e.g.,  may 
make  themselves  felt  only  in  the  sunlit  region 
of  the  globe. 

Corresponding  Solar  and  Terrestrial-Mag¬ 
netic  Changes.  It  has  been  known  for  many 
years  that  there  are  changes  in  the  earth’s  mag¬ 
netism  which  run  an  approximately  parallel 
course  with  changes  in  the  sun’s  activity,  as  in¬ 
dicated,  e.g.,  by  sun  spottedness.  In  general, 
it  is  found  that  the  ranges  of  the  diurnal 
changes  of  the  magnetic  elements  are  larger,  and 
magnetic  storms  are  more  frequent  and  more 
severe  during  the  period  of  maximum  sun-spot 
development  than  during  the  period  of  minimum 
development.  The  magnetic  and  solar  changes 
here  discussed  follow  approximately  the  same 
periods,  of  which  the  so-called  sun-spot  period, 
11.4  years,  is  the  chief  one;  subordinate  periods 
of  about  22  and  70  years  are  also  indicated. 
The  correspondence  between  these  magnetic  and 
solar  changes  is,  however,  not  exact,  either  as 
regards  time  of  occurrence  or  as  to  magnitude. 
The  epoch  of  minimum  sun-spot  activity  oc¬ 
curred  recently  in  1913,  while  the  epoch  of 
minimum  magnetic  activity  of  the  earth  had 
taken  place  the  year  before.  Thus  we  cannot 
predict  from  an  observed  group  of  sun  spots  the 
precise  time  and  severity  of  a  magnetic  storm 
on  the  earth. 

There  appears  to  be  some  correspondence  be¬ 
tween  certain  magnetic  changes  and  changes  in 
the  solar  radiation,  as  shown  by  the  solar-con¬ 
stant  values  observed  by  the  Smithsonian  In¬ 
stitution  at  Mount  Wilson,  Cal.,  1905-15. 
Neither  sun-spot  numbers,  sun-spot  areas,  cal¬ 
cium  flocculi,  solar  protuberances,  nor  solar- 
constant  values,  however,  may  be  regarded  as 
fully  indicative  of  the  character  or  magnitude 
of  the  agencies  responsible  directly,  or  indirectly, 
for  the  magnetic  changes.  It  seems  probable 
that  the  latter  are  initiated  by  such  solar 
radiations  and  emissions  (ultra-violet  rays, 
electrically  charged  particles,  etc.),  which  may 
ionize  the  upper  atmospheric  levels  (see  Ter¬ 
restrial  Electricity)  and  thus  cause  an  alter¬ 
ation  in  the  electric  conductivity  at  these  levels. 
The  changes  in  conductivity  in  turn  may  be  re¬ 
sponsible,  in  conjunction  with  the  energy  of  the 
earth’s  rotation,  for  the  magnetic  fluctuations 
and  magnetic  storms  associated  apparently  with 
solar  changes. 

Minor  Magnetic  Fluctuations.  Chief  among 
these  is  the  lunar-diurnal  variation,  having 
as  a  period  the  lunar  day,  and  characterized 
chiefly  by  a  double  oscillation,  during  24  hours, 
like  the  earth’s  tides.  The  range  from  crest 
to  trough  of  a  single  oscillation  is  usually  less 
than  one  minute  of  arc.  There  is  also  a  mag¬ 
netic  fluctuation  dependent  upon  the  moon’s 
declination  and  phase.  Some  investigators  also 
believed  that  they  had  detected  with  certainty 
a  small  terrestrial-magnetic  fluctuation  having 
the  sun’s  rotation  as  period.  The  more  sensi¬ 
tive  the  recording  instrument,  the  more  evi¬ 
dence  is  furnished  that  the  earth’s  magnetic 
state  is  in  continual  flutter.  Some  of  the  ele¬ 
mental  fluctuations  have  an  amplitude  of  only 
a  fraction  of  a  minute  of  arc,  or  of  0.00001 
part  of  the  horizontal  intensity,  and  a  period 
ranging  from  a  fraction  of  a  second  to  a  frac¬ 
tion  of  a  minute.  There  are  also  often  shown 
on  recording  instruments,  even  of  ordinary  sen¬ 
sitiveness,  more  or  less  rhythmic  fluctuations 
Vol.  XXII.— 9 


TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 

(pulsations)  of  small  amplitude,  lasting  at 
times  several  hours. 

Local  Disturbances.  There  are  a  number  of 
places,  distributed  over  the  earth,  where,  be¬ 
cause  of  local  deposits  of  substances  affecting 
the  magnetic  needle,  the  magnetic  elements  have 
abnormal  values.  These  local  centres  of  at¬ 
traction  are  at  times  sufficiently  intense  to  cause 
a  compass  to  point  to  them  and  a  dipping  needle 
to  stand  vertical,  just  as  it  would  at  the  mag¬ 
netic  poles.  Such  centres  may  deflect  compasses 
on  board  ships  several  miles  away,  and  cause 
shipwreck,  if  the  mariner  fails  to  make  proper 
allowance.  These  phenomena  indicate  interest¬ 
ing  correlations  between  geological  formations 
and  regional  disturbances  in  the  earth’s  mag¬ 
netic  field.  Consult  Rucker  and  Thorpe’s  “Mag¬ 
netic  Survey  of  the  British  Isles  for  1891,”  vol. 
clxxxviii,  Series  A,  Philosophical  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Society,  London,  1896. 

Instruments  and  Methods.  The  limits  of 
this  article  will  not  permit  detailed  descriptions 
of  the  most  modern  instruments  used  in  land 
and  ocean  magnetic  surveys  and  at  magnetic 
observatories,  nor  will  it  be  possible  to  enter  into 
the  latest  methods  of  observation.  It  must  suf¬ 
fice  to  refer  the  interested  reader  to  the  articles 
Magnetograph,  Magnetometer,  Declinometer, 
Dip  Circle,  Compass,  and  to  the  references 
given  below. 

Solar  and  Planetary  Magnetism.  In  1913 
it  was  shown  by  Hale,  of  the  Mount  Wilson 
Solar  Observatory,  that  the  sun,  like  the  earth, 
is  enveloped  by  a  magnetic  field.  The  sun’s 
north  magnetic  pole  is  near  the  sun’s  true  north 
pole,  just  as  is  the  earth’s  north  magnetic  pole 
near  its  true  north  pole,  hence  the  polarity  of 
the  sun’s  magnetic  field  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  earth.  The  strength  of  the  solar  field,  at  the 
magnetic  poles,  is  about  80  times  that  of  the 
earth’s  at  its  poles,  which  is  about  0.65  C.  G.  S. 
unit.  If  the  sun  at  a  temperature  so  high 
that  no  substance,  as  far  as  we  know,  could  be 
in  a  magnetic  state,  nevertheless  possesses  a 
magnetic  field,  the  question  arises  as  to  what 
common  cause  could  give  rise  to  a  magnetic 
field  for  a  hot  body,  like  the  sun,  and  a  com¬ 
paratively  cold  body,  like  the  earth.  The  query 
first  raised  by  Schuster  as  to  whether  every 
large  mass  rotating  with  sufficient  speed  may  not 
be  a  magnet  is  one  receiving  at  present  much 
serious  attention.  If  size,  density,  and  angular 
velocity  are  sufficient  requisites,  then  there  is 
no  reason  why  every  one  of  our  planets,  or 
celestial  bodies,  may  not  also  be  endowed  each 
with  a  magnetic  field.  And  it  may  thus  tran¬ 
spire  that  the  interacting  magnetic  effects  of  the 
members  of  our  solar  system  cannot  be  neg¬ 
lected  in  astronomy  of  precision.  Even  now 
astronomers  are  seeking  some  magnetic  cause 
to  account  for  outstanding  motions  in  the  moon, 
Venus,  Mercury,  and  the  sun,  which  cannot  be 
explained  on  the  gravitation  theory  alone. 

Origiii  of  the  Earth’s  Magnetism.  If  it 
should  be  found  possible  to  prove  the  existence 
of  a  magnetic  field  for  another  rotating  body, 
like  Jupiter,  e.g.,  then  the  belief  would  be  greatly 
strengthened  that  rotation  of  a  large  mass  is 
the  chief  cause  for  the  observed  magnetic  field. 
Unfortunately,  the  proof  as  to  rotation  being  the 
chief  cause  appears  to  be  beyond  present  labora¬ 
tory  appliances.  There  are  various  facts  which 
point  strongly  to  rotation  as  being  the  chief 
agency  involved  in  the  production  of  the  mag¬ 
netic  fields  of  the  earth  and  of  the  sun. 


TERRIER, 


TERRESTRIAL  TEMPERATURE 

Bibliography.  Bauer,  Principal  Facts  of  the 
Earth’s  Magnetism  (Washington,  1902)  ;  Haz¬ 
ard,  Directions  for  Magnetic  Measurements  (ib., 
1911);  Mascart,  Magnetisme  terrestre  (Paris, 
1900)  ;  Chree,  Studies  in  Terrestrial  Magnetism 
(London,  1912)  ;  Nippoldt,  Erdmagnetismus, 
Erdstrom  und  Polarlicht  (Berlin,  1912)  ;  Journal 
of  Terrestrial  Magnetism  and  Atmospheric  Elec¬ 
tricity  (Baltimore,  Md.,  annual)  ;  Reports  of 
the  Division  of  Terrestrial  Magnetism,  United 
States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  (Washington)  ; 
also  “Researches  of  the  Department  of  Terres¬ 
trial  Magnetism,”  in  Carnegie  Institution  of 
Washington,  Publication  Ao.  175  (2  vols.)  ;  these 
two  volumes  describe  latest  instruments  and 
methods  of  observation  and  give  results  of  land 
magnetic  observations  in  all  parts  of  the  earth 
( 1905-13 ) .  See  Electricity  ;  Magnetism  ;  Ter¬ 
restrial  Electricity. 

TERRESTRIAL  TEMPERATURE.  See 

Temperature,  Terrestrial. 

TERRIER  (OF.  terrier,  from  ML.  terrarius, 
from  Lat.  terra,  earth,  land,  so  called  from  its 
scratching  the  ground  in  pursuit  of  prey).  A 
small  active  domestic  dog,  used  to  catch  rats. 
Sixteen  distinct  breeds  are  officially  recognized, 
several  having  two  subvarieties — rough-haired 
and  smooth.  The  earliest  authentic  mention  of 
the  terrier  is  by  Dr.  Caius,  who  wrote  a  Latin 
treatise  on  the  dog  before  1572.  He  enumerates 
among  the  British  dogs  “the  terrare”  described 
as  a  hunter  of  the  fox  and  badger.  This  breed 
was  what  is  now  called  a  fox  terrier,  at  that 
time  black-and-tan,  or  pied  with  white  or  yel¬ 
low,  of  which  a  large  and  a  small  variety  were 
bred.  The  larger  variety  became  a  rough-haired, 
strong  animal,  the  foundation  stock  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish  white  terrier.  This  breed,  crossed  with  the 
bulldog,  produced  the  bull  terrier,  a  dog  of 
infinite  courage,  out  of  which,  however,  all  other 
bulldog  characteristics  have  been  eliminated. 
The  fox  terrier  was  gradually  degraded  into  a 
fighting  dog,  and  so  lost  caste  that  it  became 
nearly  extinct,  but  was  revived  about  1865,  and 
became  the  most  popular  of  all  terriers  as  a 
house  pet  as  well  as  useful  about  the  stable. 
While  in  one  direction  all  the  color  was  being 
bred  out  of  the  original  terrier  to  produce  the 
white  dog,  in  another  direction  all  the  white  was 
being  eliminated  to  produce  the  pure  black-and- 
tan,  until  that  race  was  perfected.  From  the 
smaller  specimens  of  this  breed  came,  by  selec¬ 
tion,  the  toy  black-and-tan  weighing  as  little  as 
three  pounds.  The  Welsh  terrier  is  a  large  wire- 
haired  black-and-tan ;  the  Irish  terrier  is  a 
wire-haired  yellow  variety,  claimed  to  be  in¬ 
digenous  and  of  the  highest  antiquity.  The 
Bedlington  is  a  wire-haired  variety  supposed  to 
be  a  cross  between  the  low-legged,  wire-haired 
Dandie  Dinmont  and  the  otter  hound,  but  it 
much  more  strikingly  resembles  the  Irish  water 
dog.  The  Airedale  is  a  cross  of  the  rough-haired 
English  terrier  with  the  otter  hound;  and  the 
Boston  terrier  is  a  cross  of  a  smooth-coated  ter¬ 
rier  with  the  bulldog. 

In  contrast  to  the  above  group  of  long-legged, 
short-bodied,  up-standing  dogs,  with  either  rough 
or  smooth  coats,  are  the  long-bodied,  short-legged 
dogs,  with  a  long  and  silky  covering.  This  lat¬ 
ter  group  were  originally  developed  in  northern 
Scotland.  They  are  the  Scotch,  a  rough  wire- 
haired  variety;  the  Dandie  Dinmont  with  a 
woollier  coat ;  and  the  Skyes  and  Clydesdales  with 
long  silky  coats.  The  Yorkshire  is  the  only 
English  specimen  of  the  low-bodied,  silky-haired 


terrier.  Japan  boasts  the  shan-tung,  which  is 
almost  indistinguishable  from  the  Skye;  and  the 
Maltese  terrier,  named  from  the  island,  has  a 
coat  as  long  and  silky  as  a  Blenheim  spaniel. 

The  characteristics  of  standard  varieties  are 
as  follows:  The  fox  terrier  is  generally  lively 
and  of  active  appearance,  with  bone  and  strength 
in  small  compass,  capable  of  speed  and  endur¬ 
ance,  and  weighing  about  20  pounds.  The  head 
must  be  broad  between  the  ears  and  decreasing 
in  width  to  the  eyes;  nose  tapering  and  black; 
ears  V-shaped  and  drooping  forward  close  to  the 
cheek;  jaws  strong  and  muscular;  legs  straight 
and  strong.  The  coat  of  the  smooth  variety  is 
flat  and  abundant;  of  the  wire-haired,  hard, 
wiry,  and  broken.  The  tail,  usually  docked, 
is  set  on  high  and  carried  gayly,  but  not  over  the 
back.  The  bull  terrier  is  a  short-haired  terrier, 
weighing  from  15  to  50  pounds,  of  perfect 
symmetry,  the  embodiment  of  agility,  grace,  and 
determination.  An  all-white  coat  is  most  ap¬ 
proved,  but  the  American  standard  permits 
markings.  The  tail  is  left  uncropped ;  in  Amer¬ 
ica  cropping  of  the  ears  is  permitted  by  the 
standard,  but  not  in  England.  The  black-and- 
tan  is  judged  in  three  classes  not  exceeding  7 
pounds,  16  pounds,  and  20  pounds  respectively. 
He  is  a  typical  terrier,  jet  black,  marked  with 
deep  tan  as  follows :  On  the  head  the  muzzle 
must  be  tanned  to  the  nose,  which  is  black;  a 
bright  spot  of  tan  on  each  cheek,  and  above  each 
eye;  chin,  throat,  and  inside  of  the  ears,  and 
the  forelegs  up  to  the  knees  are  tan,  with  black 
lines  up  each  toe,  and  a  black  thumb  mark  above 
the  foot  inside  the  hind  legs.  The  Welsh  ter¬ 
rier  is  a  wire-haired  variety,  black  or  grizzle 
and  tan  in  color.  They  are  15  inches  high  at  the 
shoulder  and  20  pounds  in  weight.  The  Irish 
terrier  is  a  wire-haired  variety,  whole-colored, 
bright  red  or  wheaten  yellow,  weighing  24 
pounds,  active,  lively,  and  lithe — a  gamy  dog, 
but  with  the  kindest  disposition.  The  Bedling¬ 
ton  is  a  rough-looking,  loosely  built  dog,  with 
the  least  general  expression  of  the  true  terrier. 
He  is  15  to  16  inches  high  and  weighs  24  pounds. 
His  coat  is  shaggy  and  usually  dark  blue.  The 
Airedale,  the  latest  and  largest  variety,  weigh¬ 
ing  40  to  45  pounds,  is  a  wire-haired  dog,  with 
crown,  back,  and  sides  black,  and  face,  throat, 
and  limbs  tan;  the  tail  is  docked,  and  the  aspect 
square,  trim,  and  powerful.  The  Boston  terrier 
is  a .  pet  dog  of  recent  creation,  which  is  as 
much  bulldog  as  terrier,  but  has  lost  the 
wrinkled  face  and  bowed  legs  of  the  former,  while 
retaining  its  brindled  markings  and  screw  tail. 
It  weighs  15  to  30  pounds,  and  is  judged  in  two 
classes,  large  and  small.  The  Scotch  terrier  is 
a  long-barreled,  bow-legged,  rough-haired  dog, 
weighing  from  18  to  20  pounds,  with  prick  ears, 
and  tail  carried  straight  up.  This  dog  has  a 
very  sharp,  bright,  and  active  expression.  His 
coat  is  intensely  hard  and  wiry,  dense  all  over 
his  body,  and  iron  gray,  grizzly,  or  black  in  color, 
though  sometimes  sandy.  His  feet  are  large, 
with  strong  claws,  and  he  is  most  capable  in  un¬ 
earthing  vermin.  The  Dandie  Dinmont  is  from 
8  to  11  inches  high,  weighs  from  14  to  24  pounds, 
and  has  a  mixed  coat  of  hard  and  soft  hair,  and 
a  salt-and-pepper  color.  His  ears  are  long  and 
pendulous.  The  Skye  terrier,  a  good  vermin  dog, 
and  built  low  and  long  (from  8 y2  to  10  inches 
high  and  22 y2  inches  long),  has  two  coats,  the 
under  one  short,  close,  soft,  and  woolly,  the  top 
one  5%  inches  long,  hard,  straight,  flat,  and  free 
from  crisp  or  curl.  The  ears  and  tail  are 


TERRISS 


125 


feathered  with  long  soft  hair  and  the  tail  is 
never  carried  higher  than  the  line  of  the  back. 
In  color  it  is  usually  a  light  blue,  gray,  or  fawn. 
The  Clydesdale,  or  Paisley,  is  practically  a  little 
Skye  with  smaller  ears,  set  high  and  perfectly 
erect.  It  is  covered  with  long  silky  hair,  hang¬ 
ing  in  a  fringe  down  the  side  of  the  head.  The 
Yorkshire  is  also  practically  a  smaller  Skye, 
with  a  more  silky  coat.  He  is  judged  in  two 
classes,  one  under  5  pounds  and  another  from 
5  to  12  pounds.  The  Maltese  was  the  lap  dog 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  of  the  classic  period — 
a  small,  short-legged  dog,  not  exceeding  6  pounds 
in  weight,  with  pure  white,  rather  transparent 
wavy  hair,  not  less  than  7  inches  long.  It  is 
called  terrier  by  its  devotees,  but  it  might  as 
reasonably  be  called  a  spaniel  or  toy  dog.  It 
has  almost  if  not  entirely  disappeared  from 
Malta.  See  Dog  and  references  there  given. 

TER'RISS,  William  (1847-97).  An  English 
actor,  whose  true  name  was  William  Lewin. 
Born  in  London,  he  studied  medicine  at  Christ’s 
Hospital  in  that  city,  later  was  in  the  merchant 
service,  and  after  various  adventures  made  his 
first  appearance  as  an  actor  at  Birmingham  in 
1867.  Immediately  successful,  lie  appeared  in 
the  London  theatres  in  the  following  year  as 
Lord  Cloudrays  in  Robertson’s  Society,  a*nd  sub¬ 
sequently  as  Squire  Thornhill  in  Wills’s  Olivia 
(1878);  Chateau-Renaud  in  The  Corsican 
Brothers  (1880)  ;  and  in  Shakespearean  roles.  He 
made  an  American  tour  with  Sir  Henry  Irving 
in  1883,  and  one  with  Miss  Millward  in  1889. 
He  was  assassinated  by  a  madman.  His  daugh¬ 
ter,  Ellaline  Terriss,  also  became  well  known 
as  an  actress,  playing  with  her  husband,  Seymour 
Hicks  ( q.v. ) .  Consult  Arthur  J.  Smythe,  The 
Life  of  William  Terriss  (London,  1898). 

TER'RITO'RIAL  WATERS.  Waters  which 
are  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  a  sovereign 
state  as  distinguished  from  the  high  seas  (q.v.). 
They  may  be  divided  into  waters  lying  within 
the  state,  waters  which  are  boundaries  between 
states,  and  waters  upon  the  coast.  The  law 
in  regard  to  the  first  two  classes  may  be  definitely 
stated  and  is  settled.  Waters  lying  within  a 
particular  state  are  subject  only  to  the  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  that  state.  When,  however,  they  are  the 
means  of  communication  between  two  portions 
of  the  high  seas,  such  as  straits,  the  Dardanelles, 
the  Bosporus,  the  Suez  and  the  Panama  canals 
(qq.v. ),  the  regulation  of  navigation  is  usually 
fixed  by  treaties,  but  is  governed  by  the  prin¬ 
ciple  of  international  law  that  they  are  to  be 
used  by  all  nations  for  the  innocent  passage  of 
vessels  not  of  war.  Treaties  and  this  principle 
of  international  law  also  govern  waters  which 
are  within  the  territory  of  a  particular  nation, 
but  which  are  outlets  to  the  sea,  such  as  the 
rivers  Rhine,  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Amazon. 
In  the  United  States  each  State  exercises  juris¬ 
diction  over  waters  lying  wholly  within  the 
State,  unless  they  form  part  of  the  system  of 
interstate  waterwavs,  in  which  case  they  are 
subject  to  the  control  of  the  Federal  govern¬ 
ment  under  the  power  granted  by  the  constitu¬ 
tion.  Over  waters  which  are  boundaries  be¬ 
tween  two  sovereign  states,  such  as  lakes,  rivers, 
and  narrow  bodies  of  water,  jurisdiction  is  fixed 
by  treaties  and  is  now  settled.  An  imaginary 
line  drawn  through  the  centre  of  such  bodies  of 
water  is  usually  the  limit  of  jurisdiction.  Ter¬ 
ritorial  waters  on  the  coast  are  not  clearly  de¬ 
fined.  The  question  which  most  frequently 
arises  is  the  point  on  the  high  seas  to  which 


TERRITORIAL  WATERS 

jurisdiction  of  a  state  extends.  The  former 
theory  of  international  law  was  that  the  juris¬ 
diction  extended  for  three  miles  from  low-water 
mark.  This  strip  along  the  coast  is  what  is 
known  as  the  maritime  belt,  and  the  theory  on 
which  jurisdiction  is  recognized  was  based  on 
the  cannon  shot  of  the  period,  but  the  changed 
condition  of  warfare  may  modify  the  extent 
of  this  territorial  jurisdiction.  For  revenue 
purposes,  for  the  protection  of  special  industries, 
such  as  fishing  and  other  reasons,  various  limits 
beyond  the  three-mile  line  have  been  claimed  and 
acknowledged  from  time  to  time;  e.g.,  such 
questions  have  arisen  as  to  the  status  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  the  bays  in  Alaska,  in  the  Bering 
Sea  controversy  (q.v.).  The  general  rule  is 
that  arms  of  the  sea  which  are  not  more  than 
10  miles  apart  are  territorial  waters.  Claims 
have  been  made  both  by  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  of  control  over  bodies  of  water 
with  larger  openings.  The  Hague  Convention 
of  1882  adopted  10  miles  between  headland  and 
headland  as  the  limit.  The  House  of  Lords  de¬ 
cided  that  Conception  Bay,  Newfoundland,  was 
territorial  water,  although  the  headlands  were 
20  miles  apart.  Chesapeake  Bay  with  head¬ 
lands  of  12  miles  apart  is  conceded  to  be  ter¬ 
ritorial  water.  The  Hague  Convention  of  1907 
confirmed  the  law  and  practice  then  existing. 
Ihe  subject  was  to  be  considered  at  the  next 
Hague  Conference.  The  questions  involved  were 
to  be  fisheries,  the  rights  of  neutral  nations  in 
naval  warfare,  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  state 
over  vessels  and  acts  committed  upon  vessels 
within  territorial  waters.  In  general,  it  may  be 
stated  that  in  all  territorial  waters  there  is 
a  recognized  common  right  of  navigation  for  all 
nations  and  especially  to  the  proprietary  nation 
in  time  of  war.  The  principle  of  self-protection 
is  recognized  by  the  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty  in 
regard  to  the  Panama  Canal,  and  it  is  to  the  in¬ 
terest  of  all  nations  to  provide  the  utmost 
liberty  of  navigation.  A  state  has  always  the 
right  to  refuse  access  to  armed  vessels  of  other 
states.  Where  the  coastal  line  is  indented  the 
question  arises  as  to  how  far  bays  and  other 
large  bodies  of  water  may  be  considered  within 
the  territory  of  a  particular  sovereignty.  The 
nature  of  the  sovereignty  does  not  mean  owner¬ 
ship,  but  it  is  a  right  of  jurisdiction  limited  to 
the  protection  of  its  coast  from  the  effect  of 
hostilities  between  other  belligerent  states,  the 
regulation  of  fisheries  and  the  prevention  of 
frauds  upon  the  customs  and  its  laws.  The 
authority  of  a  sovereign  state  cannot  extend 
beyond  its  boundaries.  Its  boundary  is  not  the 
high  seas  (q.v.),  but  for  purposes  of  inter¬ 
national  law  is  considered  as  including  the 
maritime  belt.  It  may  prevent  ships  approach¬ 
ing  with  intent  to  violate  its  laws.  The  exclu¬ 
sive  jurisdiction  is  both  civil  and  criminal  over 
vessels  within  territorial  waters,  although  con¬ 
current  jurisdiction  is  sometimes  given  by  con¬ 
vention  to  the  state  owning  the  vessel  over 
criminal  acts  committed  on  foreign  vessels  in 
such  waters.  It  is  in  consequence  of  this 
principle  of  law  that  during  the  Great  War 
vessels  of  belligerent  nations  have  sought  the 
protection  of  the  harbors  and  ports  of  the  United 
States.  Such  vessels  are  subject  to  the  juris¬ 
diction  of  the  United  States.  On  the  same  prin¬ 
ciple  American  vessels  which  have  entered  the 
territorial  waters  of  foreign  nations  are  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  those  nations.  The 
law  of  nations  requires  every  national  govern- 


TERRITORIES 


126 


TERRY 


ment  to  use  due  diligence  to  prevent  a  wrong 
being  done  within  its  own  territory  to  any  other 
nation  with  which  it  is  at  peace.  The  distinc¬ 
tion  is  made  between  merchant  ships  and  ships 
of  war.  A  foreign  ship  of  war  or  any  prize  of 
hers  within  a  port  of  the  L  nited  States  is  not 
subject  to  local  jurisdiction,  but  a  prisoner  on 
board  such  vessel  may  be  released  on  habeas 
corpus  issued  by  the  courts  of  the  United  States. 
This,  however,  is  on  the  ground  of  international 
comity  and  is  usually  regulated  by  treaty.  The 
laws  of  one  country  are  sometimes  administered 
in  the  territory  of  another,  as  in  certain  estab¬ 
lished  ports  in  eastern  countries  known  as  con¬ 
sular  courts.  Consult  J.  B.  Moore,  International 
Arbitration  (6  vols.,  ib.,  1898)  ;  F.  Wharton, 
Digest  of  International  Law  of  the  United  States 
(2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  Washington,  1887);  L.  Op- 
penheim,  International  Law  (2  vols.,  London, 
1905-06)  ;  R.  de  Villeneuve,  De  la  determination 
de  la  ligne  separative  des  eaux  nationales  et  de 
la  mer  territoriale  (Paris,  1914).  See  Mare 
Clausum. 

TERRITORIES  (  OF.  territorie ,  Fr.  terri- 
toire,  from  Lat.  territorium ,  district,  from  terra , 
earth,  land ) .  The  name  given  in  the  United 
States  to  certain  parts  of  the  national  domain 
which  have  not  been  erected  into  States.  In 
1916  they  were  the  District  of  Columbia,  and 
Alaska  on  the  continent,  Porto  Rico  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  Hawaii,  the  Samoan  Islands,  Guam, 
and  the  Philippine  Islands  in  the  Pacific.  They 
may  be  classified,  under  their  present  status  as 
political  bodies,  as  ( 1 )  unorganized  Territories; 
(2)  the  Federal  District;  and  (3)  the  insular 
possessions.  In  the  first  class  belongs  Alaska. 
Hawaii  among  the  insular  possessions  has  a 
popularly  elected  local  Legislature  of  two  cham- 
bers  chosen  for  a  term  of  two  years  by  a  suf¬ 
frage  determined  by  local  law.  This  legislative 
power  extends  to  all  rightful  subjects  not  incon¬ 
sistent  with  the  Constitution  and  laws  of  the 
United  States,  but  any  law  passed  is  subject 
to  the  veto  of  Congress.  The  executive  power 
is  vested  in  governors  appointed  for  a  term 
of  four  years  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  The 
other  important  officers  of  the  Territory  are 
likewise  appointed  by  the  President  and  are  paid 
from  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States.  The 
Territories  are  not  regularly  represented  in  Con¬ 
gress,  but  are  allowed  to  send  a  delegate,  who  is 
given  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Representatives  with 
a  right  to  take  part  in  the  debates,  but  not  to 
vote.  For  the  Government  of  Alaska,  the  Dis¬ 
trict  of  Columbia,  Porto  Rico,  the  Samoan  Is¬ 
lands  and  the  Philippine  Islands,  see  separate 
articles  under  these  titles. 

By  the  United  States  Constitution  the  national 
Congress  is  given  power  “to  make  all  needful 
rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory 
or  other  property  belonging  to  the  United 
States.”  From  the  beginning  this  clause  was 
construed  as  giving  the  powers  incident  to  juris¬ 
diction  as  well  as  to  ownership,  and  even  before 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  the  Northwest 
Territory  was  regularly  organized  by.  the  old 
Confederation  Congress,  which  for  this  purpose 
passed  the  famous  Ordinance  of  1787.  (See 
Northwest  Territories.)  This  ordinance  served 
as  the  model  for  much  of  the  subsequent  legis¬ 
lation  in  the  same  field,  though  there  were  a 
number  of  important  variations.  Thus,  in  the 
organization  of  the  Territories  of  Tennessee  and 
Mississippi  the  clause  of  the  Ordinance  of  1787 


prohibiting  slavery  was  omitted.  Of  the  present 
States  of  the  United  States  all,  except  the  origi¬ 
nal  13  and  Vermont,  Maine,  Kentucky,  V  est 
Virginia,  Texas,  and  California,  have  passed 
through  the  Territorial  stage.  Vermont,  Ken¬ 
tucky,  Maine,  and  West  Virginia  were  each 
formed  out  of  territory  which  belonged  to  one 
of  the  original  13  States,  and  Texas  and  Cali¬ 
fornia  were  regularly  admitted  to  statehood 
without  ever  having  been  organized  as  Terri¬ 
tories.  The  size  of  many  of  the  Territories, 
however,  differed  widely  from  the  size  of  the 
States  which  bear  the  same  names,  and  there 
has  been  a  radical  changing  of  boundaries.  Thus 
the  Territory  of  Mississippi  originally  included 
Alabama;  the  Territory  of  Indiana  as  organized 
in  1804  contained  all  of  the  Northwest  Terri¬ 
tory  except  Ohio;  the  Territory  of  Illinois  as 
organized  in  1809  included  the  land  now  consti¬ 
tuting  the  States  of  Illinois  and  Wisconsin,  and 
part  of  Upper  Michigan;  the  Territory  of  Mich¬ 
igan  after  1834  included  all  of  the  territory 
north  of  Missouri,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio, 
and  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Huron  and  the  Mis¬ 
souri  River;  the  Territory  of  Oregon  as  organ¬ 
ized  in  1848  covered  all  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  north  of  lat.  42°  N.,  and  west 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  Nebraska  Territory  as 
organized  in  1854  contained  land  now  in  Mon¬ 
tana,  the  Dakotas,  Wyoming,  and  Colorado. 

The  Territorial  stage  is  one  of  preparation 
for  the  Commonwealth  status.  The  Constitu¬ 
tion  empowers  Congress  to  erect  the  Territories 
into  States  and  admit  them  into  the  Union 
whenever  it  sees  fit.  Usually  when  the  Terri¬ 
tory  has  a  population  equal  to  that  of  an  aver¬ 
age  congressional  district  the  inhabitants  me¬ 
morialize  Congress  to  pass  an  “enabling  act” 
empowering  them  to  form  a  constitution,  and 
prescribing  the  conditions  to  be  fulfilled.  In 
a  number  of  instances,  however,  the  inhabitants 
without  asking  for  an  enabling  act  have  adopted 
a  constitution  and  then  applied  for  admission 
to  the  Union.  As  the  language  of  the  Consti¬ 
tution  is  not  mandatory,  but  permissive,  the 
question  has  arisen  as  to  whether  Congress  in 
admitting  new  States  may  impose  such  conditions 
as  it  chooses,  especially  if  such  conditions  were 
not  imposed  upon  the  original  States.  This  was 
the  main  question  in  the  Missouri  Compromise 
(q.v. )  controversy,  since  which  time  Congress 
has  admitted  many  new  States  under  conditions 
which  were  not  imposed  upon  the  old  States. 

After  the  Spanish- American  War  the  exact 
status  of  Territories  as  compared  with  the  na¬ 
tional  government  and  the  rights  and  duties  of 
the  national  government  with  regard  to  Terri¬ 
tories  again  came  into  controversy.  In  1901, 
however,  in  the  Insular  Cases,  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  decided  that  Congress  may  freely 
determine  when  new  Territories  are  to  be  in¬ 
corporated  into  the  Union,  can  create  such  forms 
of  government  as  it  sees  fit  for  regions  outside 
the  limits  of  the  States,  and  legislate  differently 
for  different  parts  of  the  national  domain. 

TERRITORIES  OE  FRENCH  SUDAN. 
See  Military  Territories  of  French  Sudan. 

TERROR,  Mount.  See  Erebus  and  Terror. 

TERROR,  Reign  of.  See  French  Revolution. 

TER'RY,  Alfred  Howe  (1827-90).  An 
American  soldier,  born  at  Hartford,  Conn.  He 
studied  at  the  Yale  Law  School,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1849,  and  in  1854  was  appointed 
Clerk  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Connecticut.  He 
was  a  colonel  in  the  State  National  Guard  from 


TERRY 


127 


TERRY 


1854  until  May,  1861,  when  he  and  his  regiment 
entered  the  service  of  the  Federal  government. 
He  participated  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Bun, 
was  mustered  out  the  following  month,  and  in 
September  reentered  the  service  as  colonel  of  the 
Seventh  Connecticut  Infantry.  From  that  time 
until  April,  1864,  he  was  engaged  in  the  mili¬ 
tary  operations  along  the  South  Atlantic  coast. 
He  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier 
general  of  volunteers  in  1862,  and  in  1864  he 
was  given  command  of  the  Tenth  Corps  of  the 
Army  of  the  James.  In  January,  1865,  he  com¬ 
manded  the  second,  and  successful,  Fort  Fisher 
expedition.  (See  Fort  Fisher.)  Soon  after¬ 
ward  he  occupied  the  city  of  Wilmington,  N.  C., 
which  had  been  the  last  refuge  of  the  blockade 
runners.  For  his  services  he  was  commissioned 
major  general  of  volunteers,  and  brigadier  gen¬ 
eral  and  brevet  major  general  in  the  regular 
army.  From  June,  1865,  to  August,  1866,  he 
commanded  the  Department  of  Virginia.  He 
was  then  placed  in  command  of  the  Department 
of  Dakota,  and  in  1876  he  commanded  the  main 
column  which  drove  Sitting  Bull  and  his  fol¬ 
lowers  into  Canada  after  the  massacre  on  the 
Little  Big  Horn.  Later  he  commanded  the  De¬ 
partment  of  the  South  and  the  Military  Division 
of  Missouri.  He  retired  in  1888. 

TERRY,  Benjamin  (1857-  ).  An  Amer¬ 

ican  historian,  born  at  St.  Paul,  Minn.  He  grad¬ 
uated  from  Colgate  University  in  1878,  studied 
at  Hamilton  and  Rochester  theological  semi¬ 
naries,  and  for  several  years  was  a  Baptist 
minister.  He  was  professor  of  history  at  Col¬ 
gate  from  1885  to  1892,  when  he  received  the 
degree  of  Pli.D.  at  Freiburg  and  accepted  the 
chair  of  English  history  at  the  University  of 
Chicago.  His  writings  include:  A  History  of 
England  from  Earliest  Times  to  Death  of  Vic¬ 
toria  (1901),  a  standard  work;  A  History  of 
England  for  Schools  (1903);  and  articles  in 
periodicals. 

TERRY,  Charles  Sanford  (1864-  ).  A 

British  historian.  He  graduated  at  Clare  Col¬ 
lege,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1886;  M.A.,  1890),  and 
taught  at  several  institutions  successively,  be¬ 
coming  lecturer  in  history  at  Aberdeen  in  1898 
and  professor  there  in  1903.  He  published  Life 
and  Campaigns  of  Alexander  Leslie ,  First  Earl  of 
Leven  (1899);  The  Rising  of  17J/5  (1900;  new 
ed.,  1915)  ;  The  Chevalier  de  St.  George  (1901)  ; 
The  Cromwellian  Union  (1902)  ;  The  Young  Pre¬ 
tender  (1903);  John  Graham  of  Claverhouse 
(1905);  The  Scottish  Parliament  (1906); 
Craig’s  De  Unione  (1909),  a  translation,  with 
notes;  and  A  Short  History  of  Europe  (3  vols., 
1911-15)  ;  and  German  Sea  Power  and  The 
Growth  of  Germany’s  Navy,  in  “Oxford  War 
Pamphlets”  (1915). 

TERRY,  Edward  O’Connor  (1844-1912). 
An  English  comedian  and  manager.  He  was 
born  in  London,  and  began  his  career  upon  the 
stage  in  1863  in  Hampshire..  In  1867  he  made 
his  appearance  in  London  at  the  Surrey  Theatre. 
Then  followed  successful  engagements  at  the 
Strand  (1869)  and  Gaiety  (1876)  theatres,  among 
his  characters  being  Paul  Pry,  Little  Don  Csesar 
de  Bazan,  and  Bluebeard.  In  1886  he  presented 
at  the  Olympic  Theatre  his  comedy  of  The 
Churchwarden.  He  opened  Terry’s  Theatre  in 
October,  1887,  and  there,  a  few  months  later, 
produced  Sweet  Lavender,  himself  playing  Dick 
Phenyl;  in  this  role  he  gave  670  performances. 
In  1892  he  revived  The  Magistrate.  In  the  sea¬ 
son  of  1897-98  he  appeared  in  The  White  Knight. 


Terry  traveled  all  over  the  world.  He  was  much 
interested  in  actors’  benefit  societies. 

TERRY,  Ellen  (Alice)  (1848-  ).  An 

English  actress.  She  was  born  at  Coventry, 
daughter  of  Benjamin  and  Sarah  Terry,  actors 
whose  talent  was  inherited  by  five  children. 
Her  first  appearance  on  the  stage  was  as  the 
boy  Mamillius  in  Charles  Kean’s  revival  of 
A  Winter’s  Tale,  at  the  Princess’s  Theatre  in 
1856.  In  March,  1863,  Miss  Terry  made  her 
appearance  at  the  Haymarket  in  London,  but 
after  her  marriage  in  1864  to  the  painter  G.  F. 
Watts,  she  retired  temporarily  from  the  stage. 
She  was  later  married  to  Charles  Kelly,  and 
in  1907  to  James  Carew,  both  actors.  In  1875 
she  joined  the  Bancrofts  at  the  Prince  of  Wales’s 
Theatre,  where  she  acted  the  part  of  Portia,  and 
in  1876  she  played  at  the  Court  with  John  Hare, 
in  Lord  Lytton’s  The  House  of  Darnley.  Early 
in  1878  she  had  a  great  success  in  Wills’s  Olivia 
at  the  Court.  At  the  end  of  the  same  year  she 
began  her  long  association  (24  years)  with 
Henry  (later  Sir  Henry)  Irving  (q.v.)  at  the 
Lyceum,  as  Ophelia  to  his  Hamlet.  Earlier, 
however,  she  had  played  with  him  in  The  Tam¬ 
ing  of  the  Shrew.  Her  most  notable  roles  dur¬ 
ing  this  period  were:  Portia  in  The  Merchant  of 
Venice  (1879),  probably  the  most  famous  of  all; 
Camma  in  Tennyson’s  The  Cup  (1881);  Juliet 
(1882);  Viola  in  Tivelfth  Night  (1884);  Mar¬ 
guerite  in  Faust  (1885)  ;  Fair  Rosamond  in 
Tennyson’s  Bechet  (1893);  Madame  Sans-Gene 
in  a  Sardou  adaptation  (1897)  ;  and  Clarissa  in 
Robespierre  (1899).  Miss  Terry’s  leading  place 
among  English  actresses  became  undisputed. 
Her  later  roles  included:  Mistress  Page  in  The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor  (1902);  Alice  Grey 
in  Barrie’s  Alice  Sit-by-the-Fire  (1905);  Lady 
Cecily  Waynflete  in  Shaw’s  Captain  Brass- 
bound’s  Conversion  (1906);  Hermione  in  A 
Winter’s  Tale  (1906).  At  various  times  Miss 
Terry  lectured  on  Shakespeare’s  heroines,  with 
impersonations.  In  1915,  for  this  purpose,  she 
visited  the  United  States.  Her  first  visit  to 
America  as  an  actress  had  been  made  with  Irv¬ 
ing  in  1883,  when  she  won  a  welcome  that  was 
repeated  on  eight  subsequent  occasions.  A 
jubilee  performance  was  held  in  her  honor  at 
Drury  Lane,  London,  in  June,  1906.  In  1913 
she  published  The  Russian  Ballet.  Consult,  first 
of  all,  Miss  Terry’s  own  Story  of  my  Life  (New 
York,  1908)  ;  also  William  Winter,  Shadows  of 
the  Stage  (ib.,  1892)  ;  Hiatt,  Ellen  Terry  and 
her  Impersonations  (London,  1898)  ;  Clement 
Scott,  The  Drama  of  Yesterday  and  To-day 
(ib.,  1899)  ;  id.,  Ellen  Terry  (New  York,  1900)  ; 
T.  E.  Pemberton,  Ellen  Terry  and  her  Sisters 
(ib.,  1902).  See  Terry,  Fred;  Terry,  Phyllis 
Neilson;  Craig,  Edward  Gordon. 

TERRY,  Fred  (1863-  ).  An  English 

actor  manager,  brother  of  Ellen  Terry.  He  was 
born  in  London,  and  married  Julia  Neilson 
(q.v.).  His  first  stage  appearance  was  at  the 
Haymarket  in  1880.  During  his  career  he  played 
in  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  King¬ 
dom,  the  United  States,  and  Canada.  For  many 
years  he  was  in  the  companies  of  noted  actors. 
In  1900,  with  his  wife,  he  assumed  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  the  Haymarket,  and  in  1915  of  the 
Strand.  He  played  at  the  New  Theatre,  Lon¬ 
don,  part  of  each  year  between  1905  and  1912. 
For  his  daughter,  see  Terry,  Phyllis  Neilson. 

TERRY,  Milton  Spenser  (1840-1914).  An 
American  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  educa¬ 
tor,  and  author.  He  was  born  at  Coeymans, 


TERRY 


128 


TERTIARY  SYSTEM 


N.  Y.,  and  was  educated  at  Troy  University 
and  at  Yale  Divinity  School.  Between  1863 
and  1884  he  was  pastor  of  churches  near  New 
York  City.  He  became  professor  of  Christian 
doctrine  in  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute,  Evans¬ 
ton,  Ill.,  in  1885.  He  published,  besides  several 
Bible  commentaries:  Biblical  Hermeneutics 
(1883);  Sibylline  Oracles  (1890);  The  New 
Apologetic  (1897);  Biblical  Apocalyptics 
(1898);  Moses  and  the  Prophets  (1901);  The 
New  and  Living  Way  (1902);  The  Mediation 
of  Jesus  Christ  (1903);  The  Primer  of  Chris¬ 
tian  Doctrines  (1906);  Biblical  Dogmatics 
(1907)  ;  The  Shinto  Cult  (1910)  ;  Baccalaureate 
Sermons  and  Addresses  (1914). 

TERRY,  Phyllis  Neilson  (1892-  ). 

An  English  actress,  daughter  of  Julia  Neilson 
and  Fred  Terry  (qq.v.).  She  was  born  in  Lon¬ 
don,  made  her  first  stage  appearance  in  Henry 
of  Navarre  (1909),  and  played  Viola  in  Twelfth 
Night  at  the  Haymarket  in  1910.  Subsequently 
she  appeared  in  the  leading  roles  of  other 
Shakespearean  plays  and  in  a  revival  of  London 
Assurance  (1913).  She  had  great  success  in 
New  York  in  1915  in  an  all-star  revival  of 
Trilby,  taking  the  title  role. 

TERSCHELLING,  ter-sKePlmg.  One  of  the 
West  Friesian  Islands,  in  the  North  Sea,  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  Province  of  North  Holland,  Nether¬ 
lands  (Map:  Netherlands,  D  1).  Area,  about 
42  square  miles.  Pop.,  1899,  3929;  1909,  4124. 

TERSTEEGEN,  ter'sta-gen,  Geriiabd  (1697- 
1769).  A  German  mystic,  noted  as  a  hymn 
writer.  He  was  born  at  Mors,  was  too  poor  to 
study  theology,  and  thus  remained  a  ribbon 
weaver  till  1728,  after  which  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  religious  writing.  After  his  conver¬ 
sion  he  practiced  great  self-denial  in  order  to 
get  means  to  help  the  poor..  His  religious  ideas 
are  like  those  of  Angelus  Silesius  and  Poiret, 
but  the  cast  of  his  theology  is  Reformed.  Be¬ 
sides  his  Letters  (1773-75),  he  wrote  Geistliches 
Blumengdrtlein  (1729;  new  ed.,  1905)  ;  Lebens- 
beschreibungen  heiliger  Seelen  (1733-53);  and 
Geistliohe  Brosamen  (1769-74).  A  collected 
edition  of  his  writings  appeared  at  Stuttgart 
(1844-45).  Consult:  Winkworth,  Christian 
Singers  of  Germany  (London,  1869)  ;  H.  E. 
Govan,  Life  of  Gerhard  Tersteegen,  ivith  Selec¬ 
tions  from  his  Writings  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1902)  ; 
John  Julian,  Dictionary  of  Hymnology  (rev.  ed., 
New  York,  1907 ) . 

TERTIAN  (ter'shan)  FEVER.  See  Ma¬ 
laria. 

TER'TIARY  (Lat.  tertiarius,  one  of  the 
third  rank,  i.e.,  after  the  male  and  female  mem¬ 
bers  strictly  belonging  to  an  order,  from  tertius, 
third).  A  class  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church, 
who,  without  entering  into  the  seclusion  of  a 
monastery,  aspire  to  practice  as  far  as  possible 
in  ordinary  life  the  counsels  of  perfection  laid 
down  in  the  gospel.  It  reached  full  develop¬ 
ment  under  the  organizations  founded  by  St. 
Francis  and  St.  Dominic.  The  rules  for  ter- 
tiaries  were  made  public  in  1221.  The  intend¬ 
ing  members  must  restore  ill-gotten  goods,  must 
renounce  evil  practices,  and  abandon  feuds  with 
their  neighbors.  Wives  cannot  be  received  with¬ 
out  the  consent  of  their  husbands.  The  obliga¬ 
tion  of  a  tertiary,  once  accepted,  is  irrevocable, 
unless  the  party  should  be  released,  or  should 
enter  into  a  more  strict  religious  life.  The 
members  are  required  to  renounce  luxury;  they 
must  frequent  the  sacraments;  hear  mass,  if 
possible,  daily;  observe  the  fasts,  as  well  as 


certain  special  austerities;  and  cultivate  char¬ 
ity  towards  all.  None  of  these  obligations  were 
supposed  to  bind  the  members  under  pain  of 
mortal  sin.  Consult  Adderly  and  Marson,  Third 
Orders  (Oxford,  1902). 

TERTIARY  SYSTEM.  A  term  applied  in 
geology  to  the  group  of  rocks  included  between 
the  Cretaceous  and  Quaternary  systems.  It  is 
one  of  the  two  periods  constituting  the  Ceno- 
zoic  era,  the  Quaternary  being  the  other  period. 
The  term  Tertiary  was  first  suggested  when  it 
was  considered  that  all  strata  were  divisible 
into  three  groups,  primary,  secondary,  and  ter¬ 
tiary.  The  first  two  have  been  replaced  in  most 
localities  by  other  names,  but  the  third  is  still 
used,  although  not  with  its  original  significance. 
The  Tertiary  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
periods  of  geological  history,  presenting  most 
complete  sections  and  a  great  abundance  of  or¬ 
ganic  remains,  and  yet  there  has  been  much  dif¬ 
ficulty  in  classifying  its  different  members  cor¬ 
rectly.  The  rocks  are  mostly  unconsolidated  and 
have  rarely  been  laid  down  over  great  areas,  so 
that  in  the  United  States,  alone,  there  are  no 
less  than  three  or  four  separate  regions  of  Ter¬ 
tiary  rocks,  in  each  of  which  a  different  series 
of  subdivisions  has  to  be  adopted. 

Following  the  European  classification,  the 
strata  may  be  divided  into  four  separate  series — 
Eocene,  Oligocene,  Miocene,  and  Pliocene — in 
the  order  of  their  occurrence.  These  main  series 
are  recognized  in  all  the  Tertiary  areas  of  the 
United  States,  of  which  there  are  four,  viz.,  the 
Pacific  coast,  Western  interior,  Atlantic  coast, 
and  Gulf  States.  The  section  in  the  last-men¬ 
tioned  area  is  taken  as  the  type. 

At  the  end  of  the  Cretaceous  period  a  great 
topographic  revolution  took  place  in  many  parts 
of  the  world,  and  at  that  time  the  American 
continent  had  practically  received  its  present 
form.  The  marine  Tertiary  deposits  are  found, 
therefore,  chiefly  along  the  borders  of  the  con¬ 
tinent,  while  the  interior  areas  are  of  fresh¬ 
water  formation,  or  perhaps  in  part  seolian  de¬ 
posits.  Many  of  the  highest  mountain  ranges 
of  the  world,  such  as  the  Alps,  Atlas,  Caucasus, 
and  Himalaya,  were  uplifted  in  the  Tertiary 
period,  their  height  being  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  young  geologically  and  consequently 
have  not  suffered  greatly  from  erosive  agencies. 

The  life  of  the  Tertiary  period  presents  many 
similarities  to  that  of  the  present,  although 
modern  types  had  already  begun  to  appear  to 
some  extent  in  the  Cretaceous.  In  early  Ter¬ 
tiary  time  the  climate  was  very  mild  over  the 
entire  globe,  and  there  was  an  abundant  plant 
growth  far  to  the  north,  plants  being  found  in 
the  rocks  in  many  parts  of  Greenland.  A  grad¬ 
ual  cooling  of  the  climate  followed,  until  at  the 
end  of  the  Tertiary  there  began  the  formation 
of  the  great  continental  glaciers  that  subse¬ 
quently  spread  over  so  much  of  the  temperate 
zone.  The  faunal  changes  that  occurred  during 
this  period  were  in  many  respects  remarkable. 
Of  the  smaller  animals — the  ammonites,  belem- 
nites,  and  other  molluscan  types  that  swarmed 
in  the  Cretaceous — few  lived  in  the  Tertiary. 
The  great  reptiles  had  also  disappeared,  but 
their  place  was  taken  by  still  more  gigantic 
mammals.  The  fishes,  amphibians,  and  birds 
closely  resembled  modern  types. 

The  Tertiary  deposits  inclose  a  variety  of 
economic  minerals.  In  the  Cordilleran  region 
many  of  the  metalliferous  veins  are  probably  of 
Tertiary  age,  as  are  also  some  of  the  bituminous 


TERTULLIAN 


129 


TERZA  RIMA 


coals  and  lignites,  in  this  same  area,  notably  in 
Washington  and  Oregon.  In  the  Tertiary  beds 
of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States  are  many  de¬ 
posits  of  brick,  pottery,  and  fire  clays,  while 
much  of  the  green  sand  obtained  in  the  Atlantic 
coastal  plain  region  is  of  Tertiary  age.  In 
Texas  deposits  of  limonite  are  known  in  this 
formation,  while  in  Florida  and  South  Carolina 
there  are  great  supplies  of  rock  phosphate. 
Petroleum  and  asphalt  are  obtained  from  the 
Tertiary  deposits  of  southern  California. 

Consult:  W.  H.  Dali,  “A  Table  of  North  Amer¬ 
ican  Tertiary  Horizons,”  in  United  States  Geo¬ 
logical  Survey,  Eighteenth  Annual  Report,  part 
ii  (Washington,  1898)  ;  Chamberlin  and  Salis¬ 
bury,  Geology  (New  York,  1907-09)  ;  Archibald 
Geikie,  Text-Book  of  Geology  (4tli  ed.,  2  vols., 
ib.,  1903).  See  Eocene  Epoch;  Geology;  Mio¬ 
cene  Epoch;  Paleontology;  Pliocene  Epoch. 

TERTUL'LIAN  (Lat.  Tertullianus) ,  Quin¬ 
tus  Septimius  Florens  (born  before  160,  died 
after  220 ) .  A  Latin  Church  father,  the  creator 
of  ecclesiastical  Latinity.  He  was  born  in  Car¬ 
thage,  of  heathen  parentage,  and  trained  for  the 
profession  of  the  law,  which  he  practiced  in 
Rome.  Becoming  a  convert  to  Christianity 
about  197-198,  he  returned  to  Carthage,  where 
he  was  made  presbyter  and  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life.  About  the  year  203  Tertullian  became  a 
Montanist,  and  left  the  Catholic  church  about 
207.  He  was  thenceforth  unsparingly  severe  in 
his  views  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  and  in  his 
judgments  upon  the  alleged  moral  laxity  of  the 
“psychics,”  as  he  called  the  members  of  the 
Catholic  church.  No  other  figure  in  the  early 
Church  stands  out  so  distinctly  as  does  this 
Carthaginian  lawyer  priest.  His  intensity  of 
character,  alert  intellect,  blunt  speech,  keen 
satire,  dialectical  skill,  moral  strenuousness, 
and  bitter  partisanship,  all  combine  to  render 
him  a  marked  personality.  It  was  no  doubt 
largely  the  result  of  his  training  that  the  ex¬ 
pression  of  Tertullian’s  views  was  made  in  such 
a  form  as  to  imprint  upon  Western  theology  a 
legalistic  character  which  it  has  never  lost. 
He  enjoys  the  further  distinction  of  being  the 
first  to  formulate  in  Latin  the  principles  by 
which  Catholic  orthodoxy  could  infallibly  be 
known.  His  Prescription  of  Heretics,  for  the 
clearness  with  which  it  enunciates  these  prin¬ 
ciples,  has  not  improperly  been  described  as  a 
classic.  Were  it  not  for  his  Montanist  errors, 
Tertullian  would  rank  among  the  greatest  of 
the  Latin  fathers.  The  time  and  circumstances 
of  his  death  are  unknown;  there  is  no  trace  of 
him  after  about  the  year  220. 

Among  his  many  writings  the  best  known  is 
the  Apology,  written  probably  in  197.  It  is  a 
vigorous  vindication  of  the  Christians  against 
the  attacks  and  false  charges  of  the  heathen 
world.  His  polemical  zeal  was  further  directed 
against  Jews  and  heretics,  e.g.,  in  his  To  the 
Nations,  Against  the  Jews,  Against  Marcion, 
Against  the  Valentinians,  and  Against  Praxeas, 
the  last  named  being  especially  valuable  for  the 
history  of  doctrine.  He  wrote  many  tracts  on 
subjects  connected  with  morals  and  church  dis¬ 
cipline,  e.g.,  On  Baptism,  Penance,  Prayer,  Pa¬ 
tience,  Idolatry,  and  Shoios.  His  characteristic 
strictness  comes  out  even  more  strikingly  in  the 
works  written  after  he  became  a  Montanist, 
Women’s  Apparel,  The  Veiling  of  Virgins,  Mo¬ 
nogamy,  The  Exhortation  to  Chastity,  and 
Fasting. 

Bibliography.  G.  A.  Simcox,  History  of 


Latin  Literature  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1883)  ;  C. 
T.  Cruttwell,  Literary  History  of  Early  Chris¬ 
tianity  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1899)  ;  Teuffel-Schwabe,  His¬ 
tory  of  Roman  Literature,  translated  by  Warr 
(ib.,  1900);  P.  Monceaux,  Histoire  litMraire 
de  VAfrique  chrMienne,  vol.  i  (Paris,  1901)  ;  Rob¬ 
ert  Rainy,  The  Ancient  Catholic  Church  (New 
York,  1902)  ;  Williston  Walker,  Great  Men  of 
the  Christian  Church  (Chicago,  1908).  The 
Works  of  Tertullian  are  published  in  the  Corpus 
Scriptorum  Ecclesiasticorum  Latinorum,  vol.  xx 
(ed.  by  Reiffersclieid  and  Wissowa,  Vienna, 
1890;  new  ed.  by  A.  Kroymann,  Tubingen, 
1907  et  seq. )  ;  an  English  translation  is  in  The 
Ante-Nicene  Library,  vols.  iii  and  iv  (American 
ed.,  New  York,  1885  et  seq.). 

TERUEL,  ta'rbo-al'.  The  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Teruel,  in  Aragon,  Spain,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Guadalaviar,  72  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Valencia  (Map:  Spain,  E  2).  It  is  a 
quaint  old  town  with  a  handsome  Gothic  cathe¬ 
dral,  a  great  aqueduct,  normal  and  primary 
schools,  good  hospitals  and  asylums,  a  library, 
and  a  meteorological  station.  Pop.,  1900,  9538; 
1910,  11,935. 

TERU-TERU,  ter'oo-ter'oo.  A  lapwing  plover 
(Vanellus  cayenensis)  of  the  eastern  part  of 
South  America,  whose  specific  characteristics  are 
the  long  crest  and  long  blunt  yellow  spur;  also 
its  sharp  repetitive  cry  copied  in  its  local  name. 
Its  habits  on  the  pampas,  where  in  the  breeding 
season  it  executes  remarkable  dances,  are  de¬ 
scribed  at  length  by  Hudson,  who  says  the  bird 
seems  absolutely  fearless  of  man  at  that  period, 
dashing  into  his  face  until  it  becomes  a  nuisance. 
Consult  Hudson,  Argentine  Ornithology  (Lon¬ 
don,  1888). 

TERZA  RIMA,  ter'tsa  re'ma  (It.,  rhyme  of 
three).  An  Italian  verse  form,  of  which  the 
first  and  most  notable  use  was  made  by  Dante 
in  the  Divina  Commedia.  Each  stanza  consists 
of  three  hendecasyllabic  lines  with  two  rhymes; 
lines  1  and  3  repeat  the  middle  rhyme  of  the 
preceding  stanza,  and  thus  the  stanzas  are 
closely  interwoven.  The  series  or  canto  neces¬ 
sarily  begins  and  ends  with  an  alternating  coup¬ 
let:  a  b  a,  b  c  b,  c  d  c  .  .  .  y  z  y  z.  The  end 
of  a  stanza  tends  to  coincide  with  a  pause  in 
the  thought.  There  is  a  prevailing  inclination 
to  seek  the  origin  of  the  terza  rima  in  the  ser- 
ventese  (Provengal,  sirventes) .  Dante  may  have 
invented  it  as  a  form  symbolically  adapted  to 
his  poem.  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  who  was  much 
under  the  influence  of  Italian  models,  introduced 
the  stanza  into  English,  choosing  it  for  three 
satires.  Sir  Philip  Sidney  experimented  with 
it  in  his  Arcadia,  and  Milton  tried  it  in  a  ver¬ 
sion  of  the  second  Psalm.  There  have  been  some 
attempts  to  preserve  the  original  metre  of  the 
Divina  Commedia  in  English  translation,  not¬ 
ably  by  Byron,  who  made  a  version  of  the 
Francesca  episode  in  the  Inferno.  Byron’s 
Prophecy  of  Dante  is  also  written  in  terza  rima. 
The  exact  replica  of  the  Italian  hendecasyllable 
verso  piano  (which  ends  with  a  “feminine”  foot: 
—  vv),  such  as  that  recently  attempted  by  John 
Pyne  (An  English  Dante,  New  York,  1914),  is 
singularly  unadapted  to  the  English  language. 
The  best  English  specimen  of  this  difficult  stanza 
is  Shelley’s  Ode  to  the  TFest  Wind.  Consult: 
H.  Schuchardt,  Ritornell  und  Terzine  (Halle, 
1875)  ;  G.  Paris,  in  Romania,  vol.  iv  (Paris, 
1875):  Cassini,  Suite  forme  metriche  italiane 
(2d  ed.,  Florence,  1890)  ;  Stengel,  “Romanische 
Verslehre,”  in  Groeber,  Grundriss  der  romani- 


TESCHEN 


130 


TESTAMENT  OF  LOVE 


schen  Philo-logie,  vol.  ii,  part  i  ( Strassburg, 
1893)  ;  and  R.  M.  Alden,  English  Verse  (New 
York,  1903). 

TESCHEN,  tesh'en  (Pol.  Cieszyn) .  A  town 
of  Silesia,  Austria,  63  miles  west-southwest  of 
Cracow,  on  the  right  hank  of  the  Olsa  (Map: 
Austria,  F  2 ) .  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of 
the  Duchy  of  Teschen.  It  has  manufactories  of 
modules,  carriages,  clocks,  screws,  and  furniture. 
There  are  also  breweries,  distilleries,  flax-spin¬ 
ning  mills,  and  bookbinderies.  Teschen  is  cele¬ 
brated  for  the  peace,  May  13,  1799,  which  closed 
the  War  of  the  Bavarian  Succession.  Pop., 
1900,  20,454;  1910,  22,540. 

TES'L A,  Nikola  (1857-  ).  An  American 

inventor  and  electrician,  born  at  Smitjan,  Lika, 
Austria-Hungary.  His  mother  and  mother’s 
father  were  inventors.  After  studying  engineer¬ 
ing  at  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Graz  and  the 
exact  sciences  at  the  University  of  Prague  he 
worked  in  the  telegraphic  engineering  depart¬ 
ment  of  the  Austrian  government  until  1881, 
when  he  became  engineer  to  an  electric  company 
in  Budapest.  In  1884  he  came  to  America,  where 
he  was  naturalized  and  at  first  was  employed  in 
the  Edison  plant  at  Orange,  N.  J.  Subsequently 
working  at  Pittsburgh  and  elsewhere,  he  de¬ 
voted  himself  to  experimental  research  and  in¬ 
vention.  He  discovered  the  principle  of  the  ro¬ 
tary  magnetic  field,  applying  it  in  a  practical 
form  to  the  induction  motor.  Tesla’s  discovery 
made  possible  the  alternating  current  motor  and 
the  transmission  of  power  by  such  current,  em¬ 
ploying  what  became  known  as  2-phase,  3-phase, 
multi-phase,'  and  poly-phase  systems,  particu¬ 
larly  on  long-distance  lines,  later  used  exten¬ 
sively.  His  patents,  which  were  the  subject  of 
litigation,  were  sustained  in  1906.  Tesla  in¬ 
vented  many  electrical  appliances,  including 
dynamos,  transformers,  induction  coils,  oscil¬ 
lators,  and  arc  and  incandescent  lamps,  and  is 
principally  known  for  his  researches  in  alternat¬ 
ing  currents  of  high  frequency  and  high  poten¬ 
tial.  Tesla’s  later  work  dealt  with  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  such  currents  to  wireless  telegraphy, 
the  transmission  of  power  without  wires,  and 
many  similar  problems.  Consult  T.  C.  Martin, 
The  Inventions,  Researches,  and  Writings  of 
Nikola  Tesla  (New  York,  1894). 

TESLA  COIL.  See  Induction  Coil. 

TESQUE.  See  Tanoan  Stock. 

TESSIN,  tes-senr.  The  German  name  of  the 
Swiss  Canton  of  Ticino  ( q.v. ) . 

TESSIN,  tes-sen',  Carl  Gustaf,  Count 
(1695-1770).  A  Swedish  statesman,  born  at 
Stockholm,  son  of  Count  Nicodemus  Tessin 
(q.v.).  At  30  he  was  Ambassador  to  Vienna. 
Appointed  Prime  Minister  in  1738,  he  became 
spokesman  for  the  “Hat”  party.  In  1739-42 
he  was  Ambassador  in  Paris.  Under  Adolf  Fred- 
rik  he  exerted  much  influence  as  Premier,  but 
because  he  opposed  the  extension  of  the  King’s 
power  he  had  to  resign  from  office  (1752). 
Tessin  was  the  foremost  representative  of  French 
culture  in  Sweden,  and  one  of  the  most  bril¬ 
liant  personages  of  his  time.  His  literary  style 
is  excellent  and  he  was  a  fine  orator.  He  wrote 
a  daybook  of  29  volumes,  and  En  gammal  mans 
href  till  en  ung  prins  (Stockholm,  1753;  Eng. 
eds.,  1755  and  1756). 

TESSIN,  Nicodemus  (1615-81).  A  Swedish 
architect,  born  at  Stralsund.  In  1646  he  be¬ 
came  royal  architect  and  in  1674  he  was 
knighted.  Among  the  buildings  he  erected,  many 
still  standing,  are:  Skokloster,  Ekolsund,  Stroms- 


holm,  Drottningholm  (completed  by  his  sou,  see 
below ) ,  and  Borgholm  castles,  Kalmar  Cathe¬ 
dral,  his  principal  work  of  the  sort,  and  at 
Stockholm,  St.  Mary’s  Church,  the  Wrangel 
Palace,  and  Axel  Oxenstierna  Palace. 

TESSIN,  Nicodemus,  Count  (1654-1728). 
A  Swedish  architect  and  statesman,  born  at 
Nykoping,  son  of  Nicodemus  Tessin  (q.v.).  He 
was  educated  at  Stockholm  and  Upsala  uni¬ 
versities,  then  studied  architecture  under  his 
father  and  for  four  years  in  Italy  under  Bernini 
and  Fontana.  He  became  royal  architect  in 
1676.  His  most  notable  work,  the  present  Royal 
Castle  at  Stockholm,  begun  in  1697  to  replace 
the  palace  burned  that  year,  was  completed  after 
his  death.  Tessin  finished  Drottningholm  Castle 
and  built  the  Auditorium  Gustavianum  at 
Upsala,  Steninge  Castle,  his  home,  and  various 
churches.  Several  foreign  monarchs  employed  him 
and  he  held  various  honorary  offices.  He  is  known 
as  the  most  distinguished  of  Swedish  architects. 

TES'TA.  The  special  protective  coat  of  seeds, 
which  is  usually  hard,  but  sometimes  (as  in  cer¬ 
tain  gymnosperms)  develops  also  a  fleshy  layer. 

TESTA,  Gherardi  della.  See  Giierardi 
della  Testa. 

TEST  ACTS.  Numerous  acts  of  the  English 
Parliament  imposing  religious  tests  upon  per¬ 
sons  in  public  office.  The  most  famous  are  the 
Corporation  Act  of  1661  and  the  Test  Act  of 
1673.  The  Corporation  Act  directed  that  all 
magistrates  should  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance 
and  supremacy,  as  well  as  an  oath  renouncing 
the  doctrine  that  it  is  lawful  to  take  arms 
against  the  King,  and  provided  that  they  must 
receive  communion  according  to  the  rites  of  the 
Church  of  England.  The  Test  Act,  so  called,  im¬ 
posed  the  like  conditions  on  the  holders  of  all 
public  offices,  civil  and  military,  and  obliged  them 
in  addition  to  abjure  all  belief  in  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation.  Both  of  these  acts  were  the 
result  of  the  struggles  against  the  Catholics  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  They  were  repealed  in 
1828  as  regards  most  of  the  provisions.  See 
England. 

TES'T AMENT  (OF.,  Fr.  testament,  from  Lat. 
testamentum,  will,  publication  of  a  will,  from 
testari,  to  make  a  will,  attest,  testify,  from 
testis,  witness ) .  Literally,  a  calling  upon  wit¬ 
nesses.  Technically,  in  Roman  law,  a  will;  an 
act  by  which  a  person  determines  what  person 
or  persons  shall  take  his  property  after  his 
death.  The  oldest  form  of  testation  at  Rome 
was  a  declaration  in  the  presence  and  with  the 
sanction  of  the  Roman  people  in  assembly  or 
meeting  as  an  army  on  the  eve  of  battle.  Of 
the  scope  and  effect  of  this  form  of  testation 
little  is  known.  It  could,  apparently,  be  em¬ 
ployed  by  patricians  only,  and  it  probably  af¬ 
fected  only  such  property  as  did  not  form  part 
of  the  household  estate  ( pecunia  as  distinguished 
from  familia) .  In  any  case,  the  later  Roman 
testament  was  developed  on  a  different  and  in¬ 
dependent  basis.  It  started  as  a  sale  {man- 
cipatio )  of  the  inheritance,  and  became  a  secret 
and  revocable  instrument,  signed  and  sealed  by 
the  testator  and  seven  witnesses.  As  this  man¬ 
cipation  testament  is  the  ancestor  of  the  testa¬ 
ment  or  will  in  all  modern  countries,  its  de¬ 
velopment  is  described  under  Will. 

TESTAMENT,  Inofficious.  See  Inoffi¬ 
cious  Testament. 

TESTAMENTARY,  Letters.  See  Letter. 

TESTAMENT  OF  LOVE,  The.  A  prose 
work  erroneously  credited  to  Chaucer  by  Speght 


TESTAMENTUM  PORCELLI 


TESTING  MACHINE 


131 


in  the  1598  edition.  It  was  written  about  the 
close  of  the  fourteenth  century  by  a  prisoner 
in  peril  of  his  life,  and  modeled  on  Boethius’s 
Consolation  of  Philosophy,  substituting  for  phi¬ 
losophy  Divine  Love. 

TES'TAMEN'TUM  PORCEL'LI  (Lat.,  Last 
Will  of  a  Little  Pig).  An  amusing  Latin  skit 
parodying  the  legal  testamentary  forms.  It  is 
of  unknown  authorship,  and  was  written  before 
the  fourth  century  a.d.  According  to  St.  Je¬ 
rome  it  was  a  favorite  recitation  by  schoolboys. 
The  text  is  in  Biicheler’s  smaller  edition  of 
Petronius  (Berlin,  1886),  and  is  edited  with 
English  notes  in  Peck  and  Arrowsmith’s  Roman 
Life  in  Latin  Prose  and  Verse  (New  York, 
1894). 

TESTICARDINES.  See  Brachiopoda. 

TESTIMONY  (from  Lat.  testimonium,  testi¬ 
mony,  from  testis,  a  witness).  The  oral  evi¬ 
dence  given  in  a  judicial  proceeding.  This  may 
be  adduced  either  on  the  trial  of  an  action  in 
court  or  before  an  authorized  investigation  of 
a  committee  or  commission.  The  term  is  popu¬ 
larly  used  as  synonymous  with  evidence.  The 
latter  is  an  inclusive  term.  A  document  is 
marked  in  evidence,  but  the  relevant  or  com¬ 
petent  statement  of  a  witness  on  the  stand  is 
testimony.  The  usual  course  of  the  proceedings 
consists  of  the  direct  examination  by  the  pro¬ 
ducing  counsel  and  subsequent  cross-examination 
by  the  opposing  counsel,  and  then,  if  necessary, 
redirect  examination.  See  Evidence.  Consult 
F.  Wellman,  Art  of  Cross-Examination  (New 
York,  1903),  and  F.  Wrottesley,  Examination  of 
Witnesses  in  Court  (rev.  ed.,  London,  1910). 

TESTIMONY,  Ark  of.  See  Ark  of  the 
Covenant. 

TESTIMONY,  Psychology  of.  There  are 
three  groups  of  problems  in  applied  psychology 
(see  Psychology,  Applied)  which  have  a  bear¬ 
ing  upon  the  nature  and  weight  of  certain  forms 
of  evidence  in  legal  practice:  the  report  of  the 
witness,  the  possibility  of  discovering  hidden 
emotional  and  ideational  complexes  from  which 
it  may  be  inferred  whether  the  accused  is  with¬ 
holding  important  facts,  and  the  mental  status 
of  the  witness  or  the  accused. 

Judges  and  advocates  of  the  courts  have  long 
known  that  a  conflict  of  evidence,  in  cases  where 
the  perceptions  and  memories  of  witnesses  are 
concerned,  need  not  mean  dishonesty.  Experi¬ 
mental  psychology  has  shown  that  such  indi¬ 
vidual  differences  must  be  expected.  It  remains 
for  applied  psychology  to  determine  the  varia¬ 
tion  in  range  and  accuracy  of  report;  the  effect 
of  suggestion  by  way  of  leading ‘questions;  and 
the  degree  of  accuracy  with  which  an  event  may 
be  reconstructed  from  conflicting  accounts.  The 
general  method  employed  is  to  present  a  group 
of  objects,  a  picture,  or  an  enacted  scene,  and 
after  an  interval  to  request  the  observers  to  give 
an  account,  either  by  narrative  or  in  response 
to  questions,  of  what  they  saw.  The  results, 
which  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  final,  are  as 
follows :  errorless  reports  are  the  exception 
(about  2  per  cent)  ;  the  narrative  form  gives  a 
larger  coefficient  of  accuracy  than  the  inter¬ 
rogatory  (90  per  cent  as  against  75  per  cent)  ; 
the  range  of  the  latter  is  much  larger  (65  per 
cent  as  against  40  per  cent)  ;  as  the  time  inter¬ 
val  between  presentation  and  report  increases, 
there  is  a  fairly  constant  (though  slight)  de¬ 
crease  both  in  range  and  accuracy;  children  are 
more  suggestible  than  adults,  and  their  reports 
are  more  inaccurate  and  of  less  range;  both 


range  and  accuracy  increase  with  practice;  an 
experienced  interpreter  can  construct  an  ac¬ 
count,  from  a  number  of  conflicting  reports, 
with  an  error  of  less  than  1  per  cent. 

For  attack  upon  the  second  problem,  a  method 
has  been  devised  which  takes  advantage  of  the 
reaction  experiment  (see  Reaction)  and  the 
laws  of  association  of  ideas  (q.v.).  The  suspect 
is  told  that  he  will  be  given  a  word,  and  that  he 
must  reply  with  the  first  word  that  comes  to 
mind.  Both  the  reaction  word  and  the  reaction 
time  are  recorded.  A  list  of  words  previously 
prepared  by  the  experimenter  contains  critical 
words,  i.e.,  words  that  will  probably  associate 
to  some  phase  of  the  crime.  The  reactor  may 
now  betray  himself  either  by  the  nature  of  his 
verbal  reaction  to  a  critical  word  or,  in  case 
there  is  an  inhibition,  by  the  increased  length 
of  his  reaction  time.  The  experiment  has  proved 
successful  in  many  instances,  and  in  others  it 
has  failed:  much  work  is  yet  necessary  before 
all  the  conditions  can  be  brought  under  control. 

Finally,  for  obvious  reasons,  it  is  desirable 
to  know  whether  a  witness  or  an  accused  is  of 
normal  mind,  or  is  insane,  defective,  hysterical, 
etc.  Mental  tests  (q.v.)  are  employed  for  this 
determination;  and,  so  far  as  regards  mental 
defectives,  with  good  success.  A  closely  related 
problem,  and  one  that  has  important  psychologi¬ 
cal  bearings,  is  the  prevention  of  crime.  Consult : 
L.  W.  Stern,  Bcitrdge  zur  Psychologie  der  Aus- 
sage  (Leipzig,  1903-06);  Hugo  Miinsterberg,  On 
the  Witness  Stand  (New  York,  1908);  G.  M. 
Y\  hippie,  “The  Observer  as  Reporter,”  in  Psycho¬ 
logical  Bulletin f  vol.  vi  (Baltimore,  1909); 
C.  J.  Jung,  “The  Association  Method,”  in  Ameri¬ 
can  Journal  of  Psychology,  xxi  (Worcester, 

1910) ;  H.  Gross,  Criminal  Psychology  (Boston, 

1911)  ;  O.  Lipmann,  Die  Spuren  interessebet outer 
Erlebnissc  u.  Hire  Symptome  (Leipzig,  1911)  ; 
Hugo  Miinsterberg,  Psychology,  General  and  Ap¬ 
plied  (New  York,  1914).  See  Criminology. 

TESTING  MACHINE.  A  machine  employed 
for  testing  and  determining  the  strength"  of 
materials  used  in  construction  and  engineering 
works.  In  order  to  determine  the  strength  of 
a  given  material  such  as  the  iron  or  steel  used 
in  a  boiler  or  engine,  the  wood  of  a  building,  or 
brick,  stone,  cement,  etc.,  it  is  usual  to  select 
small  samples  and  submit  them  to  stresses  of 
varying  degrees,  from  which  the  characteristics 
of  the  material  may  be  learned  and  various 
numerical  values  obtained.  With  the  use  of 
iron  and  steel  in  building  construction  it  is 
found  desirable  to  test  beams,  columns,  and 
other  forms  on  a  large  scale  often  to  failure  or 
destruction.  Testing  machines  may  depend  upon 
the  action  of  an  hydraulic  press  or  of  a  system 
of  screws  and  gears  by  means  of  which  the 
known  force  applied  can  be  greatly  multiplied 
by  the  time  it  is  directly  exerted  on  the  piece 
under  test.  For  many  years  the  testing  machine 
at  the  Watertown  (Mass.)  Arsenal  enjoyed  a 
unique  distinction.  Large  testing  machines  are 
now  installed  at  the  laboratories  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Standards  at  Washington  and 
Pittsburgh.  At  Washington  there  are  two  ma¬ 
chines  of  the  Emery  type  with  capacities  of 
2,300,000  pounds  and  230,000  pounds  respec¬ 
tively,  while  at  the  Pittsburgh  laboratory  there 
is  a  10,000.000  pound  Olsen  testing  machine 
with  which  tests  of  full-sized  concrete  and  brick 
columns  have  been  made.  The  Riehle  testing 
machine  in  smaller  sizes  is  extensively  used  for 
structural  materials,  while  for  paper,  textiles, 


TESTRY 


132 


TETANUS 


and  other  substances  special  machines  and  meth¬ 
ods  are  employed.  The  various  tests  will  be  found 
discussed  under  Strength  of  Materials.  Con¬ 
sult  publications  of  the  American  Society  for 
Testing  Materials  and  of  the  United  States  Bu¬ 
reau  of  Standards. 

TESTRY,  tes'tre'.  A  village  of  France,  be¬ 
tween  Peronne  and  Saint- Quentin,  in  the  De¬ 
partment  of  Somme,  noted  as  the  scene  of  a 
battle  (687)  in  which  Pepin  of  Heristal,  the 
Austrasian  Mayor  of  the  Palace,  defeated  the 
forces  of  Xeustria  and  Burgundy,  thus  bringing 
the  three  Frankish  kingdoms  under  his  power. 
See  Franks. 

TESTS,  Mental.  See  Mental  Tests. 

TESTU'DINA'TA.  The  reptilian  order 

Chelonia  (q.v. ). 

TESTU'DO  (Lat.,  tortoise).  A  device  of 
Roman  warfare,  by  means  of  which  a  body  of 
men  advanced  for  assault.  The  attackers  would 
move  in  close  order,  with  shields  held  above 
their  heads,  edges  overlapping.  The  effect  re¬ 
sembled  the  shell  of  a  tortoise  {testudo) ,  and 
proved  an  effective  protection  from  weapons  of 
the  defenders.  A  later  improvement  was  the 
testudo  machine  (on  wheels  and  roofed  over), 
under  the  protection  of  which  soldiers  could  de¬ 
stroy  or  undermine  defensive  walls.  A  modified 
form  of  the  same  principle  is  seen  in  the  flying 
sap.  *- 

TET'ANUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  reravos,  spasm, 
tension,  from  reipeiv,  teinein,  to  stretch,  strain), 
or  Lockjaw.  An  infectious  disease  character¬ 
ized  by  tonic  spasms  of  the  voluntary  muscles, 
with  marked  exacerbations.  The  contractions 
may  be  confined  to  the  muscles  of  the  lower  jaw 
(trismus),  to  certain  other  groups  of  muscles, 
or  involve  all  the  muscles  of  the  body.  The 
disease  is  dependent  on  a  bacillus,  discovered 
by  Nicolaier  in  1884,  and  cultivated  by  Kitasato 
in  1889.  The  bacillus  is  a  slender  rod,  with 
one  rounded  end  containing  a  spore,  and  exists 
in  the  faeces  of  the  herbivora  and  man,  and  un¬ 
der  favorable  conditions  the  spores  remain  viru¬ 
lent  for  years.  It  is  found  especially  in  well- 
manured  soil  and  in  dust  and  surface  soil.  This 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  wounds  infected  by 
dust  are  often  followed  by  tetanus.  The  organ¬ 
ism  gains  entrance  to  the  tissues  often  through 
wounds  so  slight  as  to  be  overlooked.  The  dis¬ 
ease  may  follow  surgical  operations  or  child¬ 
birth,  infecting  the  mother  through  the  par¬ 
turient  canal  and  the  child  through  the  cut  um¬ 
bilical  cord  (trismus  naseentium,  q.v.).  Vac¬ 
cination  wounds  are  sometimes  the  port  of  entry 
for  the  bacillus.  The  microorganism  is  anaero¬ 
bic,  i.e.,  it  flourishes  only  in  the  absence  of  air 
or  oxygen. 

After  an  injury  the  disease  sets  in  usually 
within  ten  days.  Without  warning  the  pa¬ 
tient  feels  a  stiffness  at  the  back  of  the  neck, 
and  then  in  the  jaws,  so  that  he  is  unable  to 
open  his  mouth  widely  or  to  masticate  properly. 
These  symptoms  continue  for  a  day  or  two,  or 
the  patient  may  rapidly  come  to  the  stage  of 
general  rigidity,  in  which  the  muscles  of  the 
trunk  and  extremities  are  affected.  The  back 
becomes  rigid  and  arched  (opisthotonus)  ;  the 
muscles  of  the  abdomen  become  hard  and  board¬ 
like;  respiratory  movements  are  limited  by  the 
rigid  muscles.  By  this  time  the  jaw  is  firmly 
closed  by  contraction  of  the  masseter  muscles, 
and  the  other  muscles  of  the  face  drawn  into 
the  painful  smile  known  as  the  risus  sardonicus. 
At  this  stage  violent  convulsions  of  the  hitherto 


rigid  muscles  supervene.  During  a  paroxysm  the 
patient’s  teeth  are  tightly  clenched,  while  breath¬ 
ing  is  in  temporary  suspension,  with  imminent 
danger  of  death.  The  spasms  are  intensely  pain¬ 
ful,  and  occur  at  first  at  intervals  of  half  an 
hour  or  more  with  gradually  increasing  fre¬ 
quency.  Muscular  contractions  are  sometimes  so 
forcible  as  to  rupture  a  muscle  or  break  a  bone. 
In  untreated  cases  the  end  comes  in  a  few  days; 
the  paroxysms  being  more  violent  and  frequent 
and  death  ensuing  from  exhaustion,  fixation  of 
the  respiratory  muscles,  or  glottal  spasm. 
There  may  be  little  fever  during  the  attack, 
but  before  death  an  extraordinary  rise  in  tem¬ 
perature  may  take  place. 

The  preventive  treatment  of  tetanus  is  most 
important.  Wounds  likely  to  be  contaminated 
with  earth  should  be  opened  freely,  disinfected 
thoroughly,  with  tincture  of  iodine  preferably, 
and  well  drained;  and  a  dose  of  antitetanic  serum 
administered.  When  these  precautions  have  not 
been  taken  and  lockjaw  sets  in,  the  serum  should 
be  promptly  injected  either  into  the  muscles  or 
spinal  canal.  Intraspinal  injections  of  mag¬ 
nesium  sulphate  have  cured  some  patients. 
Drugs  may  be  given  to  control  the  spasms,  the 
most  useful  of  which  are  chloral  hydrate,  liyos- 
cine,  the  bromides,  and  calabar  bean.  Chloro¬ 
form  may  be  necessary  during  the  worst  con¬ 
vulsions. 

A  great  many  cases  of  infantile  tetanus  can 
be  prevented  by  antiseptic  treatment  of  the 
stump  of  the  umbilical  cord.  Tetanus  in  in¬ 
fants  (tetanus  neonatorum)  is  very  fatal,  being 
uninfluenced  even  by  antitoxin.  Consult  article 
by  J.  M.  Anders  in  William  Osier,  Modern  Medi¬ 
cine  (New  York,  1915).  See  Trismus  Nascen- 

TIUM. 

TETANUS,  in  Animals.  The  disease  due 
to  the  action  of  Bacillus  tetani  attacks  domesr 
tic  animals,  most  frequently  horses  and  sheep. 
It  is  an  acute  infectious  disease  due  to  an  in¬ 
toxication  of  the  nervous  system,  characterized 
by  persisting  spasmodic  contractions  of  the  en¬ 
tire  body  musculature  or  of  single  groups  of 
muscles,  without  impairment  of  consciousness. 
In  an  acute  attack  the  animal  usually  dies 
within  four  days.  The  symptoms  usually  come 
on  gradually,  involving  most  of  the  muscular 
structures,  which  become  hard  and  rigid.  The 
nose  is  protruded,  the  limbs  move  stiffly,  the 
tail  is  upraised,  the  bowels  are  constipated.  The 
sufferer  must  be  kept  perfectly  quiet,  in  an 
airy  but  comfortably  warm  place,  and  plentifully 
supplied  with  cold  water,  and  soft,  sloppy,  but 
nutritious  food,  to  be  sucked  in  through  the 
firmly  closed  teeth.  In  treating  the  disease  it  is 
essential  that  the  seat  of  infection  be  thoroughly 
disinfected  at  once.  The  administration  of  drugs 
by  mouth  is  dangerous  and  should  not  be  at¬ 
tempted.  The  antitetanic  serum  has  given  only 
indifferent  results  in  affected  animals,  but  may 
be  beneficial  if  administered  at  the  onset  of  the 
disease  in  relatively  high  doses.  Successful  re¬ 
sults  have  been  reported  to  follow  subcutaneous 
injection  of  carbolic  acid  and  the  injection  of 
a  solution  of  magnesium  sulphate.  Horses  which 
receive  wounds  or  upon  which  surgical  opera¬ 
tions  are  performed — in  districts  where  tetanus 
frequently  occurs — may  receive  a  very  high  de¬ 
gree  of  protection  through  the  administration 
of  a  dose  of  tetanus  antitoxin.  Consult:  Leon¬ 
ard  Pearson  and  others,  Special  Report  on  Dis¬ 
eases  of  the  Horse,  published  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  (Washington, 


TETANY 


1011),  and  Hutyra  and  Marek,  Special  Pa¬ 
thology  and  Therapeutics  of  the  Diseases  of  Do¬ 
mestic  Animals  (Amer.  ed.  from  3d  Ger.  ed.  by 
Moliler  and  Eichhorn,  Chicago,  1912). 

TET'ANY.  A  form  of  tonic  muscular  spasm, 
affecting  especially  the  muscles  of  the  extrem¬ 
ities,  most  frequently  observed  during  infancy, 
although  it  may  occur  at  any  age.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  exciting  cause  is  gastrointestinal  irrita¬ 
tion,  teething,  worms,  etc.,  and  the  disease  is 
commonly  associated  with  rickets  (q.v.).  Dur¬ 
ing  an  attack  the  legs  and  arms  are  bent  and 
rigid,  the  hands,  feet,  and  fingers  are  tightly 
flexed.  The  attack  may  last  only  a  few  minutes, 
or  may  be  prolonged  over  hours  or  days.  There 
is  no  fever,  nor  loss  of  consciousness,  and  the 
disease  is  in  itself  rarely  fatal;  the  prognosis 
depending  on  the  associated  disorder,  to  which 
treatment  should  be  addressed. 

TETE  DE  PONT,  tat  de  poN  (Fr.,  bridge¬ 
head).  In  modern  fortifications  a  group  of 
works  intended  to  cover  one  or  more  bridges, 
whether  permanent  or  military,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  crossing  of  the  enemy,  or  to  enable  troops  to 
cross  over  to  the  enemy  bank,  or  to  permit  them 
to  retreat  to  their  own  bank.  The  nature  of 
the  works  constituting  the  bridgehead  will  vary 
according  to  the  objective.  They  may  be  situ¬ 
ated  two  miles  or  more  from  the  stream  whose 
crossing  is  in  question,  with  the  flanks  resting 
on  the  river  and  securely  guarded.  In  other 
words,  a  bridgehead  under  modern  conditions 
is  a  fortified  position  rather  than  a  single  work. 
See  Fortification. 

TETEENIKOV,  Feodor.  See  Sologub, 
Feodor. 

TE'THYS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  TyOvs).  In  Greek 
mythology,  daughter  of  Uranus  and  Gsea,  and,  by 
Oceanus,  mother  of  the  Oceanids  and  the  river 
gods. 

TET'BABItAN'CHIA'TA.  See  Cephalopoda. 

TET'XtACHOPD  (from  Gk.  rerp&xopdos, 
tetrachordos,  having  four  strings,  from  rerpa-, 
tetra-,  four  -{-  x°P^V,  chordc,  string,  cord).  In 
music,  a  system  of  four  tones  comprised  within 
the  compass  of  a  perfect  fourth.  The  Greek  scales 
were  composed  by  joining  two  tetrachords.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  tetrachord  was  superseded 
by  the  hexaclicrd,  introduced  by  Guido  d’Arezzo. 
See  Greek  Music. 

TET'RAD.  See  Bacteria. 

TETRAD'YMITE  (from  Gk.  rerpaovpos,  tet- 
radymos,  fourfold,  from  rerpa-,  tetra-,  four;  so 
called  from  its  frequent  occurrence  in  twin  crys¬ 
tals  ) .  A  mineral  bismuth  telluride  frequently 
containing  sulphur  and  selenium.  It  is  crys¬ 
tallized  in  the  hexagonal  system,  has  a  metallic 
lustre,  and  is  of  a  steel-gray  color.  It  is  found 
in  Norway,  Sweden,  and  in  the  United  States 
at  various  localities  in  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina. 

TETRAG'ONAL  SYSTEM.  See  Crystal¬ 
lography,  and  Plate  of  Crystal  Forms. 

TET'EAGEAM'MATON  (Gk.  rerpaypapp a- 
rov,  word  of  four  letters,  neut.  sing,  of  rerpaypap- 
paros,  tetragrammatos,  having  four  letters,  from 
rerpa-,  tetra-,  four  -f-  ypappa,  gramma,  letter, 
from  y pacpeiv,  graphein,  to  write).  A  term  used 
to  designate  the  name  of  Israel’s  God,  consisting 
of  the  four  letters  Y  H  W  H  .  In  the  Masoretic 
text  it  occurs  6823  times  and  is  written  with  the 
vowels  of  Adonai,  Lord  (originally  my  Lord), 
or  with  those  of  Elohim,  God.  By  these  vowels 
the  reader  was  warned  not  to  pronounce  the  di¬ 
vine  name,  but  to  substitute  for  it  Adonai  or 


133  TETRAPOLITAN  CONFESSION 

Elohim.  On  the  reasons  for  this  custom,  see 
Jeiiovah.  The  Greek  version  (see  Bible)  uses 
Kvpios,  Kyrios,  Lord,  for  the  tetragrammaton. 
The  editorial  revision  of  Book  II  in  the  Psalter 
(Psalms  xlii-lxxii)  also  substitutes  for  it 
Elohim.  There  is  little  room  for  doubt  that  the 
original  pronunciation  was  Yahwe,  the  final  h 
being  inaudible.  According  to  Theodoret  the 
Samaritans  (q.v.)  pronounced  the  name  Ia/3e, 
Yabe,  or  Yave,  and  this  statement  is  borne  out 
b%  extant  Samaritan  hymns  where  the  rhyme 
indicates  that  pronunciation,  and  by  direct 
testimony.  The  same  pronunciation  is  ascribed 
to  a  Christian  sect  by  Epiphanius  and  is  found 
in  Egyptian  papyri.  An  Ethiopic  manuscript 
gives  the  form  \awe,  in  which  the  vowels  are 
indicated.  The  name  Iao  frequently  found  in 
manuscripts  and  papyri  goes  back  to  Yahu. 
J  hat  \  ahu  or  Tah  existed  in  Syria  as  a  divine 
name  before  the  Hebrew  invasion  is  probable  and 
receives  some  support  from  Egyptian  and  Babv- 
lonian  inscriptions.  The  fact  'that  Yah  occurs 
chiefly  in  late  Old  Testament  writings  may  be 
due  to  an  archaistic  tendency  not  seldom  "seen 
in  connection  with  the  liturgy.  Yah  at  the  end 
of  a  name  and  Yeho  at  the  beginning  meet  us  so 
often  in  preexilic  times  that  it  is  likely  to  be 
very  old.  It  is  also  significant  that  Yahwe 
never  seems  to  be  used  in  theophorous  names. 
Since  it  was  at  all  times  permitted  to  pronounce 
Yahu,  it  is  not  strange  that  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  should  have  got  the  impression  that  the 
name  of  the  god  of  the  Jews  was  Iao.  The  earli¬ 
est  datable  occurrence  of  the  tetragrammaton  is 
in  the  inscription  of  King  Mesha  of  Moab, 
c.840  b.c.  Through  the  Samaritans  and  certain 
Jewish  sects  the  knowledge  of  the  proper  pro¬ 
nunciation  was  perpetuated.  While  the  Samari¬ 
tans  of  the  seventeenth  century  refused  to  di¬ 
vulge  this  secret,  Sabbatai  Zewi  (see  Messiah), 
the  famous  mystic  and  claimant  to  the  Messiah- 
ship,  insisted  upon  the  pronunciation  of  the 
tetragrammaton.  See  Jehovah,  and  consult  the 
works  referred  to  in  that  article. 

TET'RAHEJDIIITE  (from  tetrahedron,  so 
called  from  the  prevailing  forms  of  its  crystals). 
A  sulphantimonite  of  copper,  crystallizing  in  the 
isometric  system,  and  often  occurring  in  mas¬ 
sive  forms.  It  is  commonly  associated  with 
chalcopyrite  (q.v.),  massive  varieties  frequently 
forming  intimate  mechanical  mixtures;  it  is  also 
associated  with  other  mechanical  sulphides. 
Tetrahedrite  is  universally  distributed  and  con¬ 
stitutes  an  important  ore  of  copper  (q.v.). 

TET'RAHE'DRON  (from  Gk.  rerpa-,  tetra-, 
four  -f-  edpa,  hedra,  base).  A  solid  bounded  by 
four  planes.  It  appears  in  nature,  and  as  a 
crystal  is  classified  as  a  secondary  form  of  the 
octahedron,  produced  by  removing  the  alternate 
angles  or  edges  of  the  latter.  See  Polyhedron. 

TETRAI/OGY  (from  Gk.  rerpaXoyLa,  tetra- 
logia,  group  of  four  dramas,  from  rerpa-,  tetra-. 
four  +  Xoyos,  logos,  word ) .  ( 1 )  In  Greek  drama, 
a  series  of  three  tragedies  and  a  satvric  drama 
presented  in  sequence.  The  satvric  drama  was 
in  some  cases  connected  with  the  tragedies  in 
subject,  but  its  main  purpose  was  to  relieve  the 
tension  caused  by  the  trilogy.  (2)  A  musical 
drama  in  four  parts.  Wagner’s  famous  tetral¬ 
ogy,  Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen,  consists  of  Das 
Rhein  gold,  Die  Walkiire,  Siegfried,  and  Gotter- 
dammerung.  See  Trilogy. 

TETKAM'ETER.  See  Versification. 

TET'RAPOL'ITAN  CONFESSION.  See 
Sacramentarians. 


TETRARCH 


TEUCER 


TE'TRARCH  (Lat.  tetrarclies,  from  Gk. 
TerpapxvS)  governor  of  a  fourth  of  a  country, 
from  Terpa-,  tetra-,  four,  fourth  +  apxew,  archein, 
to  rule).  Originally,  the  governor  of  one  of 
four  divisions  of  a  kingdom  or  country;  e.g., 
of  Thessaly,  according  to  the  arrangements  of 
King  Philip,  father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
of  Galatia  ( q.v. )  before  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans;  but,  in  the  usage  of  the  later  Roman 
Empire,  any  minor  ruler,  especially  in  the  East, 
possessing  sovereign  rights  within  his  territory, 
but  dependent  on,  and  in  many  cases  removable 
at  the  pleasure  of,  the  Emperor.  This  was  es¬ 
pecially  the  case  in  Syria,  where  the  princes  of 
the  family  of  Herod  are  called  indiscriminately 
by  this  title  (Luke  iii.  1)  and  by  that  of  King 
(Matt.  xiv.  9). 

TETRAZZINI,  tet'ra-tse'ne,  Luisa  ( 1874— 

) .  An  Italian  coloratura  soprano,  born  at 
Florence.  Before  she  was  12  years  old  she  sang 
without  having  received  instruction,  and  knew 
perfectly  a  number  of  operas  which  she  had  heard 
her  elder  sister  Eva  (later  the  wife  of  Cleofonte 
Campanini  (q.v.)  practice.  After  only  three 
months’  regular  study  under  Ceccherini  at  the 
Liceo  Musicale  of  Florence  she  made  her  debut 
as  Inez  in  L’Afrioaine  (1895),  and  then  sang 
in  Rome  and  other  Italian  cities.  Her  successes 
in  Russia  and  Spain  secured  an  engagement  for 
Buenos  Aires.  From  there  she  went  through 
Mexico  to  California,  whence  her  fame  as  a 
second  Patti  began  to  spread  (1906).  The  next 
vear  she  made  a  sensation  at  Covent  Garden, 
and  in  1908  Oscar  Hammerstein  (q.v.)  engaged 
her  for  his  Manhattan  Opera  House  in  New 
York.  Subsequently  she  appeared  as  guest  with 
the  Metropolitan,  Boston,  and  Chicago  com¬ 
panies,  and  also  made  several  triumphant  con¬ 
cert  tours.  A  voice  of  wonderful  purity,  power, 
and  charm,  combined  with  a  faultless  technical 
execution  of  the  most  florid  and  difficult  pas¬ 
sages,  made  her  indeed  the  legitimate  successor 
to  Patti. 

TET'RONAL  (C2H5)2C(SO202H5)2.  A  white, 
crystalline  substance  similar  to  sulphonal  and, 
like  the  latter,  used  medicinally  as  an  hypnotic. 
It  melts  at  85°  C.  (185°  F.)  and  is  but  slightly 
soluble  in  water.  See  Sulphonal;  Trional. 

TETSCHEN,  teclFen.  A  town  of  Bohemia, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  near  the 
Saxon  frontier.  An  active  industrial  place,  hav¬ 
ing  a  number  of  factories  and  carrying  on  a 
lively  trade,  it  is  the  emporium  for  the  shipping 
traffic  on  the  Elbe,  and  forms  with  Bodenbach 
practically  one  town.  They  are  connected  by 
three  bridges.  The  handsome  chateau  of  Count 
Thun,  built  in  1867-73,  with  a  fine  park,  garden, 
and  hothouses,  library,  and  collection  of  coins 
and  weapons,  was  once  fortified  and  a  place  of 
some  importance  in  the  Seven  Years’  War. 
Pop.,  1900,  9698;  1910,  10,641. 

TETTENBORN,  tet'en-born,  Friedrich  Karl, 
Baron  (1778-1845)  .  A  German  soldier,  born  in 
the  Principality  of  Sponheim.  He  entered  the 
Austrian  army  in  1794,  serving  in  the  wars  of 
the  French  Revolution.  At  the  battle  of  ha- 
gram,  in  1809,  he  won  distinction  by  his  bravery. 
Just  before  the  invasion  of  Russia  by  Napoleon 
in  1812  he  entered  the  Russian  army  as  a  lieu¬ 
tenant  colonel,  commanded  Kutusoff’s  vanguard, 
and  greatly  harassed  the  French  on  their  re¬ 
treat.  In  1813  he  entered  Berlin,  together  with 
the  Russians,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Hamburg, 
which  he  occupied,  but  whence  he  was  driven 
May  30.  He  next  fought  against  Davout  and 


134 

Peclieux  and  captured  Bremen  October  15.  He 
served  with  Bernadotte  in  Jutland  and  on  the 
Rhine  in  1814.  In  France,  during  the  invasion 
of  the  allies,  he  did  excellent  service  in  keeping 
open  communications.  In  1818  he  entered  the 
service  of  Baden,  and  in  1819  was  promoted  to 
be  lieutenant  general,  and  was  sent  as  Ambassa¬ 
dor  to  Vienna,  where  he  died. 

TETUAN,  tet-wan'.  A  town  of  Morocco 
about  38  miles  southeast  of  Tangier,  on  the 
Martil.  It  lies  in  the  midst  of  fine  gardens  and 
is  surrounded  by  dilapidated  walls.  In  the 
background  loom  the  Rif  Mountains.  The  rows 
of  white  houses  rise  in  terraces.  The  streets 
are  narrow  and  dirty,  but  there  are  many  fine 
residences  built  by  the  Moors  expelled  from 
Spain.  Gun  barrels,  coarse  woolen  cloth,  slip¬ 
pers,  and  sashes  are  manufactured.  Grain, 
fruits,  wool,  silk,  leather,  and  beef  cattle  are 
exported,  mainly  to  Gibraltar.  The  port,  forti¬ 
fied  by  two  forts,  is  one  mile  below  the  town  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Martil,  and  is  the  only  open 
Mediterranean  port  in  the  country.  Population, 
about  25,000,  of  which  6000  are  Jews.  Tetuan 
was  the  centre  of  operations  in  the  Spanish- 
Moroccan  War  of  1859-60.  The  city  was  aban¬ 
doned  by  the  Spanish  in  1862. 

TET'ZEL,  Johann  (c.1460-1519) .  A  Ger¬ 
man  Dominican,  famous  for  his  connection  with 
the  Reformation  through  Luther’s  attacks  on  his 
sale  of  indulgences.  He  was  born  at  Pirna,  in 
Saxony,  and  educated  at  the  University  of 
Leipzig,  where  he  graduated  in  1487,  soon  after¬ 
ward  entering  the  Dominican  Order.  Being  a 
popular  and  effective  preacher,  he  was  intrusted 
with  the  proclamation  of  an  indulgence,  first 
on  behalf  of  the  Teutonic  Knights  from  1503  to 
1510,  and  from  1516  as  a  subordinate  of  Albert 
of  Brandenburg,  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  indulgence  in  favor  of  contribu¬ 
tors  to  the  building  of  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome.  In 
opposition  to  the  preaching  of  Tetzel  Martin 
Luther  published  his  celebrated  theses,  on  Oct. 
31,  1517.  Tetzel  published  a  series  of  counter 
theses  in  the  following  January,  and  in  April 
a  reply  to  Luther’s  celebrated  sermon  on  indul¬ 
gences.  In  January,  1519,  he  was  called  upon  to 
appear  before  the  papal  legate  Von  Miltitz  to  an¬ 
swer  charges  made  against  him,  and  was  severely 
rebuked  for  unguarded  language  and  impro¬ 
prieties  in  procedure.  Consult:  K.  W.  Kayser, 
Ceschichtsquellen  iiber  Tetzel  (Annaberg,  1877)  ; 
Hermann,  Johann  Tetzel  (2d  ed.,  Frankfort, 
1883)  ;  J.  B.  Rohm,  Zur  Tetzel-Legende  (Hildes- 
heim,  1890)  ;  N.  Paulus,  Johann  Tetzel  cler 
Ablassprediger  (Mayence,  1899)  ;  Cambridge 
Modern  History,  vol.  ii  (New  York,  1904). 

TETJBNER,  toip'ner,  Benedictus  Gottiielf 
( 1784-1856) .  A  German  bookseller,  printer,  and 
publisher.  He  was  born  at  Gross-Kraussnigk, 
and  became  a  bookseller  at  Leipzig  in  1811.  His 
house  soon  grew  to  be  one  of  the  most  important 
in  Germany.  In  1832  he  founded  a  printing 
house  in  Dresden.  The  firm  is  best  known  for 
cheap,  accurate,  and  scholarly  editions  of  Greek 
and  Latin  classics,  as  well  as  for  scientific  pub¬ 
lications,  especially  those  of  the  Saxon  Royal 
Academy. 

TEU'CER  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  TevKpos,  Teukros) . 
The  name  of  two  kings  in  Greek  legend.  The 
first  seems  merely  an  invented  eponymous  hero 
for  the  Teucri,  traditionally  the  early  inhabit¬ 
ants  of  the  Trojan  plain.  He  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  early  epic,  but  later  is  called  the  son  of 
the  river  god  Scamander  and  a  nymph  of  Mount 


TEUFELSBRUCKE 


135 


TEUTONIC  LANGUAGES 


Ida.  Another  version  brought  him  from  Crete. 
It  was  said  that  he  gave  his  daughter,  Bateia, 
in  marriage  to  Dardanus  (q.v.),  who  succeeded 
him  as  King.  The  other  Teucer  appears  in  the 
Iliad,  and  remained  a  popular  figure  of  legend. 
He  was  the  son  of  Telamon,  King  of  Salamis, 
and  Hesione,  daughter  of  Laomedon,  King  of 
Troy.  He  accompanied  his  half  brother  Ajax 
the  Greater  (see  Ajax)  to  Troy,  where  he  was 
the  best  archer  among  the  Greeks,  but  on  his 
return  his  father  would  not  allow  him  to  land 
at  Salamis  because  he  had  not  avenged  the  death 
of  his  brother  Ajax,  and  had  not  brought  back 
Tecmessa  and  Eurysaces,  her  son  by  Ajax. 
Teucer  sailed  for  Cyprus,  where  he  founded 
another  Salamis.  Cf.  Horace,  Carmina,  1,  7. 

TEUFELSBRUCKE.  See  Devil’s  Bridge. 

TEUFELSDROCKH,  toi'fels-drek,  Herr  Di¬ 
ogenes.  In  Carlyle’s  Sartor  Itesartus,  the  eccen¬ 
tric  German  professor  whose  speculations  on  the 
philosophy  of  clothes  form  the  vehicle  for  the 
satire  of  the  work. 

TEUFFEL,  toi'fel,  Wilhelm  Sigismund 
(1820-78).  A  German  classical  scholar,  born 
at  Ludwigsburg,  Wurttemberg.  He  studied  at 
Tubingen,  where  he  became  professor  of  classical 
philology  in  1849.  His  principal  work  is  the 
Geschichte  der  romischen  Litteratur  (Leipzig, 
1870;  5th  ed.,  1890,  translated  into  English  by 
G.  C.  W.  Warr,  London,  1891-92;  6th  ed.,  by  W. 
Kroll,  F.  Skutsch,  and  others,  vols.  ii-iii,  Leip¬ 
zig,  1910-13).  Teuffel  also  published  Studien 
und  Charakteristiken  zur  griechischen  und 
romischen,  soivie  zur  deutschen,  Litteraturge- 
schichte  (Leipzig,  1871;  3d  ed.,  1889),  and 
Lateinische  Stililbungen,  besides  editions  of  the 
Persce  of  iEscliylus  and  the  Clouds  of  Aris¬ 
tophanes. 

TEUTONES,  tu'to-nez.  A  powerful  tribe  of 
Germany,  dwelling  at  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe. 
About  120  b.c.  the  Teutones  joined  the  Cimbri 
(q.v.)  in  their  migration  southward.  In  104- 
102  they  remained  in  Gaul.  In  102  they  were 
annihilated  by  Marius  (q.v.)  at  Aqme  Sextise 
( Aix ) .  See  Germania  ;  Teutonic  Race.  Con¬ 
sult:  Clerc,  La  bataille  d’Aix  (1906)  ;  K.  Miillen- 
hoff,  Deutsche  Alter  turn  skunde,  ii  (2d  ed.,  Berlin, 
1906)  ;  L.  Schmidt,  Allgemeine  Geschichte  der 
germmnschen  Yolker  (1909). 

TEUTONIC  AND  SCANDINAVIAN 
MYTHOLOGY.  See  Scandinavian  and  Teu¬ 
tonic  Mythology. 

TEUTONIC  KNIGHTS  (The  Teutonic 
Knights  of  St.  Mary’s  Hospital  at  Jerusalem). 
An  order  of  knighthood  which  originated  in  a 
brotherhood  formed  by  German  knights  in  1190 
during  the  siege  of  Acre  by  the  Crusaders  and 
recognized  by  Pope  Clement  III  in  1191.  In 
1198  this  association  was  changed  into  an  order 
of  knighthood  as  a  balance  to  the  political  influ¬ 
ence  of  the  Templars  and  Hospitalers.  Her¬ 
mann  von  Salza,  grand  master  from  1210  to  1239, 
saw  no  future  in  Palestine,  and  the  order  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  conquest  of  the  heathen  Prussians, 
inhabiting  the  Baltic  regions  to  the  northeast 
of  Germany.  After  a  fierce  struggle  of  half  a 
century  they  completed  their  subjugation  in 
1283.  Christianity  was  planted  with  fire  and 
sword,  cities  were  founded,  and  the  land  was 
colonized  by  Germans.  In  1237  the  Teutonic 
Knights  absorbed  the  order  of  the  Brothers  of 
the  Sword,  and  so  acquired  Livonia  and  Kur¬ 
land.  They  waged  long  wars  with  the  Lithu¬ 
anians  for  the  possession  of  the  territory  in¬ 


tervening  between  these  regions  and  the  Prus¬ 
sian  country.  Early  in  the  fourteenth  century 
they  extended  their  dominion  westward,  making 
themselves  masters  of  Danzig  and  Little  Pom¬ 
erania  ( Pomerellen ) .  They  became  "a  great 
power  and  their  State  prospered,  but  the  Knights 
themselves  remained  a  ruling  aristocracy,  and 
were  hated  by  the  conquered  natives  and  Ger¬ 
mans  alike.  In  1410  the  power  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights  sustained  a  great  blow  through  their 
defeat  in  the  battle  of  Tannenberg  at  the  hands 
of  the  Poles  and  Lithuanians.  In  1466  they 
were  compelled  in  the  Treaty  of  Thorn  to  cede 
West  Prussia  to  Poland  and  to  agree  to  hold 
East  Prussia  as  a  Polish  fief.  Half  a  century 
later  the  Knights  of  the  Sword  cut  loose  from 
the  Teutonic  Knights,  whose  dominion  was  now 
restricted  to  East  Prussia.  In  1525  the  grand 
master,  Albert  of  Brandenburg  ( q.v. ) ,  having 
embraced  Protestantism,  laid  down  his  office 
and  converted  the  State  over  which  he  ruled 
into  the  hereditary  Duchy  of  Prussia,  for  which 
he  did  homage  to  the  King  of  Poland.  The 
order  was  composed  of  knights,  priests,  and 
servants.  The  rule  followed  was  that  of  St. 
Augustine.  The  insignia  were  the  white  mantle 
and  the  black  cross.  After  the  secularization 
of  the  Prussian  domain  of  the  Teutonic  Knights 
the  order  continued  to  exist  in  Germany,  having 
numerous  possessions,  mostly  of  very  small  ex¬ 
tent,  scattered  throughout  the  Empire.  Its  head 
resided  at  Mergentheim  (now  a  town  of  Wurt¬ 
temberg).  The  order  was  abolished  by  Napoleon 
in  1809,  and  its  possessions  were  confiscated. 
It  was  revived  as  an  Imperial  Austrian  order  in 
1834.  Its  head  is  an  Austrian  archduke.  Con¬ 
sult:  Johannes  Voigt,  Geschichte  des  deutschen 
Ritterordens  (Berlin,  1857-59)  ;  Ernest  Strehlke, 
Tabulae  Ordinis  Theutonici  (ib.,  1869)  ;  Max 
Perlbach,  Die  Statuten  des  deutschen  Ordcns 
(Halle,  1890)  ;  Johann  Loserth,  Geschichte  des 
spiiteren  Mittelalters  (Munich,  1903). 

TEUTONIC  LANGUAGES  (Lat.  Teutoni- 
cus,  from  Teutoni,  Teutones,  an  ancient  German 
tribe,  connected  with  Goth,  piuda,  AS.  peod, 
OHG.  diot,  Ir.  tuath,  country,  people),  or  Ger¬ 
manic  Languages.  The  group  of  languages  of 
the  Indo-Germanic  or  Indo-European  family  (see 
Indo-Germanic  Languages)  spoken  by  the 
Teutonic  or  Germanic  stock.  (See  Teutonic 
Race.)  It  is  divided  into  three  main  groups: 
East,  North,  and  West.  These  three  groups 
were  offshoots  of  a  common  stock  called  primi¬ 
tive  Teutonic  or  Germanic,  distinguished  from 
other  branches  of  the  Indo-Germanic  family  by 
the  phenomenon  of  “sound  shifting.” 

East  Germanic.  This  division  seems  to  be 
entitled  to  the  collective  name  Vandal.  The 
more  prominent  East  German  peoples  were  the 
Goths  (q.v.),  the  Vandals  (q.v.)  (in  the  nar¬ 
rower  sense),  and  the  Burgundians.  (See  Bltr- 
gundy.  )  Of  the  last-named  only  scanty  lin¬ 
guistic  remnants  have  survived,  which  are  dis¬ 
cussed  by  R.  Kogel,  in  Haupt’s  Zeitschrift  fur 
deutsches  Altertum,  vol.  xxxvii  (Berlin).  Of 
the  language  of  the  Vandals  likewise  little  re¬ 
mains.  The  remnants  of  their  dialect  are 
treated  by  Wrede,  Ueber  die  Sprache  der  Tan- 
dalen  (Strassburg,  1886).  The  most  important 
of  the  East  Germanic  peoples  were  the  Goths. 
(See  Gothic  Language.)  The  Gothic  language 
perished  with  their  empires,  except  that  a  last 
remnant  of  Goths  found  an  oasis  on  the  Ru¬ 
manian  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  where  the  dia¬ 
lect  became  extinct  in  the  ninth  century,  except 


TEUTONIC  LANGUAGES 


TEUTONIC  LANGUAGES 


for  the  Krim  or  Crimean  Gothic  which  con¬ 
tinued  to  exist  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century. 
Our  knowledge  of  Gothic  depends  almost  en¬ 
tirely  upon  the  language  of  the  Visigoths  in 
the  Roman  provinces  of- Mcesia  and  Dacia  (Bul¬ 
garia  and  Rumania),  as  written  down  by 
Ulfilas  (q.v.).  Here  the  Teutonic  dialects  as¬ 
sume  for  the  first  time  literary  form. 

North  Germanic.  The  four  dialects  of  this 
group,  Swedish,  Danish,  Norwegian,  and  Ice¬ 
landic,  show  but  slight  traces  of  dialectic  dif¬ 
ference  before  the  eleventh  century,  as  is  proved 
by  the  evidence  of  the  Norse  runes  (q.v.).  The 
Scandinavian  languages  after  the  eleventh  cen¬ 
tury,  however,  are  divided  into  East  and  West 
Scandinavian,  or  East  and  West  (or  Old)  Norse. 
The  eastern  division  consists  of  Swedish  (in¬ 
cluding  the  dialect  of  the  island  of  Gotland) 
and  Danish;  the  western  division  of  Norwegian 
and  Icelandic. 

West  Germanic.  Linguistically  West  Ger¬ 
manic  is  best  divided  into  Anglo-Saxon  or  Eng¬ 
lish,  Frisian,  Low  German  (Old  Saxon),  Fran¬ 
conian  (or  Frankish),  and  High  German. 

Anglo-Saxon  or  English. — There  were  three 
main  divisions  of  Anglo-Saxon,  the  Northern, 
Midland,  and  Southern,  or  also  known  as  North¬ 
umbrian,  Mercian,  and  Wessex  Anglo-Saxon  in 
the  narrower  sense.  Anglo-Saxon  records,  which 
begin  with  the  eighth  century,  belong  almost 
entirely  to  the  dialect  of  Wessex.  Modern  Eng¬ 
lish  is  properly  derived  from  the  dialect  of  the 
East  Midland  'or  East  Mercian  division,  but  as 
very  little  material  of  that  dialect  has  been 
preserved,  it  is  customary  to  connect  English 
words  with  the  dialect  of  Wessex.  Northum¬ 
brian  gave  rise  to  the  later  Scottish  dialect. 
English  proper  begins  about  1100  when  flexional 
terminations  show  signs  of  weakening.  This 
is  usually  called  the  Old  English  period  which 
ended  about  1350,  when  began  Middle  English 
ending  about  1460.  The  Modern  English  period, 
from  the  latter  date  on,  is  characterized  by  an 
almost  complete  loss  of  adjective  and  noun 
flexions  and  verb  flexions  in  respect  to  persons 
and  moods.  See  Anglo-Saxon  Language  and 
Literature;  English  Language. 

Frisian. — Frisian  is  still  spoken  in  Holland, 
but  in  general  Low  German  has  taken  its  place. 
Frisian  had  originally  three  dialects,  West 
Frisian  in  northern  Holland,  East  Frisian  be¬ 
tween  the  mouths  of  the  Ems  and  Weser,  and 
North  Frisian  northward  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Elbe.  Old  Frisian  and  the  Anglian  dialect  of 
Anglo-Saxon  are  closely  related  in  grammar  and 
vocabulary.  See  Frisian  Language  and  Lit¬ 
erature. 

Low  German  (Old  Saxon). — Low  German 
speech  differs  markedly  from  Anglo-Saxon.  The 
Old  Saxon  dialects  were  to  the  south  of  the 
Frisian  and  east  of  the  lower  and  middle  Frank¬ 
ish,  extending  over  an  area  roughly  correspond¬ 
ing  to  modern  Westphalia,  Hanover  to  Schles¬ 
wig-Holstein.  In  its  modern  continuation  Old 
Saxon  is  Plattdeutsch.  See  German  Language; 
Plattdeutsch. 

Franconian. — The  Franconian  or  Frankish 
dialects  of  the  present  day  in  Middle  Germany 
(Middle  or  Rhenish  Franconian,  and  South  or 
Upper  Franconian)  differ  but  little  from  High 
German.  (See  German  Language.)  The  North 
Franconian,  spoken  in  the  Netherlands  as  late 
as  the  sixteenth  century,  is  also  called  Old  Low 
Franconian.  It  is  continued  to  the  present  day 
in  the  Dutch  of  Holland,  and  in  the  Flemish  of 


Flanders  in  Belgium.  See  Dutch  Language; 
Flemish  Language  and  Literature. 

High  German. — For  the  character  of  High 
German  speech,  see  German  Language.  The 
principal  modern  dialects  of  High  German  are 
the  Alemannic,  spoken  in  Alsace,  the  south  of 
Baden,  and  parts  of  Switzerland;  the  Swabian 
of  Wiirttemberg  and  western  Bavaria,  and  the 
Bavarian  of  Bavaria,  parts  of  Tirol,  Salzburg, 
Austria  proper,  North  Styria,  North  Carinthia, 
and  other  districts  of  the  Austrian  Empire. 

General  Characteristics.  The  Teutonic  lan¬ 
guages  have  developed  striking  special  charac¬ 
teristics  which  differentiate  them  from  the  re¬ 
maining  languages  of  the  Indo-Germanic  family. 
These  concern  vocalism,  consonantism,  declen¬ 
sion,  and  conjugation.  As  regards  vocalization 
the  Teutonic  treatment  of  ablaut  (q.v.)  is  pe¬ 
culiar.  In  the  common  Indo-Germanic  period 
ablaut  was  a  purely  phonetic  phenomenon,  but 
in  the  Teutonic  languages,  owing  to  the  prevail¬ 
ing  loss  of  the  reduplication  (q.v.)  in  the  per¬ 
fect  of  the  verb,  and  the  reduction  or  loss  of 
endings,  ablaut  has  been  adapted  to  a  quasi- 
grammatical  property.  Thus  the  changes  of  the 
root  vowel  in  Greek  depKo/uicu,  Sedopic a,  edpaKov, 
are  identical  with  those  in  German  loerde,  ward, 
geworden,  but  in  Greek  the  vocalic  changes  are 
not  associated  consciously  with  the  changes  of 
tense.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  German  ward 
the  vowel  a  carries  the  preterite  sense  of  the 
verb.  The  prominence  of  the  ablaut  has  also 
contributed  to  analogical  spread,  and  a  consid¬ 
erable  degree  of  generalization  which  has  re¬ 
sulted  in  the  six  so-called  ablaut  series  com¬ 
prising  the  majority  of  the  so-called  strong 
verbs.  Some  of  the  types  of  these  series  in 
Gothic  stre:  beita,  bait,  bitum,  to  bite;  kiusa, 
leans,  kusum,  to  choose;  binda,  band,  bundum, 
to  bind.  The  phenomenon  known  as  umlaut 
( q.v. ) ,  i.e.,  the  assimilation  of  a  given  vowel 
to  the  vowel  of  a  neighboring  syllable,  although 
it  rests  upon  a  universal  phonetic  tendency,  is 
also  specially  prominent  in  all  periods  of  the 
history  of  Teutonic  speech. 

Very  characteristic  is  the  treatment  of  the 
Indo-Germanic  lingual  and  nasal  vowels  in  all 
Teutonic  languages,  as  u  +  lingual  or  nasal, 
giving  the  groups  ur,  ul,  um,  and  un ;  e.g.,  Indo- 
Germanic  *ulqos,  Skt.  vrka,  wolf,  appears  in 
Gothic  as  wulf ;  and  Indo-Germanic  *kmtom, 
Skt.  satam,  hundred,  appears  in  Gothic  as  liund. 

The  most  characteristic  of  all  Teutonic  phe¬ 
nomena  is  the  so-called  shift  or  rotation  of  con¬ 
sonants,  known  as  Grimm’s  law  ( q.v. ) .  A  group 
of  apparent  exceptions  to  Grimm’s  law  was  ex¬ 
plained  by  Karl  Verner.  See  Verner’s  Law. 

In  the  domain  of  noun  declension  the  most  im¬ 
portant  Teutonic  phenomenon  is  the  spread  of 
the  n  stems,  giving  rise  to  the  important  dis¬ 
tinction  between  the  weak  declension  (n  declen¬ 
sion)  and  the  strong  declension  (declensions 
without  n) .  Especially,  every  adjective  may  be 
inflected  according  to  the  weak  or  n  declension, 
being  then  used  as  the  so-called  definite  form  of 
the  adjective  in  connection  with  the  definite 
article,  in  distinction  from  the  indefinite  adjec¬ 
tive  with  the  indefinite  article.  The  starting 
point  for  this  is  prehistoric.  Already  in  Indo- 
Germanic  times  adjectives  were  substantivized 
by  transition  to  the  n  declension.  A  parallel  to 
tiie  double  adjective  is  ‘found  in  the  Balto-Slavic 
languages,  which  have  produced  a  definite  ad¬ 
jective  by  compounding  the  indefinite  with  the 
pronominal  stem  io-. 


TEUTONIC  ORDER 


TEXAS 


The  most  important  feature  of  the  Teutonic 
languages  in  the  field  of  conjugation  is  the  dis¬ 
tinction  between  strong  and  weak  verbs,  based  in 
the  main  upon  the  different  treatment  of  the 
perfect.  The  strong  verbs  were  originally  pri- 
mary;  they  employed  the  nonthematic,  and  very 
largely  reduplicated,  perfect  of  Indo-Germanie 
times;  as  Gothic  present  wairpa,  I  become,  per¬ 
fect  warp.  The  weak  verbs  were  mostly  secon¬ 
dary  or  denominative  present  stems,  which  sup¬ 
plied  their  perfect  by  a  periphrastic  form  made 
by  fusion  of  the  verb  stem  with  a  preterite  form 
of  the  root  dhe,  to  set,  as  Gothic  present  nasja, 
I  save,  perfect  nasida.  Especially  in  the  later 
periods  of  Teutonic  speech  the  historical  limits 
of  the  two  classes  are  effaced.  The  old  type  of 
preterite  presents,  which  are  presents  in  func¬ 
tion,  also  associate  with  themselves  the  weak 
perfect,  so  that  German  weiss,  know  (Gothic 
ivait,  Greek  olda) ,  forms  the  weak  perfect  wusste, 
knew. 

Bibliography.  Grimm,  Deutsche  Grammatik 
(new  ed.,  Berlin,  1870-97)  ;  Streitberg,  Urger- 
manisohe  Grammatik  (Heidelberg,  1896)  ;  Die¬ 
ter,  Laut-  und  Formenlehre  der  altgcrmanischen 
Dialekte  (Leipzig,  1900)  ;  Paul,  Grundriss  der 
germanischen  Philologie,  vols.  i-v  (3d  ed., 
Strassburg,  1911-13)  ;  Loewe,  Germanische 
Sprachwissenschaft  (Leipzig,  1905)  ;  Hoops, 
Reallexikon  der  germanischen  Altertumskunde 
(2  vols.,  Strassburg,  1911-15)  ;  Kluge,  Urger- 
manisch  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1913);  Kossinna,  Die 
deutsohe  Vorgeschichte  (2d  ed.,  Wurzburg, 
1914)  ;  Kluge,  Etymologisches  Wbrterbuch  der 
deutschcn  Spraohe  (8th  ed.,  Strassburg,  1915). 
See  also  the  articles  on  the  various  languages  of 
the  Teutonic  group  and  the  bibliographies  there 
given. 

TEUTONIC  ORDER.  See  Teutonic 
Knights. 

TEUTONIC  RACE.  The  name  popularly 
applied  to  a  division  of  the  European  peoples, 
comprising  nearly  the  whole  of  the  population  of 
the  German  Empire,  the  Scandinavian  countries, 
the  Netherlands,  Great  Britain,  and  Switzer¬ 
land;  a  large  proportion  of  the  people  in  the 
United  States,  Canada,  Newfoundland,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  and  Cape  Province;  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  inhabitants  of  Cisleithan  Austria; 
and  half  the  population  of  Belgium  ( Flemings ) . 
It  is  also  represented  by  large  numbers  in  Hun¬ 
gary  and  in  the  Baltic  provinces,  Finland,  and 
other  parts  of  Russia,  and  is  found  scattered 
over  the. whole  world.  See  Europe,  Peoples  of. 

TEUTSCHENBRUNN,  John  Heumann  von. 
See  Heumann  von  Teutschenbrunn. 

TEVERONE,  ta'va-ro'na.  See  Anio. 

TEWA,  tfiAva.  A  group  of  Tanoan-speaking 
pueblos  in  New  Mexico.  See  Tanoan  Stock. 

TEWFIK  (Mohammed)  PASHA,  tu'fik 
pa-sha'  (1852-92).  Khedive  of  Egypt  from 
1879  to  1892.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Ismail 
Pasha,  who  secured  from  the  Sultan  a  firman 
decreeing  the  khedival  succession  to  Tewfik  in¬ 
stead  of  his  brother  Halim.  In  February,  1879, 
when  the  ministry  of  Nubar  Pasha  was  dis¬ 
missed  (see  Egypt),  Prince  Tewfik  became  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Council,  but  he,  like  Nubar,  showed 
too  much  sympathy  with  Egypt’s  European  cred¬ 
itors  and  soon  retired.  On  June  26,  1879,  the 
Sultan  deposed  Ismail  and  Tewfik  became  Khe¬ 
dive,  at  a  time  when  Egypt  was  deeply  embar¬ 
rassed  financially  and  the  power  of  the  Khedive 
was  much  curtailed.  His  general  policy  was 
modern  and  European,  and  the  year  1880  wit¬ 


nessed  the  establishment  of  the  dual  control  of 
Egypt  by  England  and  France.  Tewfik  soon  had 
to  face  the  rebellion  of  the  Nationalists  under 
Arabi  Pasha  (q.v.),  and  Egypt  was  rescued  from 
anarchy  by  the  intervention  of  England,  which 
thereby  established  a  controlling  influence  in 
the  country.  Consult  F.  C.  Penfield,  Present 
Day  Egypt  (rev.  ed.,  New  York,  1903). 

TEWKESBURY,  tuks'ber-i.  A  town  and 
parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  in 
Gloucestershire,  England,  on  the  Avon,  10  miles 
northeast  of  Gloucester  (Map:  England,  D  5). 
The  parish  church,  an  ancient  and  noble  Norman 
edifice,  is  a  noteworthy  architectural  feature, 
and  is  all  that  remains  of  a  great  Benedictine 
abbey  founded  in  the  twelfth  century.  Tewkes¬ 
bury  is  famous  as  the  scene  of  the  battle  fought 
within  half  a  mile  of  it  on  May  4,  1471,  when 
the  Yorkists  under  Edward  IV  and  the  Duke 
of  Gloucester  inflicted  a  signal  defeat  on  the 
Lancastrians.  Pop.,  1901,  5419;  1911,  5260. 

Consult  Blunt,  History  of  Tewkesbury  (2d  ed., 
London,  1877),  and  Mass6,  Tewkesbury  Abbey 
Church  (ib.,  1900). 

TEWKS'BURY.  A  town  in  Middlesex  Co., 
Mass.,  5  miles  southeast  of  Lowell,  on  the  Bos¬ 
ton  and  Maine  Railroad  (Map:  Massachusetts, 
E  2).  It  contains  the  State  infirmary.  There 
are  extensive  horticultural  interests,  and  a 
chemical  factory.  Pop.,  1900,  3683;  1910,  3750; 
1915  (State  census),  5265. 

TEXARKANA,  teks'ar-kan'a.  The  name  of 
two  adjoining  cities  situated  on  each  side  of 
the  boundary  between  Arkansas  and  Texas, 
145  miles  southwest  of  Little  Rock;  on  the 
Texas  and  Pacific,  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Moun¬ 
tain  and  Southern,  the  Memphis,  Dallas,  and 
Gulf,  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern,  and  the  Kan¬ 
sas  City  Southern  railroads  (Map:  Texas,  E  3). 
One  of  the  municipalities  is  the  county  seat  of 
Miller  Co.,  Ark.,  and  the  other  is  in  Bowie 
Co.,  Tex.  They  form,  however,  practically  one 
industrial  community.  There  are  two  Federal 
courts,  a  county  court,  two  hospitals,  a  fine 
post-office  building,  two  city  halls,  and  St.  Agnes 
Academy,  besides  several  handsome  residences 
and  business  blocks.  Texarkana  has  consider¬ 
able  importance  in  commerce  and  manufactures. 
It  is  the  centre  of  large  timber  interests,  and 
ships  also  cotton,  cottonseed  oil,  and  hides. 
Foundries  and  machine  shops,  various  plants 
connected  with  the  cotton  industry,  large  creo- 
soted  timber  and  glass  plants,  railway  shops, 
cooperages,  lumber  mills,  and  furniture,  casket, 
candy,  screen,  sulphur,  mattress,  and  pottery 
factories  constitute  the  leading  industrial  es¬ 
tablishments.  Pop.,  Texarkana  in  Texas,  1900, 
5256;  1910,  9790;  1915,  12,181;  1920,  11,480; 
Texarkana  in  Arkansas,  1900,  4914;  1910,  5655. 

TEX'AS.  A  state  in  the  south-central  part 
of  the  United  States,  popularly  called  the  Lone 
Star  State.  It  is,  next  to  Florida,  the  southern¬ 
most  State  of  the  Union,  lying  between  latitudes 
25°  51'  and  36°  30'  N.,  and  between  longitudes 
93°  27'  and  106°  43'  W.  It  is  of  an  irregular 
triangular  shape  with  the  apex  pointing  south 
and  a  square  panhandle  extending  northward. 
Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is 
about  800  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about 
750  miles.  It  is  the  largest  State  in  the  Union, 
having  an  area  of  265,896  square  miles,  of 
which  3498  square  miles  constitute  water  sur¬ 
face.  Its  area  is  larger  than  the  combined 
area  of  the  Atlantic  States  from  Maine  to 
Virginia,  inclusive. 


TEXAS 


TEXAS 


138 


Topography.  In  general  the  land  rises  gradu¬ 
ally  towards  the  west  boundary  by  a  succession 
of  broad  and  more  or  less  terraced  slopes  run¬ 
ning  parallel  with  the  Gulf  coast.  Five  or  six 
well-marked  topographical  regions  may  be  dis¬ 
tinguished.  The  first  is  the  coastal  plain,  a 
continuation  of  the  same  formation  in  the  other 
Gulf  States.  It  rises  gradually  from  sea  level 
to  an  altitude  of  500  feet  about  150  miles  in¬ 
land,  and  is  very  level  in  its  lower  portion, 
becoming  somewhat  hilly  near  its  inner  border. 
The  coast  itself  is  lined  almost  throughout  its 
length  of  375  miles  by  lagoons  cut  of!  from 
the  sea  by  long,  narrow  sand  islands.  The 
northern  lagoons  generally  extend  some  distance 
inland  in  large,  irregular  bays  and  estuaries, 
lined  partly  by  low  marshy  shores,  partly  by 
high  bluffs.  The  principal  bays  are  those  of 
Galveston,  Matagorda,  San  Antonio,  and  Corpus 
Christi.  The  western  part  of  the  coastal  plain 
is  a  belt  of  rolling  country  known  as  the  Black 
Prairie,  about  100  miles  wide  in  the  north  and 
south,  but  very  narrow  in  its  middle  portion. 
It  is  succeeded  on  the  northwest  by  a  very 
broad  belt  of  country  called  by  geologists  the 
central  denuded  region.  This  rises  from  a 
height  of  600  feet  in  the  east  to  over  2000 
feet  in  the  west,  being  bounded  by  the  escarp¬ 
ment  of  the  Llano  Estacado,  and  is  a  rugged 
and  much  eroded,  though  not  mountainous,  re¬ 
gion,  with  ridges,  prairie  valleys,  isolated  table¬ 
lands,  and  irregular  depressions.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  west  and  southwest  by  the  Plateau  Re¬ 
gion,  a  southern  continuation  of  the  Great 
Plains.  South  of  the  Panhandle  this  forms  a 
large,  flat-topped  table-land,  the  Llano  Estacado, 
which  from  an  altitude  of  4000  feet  falls  on 
the  east  into  the  Denuded  Region  in  a  high, 
steep,  and  ragged  escarpment  cut  back  by 
several  large  river  valleys.  On  the  southeast  it 
runs  out  into  a  lower  plateau  of  different  forma¬ 
tions  known  as  the  Grand  Prairie.  This  sweeps 
around  the  southern  end  of  the  Denuded  Region, 
and  geologically,  and  according  to  some  also 
'topographically,  it  runs  northward  between  the 
latter  and  the  Black  Prairie,  though  it  is  here 
much  lower  than  in  the  south.  It  extends  south¬ 
ward  to  the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  and  is  bounded 
on  the  southeast  by  an  escarpment.  The  last 
topographical  region  is  the  portion  of  the 
State  lying  beyond  the  Pecos  River  in  the  south¬ 
west.  This  is  a  mountainous  country  with  a 
number  of  high,  isolated,  and  barren  ridges  alter¬ 
nating  with  broad  and  arid  plains.  The  highest 
point  is  Guadalupe  Peak,  with  an  altitude  of 
over  9000  feet. 

Hydro graphy.  Practically  all  the  rivers  of 
Texas  flow  southeastward.  With  the  exception 
of  the  Canadian  River  in  the  north  and  the 
Rio  Grande  with  the  Pecos  in  the  south,  which 
rise  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  all  the  larger 
rivers  rise  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Great 
Plains,  the  Llano  Estacado,  and  the  Grand 
Prairie.  The  extreme  northern  part  of  the 
State  belongs  to  the  Mississippi  basin.  The 
Canadian  River  crosses  the  Panhandle  to  join 
the  Arkansas,  while  the  Red  River  rises  on  the 
escarpment  of  the  Llano  Estacado  and  forms  for 
a  long  distance  part  of  the  northern  State 
boundary.  The  independent  rivers  flow  directly 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  all,  except  the  Brazos 
and  Rio  Grande,  empty  through  estuaries 
into  the  coast  lagoon.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Sabine,  on  the  Louisiana  boundary,  the 
Neches,  Trinity,  Brazos,  Colorado,  Guadalupe, 


San  Antonio,  Nueces,  and  the  Rio  Grande. 
Most  of  these  rivers  flow  through  deep  canons 
immediately  after  leaving  the  Great  Plains. 
Several  of  them  are  navigable  for  considerable 
distances  at  high  water,  but  their  mouths  are 
generally  obstructed  by  bars. 

Soil.  '  The  alluvial'  bottom  lands  along  the 
lower  river  courses  are  the  most  fertile  portions 
of  the  State.  Next  to  these  ranks  the  Black 
Prairie  belt,  which  is  covered  with  a  remark¬ 
ably  fertile  marl  formed  by  the  mixture  of 
clay  with  the  disintegrated  Cretaceous  lime¬ 
stone.  The  soil  of  the  coastal  plain  is  generally 
sandy ;  in  some  places  the  sand  is  mixed  with 
clay  to  form  a  black  loam.  In  the  northwest 
there  are  heavy  deposits  of  red  clay  containing 
much  potash,  but  little  nitrogenous  matter. 
The  soil  on  the  southern  plateau  is  thin,  but 
the  Llano  Estacado  is  covered  with  a  red  sandy 
loam  which  would  be  rendered  fertile  by  irriga¬ 
tion. 

Climate.  As  Texas  reaches  to  within  two  and 
a  half  degrees  of  the  tropical  zone,  it  naturally 
has  a  warm  climate,  but  the  great  range  in 
latitude,  and  to  some  extent  in  altitude,  pro¬ 
duces  also  a  considerable  range  in  climatic  con¬ 
ditions.  Although  warm,  the  climate  is  drier 
and  less  enervating  than  that  of  the  other 
Gulf  States.  The  mean  temperature  in  July 
at  Galveston  on  the  coast  is  83.7°  F.,  at  El  Paso 
in  the  extreme  west  81.9°  F.,  and  at  Amarillo 
in  the  northwest  76°  F.  The  corresponding 
figures  for  January  are  52.7°  F.  at  Galveston, 
44.5°  F.  at  El  Paso,  and  31.9°  F.  at  Amarillo. 
On  the  coast  the  temperature  seldom  falls  below 
the  freezing  point,  while  in  the  northwest  it 
may  fall  several  degrees  below  zero.  In  the 
western  uplands,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tem¬ 
perature  rises  above  100°  F.,  while  on  the 
coast  the  maximum  is  between  90°  F.  and  95°  F. 
In  winter  the  State  is  subject  to  severe  north 
winds,  known  as  northers,  which  often  lower  the 
temperature  50  degrees  in  a  few  hours.  In  the 
eastern  section  the  southeast  winds  from  the 
Gulf  are  prevalent  and  bring  abundant  rain  to 
that  part  of  the  State.  lire  rainfall  decreases 
rapidly  westward,  so  that  in  the  western  part  it 
is  insufficient  for  agriculture  without  irrigation. 
In  the  eastern  portion,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Sabine  River,  the  rainfall  is  sometimes  over 
60  inches,  while  in  the  extreme  south,  even 
near  the  coast,  it  is  sometimes  only  5  inches 
in  a  year.  The  normal  annual  average,  at  Gal¬ 
veston  is  49  inches,  at  Corpus  Christi  30,  at 
Austin  34,  at  Abilene,  nearly  in  the  centre  of 
the  State,  25,  at  Amarillo,  in  the  Panhandle,  22, 
and  at  El  Paso  9  inches. 

Vegetation.  The  principal  forest  area  of 
Texas  is  in  the  extreme  eastern  portion.  The 
coast  is  bordered  by  marshes  and  prairies  ex¬ 
tending  30  or  40  miles  inland.  North  of  the 
prairies  in  the  eastern  quarter  pines  prevail, 
long-leaf  pine  in  the  lower  and  short-leaf  in 
the  higher  pine  barrens.  Westward  towards  the 
centre'  of  the  State  the  deciduous  species  pre¬ 
dominate — oaks,  elm,  maple,  hickory,  mulberry, 
sweet  gum,  ash,  and  walnut.  The  Osage  orange 
is  common  in  the  black  prairie  region,  and  the 
dwarf  palmetto  in  the  eastern  part  lends  a 
tropical  aspect  to  the  vegetation.  In  the  river 
bottoms  the  characteristic  species  are  cotton¬ 
wood,  pecan,  various  oaks,  sweet  gums,  syca¬ 
more,  ash,  and  cypress.  Along  1  ;  -stern  border 
of  the  Black  Prairie  two  el  belts  of 

hardwood  forest,  chiefly  oak  i  known  as 


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Panhandin^ 

j  GRA 

pPgTaalP^-jAlanrecd 

Cliudev^UdHPNF, 

■RJISTRONGi  m  '_ 

Cla^cdon  0 

Tj  Giles0*!  "WeHtngton^|^_BeeAl  ° 

"l  gJJ^erTy  '  \  "[  Mempjiie  *\  *~j  \  ^fl**tf***M 

fl’.KiM  (uT'^uTl.  I,  j  »jySb 

I  Childress' \ 


Henryetta 

Wekftka1 


ytecosa 

R  (4  ai  \ 


Weatherford  Bridi 


■yukom 


iriartoyn. 


Eufaula, 


^^bterpri 


•  Washburn0 

A.M>t  r.i.  • 


a  0  Erick 
oErnma— 


rpaier 


^inbop  /roteau, 


aKonaifa 


^~IIereford 


\roo^J^‘ 


Center^  *  ^ 

ley  o  /Ada 
Midland  /_VN. 

/  ^Rofrc 

lewdod  0|i\cVQTy  ' 

iM*"'  °\oh 

OMillcdcek 

^^SfilVUle 

Oakland0  0^l4.dMl 


^Summertield 
Dimmitt  — L 
l  A  SJLILoi 


I  Ha^y 

t"S3Vi$!IEIt 


F4.SJ11 


Elmore 


CdaijSr^t^; 


'indiabonil 


Oluste^- 


Tulii 

Kress  ( 


itague  o  vL°  Turkey 


'Kosoma 


riuf 


Comanche 


9  Chattanooga 

C0ma5ch)e^ 

J^Burburnctt, 

:\r^lLW+CimTA 

I  dun  Pfti»!r  n  '  - 


Ayiut\ 

frNeyra 

U  LI«  Y 


Guanah  ^iTTicspth) 

^aKDEMiVNt  ^>sl 


^>'^te?0kDeJ'^^rthMd^ — i 
flE  1 VK  EJojdaa^aol’LEY  ! 


Hocnatow; 


;Corintfe  V> 


Hjrowell— /- 


Paducah 


>  *Petrolia 
1  Hearjetta^ 


1  lalador^t 

*■•  ,.  c  Afto"n~ j 

%  DICKENS  | 

U  fi)  \  | 

V<,  oBi^kena^f' 

X'S.  E.^pucJa  * 
i  -w  Vn.  <  -r 

o  uzz  a  nd  Mt, 

F^r  >  rSv°'^ 

Cla i remont'F.  *  •  ' 

— nL  (^)  XLpion  \  AB-Rcrmbr 

MKK  T  ' 

1  A^^^SatriFtou 


iterrett 


L-  QuemaUa 


AA/'^f^Ar^lruri.CyiFaV 

/ !  /lamAr 

“I  /Jo  .HuMana 
^7ann)n  V  .0- 

LadopiajO^I  ^ 

-  ®  Cooper  KT 

iCsAAe^  0*JS^r 

X  5]  liOPKJ^fe 

r  O^M'^Vseldllo^ 

9  Sulphur  Spr>,. 

Ion  .Lone  Ouk  | 

•  1  r  -  r 

1  \f  RAi.MS  .W inneboro 
0-^*\  Quitman 
,  1  j  NEmory  ® 

!  SFTrsJlCvXoo 


-Dumont 

Guthrie 


I  E6tacado  j 
1  Rails  0  (5j“- ' 
Crosbjton 

CRUSIIY 


.1  VH I,.  ,  t  /u,  l/Ginh(Ml/ 

/r°  C  O  oSe  eeSe  %  *  \%n. 

e!  t,1,0  Bon li am; 

elGamesvilie  oRA/tios 

,ni  ()  5  I  T"!"',® 

_j  V  j)  \  an  AlBtTneA 


COCIIUAN 


ARCHER 

Z 


HOCKLEY 


Benjapjn 


1  LubbockV 
j  Slide  ^ 
f  °c>>aton 


;rove 


"X  ^e*rj 

Pjroepect  0 


’c/CmV Spring  C'®tfeVfcey  -F"l{lJ--VQu1 

iTlX  THRocK>r^\  V  J!6tal?oro  \ 

„  J^VililRToN  Newcaetle  jQrai.aml  Irtr 

\  °WoJd8un>\dX! 

fvan  j~X  *  Y1 


Wolfe  Oy. 


Decatur 


Cel<5> 

armer 


oTr,± 


Paradlei 


Rot  an 


jDr5u2°V'W*o  _ 
.EcnjRDL.STEPHlf.N9  j 

0  (  Pal° 
./  i  Breckcnridge'r/ 
/\Wajland0\  6f 
Mo/anMln«sight0}.Str*r5«' 
‘S  ./f~;FMt]gpd  t; 

'  y'V  :  CaUaUAN  !„  EAitTLAkD  ' 

,  <  o^  .° f)url \f>v  1  Carbon  o  -d>esd<*ru 

! ,  a! 

W^cOvalo  CuUwawpod  v. 

T/Ue^%  Vjeing.StaSo,^j6o4^ti'\ 

A°j0V,o\*^  b.  -  tCArrsA 


•Mineral 


Anson  0 
@  Lued< 

ip.\ES/ 


1  (Borainc. 

Colorado  jj  o 

'j  VVeati|rook-^" 

MliCtrEJ.L 


^Ru«o-oe&w. 

f  N  0  L  A 


MART 


‘Overton 


Big  Spring- 


I  Decker 


Stanton 


■J  Hendersoni  PAN 
Minden° 


ilillsbo 

S- _ l_4__BtAK»-N  vi.4  RUO=S^— 

\  A  filLE  &Kk _ yngus_d^— V: 

^'JW\rAbb0rt\7^  TKS~ 

<<^^!7r^-?r--h“FTrTi: 

'FrosaoAMexJa'  Tetfgue 
.LlMEStt'NE  \  }0« 

f  Gcoopi^cE.. 

,g°r  Br/ceyhlb  4Birry  \riThornto.nw  J 

-'i9  VmrUn  a 

MqoayV  f  aN  iv$  tt7 

1  ABstcf  v\  fifwyvx? I- 

CaTe'iiipke  W'f  Bremoni3  /  i 

Cj  No1 

cxKogerF’  ^\\  **  PrankUn 

1  9  F ' '  C  a  m  o  ro  v  e-^t*  ( 

j  Hearne -|||  -  " 

0  Bartlet r*M-I/L  A  M  r  \A 

rtfeluom—  ^ 

f.  Tan«lrU'd'Ca,^'nC 

**lIor,  V'  ?  VcrSW 


Walnut^Sprs.  > 
;ander  /  "  ->/  \ 

•>  ^Morgan— 
MeridiaFiW^ 
o  \  BOSQUE 
Fairy.  ogn 

a?iiT°srv^n>3. 

A--'  Mhjs-. 


gC»g«n':bf\. 

jhv  v  \  "''au"in®. 
AI5  r.OiW  11  Wootj 
)«wij  j  i;uiii/\  Fiji 


’ena] 


\  \  OJaUsouviile 
V-fC  H  E  Rtylr/^?-0?0-  - 1 
ANDES2<^l2B  ^KuU  '-[CuBhing  /  ' 

WfeUnKAi,o\^\  N‘,cTei 

/M  Cl  kifakC— - Cp^rj  e  t  V\N  AC</l[XJC 

GrapjJ&nd  \  n  0 

s  ?  Poiicika  -./hK. 

7  \  IIQUSTOjr\i\jfktn^/^^-< 

Crqbkett 


^OardeEs  St.ri/n  f 
|C,,y®\zaov!  Or.  CJ*f  ' 
IglasscDcjC^SL  ? 

l  .STERyiNQ^ 

I_  0  ■£cjl*  r-/|S^tz'«r  Sv 

1  ~~~  •  ZfiiZ  1 

;aov!®w0  • - J 


•!  o§ilv!feFV, 
iCbleman 


Mont  alba 


Doufc 


311 LAND 

3Jidkiif  o 


a  1  -  a  n  s 

,  Waich; 

o  Graml^Ws 


lOLE.MAN 
)  frickhjlm1 


in  NVc 
iguBtineCaa 
HempHUl 
lire  on  0  /(J 

'n  sabineS 

<1 1  rookeland  / 

id'f  "Delmtj 

]  Burkeville 


In  ^^toniaql 

rigtotrS^JW^  <n 

,il  i  ANGe  lvn  f 

Scjfcimp'Oria  X,avalm> 

ieetrrNi 


CRANE  ;  r 

tural  I  Veil) 
\  Horse  It  ea  d. 


/  areroAjry 

Crotber^w 


Kennard' 

CentraliacT' 

x'oPennil 

^TRINITOC 


Cron#  in 


jjr  Uciton 

o-v  -.-  Hotlan 
x/CornhTD^ 

;rtram-^ 


tanN  8AB^^'Sp»6l 

Chappert-^.--' 

-^Charoia 
o^Falley  Spring  T\im 


nan  gee 


roveton' 


Hem  brie 


/  Ad  am  8 


Eldorad, 


ba^ka  P0|(K 

^  Lrvlpgston 
ir6rk«.  ^'Lauio^t  * 


t^WoodVjlle 

\viV,ir\ 

6  WarreivV 
P  Hyatt  ^4 


4ntBville^0c 

',  WALKER 
r  New  Way 


Ozona 


* BRAZOy 

B\e«  .Sta/i 
M'\k*tj.n_ 


GRIipSs 

Y  /C  Ancfirson  V  VSS&J*  *' 

^uVa  vnso  t  a  \ 

A  c  Courtney  \ 

mJ-\ - FV.  MO^ITOijhlERY 

^H^Jnpstea,i^Hufasu  E\ 


O^wenville 


Jtmctioi 


F5  Ray> 
^Glevelaml 
LIBERTY 

v .  .  \Bttf 
^Liberty 


Manor' 


A  J  0  I  L  L  E  : 
S  E_r » l lejJcktjburg 

.  !&>  ckenbach 

u  vF  r 


ewi  HARm5r 
FvK41  Siarat  i 


^ay  mo;id\  °n  ^ 
oV-J’  a  b  e  V 


Sanderson- 


leh  nsoh 


gton 


Gi  Jdi  ngs '  Z^-s&r 
Bastrop  w  ,..Kre» 


BLANCO  /  r'. 

Dr i  ppin^^rs. Jy  USTI^ 
BUdto^FnH  ^  C  ^uda- 


rjf  Cortelyou 
Rockspringa  0 


Rosenfeld  vEjdridgeff  o 


raywoo.l  c>\0 


BASUJIj 


iSUockle; 


iPort  Arthur 
YSaoine  L ■ 

Whined"! 


J  Center  Pqib't 

j  B  A  a\  I)  E  R  A^'Boerne, 
j-o  x  °i)irvx  ^ 

A  anderjod  \  Bandera  f 


b\V:]  Sunny  Side  Houston  Heights 
y >  Euiek* V  ^ 

a^b  Rosenberg  o  ^\V  6^  " 

bews  St.  F0'RT 

VbaHoPS  BEN 

^Febier^-v^^-f  (  Sandy^PoInt 
'0-\  I  B  K)\J/  0  K  I  \iVT 

0  Angleton,, 


•  lienzei 


Meridi  n 
tarksdale^ 


i 


CH  ANIRErtS  Stoweli  SibineAV-' 


1a;  a  k  ey 


[  '  -  '  1  -i^nuo  , 


'Cbatfield 


Lytle^-. 


Somerset'*-  ' 


rhdf y/A  £\  CamU 
T  ^NLouise^\q 
v'.\Iarkh'am 
Edna  BlessingJ  & 

ieiv 

'*K  /  Palkglos 


Jimenez  o 


/i  Moon  Ft 

!  .1  .(^  Tobeyo 

r  x/JouVdantt 
CrawfXrd'  V  A 
,-<y.  \i/\ 


yPleasanfon 


\nuaui5G 

'Bay  ^ 

OKDA 

1  Walls  worib^ 

^Ah^tagorda 

'Matagorda 

PEWINoULA 


^Velasco 
1*  rtk  port 


X^KarneVcyr 

CCnpA  VKene 


Remolino  0 


mos- 


ncan 


G  GTIA  D 
^.Berclair 


ulela 


— .  ^S.  J  Cro^the 

!  /l^.vXiTilden  q- 

I  L\V  S  ALLE  •  MC ML’LLE 


*ort  uhracx'fy 
-i  CALHOt^k.  / 


Zaragoza  0 


Carrizo  S] 


•akvill) 


G  uerrt  ro 


V  ,0  Greta 


"^^keeka, 


Byx 

X'MATAGORDA 

ISLANO 


ireDa 


'jFBhaeffeP 


fOO  VTo^ST. JOSEPH  |. 

^X^7l\Yuu3a3  Pass 
Portland?  Aransas  Pass 
Corpuy  Christi  Bay 

-Arnus  Christi 


flirni. 

j\Bur).si*Erji; 

^V-t.t.  Hancock  bv.uoa 


Joritus  Chi 

//a  (JMUST/KHG 


\  D  IKT  A  L/  ;  ^  I  , ' 

!  W; 

•  v.  Sweden©  — s- 

BfunXlIe^^NjitQB  I  Cvapo- 

10a  1  ,  -4  i  .  I  K 

I  ^<H®f>bronnlle  prc{uon 


Corpus  Christi  Pass 


Brennans 


Kingsvih 


Presido 

Viejo 


Camaron 


Sarit  a 


Fal(urriaa?X?— i-j- 

[BROOKSi 

i°Sanisidro  ‘ 
_  J  .  ol 

jr  1  Sanramon  l 


10 ,  ^uvl-^ej 

JEFF  irv\. 
Wend^t.  / 
^Walentf^re  — 0 


;  j  1 31 

1  °  Raniado 


PECOS 


Norias 


Carrizo  o 


3Iarfa 


iBahO 


Yturria  \  ^  ' 
•  Raytnondvule 

HILLACYV  % 

Xl.yford  y 

(lc\cedc^  ! 

°ComV*ca  S 
rrrAllaylingen  c 

pCAj^HON 

\$au  Lei.it- 


y**^  S.Antoniuj  ^ 

o  Rujdo«a\° 
Oja  Berrendo  \l 
o  1 
Ranch' 


ithon 

r4?V3(jq 


Reynoea  Viejo 


SCALE  or  STATUTE  MILES 


Isabel  or 
P'|:nt  Isabel 


Ojinaga) 


oBi^TT^nd 


Los^  XXi 

ownsvtii^ 

Matamoros 


o  Santa' Rosa 
Caracol  d  ^ 


Bravo 


County  Towns  ® 


Railroads 


ENGR’G  C 


Greenwich 


TEXAS 


139 


TEXAS 


the  Cross  Timbers,  extend  southward  as  far 
as  the  Brazos  River.  To  the  south  and  west 
of  these  the  State  is  practically  treeless  except 
along  rivers.  There  are  scattered  areas  of 
scrub  and  chaparral  composed  largely  of  mes- 
quite,  the  most  characteristic  tree  or  shrub  of 
western  Texas.  Still  farther  west  even  the 
prairie  grasses  give  place  to  or  grow  in  the 
midst  of  a  desert  flora  in  which  the  yuccas  and 
cacti  predominate. 

Geology  and  Minerals.  The  oldest  rocks 
come  to  the  surface  in  the  central  denuded 
region.  In  the  southern  part  of  this  region, 
west  of  Austin,  there  is  a  small  area  of  Archean 
rock  surrounded  by  a  narrow  outcrop  of  Cam¬ 
brian  and  Silurian  strata.  To  the  north  of 
this  there  is  a  considerable  area  of  Carboniferous 
formation,  followed  on  the  northwest,  along  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Llano  Estacado,  by  a  still 
larger  region  of  Permian  rocks.  Another  large 
area  of  Paleozoic  and  early  Mesozoic  rocks  is 
found  in  the  Trans-Pecos  region,  where  the  pre¬ 
dominant  formation  is  Triassic,  as  in  the  Pan¬ 
handle,  and  of  Ordovician,  Carboniferous,  and 
Permian,  as  in  the  Marathon  Plains  and  in  the 
Glass  Mountains.  In  the  westernmost  moun¬ 
tainous  part  of  the  State  there  is  much  Tertiary 
igneous  rock.  The  Llano  Estacado,  like  the  Great 
Plains  to  the  north,  is  of  comparatively  recent 
formation,  consisting  of  lacustrine  Tertiary  and 
Pleistocene  deposits.  The  southern  plateau  or 
Grand  Prairie  region  is  older,  being  of  Lower 
Cretaceous  formation,  and  this  formation  also 
skirts  the  central  Paleozoic  area  on  the  east. 
It  is  succeeded  on  the  east  by  a  band  of  Upper 
Cretaceous  strata  constituting  the  Black  Prairie 
belt.  Beyond  this  the  coastal  plain  is  com¬ 
posed  to  a  large  extent  of  marine  Tertiary  de¬ 
posits.  Workablte  beds  of  bituminous  coal  oc¬ 
cur  in  the  central  portion  of  the  State,  and 
large  deposits  of  lignite  are  stretched  along 
the  western  border  of  the  coastal  plain.  In 
the  eastern  part  of  the  State,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Sabine,  petroleum  deposits  of  great  ex¬ 
tent  have  been  found  at  a  depth  of  from  600 
to  4000  feet.  Other  oil  fields  have  been  de¬ 
veloped  in  Wichita,  Clay,  Palo  Pinto,  Shackle¬ 
ford,  Navarro,  and  Williamson  counties.  Gas 
has  been  discovered  in  San  Patricio  County. 
Iron  and  copper  ores,  as  well  as  lead  and  tin, 
occur  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  central 
region,  and  silver  is  found  in  the  west.  The 
Trans-Pecos  region,  still  but  partly  explored, 
probably  contains  varied  mineral  deposits,  the 
most  important  being  the  cinnabar  ores  found 
in  the  Cretaceous  limestone  in  the  south.  The 
most  important  of  the  remaining  minerals  are 
the  immense  beds  of  gypsum  found  in  the  Per¬ 
mian  strata  of  the  northwestern  Red  Lands. 

Mineral  Resources.  In  191^  Texas  ranked 
eighteenth  among  the  States  in  value  of  mineral 
products,  the  value  of  the  total  production 
in  that  year  being  $30,363,426.  Petroleum  is 
the  most  important  product  and  the  State  was 
fourth  in  quantity  and  seventh  in  value  of  oil 
marketed  in  1914,  the  production  amounting  to 
20,068,184  barrels  valued  at  $14,942,848.  Fully 
half  of  the  oil  produced  comes  from  the  Electra 
field  in  the  north.  Coal  is  second  in  importance, 
Texas  being  unique  among  the  States  in  produc¬ 
ing  considerable  quantities  of  both  bituminous 
coal  and  lignite.  It  is  believed  that  about  55,- 
000  square  miles  are  underlain  with  lignite, 
while  the  known  bituminous  areas  measure 
about  8200  square  miles.  In  1914  there  were 
Vol.  XXII.— 10  . 


produced  2,323,773  tons  valued  at  $3,922,459. 
Clay  products,  consisting  of  common  brick, 
sewer  pipe,  vitrified  brick,  pottery,  and  front 
brick,  hold  a  prominent  position  in  the  State’s 
mineral  resources.  The  production  in  1914  was 
valued  at  $2,280,987.  In  1914  there  were  pro¬ 
duced  2,096,140  barrels  of  cement  valued  at 
$2,686,653.  Texas  is  one  of  the  leading  States 
in  the  production  of  quicksilver,  upward  of  112,- 
500  pounds  being  produced  annually.  In  the 
production  of  asphalt  Texas  ranks  first.  This 
is  chiefly  residue  obtained  from  the  heavy 
asphaltic  oils,  though  natural  asphalt  is  found 
in  considerable  quantities.  The  manufactured 
asphalt  produced  in  1914  amounted  to  57,934 
tons  valued  at  $608,132.  Other  minerals  pro¬ 
duced  are  gypsum,  salt,  stone,  lead,  lime,  silver, 
sulphur,  and  zinc. 

Agriculture.  Texas  has  an  approximate  land 
area  of  167,934,720  acres,  of  which  112,434,067 
acres  were  in  farms  in  1910.  The  improved  land 
in  farms  was  27,360,666  acres  and  the  number 
of  farms  417,770,  averaging  269.1  acres.  The 
total  value  of  farm  property,  including  land, 
buildings,  implements  and  machinery,  domestic 
animals,  poultry,  and  bees,  was  $2,218,645,164. 
The  average  value  of  land  per  acre  was  $14.53. 
Of  the  total  number  of  farmers  in  1910,  198,195 
were  owners  and  managers  operating  87,155,- 
963  acres,  and  219,575  were  tenants  operating 
25,279,104  acres.  The  native-white  farmers 
numbered  318,988,  the  foreign-born  whites  28,- 
864,  and  the  non  white  69,918.  The  tenants 
among  the  whites  numbered  170,970  and  among 
the  nonwhite  farmers  48,605,  operating  22,956,- 
867  acres  and  2,322,237  acres  respectively.  Of 
the  foreign-born  whites,  10,815  came  from  Ger¬ 
many,  5236  from  Austria,  and  1026  from  Sweden. 

The  following  table  shows  the  acreage,  produc¬ 
tion,  and  value  of  some  of  the  principal  crops 
as  estimated  for  1915  by  the  United  States  De¬ 
partment  of  Agriculture. 


CROPS 

Acreage 

Production 
in  bushels 

Value 

Corn . 

7,450,000 

175,075,000 

$101,544,000 

Wheat . 

1,475,000 

22,862,000 

24,462,000 

Oats . 

1,250,000 

44,375,000 

18,638,000 

Potatoes . 

42,000 

2,730,000 

2,866,000 

Sweet  potatoes .  . 

60,000 

5,880,000 

4,116,000 

Hay . 

450,000 

*765,000 

6,044,000 

Cotton . 

10,200,000 

f3,175,000 

168,812,000 

Rice . 

260,000 

7,930,000 

7,058,000 

*  Tons.  t  Bales. 


In  1909  Texas  ranked  third  among  the  States 
in  the  total  value  of  all  crops.  This  amounted 
to  $298,133,466  and  the  acreage  of  all  crops 
reporting  such  was  18,389,092.  In  that  year  the 
leading  crops  in  order  of  importance  were  corn, 
cotton,  cottonseed,  hay  and  forage,  rice,  kafir 
corn  and  milo  maize,  oats,  wheat,  and  sweet 
potatoes  and  yams.  Texas  is  the  leading  State 
in  the  production  of  cotton.  The  principal  pro¬ 
ducing  counties  form  a  group  in  the  eastern 
part  extending  from  the  Red  River  to  the 
southern  boundaries,  but  concentrated  particu¬ 
larly  in  the  Calcareous  prairies.  Ellis,  Hill, 
McLennan,  Williamson,  and  Navarro  counties 
are  the  leading  producers.  In  1909  tlje  total 
acreage  under  cotton  was  9,930,179  and  the  pro¬ 
duction  2,455,174  bales,  valued  at  $162,735,041. 
Corn  had  an  acreage  of  5,130,052  and  a  produc¬ 
tion  of  75,498,695  bushels,  valued  at  $50,564,- 
618.  The  acres  of  hay  and  forage  harvested  in 


TEXAS 


140 


TEXAS 


1909  amounted  to  1,311,967,  the  crop  amounting 
to  1,257,845  tons,  valued  at  $12,824,433.  In 
the  production  of  rice  Texas  ranks  second  and, 
in  1909,  237,586  acres  were  devoted  to  it.  The 
production  was  8,991,745  bushels,  valued  at 
$6,106,323.  Kafir  com  and  milo  maize  had  an 
acreage  of  573,384  and  a  production  of  5,860,- 
444  bushels,  valued  at  $3,785,463.  To  oats 
were  given  440,001  acres,  and  the  production 
amounted  to  7,034,617  bushels,  valued  at  $50,- 
564,618.  The  area  devoted  to  wheat  was  326,176 
acres;  the  production  was  2,560,891  bushels, 
valued  at  $2,891,061.  The  acreage  under  sweet 
potatoes  and  yams  was  42,010,  and  the  pro¬ 
duction  2,730,083  bushels,  valued  at  $2,197,799. 
Irish  potatoes  had  an  acreage  of  36,092  and  a 
production  of  2,235,983  bushels,  valued  at  $1,- 
825,150.  Vegetables  other  than  potatoes  and 
yams  had  an  acreage  of  124,690  and  a  produc¬ 
tion  valued  at  $8,099,306.  Of  the  small  fruits 
strawberries  were  most  important  in  value  in 
1909.  The  area  devoted  to  small  fruits  in  1909 
was  5053  acres,  producing  6,182,742  quarts, 
valued  at  $480,331.  The  most  important  or¬ 
chard  fruits  were  peaches,  apples,  pears,  and 
plums.  The  value  of  the  total  production 
of  orchard  fruits  was  $1,060,998.  Texas  is 
noted  for  its  production  of  pecan  nuts,  which 
in  1909  amounted  to  5,832,367  pounds,  valued 
at  $556,203.  Of  the  tropical  fruits  raised,  figs 
are  the  most  important;  the  production  in  1909 
was  2,411,876  pounds,  valued  at  $97,078.  The 
total  value  of  the  sugar-cane  products  in  1909 
was  $1,669,683,  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
which  was  from  sorghum  cane.  The  sirup  made 
amounted  to  2,246,774  gallons,  valued  at  $1,- 
106,733. 

Live  Stock  and  Dairy  Products.  Texas  is 
the  leading  grazing  State  and  ranching  is  still 
one  of  its  greatest  interests.  In  1915  it  was 
far  ahead  of  any  other  State  in  the  number  of 
neat  cattle  and  of  mules;  in  1909  ranking  sec¬ 
ond  in  the  total  value,  $313,164,540,  of  the 
domestic  animals  on  farms.  The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  estimated  that  on 
Jan.  1,  1916,  there  were  1,180,000  horses  valued 
at  $92,040,000,  768,000  mules  valued  at  $76,- 
800,000,  1,119,000  milch  cows  valued  at  $57,- 
069,000,  5,428,000  other  cattle  valued  at  $179,- 
667,000,  2,156,000  sheep  valued  at  $7,977,000, 
and  3,197,000  swine  valued  at  $24,617,000.  The 
amount  of  wool  produced  in  1915  was  9,280,- 
000  pounds.  In  1909  the  amount  of  milk  pro¬ 
duced  was  reported  as  197,039,954  gallons,  but¬ 
ter  made,  64,993,214  pounds,  and  cheese  made, 
194,990  pounds.  The  total  value  of  milk,  cream, 
and  butter  fat  sold  and  butter  and  cheese 
made  in  1909  was  $15,679,924.  The  number  of 
fowls  on  farms  was  reported  as  13,669,645,  and 
the  eggs  produced  as  62,479,894  dozens,  valued 
at  $9,586,114. 

Irrigation.  The  normal  rainfall  varies  from 
over  50  inches  in  the  east  to  less  than  10  in  the 
west.  This  is  sufficient  for  the  growing  of  all 
crops  throughout  the  eastern  part  and  for  some 
crops  in  the  rest  of  the  State.  For  this  reason 
and  because  irrigation  is  not  necessary  every 
year,  its  practice  has  received  less  attention 
than  in  most  of  the  States  west  of  it.  About 
50  per  -cent  of  the  area  irrigated  exclusive  of 
that  used  for  rice  growing  is  in  the  valley  of 
the  Rio  Grande.  Irrigation  is  also  common  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Pecos  and  Nueces  rivers.  The 
number  of  farms  irrigated  in  1910  was  4150  and 
the  area  so  treated  was  164,283  acres  out  of  pos¬ 


sible  340,641  acres.  The  Carey  Act  does  not  apply 
to  Texas  and  neither  the  United  States  Reclama¬ 
tion  Service  nor  the  Indian  Service  irrigates 
any  land  here.  The  number  of  independent  en¬ 
terprises  in  1910  was  2161;  the  total  length  of 
ditches  was  1663,  of  which  722  were  in  laterals. 
The  main  ditches  had  a  capacity  of  12,818  cubic 
feet  per  second.  The  acreage  irrigated  per  mile 
of  main  ditch  in  that  year  was  1746. 

Forest  Products.  The  estimated  area  of  for¬ 
est  land  in  Texas  in  1908  was  about  46,900 
square  miles.  What  valuable  woods  are  found 
occur  mostly  in  the  east,  though  a  great  part 
of  the  timber  is  hardly  fit  for  anything  but 
firewood.  In  1913,  341  active  mills  reported 
having  cut  2,081,471  M  feet  board  measure. 
Three  or  four  species  of  pine  make  up  about 
96  per  cent  of  the  total  lumber  output.  Next 
in  importance  are  oak,  red  (sweet)  gum,  ash, 
cottonwood,  and  cypress.  Farms  having  forest 
products  reported  a  total  value  of  $8,925,662 
in  1910.  See  Manufactures. 

Manufactures.  The  manufactures  of  Texas 
depend  largely  upon  the  raw  materials  derived 
from  its  stock-raising,  agricultural,  and  mineral- 
producing  activities.  In  1909  the  State  ranked 
seventeenth  in  value  of  products.  The  gross 
value  per  capita  in  that  year  was  $70.  The 
table  opposite  gives  the  more  important  details 
for  the  10  leading  industries  and  the  State 
as  a  whole  for  the  years  1909  and  1904. 

The  slaughtering  and  meat-packing  industry, 
one  of  the  youngest  in  the  State,  had  grown  in 
less  than  a  decade  from  a  position  of  insig¬ 
nificance  to  be  the  most  important  in  value  of 
products  in  1909.  The  value  of  material  used 
in  that  year  was  $37,409,785.  The  number  of 
beeves  slaughtered  was  527,469,  value  $15,089,- 
886;  calves  234,172,  value  $2,074,188;  hogs  939,- 
674,  value  $10,933,088.  The  most  important 
product  was  fresh  beef,  of  which  there  were  pro¬ 
duced  208,016,588  pounds,  value  $12,408,125. 
The  amount  of  pork  produced  was  32,054,404, 
value  $3,195,006.  The  flour  and  grist  mills 
produced  3,339,479  barrels  of  white  wheat  flour, 
value  $19,110,676,  877,314  barrels  of  corn  meal 
and  flour,  value  $2,875,994,  280,168  tons  of 
feed,  value  $7,325,154.  Texas  ranked  seventh  in 
the  cut  of  lumber  in  1909,  2,099,130  M  feet 
board  measure,  of  which  2,021,617  M  feet  were 
soft  woods,  the  short-leaf  yellow  pine  contribut¬ 
ing  by  far  the  greater  part.  See  Forest  Products. 

Of  the  total  number  of  wage  earners  in  1909, 
166,120  were  male.  The  wage  earners  under 
16  years  of  age  numbered  1256,  of  whom  223 
were  ‘  females.  The  lumber  and  timber  industry 
employed  the  greatest  number  of  people  in  that 
year — 25,843.  For  about  half  the  wage  earners, 
the  prevailing  hours  of  labor  were  60  per  week. 

Dallas  is  the  largest  manufacturing  centre. 
The  leading  industries  as  measured  by  value  of 
products  were  in  1909  those  connected  with 
slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  flour  and  grist 
milling,  cottonseed  products,  printing  and  pub¬ 
lishing,  leather  goods,  foundry  and  machine 
shops.  The  number  of  wage  earners  was  4882, 
employed  in  305  establishments,  and  the  value 
of  products  was  $26,959,000.  Houston  ranked 
second  with  products  valued  at  $23,016,000. 
San  Antonio  was  third  and  had  products  valued 
at  $13,434,897.  Other  cities  and  the  value  of 
the  products  of  their  industries  in  1909  are 
Fort  Worth,  $8,660,882;  Galveston,  $6,308,076; 
Beaumont,  $4,830,591;  Waco,  $4,769,358.  See 
also  under  individual  titles. 


TEXAS 


TEXAS 


Transportation.  Texas  is  well  supplied  with 
both  rail  and  water  transportation.  There  are 
a  number  of  streams  which  afford  communica¬ 
tion  to  a  large  area  in  the  east  and  though 
navigable  only  to  light-draft  vessels,  considerable 
transportation  is  done  by  water.  Most  of  the 
railroad  mileage  is  confined  to  the  more  closely 
settled  part  of  the  State,  east  of  a  line  through 
Fort  Worth,  Waco,  Austin,  and  San  Antonio. 
There  are  several  lines  crossing  the  State  from 


the  life  of  the  Republic  of  Texas.  The  consti¬ 
tution  of  1845,  adopted  after  the  admission  of 
rJ  exas  into  the  Union,  prohibited  the  creation 
of  new  banks,  the  necessary  banking  business 
being  performed  by  the  one  existing  bank  and 
by  private  bankers.  W7hen  after  the  Civil  War 
the  reconstruction  forces  came  in,  a  new  consti¬ 
tution  was  adopted  which  did  not  have  this 
prohibitory  clause,  and  in  1871  a  free  banking 
law  was  passed.  Five  or  six  banks  availed 


SUMMARY  OF  INDUSTRIES  FOR  1909  AND  1904 

THE  STATE  - TEN  LEADING  INDUSTRIES 


Num- 

PERSONS  ENGAGED 

IN  INDUSTRY 

Capital 

Wages 

Value  of 
products 

Value 
added  by 
manufac¬ 
ture 

INDUSTRY 

Census 

ber  of 
establish- 

Wage 

earners 

(average 

number) 

• 

ments 

Total 

Expressed  in  thousands 

All  industries . 

1909 

4,588 

84,575 

70,230 

$216,876 

$37,907 

$272,896 

$94,717 

Bread  and  other  bakery  products 

1904 

3,158 

57,892 

49,066 

115,665 

24,469 

150,528 

58,924 

1909 

385 

2,078 

1,391 

4,003 

671 

5,311 

2,249 

Cars  and  general  shop  construc¬ 
tion  and  repairs  by  steam-rail¬ 
road  companies. 

1904 

244 

1,198 

851 

1,276 

395 

3,049 

1,297 

1909 

62 

10,527 

9,782 

9,362 

6,715 

13.359 

7,813 

1904 

47 

9,025 

8,593 

4,599 

5,370 

10,473 

5,997 

Flour-mill  and  grist-mill  products 

1909 

238 

1,899 

1,216 

13,219 

669 

32,485 

3,828 

Foundry  and  machine-shop  prod- 

1904 

154 

1,430 

986 

7,785 

528 

22,083 

3,120 

1909 

143 

3,441 

2,925 

8,241 

1,925 

8,068 

4,209 

ucts. 

1904 

111 

2,376 

2,080 

4,994 

1,268 

5,179 

2,877 

Liquors,  malt . 

1909 

12 

931 

765 

7,027 

566 

6,464 

4,769 

Lumber  and  timber  products .... 

1904 

10 

740 

626 

5,150 

[412 

4,154 

3,059 

1909 

799 

25,843 

23,518 

45,552 

11,602 

32,201 

21,197 

Oil,  cottonseed,  and  cake . 

1904 

391 

16,101 

14,623 

20,452 

6,500 

18,880 

13,925 

1909 

194 

3,923 

3,073 

21,506 

1,296 

29,916 

6,477 

Printing  and  publishing . 

1904 

157 

3,368 

2,739 

14,180 

•  1,020 

18,699 

2,894 

1909 

1,067 

7,177 

4,408 

9,127 

2,785 

11,587 

8,780 

Rice,  cleaning  and  polishing . 

1904 

850 

5,288 

3,444 

6,107 

2,071 

7,830 

6,067 

1909 

19 

643 

430 

3,820 

189 

8,142 

1,020 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing .  . 

1904 

17 

609 

432 

2,139 

212 

4,640 

1,132 

1909 

14 

14,248 

3,639 

12,438 

1,902 

42,530 

5,120 

1904 

9 

2,354 

2,019 

6,375 

866 

15,621 

2,028 

east  to  west,  and  north-south  travel  is  afforded 
by  numerous  roads.  The  railroads  centre  about 
Houston  in  the  south  and  Fort  Worth  and 
Dallas  in  the  north.  Texas  leads  all  States  in 
the  mileage  of  railroads.  This  (excluding  sid¬ 
ing  and  yard  tracks)  in  1914  was  15,569.  Some 
of  the  principal  roads  with  their  mileage  in 
that  year  are:  the  Southern  Pacific,  2803  (Gal¬ 
veston,  Harrisburg,  and  San  Antonio,  1332; 
Houston,  East  and  West  Texas,  191;  Houston 
and  Texas  Central,  828 ;  Texas  and  New  Orleans, 
452)  ;  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe,  2334 
(Cane  Belt,  108;  Concho,  San  Saba,  and  Llano 
Valley,  60;  Gulf,  Beaumont,  and  Great  Northern, 
78;  Gulf,  Beaumont,  and  Kansas  City,  63;  Gulf, 
Colorado,  and  Santa  Fe,  1145;  Gulf  and  Inter¬ 
state,  70;  Jasper  and  Eastern,  18;  Panhandle 
and  Santa  Fe,  125;  Pecos  and  Northern  Texas, 
570;  Texas  and  Gulf,  95)  ;  the  Missouri,  Kan¬ 
sas,  and  Texas,  1119;  the  International  and 
Great  Northern,  1106;  the  Texas  and  Pacific, 
1038;  the  Colorado  and  Southern,  745  (Abilene 
and  Southern,  72;  Fort  Worth  and  Denver  City, 
454;  Stamford  and  Western,  83;  Wichita  Falls 
and  Oklahoma,  23;  Wichita  Valley,  113);  the 
San  Antonio  and  Arkansas  Pass,  724;  the  St. 
Louis  Southwestern,  695 ;  the  St.  Louis,  Browns¬ 
ville,  and  Mexico,  472;  the  Chicago,  Rock  Is¬ 
land,  and  Gulf,  469 ;  the  Kansas  City,  Mexico, 
and  Orient,  465 ;  the  St.  Louis  and  San  Fran¬ 
cisco,  326  (Fort  Worth  and  Rio  Grande,  223; 
Paris  and  Great  Northern,  17;  St.  Louis,  San 
Francisco,  and  Texas,  85). 

Banks.  Only  one  bank  was  chartered  during 


themselves  of  this  law,  but  after  the  recon¬ 
structionists  were  overthrown  and  home  rule 
again  established,  the  old  prohibitory  rule  was 
again  included  in  the  constitution  of  1875.  Be¬ 
cause  of  this  prohibition,  national  banks  reached 
a  high  degree  of  development,  and  their  num¬ 
ber  rapidly  increased.  The  number  and  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  various  banks  in  1914  is  shown  in 
the  following  table. 


ITEMS 

National 

banks 

State 

banks 

Private 

banks 

Number 

519 

789 

36 

Capital . 

$52,239,000 

$20,286,000 

$995,020 

Surplus . 

26,988,000 

4,758,169 

284,970 

Cash,  etc . 

21,311,000 

564,731 

182,524 

Deposits . 

174,033,000 

52,218,506 

2,351,108 

Loans . 

40,172,000 

65,143,936 

3,191,221 

Government.  The  present  constitution  was 
ratified  by  the  voters  in  1876,  and  has  been 
amended  in  important  details.  The  Legislature 
by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  all  the  members 
may  propose  amendments  to  be  voted  upon  by 
the  qualified  electors,  and  these  amendments 
when  approved  by  a  majority  of  the  voters  be¬ 
come  part  of  the  constitution. 

Legislative. — The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  which 
meet  biennially.  The  Senate  consists  of  31 
members.  The  membership  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  must  never  exceed  150.  Sen¬ 
ators  are  chosen  for  four  years,  half  of  whom 


TEXAS 


TEXAS 


142 


take  office  every  two  years.  The  members  of  the 
House  are  elected  for  two  years.  Senators  must 
be  at  least  2G  years  old,  and  must  have  resided 
in  the  State  for  five  years  preceding  their  elec¬ 
tion.  Members  of  the  House  must  be  at  least 
21  years  of  age,  and  must  have  resided  in  the 
State  for  two  years. 

Executive. — The  executive  department  consists 
of  the  Governor,  Lieutenant  Governor,  Secretary 
of  State,  Comptroller  of  Public  Accounts,  Treas¬ 
urer,  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land  Office, 
and  Attorney-General,  all  except  the  Secretary 
of  State  being  elected  by  the  qualified  voters 
at  the  same  time  and  places  as  members  of 
the  Legislature.  The  Governor  must  be  at  least 
30  years  of  age,  and  must  have  resided  in  the 
State  for  five  years  preceding  his  election.  He 
has  power  to  convene  the  Legislature  in  ex¬ 
traordinary  session,  but  must  state  specifically 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  convened.  The  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State,  appointed  by  the  Governor  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  continues 
in  office  during  the  service  of  the  Governor. 

Judiciary. — The  judicial  power  is  vested  in 
the  Supreme  Court,  courts  of  civil  appeals,  a 
court  of  criminal  appeals,  district  courts,  county 
courts,  commissioner  courts,  and  such  other 
minor  courts  as  may  be  provided  by  law.  The 
Supreme  Court  consists  of  a  justice  and  two 
associate  justices,  who  are  elected  and  hold 
office  for  six  years.  The  court  of  criminal  ap¬ 
peals  consists  of  three  judges  elected  by  the 
voters  for  a  term  of  six  years.  This  court 
has  appellate  jurisdiction  coextensive  with  the 
limits  of  the  State  in  all  criminal  cases.  The 
State  is  divided  into  districts  in  each  of  which 
is  a  court  of  civil  appeals.  The  judges  of  these 
courts  are  elected  for  six  years. 

Suffrage  and  Elections. — Every  male  of  the 
age  of  21  years  or  over,  who  has  resided  in  the 
State  for  one  year  next  preceding  an  election 
and  six  months  within  the  district  or  county  in 
which  he  offers  to  vote,  and  every  male  of  foreign 
birth,  who,  in  not  less  than  six  months  previous 
to  any  election  at  which  he  offers  to  vote,  shall 
have  declared  his  intention  to  become  a  citi¬ 
zen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  has  resided 
in  the  State  for  one  year  next  preceding  the 
election,  are  deemed  qualified  voters.  Voters 
are  subject  to  pay  a  poll  tax,  those  more  than 
60  years  of  age,  or  blind,  deaf,  or  dumb,  or 
permanently  disabled  are  exempt.  Primaries 
are  held  on  the  fourth  Saturday  in  July  of 
even  years.  In  the  year  of  a  presidential  elec¬ 
tion  voters  are  given  the  opportunity  to  signify 
their  preference  for  President  and  Vice  Presi¬ 
dent  at  a  preferential  election  held  on  the  first 
Tuesday  in  May. 

Local  and  Municipal  Government. — The  legal 
subdivision  of  the  State  is  the  county.  Cities 
and  towns  having  a  population  of  less  than 
5000  inhabitants  are  chartered  by  general  laws. 
Cities  of  more  than  5000  inhabitants  may  by  a 
majority  vote  of  the  qualified  voters  adopt 
their  own  charter. 

Miscellaneous  Constitutional  and  Statutory 
Provisions. — All  property  both  real  and  per¬ 
sonal  of  a  wife,  owned  and  claimed  by  her  before 
marriage,  is  her  separate  property.  Provision 
is  made  for  the  guaranty  of  bank  deposits  by 
either  giving  a  bond  or  contributing  to  a  de¬ 
posit  fund.  Provision  is  made  for  suspended 
and  interminant  cases  of  prisoners,  and  for 
parole  of  convicted  persons.  The  State  is  under 
county  local  option  as  regards  the  liquor  ques¬ 


tion  and  about  87  per  cent  of  the  population 
were  under  “no  license”  in  1915. 

Finances.  The  fiscal  history  of  the  Republic 
of  Texas  was  mainly  a  record  of  debts,  as 
the  strained  relations  with  Mexico  demanded 
greater  expense  than  the  taxable  property  of 
the  young  Republic  could  bear.  The  issue  of 
loans  was  stopped  only  by  the  inability  to 
float  them.  An  investigation  by  the  Legislature 
of  the  State  in  1848  ascertained  the  nominal 
debt  to  be  $9,647,253,  to  which  the  value  of 
$4,807,764  was  assigned,  as  Texas  decided  to 
redeem  its  debt  at  its  actual  value  when  issued. 
By  1850  the  nominal  amount  and  assigned  value 
of  the  debt  were  respectivelv  $12,322,443  and 
$6,818,798.  The  sum  of  $10,000,000  which  the 
State  received  from  the  Federal  government  can¬ 
celed  the  debt  and  left  a  surplus.  By  1856 
there  was  no  State  debt,  and  the  surplus  was 
over  $1,000,000.  Several  loans  were  made  dur¬ 
ing  the  Civil  War,  but  the  war  debt  was  re¬ 
pudiated  by  the  first  reconstruction  Legislature. 
The  disarranged  condition  of  the  finances  ne¬ 
cessitated  the  issue  of  new  bonds  in  1870  and 
the  following  years.  By  1875  there  was  a  debt 
of  $4,644,000,  but  the  overthrow  of  the  recon¬ 
struction  forces  in  1875  caused  a  radical  change 
in  the  financial  policy  of  the  State.  The  con¬ 
stitution  of  that  date  prohibited  any  further 
issue  of  bonds,  except  for  war  purposes,  as  well 
as  the  lending  of  the  State’s  credit  to  private 
enterprises.  Because  of  the  difficulty  of  paying 
the  interest,  the  debt  continued  to  grow  for  some 
time  and  in  1880  reached  its  maximum  of  $5,- 
566,928,  after  which  it  steadily  declined.  On 
Aug.  31,  1914,  the  bonded  debt  amounted  to 
$3,976,200,  all  of  which  was  held  by  school, 
university,  agricultural  and  mechanical  college, 
and  the  various  asylum  funds.  The  income  is 
derived  mainly  from  a  general  property  tax  and 
sale  and  lease  of  public  land.  The  total  re¬ 
ceipts  in  the  fiscal  year  1914  were  $14,608,344 
and  disbursements  $12,886,344.  The  cash  bal¬ 
ance  was  $1,721,609. 

Militia.  The  males  of  militia  age  in  1910 
numbered  804,980.  The  organized  militia  in 
1915  included  181  officers  and  2956  enlisted  men. 
It  comprised  a  brigade  of  three  regiments  of 
infantry,  a  corps  of  cavalry,  a  battery  of  field 
artillery,  and  a  detachment  of  sanitary  troops 
with  a  field  hospital. 

Population.  The  population  of  Texas  by 
decades  since  its  admission  into  the  Union  is  as 
follows:  1850,  212,592;  1860,  604,215;  1870, 
818,579;  1880,  1,591,749;  1890,  2,235,527;  1900, 
3,048,710;  1910,  3,896,542;  1915,  4,343,710;  1920, 
4,663,228.  The  State  ranked  fifth  in  1910. 
The  density  per  square  mile  was  14.8,  and  the 
urban  population  938,104.  There  were  2,017,626 
males  and  1,878,916  females.  In  that  year 
the  whites  numbered  3,204,848,  the  negroes 
690,049,  and  the  Indians  712.  The  white  popu¬ 
lation  of  foreign  birth  numbered  239,984.  Of 
the  latter  Mexicans  were  the  most  numerous 
with  124,238;  Germans  numbered  44,917,  and 
Austrians  20,566.  The  number  of  natives  born 
in  other  States  was  923,847.  Those  coming  from 
Tennessee  led  in  numbers  with  134,702,  Ala¬ 
bamans,  Mississippians,  and  Arkansans  follow¬ 
ing  in  order  mentioned.  The  males  of  voting 
age  numbered  1,003,357  whites  and  166,398  ne¬ 
groes.  The  leading  cities  with  their  populations 
in  1910  and  as  estimated  for  1915  are:  San 
Antonio,  96,614  and  119,447 ;  Dallas,  92,104  and 
118,482;  Houston,  78,800  and  108,172;  Fort 


TEXAS 


143 


TEXAS 


Worth,  73,312  and  99,528;  El  Paso,  39,279  and 
51,936 ;  Galveston,  36,981  and  41,076;  Austin, 
29,860  and  34,016;  Waco,  26,425  and  32,756. 

Education.  The  chief  educational  problem  in 
Texas  lies  in  handling  satisfactorily  the  rural- 
school  situation  in  sparsely  settled  communi¬ 
ties.  Coupled  with  this  there  is  the  problem 
of  a  comparatively  large  colored  population.  A 
large  decrease  in  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  in 
the  decade  for  1900  and  1910  indicated  a  con¬ 
siderable  improvement  in  general  conditions.  In 
1910  there  were  288,904  illiterates  of  ten  years 
of  age  or  over,  comprising  9.9  per  cent  of  the 
entire  population;  among  whites  of  native  par¬ 
entage  there  was  a  percentage  of  3.3  per  cent; 
among  negroes  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  was 
24.6  per  cent.  The  total  school  population  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  thirteenth  census  was  1,363,713; 
of  these  793,796  attended  school,  of  which  582,995 
were  native  whites,  and  130,708  were  negroes. 
The  total  number  of  children  over  seven  and  un¬ 
der  17  years  of  age  Sept.  1,  1913,  the  latest  date 
for  which  statistics  are  available,  was  1,048,570, 
according  to  the  report  of  the  State  Superin¬ 
tendent  of  Schools.  Of  these,  840,130  were 
white,  and  208,440  were  colored.  The  State 
available  school  fund  in  1913  was  proportioned 
among  the  school  population  at  the  rate  of 
seven  dollars  per  capita,  amounting  in  all  to 
$7,339,990.  To  this  amount  should  be  added 
$5,899,619.96  raised  through  local  taxation  and 
$1,143,865.03  received  from  other  sources,  mak¬ 
ing  a  total  expenditure  of  $14,383,968.04  or 
$13.71  per  capita  for  public  education  in  Texas 
for  the  year  1913—14.  There  were  249  counties 
receiving  State  apportionment.  Each  county  has 
a  county  superintendent  and  a  school  board. 
The  Legislature  of  1915  enacted  a  compulsory 
attendance  law.  It  also  passed  a  law  establish¬ 
ing  a  county  board  of  education.  The  normal 
schools  are  the  West  Texas  Normal  School  at 
Canyon  City,  the  North  Texas  Normal  College  at 
Denton,  the  Sam  Houston  State  Normal  College 
at  Huntsville,  the  Prairie  State  Normal  and  In¬ 
dustrial  College  for  colored  persons  at  Prairie 
View,  and  the  Southwestern  State  Normal 
School  at  San  Marcos.  Other  State  institutions 
„  are  the  State  University  at  Austin,  the  Agricul¬ 
tural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Texas  at  College 
Station,  the  State  Medical  College  at  Galveston, 
and  the  College  of  Industrial  Arts.  Other  insti¬ 
tutions  of  collegiate  rank  are:  Simmons  College 
at  Abilene,  Howard  Payne  College  at  Brownwood, 
Polytechnic  College  at  Fort  Worth,  Texas  Chris¬ 
tian  University  at  Fort  Worth,  Southwestern 
University  at  Georgetown,  Westminster  College  at 
Tehuacan,  Baylor  University  at  Waco,  and  Trin¬ 
ity  University  at  Waxahachie.  These  are  all 
coeducational.  Colleges  for  men  only  are  St. 
Louis  College  at  San  Antonio,  and  Austin  Col¬ 
lege  at  Sherman.  Colleges  for  women  are  the 
Baylor  Female  College  at  Belton,  the  North 
Texas  Female  College  at  Sherman,  and  Asgard 
College  at  South  Houston. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  charitable 
and  correctional  institutions  under  the  control 
of  the  State  include  the  State  penitentiaries 
at  Huntsville  and  Busk,  the  State  Lunatic  Asy¬ 
lum  at  Austin,  the  North  Texas  Hospital  for  the 
Insane  at  Terrell,  Southwestern  Insane  Asylum 
at  San  Antonio,  State  Orphans’  Home  at  Ersi- 
cana,  State  Epileptic  Colony  at  Abilene,  Deaf 
and  Dumb  Institute,  State  School  for  the  Blind, 
Confederate  Home,  the  Women’s  Confederate 
Home,  and  the  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind  Institute 


for  Colored  Youth,  all  at  Austin,  State  Juve¬ 
nile  Training  School  at  Gatesville,  the  State 
Tuberculosis  Sanitarium  at  Carlsbad,  and  the 
Girls’  Training  School  at  Gainesville.  The  last 
mentioned  institution  was  opened  in  1915. 

Religion.  The  Baptists  are  numerically  the 
strongest  church,  followed  closely  by  the  Meth¬ 
odists  and  Roman  Catholics.  These  three  bodies 
together  contain  considerably  over  three-fourths 
of  the  church  membership.  The  Disciples  of 
Christ  (Christian),  Presbyterians,  and  Luther¬ 
ans  are  the  only  other  Protestant  sects  numeri¬ 
cally  important. 

History.  The  first  Europeans  to  tread  the 
soil  of  Texas  were  probably  Cabeza  de  Vaca  and 
three  other  survivors  of  the  Narvaez  expedition 
of  1528.  (See  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca.)  Cabeza 
de  Vaca’s  account  of  his  wanderings  through 
Texas  stimulated  Mendoza,  the  Viceroy  of  Mex¬ 
ico,  to  send  a  party  northward  under  Friar  Mar¬ 
cos  de  Niza  to  search  for  the  mythical  Cibola  or 
Seven  Cities,  rumored  to  be  golden  as  Mexico. 
It  returned  empty-handed,  as  did  an  expedition 
led  by  Vasquez  de  Coronado  (q.v.).  Several 
other  expeditions  probably  penetrated  Texas 
during  the  next  hundred  years,  notably  those  of 
Espejo  in  1582,  Sosa  in  1590,  and  Governor  Onate 
of  New  Mexico  in  1601  and  in  1611.  An  entrada 
in  1650,  led  by  Capt.  Hernan  Martin  and  Diego 
del  Castillo,  is  said  to  have  reached  the  Tejas 
(Texas)  tribe  of  Indians  in  the  region  of  the 
Neelies  and  Sabine;  one  in  1684  under  Padre 
Nicolas  L<5pez  and  Capt.  Juan  Domingo  de  Men¬ 
doza  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  into  the  Pecos 
country.  The  first  town  in  the  State,  lying  12 
miles  north  of  El  Paso,  was  founded  in  1682 
and  called  Taleta. 

The  history  of  the  State  practically  begins  in 
1685  with  the  landing  of  La  Salle  (q.v.),  and 
though  his  attempt  at  colonization  ended  in 
failure,  the  Spaniards  took  fright,  fearing  that 
France  might  seize  the  land.  In  1690  Alonzo  de 
Leon  and  Padre  Manzanet  were  sent  to  found  a 
mission  in  that  quarter,  which  was  to  serve  the 
double  purpose  of  holding  the  country  and  of 
converting  the  natives  to  Christianity.  Mission 
San  Francisco  de  los  Tejas  was  accordingly 
founded  among  the  Tejas  Indians  not  far  from 
the  Neches  River.  The  next  year  another  ex¬ 
pedition  came  out  under  Teran,  but  nothing  re¬ 
sulted,  and  for  years  after  Teran’s  entrada  there 
was  no  further  colonizing  by  Spaniards.  French 
activity  in  Louisiana  roused  them,  and  in  1714 
Juchereau  de  Saint-Denis,  a  bold  French  trader, 
led  an  expedition  across  the  country  to  the  Rio 
Grande,  where  he  was  made  prisoner  and-  sent  to 
Mexico  City.  His  account  of  Texas  fired  the 
Viceroy  and  Council  to  renewed  efforts.  In  1716 
Capt.  Domingo  Ramon  was  chosen  to  lead  an 
expedition  which  founded  several  missions.  He 
settled  San  Antonio  de  Bejar,  which  in  the 
course  of  time  became  the  centre  of  the  most 
prosperous  group  of  missions  in  the  Province  of 
Texas,  as  it  was  now  called. 

For  a  half  century  mission  founding  went  on, 
but  it  became  apparent  that  failure  was  certain. 
Many  establishments  were  abandoned,  and  some 
were  moved  about  in  the  wilderness.  The  Indians 
destroyed  more  than  one  mission.  When,  in 
1763,  France  surrendered  Louisiana  to  his  Cath¬ 
olic  Majesty,  the  prime  reason  for  the  occupa¬ 
tion  of  Texas  no  longer  existed,  as  there  could 
be  no  further  French  aggression  from  Louisiana. 
So  the  missions  near  the  Neches  and  Sabine 
were  abandoned  and  only  those  about  San  An- 


TEXAS 


144 


TEXAS 


tonio  de  Bejar — Alamo,  Concepcion,  San  Jose, 
Espada — showed  signs  of  surviving.  There  came 
in  time  to  be  three  main  foci  of  settlements — 
at  Nacogdoches  in  the  east;  at  what  is  now 
Goliad  in  the  south;  and  at  San  Antonio  de 
Bejar  in  the  southwest.  The  latter  overshad¬ 
owed  the  others  in  importance. 

__In  1799  Philip  £7olan,  an  American,  invaded 
the  country  from  LtmT&iana  with  a  small  party 
for  the  ostensible  purpose  of  purchasing  horses. 
Two  years  later  on  a  second  expedition  the  Span¬ 
iards  attacked  the  adventurers,  killing  some 
and  sending  the  rest  to  Mexican  mines.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  end  of  the  Spanish 
regime.  After  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  in 
1803,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  and  es¬ 
pecially  the  inhabitants  of  the  Southwest,  looked 
on  Texas  as  part  of  the  destined  dominion  of  the 
Republic  and  never  lost  an  opportunity  to  strike 
at  the  Spanish  power.  In  1806  it  looked  as 
though  war  must  result  with  Spain  over  the 
possession  of  the  region.  The  LTnited  States 
claimed  westward  to  the  Rio  Grande  on  the 
strength  of  the  French  occupation;  Spain  as 
stoutly  disputed  the  claim,  and  in  October,  1806, 
armies  of  the  two  powers  stood  facing  each  other 
across  the  Sabine.  However,  Gen.  James  Wil¬ 
kinson,  who  commanded  the  Americans,  was  glad 
of  the  opportunity  given  him  by  the  retreat  of 
the  Spaniards  to  the  west  of  the  Sabine  and  by 
the  excitement  attending  the  rumored  conspir¬ 
acy  of  Aaron  Burr  to  make  a  neutral  ground 
treaty  with  the  opposing  commander,  Herrera, 
which  practically  conceded  to  Spain  the  terri¬ 
tory  west  of  the  Sabine. 

In  1810,  when  the  great  revolution  in  Mexico 
against  Spain  had  begun,  the  Southerners  sym¬ 
pathized  intensely  with  the  natives,  and  before 
very  long  were  lending  secret  aid  to  Mexico.  A 
filibustering  expedition  into  Texas  was  led  by 
James  Long,  a  Natchez  merchant  and  ex-officer 
in  the  United  States  army.  At  Nacogdoches 
Texas  was  declared  a  republic  and  a  provisional 
government  organized;  but  the  Spanish  forces 
soon  broke  it  up.  For  several  years  the  coast 
of  Texas  became  a  rendezvous  for  pirate  and 
adventurer.  Louis  de  Aury,  Captain  Perry,  Gen¬ 
eral*  ^fTfrrr;  and  Lafitte  are  best  known.  They 
made  Galveston  Island  their  headquarters.  From 
here  Mina  sailed  on  his  expedition  against  the 
Spaniards  in  Mexico;  and  from  here  Lafitte  the 
pirate  scoured  the  Gulf  till  the  United  States 
government  broke  up  the  settlement.  The  early 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century  witnessed  the 
expiration  of  the  Spanish  power  in  Texas.  What 
with  the  filibustering  expeditions  and  hostile 
Apaches  and  Comanches,  and  the  struggle  for 
independence  in  Mexico,  the  Spanish  foci  of 
civilization  were  nearly  extinguished.  When  the 
harsh  Spanish  law  which  forbade  the  entry  of 
Americansintrr^£lie~region  could  no  longer  be  en¬ 
forced,  frontiersmen  from  Kentucky,  Tennessee, 
and  Louisiana  wandered  in  with  their  families 
and  remained. 

In  1821  Moses  Austin  secured  from  the  Mexi¬ 
can  government  the  right  to  establish  a  colony 
in  Texas.  He  died  soon  after,  but  his  son 
Stephen  took  up  the  work.  Being  free  to  choose 
the  location  for  his  colony,  Austin  selected  the 
lower  Brazos  and  Trinity  valleys.  Before  long 
many  empresarios  had  been  granted,  covering 
with  claims  the  region  from  the  Sabine  to  the 
Nueces.  Discontent  with  the  Mexican  rule  was 
not  long  in  appearing.  This  reached  a  crisis  on 
Dec.  16,  1826.  The  struggle  which  ensued  is 


known  as  the  Fredonian  War.  A  band  of  dis¬ 
satisfied  Americans,  headed  by  Benjamin  Ed¬ 
wards,  proclaimed  the  eastern  part  of  the  State 
an  independent  republic  with  Nacogdoches  as  its 
capital.  A  skirmish  in  which  one  man  was 
killed  and  one  wounded  ended  the  uprising.  The 
time  for  a  change  was  soon  to  come. 

The  United  States  was  making  repeated  offers 
to  the  Mexican  government  to  buy  Texas,  but 
this  only  made  the  Mexicans  more  determined  to 
retain  it  at  any  cost.  The  Mexicans,  resenting 
all  attempts  of  the  United  States  to  possess  the 
land,  turned  their  attention  to  the  Texans.  De¬ 
crees  were  drawn  up  prohibiting  slavery,  in 
Mexico  and  forbidding  further  colonization. 
These  decrees  were  specially  aimed  at  Texas  and 
roused  bitterness  and  indignation.  The  march 
of  events  was  hastened  by  the  closing  of  all 
Texas  ports  except  Anahuac,  and  by  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  military  forces.  An  uprising  occurred 
in  June,  1832,  which  led  to  the  removal  of  cer¬ 
tain  obnoxious  officials.  This  was  followed  by 
the  calling  of  a  convention  which  elected  Stephen 
F.  Austin  President.  Petitions  were  drawn  up 
asking  the  Mexican  government  for  free  trade 
for  three  years,  begging  for  a  grant  of  land  from 
the  State  to  promote  education,  and  asking  for 
a  separate  government.  Austin  was  sent  with 
the  petition  to  Mexico,  but  could  not  gain  a 
hearing  and  was  made  a  prisoner.  During  1833 
and  1834  the  Mexican  government  acceded  to 
certain  reforms;  but  in  1835  the  spirit  of  revolt 
reappeared  among  the  colonists.  Then  the  Mexi¬ 
can  government  made  another  attempt  to  collect 
duties  at  the  Texas  ports.  An  armed  schooner 
was  sent  to  Anahuac,  but  after  it  committed  va¬ 
rious  outrages,  a  Texas  vessel  captured  it  and 
the  struggle  against  Mexico  was  precipitated. 
The  first  victory  was  that  of  Gonzales,  Oct.  2, 
1835,  when  the  Texans  put  the  Mexicans  to 
flight.  On  October  28  Col.  James  Bowie  and 
Capt.  J.  W.  Fannin  defeated  the  Mexicans  near 
Mission  Concepcion,  a  few  miles  below  San  An¬ 
tonio;  on  December  11  that  city  was  taken. 
A  provisional  government  was  formed,  Henry 
Smith  was  elected  Governor,  and  Sam  Houston 
major  general  of  the  armies  of  Texas;  Branch  T. 
Archer,  William  H.  Wharton,  and  Stephen  F. 
Austin  were  appointed  commissioners  to  the 
United  States.  Many  Americans,  principally 
from  Mississippi,  hurried  to  the  assistance  of  the 
Texans.  Texan  dissension,  however,  nearly 
proved  disastrous.  In  March,  1836,  two  parties, 
one  under  Johnson  and  the  other  under  Grant, 
were  captured  by  Mexicans,  and  the  prisoners 
slaughtered;  Fannin’s  command,  which  had  been 
in  possession  of  the  Goliad  fortress,  surrendered 
and  was  shamelessly  massacred.  Nearly  500 
Texans  met  death.  In  February-March  occurred 
the  heroic  defense  of  the  Alamo  (q.v. ).  March 
2  the  Texans  issued  a  declaration  of  independ¬ 
ence,  and  as  if  to  answer  this,  Santa  Anna,  the 
Mexican  President,  hurried  his  army  in  three 
columns  eastward  over  the  country.  On  April 
21  the  Texan  army  under  Houston  on  the  field 
of  San  Jacinto  avenged  the  slaughter  of  Fannin’s 
men  and  the  Alamo.  (See  San  Jacinto,  Battle 
of.)  Santa  Anna,  a  prisoner,  was  glad  to  sign 
a  treaty  in  which  he  engaged  to  do  what  he  could 
for  the  independence  of  Texas  with  boundaries 
not  to  extend  beyond  the  Rio  Grande. 

Thus  was  launched  the  Republic  of  Texas.  A 
constitution  was  ratified  in  September,  1836,  and 
Houston  was  elected  President.  Houston  was 
the  capital  city  from  1837  to  1839,  when  Austin 


TEXAS 


TEXAS 


145 


became  the  capital.  The  great  and  pressing  need 
of  the  Republic  was  money.  With  little  taxable 
property,  the  government  ran  deeply  in  debt. 
By  1841  the  amount  reached  $7,500,000.  To 
the  financial  difficulties  of  the  Republic  was 
added  the  aggravation  of  invasions  from  Mexico, 
which  had  never  abandoned  her  claims  on  the 
country.  Three  times  Mexican  forces  reached 
San  Antonio,  but  always  retreated  without  at¬ 
tempting  to  hold  the  place. 

Meantime  the  independence  of  Texas  had  been 
recognized  by  the  United  States,  France,  Hol¬ 
land,  Belgium,  and  Great  Britain,  and  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  the  representatives  of  these  powers  lent 
zest  to  the  interest  with  which  the  subject  of 
the  annexation  of  Texas  to  the  Union  was  in¬ 
vested.  The  question  of  annexation  was  bound 
up  with  that  of  slavery,  and  the  whole  Union 
was  agitated.  (See  under  United  States.) 
rl  he  matter  finally  became  a  national  issue,  and 
James  K.  Polk  was  elected  President  on  a  plat¬ 
form  favoring  annexation;  but  before  he  took 
office  a  joint  resolution  was  passed  by  Congress 
making  an  offer  of  statehood  to  Texas.  This  was 
accepted  by  the  Texans,  and  in  December,  1845, 
the  State  was  formally  admitted  into  the  Union. 
The  Mexican  War  (q.v. ),  originating  in  a  dis¬ 
pute  over  the  boundaries  of  Texas,  followed,  and 
the  first  fighting  took  place  near  the  Rio  Grande, 
at  Palo  Alto  (May  8,  1846). 

As  a  State  of  the  Union  Texas  grew  rapidly. 
Politics  played  small  part  until  the  wave  of  se¬ 
cession  reached  its  borders.  Texas,  a  slavehold¬ 
ing  State,  thereupon  seceded  from  the  Union 
(Feb.  1,  1861).  Sam  Houston  was  Governor  at 
the  time,  and  threw  all  his  weight  in  opposition 
to  secession,  but  there  was  no  staying  the  resolve 
of  the  people,  many  of  whom  went  soon  to  join 
the  armies  of  the  Confederacy.  The  State  was 
fortunate  in  that  it  was  not  the  scene  of  much 
active  fighting.  Galveston  was  captured  and 
held  by  the  Federal  forces  for  three  months  in 
the  fall  and  winter  of  1862;  but  two  attempts 
of  the  Union  forces  to  enter  the  State  from  Lou¬ 
isiana  were  disastrously  defeated.  The  last 
battle  of  the  war  was  fought  on  the  lower  Rio 
Grande,  near  Palo  Alto,  a  month  after 
Appomattox. 

Following  out  his  plan  of  reconstruction,  June 
17,  1865,  President  Johnson  appointed  as  pro¬ 
visional  Governor  A.  J.  Hamilton,  a  man  con¬ 
spicuous  in  antebellum  Texas  politics.  A  con¬ 
vention  was  called  which  adopted  the  constitu¬ 
tion  in  force  in  the  State  prior  to  secession, 
with  amendments  recognizing  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  renouncing  the  right  of  secession,  con¬ 
ferring  civil  rights  on  freedmen,  repudiating 
the  State  debt  incurred  during  the  war,  and  as¬ 
suming  the  tax  which  had  been  laid  by  the 
United  States  government  on  the  State  during 
the  period  of  secession.  The  people  ratified  this 
constitution,  and  under  it  J.  W.  Throckmorton 
was  elected  Governor.  The  Reconstruction  Acts 
of  1S67  placed  the  State  under  the  military  au¬ 
thority,  with  General  Sheridan  in  command. 
The  carpetbaggers  followed  and  the  new  recon¬ 
struction  occupied  the  next  three  years.  A  con¬ 
stitution  was  submitted  to  the  people  in  No¬ 
vember,  I860,  when  Congressmen  and  State  of¬ 
ficers  were  elected,  and  on  March  30,  1870,  Texas 
was  readmitted  to  the  LTnion.  At  the  election  in 
November,  1872,  the  Democrats  secured  control 
of  the  State;  and  in  December,  1873,  a  Demo¬ 
cratic  victory  made  Richard  Coke  Governor.  By 
this  time  the  State  had  become  involved  in  debt 


to  the  extent  of  several  millions  of  dollars  on  the 
score  of  reconstruction.  The  memory  of  recon¬ 
struction  and  the  race  problem  have  served  to 
keep  the  State  consistently  Democratic. 

I  he  decade  ending  in  1915  was  taken  up 
largely  with  the  elimination  of  the  influence  of 
large  corporations  and  with  the  prohibition  ques¬ 
tion.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  and  its  sub¬ 
sidiaries  were  finally  driven  from  the  State. 
Several  attempts  to  adopt  constitutional  amend¬ 
ments  providing  for  State-wide  prohibition 
failed,  but  legislation  putting  the  sale  of  liquor 
under  strict  supervision  was  enacted.  In  the 
presidential  election  of  1908,  Bryan  received 
216,737  votes,  and  Taft  64,602.  Measures  pro¬ 
hibiting  betting  at  races  and  a  bank  guaranty 
bill  were  adopted  by  the  Legislature  of  1909  in 
a  second  extraordinary  session  called  by  Gov¬ 
ernor  Campbell.  O.  B.  Colquitt  was  'elected 
Governor  in  1910.  In  the  presidential  election 
of  1912  Wilson  received  221,425  votes,  Taft 
28,688,  and  Roosevelt  26,740.  Governor  Colquitt 
was  reelected.  James  E.  Ferguson  was  elected 
Governor  in  1914,  and  at  this  election  a  consti¬ 
tutional  amendment  providing  for  the  initiative 
and  referendum  was  defeated.  See  articles 
United  States  and  Mexico  for  conditions 
brought  about  in  Texas  by  the  revolutionary 
conditions  in  Mexico.  See  Great  American 
Desert. 

GOVERNORS  OF  COAHUILA  AND  TEXAS 

Jos6  Marfa  Viesca,  First  Constitutional  Governor. .  .  1827-30 

Rafael  Eca  y  Musquiz . 1830-31 

Jos6  Marfa  de  Letona . 1831—32 

•  Rafael  Eca  y  Musquiz . 1832-33 

Juan  M.  de  Veramendi . 1833-34 

Francisco  Vidauri  y  Villasenor . 1834-35 

Jose  Marfa  Cantti .  ’  1835 

Marciel  Borrego . ^  ’  1835 

Augustin  Viesca . 1835 

PROVISIONAL  GOVERNOR 
BEFORE  THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 

Henry  Smith . Nov.  12,  1835-March  18,  1836 

PRESIDENTS  UNDER  THE  REPUBLIC, 

David  G.  Burnet . March  18,  1836-October  22,  1836 

Sam  Houston . October  22,  1836-December,  183S 

Mirabeau  B.  Lamar . December,  1838-December,  1840 

David  G.  Burnet  (acting) .  .  December,  1840-December,  1841 

Sam  Houston . December,  1841-December,  1844 

Anson  Jones . December,  1844-February  19,  1846 

GOVERNORS  OF  THE  STATE 


James  P.  Henderson.  .  .  .Democrat . 1846-47 

George  T.  Wood .  “  1847-49 

P.  Hansborough  Bell. ...  “  1849-53 

Elisha  M.  Pease .  “  1853-57 

Hardin  G.  Runnels .  “  1857-59 

Sam  Houston . Independent  and  Unionist.  .  .1859-61 

Edward  Clark  (acting) .  .Democrat .  1861 

Francis  R.  Lubbock .  “  . 1861-63 

Pendleton  Murray .  “  . 1863-65 

Andrew  J.  Hamilton,  Prov. .  .  .Unionist . 1865-66 

James  W.  Throckmorton .  “  . 1866-67 

Elisha  M.  Pease . Republican . 1867-70 

Edmund  J.  Davis .  “  1870-74 

Richard  Coke . Democrat . 1874-77 

Richard  B.  Hubbard. ...  “  . 1877-79 

Oran  M.  Roberts .  “  1879-83 

John  Ireland  .  “  1883-87 

Lawrence  S.  Ross .  “  1887-91 

James  S.  Hogg .  “  1891-95 

Charles  A.  Culberson.  .  .  “  1895-99 

Joseph  D.  Sayers .  “  1899-1903 

S.  W.  Lanham .  “  1903-07 

Thomas  M.  Campbell. .  .  “  1907-11 

Oscar  B.  Colquitt .  “  1911-15 

James  E.  Ferguson .  “  1915-17 

Wm.  P.  Hobby .  “  1917-21 

Pat  M.  Neff .  “  . * .  1921- 


Bibliography.  General :  Kennedy,  Texas, 
Geography,  Natural  History  and  Topography 
(New  York,  1844)  ;  Roberts,  Description  of 
Texas  (St.  Louis,  18S1)  ;  Spaight,  The  Resources , 


TEXAS 


TEXCOCO 


Soil,  and  Climate  of  Texas  (Galveston,  1882); 
Hill,  “Present  Condition  of  the  Knowledge  of 
the  Geology  of  Texas,”  in  United  States  Geolog¬ 
ical  Survey,  Bulletin  J>5,  containing  bibliography 
(Washington,  1887);  Rhodes,  Birds  of  South¬ 
western  Texas  and  Arizona  (Philadelphia, 
1892);  C.  W.  Raines,  Bibliography  of  Texas 
(Austin,  1898)  ;  also  publications  of  the  State 
Geological  Survey  (Austin,  1858  et  seq. ).  His¬ 
tory:  Yoakum,  History  of  Texas  (New  York, 
1856)  ;  Thrall,  History  of  Texas  (ib.,  1856)  ;  H. 
H.  Bancroft,  Mexican  States  and  Texas  (San 
Francisco,  1885)  ;  Baker,  History  of  Texas  (New 
York,  1893)  ;  Wooten  (ed.),  Comprehensive  His¬ 
tory  of  Texas,  1685—189 7  (Dallas,  1898)  ;  Noah 
Smithwick,  Evolution  of  a  State  (Austin,  1900)  ; 
Lubbock,  Six  Decades  in  Texas  (ib.,  1900)  ;  G. 
P.  Garrison,  Texas:  A  Contest  of  Civilizations, 
in  “American  Commonwealth  Series”  (Boston, 
1903)  ;  C.  T.  Brady,  Conquest  of  the  Southwest 
(New  York,  1905)  ;  C.  W.  Ramsdell,  Reconstruc¬ 
tion  in  Texas  (ib.,  1910)  ;  also  Texas  State 
Historical  Quarterly  (Austin,  1897  et  seq.); 
B.  B.  Paddock  (ed.),  History  of  Central  and 
Western  Texas  (2  vols.,  Chicago,  1911);  J.  T. 
Shields,  Border  Wars  of  Texas  (Tioga,  1912)  ; 
N.  P.  G.  Tiling,  History  of  the  German  Element 
in  Texas  from  1820  to  1850  (Houston,  1913). 

TEXAS,  University  of.  A  coeducational 
State  institution  at  Austin,  Tex.,  with  a  med¬ 
ical  department  at  Galveston,  founded  upon  a 
grant  of  1,000,000  acres  of  land  by  the  Legis¬ 
lature  in  1876.  In  1883  an  additional  million 
acres  was  set  apart  and  the  university  was 
opened.  The  medical  building  at  Galveston  was 
completed  in  1890,  when  the  department  was 
opened  and  the  John  Sealey  Hospital,  presented 
the  previous  year,  was  occupied.  The  medical 
buildings  were  in  great  part  rebuilt  after  the 
disastrous  Galveston  flood  of  1900.  Besides  the 
medical  department,  the  university  embraces 
the  departments  of  literature,  sciences,  and  arts, 
offering  the  degrees  of  B.A.,  M.A.,  and  Ph.D.; 
the  department  of  engineering,  conferring  the 
degrees  of  bachelor  of  science  in  architecture,  in 
civil  engineering,  in  electrical  engineering,  and 
in  mechanical  engineering,  and  also  the  degrees 
of  C.E.,  E.E.,  M.E.,  and  master  of  science  in 
architecture;  the  department  of  law,  conferring 
the  degrees  of  LL.B.  and  LL.M. ;  and  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  education,  divided  into  schools,  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  the  art  of  teaching,  educational  ad¬ 
ministration,  the  history  of  education,  and  the 
•  philosophy  of  education.  The  department  of 
extension  was  organized  in  1909  and  the  gradu¬ 
ate  department  in  1910.  Two  summer  schools 
are  conducted  at  Austin  during  June  and  July. 
In  1914-15  the  student  attendance  was  3445. 
The  library  had  115,000  volumes.  For  1915-16 
the  endowment  was  $2,000,000  and  the  income 
$940,000.  The  acting  president  in  1916  was 
William  James  Bante. 

TEXAS  CHRISTIAN'  UNIVERSITY.  An 

institution  for  higher  education,  founded  at 
Fort  Worth,  Tex.,  in  1873,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Disciples  of  Christ.  The  total  attendance 
in  all  departments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was 
697  and  the  faculty  numbered  34.  The  plant  of 
the  university  includes  five  buildings,  and  the 
total  value  of  the  equipment  was  about  $500,- 
000.  The  library  contains  about  5000  volumes. 
The  president  in  1916  was  F.  D.  Kershner,  M.A., 
LL.D. 

TEXAS  FEVER  (also  known  as  Bovine 
Piroplasmosis,  or  Babesiasis,  Splenetic  Fever, 


Tick  Fever,  Southern  Cattle  Fever,  Hemo¬ 
globinuria,  Redwater,  Dry  Murrain,  Black- 
water,  Spanish  Fever,  etc.).  A  febrile  infec¬ 
tious  disease  of  cattle,  usually  observed  in  ezo- 
otic  extension  in  the  course  of  which  hemoglobin 
appears  in  the  urine  as  a  result  of  the  breaking 
down  of  red  blood  corpuscles.  It  is  caused  by 
( Piroplasma )  Babesia  bigeminum  in  the  red 
blood  corpuscles.  This  protozoan  is  transmitted 
to  uninfected  cattle  by  the  progeny  of  ticks,  par¬ 
ticularly  of  the  genus  Margaropus  or  Boophilus, 
that  have  developed  on  infected  animals.  The 
disease  is  characterized  by  fever,  greatly  en¬ 
larged  spleen,  destruction  of  the  red  blood  cor¬ 
puscles,  escape  of  the  coloring  matter  of  the 
blood  through  the  kidneys,  giving  the  urine  a 
deep-red  color,  yellowness  of  the  mucous  mem¬ 
branes  and  fat,  rapid  loss  of  strength,  and  fatal 
results  in  a  large  proportion  of  cases. 

Medicinal  treatment  has  but  little  value,  al¬ 
though  in  chronic  cases  and  those  occurring  late 
in  the  fall  beneficial  results  have  followed  the 
administration  of  Epsom  salts  and  quinine,  and 
stimulating  tonics.  Recent  work  indicates  that 
the  dye  known  as  trypanblue  has  a  valuable 
curative  effect  when  introduced  intravenously. 
When  the  disease  has  broken  out,  all  animals 
should  at  once  be  removed  to  a  pasture  known 
to  be  free  from  ticks  in  order  that  noninfected 
animals  may  be  kept  free.  All  ticks  should  be 
removed  from  sick  animals  in  order  to  prevent 
the  abstraction  of  blood  and  thereby  retard  the 
final  recovery.  Good  nursing  and  a  nutritious 
laxative  diet  with  plenty  of  clean  drinking  water 
are  essential. 

In  order  to  protect  animals  shipped  into  in¬ 
fected  territory,  they  are  immunized  at  from  6  to 
15  months  of  age  by  introducing  the  micropara¬ 
site  from  immune  animals  into  their  systems. 
Animals  immunized  in  this  way  have  a  mild 
form  of  the  disease  which  usually  appears  in 
from  3  to  19  days  after  the  first  inoculation 
and  runs  a  course  of  from  6  to  8  days,  followed 
in  30  days  after  the  injection  by  a  second  at¬ 
tack  of  a  milder  character  than  the  first. 

Work  of  eradicating  the  cattle  tick,  which 
transmits  the  disease,  from  the  southern  United 
States — where  the  disease  occurs — has  been  con¬ 
ducted  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Ag¬ 
riculture  in  cooperation  with  the  infected 
States.  Up  to  July  1,  1915,  a  total  area  of 
275,782  square  miles  had  been'  released  as  free 
from  ticks,  or  more  than  one-tliird  of  the  origi¬ 
nal  area  in  the  United  States  infested  with  the 
cattle  tick.  Tick  eradication  may  be  accom¬ 
plished  through  dipping  infested  animals  in  vats 
which  contain  a  solution  sufficiently  strong  to 
kill  the  ticks  without  injury  to  the  host.  A 
system  of  pasture  rotation  whereby  the  ticks 
meet  death  from  starvation  before  finding  a  host 
is  also  made  use  of. 

Consult:  James  Law,  Text  Boole  of  Veteri¬ 
nary  Medicine,  vol.  v  (Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1911); 
Hutyra  and  Marek,  Special  Pathology  and  Ther¬ 
apeutics  of  the  Diseases  of  Domestic  Animals, 
vol.  i  (Amer.  ed.  from  3d  Ger.  ed.,  by  Mohler 
and  Eichhorn,  Chicago,  1912)  ;  United  States 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Special  Report  on 
Diseases  of  Cattle  (rev.  ed.,  Washington,  1912). 

TEXAS  RANGERS.  See  Rangers, 
Mounted. 

TEXAS  STEER.  See  Cattle. 

TEXAS  UMBRELLA  TREE.  See  China 

Tree. 

TEXCOCO.  See  Tezcugo. 


TEXEL 


147  TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING 


TEX'EL.  The  southernmost  and  largest  of 
the  \\  est  Frisian  Islands,  belonging  to  the 
Dutch  Province  of  North  Holland,  and  situated 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Zuider  Zee  (Map:  Neth¬ 
erlands,  Cl).  It  is  separated  from  the  main¬ 
land  on  the  south  by  the  Marsdiep  about  5 
miles  wide.  Area,  73  square  miles.  It  consists 
largely  of  good  meadow  land  lined  on  the  north 
and  west  by  sand  dunes,  and  protected  from  the 
sea  on  the  other  sides  by  dikes.  The  principal 
industry  is  sheep  raising,  there  being  some  34,- 
000  sheep  on  the  island,  and  wool  and  cheese  of 
fine  quality  are  exported.  Pop.,  1899,  5954: 
1909,  6407. 

TEXIER,  tes'ya',  Charles  Felix  Marie 
(1802-71).  A  French  archaeologist,  born  in 
Versailles.  He  explored  the  antiquities  of  Asia 
Minor  and  taught  at  the  College  de  France.  His 
works  include:  Description  de  I’Asie  Mineure, 
published  in  Paris  and  London  (1839-48);  De¬ 
scription  de  VArmenie,  la  Perse  et  de  la  Mesopo- 
tamie  (1842-45);  Asie  Mineure  (1862). 

TEXTILE  DESIGNING  (Lat.  textilis,  relat¬ 
ing  to  weaving,  from  text  us,  fabric,  composition, 
text,  from  texere,  to  weave;  connected  with  Gk. 
retcTuv,  tehton,  carpenter,  rexvy,  techne,  art,  Skt. 
taks,  to  cut,  form).  That  branch  of  textile 
manufacturing  which  is  devoted  to  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  fabrics,  their  weaves  and  patterns  or  de¬ 
signs  for  the  same.  LTnlike  the  designing  for 
printed  patterns,  whether  for  textiles,  wall¬ 
paper,  or  other  purposes,  which  are  termed  ap¬ 
plied  designs — and  for  which  the  designer  is 
only  called  upon  to  use  his  skill  in  drawing  and 
color  combination — the  designing  of  fabrics  in 
which  the  pattern  is  to  be  woven  of  threads 
colored  before  weaving,  or  in  which  the  pattern 
is  produced  by  the  weaves,  necessitates  in  ad¬ 
dition  to  knowledge  of  combining  colors  and 
drawing  a  thorough  knowledge  of  each  of  the 
various  departments  or  processes  of  textile  man¬ 
ufacturing  ( q.v. ) .  The  designer  must  be  able 
to  construct  fabrics  of  a  required  weight,  tex¬ 
ture,  and  finish,  or  for  a  specific  purpose,  telling 
the  manufacturer  what  size  of  warp  and  filling 
to  use,  how  many  threads  of  each  to  the  inch, 
and  what  weave  will  give  the  required  results. 

The  construction  of  various  weaves  is  one  of 
the  most  important  features  of  textile  designing, 
and  an  account  of  weave  construction  will  be 
found  in  the  article  Weaving.  A  complete  de¬ 
sign  for  a  woven  fabric  must  contain  at  least  the 
following  specifications:  Number  of  warp  threads 
to  an  inch ;  number  of  inches  wide  on  loom ;  num¬ 
ber  of  picks,  or  filling  threads,  to  an  inch;  size 
of  warp  and  filling  yarns  and  materials  for  same; 
the  weave  and  the  arrangement  of  the  warp 
thread  on  the  loom  harness,  with  full  particulars 
relative  to  manipulation  of  materials  in  the 
process  of  manufacturing;  the  estimated  weight 
of  the  fabric  as  woven;  the  finishing  processes 
it  is  to  be  submitted  to,  together  with  its  finished 
width,  weight,  and  texture,  that  is,  the  count 
in  warp  and  filling  threads  to  the  inch.  When 
the  pattern  is  to  be  worked  out  in  colored  threads 
the  arrangement  of  these  must  be  given;  and 
when  the  pattern  is  drawn  and  possibly  colored, 
then  the  weave  is  constructed  in  such  a  way  as 
to  produce  with  the  woven  threads  the  effect  of 
the  drawing  as  nearly  as  possible.  See  Loom; 
Weaving;  Textile  Manufacturing. 

Bibliography.  T.  R.  Ashenhurst,  Practical 
Treatise  on  Weaving  and  Designing  of  Textile 
Fabrics  (5th  ed.,  Huddersfield,  1893);  A.  F. 
Barker,  Introduction  tc  the  Study  of  Textile 


Design  (London,  1903);  Harry  Nisbet,  Gram¬ 
mar  of  Textile  Design  (ib.,  1906)  ;  Fenwick  Um- 
pleby,  Design  Texts:  A  Practical  Treatise  on 
1  extile  Design  (Lowell,  1910)  ;  Woodliouse  and 
Milne,  Textile  Design,  Pure  and  Applied  (ib., 
1912);  Roberts  Beaumont,  Colour  in  Woven 
Design :  Being  a  Trea  tise  on  the  Science  and 
Technology  of  Textile  Colouring  (New  York, 
1912);  William  Watson,  Textile  Design  and 
Colour  (London,  1912)  ;  id.,  Advanced  Textile 
Design  (ib.,  1913).  Schools:  C.  P.  Brooks, 
“Report  on  the  European  Textile  Schools,”  in 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Annual  Re¬ 
port  (Washington,  1899);  C.  H.  Eames,  The 
Textile  School:  Its  Scope  (Boston,  1909). 

TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING.  The  in¬ 
dustrial  group  of  manufactures  embracing  the 
production  from  the  various  raw  materials  of 
fabrics  of  cotton,  wool,  silk,  flax,  hemp,  and  jute; 
hosiery  and  knit  goods;  felt  goods  and  wool 
hats;  cordage  and  twine;  laces,  braids,  and  em¬ 
broideries. 

Textile  Manufacturing  in  the  United 
States.  Statistics.  The  importance  of  the 
textile  industry  in  the  United  States  is  seen  from 
the  table  (I,  page  148)  of  statistics  derived  from 
Census  Reports  of  1920  and  earlier  years  which 
shows  75.4  per  cent  increase  in  the  capital  in- 
ested,  during  the  first  decade  of  the  present 
century,  over  the  decade  immediately  preceding; 
and  an  increase  of  141.3  per  cent  from  1909  to 
1919.  There  was  an  increase  of  59.7  per  cent 
in  the  annual  amount  of  wages  paid  between 
1899  and  1909  and  170.1  per  cent  from  1909  to 
1919.  An  exact  knowledge  of  the  general  growth 
of  the  industries  is  difficult  to  arrive  at,  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  varying  conditions,  and  probably  the 
best  idea  of  its  growth  is  the  increase  of  wage 
earners  as  shown  by  decades  in  Table  II.  The 
inciease  in  the  annual  value  of  the  manufac¬ 
tured  product  rose  from  79.2  per  cent  in  1899- 
1909  to  221.3  per  cent  in  1909—1919.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  the  improved  machinery  makes 
the  productive  power  of  one  man’s  labor  many 
times  greater  than  it  was  a  half  or  three  quar¬ 
ters  of  a  century  ago,  the  increase  in  wage 
earners  each  decade  has  exceeded  the  general 
growth  of  the  population  of  the  country  except 
in  the  decade  between  1850  and  1860. 

The  importance  of  the  industry  is  also  shown 
by  Table  II,  which  shows  not  only  the  “com¬ 
bined  textiles,”  but  individual  industries  classed 
to  show  conditions  by  decades,  1860-1919  and  in 
more  detail  for  the  last  named  year  in  Table  III. 

The  increase  m  the  amount  of  the  various  raw 
materials  used  by  decades  from  1840  to  1919 
is  shown  by  Table  IV,  which  also  furnishes  a 
measure  of  the  relative  growth  of  the  several  in¬ 
dustries.  It  is  well  to  notice  in  this  connection, 
however,  that  because  of  the  unsettled  conditions’ 
in  the  Southern  States  from  1860  to  1870  there 
was  a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  cotton  used, 
while  for  each  decade  there  is  a  large  and  steady 
increase  in  the  amount  of  wool  used.  During 
the  twenty-year  period  1860  to  1880  the  amount 
of  cotton  used  did  not  double  itself,  while  the 
use  of  wool  increased  over  300  per  cent;  but 
the  use  of  cotton  shows  a  wonderful  increase 
from  1880  to  1919,  due  largely  to  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  cotton-manufacturing  industry  in  the 
Southern  States,  which  bids  fair  to  monopolize 
the  production  of  the  medium  and  coarser  grades 
of  cotton  fabrics. 

The  world’s  production  of  commercial  cotton 
in  1914,  i.e.,  the  amount  available  for  mill 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING 


148 


purposes  was  approximately  24,764,000  bales 
of  500  pounds  net  weight,  representing  a  maxi¬ 
mum  from  which  there  was  a  decline  due  to  the 
war  and  other  causes  so  that  in  1921  this  pro¬ 
duction  was  estimated  at  about  15,593,000  bales, 
the  smallest  crop  since  1900. 

The  world’s  consumption  of  cotton  for  1919 
was  estimated  at  15,970,000  bales.  In  the  United 
States  in  1919  the  cotton-growing  States  took 
2,938,000  bales  and  the  other  States  2,491,000 


as  in  Tables  II  and  III,  the  rapid  growth.  It 
must  be  said,  however,  that  modern  machinery 
is  being  introduced  and  these  countries  are  des¬ 
tined  to  figure  not  only  as  sources  of  raw 
but  of  manufactured  material.  (See  Silk.) 

Influences  Controlling  Development.  The 
influences  controlling  the  establishment  of  the 
textile  industry  in  a  given  country  are  prima¬ 
rily  the  supply  of  the  raw  material  and  the 
adaptability  of  the  people  to  manufacturing 


TABLE  I 

COMPARATIVE  SUMMARY  OF  TEXTILE  INDUSTRIES,  1889  TO  1919,  WITH  PER  CENT  OF  INCREASE 


COMBINED  TEXTILES 


JE - - 

Number  or  amount 

Per  cent  of  increase 

1919 

1909 

1899 

1889 

1909- 

1919 

1899- 

1909 

1889- 

1899 

Number  of  establishments. .  . . 

7,143 

5,352 

4,521 

4,420 

33.5 

18.4 

2.3 

Persons  engaged  in  the  in- 

915,858 

t 

t 

dustry . 

.... 

•  •  •  • 

•  •  i 

Proprietors  and  firm 

3,522 

t 

t 

tnpmhprs  . 

... 

.... 

•  •  • 

Salaried  employees . 

31,208 

17,024 

t 

.... 

83.3 

•  •  • 

Wage  earners  (average 

520,196 

32.6 

t 

number) . 

1,052,327 

881,128 

664,429 

.... 

Primary  horse  power . 

3,037,732 

2,099,050 

1,310,834 

831,730 

19.4 

60.1 

57.6 

Capital . 

$4,441,379,160 

$1,841,242,131 

$1,049,636,201 

$772,673,605 

44.7 

75.4 

35.8 

Expenses . 

SprvioGS . 

1,488,817,311 

384,522,370 

824,336,963 

233,602,184 

681,538,9S1 

182,165,458 

1 

141.3 

80.6 

64.6 

21.0 

2S.2 

Salaries . 

Wages . 

910,047,629 

49,123,634 

335,398,736 

23,532,793 

210,069,411 

.... 

10S.7 

59.7 

16.1 

Materials . 

3,258,527,390 

992,635,299 

527,209,771 

454,272,489 

170.1 

88.3 

Miscellaneous . 

111,650,642 

63,525,008 

45,101,034 

238.2 

75.8 

40.8 

Value  of  products . 

5,481,883,549 

1,684,636,499 

940,052,688 

768,357,254 

225.4 

79.2 

22.3 

Value  added  by  manufacture 
(value  of  products  less  cost 

221.3 

67.6 

31.4 

of  materials) . 

2,223,356,159 

692,001,200 

412,842,917 

314,084,765 

*  A  minus  sign  ( — )  denotes  decrease.  Where  percentages  are  omitted,  comparative  figures  are  not  available, 
f  Comparable  figures  not  available.  t  Figures  not  strictly  comparable. 


bales.  There  were  153,657,680  active  and  idle 
spindles  in  the  world  in  1922,  of  which  there 
were  in  the  United  States  36,843,000.  In  1919 
there  were  in  the  United  States  33,718,953  active 
spindles.  There  were  located  in  the  South  Atlan¬ 
tic  States  at  that  time  12,708,516  active  spindles, 
in  New  England  17,542,926,  and  in  the  other 
States  3,467,571. 

Great  Britain  leads  in  cotton  manufactur¬ 
ing  as  may  be  told  from  her  greater  number  of 
spindles ;  but  because  of  the  fact  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  spindles  in  the  United  States  run 
on  coarse  or  medium-sized  yarns,  and  those  of 
England  on  much  finer  yarns,  the  United  States 
actually  spins  more  pounds  of  the  raw  material. 

Great  Britain  has  perhaps  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  woolen  industry,  since  the  quality  of  wool 
used  is  better  and  a  greater  amount  of  labor 
is  employed.  More  fine  goods  are  produced 
in  France  than  in  the  United  States.  The  carpet 
industry,  which  absorbs  large  quantities  of  wool, 
is  probably  more  important  in  the  United  States, 
but  large  amounts  of  coarse  goods  are  produced 
in  both  countries.  See  Wool  Manufactures; 
also  Sheep. 

Among  the  several  countries  engaged  in  silk 
manufacturing  the  United  States  now  stands 
in  first  place,  having  surpassed  France  in  the 
value  of  its  product  in  the  early  years  of  the 
twentieth  century.  This  is  the  more  remarkable 
when  we  consider  that  the  industry  in  the  United 
States  has-]>een  developed  since  1870,  and  note, 


life.  Among  the  earliest  forms  of  machinery 
are  the  hand  loom  and  spinning  wheel;  and  as 
sheep  usually  are  raised  in  any  country  where 
clothing  must  be  warm,  it  is  not  surprising  to 
find  in  the  world’s  earliest  history  records  of 
the  production  of  fabrics  of  wool ;  these  came 
to  be  known  as  homespun,  because  made  from 
yarn  spun  at  home  and  woven  by  hand  in  the 
household.  That  the  woolen  industry  should 
spring  up  in  primitive  communities,  and  among 
people  not  easily  able  to  purchase  clothing  ma¬ 
terial,  is  only  natural;  as  the  comforts  of  life 
became  more  accessible  and  labor  became  diver¬ 
sified  and  specialized,  owing  to  the  increase  in 
population,  the  tendency  was  to  produce  fabrics 
for  sale  and  in  such  quantities  as  required  the 
use  of  more  improved  machinery;  and  in  order 
to  reduce  the  cost  further  large  numbers  of  ma¬ 
chines  were  collected  and  there  resulted  the  mill 
or  factory. 

As  cotton  is  a  subtropical  plant  and  the  lint 
is  easily  separable  from  the  seed  by  hand, 
and  as  "the  fibre  can  be  spun  and  woven  in  as 
simple  a  way  as  wool  was  manufactured  in 
primitive  communities,  it  would  seem  that  the 
cotton  industry  should  have  developed  near  the 
source  of  the  raw  material ;  but  the  sections  of 
the  countries  suited  to  raising  cotton  were  largely 
inhabited  by  people  with  agricultural  instincts, 
hence  the  industry  developed  in  thickly  settled 
communities  remote  from  the  cotton  field.  One 
important  feature  in  the  early  days  of  the  cot- 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING 


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TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING  150  TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING 


ton  industry  in  factories  was  the  fact  that  cot¬ 
ton  fabrics  "must  necessarily  he  light  in  weight 
and  of  comparatively  fine  yarns — consequently 
the  proportion  of  labor  cost  to  the  cost  of  pio- 


In  the  thickly  settled  centres  of  India  the  m* 
dustry  had  its  greatest  growth  in  a  semitropieal 
country,  fully  adapted  to  the  production  of  the 
fibre;  yet  the  inhabitants  make  better  laborers 


TABLE  III 

textiles  and  their  products:  u.  s.  census  of  manufactures,  1919 


INDUSTRY 

Number 
of  estab¬ 
lishments 

Wage 

earners 

(average 

number) 

Capital 

Wages 

Cost  of 
materials 

Value  of 
products 

Total . 

28,552 

1,611,309 

$6,096,161,183 

$1,482,326,820 

$5,382,079,303 

$9,216,102,814 

Textile  fabrics  and  materials .... 

7,143 

1,052,327 

4,441,379,160 

910,047,629 

3,258,527,390 

3,481,883,549 

1,288 

430,966 

1,853,099,816 

355,474,937 
7,162,218 
6,086,557 
125,199,820 
108,226,330 
88,571,734 
19,654,596 
168,108,681 
66,595,826 
101,512,855 
4,873,490 
1,387,777 
24,216,181 
2,653,169 
909, 7S8 
2,896,453 
14,700,061 
6,436,286 
1,635,642 
447,373 

1,277,785,597 

0 a  of; q  qf^i 

2,125,272,193 

40,896,835 

29,396,853 

713,139,689 

688,469,523 

590,237,835 

98,231,688 

1,065,434,072 

364,896,590 

700,537,482 

39,229,540 

6,739,652 

123,253,828 

23,254,398 

17,361,231 

13,679,584 

133,366,476 

34,442,698 

6,998,046 

2,369,114 

<arrm.ll  WfirfLS . 

164 

9,396 

29,559,474 

2/i  y  u  jy  j  y  0 1 

13,075,994 
a  07  hqf;  F;fin 

44 

6,490 

32,260,216 

516,457,991 

2,050 

172,572 

gz  / ,uyo,ouu 

QQC  A  AO  009 

1,369 

126,782 

532,732, 163 

OOQ  A  Q  r;  0/1  F^ 

1,040 

97,342 

447,966,397 

OOOj  luOji/ xO 

55,033,077 

665,594,683 

217,965,333 

447,629,350 

22,780,775 

0  gno  coo 

329 

29,440 

84,765,766 

852 

166,787 

831,694,748 

560 

62,957 

273,973,670 

292 

103,830 

557,721,0/8 

49 

5,236 

35,024,373 

40 

1,448 

3,831 ,376 

0  jOy 

67,118,039 
16,076,315 
12,809,592 
7,228,350 
89,705,282 
17,798,834 
a  1  on  1  C7 

Carpets  and  rugs,  other  than  rag . 

75 

13 

22,933 

2,568 

119,196,461 

16,990,722 

24 

705 

8,853,43/ 

33 

2,177 

10,049,960 

120 

17,622 

100,248,987 

26 

7,138 

41,335,845 

10 

1,890 

7,527,596 

iyu,  10  / 
1,708,670 

20 

420 

/  s3,y58 

Mats  and  matting,  from  cocoa 

12 

1,073 

7,190,675 

810,607 

19,642,531 

425,149 

2,102,580 

40,158,019 

2,259,142 

4,860,855 

82,745,308 

3,315,113 

176 

18,510 

58,127,770 

18 

425 

2,999,150 

Dyeing  and  finishing  textiles,  ex¬ 
clusive  of  that  done  in  textile 

628 

55,985 

229,948,486 

57,189,978 

1,564,661 

174,742,815 

1  7Q  1  A1 

323,967,683 

3,690,858 

Cloth,  sponging  and  refining . 

67 

1,206 

1,465,956 

1/0,101 

duction  was  much  greater  than  in  the  production 
of  fabrics  of  wool,  and  the  tendency  was  to  con¬ 
centrate  in  their  production;  this  also  stimu¬ 
lated  invention  of  labor-saving  machinery.  The 
result  is  that  virtually  the  whole  manufacture 
is  in  the  hands  of  invested  capital,  and  the  tend- 


TABLE  IV 

Consumption  of  textile  fibres,  1840  to  1919 


YEAR 

Cotton 
pounds  * 

Wool 
pounds  f 

1919  . 

2,732,000 

443,461,904  J 

1914  . 

2,530,000 

510,424,203 

1910  . 

2,335,344,906 

559,S50,995 

1900 . 

1,910,509,193 

412,323,430 

1890 . 

1,193,374,641 

372,797,413 

1880 . 

798,344,838 

296,192,229 

1870  . 

430,781,937 

219,970,174 

I860 . 

443,845,378 

98,379,785 

U^50 . 

288,558,000 

70,862,829 

126,000,000 

Silk 

pounds 


25,890,728 

22,374,700 

17,472,204 

9,760,770 

6,376,881 

2,690,482 

684,488 

462,965 


ies  cotton  consumed  in  establishments  classed  as 
is,  cotton  small  wares;  woolen  goods,  worsted 
3  and  rugs,  other  than  rag;  felt  goods;  wool  hats; 
^d  knit  goods. 

consumed  in  establishments  classed  as 
ited  goods,  carpets  and  rugs,  other  than 
hats;  and  hosiery  and  knit  goods, 
woolen  goods  and  worsted  goods  in¬ 


land  in  communities  where 
d,  and,  unless  favored  by 
nguish  or  to  be  neglected 
wly  introduced. 


in  the  factories  than  they  do  cultivators  of  the 
crop.  Those  who  follow  agricultural  pursuits 
are  content  to  do  so  in  a  small  way,  simply 
raising  the  product  for  individual  use  rather 
than  in  commercial  farming. 

In  China,  Japan,  the  East  Indies,  and  Mexico 
there  has  been  of  recent  years  a  considerable 
introduction  or  development  of  the  industry, 
due  almost  entirely  to  the  adaptability  of  the 
people  to  a  manufacturing  life.  Yet  it  is  doubt¬ 
ful  if  the  movement  would  have  been  as  success¬ 
ful  in  some  of  these  cases  if  there  had  not  been 
encouragement  in  the  way  of  government 
measures. 

The  most  wonderful  growth  of  the  cotton¬ 
manufacturing  industry  has  been  in  the  southern 
United  States.  The  ‘  availability  of  the  raw 
material,  made  possible  largely  by  the  agricul¬ 
tural  labor  of  the  negro,  and  the  presence  of  a 
class  of  the  white  population  who,  after  the 
Civil  War,  found  themselves  without  homes  or 
occupation  and  who  it  was  found  were  teachable 
and  tractable,  and  would  make  good  factory 
hands,  and  were  to  be  had  in  abundance,  were 
chief  factors  in  this  development ;  there  were 
available  water  power  and  land  which  could  be 
secured  cheaper  than  elsewhere,  and  at  first 
municipal  aid  in  the  way  of  exemption  from 
taxation  for  a  term  of  years.  The  growth  of  the 
industry  in  the  Southern  States  has  been  re¬ 
markably  steady  since  1880,  and  ample  proof 
of  its  success  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  more 
and  larger  mills  have  been  built  and  that  older 
ones  have  been  enlarged  and  developed. 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING 


151  TEXTILE  PRINTING 


The  sources  which  first  gave  the  so-called  civ¬ 
ilized  nations  their  fine  and  beautiful  fabrics  of 
silk  were  China  and  Japan;  there  the  silkworm 
flourished,  labor  was  plentiful  and  cheap,  and 
the  nations  aesthetic;  they  produced  beautiful 
but  costly  fabrics  which  were  considered  luxuries 
as  far  back  as  the  nations  have  a  history,  yet 
these  nations  now  put  forth  less  in  value  than 

TABLE  V 

NUMBER  OF  SPINDLES  IN  COTTON  MANUFACTURING 
COUNTRIES,  FEBRUARY  1,  1922 

Returns  to  International  Federation  of  Master  Cotton 
Spinners’  and  Manufacturers’  Associations,  Manchester, 
England. 


COUNTRIES 

Number  of 
spinning  spindles 
as  per  returns 
received 

Total  estimated 
number  of 
spinning  spindles 
in  each  country 

Europe: 

Great  Britain . 

51,162,519 

56,420,078 

France . 

6,787,604 

9,600,000 

Germany . 

8,627,998 

9,400,000 

Russia . 

1,100,000 

7,100,000 

Italy . 

4,078,297 

4,550,000 

Czecho-Slovakia .... 

2,824,615 

3,565,164 

Spain . 

1,805,785 

1,805,785 

Belgium . 

1,584,601 

1,584,601 

Switzerland . 

1,511,508 

1,550,000 

Poland . 

451,080 

1,185,623 

Austria . 

1,021,792 

1,021,792 

Holland . 

637,484 

637,484 

Sweden . 

•  491,416 

575,897 

Portugal . 

94,262 

400,000 

Finland . 

238,932 

238,932 

Denmark . 

95,844 

95,844 

Norway . 

66,724 

66,724 

Total . 

82,580,461 

99,797,924 

Asia: 

India . 

5,587,462 

6,870,804 

Japan . 

4,112,662 

4,483,258 

China . 

1,732,632 

2,066,582 

Total . 

11,432,756 

13,420,644 

America: 

U.  S.  America . 

36,843,000 

36,843,000 

Canada . 

975,446 

1,051,112 

Mexico  (Jan.  15) .  . . 

219,802 

725,000 

Brazil . 

1,570,000 

1,570,000 

Total . 

39,608,248 

40,189,112 

Sundries . 

94,115 

250,000 

Grand  total . 

133,715,580 

153,657,680 

many  others,  though  they  still  produce  fabrics 
which  the  more  highly  civilized  nations  can 
hardly  equal  and  latterly  are  increasing  their 
commercial  output  due  to  the  larger  use  of 
machinery.  The  growth  of  the  silk  industry 
should  be  greatest  in  those  countries  which  can 
produce  the  raw  material,  but  this  is  not  always 
the  case.  The  introduction  of  the  silkworm  into 
central  and  western  Europe  caused  a  remarkable 
expansion  of  the  manufacture  of  silks  in  Switzer¬ 
land,  Italy,  Austria,  and  France.  The  Germans, 
producing  practically  no  raw  silk,  however,  have 
made  a  great  success  of  the  industry,  as  has  the 
United  States  in  recent  years.  England,  how¬ 
ever,  with  a  wonderful  capacity  for  manufactur¬ 
ing,  having  attempted  the  silk  industry,  relying 
on  imported  silk,  though  fairly  successful  for  a 
time,  has  seen  it  decline  for  the  last  half  century, 
while  the  cotton  industry  during  the  same  period 
has  had  an  extraordinary  development.  The 
most  important  reason  for  this  localization  of 
cotton  and  silk  mills  found  in  the  United  States 
as  in  New  England,  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 


Connecticut,  and  New  Jersey  is  the  presence  of 
sufficient  labor  of  requisite  skill  to  manufacture 
the  raw  material  and  produce  fine  fabrics. 

These  are  briefly  the  important  features  in 
connection  with  the  development  of  the  most  im¬ 
portant  of  the  world’s  textile  industries.  Con¬ 
sult:  E.  A.  Posselt,  Recent  Improvements  in  Tex¬ 
tile  Machinery  (Philadelphia,  1905)  ;  A.  F. 
Barker,  Textiles  (New  York,  1910)  ;  Lamb’s  Tex¬ 
tile  Industries  of  the  United  States  (5  vols., 
Boston,  1911);  Ephraim  Lipson,  The  History 
of  the  Woolen  and  Worsted  Industries  (London, 
1921)  ;  W.  H.  Dooley,  Textiles  for  Commercial, 

TABLE  VI 


NUMBER  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  LOOMS  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES 


KIND  OF* 
LOOMS 

Total 

Carpets 
and 
„  rugs 

Cotton 

goods 

Silk 

goods 

Woolen 

goods 

Power: 

1919 . 

1914 . 

864,336 

848,246 

9,821 

692,169 

672,754 

96,438 

85,058 

75,729 

76,789 

1910 . 

793,004 

11,736 

632,963 

75,406 

72,899 

1905 . 

696,750 

11,002 

559,781 

59,775 

38,104 

1900 . 

573,194 

9,841 

455,752 

44,257 

36,714 

Hand: 

1910 . 

248 

207 

* 

* 

41 

1905 . 

1,039 

690 

* 

283 

66 

1900 . 

1,311 

1,055 

• 

* 

173 

83 

*  Not  reported. 


Industrial,  and  Domestic  Art  Schools  (ib., 
1914)  ;  E.  B.  McGowan,  Textiles  and  Clothing 
(New  York,  1919);  C.  H.  Lander,  Ventilation 
and  Humidity  in  Textile  Mills  and  Factories 
(New  York,  1914)  ;  V.  W.  Clark,  History  of  Man¬ 
ufactures  in  the  United  States  1607-1860,  “Tex¬ 
tiles”  (Washington,  1916)  ;  and  the  various 
issues  of  the  U.  S.  Census  of  Manufactures.  See 
Cotton;  Factories  and  the  Factory  System; 

MaNFACTURES;  SlLK;  WOOL  AND  WORSTED  MAN¬ 
UFACTURES;  ETC. 

TEXTILE  PRINTING.  The  printed  cloths 
of  the  eighteenth  century  in  Europe  were  made  in 
imitation  of  the  Indiennes  that  for  two  hundred 
years  had  been  imported  from  India,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  the  home  country  of  printed 
cottons  much  as  China  is  the  home  country  of 
brocaded  silks,  and  Flanders  the  home  country  of 
fine  woolens.  But  block  printing  of  textiles  in 
one  form  or  another  can  be  traced  back  among 
the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  and  Chinese  to  re¬ 
mote  ages,  and  it  was  closely  associated  with 
other  similar  processes  that  produce  similar  re¬ 
sults,  such  as  painting,  stenciling,  and  dyeing. 
In  printing  fabrics  the  color  is  stamped  on  from 
an  engraved  block  or  roller.  Pliny  says  that  the 
Egyptians  figured  fabrics  by  applying  several 
mordants  with  different  powers  of  resistance,  pre¬ 
sumably  by  stamping  or  stenciling,  in  such  a 
way  that  one  dipping  in  the  dye  pot  produced  a 
pattern  in  several  colors.  There  are  still  pre¬ 
served  in  European  museums  many  examples  of 
block-printed  textiles  from  early  Christian  (Cop¬ 
tic)  Egypt.  A.  fragment  of  printed  cotton  was 
found  at  Arles  in  the  grave  of  St.  Caesarius,  'who 
was  Bishop  there  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  cen¬ 
tury  a.d.  During  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  in  Germany  the  place  of 
the  rich  Saracenic,  Byzantine,  and  Italian  dam¬ 
asks  and  brocades  was  largely  taken  by  inex¬ 
pensive  block-printed  imitations.  There  survive 
examples  of  Rhenish  thin-printed  silks  with  sim- 


TEXTILE  PRINTING 


TEXTILE  PRINTING 


plified  patterns  in  gold  and  silver;  and  coarse 
linens  outlined  in  dark  browns  and  blacks.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  the  industry  revived 
and  Augsburg  was  famous  for  its  printed  linens, 
supplying  Alsace  and  Switzerland  with  many 
trained  workmen.  In  1676  textile  printing  was 
introduced  in  England  by  a  French  refugee  who 
opened  an  establishment  on  the  Thames  near 
Richmond.  In  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  art  was  brought  to  a  high  point  of 
perfection  in  France,  especially  at  Jouy,  near 
Versailles,  where  Oberkampf  produced  printed 
linens  that  excelled  in  technique  as  well  as  in 
design,  so  that  a  leading  place  in  the  market 
to-day  is  held  by  modern  reproductions  of  Jouy 
prints,  some  of  these  made  from  the  original 
blocks.  The  most  prolific  designer  for  the  works 
at  Jouy,  many  of  whose  original  drawings  are 
still  preserved  at  the  Musee  des  Arts  Decor atifs 
in  Paris,  was  Jean  Baptiste  Huet.  •  At  this 
period  the  popularity  of  printed  linens  and  wall 
papers  became  such  that  they  crowded  tapestries 
from  the  walls  of  even  stately  mansions,  and 
brought  to  humbler  homes  decoration  that  had 
previously  been  lacking.  At  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  metal  rollers  took  the  place 
of  wooden  blocks  for  the  production  of  simple 
repeat  patterns  inexpensively,  and  the  modern 
machine  period  had  begun.  The  invention  of 
rollers  is  attributed  in  France  to  Oberkampf  and 
in  Great  Britain  to  Bell.  *  In  the  last  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  century  William  Morris  raised 
the  standard  of  design  greatly  by  his  introduc¬ 
tion  of  ingenious  and  richly  colored  flower  and 
bird  patterns,  going  back  for  his  inspiration  to 
Persian  and  Indian  flat  ornament,  away  from  the 
modeled  shapes  and  monotonous  tiny  repeats 
that  had  been  in  vogue  in  Europe  since  the  Em¬ 
pire  period.  To-day  block  prints  are  again  used 
for  picture  effects  and  large  patterns,  and  the 
designs  of  the  roller  prints  are  growing  con¬ 
stantly  better.  The  block  prints  and  the  finer 
roller  prints  are  on  linen,  the  cheaper  ones  on 
cotton. 

Block  Printing.  The  blocks  used  are  rectan¬ 
gular  planks  of  wood  about  three  inches  thick, 
six  inches  wide,  and  nine  inches  long,  built  up 
out  of  two  or  more  layers  of  pine  with  facing  of 
sycamore,  plane,  or  pear,  and  with  a  strong 
handle  to  lift  them  by.  The  design  is  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  blocks  by  rubbing  off  a  tracing  in 
lampblack  and  oil  of  the  outlines  of  the  par¬ 
ticular  color,  and  then  tinting  the  portions  that 
are  to  be  left  in  relief  to  distinguish  them  from 
those  that  are  to  be  cut  away.  Fine  details 
difficult  to  cut  in  wood,  and  that  in  printing 
from  wood  would  wear  down  or  break  off,  are 
inserted  by  coppering  or  building  up  with  thin 
strips  of  brass  bent  io  shape  and  driven  edge- 
Avise  into  the  wood.  Where  large  surfaces  of 
solid  color  occur  the  background  is  cut  away 
and  replaced  by  felt  that  gives  a  better  impres¬ 
sion  than  is  given  by  a  large  surface  of  wood. 
Besides  his  blocks  the  printer  needs  a  table  and 
a  color  sieve.  The  top  of  the  table  is  a  slab  of 
stone  that  is  covered  with  a  thick  woolen  blanket. 
The  color  sieve  is  a  shallow  box  which  floats  in 
a  swimming  tub  of  starch  paste,  and  which  has 
a  bottom  of  fine  woolen  stuff  over  which  the 
color  is  distributed  evenly  with  a  brush.  The 
cloth  comes  from  a  roll  on  the  right  of  the  table, 
and  after  being  printed  is  carried  to  the  ceiling 
on  rollers,  from  which  it  hangs  until  dry  and 
ready  for  its  next  color.  When  the  first  section 
of  the  cloth  has  reached  its  table  the  printer 


inks  the  block  by  applying  it  twice  in  different 
directions  to  the  color  sieve,  and  then  presses 
it  hard  against  the  cloth,  driving  home  the  im¬ 
pression  by  striking  the  back  of  the  block  with 
a  heavy  wooden  mallet.  The  impression  with 
the  second  block  on  the  second  section  of  the 
cloth  is  made  to  join  the  first  exactly  by  means 
of  the  guide  pins  at  the  corners  of  the  blocks. 
These  pin  marks  are  one  of  the  most  obvious 
features  •  that  distinguish  block  from  roller 
prints.  The  perrotine  is  a  block-printing  ma¬ 
chine  invented  by  Perrot  of  Rouen  in  1834,  and 
still  occasionally  used  in  France  and  Italy,  which 
automatically  prints  three  colors  from  long  nar¬ 
row  blocks,  infusing  the  second  and  third  colors 
on  the  first  while  it  is  still  wet. 

Roller  Printing.  While  the  design  in  block 
printing  is  cut  in  relief  on  wood  the  design  in 
roller  printing  is  engraved  on  copper  rollers. 
The  process  was  patented  for  a  six-color  machine 
by  Bell  in  England  in  1785.  In  this  machine, 
that  now  carries  sometimes  as  many  as  sixteen 
colors,  the  rollers  of  the  different  colors  are 
mounted  around  the  circumference  of  a  huge 
drum,  the  surface  of  which,  wrapped  with  sev¬ 
eral  thicknesses  of  lapping,  takes  the  place  of 
the  block  printer’s  table.  As  the  drum  revolves, 
the  cloth  is  pressed  between  the  drum  and  the 
rollers,  each  of  which  leaves  its  color  and  pat¬ 
tern,  so  that  the  cloth  that  comes  to  the  drum 
in  the  gray,  leaves  it  completely  printed  with 
all  the  colors.  Each  roller  is  inked  by  a  wooden 
roller  revolving  in  a  color  box  below  it,  and  has 
the  surplus  color  (i.e.,  the  color  on  the  surface 
of  the  roller,  as  distinguished  from  the  color  in 
the  engraved  incisions)  removed  by  a  knife 
called  the  doctor.  The  roller  printing  is  rapid 
and  inexpensive,  one  machine  producing  from 
10,000  to  15,000  yards  a  day.  The  pattern  on 
the  copper  rollers  is  produced  by  etching,  or  by 
indention  from  a  mill.  In  the  first  process  the 
pattern  is  photographed,  magnified  on  a  zinc 
plate,  and  colored  by  hand.  Then  the  outlines 
of  each  color  are  engraved  by  hand,  and  trans¬ 
ferred  and  reduced  in  the  pantograph  machine 
to  a  varnished  copper  roller  which  is  then 
etched  with  nitric  acid,  the  acid  eating  copper 
away  only  where  the  design  has  been  pin-pricked 
with  the  pantograph  needle.  In  the  mill  process 
the  design  is  first  engraved  by  hand  on  a  soft 
steel  roller,  which  is  the  die.  The  die  is  then 
hardened  and  rotated  against  a  softened  steel 
roller  until  the  latter  has  the  design  in  relief. 
This  is  the  mill  that  when  itself  hardened  and 
rotated  against  the  copper  roller  produces  this 
pattern  on  the  latter  in  intaglio. 

Stenciling.  This  process  is  nearer  painting 
than  printing,  the  colors  being  applied  with  a 
brush  through  sheets  of  thick  paper  or  thin 
metal  from  which  the  pattern  has  been  cut 
completely  out  with  a  sharp  knife,  the  uncut 
portions  covering  the  parts  of  the  surface  that 
are  to  be  left  uncolored.  A  peculiarity  of  sten¬ 
ciled  patterns  is  the  ties  that  have  to  be  left  to 
keep  detached  or  nearly  detached  portions  of 
the  background  connected  with  the  rest  of  the 
stencil.  These  ties  spoil  the  design  when  badly 
placed,  but  when  skillfully  used  add  distinctive 
charm.  The  Japanese  are  especially  skillful  in 
the  use  of  stencils,  often  employing  them  in  con¬ 
nection  with  painting  and  with  block  p  ‘  ig. 
As  of  blocks,  so  of  stencils;  there  must  1  ep- 

arate  set  for  each  color.  A  special  m  L  of 
applying  the  color  that  produces  resu1  un¬ 

usual  delicacy  is  spray  printing  wit  3  air 


TEXTILE  PRINTING 


AMERICAN  CRETONNES,  TAFFETAS,  AND  REPS 


TEXTILE  PRINTING 


THE  STRAWBERRY  THIEF 
BY  MORRIS 


AND  CURIOUS  CHINOISERIE 


A  RICH  FRENCH  RENAISSANCE  PATTERN 


FROM  ONE  OF  GRINLING  GIBBONS’ 
FAMOUS  CARVINGS 


ORIGINATED  FOR  KING  GEORGE  V 


EUROPEAN  HAND-BLOCKED  DRAPERIES 


TEXTILES  AND  CLOTHING 


153 


TEXTUAL  CELTICISM 


brush,  invented  in  Lyons  and  first  practiced  in 
America  about  the  year  1908.  Discharge  print¬ 
ing  stamps  upon  colors  dyed  in  the  cloth  acids 
or  alkalies  that  remove  the  colors  or  the  mor¬ 
dants,  producing  patterns  in  white  upon  a  col¬ 
ored  ground.  Resist  or  reserve  printing  stamps 
upon  the  cloth  before  the  dyes  are  applied  sub¬ 
stances  that  prevent  the  dyes  or  mordants  from 
fixing  themselves.  The  effect  is  similar  to  that 
of  discharge  printing,  and  to  that  produced  in 
a  more  primitive  way  in  the  Orient  by  tying 
knots  in  the  cloth  before  dyeing,  or  by  covering 
certain  portions  with  wax.  The  printing  of 
woolen  and  silk  cloths  is  similar  to  that  of  cot¬ 
ton,  except  that  the  woolen  cloth  requires  more 
preparation  before  printing  and  the  silk  cloth 
less;  and  that  silks  are  particularly  adapted  to 
discharge  and  reserve  effects.  (See  Dyeing.) 
Consult:  J.  Persoz,  L’Impression  des  Tissus 
(Paris,  1846)  ;  Rothwell,  Printing  of  Textile 
Fabrics  (Philadelphia,  1892)  ;  R.  Forrer,  Die 
Kunst  des  Zeugdrucks  (Strassburg,  1894)  ;  Ge- 
rogievic,  Chemical  Technology  of  Textile  Fabrics 
(Eng.  trans.  by  Salter,  London,  1902). 

TEXTILES  AND  CLOTHING.  Textiles  and 
clothing  taken  together  constitute  one  of  the 
chief  subdivisions  of  home  economics,  and  form  a 
subject  which  has  to  do  with  the  chemical,  phys¬ 
ical,  and  biological  nature  of  fibre,  textiles,  and 
other  materials  used,  with  the  aesthetic,  li37gienic, 
and  economic  values  of  fabrics  and  articles  of 
dress,  with  their  relation  to  household  man¬ 
agement  and  with  the  principles  governing  their 
selection,  preparation,  and  use.  Broadly  speak¬ 
ing,  textiles  include  not  only  fabrics  woven  from 
wool,  cotton,  silk,  linen,  and  other  familiar  natu¬ 
ral  fibres  of  animal  or  vegetable  origin,  but 
also  those  made  from  inorganic  substances,  such 
as  asbestos,  glass,  and  metal,  and  from  synthetic 
materials,  like  artificial  silk.  Clothing  includes 
all  natural  and  manufactured  articles  used  to 
cover  the  body,  to  defend  it  from  injury,  annoy¬ 
ance,  the  elements,  or  public  gaze,  or  for  pur¬ 
poses  of  ornamentation;  and  the  term,  when  so 
employed,  embraces  articles  for  the  head,  feet, 
and  hands,  as  well  as  for  the  body,  and  is  nearly 
synonymous  with  costume  (q.v.). 

The  item  “clothing”  occupies  a  conspicuous 
place  in  every  classified  list  of  expenditures, 
whether  of  family  or  individual,  often  represent¬ 
ing  a  financial  outlay  exceeded  only  by  the  ex¬ 
penditures  for  food  and  shelter.  Statistics  re¬ 
ported  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  show 
that  in  the  case  of  family  incomes  not  exceeding 
$1200,  about  14  per  cent  is  spent  for  clothing; 
and,  as  the  economist  Engel  demonstrated  years 
ago,  this  general  percentage  obtains  even  in 
families  of  far  ampler  resources.  Studies  of  the 
budgets  of  independent  working  women  show  a 
somewhat  higher  ratio  of  clothing  to  the  total 
cost  of  living,  and  if  to  the  sum  spent  for  cloth¬ 
ing  there  is  added  in  all  cases  the  cost  of  tex¬ 
tiles  used  in  house  furnishing— bed  and  table  cov¬ 
erings  and  draperies,  etc. — the  item  assumes  even 
greater  significance.  Because  of  the  commercial 
importance  of  these  two  commodities  and  of  the 
large  sums  now  invested  in  their  manufacture, 
problems  connected  with  their  production  and 
use  are  of  social  as  well  as  of  household  im¬ 
portance. 

As  the  result  of  investigations  in  government, 
commercial,  and  private  laboratories,  informa¬ 
tion  concerning  the  nature  and  properties  of 
textile  fibres  is  constantly  accumulating,  and 
many  of  the  facts  thus  obtained  have  important 


bearing  on  practical  questions.  Scientists  who 
are  studying  methods  of  producing  the  various 
fibres  are  discovering  distinctive  characteristics  of 
each  which  serve  as  a  foundation  for  tests  of  pur¬ 
ity.  Others  are  studying  fibres  or  fabrics  with 
reference  to  their  tensile  strength,  wearing  quali¬ 
ties,  reactions  towards  dyes  or  cleaning  materials, 
or  other  matters  connected  with  permanence  of 
color  or  durability.  Still  others  are  studying 
clothing  with  reference  to  porosity,  capillarity, 
hydroscopicity,  and  conductivity  of  heat  or  mois¬ 
ture,  in  order  to  throw  light  upon  the  relation  of 
dress  to  comfort  and  health.  The  fine  arts,  too, 
are  the  source  of  much  information,  chiefly  con¬ 
cerning  color  combinations  and  designs. 

In  spite  of  the  rapid  increase  of  knowledge, 
development  of  the  subject  along  economic  and 
educational  lines  has  been  slow — a  circumstance 
attributable,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that  fashion 
has  introduced  an  element  which,  though  elusive 
and  immeasurable,  has  a  well-recognized  effect 
upon  values  and  has  interfered  with  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  standards  for  judging  these  com¬ 
modities  based  on  durability  and  sesthetic  con¬ 
siderations.  An  expenditure  for  clothing,  for 
example,  unwarranted  by  health  or  beauty,  may 
be  justified  under  present  conditions  of  employ¬ 
ment  by  its  effect  upon  the  earning  capacity  of 
the  Avearer.  It  is  more  difficult,  therefore,  than 
in  the  case  of  food  and  shelter  to  distinguish  be- 
tween  necessities  and  luxuries,  and  educators 
have  been  handicapped  in  their  efforts  to  organ¬ 
ize  the  subject  for  teaching  purposes. 

When  household  methods  of  production  pre¬ 
vailed,  there  Avas  an  almost  universal  need 
among  women  for  training  in  technical  proc¬ 
esses — -spinning,  weaving,  seAAring,  and  others — 
but  these  were  taught  by  one  person  to  another 
and  formal  instruction  was  almost  unknoAvn. 
With  the  extension  of  educational  systems  to  in¬ 
clude  manual  training,  courses  in  sewing  and 
dressmaking  were  introduced  into  many  schools. 
These  have  found  favor  because,  besides  training 
the  hand  they  enrich  the  general  education  and 
are  of  practical  value  in  the  home  and  as  prep¬ 
aration  for  self-support.  Of  late,  hoAvever,  need 
has  arisen  for  the  training  that  enables  one  to 
judge  of  textiles  and  to  understand  the  hygiene 
of  dress,  and  this  must  be  based  on  scientific 
data.  The  result  is  that  the  subject  has  been 
so  enlarged  on  the  scientific  side  that  it  is  find¬ 
ing  a  place  in  many  colleges  and  universities. 
In  these  institutions,  however,  the  chief  empha¬ 
sis  is  not  upon  technique,  but  upon  the  his¬ 
torical,  scientific,  and  economic  aspects  of  the 
subject.  Consult:  E.  H.  Richards,  The  Cost  of 
Living  as  Modified  by  Sanitary  Science  (3d  ed., 
New  York,  1905)  ;  J.  M.  Matthews,  Textile  Fab¬ 
rics:  Their  Physical,  Microscopical,  and  Chem¬ 
ical  Properties  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1907)  ;  Kinne  and 
Cooley,  Clothing  and  Textiles  (ib.,  1913)  ;  Wool- 
man  and  McGoAA^an,  Textiles:  A  Handbook  for 
the  Student  and  Consumer  (ib.,  1913)  ;  Barker 
and  Midgely,  Analysis  of  Woven  Fabrics  (ib., 
1914).  See  Home  Economics  and  references 
there  given. 

TEXTUAL  CRITICISM  (OF.,  Fr.  textuel, 
from  Lat.  textus,  text,  composition,  fabric,  from 
texere,  to  AA7eave).  The  criticism  of  existing 
texts  of  literary  A\mrks  with  a  view  to  the  de¬ 
tection  of  errors  Avhich  have  crept  in,  and  the 
restoration  of  the  reading  intended  by  the  au¬ 
thor.  Such  criticism  may  be  necessary  in  the 
case  of  any  literary  production  which  is  no 
longer  under  the  control  of  its  author,  but  it 


TEXTUAL  CRITICISM 

finds  its  most  difficult  problems  in  tlie  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors 
whose  works  are  preserved  to  us,  in  the  older 
monuments  of  the  national  literatures,  and  in 
the  texts  of  some  modern  writers,  e.g\,  Chaucer 
and  Shakespeare. 

The  criticism  of  the  texts  of  Greek  and  Latin 
authors,  to  take  them  as  examples,  is  based  first 
of  all  on  a  careful  study  and  comparison  of  all 
existing  manuscripts,  then  on  quotations  and 
unconscious  reminiscences  of  the  writer  in  ques¬ 
tion,  in  other  Greek  or  Latin  authors,  and  finally 
on  such  helps  as  may  be  obtained  from  ancient 
commentaries,  Scholia  (see  Scholiasts),  or 
from  early  translations,  such  as  the  Latin  and 
Arabic  renderings  of  certain  works  of  Aristotle. 
Most  classical  manuscripts  belong  to  the  period 
from  the  ninth  to  the  fifteenth  century ;  a  few 
are  earlier,  one  or  two  possibly  as  old  as  the 
fourth  century,  and  some  are  later,  but  ordina¬ 
rily  the  manuscripts  of  the  fifteenth  and  six¬ 
teenth  centuries  are  of  little  or  no  value.  No 
existing  manuscript  is  free  from  error.  The 
scribes  often  did  their  work  mechanically  and  ig¬ 
norantly  ;  the  blunders  thus  made  were  perpetu¬ 
ated  and  spread  by  each  successive  copyist.  Such 
errors  may  be  corrected  by  comparison  with  a 
manuscript  which  does  not  contain  the  identical 
blunders;  but  in  case  all  existing  manuscripts 
are  descended  from  the  same  incorrect  original, 
or  archetype,  the  same  errors  will  probably  ap¬ 
pear  in  all.  In  such  case,  if  the  subsidiary  aids 
named  above  fail,  the  only  resort  is  to  conjectu¬ 
ral  emendation.  Or  it  may  happen  that  a  num¬ 
ber  of  manuscripts  have  different  readings  in  the 
same  passage,  all  intelligible.  The  problem  then 
is  to  determine  which  of  the  several  readings  is 
the  one  intended  by  the  author. 

Errors  in  manuscripts  may  be  divided  into: 

(1)  Errors  of  Omission,  (2)  Errors  of  Insertion, 
(3)  Errors  of  Substitution,  (4)  Errors  of 
Transposition,  (5)  Errors  of  Emendation,  (6) 
Errors  due  to  the  Confusion  of  Letters  or  Con¬ 
tractions. 

(1)  Errors  of  Omission. — The  simplest  form 
of  this  class  of  errors  is  that  known  as  hap- 
lography,  when  of  two  identical  letters,  syllables, 
or  words  only  one  is  written;  e.g.,  Plautus,  Miles 
Gloriosns  54,  si  river ent  for  sivi  viverent ;  Ver¬ 
gil,  Georgies,  4,  311,  magis  aera  carpunt  for 
magis  magis  aera  carpunt.  The  omission  of  a 
syllable,  word,  or  passage  may  also  be  due  to  the 
inexcusable  carelessness  of  tlie  scribe,  a  failure 
to  understand,  a  defect  in  the  archetype,  etc. 
Most  such  omissions  come  under  the  head  of 
what  is  technically  known  as  lipography.  Ex¬ 
amples  are  furnished  by  Vergil,  JEneid,  4,  491, 
descere  for  descendere;  6,  708,  indunt  for  in- 
sidunt.  The  omission  of  clauses  or  sentences  in 
prose,  or  of  whole  lines  in  poetry,  is  frequently 
occasioned  by  the  similar  endings  of  clauses  or 
verses  ( homoeoteleuton ) ,  or  by  similar  words  in 
the  same  position  within  the  lines,  so  that  the 
eye  of  the  scribe  jumped  from  one  to  the  other. 
In  Plautus’s  Bacchides,  the  oldest  manuscript 
lacks  two  entire  verses,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
v.  507  has  atque  and  v.  509  usque  in  the  same 
position.  The  texts  of  Lucretius  and  Vergil  also 
furnish  examples  of  this  kind  of  error. 

(2)  Errors  of  Insertion. — One  of  the  most 
common  forms  of  this  class  of  errors  is  that 
known  as  dittography,  whereby  a  letter,  syllable, 
or  word  is  written  twice.  A  case  of  double  dit¬ 
tography  is  furnished  by  the  Palimpset  of 
Cicero,  De  Republica,  2,  57,  secvtvtvsecvtvs  for 


^  TEXTUAL  CRITICISM 

secutus.  Often  an  explanatory  word,  gloss,  or 
passage,  either  interlinear  or  marginal,  is  in¬ 
serted  in  the  body  of  the  text.  Tlius  in  Plau¬ 
tus’s  Truculent  us,  v.  79  is  an  unmetrical  line, 
Phronesium,  nam  phronesis  est  Sapientia,  which 
apparently  was  originally  a  marginal  gloss  in 
explanation  of  the  proper  name  Phronesium  in 
v.  77.  Or  any  marginal  note  may  be  incor¬ 
porated  by  the  scribe,  such  as  caput,  chapter, 
nota,  take  notice,  deest,  there  is  lacking,  etc.  In 
some  cases  insertions  have  been  made  with 
fraudulent  intent.  There  is  an  ancient  tradition 
that  the  mention  of  Athens  in  the  Iliad,  2, 
533  ff.,  was  interpolated  to  give  the  dignity  of 
antiquity  to  the  capital  of  Attica.  Syntactical 
corrections,  both  intentional  and  unintentional, 
from  a  difficult  to  an  easier  construction  are  not 
uncommon;  and  Renaissance  scholars  seem  often 
to  have  been  more  concerned  with  making  a 
readable  than  with  making  a  correct  text. 

(3)  Errors  of  Substitution. — This  class  of 
mistakes  may  arise  from  various  causes.  An  ex¬ 
planatory  gloss  may  have  been  substituted  for 
the  word  it  explains,  as  in  Vergil,  Eclogues, 
6,  40,  rara  per  ignaros  errent  animalia  montis, 
where  some  manuscripts  have  rara  per  ignotos, 
etc.,  ignotos  being  evidently  a  gloss  substituted 
by  some  copyist  for  the  correct  ignaros.  In  the 
case  of  archaic  writers  like  Plautus,  a  classical 
word  may  have  ousted  the  early  form;  an  ex¬ 
ample  is  furnished  by  Amphitruo,  631,  where 
one  manuscript  has  the  classical  simul  for  the 
archaic  simitu.  The  earlier  form  is  correctly 
given  by  two  manuscripts,  while  the  writer  of  a 
fourth  "first  copied  correctly  simitu  and  then 
changed  it  to  simul.  Not  infrequently,  also,  a 
word  has  been  substituted  from  the  context  or 
from  a  parallel  passage  which  lingered  in  the 
copyist’s  mind.  Further,  the  mediaeval  scribes, 
being  monks,  might  corrupt  a  passage  by  sub¬ 
stituting  a  word  from  a  similar  passage  in  the 
Bible.  A  famous  example  is  that  of  Horace;,  Odes, 
3,  18,  11,  where  the  monk  who  was  writing  a 
manuscript  which  afterward  became  the  arche¬ 
type  of  a  considerable  class  had  in  mind  Isaiah 
xi.  6,  habitabit  lupus  cum  agno  et  pardus  cum 
hcedo  accubabit,  and  so  substituted  pardus  for 
pagus  in  the  passage  festus  in  pratis  vacat  otioso 
cum  bove  pagus.  The  most  common  cause  of 
this  class  of  errors,  however,  is  the  confusion  of 
similar  words:  addit  and  adit,  adesse  and  ad 
sese,  hospitium  and  hostium,  precor  and  prcetor, 
etc. 

(4)  Errors  of  Transposition. — These  errors, 
whether  of  letters,  syllables,  words,  or  lines,  are 
very  common  in  classical  manuscripts.  They  are 
due  most  often  to  the  carelessness  of  the  copy¬ 
ist  whose  eye  traveled  faster  than  his  pen. 
Transposed  letters  and  syllables  are  easily  de¬ 
tected  by  any  one  familiar  with  the  language; 
transposed  words  are  not  so  readily  discovered 
in  prose  as  in  verse,  for  in  versq  the  trans¬ 
position  usually  spoils  the  metre;  so,  e.g.,  the 
reading  of  certain  manuscripts  of  Horace,  Odes, 
3,  13,  14,  ternos  ter  attonitus  cyathos  petet  rates 
will  not  scan,  but  the  metre  is  perfect  when 
the  correct  cyathos  attonitus  is  read.  The  trans¬ 
position  of  entire  lines  is  generally  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  copyist  carelessly  dropped  the  line 
or  lines,  and  later,  on  discovering  his  error,  in¬ 
serted  the  missing  lines  out  of  place,  often  with¬ 
out  any  indication  of  the  misplacement.  Lucre¬ 
tius  and  Vergil  furnish  many  excellent  examples. 
Finally,  one  or  more  entire  pages  may  be  mis¬ 
placed  either  because  the  scribe  carelessly 


TEYTE 


omitted  a  page  or  because  the  sheets  of  the 
archetype  had  become  disturbed  before  the  copy 
was  made.  A  well-known  example  of  the  last 
is  furnished  by  Lucretius,  where  the  error  en¬ 
abled  Lachmann  to  determine  the  size  of  the 
lost  archetype  from  which  the  extant  manu¬ 
scripts  are  descended. 

(5)  Errors  of  Emendation. — These  errors  have 
been  touched  on  under  sections  2  and  3.  They 
occur  chiefly  in  manuscripts  dating  from  the 
ninth  century  or  later,  and  are  especially  com¬ 
mon  in  manuscripts  written  by  Renaissance 
scholars.  These  errors  may  arise  simply  from 
the  wrong  division  of  words,  as  in  Seneca,'  Epist., 
89,  4,  where  the  copyist  senselessly  divided  quid 
arnet  of  his  original  into  quidam  et.  Madvig, 
by  a  stroke  of  the  pen,  first  restored  the  correct 
quid  amet.  Y\  hile  Alcuin’s  efforts  to  restore 
Latin  orthography  were  for  the  most  part  bene¬ 
ficial,  they  also  led  to  certain  errors,  mostly  due 
to  the  substitution  of  a  familiar  for  an  un¬ 
familiar  word,  e.g.,  facile  for  facete,  etc.  Re¬ 
naissance  scholars  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries  not  only  corrected  passages,  but  also 
filled  out  lacunae,  supplied  missing  scenes,  etc. 

(6)  Errors  Due  to  the  Confusion  of  Letters 
and  (  ontractions. — These  mistakes  are  few  in 
capital  and  uncial  writing,  but  in  minuscule 
writing  the  possibilities  of  the  confusion  of  let¬ 
ters  are  much  greater,  and  the  use  of  contrac¬ 
tions  constantly  increased  with  the  centuries. 
A  treatment  of  the  subject  is  impossible  here, 
as  it  belongs  to  paleography  (q.v.). 

Bibliography.  For  a  bibliography  of  the 
text  criticism  of  the  Bible,  see  articles  on 
Bible,  Biblical  Criticism,  etc.  On  the  text 
criticism  of  classical  authors,  consult  Boeckh, 
Encyklopddie  und  Methodologie  der  philolo- 
gischen  Wissenschaften  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1886)  ;  Madvig,  Adversaria  Critica,  3  vols. 
(Copenhagen,  1871-74)  ;  Cobet,  Varice  Lectiones 
(2d  ed.,  Leyden,  1873)  ;  F.  Blass  in  Mueller’s 
Handbuch  der  Jclassischen  Alt  er  turn  swiss  en- 
schaft,  vol.  i  (2d  ed.,  Munich,  1892);  W.  M. 
Lindsay,  Introduction  to  Latin  Textual  Emen¬ 
dation  (London,  1896)  ;  H.  T.  Peck,  A  History  of 
Classical  Philology  (New  York,  1911);  F.  W. 
Hall,  A  Companion  to  Classical  Texts  (Oxford, 
1913  )  ;  Th.  Birt,  Kritik  und  Hermeneutik  nebst 
Abriss  des  Antiken  Buchwesens  (Munich,  1913)  ; 
and  the  best  critical  editions  of  the  separate 
authors,  such  as  the  edition  of  Vergil  bv  O. 
Ribbeck,  of  Lucretius  by  Lachmann  and  Munro, 
of  Horace  by  Keller  and  Holder,  and  of  Plautus 
by  Ritschl-Goetz-Lowe — Schoell. 

TEYTE,  tat,  Maggie_  ( 1890-  )e  An  Eng¬ 
lish  lyric  soprano,  born  in  Wolverhampton.  Hav¬ 
ing  received  her  entire  musical  education  under 
Jean  de  Reszke  in  Paris,  she  made  her  d6but  at 
Monte  Carlo  in  1908  as  Zerlina  in  Mozart’s  Don 
Giovanni.  For  the  next  two  years  she  was  a 
member  of  the  Opera  Comique,  where  Beech  am 
heard  her  and  engaged  her  for  his  first  operatic 
season  in  London  (1910).  In  1910-15  she  was 
a  member  of  the  Chicago  Opera  Company  and 
also  made  extensive  concert  tours  of  the  States. 
Her  favorite  roles  were  Mimi  in  La  Boheme  and 
Melisande  in  Pelleas  et  Melisande. 

TEZCUCO,  tas-koo'kd,  or  TEXCOCO,  tas- 
ko'ko.  A  town  in  the  State  of  Mexico,  Mexico, 
sixteen  miles  east  of  the  city  of  that  name,  east 
of  the  Lake  of  Tezcuco  ( Map :  Mexico,  E  8 ) . 

It  is  on  the  Interoceanic  Railway,  whose  shops 
form  its  chief  industry.  It  also  has  glass  and 
cotton  manufacture.  Tn  the  plaza  is  a  monument 
Vol.  XXII.— 11 


155  THACHEE 

to  Netzahualcoyotl,  the  most  famous  Tezcucan 
king.  Previous  to  the  Spanish  conquest  the  place 
was  occupied  by  a  Chichimeca  tribe,  known  as  tile 
Texcucans  or  Acolhuans,  who  claimed  a  preem¬ 
inence  in  Nahuatl  culture  and  civilization.  Here, 
in  1521,  Cortes  built  the  brigantines  with  which 
he  besieged  Mexico.  Pop.,  1900,  5930. 

TEZIUTLAN,  ta's6-oot-lan/.  A  town  of  the 
state  of  Puebla,  Mexico,  seventy-six  miles  north¬ 
east  of  Puebla,  and  thirty-seven  miles  northwest 
of  Jalapa  (Map:  Mexico,  K  8).  Its  streets  are 
steep  and  irregular.  It  has  an  extensive  com¬ 
merce  with  Mexico  City  and  with  the  towns  of 
Vera  Cruz.  Pop.,  (est.)  15,000. 

THAALIBI,  thii-leT)e  (Ar.  Abu  Mans  ur  Abd 
al  Malik  ibn  Muhammad  ibn  Ismd’il  al  Tha- 
‘dlibi)  (961-1038).  A  prolific  writer  upon  philo¬ 
logical  and  literary  subjects.  He  was  a  native 
of  Persia,  his  birthplace  being  Nishapur,  and  he 
represented  the  Persian-Arabic  school  of  litera¬ 
ture.  Arabic  philology  was  now  passing  from 
the  ancient  schools  of  Basra  and  Kufa  to  Persian 
soil.  Thaalibi’s  great  anthology,  Yatimat  al  dohr, 
is  an  invaluable  source  of  information  concerning 
Moslem  poets,  and  reveals  critical  judgment  as 
well  as  erudition.  Portions  of  Thaalibi’s  works 
have  been  edited  in  Europe  and  translated,  e.g.: 
J.  Seligman,  Prooemium  et  Specimen  Lexici  Sy- 
nonymici  Arabici  Atthalibi  (Upsala,  1863)  ;  P. 
Cool,  *S electa  ex  Thaalebii  Libro  Facetiarum 
(Leyden,  1835)  ;  J.  Ph.  Valeton,  Talibii  Syntag¬ 
ma  Dictorum  Brevium  et  Acutorum  (Leyden, 
1844);  Fr.  Dieterici,  De  Anthologia  Arabica 
Tsaalebii  Vnio  YEtatis  Appellata  (Berlin,  1846). 
Consult:  C.  Broekelman,  Geschichte  der  arabis- 
chen  Litteratur  (Weimar,  1898);  R.  Nicholson, 
Literary  History  of  the  Arabs  (New  York,  1907)! 

THACHTE,  James  (1754—1844).  An  Amer¬ 
ican  physician  and  writer,  born  in  Barnstable, 
Mass.  From  1775  to  1783  he  was  a  surgeon  in 
the  Revolution.  Afterward  he  practiced  in 
Plymouth,  Mass.,  until  his  death.  Thatcher  is 
best  known  through  his  Military  Journal  during 
the  American  Revolutionary  War  (1823),  and 
Observations  Relative  to  the  Execution  of  Major 
John  Andre  as  a  Spy  in  17S0  (1834).  In  these 
books  he  supported  Washington’s  treatment  of 
Andre  (Thatcher  had  been  stationed  at  West 
Point  in  1780).  Among  his  medical  books  was 
an  American  New  Dispensatory  (1810;  4th  ed 
1821). 

THACHEE,  John  Boyd  (1847-1909).  An 
American  manufacturer,  writer,  and  book  col¬ 
lector,  born  in  Ballston,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  at 
Williams  College  in  1869  and  settled  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  where  he  became  a  successful  manufac¬ 
turer  of  car  wheels.  In  1884-85  he  was  a  Demo¬ 
cratic  member  of  the  State  Senate,  taking  an 
especial  interest  in  tenement  house  reform;  and 
in  1886,  1887,  1896,  and  1897  he  was  mayor  of 
Albany.  His  publications  include:  The  Conti¬ 
nent  of  America,  Its  Discovery  and  Its  Baptism ; 
An  Essay  on  the  Nomenclature  of  the  Old  Conti¬ 
nents,  etc.  (1896)  ;  a  drama,  Charlecote :  or  The 
Trial  of  William  Shakespeare  (1896);  The  Ca- 
botian  Discovery  (1897);  and  Christopher 
Columbus,  His  Life,  His  Works,  His  Remains, 
together  with  an  Essay  on  Peter  Martyr  of 
Anghera  and  Bartolom6  de  las  Casas,  the  First 
Historians  of  America  (2  vols.,  1903)  ;  an  im¬ 
portant  work,  made  especially  valuable  by  the 
publication  of  many  original  documents  and  of 
various  early  accounts  of  the  life  and  voyages 
of  Columbus;  Outlines  of  the  French  Revolution 
told  in  Autographs  (1905). 


THACHER 


THACKERAY 


150 


THACHER,  Thomas  Antony  (1815-86). 
An  American  educator,  born  in  Hartford,  Conn. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1835,  was  appointed  tutor 
there  in  1838,  and,  in  1842,  professor  of  Latin, 
a  position  which  he  held  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  In  1843  he  went  to  Germany  and 
for  a  time  gave  instruction  in  English  to  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Prussia  and  to  Prince  Frederick 
Charles.  He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  Webster's 
Dictionary  and  also  edited  many  of  the  Latin 
classics,  such  as  Cicero’s  De  Officiis  (1850),  and 
made  an  English  version  of  Madvig’s  Latin 
Gram  mar. 

THACK'ERAY,  Anne  Isabella.  See 
Ritchie,  Anne  Isabella. 

THACKERAY,  William  Makepeace  (1811— 
63 ) .  A  famous  English  novelist.  He  was  born 
in  Calcutta,  where  his  father  was  at  the  time 
in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company,  July 
18,  1811.  At  the  age  of  six  he  was  sent  to 
England,  his  father  having  died,  and  placed  in 
the  care  of  an  aunt;  but  in  1821  his  mother  re¬ 
turned  with  her  second  husband  and  settled  near 
Ottery  Saint  Mary  in  Devonshire.  The  boy  re¬ 
garded  her  as  “a  daughter  of  the  gods’’  and  his 
stepfather,  it  is  asserted,  was  the  original  of 
Colonel  Newcome,  whom,  in  certain  traits,  he  did 
as  a  matter  of  fact  resemble.  After  attending 
two  small  schools,  Thackeray  entered  Charter- 
house,  also  vividly  described  in  The  Neivcomes, 
and  remained  there  six  years  (1822—28).  Then 
he  spent  a  little  over  a  year  at  Cambridge  as  a 
member  of  Trinity  College  and  of  the  brilliant 
society  of  which  Tennyson  (q.v. )  was  one.  Then 
during  two  years  abroad  he  met  Goethe  at  Wei¬ 
mar.  On'  his  return  to  England  he  studied  law 
for  a  while  at  the  Middle  Temple,  which  fur¬ 
nished  material  for  Pendennis.  On  his  coming 
of  age,  he  inherited  a  fortune  of  now  indeter¬ 
minate  size,  but  variously  estimated  at  £20,000 
and  £500.  At  all  events,  much  of  it  was  lost  by 
the  failure  of  an  Indian  bank,  and  a  quantum  of 
it  at  play,  and  he  had  to  depend  on  his  own  ex¬ 
ertions  for  a  living.  In  1833  he  became  editor  and 
proprietor  of  the  National  Standard,  a  periodical 
devoted  to  art  and  literature,  but  it  lived  only 
about  a  year,  after  which  he  spent  some  time  in 
Paris  studying  art.  He  offered  to  illustrate  Pick¬ 
wick,  but  his  services  were  declined  by  Dickens. 
In  1836  he  became  Paris  correspondent  for 
the  Constitutional,  and  married  there  Isabella, 
daughter  of  Colonel  Shawe  of  Doneraile,  County 
Cork. 

After  his  marriage  he  settled  in  London  and 
contributed  regularly  to  Frazer's  Magazine,  and 
was  busy  with  his  pencil  also.  His  first  book 
was  Flore  et  Zephyre  by  Th4ophile  Wagstaff 
(1836),  with  nine  comic  plates  from  his  own 
drawings.  To  Fraser’s  he  contributed  The  Yel- 
loioplush  Papers  in  1838.  Then  followed  The 
Paris  Sketchbook  (1840),  and  The  Irish  Sketch¬ 
book  (1843).  In  1842  he  began  writing  for 
Punch,  to  which  he  contributed  nearly  four 
hundred  sketches.  The  most  successful  were 
“Jeames’s  Diary”  (1845-46),  the  “Prize  Novel¬ 
ists”  (1847),  and  the  “Snob  Papers”  (1846-47). 
Thackeray  had  now  proved  himself  a  master  of 
burlesque,  and  an  acute  critic  of  contemporary 
manners.  In  their  kind  nothing  could  be  better 
than  the  “Prize  Novelists,”  in  which  he  exag¬ 
gerates  the  weaknesses  of  Bulwer,  Disraeli,  Le¬ 
ver,  Cooper,  and  Scott.  Barry  Lyndon  (1844) 
was  slow  in  winning  the  recognition  which  later 
criticism  has  given  it  in  justly '  declaring  it  to 
be,  in  the  concentrated  power  of  its  satire,  in  its 


literary  economy  and  in  other  literary  qualities 
one  of  his  very  finest  achievements.  He  had  also 
begun,  as  he  continued  throughout  life,  to  write 
occasional  verse,  commonly  in  the  ballad 
measure,  at  will  grave  and  pathetic  or  richly 
humorous. 

In  1847-48  Vanity  Fair  appeared  in  monthly 
parts,  and  Thackeray  assumed  his  place  in  Eng¬ 
lish  literature  by  the  side  of  Fielding.  This, 
with  his  other  great  novels,  Pendennis  ( 1848- 
50),  Henry  Esmond  (1852),  and  The  Neivcomes 
( 1853-55) ,  shows  him  at  the  height  of  his  power. 
Like  Vanity  Fair,  the  last  three  named  novels 
appeared  in  monthly  installments.  Somewhat 
inferior,  but  still  to"  be  mentioned  in  this  con¬ 
text,  are  The  Virginians  (in  monthly  parts 
(1857-59)  and  The  Adventures  of  Philip 
(1862).  Henry  Esmond,  especially,  has  taken 
rank  by  universal  consent  at  the  head  of  Eng¬ 
lish  historical  fiction.  With  its  other  merits,  it 
is  on  the  whole  a  wonderfully  faithful  repro¬ 
duction,  not  only  of  the  language,  but  of  the 
thought  and  the  manners  of  the  early  eighteenth 
century.  This  was  a  period  by  which  Thack¬ 
eray  was  always  strongly  attracted;  Addison, 
Swift,  Steele,  and  the  eighteenth-century  novel¬ 
ists  were  his  masters  in  literature.  He  even 
thought  of  writing  a  history  of  the  century ;  and 
his  studies  took  shape  in  the  delightful  lectures 
on  The  English  Humorists.  These  he  delivered 
in  America  in  1852  and  1853  with  such  success 
that  he  came  again  in  1855  with  The  Four 
Georges.  In  1857  he  tried  for  Parliament, 
standing  for  Oxford  in  the  Liberal  interests,  but 
was  fortunately  defeated.  In  1860  he  became 
the  first  editor  of  the  Cornhill  Magazine,  for 
which  he  wrote  his  last  novels,  Lovel  the  IT  id- 
ower  (1860),  The  Adventures  of  Philip  (1862), 
and  the  beautifully  written  Denis  Duval  (1864). 
In  the  Cornhill  appeared  (1860-63)  the  Round¬ 
about  Papers,  models  of  the  familiar  essay,  which 
represent  his  style  in  its  ripest  perfection. 

Though  not  far  beyond  middle  life,  Thackeray 
felt  the  burden  of  years,  and  resigned  the  editor¬ 
ship  of  the  Cornhill  in  April,  1862.  On  the 
morning  of  Dec.  24,  1863,  he  was  found  dead  in 
his  bed.  He  was  admirable  both  as  a  man  and 
as  a  novelist.  Tennyson  called  him  lovable  and 
noble-hearted.  So  said  Carlyle  and  all  who 
knew  him  well.  He  has  been  often  called  a 
cynic ;  and  indeed  he  was  unsparing  in  the  fierce¬ 
ness  with  which  he  plied  the  lash  on  anything 
which  savored  of  sham  or  pretense,  and  his  keen 
vision  detected  alloy  in  the  finest  natures.  Yet 
there  is  a  tremendous  contrast  between  his  satire 
and  that  of  Swift,  a  cynic  in  truth,  who  hated 
and  despis*ed  human  nature  and  rejoiced  in  lay¬ 
ing  bare  its  weaknesses.  Thackeray  wrote  al¬ 
ways  with  a  noble  tenderness  and  with  reverence 
for  all  that  was  good  and  true.  Yet  it  must  be 
admitted  that,  almost  without  exception,  the 
strongest  characters  in  his  novels  are  the  bad 
ones,  and  that  he  has  drawn  scarcely  a  woman 
whom  we  can  love  and  admire  without  quali¬ 
fication. 

Thackeray  described  the  life  of  the  upper 
classes,  with  its  fringe  of  servants  and  retainers, 
as  Dickens  that  of  the  lower ;  and  between  them 
they  give  an  unrivaled  picture  of  English  life 
in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  with  its 
characteristic  notes,  one  may  say,  for  the  first 
time  in  the  history  of  literature,  a  picture  of  a 
society  whose  chief  concern  is  the  making  or  the 
spending  of  money.  The  interest  in  social  ques¬ 
tions  which  he  was  among  the  first  to  import 


THAI 


THADDSEUS 

into  fiction  has  never  died  out;  though  Charlotte 
Bronte’s  enthusiastic  picture  of  him  (in  the 
pieface  to  the  second  edition  of  Jane  Eyre)  as 
a  prophet  who  comes  before  the  great  ones  of 
society  much  as  the  son  of  Inilah  came  before 
the  throned  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel,  and  who 
speaks  truth  as  deep,  with  a  power  as  prophet¬ 
like  and  as  vital,  a  mien  as  dauntless  and  as 
daring,  may  seem  to  us  overdrawn.  The  most 
indisputable  of  his  qualities  is  his  mastery  of 
a  singularly  pure,  flexible,  varied,  and  simple 
style — the  natural  unstrained  expression  of  his 
thoughts,  however  lofty  or  however  homely  they 
may  ha\e  been.  “He  blew  on  his  pipe,  and  words 
came  tripping  round  him,  like  children,  like 
pretty  little  children  who  are  perfectly  drilled 
for  the  dance ;  or  came,  did  he  will  it,  treading 
in  their  precedence,  like  kings,  gloomily.” 

Bibliography.  Out  of  respect  for  Thackeray’s 
request,  no  authorized  biography  of  him  has  ever 
been  vritten.  His  daughter,  Mrs.  Richmond 
Ritchie,  however,  has  written  sketches  for  each 
volume  of  the  Biographical  Edition  of  his  works 
(London,  1898-99),  and  his  son-in-law,  Sir  Les¬ 
lie  Stephen,  wrote  the  excellent  article  on  him 
in  the  Dictionary,  of  National  Biography.  A 
good  edition  of  the  1  Vorks  is  that  with  introduc¬ 
tion  by  Walter  Jerrold  (New  York,  1902).  An¬ 
thony  Trollope’s  Thackeray,  in  the  “English  Men 
of  Letters  Series’  (London,  1879),  is  interesting 
on  the  score  of  a  few  personal  impressions,  but 
on  the  whole  unsatisfactory  and  unworthy  of  its 
subject.  See  also:  Lewis  Melville,  Life  (London, 
1899),  and  L.  S.  Benjamin,  Life  (2  vols.,  New 
York,  1906).  For  early  work,  not  found  in  the 
Biographical  Edition,  see  Unidentified  Contribu¬ 
tions  of  Thackeray  to  Punch,  edited  by  Spielmann 
(ib.,  1899),  and  Thaclcerdy’s  Stray  Papers,  1821 
to  1847,  edited  by  Melville  (ib.,  1901).*  Consult 
also  Hunter,  The  Thackeray s  in  India  ( ib.,  1897)  ; 
the  biography  by  Merivale  and  Marzials  in  the 
“Great  Writers  Series”  (ib.,  1891)  ;  Whibley  (ib., 
1903)  ;  Crowe,  Homes  and  Haunts  of  Thackeray 
( ib.,  1897)  ;  id.,  With  Thackeray  in  America 
(ib.,  1893);  Wilson,  Thackeray  in  the  United 
States  (New  York,  1904).  For  criticism,  con¬ 
sult  especially  the  essays  by  Harrison,  in  Early 
Victorian  Literature  (London,  1895);  Brownell, 
in  Victorian  Prose  Masters  (New  York,  1901)  ;’ 
Scudder,  Social  Ideals  in  English  Letters  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1898);  Lilly,  in  Four  English  Humorists 
of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (London,  1895)  ;  Skel¬ 
ton,  Table  Talk  of  Shirley  (ib.,  1895)  ;  Melville, 
Thackeray  Country  (New  York,  1905);  L.  S. 
Benjamin,  Some  Aspects  of  Thackeray  (Boston, 
1911). 

THADD.ZETTS,  thad-de'us  (Gk.  0a5 daios,  Thad- 
daios,  a  name  of  uncertain  derivation  and  mean- 
ing).  One  of  the  12  Apostles  in  the  list  given 
in  Mark  iii.  16-19  and  Matt.  x.v2-4  (authorized 
version,  “Lebbseus”).  In  the  corresponding  lists 
in  Luke  vi.  14—16  and  Acts  i.  14  he  is  named 
Judas  [son]  of  James,  doubtless  to  distinguish 
him  from  Judas  Iscariot.  As  so  named  he  may 
be  the  Judas  referred  to  in  John  xiv.  22.  Some 
inferior  manuscripts  in  the  lists  of  Mark  and 
Matthew  substitute  Lebbseus  for  Thaddseus,  a 
reading  possibly  due  to  some  scribe  who,  igno¬ 
rant  of  the  identity  of  Levi  with  Matthew,  in¬ 
troduced  the  former  into  the  apostolic  list  under 
this  name  (cf.  Origen,  Contra  Celsum,  i.  62, 
where  Lebes  is  used  as  the  equivalent  of  Levein 
[Levi]).  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccles.  i.  13)  makes 
Thaddseus  one  of  the  Seventy,  and  refers  to  him 
as  sent  by  Thomas  the  apostle  to  Abgar,  King 


57 

of  Edessa,  in  fulfilment  of  a  promise  of  Christ  to 
him  to  heal  him  of  an  incurable  disease  and  to 
evangelize  his  household.  Eusebius  claims  to 
ha\e  taken  this  story  direct  from  Syrian  sources. 
In  the  Greek  Acts  of  Tliaddceus  he  is  identified 

ith  Lebbseus,  and  referred  to  as  evangelizinir 
Syrians  and  Armenians.  The  Syrian  tradition 
embodied  in  the  Doctrine  of  Addai  makes  Addai, 
one  of  the  Seventy,  the  apostle  of  the  Syrian 
church. 

THAD  DEUS  OF  WAR/SAW\  A  romance 
by  Jane  Porter  (1803). 

THAER,  tar,  Albrecht  Daniel  (1752-1828). 
A  noted  German  agriculturist,  whose  work  revo¬ 
lutionized  certain  forms  of  farm  management 
and  animal  production  of  his  day.  Born  at  Celle, 
Hanover,  he  was  trained  as  a  physician,  but 
early  turned  his  attention  to  agriculture.  On 
his  farm  in  Celle  he  demonstrated  the  value  of 
intensive  farming,  stall  feeding  of  soiling  crops, 
and  rotation  of  crops  in  connection  with  potato 
culture.  He  was  active  in  applying  scientific 
principles  to  agriculture,  systematizing  accounts, 
introducing  agricultural  implements,  and  im¬ 
proving  sheep  for  the  production  of  fine  wool. 
In  1802  lie  began  a  course  of  agricultural  lec¬ 
tures,  out  of  which  grew  the  Agricultural  Insti¬ 
tute  of  Celle.  In  1806  he  established  at  Moglin, 
near  Berlin,  an  agricultural  institute,  which  be¬ 
came  celebrated.  He  was  appointed  professor 
at  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1810,  started  his 
famous  sheep-breeding  farm  at  Moglin  in  1811, 
and  from  1815  on  had  charge  of  the  royal  sheep¬ 
breeding  farms,  which  he  improved.  Resigning 
his  professorship  in  1818,  he  devoted  himself  to 
his  institute  at  Moglin,  which  was  raised  to  a 
Royal  Academy  of  Agriculture  in  1824.  Thaer 
founded  and  edited  the  Annalen  der  nieder - 
sdchsischen  Landunrtschaft  (1798-1804),  and 
was  the  author  of  a.  large  number  of  treatises  on 
agriculture,  several  of  which  were  epoch-making, 
lhe  Linleitung  zur  Kenntnis  der  englisclien 
Landwirtschaft  ( 1798 ;  3d  ed.,  1816)  made  his 
name  first  more  widely  known,  and  his  great 
work  Grundsiitze  der  rationellen  Landwirtschaft 
(1809-10;  new  ed.,  1880)  was  translated  into 
most  of  the  European  languages.  For  his  biog¬ 
raphy,  consult  Korte  (Leipzig,  1839). 

THAI,  ta'e,  or  TAI  (free).  A  group  of 
peoples  of  Farther  India,  including  the  Thos 
(q.v.)  and  Muongs  (q.v.)  in  the  northeast 
( Tongking  and  China),  the  Shans  (q.v.)  in  the 
northwest  (Burma,  Siam,  China),  the  Laotians 
(see  Laos)  in  the  south  (the  Laos  States,  French 
Siam),  and  the  Siamese  in  the  southwest 
(Siam).  The  term  Thai  is  applied  by  certain 
writers  to  the  Siamese  in  particular,  but  their 
proper  appellation  is  rather  Little  Thai,  their 
ancestors,  the  Shans,  being  called  the  Great  Thai. 
The  Thai  peoples  speak  languages  belonging  to 
the  same  linguistic  stock.  The  Siamese  present 
the  Thai  type,  much  changed  by  intermixture 
with  Khmers,  Hindus,  Kuis,  Malays,  and  other 
stocks.  They  are  of  medium  stature  and  brachv- 
cephalic,  while  the  Laotians  are  shorter  and  less 
broadheaded.  Among  some  of  the  Shan  tribes 
the  primitive  Thai  type  is  best  preserved.  The 
Ihai  peoples  have  shown  much  political  capacity. 
Consult:  Pellegoix,  Description  du  royaume  Thai 
ou  Siam  (Paris,  1854)  ;  Bastian,  Die  Volker  des 
bstlichen  Asians  (Leipzig,  1866);  Hellwald,  Hin- 
terindische  Lander  und  Volker  (ib.,  1880)  ; 
Forbes,  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Languages 
of  Further  India  (London,  1881);  Colquhoun 
Across  Chryst  (ib.,  1883)  ;  Diguet,  Etude  de  la 


THAIS 


THALLUS 


langue  Tai  (Paris,  1896).  See  China,  Eth¬ 
nology. 

THAIS,  tha'is  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Oafs).  An 
Athenian  courtesan,  famous  for  wit  and  beauty. 
She  accompanied  Alexander  the  Great  to  Asia, 
and,  according  to  Cleitarchus,  induced  him,  dur¬ 
ing  a  festival,  to  set  fire  to  the  palace  of  the 
Persian  kings  at  Persepolis  (compare  Drvden, 
Ode  to  Saint  Cecilia’s  Day ) .  After  the  death 
of  Alexander  she  lived  with  Ptolemy  Lagi,  King 
of  Egypt,  who  is  said  (by  Athenseus)  to  have 
married  her,  and  by  whom  she  gave  birth  to 
two  sons,  Leontiscus  and  Lagus,  and  a  daughter, 
Irene. 

THAIS.  An  opera  by  Massenet  (q.v.),  first 
produced  in  Paris,  March  16,  1894;  in  the 
United  States,  Nov.  24,  1907  (New  York). 
THAKURA.  See  Tagore,  Sir  R. 
THALBERG,  tal'berK,  Sigismund  (1812-71). 

A  German  pianist,  born  at  Geneva,  Switzerland. 
He  was  the  natural  son  of  Prince  Moritz  Die- 
trichstein  and  received  his  musical  education 
from  1822  on  at  Vienna,  where  he  studied  under 
Hummel  and  composition  under  Sechter.  Ilis 
appearance  in  public  in  1830  was  a  success,  and 
he  became  chamber  virtuoso  to  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  in  1834,  appearing  in  Paris  (1835)  as 
a  rival  of  Liszt.  After  triumphs  in  England, 
Russia,  and  Italy,  in  Brazil  (1855—56),  and  in 
the  United  States  (1856-58),  he  retired  to  his 
home  at  Posilipo,  near  Naples,  whence  he  only 
once  more  undertook  a  concert  tour  to  Paris  and 
London  (1862)  and  to  Brazil  (1863).  Perhaps 
his  strongest  point  as  a  pianist  was  his  mastery 
of  the  legato  singing  tone.  In  every  other  re¬ 
spect  his  style,  though  brilliant,  was  shallow. 

THALER,  ta'ler.  A  German  coin,  first  struck 
at  Joachimsthal,  Bohemia,  in  1519  and  hence 
called  Joachimthaler,  whence  the  modern  name. 
The  thaler,  divided  into  30  silbergroschen  of 
12  pfennigs,  was  the  German  unit  of  value  until 
1873,  when  the  mark  was  adopted.  The  thaler 
is  still  in  circulation  with  the  value  of  3  marks, 
about  69  cents.  See  Plate  II  of  Numismatics. 

THALES,  "tha'lez  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ©aA^s). 
The  earliest  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  and  the 
founder  of  the  Ionic  or  Physical  school.  ( See 
Ionian  School.)  He  flourished  in  the  first  half 
of  the  sixth  century  b.c.  He  was  a  native  of 
Miletus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
of  Phoenician  descent.  He  was  reckoned  one  of 
the  Seven  Wise  Men  (q.v.),  possessed  sufficient 
astronomical  knowledge  to  enable  him  to  predict 
the  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  the  reign  of  the  Lydian 
King  Alyattes,  and  was  an  excellent  mathema¬ 
tician.  He  was  famed  also  for  his  practical  and 
political  wisdom,  but  especially  because  he  was 
the  first  among  the  Greeks  to  set  aside  the  cur¬ 
rent  explanations  of  the  universe  and  look  for  a 
first  principle  ( apxv )  which  might  be  grasped 
through  reason.  This  first  principle  he  found 
in  water,  the  source  of  all  things,  into  which, 
also,  all  things  were  resolved.  Thales  left  no 
writings,  and  even  among  the  Greeks  consider¬ 
able  doubt  prevailed  as  to  his  exact  teachings. 
Consult:  Zeller,  Philosophic  der  Griechen,  vol.  i 
(4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1900)  ;  James  Burnet,  “From 
Thales  to  Plato,”  in  Greek  Philosophy,  part  i 
(London,  1914)  ;  Ritter  and  Preller,  Historia 
Philosophice  Grcecw  (9th  ed.,  Gotha,  1914). 

TEALI'A  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ©aXeia,  Thaleia, 
from  6a\eia,  thaleia,  luxuriant,  blooming,  from 
edWeiv,  thallein,  to  bloom).  One  of  the  nine 
Muses  (q.v.).  In  the  assignment  of  specific 
functions  to  the  Muses  she  became  the  Muse  of 


158 

Comedy,  and  was  represented  as  holding  the 
comic  mask. 

THALLINE,  thal'in  or  -en.  A  synthetic 
drug  derived  from  coal  tar.  As  thalline  sali¬ 
cylate  it  is  employed  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic 
and  in  rheumatism;  as  thalline  sulphate  it  is 
used  as  an  antiseptic  and  antipyretic  and  has 
been  suggested  as  a  substitute  for  antipyrine,  but 
its  effects  are  not  so  lasting,  nor  is  the  drug 
without  danger. 

THALLIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  6a\\os, 
thallos,,  green  shoot).  A  metallic  element  dis¬ 
covered  by  Crookes  in  1861,  and  independently 
by  Lamy  in  1862.  It  was  originally  found  by 
the  bright  green  line  which  its  compounds  give 
when  examined  by  the  spectroscope.  It  occurs 
as  the  selenide  in  combination  with  copper  and 
silver,  in  the  rare  mineral  crookesite,  in  small 
quantities  in  copper  and  iron  pyrites,  and  in  the 
seleniferous  deposits  from  sulphuric  acid;  also 
in  minute  quantities  in  other  minerals,  and  in 
certain  mineral  waters.  It  may  be  prepared  from 
the  flue  dust  of  sulphuric  acid  works  in  which 
pyrites  containing  thallium  are  burned,  by  heat¬ 
ing  the  dust  with  water  acidulated  with  sul¬ 
phuric  acid,  precipitating  the  resulting  solution 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  heating  the  precipitate 
to  dryness  with  sulphuric  acid,  dissolving  the 
resulting  thallium  sulphate  in  water,  and  precip¬ 
itating  the  metallic  thallium  by  zinc.  Thallium 
(symbol,  Tl;  atomic  weight,  204.0)  is  a  soft, 
crystalline,  leadlike  metal,  with  a  specific  grav¬ 
ity  of  11.9,  and  a  melting  point  oi  290°  C.  (554° 
E.).  When  exposed  to  the  air  it  tarnishes 
rapidly,  becoming  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of 
oxide,  which  preserves  the  rest  of  the  metal.  It 
combines  with  oxygen  to  form  a  monoxide  ( TLO ) 
and  a  trioxide  (T1203),  which  yield  correspond¬ 
ing  series  of  salts,  known  as  the  thallous  and 
thallic  compounds.  The  compounds  of  thallium 
are  very  poisonous,  producing  symptoms  like 
those  of  lead  poisoning.  Their  presence  in  a 
given  substance  may  be  readily  detected  by  the 
beautiful  green  color  which  they  impart  to  a 
nonluminous  gas  flame. 

THAL'LOPHYTES  (from  Gk.  6a\\ os,  thallos ,. 
green  shoot,  from  da\\ei.v,  thallein,  to  bloom  -j- 
< pvrov ,  phyton,  plant).  One  of  the  four  great 
divisions  of  the  plant  kingdom,  containing  the 
algae  and  fungi  ( qq.v. ) .  In  theory  the  thallo- 
plivtes  are  distinguished  from  the  other  groups 
by  having  a  thallus  body.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
there  are  many  thallophytes  with  upright  stem- 
like  axes,  rootlike  regions  of  attachment,  and 
lateral  members  which  function  as  and  resemble 
leaves,  although  not  at  all  homologous  with  the 
leaves  of  higher  plants.  The  best  examples  of 
these  are  found  among  the  Phseophyceae,  Rhodo- 
phycese,  and  Charales  (qq.v.).  The  thallophytes 
are  readily  distinguished  from  the  bryophytes 
above  them  by  the  absence  of  the  peculiar  female 
sexual  organ  ( archegonium,  q.v. ) ,  and  the  sex¬ 
less  phase  or  plant  (sporopliyte,  q.v.)  character¬ 
istic  of  the  bryophytes  and  pteridophytes.  They 
are,  therefore,"  defined  more  through  the  absence 
of  structures  found  in  the  higher  plants  than  by 
any  agreement  among  themselves. 

THALLUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  8a\\os,  green 
shoot).  A  plant  body  whose  vegetative  struc¬ 
ture  is  not  differentiated  into  such  organs  as 
stem,  leaf,  etc.  Most  of  the  algae  and  fungi 
(thallophytes,  q.v.)  have  thallus  bodies.  Many 
liverworts,  the  sexual  phase  (gametophyte)  of 
ferns,  and  even  certain  reduced  and  simplified 
flowering  plants  such  as  the  duckweed  ( Lemna ), 


THAMES 


159 


THANE 


present  a  thalloid  structure.  On  the  other  hand, 
certain  thallophytes,  especially  among  the  brown 
and  red  algae,  have  bodies  dilFerentiated  far  be¬ 
yond  the  limits  of  the  definition  of  a  thallus. 

THAMES,  temz.  The  most  important  river 
in  Oreat  Britain,  flowing  witli  a  southeastern 
trend  through  the  southern  portion  of  the  King¬ 
dom  and  passing  through  London  (Map:  Eng¬ 
land,  G  5).  Its  headwaters,  rising  on  the  south¬ 
east  slope  of  the  Cotswold  Hills,  in  Gloucester, 
five  miles  south  of  Cheltenham,  converge  on  Ox¬ 
ford  and  flow  thence  in  a  southeasterly  direction 
to  Reading,  through  a  gap  in  the  Chiltern  es¬ 
carpment.  The  Thames  thereafter  follows  a  gen¬ 
erally  eastward  trend.  A  few  miles  below  Graves¬ 
end  it  expands  into  a  wide  estuary,  and  enters  the 
North  Sea.  Its  length  is  about  215  miles.  The 
upper  part  of  the  river  is  sometimes  called  the  Isis. 
At  London  Bridge  the  width  of  the  river  is  about 
290  yards;  at  Woolwich,  490  yards;  at  Gravesend 
pier,  800  yards;  3  miles  below  Gravesend,  1290 
yards;  at  Nore  Light,  6  miles;  and  at  its  mouth, 
between  Whitstable  and  Foulness  Point,  about 
8  miles  below  the  Nore,  the  estuary  is  18  miles 
across.  The  river  is  navigable  for  barges  to 
Lechlade,  upward  of  200  miles  above  its  mouth, 
and  it  is  connected  with  several  important  canals, 
affording  communication  with  the  west  and 
south  coasts,  and  with  the  interior  of  the  coun¬ 
try.  Its  upper  reaches  and  islands  are  much 
resorted  to  for  their  sylvan  beauty,  and  pleasure 
steamers  ply  daily  between  Kingston,  Henley, 
and  Oxford.  The  London  docks  now  embrace  35 
miles  of  the  river  from  the  Tower  Bridge  to  Til¬ 
bury  Dock  and  the  largest  steamships  are  moored 
at  these  docks.  While  the  upriver  docks  are 
tidal,  the  lower  ones  admit  any  vessel  at  any 
stage  of  the  tide.  On  the  average  a  vessel  ar¬ 
rives  at  the  port  of  London  every  10  minutes. 
The  Thames  is  also  the  main  source  of  the  water 
supply  of  London,  the  daily  supply  delivered  ex¬ 
ceeding  225,000,000  gallons.  The  part  of  the 
river  immediately  below  London  Bridge  is  called 
the  Pool,  and  the  part  between  the  bridge  and 
Blackwall  is  called  the  Port.  Two  embankments 
have  been  formed,  one  on  the  north  shore  from 
Blackfriars  Bridge  to  Westminster,  and  one  on 
the  south  shore  from  Westminster  Bridge  to 
Yauxhall.  Among  the  places  on  the  Thames  be¬ 
sides  those  above  mentioned  are  Windsor,  Eton, 
and  Richmond.  Consult :  H.  W.  Wack,  In 
Tliamesland  (New  York,  1906)  ;  T.  R.  Way,  The 
Thames  from  Chelsea  to  the  Nore  (ib.,  1907); 
Hilaire  Belloc,  Historic  Thames  (ib.,  1907); 
T.  H.  M.  Howe,  The  Thames  (ib.,  1911)  ;  G.  E. 
Mitton,  The  Thames  (ib.,  1914).  See  Loxdon. 

THAMES,  temz,  or  GRA'HAMSTOWN.  A 
gold-mining  town  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Firth 
of  Thames,  an  inlet  in  the  Hauraki  Gulf,  North 
Island,  New  Zealand,  40  miles  east-southeast  of 
Auckland  (Map:  New  Zealand,  N.,  B  4).  Pop., 
1911,  4104. 

THAMES,  temz;  locally,  also  thamz,  tamz. 

A  river  of  eastern  Connecticut  (Map :  Connecticut, 

G  4) .  It  is  a  broad  and  navigable  tidal  estuary, 
15  miles  long,  receiving  the  Shetucket,  and  en¬ 
tering  Long  Island  Sound  at  its  eastern  end.  At 
its  mouth  stands  New  London,  and  at  its  head 
Norwich.  The  Shetucket  and  its  branches  supply, 
power  for  considerable  manufactures. 

THAMES,  Battle  of  the.  A  battle  fought 
at  the  Moravian  settlement  on  the  Thames  River  • 
in  the  township  of  Oxford,  Ontario,  Canada,  on 
Oct.  5,  1813,  during  the  War  of  1812,  between  an 
American  force  of  about  3000  (largely  Kentucky 


volunteers)  under  Gen.  William  H.  Harrison  and 
a  British  force  of  about  650  under  General  Proc¬ 
tor,  aided  by  a  force  of  Indians,  whose  number 
has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  800  to 
2000,  under  Tecurnseh.  For  days  Proctor  had 
retreated  before  Harrison,  but  had  at  last  de¬ 
cided  to  give  battle  and  had  drawn  up  his  troops 
to  receive  the  advancing  Americans.  The  battle 
was  begun  and  virtually  decided  by  a  cavalry 
charge  under  Col.  Richard  M.  Johnson,  who  has 
been  credited  with  having  personally  killed  Te- 
cumseh.  The  British  broke,  and  fled  from  the 
field,  with  Proctor  at  their  head;  the  only  seri¬ 
ous  resistance  was  that  of  the  Indians.  The 
American  loss  in  killed  and  wounded  was  re¬ 
ported  by  Harrison  as  29 ;  that  of  the  British  was 
about  35,  a  large  number  being  taken  prisoners. 
The  Indian  loss  is  not  definitely  known,  but  it 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  large.  Proctor  was 
soon  afterward  disgraced  for  his  conduct  during 
the  battle.  Johnson  contended  that  the  battle 
was  fought  and  won  by  his  regiment  of  mounted 
Kentuckians.  By  this  battle  the  right  division 
of  the  British  army  in  Upper  Canada  was 
greatly  weakened,  and  as  the  result  of  Tecumseh’s 
death  the  powerful  Indian  confederacy  in  the 
Northwest  against  the  United  States  was  broken 
up. 

THAMES  EMBANKMENT.  An  important 
public  work  in  London  consisting  of  broad  roads 
along  the  Thames,  protected  on  the  river  side 
by  massive  granite  walls.  The  finest  portion, 
the  Victoria  Embankment,  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  river,  between  Blackfriars  Bridge  and  West¬ 
minster,  was  constructed  in  1864-1870.  It  has 
a  carriageway  64  feet  wide,  flanked  by  broad 
footwalks,  and  is  planted  with  trees  and 
adorned  with  gardens  containing  statues  of  no¬ 
table  men.  The  obelisk  known  as  Cleopatra’s 
Needle  stands  near  the  Adelphi  Steps.  The  Al¬ 
bert  Embankment  on  the  right  bank,  between 
Westminster  Bridge  and  Vauxhall  Bridge,  with  a 
60-foot  roadway,  was  completed  in  1869,  and  the 
Chelsea  Embankment,  on  the  left  bank,  in  1873. 

THAMXJGA'DI.  Another  name  for  Tim- 
gacl  (q.v.). 

THAMTRIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Qd/uivpis) .  A 
Thracian  bard  who  challenged  the  Muses  to  a 
contest  of  singing.  He  was  overcome  by  them 
and  as  a  punishment  was  blinded  and  deprived 
of  his  gift  of  song. 

THAM'ATGP'SIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  ddva- 
tos,  thanatos,  death  -f-  opis,  opsis,  sight,  view ) . 
A  well-known  poem  by  William  Cullen  Bryant, 
written  in  1811,  and  published  in  1817. 

THANATOS  (Gk.  Odvaros,  death).  The 
Greek  god  of  death,  called  by  the  Romans  Mors, 
and  twin  brother  of  Sleep  ( see  Somnus  ) ,  with 
whom  he  is  usually  represented. 

THANE  (AS.  pegen ,  pegn,  OHG.  degan,  at¬ 
tendant,  servant,  soldier,  Ger.  Degen,  heroic  war¬ 
rior),  or  Tiiegn.  The  name  by  which  the  class 
of  minor  nobles  was  known  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times.  Any  freeman  who  had  acquired  five  hides 
of  land  and  a  special  appointment  in  the  King’s 
hall  became  a  thane.  He  was  bound  to  service 
in  war,  but  was  protected  by  a  higher  wergild 
(q.v. )  than  the  ordinary  freeman.  Like  the 
gesith,  who  was  the  noble  living  with  the  King, 
the  thane  was  a  development  from  the  Germanic 
comitatus  or  noble  follower  of  some  chief,  de¬ 
scribed  by  Tacitus.  After  the  Norman  Conquest 
the  thanes  were  merged  in  the  class  of  knights. 
In  Scotland,  however,  it  was  long  used  as  a 
designation  of  high  rank,  e.g.,  the  chief  of  a  clan. 


THANE  OF  CAWDOR 


THAUN 


160 


Consult  Sir  William  Stubbs,  Constitutional  His¬ 
tory  of  England,  vol.  i  (6th  ed.,  Oxford,  1897). 
THANE  OF  CAWDOR.  See  Cawdor/ 
THAN'ET,  Isle  of.  The  northeast  corner  of 
Kent  (q.v.),  England  (Map:  England,  H  5).  It 
is  8  miles,  in  length  and  from  4  to  6  in  breadth. 
Agriculture  is  successfully  pursued.  It  contains 
the  well-known  watering  places,  Ramsgate,  Mar¬ 
gate,  Westgate,  and  Broadstairs.  Pop.,  1901, 
68,350;  1911,  72,574.  Consult  SimSon,  Historic 
Thanet  (London,  1891). 

THANET,  Octave.  See  French,  Alice. 
THANKSGIVING  DAY.  In  America,  the 
name  of  a  national  holiday,  which  originated 
in  New  England.  After  the  first  harvest  of  the 
New  England  colonists  in  1621  Governor  Brad¬ 
ford  made  provision  for  a  day  of  thanksgiving 
and  prayer.  In  1623  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer 
in  the  midst  of  drought  was  changed  into  thanks¬ 
giving  by  the  coming  of  rain  during  the  prayers; 
gradually  the  custom  prevailed  of  appointing 
thanksgiving  annually  after  harvest.  These  ap¬ 
pointments  were  by  proclamation  of  the  Gover¬ 
nors  of  the  several  New  England  Colonies.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  Revolution  a  day  of  national  thanksgiv¬ 
ing  was  annually  recommended  by  Congress.  In 
1817  New  York  adopted  it  as  an  annual  custom, 
and  it  spread  through  many  of  the  States  by  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1864  Presi¬ 
dent  Lincoln  appointed  a  day  of  thanksgiving, 
and  since  then  the  presidents  have  issued  a 
Thanksgiving  proclamation,  generally  designat¬ 
ing  the  last  Thursday  of  November.  The  memory 
oAts  origin  as  a  State  appointment  survives  in 
the  proclamations  of  the  governors  of  the  States, 
which  follow  that  of  the  president.  Consult 
Love,  The  Fast  and  Thanksgiving  Days  of  New 
England  (New  York,  1895). 

THAR,  thar  (East  Indian  name),  or  Tahr. 
A  goat  antelope  (Hemitragus  jemlaicus)  allied 
to  the  Nilgiri  goat  (see  Nilgai),  which  inhabits 
the  higher  forest  regions  of  the  southwestern 
Himalayas.  It  is  about  3%  feet  tall.  It  is  usu¬ 
ally  dark  brown,  but  variable,  and  lighter  in  win¬ 
ter  The  female  is  singular  in  having  four 
teats.  The  horns  are  black  and  bend  backward. 
This  species  is  known  in  Kashmir  as  kras,  and 
in  Nepal  as  jharal.  See  Plate  of  Goat  Ante¬ 
lopes. 

THARAUD,  ta'rd',  Jerome  (1874-  ) 

and  Jean  (1877-  ).  French  novelists, 

brothers,  both  bom  at  St.  Julien.  Their  liteiary 
partnership  was  so  close  that  when  they  signed 
their  joint  work  “J.  J.”  it  was  impossible  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  between  them.  (For  similar  collabora¬ 
tions,  see  articles  on  the  brothers  Goncourt, 
Margiteritte,  and  Rosny.  )  The  Tharauds  were 
awarded  the  Goncourt  prize  in  1906.  They 
wrote:  Le  coltineur  debile  (1899);  La  lumiere 
(1900);  La  legende  de  la  Vierge  and  Dingley, 
Villustre  ecrivain  (both  1902)  ;  Contes  de  la 
Vierge,  Les  moines  de  VAtlios,  and  Les  hobe- 
reaux  (all  1904)  ;  La  mile  et  les  champs  (1906)  ; 
Bar  cochebas  (1907);  La  maitresse  servante 
(1911);  La  fete  arabe  (1912);  La  tragedie  de 
Ravaillac  (1913);  La  bataille  de  Scutari  et 
d’Albani  (1913). 

THA'SOS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  0d<ros).  The  most 
northerly  island  in  the  ZEgean  Sea,  a  few  miles 
off  the  coast  of  Macedonia  (Map:  Greece,  F  3). 
Circumference,  about  40  miles;  pop.,  1914,  ac¬ 
cording  to  Baedeker,  about  12,000,  mostly  Greeks, 
scattered  over  8  villages.  Thasos  is  mountain¬ 
ous,  the  chief  summit,  Hypsarion,  being  about 
3400  feet  in  height,  and  is,'  on  the  whole,  barren. 


It  exports  some  oil,  honey,  wax,  and  timber.  The 
island  seems  to  have  been  the  seat  of  a  Phoenician 
trading  post  in  very  early  times,  but  near  the 
end  of  the  eighth  century  b.c.  it  was  colonized  by 
Parians.  The  settlers  had  a  severe  struggle  with 
the  natives  before  possessing  the  island  and  its 
rich  gold  mines.  They  later  reached  the  neigh¬ 
boring  coast,  where  gold  was  also  found,  and  be¬ 
came  very  wealthy.  Thasos  submitted  to  the 
Persians,  but  after  the  defeat  of  Xerxes  joined 
the  Delian  League.  After  an  attempt  to  revolt, 
it  was  reduced  by  the  Athenians,  who  held  it  for 
most  of  the  time  until  the  end  of  the  third  cen¬ 
tury  b.c.,  when  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  Mace- 
don.  After  the  battle  of  Cynoscephahe  (197  b.c.) 
Thasos  long  enjoyed  autonomy  under  the  Romans. 
Consult:  Conze,  Reisen  auf  den  Inseln  des  thra- 
kischen  Meeres  (Hannover,  1860)  ;  H.  F.  Tozer, 
Islands  of  the  AEgean  (Oxford,  1890);  Jacobs, 
Thasiaca  (Gottingen,  1893);  J.  Baker-Penroye, 
in  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  vol.  xxix  (Lon¬ 
don,  1909);  K.  Baedeker,  Konst antinop el,  Bal- 
kanstaaten,  Kleinasien,  Archipel,  Cypern  (2d 
ed.,  Leipzig,  1914). 

THATCH,  Edward.  See  Teach,  Edward. 

THATCH'ER,  Henry  Knox  (1806-80).  An 
American  naval  officer,  born  at  Montpelier,  near 
Thomaston,  Me.  He  entered  the  navy  as  a  mid-/ 
shipman  in  1823;  rose  through  successive  grades 
to  the  rank  of  commodore  in  1862  and  to  that  of 
rear  admiral  in  1866.  In  1862  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  steam  frigate  Colorado,  with 
which  he  joined  the  North  Atlantic  Squadron. 
In  December,  1864,  and  January,  1865,  he  com¬ 
manded  the  first  division  of  Admiral  David  D. 
Porter’s  fleet  in  the  attacks  upon  Fort  Fisher, 
and  showed  so  much  ability  that  he  was  soon 
afterward  appointed  acting  rear  admiral  and 
assigned  to  succeed  Farragut  in  command  of 
the  West. Gulf  Squadron.  In  cooperation  with 
Major  General  Canby  he  then  besieged  and  cap¬ 
tured  the  city  of  Mobile  with  its  remaining  for¬ 
tifications  and  the  fleet  of  Confederate  ironclads. 
Soon  afterward  he  occupied  Galveston  without 
opposition,  and  so  completed  the  conquest  of  the 
Gulf  coast.  In  1866  he  was  given  command  of 
the  North  Pacific  Squadron,  a  position  which  he 
held  until  1868,  when  he  was  placed  upon  the 
retired  list. 

THAU.  See  Amboina. 

THAULOW,  tou'lov,  Frits  (1847-1906).  A 
Norwegian  landscape  painter.  He  was  born  in 
Christiania  and  studied  at  the  Copenhagen  Acad¬ 
emy  and  under  Gude  at  Karlsruhe.  On  his  re¬ 
turn  to  Norway  he  joined  the  new  movement  in 
art  and  about  1880  removed  to  Paris.  His  fa¬ 
vorite  subjects  were  running  water,  snow  scenes, 
and  nocturnes,  which  he  interpreted  with  truth¬ 
fulness  and  rare  poetic  charm.  Fine  examples 
are  “A  November  Day  in  Normandy”  (National 
Gallery,  Berlin)  and  “Winter  in  Normandy” 
(Luxembourg,  Paris).  Other  works  are  in  the 
museums  of  Munich,  Stockholm,  and  Christiania. 
He  held  many  exhibitions  in  the  LTnited  States, 
where  he  is  very  well  represented  in  private  col¬ 
lections,  such  as  the  Walters  collection,  Balti¬ 
more,  and  that  of  ex-senator  Clark,  New  York. 

THAU'MATUR'GUS.  See  Gregory  Thau- 
mataitrgus,  Saint. 

THAUMATURGY,  thji'ma-tur'ji.  See  Leger¬ 
demain. 

THAUN,  ta'en',  Philippe  de  (fl.  c.1100- 
c.1135 ) .  The  earliest  Anglo-Norman  poet  whose 
work  has  come  down  to  us.  Little  is  known  of 
him.  He  probably  belonged  to  a  family  near 


THAUSING 


161 


THAXTER 


Caen,  France,  whence  he  went  to  England.  He 
wrote  “Li  Cumpoz,”  or  “Computus,”  the  so-called 
“Livre  des  Creatures,”  about  1115.  It  is  a  poeti¬ 
cal  treatise  in  six-syllabled  lines  on  the  ecclesi¬ 
astical  calendar.  Of  its  seven  manuscripts  three 
are  in  the  British  Museum  and  three  in  the 
Vatican.  More  important  is  “Li  Bestiare,”  or 
“Physiologus,”  which  the  poet  probably  composed 
about  10  years  later.  It  was  dedicated  to  Ade¬ 
laide,  Queen  of  Henry  I.  But  one  manuscript 
has  survived,  viz.,  Cotton,  Vespasian,  E.  x.  It 
contains  3194  verses,  consists  of  lines  of  six  and 
eight  syllables,  and  rhymes  in  couplets.  It  is 
the  first  French  bestiary  based  on  the  Latin 
Physiologus,  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  of  the 
bestiaries  (q.v. ).  Philippe  groups  his  creatures 
as  beasts,  birds,  and  stones,  and  treats  each 
creature  as  a  symbol.  His  allegories  are  in  gen¬ 
eral  naive;  those  of  a  dove  and  the  pelican  are 
not  without  beauty.  He  is  more  valuable  for  his 
linguistic  legacy  in  connection  with  the  langue 
d’o'il  than  for  his  poetic  talents,  which  were  in 
fact  poor.  Consult  Mall,  Li  Cumpoz  de  Philippe 
de  Thatin  (Strassburg,  1873),  and  Walberg,  Le 
bestiaire  de  Philippe  du  Thaiin  (Paris,  1900). 

THAUSING,  tou'slng,  Moritz  (1838-84). 
An  Austrian  art  historian.  He  was  born  near 
Leitmeritz,  Bohemia.  He  studied  history  and 
Germanic  philology  at  the  universities  of  Prague, 
Vienna,  and  Munich,  and  in  1868  became  curator 
of  the  Archduke  Alliert’s  collection  of  drawings 
and  engravings  in  the  Albertina,  Vienna.  In 
1873  he  was  called  to  the  University  of  Vienna 
as  professor  of  art  history.  Thausing  was  an 
able  pioneer  in  research  on  Albrecht  Diirer.  His 
chiefs  works  are:  Diirers  Brief e,  Tagebiicher,  und 
Reime  (1872)  ;  Diirer:  Geschichte  seines  Lebens 
und  seiner  Kunst  (2d  ed.,  1884). 

THAW  CASE.  A  criminal  trial  remarkable 
for  the  tenacity  with  which  the  issue  of  in¬ 
sanity  was  contested.  On  June  25,  1906,  Harry 
Kendall  Thaw  of  Pittsburgh,  son  of  William 
and  Mary  Copley  Thaw,  shot  and  killed 
Stanford  White  (q.v.),  a  leading  architect 
of  New  York  City,  at  Madison  Square  Roof 
Garden.  Occurrences  preceding  the  murder 
involved  Evelyn  Nesbit,  an  actress  and  ar¬ 
tist's  model,  whom  Thaw  had  married.  Thaw 
was  indicted  for  murder,  first  degree,  in  Janu¬ 
ary,  1907,  his  trial  beginning  Jan.  22,  1907. 
William  Travers  Jerome  (q.v.),  district  attor¬ 
ney,  prosecuted  the  action  and  insisted  upon 
having  Thawr  examined  as  to  his  sanity,  despite 
the  defendant’s  opposition.  The  commission 
which  examined  Thaw  pronounced  him  sane,  and 
the  trial  continued.  The  testimony  introduced 
was  of  a  highly  sensational  nature.  The  jury 
disagreed  and  was  discharged,  certain  members 
refusing  to  convict  because  of  belief  that  an 
unwritten  law  was  applicable.  Thaw  was  again 
brought  to  trial  in  the  following  January 
(1908).  It  was  in  this  trial  that  the  terms 
“brainstorm”  and  “dementia  Americana”  were 
first  employed — the  former  to  indicate  sudden, 
impulsive  insanity,  and  the  latter,  as  used  by 
Delphin  Delmas,  Thaw’s  counsel,  to  describe  a 
kind  of  righteous  frenzy.  Acquitted  on  the 
ground  that  he  was  insane  when  he  killed  White, 
Thaw  was  committed  to  Matteawan  State  Hos¬ 
pital  for  the  Criminal  Insane,  the  order  of  com¬ 
mitment  providing,  as  usual,  that  he  should 
continue  in  restraint  until  discharged  by  due 
course  of  law. 

Immediately  after  entering  Matteawan,  Thaw 
obtained  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  to  determine 


whether  his  confinement  was  legal.  The  super¬ 
intendent  of  the  asylum  opposed  Thaw’s  release, 
and  Jerome  again  appeared  for  the  State.  After 
several  hearings  this  writ  was  dismissed  on 
May  25,  1908,  the  presiding  justice  holding  that 
Thaw’s  release  would  be  dangerous  to  the  pub¬ 
lic.  In  June  an  application  made  by  Thaw  for 
his  transfer  to  Middletown  State  Hospital  was 
denied,  but  in  the  same  month  he  demanded  a 
jury  trial  to  prove  his  sanity.  When  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  finally  refused  to  review 
the  action  of  the  State  court,  refusing  Thaw’s 
application,  this  long  proceeding  was  closed. 
Ihe  second  writ  of  habeas  corpus  was  dismissed 
Aug.  12,  1909,  the  third  was  dismissed  July  26, 
1912,  and  the  fourth  (issued  March  1,  1913)  was 
later  withdrawn,  on  the  ground  that  the  scan¬ 
dal  resulting  from  the  Anliut  incident  had  preju¬ 
diced  Thaw’s  case.  In  November,  1912,  Thaw 
had  given  John  N.  Anhut,  a  New  York  lawyer, 
$25,000  to  influence  the  superintendent  of  Mat¬ 
teawan  to  procure  his  release.  Thaw  disclosed 
this  in  the  criminal  prosecution  resulting  from 
the  bribery  and  later  cited  the  value  of  his 
testimony  in  this  action  as  substantiating  his 
claim  to  sanity.  Several  legal  proceedings  with 
reference  to  the  application  of  the  rules  and  reg¬ 
ulations  of  the  hospital  were  brought  during 
Thaw’s  stay  at  Matteawan.  His  right  to  con¬ 
sult  with  counsel  unattended  by  guards  and  the 
number  and  length  of  visits  by  strangers  were 
diligently  litigated. 

Thaw  escaped  from  Matteawan,  Aug.  17,  1913, 
in  a  motor  car  and  succeeded  in  reaching  Canada. 
Under  deportation  proceedings  he  returned  across 
the  border  to  New  Hampshire.  An  indictment, 
charging  him  with  conspiracy  in  effecting  his 
escape  from  confinement,  was  unsuccessfully 
brought,  but  the  State  of  New  York,  after  stren¬ 
uous  opposition,  succeeded  in  procuring  his  re¬ 
turn  to  its  jurisdiction  on  the  ground  that  he 
was  a  fugitive  from  justice.  The  extradition 
proceedings,  finally  carried  on  appeal  to  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  were  upheld  by  it. 
Brought  to  trial  on  the  conspiracy  charge,  Thaw 
was  acquitted  by  a  jury  and  was  thereupon  or¬ 
dered  back  into  custody  at  Matteawan.  On 
March  15,  1915,  the  fifth  and  final  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  was  issued,  and  on  July  16  the  jury  re¬ 
turned  its  verdict  that  Thaw  was  sane,  thereby 
releasing  him  from  custody.  For  a  history  of 
the  Thaw  case  to  the  date  of  Thaw’s  escape  from 
Matteawan,  consult  the  New  York  Times  of 
Aug.  18,  1913. 

THAX'TER,  Celia  (Laighton)  (1836-94). 
An  American  poet,  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 
Her  father  was  keeper  of  the  United  States  Gov¬ 
ernment  lighthouse  on  the  Isles  of  Shoals,  where 
her  girlhood  and  much  of  her  after  life  were 
passed.  In  1851  she  married  Levi  Lincoln  Thax- 
ter,  a  Browning  scholar.  Mrs.  Thaxter’s  poetry 
was  reflective  of  her  quiet  life  on  the  islands. 
It  expressed  with  simplicity  and  delicacy  her 
feeling  for  the  sea  and  its  perils,  and  also  for 
the  gentler  aspects  of  nature.  Her  works  in¬ 
clude:  Poems  (1871)  ;  Among  the  Isles  of  Shoals 
(1873),  a  series  of  papers  begun  in  the  Atlantic 
Monthly  in  1867;  Drift-Weed  (1878);  Poems 
for  Children  (1884)  ;  The  Cruise  of  the  Mystery, 
and.  Other  Poems  (1886);  Idyls  and  Pastorals 
(1886)  :  The  Yule  Log  (1889)  ;  An  Island  Gar¬ 
den  (1894);  Stories  and  Poems  for  Children 
(1895).  For  her  son,  see  Thaxter,  Roland. 

THAXTER,  Roland  (1858-  ).  An 

American  botanist.  He  was  born  at  Newton, 


THAYER 


162 


THAYER 


Mass.,  son  of  Celia  Thaxter  (q.v.),  and  was 
educated  at  Harvard  (A.B.,  1882;  Ph.D.,  1888), 
where  he  was  an  assistant  in  biology  in  1886— 
88,  assistant  professor  of  cryptogamic  botany 
from  1891  to  1901,  and  thenceforth  professor. 
In  the  meantime  he  had  served  as  mycologist 
of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta¬ 
tion  from  1885  to  1891.  In  1907  he  became  the 
American  editor  of  the  Annals  of  Botany,  an 
important  English  series,  and  in  1909  was  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Botanical  Society.  He  was  elected 
to  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1912. 
Thaxter  contributed  many  monographs  to  scien¬ 
tific  publications,  dealing  particularly  with  the 
fungous  diseases  of  insects  and  with  cryptogamic 
botany. 

THAYER,  Abbott  Handerson  (1849-1921  ). 
An  American  figure,  landscape,  and  portrait 
painter.  He  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  and 
from  1875  to  1879  studied  at  the  Beaux-Arts, 
Paris,  under  Gerome  and  Lehmann,  but  was  most 
influenced  by  the  work  of  Bastien-Lepage.  Upon 
his  return  to  the  United  States  he  at  first  painted 
portraits  and  occasional  landscapes,  but  soon 
devoted  himself  to  ideal  figure  compositions. 
His  highly  individual  style  is  characterized  by 
broad  draftsmanship,  well  balanced  composition, 
and  the  use  of  color  in  simple  strong  masses. 
His  favorite  subject  is  a  young  female  figure, 
alone  or  in  company  with  one  or  two  accessory 
figures,  frequently  members  of  the  artist’s  fam¬ 
ily.  They  are  treated  with  much  ideality,  and 
great  dignity  and  charm  of  expression.  Fine  ex¬ 
amples  of  his  work  are:  “Young  Woman”  (Met¬ 
ropolitan  Museum,  New  York)  ;  “Caritas”  (Bos¬ 
ton  Museum)  ;  “Winged  Figure”  (Albright  Art 
Gallery,  Buffalo)  ;  “A  Virgin”  (Freer  collection, 
National  Gallery,  Washington,  which  also  pos¬ 
sesses  several  other  works),  and  “Virgin  En¬ 
throned.”  In  1884  he  executed  a  mural  decora¬ 
tion,  “Florence,”  for  Bowdoin  College.  He  was 
an  original  member,  and  for  two  years  president 
of  the  Society  of  American  Artists,  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  National  Academy 
(1901),  and  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Letters.  He  made  his  home  at  Monad- 
nock,  N.  H. 

THAYER,  Benjamin  Bowditch  (1862- 
) .  An  American  mining  engineer,  born  in 
San  Francisco.  After  graduating  from  the  Law¬ 
rence  Scientific  School  (Harvard)  in  1885,  he 
engaged  in  mining  operations  in  Montana,  Cali¬ 
fornia,  New  Mexico,  and  Mexico.  Becoming  con¬ 
nected  with  the  Anaconda  Copper  Mining  Com¬ 
pany,  he  served  after  1908  as  its  president  until 
1915,  when  the  Anaconda  absorbed  the  Amal¬ 
gamated  Copper  Company.  Thenceforth  he  was 
vice  president  of  the  greater  company.  In  1914 
he  served  as  president  of  the  American  Institute 
of  Mining  Engineers  and  in  1915  was  appointed 
to  the  United  States  Naval  Consulting  Board. 

THAYER,  Eli  (1819-99).  An  American 
educator,  inventor,  and  antislavery  agitator, 
born  at  Mendon,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Brown 
University  in  1845,  and  in  1848  founded  Oread 
Institute,  a  school  for  young  women  at  Wor¬ 
cester,  Mass.  In  1853-54  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Lower  House  of  the  Massachusetts  Legisla¬ 
ture.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his  connection 
with  the  Kansas  *  Crusade,  the  purpose  of  which 
was  to  secure  the  admission  of  Kansas  as  a  free 
State.  With  this  aim  in  view  he  early  in  1854 
organized  the  Massachusetts  Emigrant  Aid  Com¬ 
pany;  soon  afterward  affiliated  it  with  the  Emi¬ 
grant  Aid  Company  of  New  York;  and  a  year 


later  reorganized  the  two  under  the  name  of  the 
New  England  Emigrant  Aid  Company.  Local 
leagues  were  established  whose  members  emi¬ 
grated  to  Kansas  and  settled  in  localities  (Law¬ 
rence,  Topeka,  Manhattan,  Osawatomie)  where 
the  company  had  erected  hotels  for  temporary 
accommodation  and  had  provided  sawmills  and 
other  improvements.  The  company  proved  a 
financial  failure,  but  its  main  purpose  was  suc¬ 
cessful.  (See  Kansas,  History.)  In  1856 
Thayer  began  a  somewhat  similar  but  unsuccess¬ 
ful  work  in  Virginia,  and  founded  the  town  of 
Ceredo,  containing  about  500  inhabitants  from 
New  England.  From  1857  till  1861  he  was  a 
member  of  the  National  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives.  He  was  also  an  inventor,  and  he  patented, 
among  other  things,  a  hydraulic  elevator,  a  sec¬ 
tional  safety  steam  boiler,  and  an  automatic 
boiler  cleaner.  He  published  a  volume  of  Con¬ 
gressional  speeches  (1860),  a  collection  of  lec¬ 
tures  (1886),  and  History  of  the  Kansas  Cru¬ 
sade  (1889). 

THAYER,  Ezra  Ripley  (1866-1915).  An 
American  lawyer  and  educator,  son  of  James 
Bradley  Thayer  (q.v.).  He  was  born  at  Milton, 
Mass.,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard  (A.B., 
1888;  LL.B.,  1891).  Admitted  to  the  bar  at 
Boston  in  1891,  he  was  a  member  of  the  law 
firm  of  Brandeis,  Dunbar,  and  Nutter  from  1896 
to  1900,  and  of  Storey,  Thorndike,  Palmer,  and 
Thayer  from  1900  to  1910.  Thenceforth  until 
his  death  he  was  Dane  professor  of  law  at  Har¬ 
vard  and  dean  of  the  Law  School.  Through  in¬ 
fluence  in  this  latter  office  he  did  much  to  raise 
the  standards  and  improve  the  curriculum  of 
legal  education  in  the  United  States.  In  a  fit 
of  insanity  he  committed  suicide  by  drowning. 

THAYER,  James  Bradley  (1831-1902).  An 
American  lawyer  and  author,  born  at  Haverhill, 
Mass.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1852  and 
at  the  Harvard  Law  School  in  1856.  From  that 
time  until  1874  he  engaged  in  the  practice  of 
law,  and  from  the  latter  year  until  his  death 
he  was  a  professor  in  the  Harvard  Law  School. 
He  was  the  father  of  Ezra  Ripley  Thayer  (q.v.). 
Flis  publications  include:  Letters  of  Chauncey 
Wright  (1877);  A  Western  Journey  with  Mr. 
Emerson  (1884);  The  Origin  and  Scope  of  the 
American  Doctrine  of  Constitutional  Law 
(1893);  The  Teaching  of  English  Law  in  Uni¬ 
versities  (1892);  Cases  on  Evidence  (1892); 
Cases  on  Constitutional  Law  (1895);  The  De¬ 
velopment  of  Trial  by  Jury  (1896)  ;  A  Prelimi¬ 
nary  Treatise  on  Evidence  at  the  Common  Law 
(1898);  and  John  Marshall  (1901).  Consult 
the  Harvard  Graduates’  Magazine,  vol.  x  (1901- 
02),  and  the  Harvard  Law  Review  (April, 
1902). 

THAYER,  John  Adams  (1861-  ).  An 

American  publisher,  born  in  Boston.  He  was 
educated  in  the  public  schools  of  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  and  became  a  printer  and  typefounder. 
He  served  as  advertising  manager  of  the  Ladies’ 
Home  Journal  in  1892-98,  as  business  manager 
of  Munsey’s  Magazine  in  1898,  and  as  advertis¬ 
ing  director  of  the  Delineator  from  1898  to  1903. 
In  the  latter  year  he  joined  in  organizing  the 
Ridgeway-Thayer  Company,  publishers  of  Every¬ 
body’s  Magazine,  but  retired  from  this  enter¬ 
prise  in  i906.  Thayer  lived  in  Paris  from 
1906  to  1911,  when  he  became  publisher  and 
owner  of  the  Smart  Set  Magazine.  He  wrote 
Astir,  a  Publisher’s  Life  Story  (1910;  rev.  ed., 
1912). 

THAYER,  John  Milton  (1820-1906).  An 


THAYER 


THEATRE 


163 


American  soldier  and  politician.  He  was  born 
at  Bellingham,  Mass.,  was  educated  at  Brown 
University,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Massachu¬ 
setts  bar.  In  1853  he  went  West  and  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year  settled  at  Omaha,  Neb.,  which  lie 
made  his  permanent  home.  In  1855  he  was 
elected  major  general  of  the  Territorial  forces, 
and  until  18G1  conducted  the  campaigns  against 
the  Indians,  in  1859  capturing  the  Pawnees  and 
placing  them  on  a  reservation:  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  became  colonel  of  volunteers 
and  served  with  distinction  till  1805.  For  his 
bravery  at  Fort  Donelson  and  Shiloh  lie  was 
promoted  brigadier  general,  and  assisted  Sher¬ 
man  in  the  siege  of  Vicksburg.  In  1867-71  he 
was  l  nited  States  Senator  from  Nebraska,  and 
in  1875—79  Governor  of  Wyoming  Territory. 
From  1887  to  1893  he  was  Governor  of  Nebraska. 

THAYER,  Joseph  Henry  (1828-1901).  An 
American  biblical  scholar,  born  in  Boston.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1850,  and  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1857.  In  1864  he  be¬ 
came  associate  professor  of  sacred  literature 
in  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  in  1884 
professor  of  New  Testament  criticism  in  Har¬ 
vard  Divinity  School.  He  translated  the  New 
Testament  grammars  of  Winer  (1869)  and  of 
Buttmann  (1873),  and  published  A  Greek-Eng- 
lish  Lexicon  of  the  Neic  Testament  (1886).  He 
was  a  member  of  the  American  New  Testament 
Company  of  Revisers  of  the  Authorized  Version. 

THAYER,  Sylvanus  (1785-1872).  An 
American  soldier,  known  as  the  father  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy.  He  was  born 
at  Braintree,  Mass.,  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
in  1807  and  at  West  Point  in  1808,  and  en¬ 
tered  the  corps  of  engineers.  During  the  War 
of  1812  he  served  under  General  Dearborn  as 
the  chief  engineer  of  the  Northern  army  ( 1812)  ; 
under  General  Hampton  as  aid-de-camp  and 
chief  engineer  of  the  right  division  of  the 
Northern  army  (1813);  and  under  General 
Porter  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  as  chief  engineer  and 
brigade  major  .  ( 1814-15) .  The  two  following 
years  he  spent  in  Europe  studying  fortifications 
and  military  schools,  and  observing  the  opera¬ 
tions  of  the  allies.  From  1819  to  1833  he  was 
superintendent  of  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point,  and  thoroughly  reorganized  the 
institution,  improving  it  greatly.  During  the 
following  years  he  was  employed  in  constructing 
fortifications  and  harbor  improvements  around 
Boston  and  as  a  member  of  various  boards  until 
1858,  when  he  was  granted  sick  leave.  In 
March,  1863,  he  was  commissioned  colonel  of  en¬ 
gineers  and  shortly  afterward  was  brevetted 
brigadier  general  in  the  regular  army.  On  June 
1,  1863,  he  was  retired  from  active  service.  He 
gave  liberally  to  education,  founded  a  free  li¬ 
brary  and  endowed  an  academy  at  Braintree, 
and  founded  (1867)  the  Thayer  Engineering 
School  at  Dartmouth  College. 

THAYER,  William  Roscoe  (1859-  ). 

An  American  author  and  editor.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  in  1881,  and  became  editor  of 
the  Harvard  Gi~aduatesy  Magazine  in  1892.  In 
1914  he  was  elected  to  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Letters,  and  he  received  honorary  de¬ 
grees  from  Harvard,  Yale,  Brown,  and  other 
universities.  His  verse  includes  The  Confessions 
of  Hermes  (1884)  ;  Hesper,  an  American  Drama 
(1888)  ;  Poems,  Neic  and  Old  (1894).  In  prose 
he  published,  notably:  The  Dawn  of  Italian  In¬ 
dependence  (1893);  History  and  Customs  of 
Harvard  University  (1898);  Throne-Makers 


(1899);  A  Short  History  of  Venice  (1905); 
Life  and  Times  of  Cavour  (2  vols.,  1911)  ;  Life 
and  Letters  of  John  Hay  (1915);  Germany  vs. 
Civilization  ( 1916 ) . 

THAYER,  William  Sydney  (1864-  ). 

An  American  physician.  He  was  born  at  Milton, 
Mass.,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard  (A.B., 
1885;  M.D.,  1889).  After  some  years  on  the 
faculty  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  he  became 
professor  of  clinical  medicine  there  in  1901. 
He  made  important  investigations  in  malarial 
fevers  and  typhoid,  and  was  the  first  to  report 
clinically  the  third  sound  of  the  heart.  His 
many  essays  deal  with  his  investigations. 

THEGETE'TUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  OeaiTtjTos, 
Theaitetos) .  An  important  dialogue  of  Plato, 
discussing  all  the  answers  to  the  question :  What 
is  knowledge?  The  speakers  are  Socrates  and 
the  Athenian  youth  Theaetetus. 

THEAGENES,  the-aj/e-nez.  The  hero  of  a 
Greek  romance  by  Heliodorus  (q.v.).  See  also 
Ciiariclea;  Heliodorus. 

THE'ATINES.  A  Roman  Catholic  religious 
community,  which  played,  next  to  the  Jesuits, 
the  most  important  part  in  the  movement  for 
reform  from  within  the  Church  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  Its  founders  were  St.  Cajetan  (Gae¬ 
tano  da  liene)  and  Giovanni  Pietro  Caraffa,  at 
that  time  Bishop  of  Chieti,  from  the  Latin 
title  of  whose  see,  Theate,  the  order  took  its 
name.  W ith  two  other  friends,  they  obtained  a 
brief  of  Clement  VII,  dated  June  24,  1524, 
formally  constituting  the  new  brotherhood,  with 
the  three  usual  vows,  and  with  the  privilege  of 
electing  their  superior,  who  was  to  hold  office 
for  three  years.  They  were  all  to  be  priests. 
Their  first  convent  was  opened  in  Rome,  and 
Caraffa  was  chosen  as  superior.  He  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  1527  by  Cajetan,  and  the  congregation 
began  to  extend  to  the  provinces.  After  a  time, 
however,  it  was  thought  advisable  to  unite  it 
with  the  somewhat  analogous  Order  of  the  Soma- 
schians  (q.v.)  ;  but  Caraffa,  who  was  elected  Pope, 
under  the  name  of  Paul  IV,  restored  the  origi¬ 
nal  constitution  in  1555.  The  Theatines  ex¬ 
tended  themselves  over  Italy,  and  into  Spain, 
Poland,  and  Germany,  especially  Bavaria.  The 
first  French  house  was  founded  in  Paris  under 
Cardinal  Mazarin  in  1644.  To  their  activity 
and  zeal  Ranke  ascribes  much  of  the  success 
of  the  Counter-Reformation  in  the  south  of 
Europe.  At  the  present  time  the  order  num¬ 
bers  not  more  than  100  members.  In  1909 
Pius  X  united  the  order  with  the  Spanish  con¬ 
gregation  of  the  holy  family  at  Barcelona. 

There  is  an  order  of  nuns  bearing  this  name. 
It  was  founded  in  Naples,  in  1583,  by  Ursula 
Benincasa.  It  never  spread  out  of  Italy  and 
has  now  only  a  few  nunneries. 

THEATEE  (OF.  theatre,  Fr.  theatre ,  from 
Lat.  theatrum,  from  Gk.  Oearpov,  theatron,  place 
to  view  shows  or  plays,  from  Oeaadai,  theasthai, 
to  view,  behold,  from  Oea,  thea,  view,  sight).  A 
building  used  for  the  presentation  of  dramatic 
and  similar  spectacles. 

Ancient.  The  theatre  as  a  form  of  architec¬ 
ture  was  originated  by  the  Greeks  and  naturally 
developed  with  the  drama.  At  first  it  was 
simply  the  open  space  near  the  Temple  of 
Dionysus,  where  the  chorus  danced  about  the 
altar  of  the  god  while  the  solitary  actor,  per¬ 
haps  standing  on  the  steps  of  the  altar,  carried 
on  a  dialogue  with  their  leader.  It  is  probable 
that  at  times  the  chorus  of  satyrs  (see  Satyr) 
actually  drew  a  wagon  containing  the  actor  who 


THEATRE 


THEATRE 


impersonated  the  god,  and  who  naturally  ad¬ 
dressed  his  companions  from  this  vantage 
ground,  and  it  is  quite  possible  to  sec  in  such 
a  scene  the  car  of  Thespis,  with  which  the 
founder  of  tragedy  is  said  to  have  traversed 
Attica.  When  tragedy  became  a  state  institu¬ 
tion  at  Athens,  set  places  for  its  performance 
were  naturally  provided;  one  of  these  was  the 
Orchestra  near  the  Agora,  a  circular  dancing 
place  which  was  surrounded  by  raised  seats 
for  the  spectators.  The  other  theatre  was  in 
the  precinct  of  Dionysus  Eleuthereus  at  the 
eastern  end  of  the  southern  slope  of  the  Acro¬ 
polis,  afterward  occupied  by  the  stone  theatre. 

The  earliest  Athenian  theatre  was  simply  a 
large  circular  place  (6pxv<TTpa,  orchestra,  from 
dpx^crdai,  orcheisthai,  to  dance)  about  75  feet  in 
diameter,  near  the  temple.  On  the  hill  rose  the 
seats  for  the  spectators  ( dearpov ,  theatron,  in 
the  strict  sense ) ,  and  these  were  further  en¬ 
larged  by  artificial  mounds  of  earth,  so  as  to 
form  rather  more  than  a  semicircle.  The  orchestra 
was  entered  by  two  passages  ( irapodoi ,  parodoi) 
from  the  sides ;  these  lay  between  the  ends  of 
the  seats  for  the  spectators  and  the  skene 
(see  below).  The  nature  of  the  ground  was 
such  that  at  the  rear  it  was  raised  some  dis¬ 
tance  above  the  level  of  the  sacred  precinct,  thus 
affording  an  opportunity  for  an  underground 
passage,  Charon’s  steps,  by  which  actors  could 
rise  from  the  ground  in  the  centre  of  the  or¬ 
chestra.  There  was  at  first  no  scenery  or  back¬ 
ground,  and  some  neighboring  house  was  used 
as  dressing  room.  In  the  centre  of  the  orchestra 
might  be  an  altar  or  tomb  or  other  structure, 
probably  of  no  great  height.  Such  simple  set¬ 
tings  are  all  that  seem  required  for  the  earlier 
plays  of  vEschylus,  such  as  the  Suppliants, 
Seven  Against  Thebes,  and  Persians.  Soon,  how¬ 
ever,  an  innovation  was  made.  A  tent  {cupy-t], 
skene)  was  introduced  to  serve  as  a  dressing 
room,  and  thism^pd|fej  Lecame  a  building,  ap¬ 
parently  erectea^tts^fi^ilf^wde  the  circle  of  the 
orchestra,  and  proviof%^fc^three  doors.  ^  It 
might  represent  a  palac^^-^^ple  or  any  other 
building  called  for  by  the^play ;  o'fr  the  front 
might  be  covered  with  a  painted  scene,  as  in 
the  Birds  of  Aristophanes.  During  all  this 
time  actors  and  chorus  were  on  the  same  level 
in  the  orchestra,  except  that  gods  and  occa¬ 
sionally  other  characters  seem  to  have  appeared 
on  the  roof  of  the  skene.  Our  knowledge  of 
this  theatre  of  the  fifth  century  is  partly 
based  on  the  very  scanty  ruins  of  the  earliest 
structure,  and  partly  on  the  internal  evidence 
of  the  plays  themselves,  in  which  there  are 

many  passages  which  imply  that  actors  and 

chorus  are  on  the  same  level,  and  none,  with 
the  exception  above  noted,  that  clearly  imply 
any  raised  stage  for  the  actors.  In  the  fourth 
century,  probably,  the  theatre  at  Athens  was 
rebuilt  in  stone,  the  orchestra  being  moved 
farther  back  into  the  hill,  and  reduced  to 

about  60  feet  in  diameter,  stone  seats  were 
provided  for  the  spectators,  and  outside  the 

circle  of  the  orchestra  was  erected  a  long  stone 
skene,  with  projecting  wings  (TrapaaKrjpia,  para- 
skenia) .  Later,  in  the  Greek  theatre,  the  or¬ 
chestra  became  less  than  a  circle,  but  regularly 
more  than  a  semicircle.  It  seems  probable  that 
between  these  wings  the  scenery  was  now  dis¬ 
played,  but  there  is  no  evidence,  in  the  re¬ 
mains,  of  any  raised  stage.  The  old  view,  still 
held  in  modified  form  by  many,  is  that  in  the 
fifth  and  fourth  centuries  there  was  a  stage 


for  the  actors,  probably  low,  in  front  of  the 
skene,  and  that  when  the  chorus  was  discon¬ 
tinued  this  was  replaced  by  the  high  platform 
of  the  Hellenistic  theatre.  Somewhat  later 
there  was  erected,  a  short  distance  in  front  of 
the  skene,  a  low  wall  (TrpoaKpviov,  proskenion) 
about  12  feet  high,  composed  of  columns,  or 
half  columns,  supporting  an  entablature,  and 
with  the  intercolumniations  filled  with  wooden 
panels.  There  was  a  door  *in  the  centre,  with 
possibly  two  more,  one  near  each  side.  In  front 
of  this  structure  the  paraskenia  projected  but 
a  little.  The  space  between  the  skene  and  pro¬ 
skenion  was  roofed  over,  forming  a  platform, 
which  varies  in  different  theatres,  but  is  from 
10  to  12  feet  in  height  and  from  about  7  to  9 
feet  in  width.  It  is  maintained  by  some  that 
in  the  plays  of  the  Hellenistic  time  the  actors 
appeared  on  this  level,  as  there  was  no  chorus. 
On  this  point  the  evidence  is  far  from  clear, 
but  it  seems  not  improbable  that  actors  in 
the  drama  proper  occupied  the  lower  level,  and 
that  this  platform  was  for  gods.  In  Asia 
Minor,  under  the  influence  of  modified  condi¬ 
tions,  another  type  was  developed  by  diminish¬ 
ing  the  height  and  increasing  the  width  of 
the  stage,  reducing  the  orchestra  to  less  than 
a  semicircle.  This  operation  might  be  described 
as  sinking  a  part  of  the  orchestra,  for  the 
lowest  row  of  seats  is  frequently  (as  at 
Aspendus)  on  a  level  with  the  stage,  and  not, 
as  in  earlier  Greek  theatres,  at  the  level  of 
the  orchestra.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  is  not 
really  a  lowering  and  extension  of  the  pro¬ 
skenion,  for  at  the  rear  of  the  new  stage  ap¬ 
pears  a  decorated  front  of  columns  or  half 
columns  and  cornices,  which  forms  a  background 
to  the  actor,  similar  to  th|^  formed  by  the  old 
proskenion.  There  was  no  curtain  in  the  Greek 
theatre.  The  seats  for  spectators  in  the  Greek 
theatre  were  usually  laid  in  whole  or  in  great 
part  against  a  hillside;  the  Roman  theatre,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  regularly  built  on  level 
ground  so  that  huge  substructures  of  concrete 
and  masonry  were  necessary  to  carry  the  seats. 

In  the  Roman  theatre  the  plan  is  very  similar 
in  outline,  but  the  details  differ  widely.  The 
orchestra  was  only  a  semicircle,  and  was  used 
commonly  for  seats  of  honor.  The  other  half 
of  the  circle  was  covered  by  a  low  stage  ( pul - 
pitum) ,  whose  depth  was  somewhat  less  than 
a  radius  of  the  orchestra,  and  its  width  not  over 
two  diameters  of  the  orchestra.  In  the  rear 
wall  were  three  or  five  doors,  and  in  the  side 
walls  two.  Entrance  into  the  orchestra  was  pro¬ 
vided  by  the  building  of  arched  passages  under 
the  seats  at  the  sides  of  the  stage;  these  arched 
passages  took  the  place  of  the  parodoi  of  the 
Greek  theatre.  In  the  Roman  theatre  there  was 
a  curtain  which  worked  on  a  roller  that  re¬ 
volved  in  a  wide,  deep  slot  at  the  front  of  the 
stage.  The  curtain  was  lowered  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  a  play,  raised  at  the  close. 

In  Greece,  outside  of  Athens,  the  chief 
theatres  are  at  Epidaurus,  Eretria,  Sicyon, 
Megalopolis,  Mantinea,  Delphi,  Oropus,  and 
Delos.  In  Asia  Minor  Greek  theatres  have  been 
studied  at  Pergamum,  Magnesia  on  the  Meander, 
Priene,  and  Miletus.  In  Sicily  and  Lower  Italy 
the  Greek  theatres  have  been  altered  in  Roman 
times.  Fine  ruins  remain  at  Taormina,  Syra¬ 
cuse,  Segesta,  Pompeii,  and  Fiesole  (near  Flor¬ 
ence).  At  Timgad,  too,  in  Africa  there  are 
remains  of  a  fine  Roman  theatre;  so  too  in 
Aspendus  in  Asia  Minor,  and  at  Orange  (an- 


THEATRE 


cient  Arausio)  in  France.  The  last-named 
theatre,  which  is.  well  preserved,  and  has  been 
partly  restored,  is  particularly  large  and  im¬ 
posing. 

In  Athens  plays  were  performed  only  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  festivals  of  Dionysus  ( see 
Greek  Festivals),  i.e.,  the  Country'  Dionysia, 
the  Lenaea,  and  the  Greater  or  City  Dionysia. 
It  w as  at  the  latter  that  tragedy  developed, 
and  here  the  great  tragedies  were  first  pro¬ 
duced.  Comedy  was  at  first  confined  to  the 
Lenaea,  but  after  about  465  b.c.  was  also  part 
of  tli o  Greater  Dionysia.  At  the  Greater  Dionysia 
three  tragic  poets  competed,  each  producing  a 
tetralogy,  i.e.,  three  tragedies  and  a  satyr  play. 
One  tetralogy  seems  to  have  been  performed  on 
eacn  of  the  three  days.  The  three  comedians 
produced  only  one  comedy  each,  which  seems 
to  have  followed  on  each  day  the  group  of 
tragedies.  The  arrangements  "were  in  charge 
of  the  Archon  Eponymus,  who  chose  the  three 
poets  from  among  those  submitting  works,  and 
assigned  to  each  a  choregus,  i.e.,  a  wealthy  citizen 
upon  whom  devolved  the  expense  of  the  produc¬ 
tion.  The  production  was  a  competition  be¬ 
tween  the  choruses,  and  the  victorious  choregus 
dedicated  a  tablet  to  Dionysus.  The  poets  re¬ 
ceived  a  crown  of  ivy  and  a  sum  of  money.  At 
first  it  seems  to  have  been  usual  for  the  poet 
to  play  the  .leading  role.  The  view  long  held 
that  only  three  actors  in  all  were  allowed  in  a 
Greek  play  has  been  challenged.  After  the  fifth 
century  b.c.  and  perhaps  earlier  the  leading 
actors  also  competed  for  a  prize.  The  profes¬ 
sion  was  not  dishonorable,  and  the  actors  seem 
to  have  been  always  free  citizens,  as  were  the 
chorus.  Women  did  not  appear  on  the  stage, 
unless  possibly  as  flute  girls.  The  costume  of 
the.  tragic  actor  wafa  long  tunic,  with  close- 
fitting  sleeves  often  richly  embroidered,  and  a 
cloak  or  mantle,  with  sometimes  a  shorter 
tunic  under  the  cloak.  Masks  were  also  worn, 
and  the  stature  was  somewhat  increased  by 
padding,  a  high  top  to  the  mask,  and  thick- 
soled  shoes  (cothurni),  which  also  served  to 
raise  the  actor  somewhat  above  the  level  of 
the  chorus  (the  use  of  the  cothurni  in  the  best 
period  of  the  drama  has  been  disputed  by  K.  K. 
Smith).  The  dress  of  the  tragic  chorus  seems 
to  have  resembled  that  of  daily  life,  except  of 
course  in  such  cases  as  the  Eumenides  of 
^Eschylus,  where  the  Furies  produced  a  great 
impression  by  their  awe-inspiring  appearance. 
The  satyr  chorus  wore  masks  reproducing  the 
typical  satyr  countenance,  a  goatskin  around 
the  loins,  and  phalloi.  The  comic  actors  wore 
tights,  apparently  often  of  gav  colors,  a  short 
tunic  and  cloak,  a  phallus,  and  comic  mask ; 
the  costume  of  the  chorus  varied  with  its  charac¬ 
ter,  and  the  poets  allowed  free  scope  to  the 
imagination,  as  in  the  Birds  and  Clouds  of  Aris¬ 
tophanes.  In  the  new  comedy  the  dress  was 
modified  and  more  nearly  approached  that  of 
daily  life,  from  which  the  characters  were 
taken.  At  the  same  time  there  was  introduced 
a  typical  series  of  masks,  so  designed  that  the 
mask  at  once  indicated  the  character,  a  device 
quite  useful,  in  the  absence  of  programmes. 

At  Rome  the  drama,  like  the  theatre,  was 
largely  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  but  it  was 
not  a  state  performance  by  citizens,  at  least  in 
its  developed  form.  The  government  was  long 
hostile  to  the  theatre,  so  that  it  was  neces- 
sary  to  make  the  plays  as  completely  Greek  as 
possible  in  appearance.  The  actors  were  troupes 


165  THEATRE 

( grcges )  of  freedmen  or  slaves,  and  the  plays 
were  in  general  adapted  from  the  Greek,  espe¬ 
cially  in  tragedy,  though  the  fabulce  prcetextce, 
tragedies  based  on  Roman  themes,  in  which  the 
hero  wore  the  toga  prcetexta  and  not  the  Greek 
costume,  were  an  attempt  to  treat  national 
subjects  in  the  Greek  tragic  style.  In  the 
comedy  were  distinguished  the  fabulce  palliatce, 
based  on  the  Greek  new  comedy  in  which  the 
Greek  cloak  ( pallium )  was  worn,  and  the 
fabulce  togatce,  treating  of  native  life  and  char¬ 
acter,  and  appropriately  costumed.  The  plays 
were  produced  at  public  games  (ludi) ,  and  also 
at  the  games  or  shows  given  on  special  occasions 
by  private  individuals.  The  magistrate  or 
giver  of  the  games  paid  the  leader  of  a  troupe 
( dominus  gregis) ,  who  owned  plays  and  pro¬ 
duced  them.  The  theatre  thus  never  entered 
into  or  reproduced  the  national  life  in  Rome 
as  in  Greece,  and  in  later  times  the  favorite 
Roman  shows  were  the  Mimes  and  the  Atellance, 
both  of  which  seem  to  have  been  marked  by 
buffoonery  and  indecency.  See  Mime;  Atel- 

LANvE. 

Mediaeval  and  Modern.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  theatrical  performances  began  with  dia- 
logue  additions  acted  out  in  the  church  service 
for  Christmas  and  Easter.  They  developed  in 
the  twelfth  century  into  plays  in '  the  vernacular 
presenting  the  chief  events  in  sacred  story 
from  the  creation  to  the  last  judgment.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  even  miracles  connected  with 
the  lives  of  the  saints  were  told  in  drama. 
Such  development  made  necessary  performances 
on  scaffolds  by  the  church  walls  and  by  the 
fifteenth  century  the  assignment  of  various 
plays  to  the  amateur  actors  of  the  town  or  the 
guilds.  The  shipwrights,  e.g.,  produced  the  play 
of  Noah.  Allegorical  dramas  depicting  the  con¬ 
tention  between  the  personified  good  and  evil 
powers  of  the  soul  for  the  possession  of  man 
developed  fully  in  the  ffftey^tj^  fcentury  and 
gave  larger  opportunijj^f-Tox.  aLnmg  because  of 
lealistic  comic  (‘lemynj.s.  ‘•'iftn  Spain  the  religious 
plays  were  at  f%^L;|)yoduccd  in  open  town 
squares  on  ,£■  planobrtf  carried  by  12  men,  but 
later  on  cars  or  floats  provided  with  curious 
mechanical  contrivances.  In  France  the  pre¬ 
vailing  type  of  stage  was  a  long  platform 

erected  for  the  occasion,  on  which  were  repre¬ 
sented,  one  beside  the  other,  the  places  of  action, 
as  the  garden  of  Gethsemane,  the  pretorium  of 
Pilate,  the  hill  of  Calvary,  and  the  mouth  of 
Hell.  The  actors  moved  from  one  place  to 
another  before  the  eyes  of  the  spectators.  In 
England  the  commonest  way  was  to  have  the 
separate  plays  in  a  series  produced  on  a  suc¬ 
cession  of  pageants,  or  stages  on  wheels,  so 

that  the  populace  at  any  one  station  might 
witness  without  stirring  all  scenes  in  the  pro¬ 
cessional  drama.  While  the  great  towns  were 
thus  elaborately  producing  these  religious  plays 
there  grew  up  for  smaller  places  and  private 
houses  bands  of  strolling  players.  They  formed  • 
a  guild  of  their  own  in  England  as  early  as 
1469.  In  Spain  one  of  the  founders  of’  the 
national  drama  is  Lope  de  Rueda,  whom  we 
first  hear  of  as  the  head  of  a  company  of 

players  in  Benavente  in  1554.  His  stage,  ac¬ 

cording  to  Cervantes,  “consisted  of  four  benches 
arranged  in  a  square,  with  four  or  five  boards 
upon  them,  raised  about  four  spans  from  the 
ground.” 

In  Madrid  places  for  the  representation  of  all 
secular  plays  were  merely  the  yards  of  houses. 


THEATRE 


THEATRE 


166 


The  stage  was  at  the  rear.  The  audience  stood 
in  the  courtyard,  while  the  windows  about 
served  as  boxes  for  the  more  distinguished  spec¬ 
tators.  There  was  no  roof  or  other  protec¬ 
tion  from  sun  or  rain.  When  a  theatre  was 
built  in  1574  it  differed  from  this  original  in 
few  respects.  When  charitable  societies  erected 
their  own  permanent  playhouses,  in  the  Street 
of  the  Cross  in  1579  and  in  the  Street  of  the 
Prince  in  1582,  they  soon  became  the  only  public 
homes  of  Madrid  for  the  greatest  masterpieces 
in  the  history  of  Spanish  drama.  In  them  the 
court  was  paved  and  protected  by  an  awning, 
and  contained  near  the  stage  a  number  of  port¬ 
able  benches.  Rows  of  seats  rose  in  an  amphi¬ 
theatre  about  the  court  beneath  the  boxes  and 
galleries,  and  at  the  rear  was  a  gallery  ex¬ 
clusively  for  women.  In  England  also  these 
players  of  interludes  performed  in  innyards, 
but  they  likewise  acted  in  town  halls  and  the 
banqueting  halls  of  nobles.  Under  Elizabeth 
these  companies  increased  in  importance  until  it 
became  a  great  distinction  for  a  nobleman  to  have 
players  under  his  protection.  The  most  famous 
company  is  the  one  originally  formed  by  the 
Earl  of' Leicester  with  James  Burbage  as  leader, 
because  Shakespeare  eventually  joined  it,  wrote 
all  of  his  plays  for  it,  and  produced  all  of 
them  with  it.  *  Probably  the  inn  suggested  to 
James  Burbage  some  features  of  the  first  public 
theatre,  which  he  erected  just  outside  of  Lon¬ 
don  in  1576.  It  was  an  amphitheatre,  and,  some¬ 
what  like  the  Spanish  interior,  had  three  gal¬ 
leries  running  around  it  and  standing  room  for 
the  vulgar  in  the  pit  or  central  space.  But 
Ms  stage  was  a  platform  projecting  far  into 
the  pit  so  that  the  audience  was  on  three  sides 
of  the  actor,  whereas  the  Spanish  stage  seems 
to  have  been  within  a  frame,  like  our  modern 
stage  without  the  front  curtain.  The  most 
famous  of  London  theatres,  the  Globe,  was 
erected  in  1598  south  of  the  Thames.  In  it 
Shakespeare  produced  all  his  most  famous  plays. 
There  was  no  curtain  except  at  the  rear  to  cut 
off  a  recess  or  alcove  under  the  balcony,  and 
another  across  the  balcony  itself,  which  was 
used  to  represent  a  tower,  the  walls  of  a  city, 
or  such  a  balcony  as  Juliet’s.  The  curtains 
might  be  drawn  aside  to  discover  new  persons 
or  properties.  More  than  one  place  was  fre¬ 
quently  indicated  on  the  stage  at  once  by 
hanging  up  placards  over  the  doors  or  else¬ 
where.  Properties,  such  as  chairs,  trees,  rocks, 
booths,  were  much  used,  and  the  costumes  were 
rich.  Performances  were  given  by  daylight  in 
the  afternoon,  a  flag  above  the  theatre  announc¬ 
ing  a  play,  and  a  bugler  by  a  blast  givifig  notice 
of  the  beginning  of  the  performance.  The 
Spanish  theatre  at  this  time  also  used  no 
scenery,  or  almost  none,  except  curtains  of  a 
single  color  at  the  back  and  the  sides  of  the 
stage.  In  the  Blackfriars,  north  of  the  Thames, 
which  was  roofed  over  and  frequented  by  per¬ 
sons  of  quality,  seats  were  provided  and  plays 
presented  by  candlelight. 

In  France  the  playhouses  were  modeled  on 
those  of  Italy,  where  architects  adapted  the 
plans  of  ancient  theatres  to  new  uses.  In  Rome 
one  was  built  of  wood  as  early  as  1514.  In 
1580  Palladio  began  to  erect  at  Vicenza  prob¬ 
ably  the  first  theatre  of  stone  in  Europe.  It 
is  still  extant.  The  stage  was  divided  by  three 
arches,  in  each  of  which  a  street  built  in  in 
perspective  could  be  seen  leading  off  to  one  side 
or  the  other.  The  Hotel  de  Bourgogne,  erected 


in  1548  by  the  Brothers  of  the  Passion,  who 
had  held  the  privilege  of  acting  plays  since 
1402,  was  the  first  public  theatre  in  Paris. 
Its  stage,  like  those  for  the  passion  play, 
represented  several  places  at  once.  But  the 
theatre  opened  by  Richelieu  in  1641  in  his 
palace  had  a  stage  inclosed  as  by  a  picture  frame 
as  in  a  modern  playhouse.  The  only  scenery 
for  the  first  production  represented  a  colonnade 
and  a  terrace  with  a  view  of  the  sea.  Such  was 
the  stage  on  which  Moliere  produced  nearly 
every  one  of  his  plays.  The  performance  usu¬ 
ally  began  at  five  o’clock.  The  floor,  to-day 
called  the  orchestra,  was  then  the  pit,  where  for 
a  few  cents  the  common  spectators  stood  during 
the  performance.  The  gentry  sat  in  the  gal¬ 
leries  or  on  wooden  benches  on  low  steps  at 
the  rear  of  the  auditorium.  His  productions 
were  very  simple.  For  The  Misanthrope,  his 
masterpiece,  the  scene  was  a  room  in  which  only 
six  chairs  were  needed.  For  a  century  the 
scenery  was  no  more  pretentious,  because  the 
smartly  dressed  dandies  were  allowed  to  sit 
on  the  stage  and  to  shout  to  each  other 
or  to  address  the  actors  as  insolently  as  they 
pleased.  In  fact,  sometimes  only  one  actor 
at  a  time  could  make  his  way  to  the  front 
through  the  crowd,  and  in  1739  a  performance 
of  Racine’s  great  tragedy,  Athalie,  could  not  be 
completed  for  this  reason.  In  1759  the  Count 
of  Lauraguais  got  rid  of  these  spectators  on 
the  stage  by  giving  the  Comedie-Franqaise  12,- 
000  livres  to  make  good  the  loss.  During  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  most  of 
the  improvements  in  staging  came  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  opera,  which  received  in  Italy 
a  gorgeous  development.  Scenery  was  built  to 
slide  into  place  on  grooves  from  the  sides, 
so  that  the  stage  was  given  the  appearance 
of  great  depth.  Room  was  also  provided  for 
large  troupes  and  for  machinery  needed  in 
transformations  and  other  scenic  wonders. 
Lighting  was  arranged  above,  at  the  sides,  and 
as  footlights,  below.  In  eighteenth-century 
France  even  Watteau  did  not  think  it  beneath 
him  to  paint  scenery  for  the  Opera  and  the 
Opera  Comique,  and  a  similar  development  took 
place  in  Spain,  England,  and  Germany.  The 
costumes  in  the  French  theatre  were  lavish 
but  utterly  conventional,  all  heroes,  e.g.,  ap¬ 
pearing  in  Louis  XIV  wigs,  three-cornered  hats, 
and  gilt  armor. 

The  great  transformation  in  the  English 
theatre  began  with  the  Restoration  in  1660. 
The  actors  now  included  both  men  and  women, 
as  had  been  true  for  several  decades  in  French, 
Spanish,  and  Italian  companies.  The  build¬ 
ing  was  from  now  on  a  hall  roofed  over.  The 
pit  was  filled  with  benches  for  those  of  modest 
means,  while  the  occupants  of  the  galleries  were 
sharply  divided  socially.  The  hour  of  perform¬ 
ance  was  at  first  three  o’clock,  but  by  the  end 
of  the  century  it  was  five,  and  in  time  was 
advanced  to  six  because  of  the  later  hour  for 
dining.  Sitting  on  the  stage,  which,  introduced 
into  France,  was  to  linger  for  a  century  yet, 
was  permitted  only  on  nights  when  the  play 
was  given  as  a  benefit.  The  curtain  was  a 
long  way  back  from  the  front  of  the  stage, 
and  as  the  actors  played  well  forward  and  as 
boxes  extended  back  to*  the  curtain,  the  audience 
was  still  on  three  sides  of  the  player.  The 
space  before  the  curtain,  however,  was  gradually 
shortened  into  an  apron  stage  until  in  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century,  hardly  projecting  beyond  the 


THEATRE 


proscenium  arch,  it  became  the  now  universal 
picture-frame  stage.  Scenery  had  first  been 
used  in  1656,  and  was  developed  during  the 
Restoration  period,  particularly  in  opera.  In 
the  theatre  the  shifts  were  mostly  fiats  running' 
in  grooves.  The  lighting  was  from  branches 
or  hoops  of  candles  suspended  from  the  ceiling. 
In  1765,  at  the  height  of  Garrick’s  fame,  Drury 
Lane  had  only  six  chandeliers,  each  holding 
12  candles,  which  had  to  be  let  down  at  the 
end  of  every  act  to  be  snuffed.  Though  foot¬ 
lights  had  been  common  in  opera  for  many 
years,  Garrick  after  his  return  from  France  in 
1765  introduced  lamp  footlights  and  seems  to 
have  made  much  more  extensive  use  of  such 
lighting  in  plays  than  had  been  customary. 
Even  under  these  circumstances  the  stage  would 
have  seemed  to  us  a  dim  and  confusing  place. 
The  costuming  was  little  more  appropriate  than 
in  France  at  this  period.  Garrick  played  Mac¬ 
beth  in  a  scarlet  and  gold  military  suit  of 
his  own  day,  and  he  dressed  Hotspur  in  a 
laced  frock  and  Ramillies  wig.  One  of  his 
actors,  Henderson,  boasted  of  having  played 
10  characters  in  one  season  in  the  same  costume. 
Naturally,  therefore,  new  plays  were  usually 
produced  with  the  stock  scenery. 

Theatrical  history  in  America  appears  to 
have  begun  with  the  production  of  Addison’s 
Cato  in  Philadelphia  in  August,  1749.  The 
stage  was  set  up  in  a  warehouse  on  King  or 
Water,  between  Pine  and  Lombard  streets.  ‘  The 
alleged  evil  influences  of  theatrical  activity 
drove  the  Murray  and  Kean  company  to  New 
York,  where  they  presented  Richard  III  on 
March  5,  1750.  The  advertisement  shows  how 
similar  conditions  were  to  those  in  England, 
declaring  that  the  performance  was  “to  begin 
precisely  at  half  an  hour  after  6  o’clock,  and  no 
person  to  be  admitted  behind  the  scenes.”  Of 
the  playhouse  all  we  know  is  that  it  was  a 
room  in  Nassau  Street  “lately  belonging  to  the 
Hon.  Rip  Van  Dam,  deceased.”  The  season  con¬ 
tinued  to  July  8,  1751,  when  the  company  dis¬ 
banded.  But  it  was  reorganized  the  next  year 
to  appear  in  Annapolis  in  another  reformed 
warehouse.  A  longer  history  is  that  of  the 
American  Company,  organized  in  England  and 
directed  by  Lewis  Hallam,  which  first  appeared 
in  the  colonies  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  Sept.  5, 
1752,  in  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  in  a  building 
on  the  outskirts  of  the  town  which  was  turned 
into  a  theatre  for  the  occasion.  Lewis  Hallam’s 
company  next  appeared  in  New  York,  where  he 
built  “a  fine,  large  theatre  in  the  place  where 
the  old  one  stood.”  He  played  only  on  Mondays, 
Wednesdays,  and  Fridays  from  Sept.  17,  1753, 
to  March  18,  1754.  In  April  he  began  a  two- 
months’  season  in  Philadelphia  in  the  warehouse 
that  had  been  occupied  by  Murray  and  Keane. 
Thence  he  went  to  the  West  Indies.  After  his 
death  Mrs.  Hallam  married  in  Jamaica  David 
Douglass,  who  reorganized  the  company.  In 
New  York  in  1758,  as  the  Nassau  house  had 
given  place  to  a  church,  he  built  a  new  theatre 
on  Cruger’s  wharf,  near  what  is  now  called 
Old  Slip,  not  far  from  the  Wall  Street  Ferry. 
He  opened  with  Jane  Shore,  Dec.  28,  1758,  arid 
closed  on  February  7  following.  His  “Histrionic 
Academy,”  as  he  called  it,  must  have  been  a 
very  rude  structure,  for  it  was  demolished  soon 
after  he  left.  Undaunted  by  the  hostility  in 
New  York  he  built  another  temple  of  the  drama 
in  Philadelphia,  on  the  southwest  corner  of  Ver¬ 
non  and  South  streets,  on  Society  Hill,  opposite 


67  THEATRE 

the  famous  Blue  Anchor  Inn,  where  Penn  landed 
when  he  came  from  Chester  in  1682.  His  bril¬ 
liant  season  lasted  for  only  six  months  on  ac¬ 
count  of  a  law  prohibiting  plays.  It  was  not 
till  1766  that  the  first  permanent  playhouse 
in  America  was  built — the  old  Southwark 
Theatre  in  South  Street,  Philadelphia.  The 
first-story  walls  were  of  brick,  the  rest  of 
wood— all  painted  a  glaring  red.  The  stage 
was  lighted  by  oil  lamps  without  chimneys. 
Hie  company  was  now  known  as  the  American 
Company,  and  presented  The  Prince  of  Parthia 
on  April  24,  1767,  the  first  American  play  ever 
presented  on  the  stage.  The  first  permanent 
theatre  in  New  York  was  opened  by  Douglass 
in  John  Street  on  Dec.  7,  1767.  It  too  was 
principally  of  wood  and  painted  red.  It  had 
two  rows  of  boxes,  a  pit,  and  a  gallery.  The 
dressing  room  and  the  green  room  were  in  an 
adjacent  shed.  In  1771  he  erected  by  subscrip¬ 
tion  a  brick  theatre  in  Annapolis  with  a  seating 
capacity  of  about  600.  In  1773  by  the  same  means 
lie  erected  a  playhouse  in  Charleston,  where  the 
Southern  aristocracy  supported  a  brilliant  sea¬ 
son.  After  the  Revolution  the  first  handsome 
and  complete  theatre  in  the  United  States  was 
the  Chestnut  Street  Theatre  in  Philadelphia.  It 
was  modeled  after  the  playhouse  in  Bath,  Eng¬ 
land,  and  was  opened  on  Feb.  17,  1794,  by  a 
newly  organized  company,  chiefly  from  England. 
Scarcely  inferior  was  the  Federal  Street  Theatre 
in  Boston,  opened  by  an  English  company  earlier 
in  the  same  month.  The  prosperity  of  these 
years  was  followed  at  the  close  of  the  century 
by  a  period  of  depression. 

Since  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  cen¬ 
tury  the  theatre  has  developed  so  enormously  on 
all  sides  that  it  cannot  easily  be  described  in 
terms  of  anything  previously  existing.  This 
change  has  been  due,  first,  to  the  literary  genius 
which  was  thrown  into  dramatic  writing  in  the 
second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  an  amount 
of  genius  greater  than  the  theatre  has  had  at 
any  time  since  the  age  of  Elizabeth ;  and  second, 
to  the  rapid  progress  of  the  physical  sciences, 
especially  in  electricity.  These  two  influences 
have  raised  the  theatre  from  the  position  of  a 
third-rate  institution,  scarcely  related  to  liter¬ 
ature  or  the  arts,  to  one  of  unsurpassed  power 
as  a  cultural  force  and  an  artistic  instrument. 
Dramatic  literature,  which  had  for  two  centuries 
been  held  in  rigid  conventional  grooves,  has  been 
freed  to  take  all  knowledge  as  its  province.  All 
types  of  social  questions  can  now  be  discussed 
in  dramatic  form;  nearly  all  genres  of  literary 
production  have  their  dramatic  parallels;  and  all 
types  of  pictorial  and  plastic  art  can  be  repro¬ 
duced  in  the  scenic  setting.  The  theatre  is  now 
the  only  one  of  the  arts  which  makes  use  of 
all  the  others.  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century  it  was  absorbing  artistic  and 
literary  forces  from  the  outside;  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  twentieth  it  was  established  as 
a  creative  force  and  was  reflecting  back  new 
influences  to  the  other  arts. 

Types  of  Organization.  Theatres  exist  in 
many  various  relations  to  their  audiences  and  to 
the  money  which  supports  them.  In  Germany  the 
important  theatres  are  operated  by  the  state 
or  municipality,  through  appointees  who  may  or 
may  not  receive  a  salary.  In  France  the  state- 
owned  theatre  is  generally  sublet  to  a  private 
entrepreneur  on  terms  which  are  supposed  to 
protect  the  public.  In  both  countries  public 
subsidization  prevails.  In  England,  where  the 


THEATRE 


168 


THEATRE 


theatres  are  entirely  commercial,  there  is  a 
sharp  distinction  between  London  and  the  prov¬ 
inces,  the  latter  being  served  by  traveling  com¬ 
panies  which  rarely  touch  the  capital.  A  few 
cities  like  Manchester  have  local  repertory  thea¬ 
tres,  private  in  their  business  organization  but 
semi  public  in  the  spirit  of  their  management. 
In  the  larger  cities  of  Russia  state  endowment 
prevails,  and  for  the  poorer  classes,  both  in 
urban  and  rural  districts,  the  government  has 
developed  an  elaborate  system  of  cheap  theatres, 
formerly  supported  out  of  the  income  from  the 
liquor  tax.  In  America  we  find  an  astonishing 
lack  of  system  and  stability  in  the  business  of 
play  producing.  Usually  the  plays  are  first 
produced  in  New  York  or  some  other  large  city 
by  a  private  individual  with  a  cast  of  actors 
hired  specially  for  them,  and  then,  if  successful, 
sent  on  the  road  to  play  for  the  smaller  cities  as 
long  as  success  continues.  The  method  of  financ¬ 
ing  these  enterprises  varies  greatly.  Sometimes 
the  large  producing  firms  supply  the  capital  and 
the  theatres;  often  private  individuals  furnish 
the  money  as  a  speculation,  and  the  theatre  may 
be  rented'  or  secured  on  a  basis  of  the  division 
of  gross  profits.  On  the  road  the  last-named 
method  prevails,  but  the  theatres,  though  usually 
privately  owned,  are  under  the  control  of  the 
national  booking  agencies,  which  arrange  a  play’s 
tour  to  suit  their  interest. 

Commercial  Theatre.  The  commercial  thea¬ 
tre,  operated  frankly  for  private  profit,  is  a 
comparatively  recent  development.  The  view 
that  theatrical  production  is  primarily  a  busi¬ 
ness  lias  flourished  chiefly  in  England  and  Amer¬ 
ica,  where  individual  initiative  has  traditionally 
been  exalted  over  state  action.  Under  this  sys¬ 
tem  each  play  produced  is  a  distinct  speculative 
venture.  An  individual  or  corporation  sup¬ 
plies  all  necessary  capital,  making  contracts 
with  actors  and  other  artists  contingent  upon 
the  success  of  the  play,  and  in  general  distrib¬ 
uting  the  risks  as  widely  as  possible.  The 
failure  of  a  play  under  this  system  becomes  a 
loss  not  only  for  the  producing  individual  or 
corporation,  but  also  for  the  theatre,  the  actors, 
and  the  supplementary  staff.  This  high  risk 
tends  to  the  inflation  of  prices  on  all  sides.  With 
the  prices  of  seats  prevailing  in  England  and 
America  (25  cents  to  $2  or  $2.50)  a  play  brings 
in  at  the  maximum  from  100  per  cent  to  300  per 
cent  net  profit  per  week.  Because  of  the  high 
risk  on  the  one  hand  and  the  high  potential 
profit  on  the  other,  the  commercial  manager 
tends  to  confine  himself  to  those  plays  which 
have  the  widest  possible  appeal.  And  since  these 
conditions  have  inflated  abnormally  the  prevail¬ 
ing  cost  of  theatrical  production,  it  follows  that 
the  play  of  limited  appeal  is  placed  under  a 
heavy  economic  disadvantage.  Hence  commer¬ 
cial  production  has  generally  been  prejudicial 
to  the  special  and  experimental  forms  of  dra¬ 
matic  art.  It  is  to  offset  this  condition  that 
(in  America  and  England)  numerous  semicoin- 
mercial  theatres  have  arisen,  quite  distinct  from 
the  commercial  theatre  in  organization  and 
personnel,  and  variously  known  by  the  names 
little  theatre,  art  theatre,  community  theatre, 
and  the  like. 

State  Theatre.  The  state  theatre  (either 
national  or  municipal),  which  prevails  through¬ 
out  France  and  Germany,  is  operated  on  a  dif¬ 
ferent  basis.  Its  success  is  measured  not  in  net 
financial  profit,  but  in  the  quality  and  quantity 
of  the  art  product  produced  for  a  given  sum  of 


money.  It  is  assumed  that  the  theatre  exists 
for  the  benefit  of  the  public  ( as  it  was  in  earlier 
days  for  the  benefit  of  the  King  patron).  The 
state  theatre  always  draws  a  subsidy  from  the 
public  treasury.  But  this  subsidy  is  never  a 
blanket  underwriting  of  future  losses;  it  is  a 
fixed  amount  advanced  to  cover  estimated  losses 
over  a  given  period.  For  all  further  losses  the 
manager  is  held  responsible  (though  not  always 
in  a  financial  sense).  In  Germany  the  manager 
or  intendant  is  usually  a  man  of  social  dis¬ 
tinction  serving  without  pay.  In  provincial 
France  he  is  a  business  man  or  entrepreneur, 
agreeing  under  bond  to  produce  a  certain  quan¬ 
tity  and  quality  of  plays  at  a  fixed  tariff  of 
prices,  making  good  any  losses  out  of  his  own 
pocket  and  receiving  as  his  own  any  profits  that 
may  accrue.  In  either  case  the  theatre  has  a 
stable  and  business-like  organization.  The  state 
subsidy  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  applied  to 
losses;  rather  it  is  applied  to  reducing  the  price 
of  seats,  in  recognition  of  the  public  utility  of  the 
institution.  The  theatre,  with  its  business  and 
artistic  staff,  is  a  business  unit.  Contracts  are 
made  by  the  year  and  financial  speculation  is  re¬ 
duced  to  the  minimum.  The  yearly  budget  is  a 
relatively  constant  factor,  since  nearly  all  the 
expenses  can  be  foreseen.  This,  however,  would 
be  impossible  if  the  yearly  income  were  not 
equally  constant.  The  cause  for  this  stability 
of  demand,  which  continues  in  nice  equilibrium 
with  the  supply,  is  to  be  found,  first,  in  the  fact 
that  the  state  theatre  has  usually  had  a  mo¬ 
nopoly  over  many  decades  and  has  thus  been 
able  to  measure  itself  to  the  supply;  and  second, 
in  the  stable  cultural  background  of  the  French 
and  German  peoples,  which  tends  to  create 
definite  and  homogeneous  standards  in  the 
audiences. 

Prices  in  the  state  theatres  of  France  and 
Germany  usually  range  between  25  cents  and 
$1,  with  an  abundance  of  special  seats  at  from 
6  to  15  cents.  It  is  chiefly  towards  these  latter 
seats  that  the  subsidy  is  directed.  The  amounts 
of  the  subsidy  vary  widely.  One  of  the  largest 
is  that  given  the  Burgtheater  in  Vienna,  which 
is  more  than  $125,000  a  year.  The  Royal  Thea¬ 
tre  of  Berlin  and  the  Theatre  Franqais  in  Paris 
receive  about  $50,000.  In  other  large  German 
cities  the  municipal  theatre  receives  from  $25,000 
to  $40,000  a  season.  In  provincial  France  the 
subsidy  varies  from  $20,000  to  $50,000.  In 
many  cases  this  subsidy  covers  both  opera  and 
spoken  drama,  which  are  often  combined  in  the 
same  theatre.  The  larger  opera  houses,  of 
course,  receive  much  larger  subsidies.  The 
French  government  spends  about  $350,000  a  year 
on  opera  and  drama  in  Paris  alone. 

Endowed  Theatre.  Endowed  theatres  are  es¬ 
sentially  private  in  nature,  and  relatively  few 
in  number.  They  usually  exist  for  some  particu¬ 
lar  purpose,  such  as  the  exploiting  of  a  certain 
type  of  play.  The  endowment  may  be  in  the 
nature  of  a  blanket  underwriting  of  losses,  or  it 
may  yield  merely  a  definite  sum  per  year,  but 
in  either  case  it  is  devoted  to  a  theatre  which 
cannot  be  expected  to  pay  for  itself.  This  is 
not  true  of  the  state  subsidized  theatre.  Except 
for  a  brief  period  of  time,  endowed  theatres 
usually  show  little  vitality.  For  the  best  artis¬ 
tic  product  the  theatre  should  be  organized  on  a 
thoroughly  business-like  basis.  Endowments  are 
often  received  by  state  theatres  in  Europe,  but 
usually  for  the  increasing  or  bettering  of  the 
artistic  product  in  some  specific  way. 


THEATRE 


THEATRE 


Subscription  Theatre.  The  subscription 
theatre  may  be  regarded  as  a  distinct  type, 
although  it  is  apparently  but  a  variation  of  the 
commercial  theatre.  It  aims  to  receive,  by 
means  of  season  subscriptions,  a  definite  sum  of 
money  in  advance.  This  gives  stability  to  its 
financial  organization,  and  practically  takes  it 
out  of  the  class  of  the  commercial  theatre  of 
England  and  America.  The  state  theatre  (as 
well  as  opera  the  world  over)  rests  largely  on 
the  subscription  system. 

Folk  Theatre.  A  distinct  type  of  economic 
organization  has  arisen  in  recent  years  in  the 
theatre  owned  by  large  societies,  whose  member¬ 
ship  becomes  the  chief  constituent  of  the  au¬ 
dience.  This  we  may  call  the  folk  theatre  in 
imitation  of  the  German  term,  Volkstheater.  It 
is  ideally  exemplified  by  the  Neue  Freie 
Volksbuhne  of  Berlin,  which  normally  has  over 
50,000  members  and  owns  the  best  theatre  in 
the  city.  Membership  in  the  society  gives  ad¬ 
mission  to  all  plays  produced  during  the  season 
in  the  society’s  theatre,  in  addition  to  many  ad¬ 
ditional  privileges  at  special  rates.  The  mem¬ 
bers,  through  their  representatives,  exert  a  con¬ 
siderable,  though  not  a  preponderant,  influence 
on  the  conduct  of  the  organization.  Profits  are 
devoted  to  a  sinking  fund  for  future  needs  or  to 
some  specific  enlargement  of  the  theatre’s  activi¬ 
ties.  The  total  cost  of  plays  to  members  is 
about  30  cents  each,  for  the  best  seats,  and  to 
buyers  of  single  tickets  a  little  more.  By  this 
scheme  of  organization  the  theatre  attains  the 
maximum  of  stability,  and  hence  the  highest  de¬ 
gree  of  economy  in  theatre  production  which  the 
world  has  yet  seen.  Several  other  large  folk 
theatres  exist  in  Germany  and  Austria.  In 
France  this  type  of  theatre,  under  the  name  of 
theatre  du  peuple,  has  been  only  moderately 
successful. 

Artistic  Organization.  The  organization  of 
the  artistic  staff  of  a  theatre  (actors,  directors, 
scene  designers,  costume  makers,  etc.)  is  dis¬ 
tinct  from  that  of  its  business  management. 
Any  type  of  the  former  may  exist  under  any 
type  of  the  latter.  In  America  the  commercial 
system  recruits  a  new  artistic  staff  for  each 
production.  In  the  foreign  state  theatres  and 
American  art  theatres,  the  company  is  usually 
kept  a  unit  for  the  whole  season.  In  Germany 
the  commercial  theatres  usually  have  a  perma¬ 
nent  company  with  frequent  changes  among  the 
leading  actors,  while  in  Paris  and  London  they 
are  more  fluid  and  approach  the  American  com¬ 
mercial  system  more  closely.  In  general,  the 
more  economical  theatres  operate  with  a  per¬ 
manent  company,  making  their  important 
changes  in  personnel  only  at  the  end  of  the  season. 

Repertory  Theatre.  The  term  “repertory 
theatre”  is  somewhat  loosely  used  to  include 
several  types,  all  of  which,  however,  have  a  per¬ 
manent  company.  Usually  the  term  refers  to 
a  producing  theatre  modeled  after  the  state  in¬ 
stitutions  of  the  Continent,  which  present  a 
dozen  or  more  new  plays  each  season,  together 
with  many  older  pieces,  alternating  them  from 
night  to  night  in  accordance  with  the  public 
demand.  The  company  is  from  two  to  three 
times  as  large  as  would  be  needed  for  an  average 
play,  and  thus  two  plays  can  be  in  rehearsal, 
so,  to  speak,  while  one  is  being  performed.  To 
a  certain  extent  the  members  of  the  company  can 
be  specialized,  some  being  saved  for  romantic 
parts,  some  for  comic  parts,  etc.  But  in  general 
a  variety  of  ability  is  demanded  of  each  member 


of  the  troupe,  and  the  repertory  company  thus 
serves  as  an  admirable  training  school  for  the 
young  actor.  The  plays  of  any  given  week  are 
usually  highly  varied  in  character,  no  piece 
(except  a  new  one)  running  for  more  than  two 
successive  nights.  The  special  economic  ad¬ 
vantage  of  this  method  is  that  the  cost  of 
each  production  is  figured  in  with  the  expenses 
of  the  whole  season,  and  a  loss  in  the  case  of 
any  unsuccessful  play  can  be  distributed  over 
the  various  successful  plays  of  the  season. 
Further,  this  repertory  system  is  the  only  one 
yet  devised  by  which  a  play  with  a  limited  ap¬ 
peal  can  be  made  to  pay  for  itself.  This  greatly 
increases  the  variety  of  product  and  hence  the 
efficiency  of  the  theatre. 

Stock  Company.  The  stock  company,  which 
for  many  decades  was  the  chief  purveyor  of 
drama  to  the  smaller  American  cities,  is  organ¬ 
ized  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  repertory 
theatre.  The  distinction  between  the  two  is 
largely  theoretical.  In  common  usage  the 
repertory  theatre  is  supposed  to  be  first  class  in 
price  and  to  produce  its  new  plays  in  the  first 
or  second  season  of  their  theatrical  life.  The 
American  stock  company,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  assumed  the  position  of  a  cheap  by-product 
of  the  commercial  system,  with  a  scale  of  prices 
as  low  as  10  to  35  cents  and  as  high  as  25  cents 
to  $1.  It  may  or  may  not  be  a  touring  com¬ 
pany.  When  it  is  not  on  tour  it  produces  plays 
singly  for  one  or  more  weeks,  and  usually  only 
those  plays  which  are  no  longer  running  in  the 
first-class  theatre.  Usually  the  artistic  product 
of  such  stock  companies  is  poor.  A  few  approx¬ 
imate  a  fair  standard  of  excellence,  but  these 
usually  succumb  to  competition  when  their  prices 
are  raised. 

Long-Run  System.  The  popular  term  “long- 
run  system”  has  become  the  technical  name  for 
the  prevailing  system  of  production  in  the  first- 
class  commercial  theatre  of  America.  It  is 
duplicated  in  other  countries,  but  nowhere  has 
it  gained  such  complete  control  over  the  national 
system  of  play  production  as  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  based  upon  the  premise  that  each 
play  is  a  unit  of  speculation  and  must  be  made 
to  yield  the  highest  possible  gross  return.  A  play 
may  run  as  much  as  two  full  seasons  in  New 
York  City  alone,  and  at  the  same  time  be  put 
on  the  road  with  as  many  as  five  additional  com¬ 
panies.  The  gross  returns  from  one  such  play 
must  be  figured  in  the  millions  of  dollars.  An 
actor  is  sometimes  obliged  to  act  a  single  part 
without  respite  for  three  or  four  years.  The 
net  profits  to  the  entrepreneur  may  be  many 
times  the  capital  invested.  Because  of  this 
tremendous  margin  of  potential  profit  the  com¬ 
mercial  managers  have  been  led  to  speculate 
freely  and  to  expend  great  sums  of  money  in  the 
erection  of  theatres.  The  result  has  been  a 
material  overproduction  of  the  theatrical  com¬ 
modity  to  fill  these  theatres,  and  a  consequent 
increase  in  the  risk  and  decrease  in  the  average 
quality  of  theatrical  production.  The  remun¬ 
eration  to  stars  (actors  and  actresses  of  great 
popularity)  has  been  correspondingly  inflated. 
Much  money  and  effort  have  also  been  expended 
to  bring  the  theatres  of  the  road  under  the 
centralized  control  of  New  York.  The  results 
have  been  generally  regarded  as  detrimental  to 
dramatic  art  in  America.  The  growth  of  the 
motion-picture  business  has  modified  this  system, 
but  has  not  in  any  essential  respect  changed  it. 

Under  this  system  the  actors  are  hired  on 


THEATRE 


THEATRE 


an  agreed  weekly  wage,  but  the  contract  is 
revocable  on  the  part  of  the  manager  at  any 
time,  upon  notice  of  a  week  or  less.  Sometimes 
the  actor  must  contract  to  remain  as  long  as  the 
play  continues  to  be  acted,  without  receiving 
any  reciprocal  contract  from  the  manager. 
(Probably  such  a  contract  is  not  valid  in  law, 
but  it  can  usually  be  enforced  by  the  custom 
of  the  theatrical  business.)  In  nearly  every 
case  the  actor  gives  his  services  gratis  for  the 
period  of  rehearsal,  which  usually  lasts  three  to 
four  weeks,  but  may  be  extended  by  the  manager. 
Stars  are  sometimes  retained  under  long-time 
contracts  irrespective  of  the  success  or  failure 
of  the  plays  in  which  they  appear.  The  weekly 
remuneration  of  actors  of  some  experience  and 
professional  standing  is  from  $100  to  $500  a 
week.  But  stars  may  receive  far  more. 

Prices  for  Theatre  Seats.  In  England  in 
Shakespeare’s  time  prices  varied  from  a  penny  to 
a  shilling.  In  the  early  American  theatres  the 
prices  were  high — from  three  shillings  for  gal¬ 
lery  seats  to  six  shillings  for  seats  in  the  boxes. 
Prices  fell  after  the  Revolution  to  25  cents  for 
gallery  seats  and  $1  for  box  seats.  This  re¬ 
mained  about  the  scale  of  prices  until  after 
the  Civil  War,  when  there  was  a  steady  increase. 
In  1870  first-class  theatres  in  New  York  charged 
$1.50  for  orchestra  seats  and  from  35  to  50 
cents  for  the  top  gallery.  About  1886  a  few 
New  York  theatres  began  charging  $2  for  the 
best  seats  in  the  orchestra  and  the  first  row  in 
the  first  balcony,  and  gradually  all  first-class 
theatres  made  $2  the  price  of  .orchestra  seats, 
with  $1.50  and  $1  for  the  balconies,  and  50 
cents  for  the  gallery.  For  operatic  performances 
$2  and  $2.50  were  the  prices  for  orchestra  seats 
in  the  New  York  Academy  of  Music  until  1878, 
when  the  price  was  advanced  by  the  English 
manager,  Mapleson,  to  $3.  A  few  years  later, 
with  the  advent  of  Madame  Patti,  the  price  rose 
to  $5  for  orchestra  seats,  at  which  it  has  since 
remained.  In  Germany,  with  the  exception  of 
Berlin,  the  price  of  the  best  seats  for  either 
opera  or  drama  seldom  exceeds  $1.50,  and  usu¬ 
ally,  for  plays,  is  well  beneath  $1. 

Law  of  Theatres.  For  legal  purposes,  a  the¬ 
atre  is  a  house  or  building  adapted  and  used 
for  the  purpose  of  dramatic  performances.  The 
courts  differ  in  the  various  States  as  to  what 
may  be  considered  a  dramatic  performance,  but 
generally  almost  any  exhibition  on  the  stage  is 
included  in  this  term.  Thus,  negro-minstrel 
shows  and  comic  operas  have  been  held  to  be 
theatrical  performances  within  a  law  governing 
theatres.  Laws  regulating  theatres  are  a  con¬ 
stitutional  exercise  of  the  police  power.  Be¬ 
cause  of  the  public  character  of  theatres,  statutes 
have  been  enacted  in  most  States  prohibiting  the 
discrimination  against  persons  or  citizens  wish¬ 
ing  to  attend  theatrical  performances  on  the 
ground  of  race,  creed,  or  color.  This  legislation 
is  applicable  also  to  hotels,  barber  shops, 
and  all  places  of  public  amusement.  Any 
discrimination  for  reasons  other  than  race,  creed, 
or  color,  however,  does  not  come  within  the 
statutory  prohibition,  although  the  courts  will 
scrutinize  carefully  the  nominal  reason  given  for 
withholding  accommodation  to  see  whether  it  be 
in  fact  a  mere  sham.  The  penalties  for  vio¬ 
lation  of  this  portion  of  the  Civil  Rights  Act 
vary  in  the  different  States;  generally  the  pen¬ 
alty  is  a  fine  recoverable  by  the  person  dis¬ 
criminated  against  and  sometimes  also  punish¬ 
ment  by  imprisonment.  In  the  absence  of  stat¬ 


ute  or  in  instances  where  the  statutory  prohi¬ 
bition  is  inapplicable  a  theatre  ticket  is  regarded 
as  a  revocable  license  and  theatrical  managers 
may  refuse  to  sell  a  ticket,  or  refuse  to  admit 
a  person  with  a  ticket  without  assigning!  any 
reason.  Where  proper  notice  is  given  to  i pur¬ 
chasers  of  tickets,  the  management  may  make 
it  a  condition  that  tickets  shall  not  be  trans¬ 
ferable.  This  may  be  done  by  printing  such  con¬ 
ditions  on  the  back  of  the  tickets  themselves 
and  by  notices  posted  at  the  theatre,  or  by  giv¬ 
ing  actual  notice  to  purchasers.  Under  such  cir¬ 
cumstances  theatrical  managers  may  refuse  to 
honor  tickets  bought  from  speculators.  (See 
Ticket.)  The  spectators  may  applaud  or  hiss 
the  players  in  moderation,  but  must  do  so  to 
express  their  spontaneous  emotions,  and  not 
come  with  the  intention  of  stopping  or  inter¬ 
fering  with  the  performance,  as  in  the  latter  case 
they  may  be  ordered  to  leave  the  theatre  and  be 
forcibly  removed  if  they  refuse.  In  the  Metcalfe 
and  Woollcott  cases  in  New  York,  the  courts  have 
sustained  the  owner’s  right  to  exclude  critics 
who  are  supposed  to  be  unfriendly,  on  the  ground 
that  they  come  not  as  spectators  but  in  order 
to  conduct  business  on  the  theatre  premises. 

The  rapid  increase  of  moving-picture  theatres 
has  caused  practically  every  State  to  adopt  strin¬ 
gent  fire  regulations  and  also  regulations  as  to 
the  admission  of  minors.  Such  regulations  are  a 
legal  exercise  of  the  police  power  and  are  usually 
enforced  by  a  revocation  of  license.  While  the 
municipality  has  the  licensing  and  regulating 
power,  it  has  been  held  that  only  the  State  has 
power  to  make  disobedience  to  such  rules  a 
crime,  as  in  the  case  of  violation  of  the  Sabbath. 
In  most  States  there  is  no  legal  and  compulsory 
form  of  censorship,  but  in  Ohio,  Kansas,  and  a 
few  other  States  statutes  have  been  passed  mak¬ 
ing  censorship  by  a  duly  appointed  board  of 
censors  necessary  before  the  production  of  the 
film.  This  legislation  has  recently  been  upheld 
in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 

Construction.  The  larger  theatres  in  Europe 
and  a  few  of  those  in  the  United  States,  e.g., 
the  Century  in  New  York,  are  isolated  buildings 
of  monumental  design,  usually  in  Europe  erected 
by  the  city  or  state.  In  interior  arrangement 
and  design,  European  theatres,  though  sumptu¬ 
ously  decorated,  are  often  inferior  in  comfort  and 
convenience  to  the  more  recent  American  the¬ 
atres,  in  which  special  attention  is  given  to  the 
seating,  the  heating,  ventilation,  and  exits  and 
to  fireproof  construction  and  safety  from  ac¬ 
cident.  Most  American  theatres  are,  however, 
built  on  inside  lots  or  at  the  corners  of  street 
blocks,  hemmed  in  by  other  buildings  and  with 
little  external  beauty  of  architecture.  The 
largest  theatre  in  Europe  is  the  La  Scala  at 
Milan,  seating  about  3500;  the  largest  in  Amer¬ 
ica  is  the  Hippodrome  in  New  York,  seating 
over  5000,  and  designed  for  spectacular  enter¬ 
tainments  rather  than  for  legitimate  drama. 
The  acoustics  of  theatres  constitute  a  difficult 
and  complex  problem  of  great  importance.  See 
Acoustics;  Opera  House. 

The  modern  theatre  is  divided  into  two  or 
three  parts,  kept  distinct  in  the  structural 
scheme.  First,  there  is  the  stage,  with  all 
necessary  dressing  rooms  and  mechanical  equip¬ 
ment  for  the  production  of  the  play,  together 
with  space  at  each  side  and  above  for  the  stor¬ 
ing  of  scenery,  etc.  Next  there  is  the  auditorium 
with  its  corridors,  lounging  rooms,  etc.  Finally, 
there  is  the  outer  lobby  with  its  approaches. 


THEATRE 


This 


1 


HEATRE  i  >7 1 

*.  .naih  a  part  of  the  auditorium 
structi  .  I  i  here  tre  several  modern  types  of 
theatn  <  n  the  traditional  type  based 

on  the  Italian  op  e  a  house,  which  has  its  bal- 
coni  s  in  horse:-!  nape  and  its  seats  generally 
ine  cur  ed  -  dodern  practice  in  theatre 
buildii  :  >  •  ;ds  ike  both  the  balconies  and 

thff  rows  on  i ixc  ground  floor  straight.  The 
larger  opera  houses,  which  seat  upward  of  3000, 
may  have  as  many  as  five  distinct  balconies,  in¬ 
cluding  those  composed  of  boxes.  But  the  nor¬ 
mal  theatre  for  the  spoken  drama  usually  has  a 
capacity  between  1100  and  1500.  A  distinct  type 
of  playhouse,  however,  which  has  recently  come 
into  vogue,  is  the  little  theatre,  which  may  have 
a  capacity  as  small  as  99,  and  rarely  goes  above 
400.  This  is  a  direct  result  of  the  intimate  and 
lifelike  character  of  many  modern  plays  which 
demand  the  most  accurate  attention.  Recently, 
too,  the  large  outdoor  theatre,  modeled  on  the 
Greek,  has  come  into  fashion. 

Auditorium. — In  the  auditorium,  the  modern 
theatre  has  been  strongly  influenced  by  German 
methods.  In  addition  to  making  straight  rows, 
modern  theatre  architects  incline  to  a  steeply 
pitched  floor,  sometimes  so  much  as  to  gk  • 
the  spectators  of  each  row  a  clear  view  ov " 
the  heads  of  those  sitting  in  front.  This  t\ 
of  auditorium  is  known  as  the  amphithea7 
without  implying  a  semicircular  plan.  Mod 
custom  also  tends  to  the  elimination  of  > 
and  loges,  or  to  placing  them  at  the  rear, 
galleries  must  of  course  be  more  steeply  pi 
than  the  ground  floor.  In  the  matter  of  d 
tion,  too,  modern  taste  follows  the  German 
ornate  quality  which  is  to  be  found  in  t) 
ian  opera  house  is  giving  place  to  strai 
bare  walls,  with  a  simple  and  harmonic 
scheme.  The  science  of  acoustics  has  a 
strides  in  recent  years,  although  if 
in  its  beginnings.  Experience  has  pr  . 
the  best  acoustical  results  are  obta 
draperies  and  all  textile  accoutreme 
duced  to  a  minimum. 

Stage. — The  stage  is  primarily  ni 
box  with  a  curtained  opening,  placi  .e  • 

of  the  auditorium.  But  the  recer  ci  ,  ur. 
the  art  of  theatrical  production, 
scientific  discovery,  has  made  it  '  r;  •••♦  I 
orate  part  of  the  theatre.  Norm;: '  1 7  ; 
opening,  or  proscenium,  is  from  y 
wide  and  from  15  to  22  feet  high, 
is  usually  from  20  to  35  feet,  si 
quently,  in  small  theatres,  as  sligl  ,  ;  k;  1 

The  dimensions  of  the  whole  -  e  1 
are  highly  various.  In  the  oi.krf  t 
necessary  that  the  total  heig 
as  that  of  the  proscenium.  :  1 


ok 

.iad 


the  raising  of  all  scenery  k  .  r. ;  i 
But  with  the  increasing  ;  f 


15^  "ad if  s  . . 

th 


R 


this  condition  is  no  longer 
ever,  the  modern  trend  is 
sions  of  the  stage  sectk 
tions.  The  total  width  •  amk  t  •  ,.t  k 
that  of  the  proscenium  -k  ; 

least  35  feet,  the  height  -kc  d  be  y  ->  * 
is  frequently  three  t '  | 

necessary.  Whereas  tin-  y  •  >< <  .  u  to  be 

a  mere  appendage  of  •  .  : 

the  largest  and  moc  '  jd  , 

t'icaf  "■ 

nent  ol  ;  :  ma 

addition  » 

•ing  the  car  av f.k  y 
jipnn  nt  of  '*<  i\ 


The  e 

Ci  ■  , 

ii 

el  1  ■  : 


ICR 


flies  above  for  raising  and  lowering  the  scenery. 
This  apparatus  is  called  the  gridiron.  The  old 
equipment  of  grooves  or  slots  in  the  wings  or 
side  spaces  for  the  placing  of  masks  or  side 
pieces  of  scenery  has  become  needless  with  the 
perfecting  of  the  set  scene.  The  stage  itself  is 
no  longer  steeply  pitched,  as  formerly.  Usually 
in  the  back  there  is  a  curved  or  semicircular 
cyclorama,  painted  white  or  sky-blue,  for  1 
in  outdoor  scenes.  This  is  ordinarily  ina'’ 
canvas  which  can  be  rolled  up  on  a  c*  : 
But  it  is  sometimes  constructed  of  soT 
and  may  be  domed  out  towards  th 
one  or  two  European  theatres  th’ 
rama  can  be  raised  by  machk 
taken  out  of  the  actors’  way. 
theatres  the  stage  is  const-  in  f) 

sections,  which  can  be 
pendently.  There  is  ' 


below.  In  g( 
equipment  of 
simple  thar 
mechanise 

mu  cl 


n 


poses 

tv 


appe 

XI Ll  t  ‘ 1  ■ ! IS  *  r  ( j  *  f  X 

n^ 

the  a  -  'lit 

i  1 

re 

Tiiierly.  On  the 

the 

ieh  may  •  be  used 

V  9  _ 

A  pur- 

more  •  ar  ea  ■  ■ 

C  iCX. 

demand  foi 
•f  scene 

'A  of  SI 

/the  d 
/  these 


u: 


a  c 
•1/  ft 


le 
<v- 
en- 

rec- 
.vice 
e  at 
or  j  and 

utely 


KXTL- 


'>  is  now 
n  of  the 

imple  or 
for  rais- 
isually  an 
eys  in  the 


.  •  ry  and  for 

^oed  a  number 
j.  to  conquer  one 
which  hamper  the 
.  the  best  is  the  re- 
e  Deutsches  Theater  in 
cular  platform  which  re- 
deeply  set  in  concrete.  It 
m  diameter  and  is  capable  of 
r  more  complete  sets,  any  one  of 
Drought  before  the  proscenium  ( and 
vi ew  of  the  audience)  by  the  revolu- 
the  stage.  The  scene  is  not,  however, 
to  the  dimensions  of  the  revolving  plat- 
it  may  be  supplemented  upon  a  surround- 
tionary  stage.  Another  type  is  the  slid- 
ige,  which  is  in  reality  a  stage  of  double 
which  may  be  moved  laterally  so  that 
of  it  is  completely  concealed  in  the  wings 
ither  side;  while  the  play  is  proceeding  on 
half  of  this  platform,  the  setting  for  the 
owing  scene  is  being  set  up  on  the  other.  In 
ae  theatres  the  scenery  is  set  upon  small 
.gons,  which  can  be  rolled  on  to  the  stage  in 
few  seconds  and  placed  in  their  proper  posi- 
mns.  In  general,  all  scenes  are  set,  and  the 
tainted  drop  or  hanging  canvas  has  little  place 
in  the  modern  theatre.  Scene  building  has  be¬ 
come  a  highly  specialized  business,  and  demands 
great  ingenuity  and  expertness.  Often  realism 
demands  the  use  of  wooden  structure  of  the  most 
solid  sort.  On  the  other  hand,  the  scene  de¬ 
signers  of  recent  times  have  taken  great  free¬ 
dom  in  the  art  of  suggesting  (rather  than 
depicting)  reality  by  simple  and  conventional¬ 
ized  means. 

Lighting. — The  stage  is  usually  lighted  by 
incandescent  bulbs  placed  just  within  the  pro¬ 
scenium  arch  in  the  front,  those  below  being 
called  footlights  and  those  above,  border  lights. 
These  are  in  white  and  two  or  three  colors,  so 
wired  that  any  set  may  be  turned  on  and  off  in¬ 
dependently  of  the  others.  Their  intensity  may 
be  raised  or  lowered  gradually  at  will  by  means 
of  dimmers.  To  supplement  them  is  a  set  of  arc 
lamps  called  spot  lights,  which  are  movable  and 
are  usually  operated  from  the  wings,  so  as  to  cast 
a  strong  light  on  a  certain  spot  or  to  eliminate 
shadows  cast  by  the  front  lights.  A  more  power¬ 
ful  spot  light,  often  a  calcium  lamp,  may  be  placed 


THEATRE 


THEATRE 


172 


in  the  gallery  to  throw  a  special  illumination 
upon  one  or  more  of  the  characters  as  they  move 
about  the  stage.  But  lighting  methods,  in  recent 
years,  have  undergone  much  change  and  ex¬ 
perimentation,  especially  in  Germany.  The 
“Fortuny  system”  and  related  methods  throw 
upon  the  stage  an  indirect  light  reflected  from 
bands  of  silk  or  plaster  surfaces.  Subtle  grada¬ 
tions  of  color  can  be  obtained  by  the  mixing  of 
the  primary  hues  under  this  method.  In  some 
theatres  it  is  the  practice  to  illuminate  the 
stage  by  means  of  arc  lamps  placed  in  the  first 
balcony,  thus  eliminating  the  unreal  lighting 
from  beneath  that  exists  under  the  footlight 
system.  At  the  present  time  producers  are  ex¬ 
perimenting  with  many  different  systems  and 
types  of  lamp. 

Production.  The  process  of  theatrical  pro¬ 
duction  consists  of  assembling  and  rehearsing 
the  actors,  of  providing  suitable  scenery,  and  of 
harmonizing  all  the  separate  elements  into  an 
artistic  whole.  In  the  best  theatres  all  this 
work  is  directed  by  one  man  through  his  sub¬ 
ordinates.  Modern  practice  has  divided  stage 
production  into  several  distinct  types.  The 
realistic  type  seeks  to  make  all  details  accord  as 
accurately  as  possible  with  tke  reality  of  every¬ 
day  life.  What  is  loosely  called  the  artistic 
type  seeks  to  provide,  by  more  Npr  less  conven¬ 
tional  means,  effects  of  decorative  beauty  for  the 
eye  and  ear,  without  strict  regard  to  reality.  Of 
this  latter  type  there  are  many  varieties.  Some 
designers  seek  flat  and  picturesque  effects  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  laws  of  the  easel  painter.  Some  seek 
depth  and  atmospheric  quality  by  meahs  of 
perspective  and  lighting.  Others  seek  an  ar¬ 
rangement,  either  with  color  or  design  or  both, 
that  shall  subtly  symbolize  the  mood  of  thb, 
scene.  Often  plays  are  produced  in  a  highly 
simplified  fashion  imitated  from  the  Elizabethan, 
in  which  crude  scenery  merely  suggests  the 
locale  and  no  pains  are  taken  with  realistic 
appropriateness.  All  these  methods  make  use 
of  deliberate  and  conventional  simplification  for 
the  sake  of  a  definite  artistic  effect.  The  style 
of  the  acting  must  also  accord  with  the  style 
of  the  scenery,  and  vice  versa;  in  the  realistic 
manner  the  actors  must  play  with  full  regard 
for  the  probabilities  of  the  situation;  in  the 
artistic  they  must  keep  in  mind  the  decorative 
effect  of  speech,  gesture,  intonation,  etc. 

In  solving  all  these  problems  producers  have 
been  obliged  to  call  to  an  unprecedented  extent 
upon  the  workers  in  the  various  specials aHs,  and 
carefully  to  mold  their  contributions  to  the  de¬ 
sired  theatric  effect.  As  a  result,  the  theatre 
has  become  a  rich  and  flexible  artistic  instru¬ 
ment,  surpassing  all  others  in  variety  and  po¬ 
tential  power. 

Bibliography.  Ancient  theatre:  the  best 
general  account  in  English,  except  on  the  stage 
question,  is  A.  E.  Haigh,  The  Attic  Theatre 
(3d  ed.,  revised  by  A.  W.  Pickard,  Oxford, 
1907)  :  a  good  brief  statement  is  L.  D.  Barnett, 
The  Greek  Drama  (London,  1900).  Good,  with 
respect  to  the  production  of  plays,  though 
in  need  of  revision,  is  G.  Oehmichen,  Das 
Biihnemvesen  der  Griechen  und  Romer  (Mu¬ 
nich,  1890)  ;  also  the  article  “Theatrum,” 
in  William  Smith,  A  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities,  vol.  ii  (3d  ed.,  London, 
1891).  A  fine  description  of  the  two  Roman 
theatres  in  Pompeii  is  given  in  August  Man, 
Pompeii:  Its  Life  and  Art  (Eng.  trans.  by  F.  W. 
Kelsey,  2d  ed.,  New  York,  1902).  The  standard 


work  on  the  construction  of  the  theatre  is  Dbrp- 
feld  and  Reisch,  Das  griechische  Theater 
(Athens,  1896)  ;  also  A.  Muller,  “Die  griechi- 
schen  Biihnenaltertiimer,”  in  Hermann,  Handbuch 
der  griechischen  Antiquitdten  (Freiburg,  1886)  ; 
Betlie,  Prolegomena  zur  Geschichte  der  Theaters 
im  Altertum  (Leipzig,  1896);  Puchstein,  Die 
griechische  Bilhne  (Berlin,  1901);  E.  R.  Fiech- 
ter,  Die  Baugeschichtliche  Entwicklung  des 
antiken  Theaters  (Munich,  1904)  ;  K.  K.  Smith, 
“The  Use  of  the  Higli-Soled  Shoe  or  Buskin  in 
Greek  Tragedy  of  the  Fifth  and  Fourth  Cen¬ 
turies  b.c.,”  in  Harvard  Studies,  vol.  xvi  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1905)  ;  K.  Rees,  The  Rule  of  Three  Actors 
in  the  Classical  Greek  Drama  (Chicago,  1908)  ; 
“Theater,”  in  Friedrich  Liibker,  Reallexikon  des 
klassischen  Altertums,  vol.  ii  (8th  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1914).  For  the  theatre  of  Dionysus:  M.  L. 
D’Ooge,  The  Acropolis  of  Athens  (New  York, 
1908),  and  C.  H.  Weller,  Athens  and  its  Monu¬ 
ments  (ib.,  1913).  For  the  theatre  at  Epidau- 
rus,  see  K.  Baedeker,  Greece  (4th  Eng.  ed.,  Leip¬ 
zig,  1909).  See  also  J.  G.  Frazer,  Pausanias, 
vols.  ii  and  v  (2d  ed.,  London,  1913)  ;  E.  Capps, 
“The  Greek  State  According  to  the  Extant 
Dramas,”  in  Transactions  of  American  Philologi¬ 
cal  Association,  vol.  xxii  (Boston,  1891)  ;  A.  W. 
Pickard,  “The  Relative  Positions  of  the  Actors 
and  Chorus  in  the  Greek  Theatre  of  the  Fifth 
Century  b.c.,”  in  American  Journal  of  Philology, 
vol.  xiv  (Baltimore,  1893).  For  the  Roman 
theatre,  see  the  “Einleitung”  to  the  edition  of 
Terence’s  Phormio,  edited  by  Ziatsko  and  Han- 
ler  (4tli  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914),  as  revised  by  Charles 
Knapp,  in  “Notes  on  Plautus  and  Terence,”  in 
American  Journal  of  Philology,  vol.  xxxv  (Balti¬ 
more,  1914),  and  especially,  Charles  Knapp, 
“The  Roman  Theatre,”  in  Art  and  Archaeology, 
vol.  i  (Baltimore,  1915).  Mediaeval  and  mod¬ 
ern  :  Edmund  Malone,  History  of  the  Stage 
('London,  1821),  an  exhaustive  account  of  the 
English  stage  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century;  William  Dunlap,  History  of  the  Amer- 
iean  Theatre  and  Anecdotes  of  the  Principal 
Actors'  (New  York,  1832),  the  best  account  of 
the  earfy  American  theatres;  Gamier,  Le  nouvel 
opera  d'&  Paris  (Paris,  1876),  an  elaborate 
treatise  cm  opera  houses;  Arthur  Pougin,  Dic- 
tionnaire  historique  et  pittoresque  du  theatre 
(ib.,  1885),  a  full  history  of  French  theatres;  T. 
F.  Ordish, '  Early  London  Theatres,  in  “The 
Antiquary’s  Library”  (London,  1899)  ;  Karl 
Mantzius,  A  History  of  Theatrical  Art  in  An¬ 
cient  and  Modern  Times  (5  vols.,  Philadelphia, 
1903-09),  the  ;most  scholarly  and  comprehensive 
history  of  the  ihtage  in  both  its  physical  and  cul¬ 
tural  development;  L.  H.  Lecomte,  Histoire  des 
thedtres  de  Paris  (10  vols.,  Paris,  190o\10)  ;  M. 
J.  Moses,  The  American  Dramatist  (Boston, 
1911),  contains  *some  account  of  the  early  Amer¬ 
ican  theatre;  H.  K.  Moderwell,  The  Theatre  of 
Today  (New  Yoi'k,  1914),  with  special  chapters 
on  stage  mechanism,  stage  scenery,  and  theatre 
economics  in  the  twentieth  century.  For  the 
theatre  in  its  legl^l  aspects,  consult:  S.  H.  Wan- 
dell,  Law  of  the  Theatre:  A  Treatise  upon  the 
Legal  Relations  0;f  Actors,  Manen('rs ,  and  Au¬ 
diences  (Albany,  ; 1 892 ) ,  and  S.  uis,  Law 

of  Theatre  Tickets'  (San  Francis  )5).  Or¬ 
ganization  and  economics:  P.  P.  u  The  Rep¬ 
ertory  Theatre  (N^w  York,  191  •),  record  of 

English  experience  yvitli  the  repcrr.  method; 
P.  W.  MacKave,  Th\?  Civic  The<-',  b.,  1912), 

contains  suggestive  aind  far-reac  -  statements 
of  the  possibilities  of  the  folk  i  ;  Rolland, 


THEBES 


THEATRE  ANTOINE 


173 


Le  thddtre  du  peuple  (Paris,  1913),  an  extensive 
and  detailed  account  of  the  folk  theatre  in 
t  ranee  and  Belgium ;  also  series  of  articles  on 
European  state  and  municipal  theatres  in  The 
Drama:  A  Quarterly  Review  (Chicago,  1913-14), 
and  L.  E.  Shipman,  The  True  Adventures  of  a 
Play  (New  York,  1914).  Theatre  architecture: 
Suchs  and  W  oodrow,  Modern  Opera  Houses  and 
Theatres  (3  vols.,  London,  1896-98);  W.  H. 
Birkmire,  The  Planning  and  Construction  of 
American  Theatres  (New  York,  1896);  Martin 
Hammitzsch,  Der  moderne  Theaterbau  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1906),  an  exhaustive  history  of  theatre 
construction  since  the  Middle  Ages;'  W.  P.  Ger- 
hardt,  Theatres:  Their  Safety,  Comfort,  and 
Healthfulness  (New  York,  1915).  Stage  ma¬ 
chinery:  iheodor  W  eil,  Die  elektrische  Biihnen- 
und  Effekt-Beleuchtung  (Vienna,  1904)  ;  Vaula- 
belle  and  Hemardinquer,  La  science  au  theatre 
(Paris,  1908);  Jacques  Rouche,  L’Art  thedtral 
moderne  (ib.,  1910)  ;  also  publications  by  the 
Allgemeine  Elelctricitats  Gesellschaft  (Berlin, 
1904,  1913),  on  the  Fortuny  method  of  stage 
lighting.  Stage  scenery:  Adolphe  Appia,  Die 
Musik  und  die  Insceniei'ung  (  Munich,  1899)  ; 
Georg  Fuchs,  Die  Revolution  des  Theaters  (ib., 
1909)  ;  Gordon  Craig,  On  the  Art  of  the  Theatre 
(London,  1910)  ;  Carter,  The  New  Spirit  in 
Drama  and  Art  (ib.,  1912)  ;  Gordon  Craig, 
Toward  a  New  Theatre  (ib.,  1913)  ;  Sheldon 
Cheney,  The  New  Movement  in  the  Theatre 
(New  York,  1914)  ;  also  Rouchg  and  Moderwell, 
mentioned  above. 

THEATRE  ANTOINE.  See  Theatre  Libre. 

THEATRE  DES  ITALIENS,  ta'a'tr’  da 
ze'ta'lyaN'  ( Fr.,  theatre  of  the  Italians ) .  A  for¬ 
mer  theatre  of  Paris  from  which  the  Boulevard 
des  Italiens  derives  its  name. 

THEATRE  FRANQAIS,  fraN's&'.  The 
French  national  theatre.  See  Comedie  Fra  y- 
caise.  * 

THEATRE  LIBRE,  l<Ybr’  (Fr.,  free  theatre). 
The  name  of  a  dramatic  enterprise  founded  in 
1887  by  Andre  Antoine,  then  a  young  Parisian 
clerk.  With  some  fellow  amateurs  of  the  Gaulois 
Club  lie  arranged  the  production  (March  30, 
1887)  of  four  new  one-act  plays  at  the  Elysee  des 
Beaux-Arts  at  Montmartre,  and  in  the  course  of 
the  year  formed  the  association  of  the  Theatre 
Libre,  to  be  conducted  upon  the  following  prin¬ 
ciples:  the  season  to  consist  of  eight  different 
representations,  one  each  month  from  October  to 
June;  no  tickets  to  be  sold  to  the  public;  the 
enterprise  to  be  supported  by  subscribers  who 
with  invited  guests  should  form  the  only  audi¬ 
ence.  The  design  was  to  give  young  authors  a 
chance  to  try  their  strength;  and  also,  for  art’s 
sake,  to  produce  plays  which  for  any  reason,  po¬ 
litical  or  moral,  might  be  forbidden  by  the  cen¬ 
sorship  if  undertaken  at  a  public  theatre.  In 
an  artistic  way  the  Theatre  Libre  won  success, 
though  it  excited  much  debate  from  the  first. 
Its  founder  aimed  to  do  away  with  all  conven¬ 
tionality  and  to  attain  a  degree  of  realism  often 
thought  out  of  the  question  upon  the  stage.  In 
its  first  eight  years  about  150  writers  contrib¬ 
uted  works  for  its  performances,  and  a  consid¬ 
erable  proportion  of  these  previously  unknown 
pieces  were  afterward  accepted  and  brought  out 
by  other  theatres.  At  the  same  time  such  fa¬ 
mous  writers  as  Zola,  the  Goncourts,  Mendes, 
Bergerat,  Ibsen,  and  Tolstoy  also  found  presen¬ 
tation  here.  Financially,  however,  M.  Antoine 
found  his  difficulties  accumulating,  and  in  1894 


he  accepted  a  position  as  an  actor  at  the  Gym- 
nase  Theatre.  For  a  short  time  he  was  co¬ 
director  of  the  Od6on  (1896)  ;  then  he  resumed 
the  direction  of  the  Theatre  Libre,  for  several 
years  located  in  the  Salle  des  Menus-Plaisirs  and 
known  since  1897  as  the  Theatre  Antoine.  To 
this  the  general  public  is  admitted  in  the  usual 
way,  though  subscribers  still  retain  their  special 
privilege  at  eight  representations  a  year.  The 
idea  of  the  Theatre  Libre  has  been  copied  in 
other  countries.  In  1906  M.  Antoine  returned  to 
the  Odeon. 

THEA'TRTIM  EU'ROPJE'TJM  (Lat.,  survey 
of  Europe).  A  chronicle  of  events  which  ap¬ 
peared  in  21  volumes  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main 
between  1616  and  1718.  The  work  was  in  part 
the  forerunner  of  political  journals. 

THEBAINE.  See  Alkaloids. 

THEBAIS,  the'ba-is  or  thg-ba'ls  (Lat.,  from 
Gk.  Qripals ) .  1.  The  territory  of  Thebes,  in 

Egypt.  In  later  times  the  name  was  applml 
by  the  ancients  to  Upper  Egypt.  2.  An 
cient  Greek  epic  giving  in  7000  verses  the  story 
of  the  house  of  Labdacus  and  the  attack  of  the 
seven  chieftains  on,  Thebes.  3.  A  dull  and  long-  & 
drawn  work  by  P.  Papinius  Statius,  dedicated 
to  Domitian.  It  contains  in  12  books  the  story 
of  the  contests  of  Eteocles  and  Polynices. 

THE'BAN  CYCLE.  The  name'  given  to  a 
series  of  ancient  Greek  epics  treating  the  legends 
of  Thebes.  It  includes  the  Thebdis  ( q.v. )  ;  the 
Epigoni,  a  poem  of  about  7000  lines,  telling  of 
the  capture  of  the  city  by  the  descendants  of  the 
heroes  of  the  Thebdis /  and  the  (Edipodeia,  at¬ 
tributed  to  Cinsethon,  a  Lacedaemonian,  contain¬ 
ing  about  6000  lines  and  giving  the  story  of 
(Edipus. 

THEBAN  LEGION.  See  Legion,  Theban. 

THEBES,  thebz  (Lat.  Thebce,  from  Gk. 
Qij(3cu ) .  A  celebrated  city  of  ancient  Egypt,  situ¬ 
ated  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile  in  about  lat.  25° 

50'  N.  (Map:  Egypt,  C  2).  Its  old  Egyptian 
name  was  Weset,  but  in  later  times  it  was  also 
called  Nu(t)  Amen,  ‘The  city  of  Ammon,” 
Nu(t)  ‘o,  “the  great  city,”  or  simply  Nu  (t) , 

“the  city”  ( urbs )  ;  in  the  Old  Testament  it  is 
called  No  or  No  Amon,  and  in  the  Assyrian  in¬ 
scriptions  its  name  appears  as  NV.  *  By  the 
Greeks,  who  identified  the  god  Ammon  with 
Zeus,  it  was  sometimes  called  Diospolis,  “the 
city  of  Zeus,”  and  it  was  specially  designated  as 
“Great  Diospolis”  to  distinguish  it  from  “Lesser 
Diospolis,”  the  modern  Hon.  The  origin  of  the 
more  usual  Greek  name  0t)/3cu  is  obscure. 
Thebes  was  the  capital  of  the  fourth  nome  of 
Upper  Egypt,  and  was  a  very  ancient  city, 
but  did  not  rise  to  importance  until  the  time 
of  the  eleventh  dynasty,  which  was  of  Theban 
origin.  Under  this  and  the  following  dynasty 
the  city  was  the  capital  of  Egypt,  and  some  of 
its  oldest  temple  buildings  date  from  this 
period. 

Its  real  greatness,  however,  begins  with  the  ex¬ 
pulsion  of  the  Hyksos  invaders  by  the  Theban 
princes,  who  united  the  whole  land  under  their 
sway  (eighteenth  dynasty),  and  adorned  their 
city  with  temples  and  palaces  of  unprecedented 
magnificence.  The  kings  of  the  nineteenth  and 
twentieth  dynasties  added  to  the  work  of  their 
predecessors,  and  for  centuries  Thebes  was  the 
chief  residence  of  the  Egyptian  Pharaohs  and 
far  surpassed  all  other  cities  of  the  land  in 
wealth  and  splendor.  The  persecution  of  the 
worship  of  Ammon  by  the  heretic  King  Ameno- 
pliis  IV  (q.v.)  and  the  temporary  removal  of 


THEBES 


THEBES 


174 


the  seat  of  government  to  Tel  el  Amarna  af¬ 
fected  Thebes  but  little.  Seti  I  and  especially 
Rameses  II  (c.1340-1273  b.c.)  restored  the  dese¬ 
crated  sanctuaries  and  lavished  enormous  wealth 
upon  the  Theban  temples.  Under  the  twenty- 
first  dynasty,  however,  Thebes  ceased  to  be  the 
capital  of  Egypt,  and  from  this  time  gradually 
declined  in  importance.  In  the  seventh  century 
B.c.  it  was  again  the  seat  of  government,  for  a 
time,  under  the  twenty-fifth  or  Ethiopian  dy¬ 
nasty,  but  when  the  capital  was  removed  to  Sais 
(q.v. )  by  the  following  dynasty  ( twenty- sixth ) , 
it  began  a  new  period  of  decline.  Its  temples 
were  repaired  and  new  buildings  were  erected 
by  later  monarchs,  especially  by  the  Ptolemies, 
but,  overshadowed  by  the  rise  of  new  cities,  it 
gradually  sank  to  the  position  of  an  insignificant 
provincial  town.  Its  great  temples  sustained 
serious  injuries  in  the  course  of  various  revolts 
against  the  Ptolemies,  and  were  further  ruined 
by  an  earthquake  in  27  b.c.  In  the  time  of  the 
geographer  Strabo  (24  b.c.)  Thebes  was  a  ruined 
city,  as  at  present,  its  site  being  occupied  merely 
by  a  few  scattered  villages. 

The  city  proper  lay  upon  the  east  bank  of  the 
river  between  the  great  temples  now  represented 
by  the  ruins  of  Luxor  (q.v.)  and  Karnak  (q.v.)  ; 
a  little  to  the  north  was  the  suburb  Ma’du,  the 
modern  Medamut,  with  a  temple  built  by  Amen- 
ophis  II  (eighteenth  dynasty)  and  dedicated  to 
the  Theban  war  god  Mont  (q.v.).  Additions 
were  made  to  this  temple  by  Seti  I,  Rameses  II, 
and  several  of  the  Ptolemies,  but  it  is  now  al¬ 
most  entirely  destroyed.  On  the  west  side  of 
the  river  were  suburbs  of  considerable  size,  and 
Rameses  III  seems  to  have  built  his  palace  in 
the  neighborhood  of  his  memorial  temple  at 
Medinet  Habu  ( q.v. ) ,  but  in  general  this  side  of 
the  river  was  occupied  by  the  Theban  necropolis, 
which  extended  to  the  Libyan  range.  It  con¬ 
tained  numerous  temples,  erected  as  memorials 
of  the  Egyptian  kings  and  to  these  temples  were 
attached  dwellings  for  the  priests,  schools,  gran¬ 
aries,  stables,  barracks,  and  other  buildings. 
Nearer  the  hills  were  the  dwellings  of  the  arti¬ 
sans  who  were  employed  in  the  necropolis,  stone¬ 
masons,  builders,  painters,  sculptors,  and  es¬ 
pecially  embalmers.  There  were  also  inns  for 
the  entertainment  of  visitors,  and  many  shops  for 
the  sale  of  funeral  offerings  and  other  objects. 
The  necropolis,  in  fact,  formed  a  great  city. 
The  principal  memorial  temples  of  the  Theban 
necropolis,  beginning  at  the  north,  were  those 
of  Kurnah  (q.v.)  and  Deir  el-Bahri  (q.v.),  the 
Ramesseum  ( q.v. ) ,  and  that  of  Medinet  Habu 
( q.v. ) .  The  rocky  hills  bordering  on  the  plain 
of  the  necropolis  are  honeycombed  with  tombs. 
In  a  narrow  valley  to  the  north  of  Kurnah  are 
the  tombs  of  the  kings,  in  which  were  buried 
the  monarchs  of  dvnasties  XVIII-XX.  Each 

«/  f 

of  these  tombs  contains  a  number  of  galleries 
and  chambers  whose  Avails  are  covered  with 
paintings  and  religious  texts.  Here,  next  to  the 
tomb  of  Rameses  IX,  Theodore  H.  Davis  dis¬ 
covered  in  January,  1907,  the  tomb  of  Teia,  the 
mother  of  the  heretic  King  Amenophis  IV.  The 
hatred  which  this  king  had  aroused  by  his  at¬ 
tempts  to  reform  the  state  religion  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  the  tomb  of  his  mother  was  opened 
after  his  death  to  erase  every  trace  of  his 
abominated  name.  The  queen’s  mummy  e\7en 
had  been  turned  0Arer  to  erase  the  name  of  Akh- 
en-Aten  incised  on  a  sheet  of  gold  beneath  it. 
The  tomb  presented  the  same  lavish  display  of 
gold  which  was  found  in  the  tomb  of  the  queen’s 


parents,  Tua  and  Yua,  also  found  by  Mr.  Davis. 
Instead  of  the  usual  sarcophagus  the  coffin  was 
sheltered  by  a  great  catafalque  (torn  to  pieces 
by  the  invaders  of  the  tomb)  plated  heavily  in¬ 
side  and  out  with  gold.  The  coffin,  too,  was  com¬ 
pletely  co\rered  with  a  frame  of  gold  inlaid  with 
lapis  lazuli,  carnelian,  and  green  glass.  The 
mummy,  as  well,  Avas  entirely  Avrapped  in  a 
sheath  of  gold.  The  canopic  jars  offer  consid¬ 
erable  interest  in  the  four  portrait  heads  of  the 
queen  Avhich  replace  those  of  the  usual  gods’ 
heads.  Near  Kom  el-Hetan,  between  Medinet 
Habu  and  the  Ramesseum  is  the  famous  “vocal 
Memnon”  ( see  Memnon  ) .  It  was  in  no  way 
distinguished  from  other  colossi.  The  chief 
deities  Avorshiped  at  Thebes  Avere  the  great  god 
Ammon  (q.v.),  his  spouse  Mut  (q.v.),  and  their 
child  Chons  (q.v.). 

Consult:  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  Topography  of 
Thebes  (London,  1835)  ;  Karl  Lepsius,  Denk- 
maler  aus  Aegypten  und  Aethiopen  (Berlin, 
1850-59)  ;  A.  E.  Mariette,  Monuments  of  Upper 
Egypt  (London,  1877)  ;  E.  H.  Naville,  Deir  El- 
Bahari  (ib.,  1894-1906)  ;  N.  de  G.  Davies,  “Five 
Theban  Tombs,”  in  Archaeological  Survey  of 
Egypt,  Memoir,  21  (ib.,  1913).  For  recent  ex¬ 
cavations  at  Deir  El-Bahari  see  Bulletin  of  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  (New  York,  1914). 

THEBES  ( Gk.  Qij[3cu,  Thebai) .  The  principal 
city  of  Boeotia,  in  ancient  Greece,  situated  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  country,  on  the 
northern  slope  of  a  ridge  which  separates  the 
valley  of  the  Asopus  from  the  plain  to  the 
north  (Map:  Greece,  Ancient,  C  2).  The 
Acropolis  or  Cadmea,  noAV  occupied  by  the 
little  toAvn  of  Tliiva  or  Phiva,  lay  on  the  high 
ground  between  the  Ismenus  and  Dirce.  At  its 
greatest  extent  the  ancient  city  seems  to  haAre 
extended  beyond  both  streams.  According  to 
legend,  Cadmus  (q.v.)  Avas  the  founder  of  the 
city — hence  the  Acropolis  was  known  as  the 
Cadmea.  The  city  played  a  prominent  part  in 
the  stories  of  the  heroic  age,  the  series  of  epics 
(see  Theban  Cycle)  vying  in  interest  with 
those  which  gathered  about  Troy.  For  these 
stories,  see  CEdipus;  Antigone;  Eteocles  and 
Polynices;  Creon;  Amphion;  Dirce.  After 
the  Boeotian  invasion  Thebes  seems  gradually  to 
have  secured  the  leading  place  in  the  Boeotian 
league,  reducing  finally  the  rival  city  of  Orcho- 
menus  (q.v.).  Tradition  told  of  the  code  of 
laws  drawn  up  for  the  city  in  the  eighth  century 
b.c.  by  the  Corinthian  Philolaus.  It  is  not  till 
near  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  b.c.  that  Ave 
reach  a  purely  historical  period — the  earliest 
well-attested  event  being  the  dispute  betAveen 
Thebes  and  Platsea  (q.v.),  as  a  result  of  which' 
the  latter  city  placed  itself  under  Athenian 
protection,  and  the  former  became  involved  in 
an  unsuccessful  Avar.  During  the  Persian  inva¬ 
sion  under  Xerxes  Thebes  sided  with  the  in¬ 
vaders,  and  fought  against  the  confederated 
Greeks  at  Platsea  (479  B.c.).  This  conduct 
greatly  Aveakened  for  a  time  the  prestige  of 
Thebes,  and  almost  cost  her  the  headship  of  the 
Boeotian  league.  After  the  battle  of  Coronea 
( 447  b.c.  ) ,  however,  the  tendency  to  revolt  Avas 
checked,  and  from  this  time  Thebes  Avas  almost 
continuously  the  recognized  leader  in  Boeotia. 
In  the  Peloponnesian  War  Thebes  sided  with 
Sparta,  and  at  its  close  Avas  eager  for  the  de¬ 
struction  of  Athens.  But  the  policy  of  victori¬ 
ous  Sparta  soon  aroused  distrust,  and  Thebes 
gave  a  friendlv  a  come  and  shelter  to  those 
Athenians  Avhon  oppression  of  the  Thirty 


THEBES 


175 


THEISM 


Tyrants  (q.v. )  compelled  to  abandon  their  city. 
It  was  from  Thebes  that  Thrasybulus  and  his 
band  started  on  their  famous  expedition  for  the 
deliverance  of  Athens,  accompanied  by  a  body  of 
Theban  citizens.  During  the  following  years  the 
Thebans  completely  changed  their  polity  towards 
Sparta,  and  in  the  Corinthian  War  were  among 
the  bitterest  enemies  of  their  old  ally.  The 
Peace  of  Antalcidas  (q.v.)  (387  b.c.),  as  inter¬ 
preted  by  Sparta,  broke  up  the  Boeotian  league, 
and  led  to  new  disputes,  culminating  in  the 
treacherous  seizure  of  the  Cadmea  by  the  Spar¬ 
tans  (382  b.c.  ) .  The  expulsion  of  this  garrison 
by  Pelopidas  (q.v.)  and  his  associates  (379  b.c.) 
led  to  renewed  hostilities,  which  culminated  in 
the  battle  of  Leuctra  (371  b.c.),  where  Epam- 
inondas  (q.v.)  crushed  the  power  of  Sparta  out¬ 
side  the  Peloponnesus.  Before  his  death  at 
Mantinea  in  362  b.c.,  Epaminondas  had  secured 
for  Thebes  the  supremacy  in  Greece,  though 
Athens  was  estranged  and  even  openly  hostile. 
Thebes,  however,  did  not  long  hold  the  position 
thus  gained.  The  quarrel  with  Athens  prevented 
any  union  against  the  growing  power  of  Mace- 
don,  until  the  seizure  of  Elatea  (338  b.c.)  fur¬ 
nished  an  opportunity  for  Demosthenes  (q.v.) 
to  secure  by  his  eloquence  a  union  for  which  he 
had  long  striven.  The  effort  came  too  late,  and 
in  the  same  year  the  battle  of  Cliseronea  (q.v.) 
crushed  the  liberties  of  Greece. 

After  the  death  of  Philip  II,  of  Macedon, 
father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  Thebans  made 
a  fierce  but  unsuccessful  effort  to  regain  their 
freedom.  Their  city  was  taken  by  Alexander, 
who  leveled  it  to  the  ground,  sparing,  it  is  said, 
only  the  house  of  the  poet  Pindar,  and  sold  the 
entire  surviving  population  into  slavery  (335 
B.c. ) .  For  20  years  the  city  remained  in  utter 
desolation,  but  in  315  b.c.  it  was  rebuilt  by  Cas- 
sander  (q.v.),  who  gathered  into  it  all  the 
Thebans  he  could  find  in  Greece.  It  now  had  a 
circuit  of  about  five  miles,  and  seems  to  have 
prospered.  It  suffered  at  the  hands  of  Mum- 
mius  (146  b.c.)  and  was  severely  punished  by 
Sulla  for  siding  with  Mithridates.  After  this 
it  steadily  declined,  and  Pausanias  found  only 
the  Cadmea  inhabited,  and  the  lower  city  in 
ruins.  It  revived  under  the  later  Roman  Em¬ 
pire,  as  it  was  a  safer  residence  than  the  ex¬ 
posed  coast  cities.  During  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  centuries  it  was  the  seat  of  a  consider¬ 
able  population  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
silk,  and  yielded  a  rich  booty  to  Norman  plun¬ 
derers  in  1146  a.d.  Under  the  Turks  it  again 
declined,  and  even  now  is  only  a  country  town 
with  a  population  of  about  3500.  The"  course 
of  the  town  walls  can  be  traced  in  some  places, 
and  deep  digging  has  brought  to  light  some 
remains,  but  in  general  there  are  but  few  ves¬ 
tiges  of  the  ancient  city  left.  Consult:  M.  Mul¬ 
ler,  Geschichte  Thebens  (Leipzig,  1879)  ;  E.  von 
Stern,  Geschichte  der  spartanischen  und  the- 
banischen  Hegemonie  (Dorpat,  1884)  ;  E.  Fabri- 
cius,  Theben  (Freiburg,  1890).;  K.  Baedeker, 
Greece  (4th  Eng.  ed.,  Leipzig,  1909). 

THEBES,  Saint  Paxil  of.  See  Paul  of 
Thebes,  Saint. 

THE  DALLES,  dalz.  A  city  and  the  county 
seat  of  Wasco  Co.,  Oreg.,  88  miles  east  of  Port¬ 
land,  on  the  Columbia  River,  the  Oregon-Wash- 
ington  Railroad  and  Navigation  Company  and 
the  Great  Southern  railroads,  the  Dalles-Celilo 
Canal,  and  on  several  steamship  lines  (Map: 
Oregon,  D  2 ) .  Noteworthy  features  are  the 
United  States  Land  Office,  county  fair  grounds, 


Chautauqua,  Carnegie  library,  city  hall,  court¬ 
house,  Federal  building,  high  school,  and  the 
city  hospital.  There  are  here  railroad  repair 
shops,  a  large  flouring  mill,  lumber  ya'rds, 
salmon  and  fruit  canneries,  a  wool  scouring 
plant,  planing  mills,  creamery,  machine  shops, 
and  a  box  factory.  Pop.,  1900,  3542;  1910,  4880. 

THEDENAT,  ta'de-na',  Henri  (1844-1916). 
A  French  archaeologist,  born  in  Paris.  He  stud¬ 
ied  in  the  Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes-Etudes  at 
the  Sorbonne,  devoting  himself  especially  to 
epigraphy.  His  publications,  in  collaboration 
with  Heron  de  Villefosse,  include  Les  cachets 
d’oculistes  romains  (1882)  and  Inscriptions  ro- 
maines  de  Frejus  (1885).  He  also  wrote  Le 
Forum  romain  et  les  Forums  imperieux  ( 4th 
ed.,  1914)  and  Une  carriere  universitaire,  Jean- 
Felix  Nourrisson  (1901). 

THEFT.  See  Larceny. 

THEGE-KONKOLY,  Nikolaus.  See  Kon- 
koly,  Nikolaus  Thege  von. 

THEGN,  than.  See  Thane. 

THEIL,  Francois  Jean  Gabriel  La  Porte 
du.  See  La  Porte  du  Theil,  F.  J.  G. 

THEINE,  the'In  or  the'en.  See  Caffeine. 

THEINER,  ti'ner,  Augustin  (1804-74).  A 
German  Roman  Catholic  historian  and  canonist. 
He  was  born  at  Breslau  and  educated  there  and 
at  Halle,  where  he  took  his  degree  as  Doctor  of 
Law  in  1829.  His  intercourse  in  Paris  with 
Lamennais  (q.v.)  seems  to  have  disturbed  his 
religious  views,  but  he  was  reconciled  with  the 
Church  at  Rome  in  1833,  and  became  a  teacher 
in  the  College  of  the  Propaganda.  After  his 
ordination  to  the  priesthood,  he  entered  the 
Congregation  of  the  Oratory,  and  published  sev¬ 
eral  historical  and  critical  works.  In  1855  he 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Vatican  archives. 
In  1870  he  was  removed  from  the  position  of 
archivist,  apparently  in  consequence  of  the 
charge  that  he  had  supplied  documents  with 
which  to  combat  the  theory  of  the  infallibility 
of  the  Pope.  His  most  important  work  was  the 
new  edition  of  the  Annals  of  Baronius  and  his 
continuators,  with  three  supplementary  volumes. 
Important  also  are  the  collections  of  documents 
on  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  various  countries 
and  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  his  Geschichte 
des  Pontificates  Clemens  XIV  (1853),  he  at¬ 
tacked  the  Jesuits  and  roused  fresh  suspicions 
of  his  loyalty  to  the  Church,  which  were  con¬ 
firmed  by  his  Histoire  des  deux  concordats  de 
la  republique  frangaise  en  I, SOI  et  1803  (1868) 
and  by  his  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Ger¬ 
man  Old  Catholic  leaders.  He  died  of  apoplexy 
at  Civita  Vecchia.  Consult  Gisiger,  P.  Theiner 
und  die  Jesuiten  (Mannheim,  1875),  and  Briick, 
Geschichte  der  katholischen  Kirche  in  Deutsch¬ 
land  (Mainz,  1896). 

TIIETSM  (from  Gk.  deos,  theos,  god).  The 
theory  which  assumes  a  living  relation  between 
God  and  His  creatures,  though  it  does  not  neces¬ 
sarily  define  it.  The  term  came  to  be  used  in 
England  in  the  seventeenth  century  in  contrast 
with  deism  (q.v.),  as  expressing  a  more  vital 
and  personal  relation  of  God  to  His  creation 
than  the  term  “deism”  then  served  to  denote. 
In  western  thought  the  discussion  of  the  rela¬ 
tion  of  God  to  the  world  arose  with  the  Greeks. 
In  the  philosophic  theism  of  Socrates,  which  was 
a  reply  to  the  irreligion  of  the  Sophists,  we  find 
a  clear  conception  of  a  divine  personality  and 
an  attempt  to  prove  its  existence.  Socrates 
makes  use  of  the  doctrine  of  final  causes  for 
this  purpose,  maintaining,  against  the  Sophistic 


THEISM 


THEISM 


176 


materialism,  that  the  universe  is  the  product  of 
benevolent  moral  will  (Phcedo,  06,  190);  that 
this  will  holds  personal  relations  with  all  his 
creatures,  and  seeks  to  bring  the  highest  good 
to  all.  Plato  added  little  to  the  fundamental 
conception  except  to  develop  it  by  means  of  his 
doctrine  of  the  Idea  ( Idea,  eldos ) .  The  absolute 
Idea  is  the  Good,  i.e.,  God.  In  the  Republic 
(500  b.)  we  accordingly  read:  “All  intelligible 
beings  derive  their  being  and  their  essence  from 
the  good.”  To  this  thesis  he  adduces  four 
proofs,  all  bearing  on  Socrates’  idea  of  final 
cause.  1.  From  the  notion  of  efficient  cause. 
All  things  proceed  from  some  cause,  and  the 
cause  must  be  adequate  to  produce  what  exists. 
( Sophist ,  205  b.)  2.  From  the  ideal  nature 

of  the  cause.  If  there  be  a  universe  of  real 
things,  as  no  one  can  doubt,  it  can  proceed  only 
from  an  ideally  perfect  cause,  i.e.,  from  God. 
( Philebus ,  30.)  3.  From  the  idea  of  cause  as 

motion.  All  motion  implies  a  self-mover,  i.e, 
an  adequate  originating  cause  for  the  motion 
and  change.  ( Laios ,  x. )  4.  From  the  finality 

of  cause.  All  things  seek  their  end.  The  end 
must  be  moral,  and  therefore  transcendent.  In 
other  words,  the  universe  must  at  last  prove 
itself  to  be  a  revelation  of  the  Good,  i.e.,  God. 
This  is  the  heart  of  the  Platonic  theism.  “Let 
me  tell  you,  then,  why  the  Creator  made  this 
world  of  generation.  He  was  good,  and  the  good 
can  never  have  any  jealousy  of  anything.  And 
being  free  from  jealousy,  He  desired  that  all 
things  should  be  as  like  Himself  as  they  could 
be.”  [Tim.  29.) 

Aristotle’s  argument  is  the  same  as  Plato’s, 
but  deeper  in  its  empirical  developments.  He 
rises,  synthetically,  through  nature,  to  his  proof 
of  the  divine  existence.  In  the  eighth  book  of 
his  Physics  he  gives  us  what  he  calls  his  proof 
of  the  First  Mover.  Everything  that  is  in  mo¬ 
tion  is  moved  either  by  something  else  or  by 
itself.  If  the  former  be  the  case,  we  are  obliged 
to  follow  up  the  series  of  causes  until  we  arrive 
at  the  idea  of  a  self-mover,  i.e.,  an  immovable 
cause  having  its  end  in  itself. 

Augustine,  the  most  eminent  of  the  early 
Christian  thinkers,  adopted  the  Platonic  theism, 
seeking  to  combine  it  with  the  Christian  views. 
He  accepted  substantially  all  the  principal 
proofs  of  God’s  existence  and  His  providential 
government  as  these  had  been  prepared  in  Greek 
thought;  but  there  were  points  where  he  added 
to  previous  thinking.  The  Greeks  had  put  a 
gulf  between  God  and  the  world.  Augustine 
completed  this  by  declaring  that  God  made  the 
world  out  of  nothing,  and  without  the  aid  of 
intermediate  agents.  Second,  Augustine  taught 
that  God  creates  out  of  His  mere  goodness  and 
bounty,  not  because  He  has  need  of  anything; 
so  that  in  creating  He  adds  nothing  to  His 
nature.  ( Conf .  xiii.  iv. )  This  view  struck  at 
the  Stoic  pantheism,  at  the  Oriental  theories  of 
emanation,  and  at  the  fundamental  weakness  of 
the  Platonic  theism,  the  failure  to  define  the 
nature  of  the  relation  between  God  and  the 
finite  world. 

The  various  other  proofs  of  the  existence  of 
God  given  in  the  Middle  Ages  pursue  two  meth¬ 
ods,  one  a  priori ,  the  other  a  posteriori.  That 
is,  one  starts  in  Platonic  fashion  with  the  idea 
of  a  perfect  being  and  infers  its  existence  from 
this  idea;  the  other  argues,  after  Aristotle, 
from  the  evidences  of  order  and  perfection  in  the 
world  to  the  idea  of  a  perfect  being  who  is  the 
author  of  them.  Anselm  is  an  early  and  promi- 


i:ent  representative  of  both  this  and  the  a  priori 
or  ontological  argument,  which  assumes  that 
God  is  a  being  of  such  q  nature  that  it  is  im¬ 
possible  to  conceive  any  greater.  The  defect  of 
this  argument,  as  Gaunilo  pointed  out,  consists 
in  arguing  from  existence  in  thought  to  exist¬ 
ence  in  fact.  From  the  former,  of  course,  we 
can  logically  infer  nothing  but  an  ideal  thought 
existence. 

Other  theistic  proofs  during  the  Middle  Ages 
were  concerned  with  the  course  of  nature  and 
history.  Thus  Duns  Scotus  declared  that  the 
impossibility  of  conceiving  an  infinite  chain  of 
natural  cases  necessarily  carried  the  mind  to 
the  idea  of  a  great  first  cause  adequate  to  the 
production  and  preservation  of  the  world.  Aqui¬ 
nas  also  ( Summa  I.,  qu.  2)  reaches  the  same 
conclusion,  a  contingentia  mundi,  reproducing 
Aristotle’s  proofs  almost  word  for  word.  The 
contemplation  of  final  causes,  though  not  exten¬ 
sively  meditated  upon,  led  to  very  similar  logi¬ 
cal  results  from  the  cosmological  point  of  view; 
for  mediaeval  thinkers  were  fond  of  dwelling  on 
the  fact  of  the  imperfection  of  the  physical  and 
of  inferring  therefrom  the  existence  of  a  perfect 
being  in  whose  spiritual  essence  the  soul  could 
find  the  ground  of  the  Christian  faith. 

In  modern  times  philosophical  meanings  have 
largely  supplanted  the  theological.  Thus  Des¬ 
cartes,  the  most  important  modern  thinker  on 
this  subject,  developed  his  theism  only  after 
sweeping  aside  all  presuppositions  derived  from 
a  supernatural  source  or  from  the  symbols  of 
the  Church.  Starting  with  the  bare  fact  of 
thought  ( cogito ,  ergo  sum),  he  argues  that  there 
must  be  an  adequate  cause  for  the  thought  of 
God  in  the  mind.  By  this  thought  Descartes 
says  that  he  means  “a  substance  infinite,  eternal, 
immutable,  independent,  all-knowing,  all-power¬ 
ful  ;  by  which  I  myself  and  every  other  thing 
have  been  produced.”  {Med.  iii.)  Now  this 
thought  cannot  be  a  mere  negation ;  for  it  has 
reality.  Nor  can  it  have  arisen  by  adding  many 
ideas  together;  for  it  is  simple.  Could  it  have 
arisen  as  a  result  of  my  growing  intelligence? 
No;  because  the  idea  does  not  admit  of  growth: 
God  is  infinite  always  and  does  not  admit  of 
more  or  less.  Hence  the  idea  must  have  a  divine 
origin.  A  second  proof  may  be  stated  thus.  We 
need  this  idea  in  order  to  explain  to  us  the 
immediate  existence  and  continuance  of  the 
universe.  God  is  not  only  needed  as  a  Creator, 
but  much  more  as  a  Preserver.  The  existence 
now  of  a  universe  involves  the  self-existence  of 
its  absolute  cause.  As  a  third  proof  Descartes 
revived  Anselm’s  so-called  ontological  argument, 
i.e.,  the  argument  from  the  idea  of  a  most  per¬ 
fect  being  to  its  existence.  Reality,  in  his  view, 
is  as  much  a  part  of  the  idea  of  a  perfect  being 
as  the  angles  of  a  triangle  are  of  the  essence 
of  our  idea  of  a  triangle. 

Kant,  in  the  third  part  of  his  Dialectic,  criti¬ 
cizes  this  argument  of  Descartes.  He  does  not, 
indeed,  deny  the  fact  that  we  have  the  idea  of 
a  perfect  being,  but  he  doubts  if  from  the  idea 
we  have  any  right  to  infer  its  real  existence, 
since  it  is  possible  for  us  to  have  an  idea  (e.g., 
of  a  centaur)  that  does  not  correspond  to  any 
object.  And  inasmuch  as  all  possible  proofs 
of  the  existence  of  God  are  reducible  to  this  one, 
the  ontological,  Kant  considers  that  all  the  argu¬ 
ments  of  Descartes  and  of  the  mediaeval  thinkers 
failed  to  establish  their  point.  Accordingly  he 
proposed  a  new  and  infallible  proof,  the  so- 
called  practical  or  moral  argument  for  the 


THEISS 


177 


THEMISTOCLES 


existence  of  God,  which  is  as  follows.  We  have 
the  notion  of  a  moral  law;  conscience  responds 
to  the  categorical  moral  imperative.  Universal 
experience  proves  that  happiness  and  virtue  in¬ 
volve  each  other  and  cannot  be  separated.  Now, 
said  Kant,  for  this  conviction  there  is  needed  a 
cause,  supreme  and  infinite;  a  cause  capable  of 
clinching  this  relation  between  happiness  and 
virtue  to  all  eternity;  a  cause  which  will  secure 
the  triumph  of  justice  as  against  the  moral  in¬ 
equalities  of  the  present  life.  This  moral  cause 
we  call,  by  faith,  God. 

Hegel  disagreed  with  Kant’s  conclusions,  and 
sought  to  revive  the  ontological  argument  of 
Anselm  and  Descartes,  in  a  new  form,  contending 
that  the  idea  of  a  perfect  being  was  an  expres¬ 
sion  of  the  nature  of  all  thought  and  all  reality. 
For  him  thought  and  reality  are  the  same.  We 
can  never  get  '‘beyond”  thought.  To  put  a  bar¬ 
rier,  as  Kant  did,  between  thought  and  thing  is, 
for  Hegel,  to  cease  to  think.  Modern  thought 
tends  to  emphasize  the  personality  of  God,  as 
the  ground  of  human  personality.  It  also  lays 
great  emphasis  on  the  immanence  of  God,  both 
in  man  and  in  the  natural  world,  yet  not  with 
deistic  or  pantheistic  implications. 

Bibliography.  J.  S.  Mill,  Nature,  the  Utility 
of  Religion,  and  Theism  (3d  ed.,  London,  1885)  ; 
Robert  Flint,  Theism  (7th  ed.,  Edinburgh, 
1889);  G.  J.  Romanes,  Candid  Examination  of 
Theism  (3d  ed.,  London,  1892)  ;  B.  P.  Bowne,  The¬ 
ism,  Deems  Lectures,  1902  ( New  York,  1902)  ; 
G.  P.  Fisher,  Grounds  of  Theistic  and  Christian 
Belief  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1903)  ;  Caldecott  and  Mack¬ 
intosh,  Selections  from  the  Literature  of  Theism 
(Edinburgh,  1907);  C.  C.  Everett,  Theism  and 
the  Christian  Faith  (New  York,  1909)  ;  W.  N. 
Clark,  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  God  (ib.,  1909)  ; 
James  Ward,  The  Realm  of  Ends;  or,  Plural¬ 
ism  and  Theism,  Gifford  Lectures,  1907-10 
(Cambridge,  1911);  A.  J.  Balfour,  Theism 
and  Humanism  (New  York,  1915).  See  Deism; 
Pragmatism. 

THEISS,  tis  ( Hung.  Tisza,  Lat.  Tissus ) .  The 
largest  tributary  of  the  Danube,  and,  next  to  the 
latter,  the  principal  river  of  Hungary  (Map: 
Hungary,  G  3 ) .  It  rises  in  the  Carpathian 
Mountains  and  flows  first  westward,  then  south, 
the  lower  half  of  its  course  being  parallel  with 
that  of  the  Danube  below  Budapest.  After  a  tor¬ 
tuous  course  of  800  miles  it  joins  the  Danube 
about  30  miles  above  Belgrade.  In  its  upper 
course  through  the  narrow  mountain  passes  it  is 
rapid  and  clear,  but  in  the  great  plain  of  central 
Hungary  it  is  very  sluggish;  from  Szegedin  to 
the  end  of  the  Theiss — 150  miles — the  river  has 
a  fall  of  but  15  feet,  so  that  any  rising  of  the 
Danube  drives  back  the  Theiss  and  causes  dis¬ 
astrous  inundations.  Large  sums  have  been  ex¬ 
pended  in  attempts  to  regulate  the  flow  of  the 
river  and  drain  the  marshes.  The  Theiss  is 
navigable  to  Tokay,  but  steamboats  ascend  gen¬ 
erally  only  to  Szegedin  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Maros  ( q.v. ) ,  the  chief  tributary.  From  the 
lower  course  of  the  river  a  canal  runs  westward 
to  the  Danube.  The  Theiss  is  famous  for  its 
fish. 

THELLUSSON  (teFlus-son,  or  Fr.  pron., 
ta'-lu'soN')  ACT.  See  Perpetuity. 

THEME  (Lat.  thema,  from  Gk.  deya,  thing 
laid  down,  deposit,  prize,  proposition,  subject, 
from  Tidevai,  tithenai,  to  set,  place).  In  music, 
a  term  which  is  in  a  general  sense  svnonvmous 
with  subject  or  motive  ( q.v. ) .  Every  composi¬ 
tion  is  built  up  from  themes  which  constitute 


the  basic  material.  In  a  specific  sense,  the 
theme  of  a  fugue  is  the  subject  (dux).  In  va¬ 
riations  the  theme  is  a  complete  musical  idea, 
generally  of  periodic  structure.  It  is  always 
played  in  its  entirety  before  the  variations  be¬ 
gin.  See  Leitmotiv;  Sonata;  Symphony. 

THE'MIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Qeyis,  justice  per¬ 
sonified,  from  TiOevai,  tithenai,  to  set,  place). 
In  Greek  mythology,  the  goddess  and  guardian 
of  the  eternal  laws,  established  by  the  gods.  In 
the  ILesiodic  theogony  she  is  called  the  daughter 
of  Uranus  and  Gaea  (heaven  and  earth),  the  wife 
of  Zeus,  and,  by  him,  mother  of  the  IJorai 
(Hours)  and  Moer*  (Fates).  In  iEschylus  she 
is  identified  with  Gaea,  and  called  mother  of 
Prometheus.  As  guardian  of  the  due  order  of 
things,  she  was  also  possessed  of  prophecy.  The 
popular  conceptions  do  not  seem  to  have  distin¬ 
guished  sharply  between  Themis  and  Gaea,  and  at 
Athens  we  hear  of  Ge  Themis  as  a  single  divinity. 
At  Rhamnus  she  was  honored  in  the  Temple  of 
Nemesis,  and  here  has  been  found  a  fine  statue 
by  Chairestratos  of  Rhamnus,  an  artist  of  the 
early  third  century  b.c.  Consult:  Otto  Gruppe, 
Griechische  Mythologie  und  Religionsgeschichte 
(2  vols.,  Munich,  1906)  ;  Rudolf  Hirzel,  Themis, 
Dike,  und  Vencandtes  (Leipzig,  1907)  ;  J.  E. 
Harrison,  Themis:  A  Study  of  the  Social  Origins 
of  Greek  Religion  (Cambridge,  1912). 

THEMIS'TIUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Qeylartos) 

(  ?-c.388  a.d.).  A  Greek  rhetorician  of  Paph- 
lagonia,  surnamed  Euplirades  (eloquent),  who 
lived  at  Constantinople,  as  a  teacher  of  phi¬ 
losophy  and  qratory.  Though  a  pagan  in  re¬ 
ligion,  he  was  highly  honored  by  several  of  the 
emperors  for  his  nobility  and  learning.  He  was 
tutor  to  Arcadius,  the  son  of  Theodosius,  who 
made  him  Prefect  in  384.  There  are  extant  34 
of  his  speeches,  which,  though  chiefly  eulogies 
in  compliment  to  various  emperors,  contain  in¬ 
teresting  allusions  to  contemporary  history,  and 
instructive  quotations  from  the  ancient  phi¬ 
losophers;  and  some  of  his  paraphrases  of  por¬ 
tions  of  Aristotle  (the  Posterior  Analytics,  the 
Physics,  the  De  Anima,  the  De  Caelo,  and  Book 
II  of  the  Metaphysics ;  the  last  two  are  known 
only  through  Hebrew  versions).  The  orations 
have  been  edited  by  Dindorf  (Leipzig,  1832)  ; 
the  paraphrases  as  a  whole  by  Spengel  (ib., 
1866). 

THEMIS'TO  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  0e/u<7™).  In 
Greek  legend,  the  third  wife  of  Athamas  (q.v.). 
Her  husband,  on  discovering  that  his  former 
wife,  Ino  (q.v.),  was  still  alive,  sent  for  her, 
and  Themisto  in  revenge  planned  to  slay  Ino’s 
children.  With  this  intention  she  directed  a  new 
slave  to  clothe  her  children  in  white  and  Ino’s 
in  black,  but  Ino,  who  was  herself  the  slave  in 
disguise,  reversed  the  command,  and  Themisto 
killed  her  own  children,  whom  she  did  not  dis¬ 
tinguish  in  the  night. 

THEMXS'TOCLES  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  0 eytaro- 
k\i )s,  Themistokles)  (c. 514-449  b.c.).  An  Athe¬ 
nian  general  and  statesman,  born  about  514  b.c., 
the  son  of  Neocles,  an  Athenian  citizen  of  mid¬ 
dling  station  and  circumstances,  and  a  Carian 
or  Thracian  woman.  After  the  battle  of  Mara¬ 
thon  (490  b.c.  ) ,  when  the  first  invasion  of  the 
Persians  had  been  successfully  resisted,  Themis- 
tocles,  with  keen  foresight,  recognized  that  the 
final  decision  of  the  question  of  supremacy  would 
come  on  the  sea,  and  that  the  only  way  for  the 
Greeks  to  be  victorious  was  to  have  a  large 
fleet.  He  aimed,  therefore,  at  the  development 
of  a  strong  Athenian  navy.  To  this  end  he 


THENARD 


THEOCRITUS 


178 


persuaded  the  Athenians  to  devote  the  proceeds 
arising  from  the  working  of  the  silver  mines  at 
Laurion  (q.v. ),  which  it  was  intended  to  dis¬ 
tribute  among  the  citizens  at  large,  to  the  con¬ 
struction  of  a  strong  fleet.  He  secured  the  pas¬ 
sage  of  a  law  that  a  certain  number  of  new 
triremes  should  be  built  every  year.  From  the 
time  of  the  expulsion  of  Aristides  by  ostracism 
(483  b.c.),  Themistocles  controlled  the  politics 
of  Athens,  and  in  481  b.c.  was  made  archon 
eponymus.  When  it  was  learned  that  Xerxes 
was  preparing  a  powerful  armament  to  invade 
Greece,  and  the  Athenians  had  been  told  by  the 
Delphian  oracle  to  defend  themselves  with  the 
“wooden  wall,”  Themistocles  interpreted  this 
answer  as  referring  to  the  ships  of  Athens.  At 
the  battle  of  Artemisium  (480  b.c.)  Themisto¬ 
cles,  as  commander  of  the  Athenian  fleet,  which 
was  the  largest  in  Greece,  consented  to  fight  un¬ 
der  the  Spartan  commander,  Eurybiades,  but  it 
was  only  through  the  former’s  tact  and  adroit 
use  of  bribes  that  the  Greek  commanders  were 
finally  induced  to  make  a  stand  in  that  place. 
This  engagement  was  indecisive.  In  the  same 
year,  at  Salamis  (q.v.),  was  fought  the  battle 
which  shattered  the  naval  power  of  Xerxes. 
Here  again  Eurybiades  was  commander  in  chief, 
and  here  again  it  was  owing  to  Themistocles 
alone  that  the  Greeks  were  induced  not  to  re¬ 
treat  to  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  but  to  give  bat¬ 
tle  in  their  present  position.  He  threatened,  if 
a  separation  were  now  made,  that  the  Athenians 
would  take  their  women  and  children  and  sail  to 
Italy,  there  to  found  a  new  hom$.  Finally,  he 
precipitated  the  contest,  by  dispatching  to  Xerxes 
a  secret  message  to  the  effect  that,  if  the  Per¬ 
sians  wished  to  crush  the  Greek  fleet,  they  should 
advance  to  the  attack  without  delay,  before  the 
Greeks  had  an  opportunity  of  fleeing.  After  the 
battle  of  Salamis  Themistocles  was  the  most  im¬ 
portant  man  in  Greece.  When  the  Persians  had 
retreated  from  Greece  and  the  Athenians  under¬ 
took  to  restore  their  city,  the  Spartans,  sending 
an  embassy  to  Athens,  urged  the  Athenians  not 
to  attempt  to  rebuild  the  fortifications.  Then 
Themistocles,  going  on  an  embassy  to  Sparta, 
entertained  the  Spartans  with  his  false  pro¬ 
fessions,  and  kept  the  matter  in  abeyance  till 
such  time  as  the  walls  were  sufficiently  advanced 
to  allow  of  their  being  defended.  In  471  b.c.  he 
was  ostracized  and  retired  to  Argos;  and  finally, 
to  escape  being  tried  for  treason,  in  which,  ac¬ 
cording  to  some  accounts,  he  was  implicated 
by  the  correspondence  of  Pausanias  (q.v.),  he  be¬ 
took  himself  in  465  b.c.  to  the  court  of  Ar- 
taxerxes,  King  of  Persia;  but,  before  he  would 
see  the  King  himself,  he  got  permission  to  wait 
a  year,  during  which  he  made  himself  master  of 
the  language  and  usages  of  the  country.  At  the 
end  of  this  time  he  managed  to  raise  himself  so 
high  in  the  King’s  favor  that,  after  the  Persian 
fashion,  the  town  of  Magnesia  was  appointed  to 
supply  him  with  bread,  Lampsacus  with  wine, 
and  Myus  with  other  provisions.  He  lived  se¬ 
curely  at  Magnesia  until  his  death  in  449  b.c. 
Some  authorities  assert  that  he  poisoned  himself. 
A  monument  was  erected  to  Themistocles  in  the 
market  place  of  Magnesia,  and  it  is  said  that  his 
bones  were  secretly  taken  to  Attica,  and  there 
burned.  His  life  was  written  in  ancient  times 
by  Plutarch  and  Cornelius  Nepos.  Consult: 
Wecklein,  Ueber  Themistokles  (Munich,  1892)  ; 
Bauer,  Themistokles  (Merseburg,  1881);  and 
the  standard  histories  of  Greece. 

THENARD,  ta'nar',  Louis  Jacques  (1777- 


1857).  A  French  chemist,  born  at  Nogent-sur- 
Seine.  He  was  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
Ecole  Polytechnique,  at  the  College  de  France, 
and  at  the  University  of  Paris.  From  1810  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Institute.  His  original  re¬ 
searches  resulted  in  numerous  important  contri¬ 
butions  to  chemistry.  He  improved  the  methods 
of  ultimate  organic  analysis;  investigated  the 
compound  ethers  or  esters ;  discovered  the  perox¬ 
ide  of  hydrogen,  cobalt  ultramarine  (Thgnard’s 
blue),  etc.  He  published  Traite  elementaire  de 
chimie  theorique  et  pratique  (4  vols.,  1813), 
which  passed  through  several  editions,  and, 
jointly  with  Gay-Lussac,  two  volumes  of  Re- 
cherches  physico-chimiques  (1811). 

THE'OBALD  I.  King  of  Navarre.  See 
Thibaut  I. 

THEOBALD,  the'6-bald  or  tib'ald,  Lewis 
(1688-1744).  A  Shakespearean  editor,  born  at 
Sittingbourne,  in  Kent.  Though  educated  for  the 
law,  he  early  turned  to  literature.  He  wrote 
and  adapted  plays,  and  made  translations  from 
Sophocles,  Aristophanes,  and  other  Greek  au¬ 
thors.  In  1725  Pope  published  an  edition  of 
Shakespeare,  work  for  which  he  was  ill  equipped. 
Theobald  sharply  reviewed  it  in  a  volume  en¬ 
titled  Shakespeare  Restored  (1726).  Pope  re¬ 
taliated  by  making  Theobald  the  first  hero  of 
the  Dunciad  (1728).  Early  in  1734  Theobald 
brought  out  his  own  edition  of  Shakespeare  in 
seven  volumes.  At  the  time  of  his  death  Theo¬ 
bald  was  at  work  on  an  edition  of  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher,  which  appeared  six  years  later. 
Theobald’s  original  prose  and  verse  is  of  little 
account,  but  as  a  textual  critic  he  possessed  rare 
insight.  His  one  aim  was  to  divine,  in  a  cor¬ 
rupt  passage,  what  Shakespeare  wrote,  and  he 
made  over  300  corrections,  wLich  have  been 
generally  adopted.  Consult  Collins,  Essays  and 
Studies  (London,  1895).  See  Pope,  Alexan¬ 
der  Dunciad. 

THE'OBRO'MA.  See  Cacao. 

THE'OBRCFMINE  (from  Neo-Lat.  Theo- 
broma,  from  Gk.  deos,  theos,  god  -f-  fipcoya,  broma , 
food),  C7H8N40o.  An  alkaloid  chemically  allied 
to  uric  acid  and  still  more  closely  related  to 
caffeine  (theine).  It  is  found  in  considerable 
quantities  in  cocoa  and  may  be  extracted  from 
powdered  cocoa  beans  with  hot  water;  the  re¬ 
sulting  solution  is  freed  from  tannin  and  other 
impurities  by  precipitation  with  lead  acetate; 
next,  the  solution  is  freed  from  lead  by  means  of 
sulphureted  hydrogen,  and  evaporated  to  dry¬ 
ness;  the  theobromine  is,  finally,  extracted  from 
the  dry  residue  by  boiling  with  alcohol.  The  the¬ 
obromine  may  be  obtained  artificially  from  the 
lead  salts  of  xanthine  by  the  action  of  methyl- 
iodide.  Theobromine  is  a  white  crystalline  sub¬ 
stance  sparingly  soluble  in  water  and  forming 
crystalline  compounds  with  both  acids  and  bases. 
Among  its  compounds  may  be  mentioned  theo- 
bromine-sodio-salicylate,  a  substance  obtained  by 
mixing  sodium  salicylate  with  sodium-theobro¬ 
mine,  and  used  in  medicine  under  the  name  of 
diuretin.  Diuretin  acts  as  a  diuretic  without 
having  any  action  upon  the  heart.  See  Alka¬ 
loids. 

THEOC'RITUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  0  eoKpiros, 
Theokritos)  (c.310-c.245  B.c.).  The  first  and 
greatest  of  the  Greek  bucolic  poets.  The  details 
of  his  life  are  not  clearly  known.  He  was  com¬ 
monly  reckoned  a  Syracusan,  although  some 
have  believed  that  Cos  was  his  birthplace.  In 
any  case,  he  spent  considerable  time  in  that 
island  and  eastern  Greece,  where  he  was  ac- 


THEODICY 


179 


THEODORA 


quainted  with  the  elegiac  poet  Pliiletas  and 
the  writer  of  epigrams  Asclepiades,  whom  tradi¬ 
tion  makes  his  teachers,  and  also  with  the 
physician  Nicias  of  Miletus  and  the  poet  Aratus 
(q.v. )  of  Soli.  He  spent  some  time  at  the  court 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphia  in  Alexandria  and  also 
at  the  court  of  Hiero  II  at  Syracuse;  hut  the 
exact  dates  for  these  periods  cannot  be  deter¬ 
mined,  as  the  chronological  order  of  his  poems 
is  uncertain.  We  have  current  under  his  name 
31  poems  and  a  number  of  epigrams.  Of  the 
longer  poems  10  are  bucolic,  three  are  mimes  in 
imitation  of  the  mimes  of  Sophron  and  very 
similar  to  the  recently  discovered  mimes  of 
Herondas,  and  the  other  poems  are  of  varying 
subjects  and  character,  while  a  few  are  spurious. 
Theocritus  displayed  marvelous  power  in  uniting 
artistic  and  popular  elements  in  his  verse  in  a 
way  which  has  never  been  equaled  by  his  fol¬ 
lowers  and  imitators.  His  language  is,  for  the 
most  part,  a  modified  Doric ;  two  poems  are 
in  the  literary  HColic.  Though  he  lived  in  an 
artificial  period,  there  is  in  his  work  a  simplic¬ 
ity,  a  fidelity,  and  a  love  of  nature  that  has 
given  him  universal  fame.  His  dramatic  and 
mimetic  power  was  great,  so  that  his  peasants, 
shepherds,  reapers,  and  fishermen  have  a  real 
existence  and  are  not  merely  literary  creations. 
He  was  imitated  by  Bion  and  Moschus  among 
the  Greeks,  and  by  Vergil  most  successfully 
among  the  Romans  (in  the  Eclogues).  Impor¬ 
tant  editions  are  by  Ahrens  (2  vols.,  Leipzig, 
1855),  and  especially  by  Ziegler  (Tubingen, 

1879) .  The  most  recent  edition  of  the  text  is 
by  U.  von  Wilamowitz-Moellendorf  (Oxford, 
1907).  The  best  edition  with  commentary  is 
by  Fritzsche-Hiller  (Leipzig,  1881).  There  are 
English  editions  by  Kynaston  (Oxford,  1892) 
and  by  Cholmeley  (London,  1901);  English 
translations  in  verse  by  Calverley  (2d  ed.,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  1869)  ;  by  Andrew  Lang  (New  York, 

1880)  ;  A.  S.  Way  (Cambridge,  1913)  ;  and  in 
prose,  by  Metcalfe  (Boston,  1906).  There  is 
a  special  lexicon  to  Theocritus  by  Rumpel 
(1879).  Consult  also:  Legrand,  Etude  sur 
Theocrite  (Paris,  1898)  ;  W.  C.  Wright,  A  Short 
■History  of  Greek  Literature  (New  York,  1907)  ; 
Christ-Schmid,  Geschichte  der  griec hi s oh en  Lit- 
teratur,  vol.  ii,  part  i  (5th  ed.,  Munich,  1911). 

THEODICY,  the-od'i-si  (from  Gk.  deos,  tlieos, 
god  +  dtKT],  dike,  justice) .  The  exposition  of 
the  theory  of  divine  providence,  and  particu¬ 
larly  the  defense  of  the  goodness  and  wisdom 
of  God  against  objections  drawn  from  the  exist¬ 
ence  of  pain  and  sin  in  the  world.  The  problem 
is  as  old  as  human  thinking;  the  name  is  mod¬ 
ern  and  dates  from  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  first  to  consider  the  question  in 
its  entire  scope  was  Leibnitz  (q.v.)  in  his 
Essais  de  theodicee  (1710).  In  England  a  long 
list  of  publications  has  appeared,  principally  in 
reply  to  the  sensational  school  beginning  with 
Hume  and  closing  with  J.  S.  Mill,  who  could 
scarcely  maintain  the  existeifce  of  God,  and 
saved  His  benevolence  only  at  the  expense  of 
His  omnipotence.  In  America,  where  Jonathan 
Edwards  made  contributions  to  the  discussion 
in  his  famous  Freedom  of  the  Will  (1754),  and 
was  followed  by  Bellamy,  Wisdom  of  God  in  the 
Permission  of  Sin  (1758)  ;  Hopkins,  Sin  through 
the  Divine  Interposition  an  Advantage  to  the 
Universe  (1759);  and  many  others,  down  to 
N.  W.  Taylor  (q.v.),  whose  contribution  to  the 
subject  may  be  condensed  in  the  hypothesis  that 
in  the  best  moral  system  a  benevolent  God  might 


not  be  able  to  prevent  sin  consistently  with  the- 
maintenance  of  the  system  and  the  attainment 
of  the  highest  results  therefrom.  He  thus  gave 
a  place  to  the  human  will  which  no  theologian 
of  orthodox  descent  had  previously  given.  Since 
the  appearance  of  Hegel,  the  Christian  idea  of 
God  lias  met  with  new  objections,  and  theodicv 
has  been  enlarged  to  consider  these,  especially 
by  Maret  and  Gratry  in  France.  The  appear¬ 
ance  of  pessimism  in  Germany  gave  a  new  turn 
to  the  argument,  since  it  was  no  longer  possible 
to  assume  as  undisputed  the  principle  of  Leib¬ 
nitz,  that  God  has  chosen  the  best  possible 
world.  And  with  the  appearance  of  evolution 
and  the  Spencerian  agnosticism,  the  argument 
has  turned  to  the  more  fundamental  matters; 
so  that  theodicy  has  almost  disappeared  as  a 
distinct  department  of  theology. 

THEOD'OLITE  (of  uncertain  etymology; 
perhaps  from  Gk.  deacrdai,  theasthai,  to  see  + 
odos,  hodos,  way  +  Xtros,  litos,  smooth,  even; 
hardly  from  Gk.  Oeacrdai,  theasthai,  to  see  -f- 
SoXlxos,  dolichos,  long).  An  instrument  used 
in  surveying  especially  in  geodetic  work  for  the 
measurement  of  horizontal  and  vertical  angles. 
It  is  larger  than  the  transit  and,  having  larger 
and  more  carefully  graduated  circles,  is  em¬ 
ployed  in  measuring  angles  where  the  highest 
accuracy  is  demanded.  In  its  main  features  it 
is  similar  to  this  instrument,  but  differs  chiefly 
in  that  its  telescope  does  not  revolve  completely 
or  transit  in  its  horizontal  axis.  See  Geodesy; 
Surveying  Instruments. 

THE'ODO'RA  (c.508— 548).  A  Byzantine  Em¬ 
press,  wife  of  Justinian.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  Acacius,  the  keeper  of  the  wild  beasts  at  the 
circus  of  Constantinople,  and  after  his  death 
was  for  a  time  a  favorite  on  the  stage  and  a 
famous  courtesan.  She  fascinated  Justinian, 
nephew  of  the  Emperor  Justin  I,  by  her  great 
beauty,  and  about  525  he  married  her.  There¬ 
after  she  led  an  exemplary  domestic  life.  In  527 
Justinian  became  Emperor,  and  Theodora  hence¬ 
forth  exerted  a  commanding  influence  upon  pub¬ 
lic  affairs.  She  was  extremely  cruel,  and  her 
numerous  spies  ferreted  out  all  who  were  op¬ 
posed  to  their  royal  mistress.  At  the  time  of 
the  Nika  Riot  (532)  she  prevented  Justinian 
from  fleeing  and  brought  about  the  suppression 
of  the  insurrection.  Most  of  our  information 
concerning  Theodora  is  derived  from  Procopius^ 
Anecdota.  Consult:  Antonin  Debidour,  L’lm- 
peratrice  Theodora  (Paris,  1885);  C.  E.  Mallet, 
“The  Empress  Theodora,”  in  the  English  His¬ 
torical  Review,  vol.  ii  (London,  1886)  ;  Charles 
Diehl,  Justinien  et  la  civilisation  byzantine  au 
sixieme  siecle  (Paris,  1901);  id.,  Theodora,  im~ 
peratrice  de  Byzance  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1904)  ;  Ed¬ 
ward  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  edited  by  J.  B.  Bury,  vols.  iv  and  v 
(new  ed.,  1912 ) . 

THEODORA  (?— 867).  Byzantine  Empress. 
She  was  born  in  Paphlagonia  and  in  829  married 
the  Emperor  Theophilus  (died  842),  whom  she 
succeeded  in  the  government  as  Regent  for  her 
four-year-old  son  Michael  III.  While  her  hus¬ 
band  had  been  a  violent  iconoclast,  she  was  at¬ 
tached  to  the  worship  of  images,  and  conse¬ 
quently  expelled  the  iconoclasts  from  office  and 
recalled  the  banished  image  worshipers.  She 
also  convoked  the  Constantinople  Synod  of  842 
which  restored  the  images  to  the  churches,  a 
triumph  annually  celebrated  in  the  Greek  church 
by  the  Sunday  of  Orthodoxy  (the  first  Sunday 
in  Lent).  Her  rule  was  on  the  whole  wise,  but 


THEODORA 


180 


THEODORIC 


some  of  her  wars  were  unfortunate.  When 
Michael  came  to  the  throne,  in  856,  he,  influ¬ 
enced  by  his  uncle  Bardas,  deprived  his  mother 
of  her  position  and  she  died  in  a  convent. 

THEODORA.  A  member  of  the  Roman  no¬ 
bility,  who  lived  in  the  tenth  century.  She  was 
very"  beautiful,  of  unknown  parentage,  wife  of 
the  consul  Theophylact.  She  ruled  Rome  and 
controlled  the  papacy  for  a  term  of  years,  call¬ 
ing  herself  by  the  title  of  Senatrix.  She  was 
the  mother  of  Marozia  and  Theodora  II,  who 
were  equally  licentious  and  unscrupulous.  She 
placed  several  of  her  creatures  on  the  papal 
chair,  among  whom  John  X  may  be  specially 
mentioned.  Consult  Ferdinand  Gregorovius, 
History  of  the  City  of  Rome  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  translated  by  Annie  Hamilton  (London, 
1895). 

THEODORE,  King  of  Abyssinia.  See  Abys¬ 
sinia. 

THEODORE  I,  King  of  Corsica.  See  Neu- 
hof,  Theodor  von. 

THE'ODORE  OF  MOP'SUES'TIA  (c.350- 
428).  The  most  noted  biblical  scholar  and  the¬ 
ologian  of  the  school  of  Antioch.  He  was  born 
in  Antioch,  was  educated  under  the  rhetorician 
Libanius,  and  studied  theology  with  Diodorus. 
At  the  age  of  32  he  was  made  presbyter  of  the 
Antiochian  church,  and  in  392  he  became  Bishop 
of  Mopsuestia,  a  small  town  in  Cilicia,  about 
40  miles  from  Tarsus.  In  fame  and  influence 
he  surpassed  all  the  other  Christian  teachers 
and  writers  of  the  East.  His  biblical  scholar¬ 
ship  seems  almost  modern.  His  commentaries 
have  in  many  cases  perished,  but  enough  re¬ 
mains  to  show  his  historical  spirit,  and  the 
simple,  literal  method  of  interpretation  which 
characterized  the  school  of  Antioch,  as  against 
the  mystical,  allegorical  method  of  Alexandria. 
Theodore  expounded  almost  all  the  books  of  the 
Bible.  He  also  wrote  on  the  incarnation  and 
various  other  theological  topics.  Soon  after  his 
death,  charges  of  doctrinal  error  began  to  be 
brought  against  him,  and  his  opinions  were  con¬ 
demned  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431),  though 
his  name  was  not  mentioned.  He  had  no  doubt 
favored  the  Pelagians,  and  the  fact  that  he  had 
been  the  teacher  of  Nestorius  was  afterward 
remembered  against  him.  Opposition  to  his  the¬ 
ology  continued  and  increased  until  the  fifth 
general  council  (Constantinople,  553),  when  he 
was  explicitly  condemned,  in  connection  with  the 
“Three  Chapter  Controversy.”  Part  of  the  re¬ 
mains  of  Theodore’s  works  are  printed  in  Migne, 
Patrologia  Grceca,  vol.  lxvi.  The  Latin  version 
of  his  commentary  on  the  minor  Pauline  Epis¬ 
tles  has  been  edited  by  Swete  (Cambridge, 
1880-82),  and  the  Syriac  version  of  his  com¬ 
mentary  on  John  by  Chabot  (Paris,  1897).  The 
best  general  account  of  Theodore  in  English  is 
in  Smith’s  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography, 
by  Wace  and  Piercy  (Boston,  1911).  Consult 
also  H.  Kihn,  Theodore  von  Mopsuestia  (Frei¬ 
burg,  1880)  ;  Bardenhewer,  Patrologie  (Eng. 
trans.,  St.  Louis,  1908).  For  his  theology,  con¬ 
sult  A.  Harnack,  History  of  Dogma,  vols.  iii,  iv 
(Boston,  1898).  See  Chapters,  The  Three. 

THEODORE  OF  TAR'SUS  (c.602-690). 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  was  born  at 
Tarsus;  studied  at  Athens;  became  a  monk; 
early  distinguished  himself  as  a  scholar  and  was 
familiar  with  Greek  and  Latin  literature;  was 
consecrated  at  Rome  as  Archbishop  of  Canter¬ 
bury  by  Pope  Vitalian  and  arrived  at  his  see 
May  27,  669.  He  did  a  great  work  for  the 


Church  in  England,  which  at  the  time  of  his 
coming  had  sunk  to  a  low  state.  He  divided 
his  large  dioceses  into  more  manageable  ones ; 
appointed  worthy  bishops;  promoted  learning 
and  clerical  discipline;  increased  the  monas¬ 
teries;  held  progressive  synods;  and  so  left  the 
Church  a  compact  and  enlightened  body.  His 
life  is  recorded  in  Bede,  Ecclesiastical  History. 
Consult  G.  F.  Browne,  Theodore  and  Wil frith 
(London,  1897).  See  England,  Church  of. 

TFIEOD'ORET  (Gk.  Oeodupyros,  Theodoretos ) 
(c. 393-457).  A  Greek  Church  historian  and 

biblical  scholar.  He  was  born  at  Antioch,  of 
Christian  parents.  Theodoret,  with  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia  (q.v.),  is  to  be  classed  with  the 
Antiochian  school,  as  opposed  to  the  Alexan¬ 
drian.  He  was  rational  rather  than  mystical 
in  his  theology,  and  historical  rather  than  al¬ 
legorical  in  his  biblical  interpretation.  He  en¬ 
tered  the  monastic  life  at  Apamea,  and  was 
loth  to  leave  his  monastery  when  made  Bishop 
of  Cyrus  in  Syria  (423).  Theodoret  achieved 
great  success  in  winning  back  to  orthodoxy  the 
survivors  of  the  ancient  Marcionites  (see  Mar- 
cion),  and  in  suppressing  the  use  of  Tatian’s 
Diatessaron,  a  compilation  of  the  Gospels  which 
had  long  been  current  in  Syria.  (See  Tatian.) 
His  connection  with  the  cause  of  Nestorius 
(q.v.),  which  began  in  his  youth,  continued  un¬ 
til  near  the  close  of  his  life.  He  stoutly  opposed 
Nestorius’  condemnation  at  Ephesus  (431)  and 
denounced  the  famous  Anathemas  of  Cyril, 
which  had  been  launched  against  Nestorius 
shortly  before.  His  own  orthodoxy  was  seriously 
questioned,  and  the  Robber  Synod  ( 449 ;  see 
Ephesus,  Councils  of)  deposed  him  from  his 
see,  but  he  was  reinstated  by  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon,  two  years  later.  Under  great  pres¬ 
sure  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  Theodoret  was 
finally  prevailed  upon  to  anathematize  Nestorius, 
but  he  did  it  with  the  utmost  reluctance,  and  it 
is  doubtful  whether  his  real  opinion  was  ever 
changed.  About  200  of  his  letters  survive,  giv¬ 
ing  valuable  information  on  the  events  of  his 
age.  Most  important  perhaps  of  all  his  works 
is  the  Ecclesiastical  History,  written  in  con¬ 
tinuation  of  Eusebius  and  bringing  the  narra-* 
tive  down  to  428.  His  Works  have  been  several 
times  edited,  e.g.,  by  Schultze  (Halle,  1769- 
74),  and  Migne,  Patrologia  Crceca,  lxxx-lxxxiv. 
An  English  translation  of  the  History,  Dia¬ 
logues,  and  selected  Letters,  with  valuable  pro¬ 
legomena,  is  given  in  The  Ficene  Fathers,  edited 
by  Schaff  and  Wace,  2d  series,  vol.  iii  (New 
York,  1892).  Consult:  Harnack,  History  of 
Dogma,  vol.  iv  (Boston,  1898)  ;  Schubert-Moel- 
ler,  Lehrbuch  der  Kirchengeschichte  (Tubingen, 

1902)  ;  Bright,  Age  of  the  Fathers  (London, 

1903) . 

THEOD'ORIC  I,  King  of  the  Visigoths  (419- 
451).  See  Goths. 

THEODORIC,  the-od'6-rlk  (Lat.  Theodori- 
cus),  surnamed  The  Great  (c.454-526L  The 
founder  of  the  ©strogotliic  Kingdom  in  Italy. 
He  was  born  on  the  banks  of  the  Neusiedler  See, 
in  Pannonia.  His  father,  Theodemir,  was  one 
of  the  three  brothers  who  on  the  death  of  Attila 
(453  a.d.  )  freed  their  nation  from  the  yoke  of 
the  Huns,  and  being  the  representatives  of  the 
royal  line  of  the  Amali,  exercised  a  united 
sovereignty  over  it.  In  his  eighth  year  Theo- 
doric  was  "sent  as  a  hostage  to  the  eastern  Em¬ 
peror  and  was  trained  in  all  kinds  of  athletic 
and  martial  exercises.  He  returned  to  his  people 
about  471  and  in  474  succeeded  his  father  as 


THEODORIC 


THEODOSIUS 


181 


head  of  the  nation.  In  the  previous  year  the 
Ostrogoths  had  obtained  parts  of  Moesia  and 
Dacia,  as  settlements,  from  the  Emperor  Zeno, 
lor  the  next  13  years  Theodoric  was  frequently 
engaged  in  strife,  sometimes  against  the  Em¬ 
pire,  sometimes  in  its  service.  In  484  he  was 
made  consul,  in  486  he  was  granted  the  honor 
of  a  triumph.  The  Emperor,  to  free  himself 
from  Theodoric,  gave  him  permission  to  invade 
Italy,  and  the  warlike  monarch  began  his  march 
in  488,  and  arrived  early  in  489  on  the  fron¬ 
tiers  of  Italy.  Odoacer  (q.v.),  King  of  Italy, 
the  first  of  the  Germanic  rulers  of  that  country, 
was  forewarned  and  forearmed;  a  desperate 
battle  was  fought  near  Aquileia  (August,  489), 
the  result  of  which  was  to  the  advantage  of 
the  Ostrogoths.  A  second  and  more  disastrous 
defeat  was  inflicted  on  Odoacer  near  Verona 
(September  30),  after  which  he  took  refuge  in 
Ravenna;  but  having  again  gathered  a  large 
force,  he  was  totally  routed  on  the  banks  of 
the  Adda  (August,  490),  and  again  blockaded 
in  Ravenna,  while  the  whole  of  Italy  was  being 
subdued;  and  having  at  last  surrendered,  was 
treacherously  murdered  (March,  493).  Theo¬ 
doric  now  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Italy, 
resisted  the  claim  of  suzerainty  preferred  by 
the  Eastern  Emperor,  and  with  the  exception 
of  a  victorious  campaign  against  the  Franks,  to 
stop  their  assaults  on  the  Visigothic  dominions, 
the  suppression  of  a  rebellion  in  Spain  against 
the  infant  monarch,  his  own  grandson  Amalric 
(during  whose  minority  Theodoric  administered 
also  the  government  of  the  Visigothic  King¬ 
dom),  and  an  expedition  against  the  robber 
hordes  of  the  Bulgarians,  the  whole  of  his  long 
reign  was  devoted  to  the  consolidation  and  de¬ 
velopment  of  his  new  kingdom.  His  followers 
received  only  one-third  of  the  public  lands; 
private  property  was  legally  secured  to  the 
rightful  possessors.  He  made  Ravenna  his  capi¬ 
tal,  occasionally,  when  his  northern  frontier  was 
threatened,  removing  to  Verona. 

Theodoric  showed  no  desire  of  further  con¬ 
quest;  cultivated  the  friendship  and  esteem  of 
the  surrounding  nations;  ruled  all  classes  of  his 
subjects  with  irresistible  authority,  but  with 
corresponding,  justice  and  moderation ;  zealously 
promoted  agriculture  and  commerce;  and,  him¬ 
self  an  Arian,  exhibited  a  tolerance  of  all  other 
sects  wdiich  was  then  almost  unknown.  The 
government  was  administered  by  Romans  on 
Roman  lines;  separate  codes  of  law  were  used 
for  Romans  and  Goths.  Theodoric  left  no  son; 
but  his  daughter,  Amalasuntha  (q.v.),  suc¬ 
ceeded  him  as  regent  for  her  son,  Athalaric. 
Theodoric  became  a  hero  of  many  Germanic 
legends  under  the  name  of  Dietrich  of  Bern. 
Among  the  men  who  held  office  under  Theodoric 
were  Boethius  and  Cassidorus.  The  former, 
who  had  incurred  the  suspicions  of  the  monarch 
towards  the  close  of  his  reign,  was  unjustly  put 
to  death.  Consult:  Felix  Dahn,  Die  Konige 
der  Germanen,  vol.  iii  (Wiirzburg,  1866)  ; 
Thomas  Hodgkin,  “Ostrogothic  Invasion,”  in 
Italy  and  her  Invaders,  vol.  iii  (London,  1885)  ; 
id.,  Theodoric  the  Goth  (New  York,  1893)  ;  Cam¬ 
bridge  Medieval  History,  vols.  i,  ii  (New  York, 
1911-13)  ;  Edward  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  vol.  iv,  edited  by  J.  B.  Bury 
(London,  1912). 

THEODORIC,  Tomb  of.  A  structure  near 
Ravenna,  Italy,  erected  about  530  as  a  mauso¬ 
leum  by  Theodoric’s  daughter.  It  is  now  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Rotonda. 


THEODOSIA,  the'6-do'shi-a,  or  FEODOSIA, 
fa'6-df/se-a.  A  seaport  of  the  Crimea.  See 
Kaffa. 

THEODOSIUS,  the'6-do'shi-us.  The  name  of 
three  Roman  emperors. — Theodosius  I,  surnamed 
The  Great,  Emperor  379-395,  was  of  Spanish 
descent,  and  was  born  either  at  Italica,  or,  more 
probably,  at  Cauca,  near  Segovia,  about  346. 
His  father,  also  named  Theodosius,  was  the  great 
general  of  the  Roman  Empire,  who,  after  free¬ 
ing  South  Britain  from  the  Caledonians,  and 
annihilating  the  formidable  rebellion  of  the 
Moor  Firmus,  was  beheaded  at  Carthage  in  376. 
Theodosius  accompanied  his  father  in  his  Brit¬ 
ish  campaigns,  and  afterward,  by  routing  the 
Sarmatians,  saved  Moesia  from  devastation,  but 
retired  from  active  service  after  his  father’s 
murder,  and  took  up  the  care  of  his  patrimonial 
lands  in  Spain.  But  on  the  defeat  and  death 
of  Valens  (q.v.),  his  colleague,  Gratianus  (q.v.), 
feeling  his  inability  to  sustain  alone  the  cares 
of  empire,  intrusted  to  Theodosius,  Jan.  19, 
379,  the  administration  of  Thrace,  Dacia,  Mace¬ 
donia,  Egypt,  and  the  East,  and  especially  the 
protection  of  the  Empire  against  the  Goths. 
Theodosius  found  it  most  prudent  to  sow  jeal¬ 
ousy  and  dissension  among  the  Goths  by  prom¬ 
ises  and  bribes,  and,  after  a  four  years’  so-called 
campaign,  succeeded  in  pacifying  the  Visigoths, 
the  Ostrogoths  retreating  towards  Scythia.  The 
latter  returned  in  386,  their  ranks  swelled  by 
Scythians,  but  were  totally  routed  in  attempt¬ 
ing  to  go  across  the  Danube,  and  the  survi¬ 
vors  were  transported  to  Phrygia  and  Lydia. 
See  Goths. 

In  387  Theodosius  undertook  to  restore  to 
the  throne  of  the  Western  Empire  Valentinian 
II  (whose  sister  Galla  he  married),  the  brother 
of  Gratian,  who  had  been  expelled  by  Maximus, 
and  after  a  successful  contest  captured  Maxi¬ 
mus  and  put  him  to  death  at  Aquileia  (388). 
In  392  the  suspicious  death  of  Valentinian  and 
the  elevation  of  the  puppet  Eugenius  by  Arbo- 
gastes,  the  real  ruler  of  the  West,  again  made 
Theodosius  interfere;  after  two  years  of  prepara¬ 
tion  his  army  gained  a  complete  victory  over 
the  army  of  the  West,  and  the  two  portions  of 
the  Roman  Empire  were  again  united  under  one 
ruler.  The  union  lasted  only  four  months,  ow¬ 
ing  to  the  death  of  Theodosius,  Jan.  17,  395. 
Though  he  professed  the  orthodox  Christian 
faith,  Theodosius  was  not  baptized  till  380,  and 
his  behavior  after  that  stamps  him  as  a  cruel 
and  vindictive  persecutor.  His  humiliation  be¬ 
fore  St.  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  for  the  mas¬ 
sacre  at  Thessalonica,  was  regarded  by  the 
Church  as  one  of  its  greatest  victories  over  the 
temporal  power.  See  Ambrose. 

Theodosius  II,  Emperor  of  the  East  from  408 
to  450,  was  the  only  son  and  successor  of  Ar- 
cadius  (q.v.).  He  was  but  seven  years  old  when 
he  ascended  the  throne.  The  chief  events  of 
his  reign  were  the  invasion  of  the  Empire  by 
the  Huns  under  Attila,  a  war  with  Persia,  re¬ 
newed  efforts  to  extirpate  paganism,  and  the 
compilation  of  the  Codex  Theodosianus  (see 
Codex;  Code). — Theodosius  III  was  an  un¬ 
important  Byzantine  Emperor  (716-717  a.d.  ), 
who  abdicated  after  a  few  months’  reign.  On 
all  three  consult  Edward  Gibbon,  The  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  edited  by  J.  B. 
Bury  (London,  1912)  ;  Thomas  Hodgkin,  Dy¬ 
nasty  of  Theodosius  I  (Oxford,  1889)  ;  id.,  “ Visi¬ 
gothic,  Hunnish,  and  Vandal  Invasions,”  in 
Italy  and  her  Invaders,  vols.  i,  ii  (Oxford, 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION 


THEODOSIUS  182 


1892)  ;  Cambridge  Medieval  History,  vol.  i  (New 
York,  1911). 

THEODOSIUS,  Arch  of.  A  triumphal  arch 
at  Rome,  erected  in  405  a.d.  at  the  approach  to 
the  Pons  Vaticanus,  in  honor  of  the  three  em¬ 
perors  Arcadius,  Honorius,  and  Theodosius,  in 
commemoration  of  their  destruction  of  the  Goths. 

THEOG'NIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Qioyvis)  (sixth 
century  b.c.).  A  Greek  elegiac  poet,  born  at 
Nisaean  Megara.  During  the  conflict  in  his  na¬ 
tive  city  between  the  aristocratic  and  democratic 
parties,  in  which  he  took  the  side  of  the  aristo¬ 
crats,  he  lost  his  estate  and  was  reduced  to 
poverty  and  driven  into  exile.  He  appears  to 
have  visited  Sicily,  Bceotia,  Euboea,  and  Sparta, 
but  later,  apparently  under  changed  conditions, 
he  returned  to  his  native  city.  Theognis  is  the 
only  elegiac  poet  whose  works  have  come  down 
to  us  in  anything  like  complete  condition.  We 
possess  under  his  name  1389  verses,  in  two  books, 
which  set  forth  the  political  belief  and  ideals  of 
the  Dorian  oligarchs.  The  work  is  fragmentary 
and  has  suffered  largely  from  interpolations. 
The  genuine  remains  of  his  work  are  valuable 
evidence  as  to  the  state  of  political  parties  and 
social  conditions  in  the  sixth  century.  The  frag¬ 
ments  are  edited  by  Bergk  in  his  Poetce  Lyrici 
Greed  (5th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914)  ;  by  Ziegler  (2d 
ed.,  Tubingen,  1880)  ;  by  Sitzler  (Heidelberg, 
1880)  ;  by  Hartmann  in  his  Studies  in  Theognis 
(Cambridge,  1902)  ;  and  by  T.  Hudson-Williams 
(1910).  Consult  W.  C.  Wright,  A  Short  His¬ 
tory  of  Greek  Literature  (New  York,  1907); 
Christ-Schmid,  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Lit- 
teratur,  vol.  i,  part  i  (6th  ed.,  Munich,  1912). 

THEOG'ONY  (Lat.  theogonia,  from  Gk. 
Oeoyovia,  from  deos,  theos,  god  -+-  -yovia,  -gonia, 
generation,  from  7 ovos,  gonos,  seed).  A  geneal¬ 
ogy  of  the  gods.  The  earliest  theogonies  among 
the  Greeks  were  that  of  the  epic  cycle,  of  un¬ 
known  authorship,  now  lost,  and  the  extant 
work  of  Hesiod  (q.v. ).  According  to  Pausanias, 
the  poems  of  Onomacritus,  who  lived  at  the 
close  of  the  sixth  century  b.c.,  belonged  to  this 
class.  The  Orphic  theogony,  which  had  a  great 
influence  among  the  Neo-Platonists,  was  com¬ 
posed  at  a  late  period,  although  it  may  have 
embodied  much  of  the  earlier  Orphic  doctrine. 

THE'OLOGTCAL  ANTHROPOLOGY.  See 
Anthropology,  Theological. 

THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION.  The  system 
of  training  in  theology,  with  special  reference  to 
professional  preparation  for  the  work  of  the 
ministry.  It  will  naturally  have  to  be  con¬ 
sidered  under  two  main  heads,  owing  to  funda¬ 
mental  differences  in  the  point  of  view. 

THE  CATHOLIC  SYSTEM 

The  older  system  of  theological  education, 
prevailing  in  Catholic  institutions,  is  the  result 
of  the  historical  development  of  the  Church. 
The  aim  and  ideal  have  remained  unchanged, 
but  the  matter  has  broadened  and  the  lines 
widened  and  deepened  according  to  the  Church’s 
organic  activity.  The  training  of  the  man  has 
ever  been  its  most  important  function — con¬ 
sisting  in  the  assimilating  of  his  mind  to  the 
object  matter  of  theological  disciplines  and  of 
his  conduct  to  the  ideal  of  the  priestly  vocation. 
The  first  theologians  were  instructed  in  the 
school  of  Christ.  They  in  turn  handed  on  to 
their  disciples  what  they  had  received  from  their 
master.  Its  matter  was  the  Bible,  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  the  latter  especially,  with  the 


oral  interpretation  gathered  and  treasured  from 
the  instructions  of  Jesus.  The  form  was  simple, 
unsystematic,  adapted  to  the  synthetic  rather 
than  the  analytic  mind.  Both  aspects — the 
matter  and  the  form — are  indicated  with  suffi¬ 
cient  detail  to  enable  one  to  estimate  their  char¬ 
acter  in  the  letter  of  St.  Paul  to  Titus  and  his 
two  letters  to  Timothy.  Contact  with  Judaism 
developed  a  more  definite  exegesis,  and  conflict 
with  paganism  a  direct  apologetic.  The  neces¬ 
sity  of  defining  and  defending  the  explicit  con¬ 
tent  of  revelation  resulted  in  a  gradual  growth 
of  dogmatics,  with  a  well-marked  branch  of 
polemics,  while  the  bearings  of  the  new  reli¬ 
gious-moral  truths  on  the  growing  complexities 
of  life  in  the  world  and  the  cloister  necessitated 
an  unfolding  of  moral  and  ascetical  theology. 
Eusebius  in  the  meantime  had  founded  ecclesi¬ 
astical  history,  and  with  the  Decretists  and  the 
Decretalists  canon  law  received  an  organic  shape. 
After  the  collapse  of  the  Roman  Empire  educa¬ 
tional  activity,  theological  as  well  as  secular, 
was  practically  confined  to  the  monasteries,  and 
limited  to  the  conserving  of  the  materials  in¬ 
herited  from  the  past. 

Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the  various 
branches  of  the  theological  curriculum  became 
more  systematic  and  coordinated.  Biblical  study 
was  emphasized,  though  principal  attention  was 
given  to  the  philosophico-theological  systema¬ 
tization  of  the  speculative  content  of  religious 
faith  and  to  the  motives,  faculties,  and  laws  of 
moral  and  religious  conduct.  Historical  and 
critical  studies  were  at  this  time  but  superfi¬ 
cially  cultivated. 

A  great  change  begins  with  the  rise  of  the 
Humanists  and  the  Reformation,  followed  by  the 
opposite  reform  instituted  by  the  Council  of 
Trent.  Progress  lay  principally  in  the  circle 
of  biblical  and  historical  studies.  Exegesis  was 
pursued  with  great  zeal,  and  the  study  of  the 
Bible  centred  mainly  on  historico-critical  ques¬ 
tions.  The  founder  of  isagogics  as  a  special  dis¬ 
cipline  was  Richard  Simon,  and  in  the  second 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in  which,  besides, 
the  division  of  theology  into  separate  depart¬ 
ments  was  completed,  it  was  marked  off  against 
the-  rest  of  biblical  science.  In  church  history, 
reestablished  by  Baronius  (1607),  the  auxiliary 
sciences  attained  chiefly  through  the  Benedictines 
of  St.  Maur  their  form  and  demarcation :  patrol- 
ogy,  archaeology,  and  chronology.  In  criticism 
of  sources  Mabillon  (1707),  in  the  study  of 
the  Catacombs  Bosio  (1639),  in  hagiography 
Bollandus  (1665),  were  most  prominent.  Be¬ 
sides  these  Petavius  (1652)  and  Thomassin 
(1695)  established  scientifically  the  history  of 
dogma,  which  since  the  latter  half  of  the  eight¬ 
eenth  century  has  been  independent.  In  sys¬ 
tematic  theology,  moral  theology,  which  had 
made  great  advance,  separated  definitely  from 
dogmatic  and  was  raised  to  an  independent 
discipline.  Casuistry  received  particular  inter¬ 
est  and  care.  In  dogmatics  Melchior  Cano 
(1560)  created  by  his  Loci  Theologici  the  science 
of  theological  noetics,  to  which  Stapleton  (De 
Principiis  Fidei  Doctrince )  gave  scientific  finish. 
In  post-Tridentine  dogmatics,  polemics  took  a 
broad  and  important  place.  To  it  men  like 
Bellarmine,  Suarez,  and  Soto  devoted  their  best 
powers.  Mystics  and  ascetics,  earnestly  culti¬ 
vated  even  in  patristic  times  (their  founder  was 
the  Pseudo-Dionysius),  were  greatly  developed, 
but  attained  no  independent  position.  They 
remained,  like  casuistics,  in  connection  with  and 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION  183  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION 


11.  the  service  of  moral  theology.  Thus  the 
theological  cycle  was,  at  the  close  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century,  divided  into  the  following  de¬ 
partments:  biblical  science  (undivided),  church 
history,  dogmatics,  moral  and  canon  law.  The 
differentiation  of  the  other  theological  disci¬ 
plines  was  accomplished  only  in  the  second  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  latest  to  appear 
as  a  separate  branch  was  pastoral  theology,  in 
Germany,  with  the  erection  of  a  special  chair 
for  its  teaching  under  Maria  Theresa.  Later 
on  it  divided  into  three  departments:  homiletics, 
liturgies,  and  the  theory  of  the  pastoral  life. 
Apologetics,  as  fundamental  theology,  though 
zealously  cultivated  for  centuries,  separated  from 
dogmatics  only  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  actual  curriculum  of  the  ecclesiastical,  or 
the  diocesan  seminary,  in  which  the  system  of 
theological  education  is  imparted,  dates  in  its 
present  organization  from  the  Council  of  Trent, 
but  is  the  outcome  of  a  gradual  historical 
growth.  In  the  early  centuries  theological  edu¬ 
cation  was  received  partly  at  central  schools 
(e.g.,  at  Alexandria  and  Antioch),  but  chiefly  at 
the  Bishop’s  residence  under  his  guidance  and 
spirit.  The  episcopal  school  was  afterward  sup¬ 
plemented  by  the  monastic  institutions  and  the 
schools  established  by  Charlemagne.  These  in 
turn  were  succeeded  by  the  great  mediaeval 
universities  and  the  collegia  attached  thereto. 
The  growing  laxity  of  discipline  at  these  institu¬ 
tions  induced  the  Council  of  Trent  to  establish 
the  present  seminary  system.  The  purpose  of 
these  institutions,  which  exist  in  almost  every 
diocese  or  ecclesiastical  province,  is  primarily  a 
moral  one.  The  graded  course  of  study  pursued 
in  them  averages  from  10  to  12  years,  divided 
into  three  distinct  but  closely  connected  stages : 
the  preparatory,  the  philosophical,  and  the 
strictly  theological,  to  which  the  first  two  are 
subordinate.  In  the  preparatory  department, 
special  importance  is  placed  on  Latin.  As  this 
language  is  the  vehicle  of  most  of  the  subse¬ 
quent  studies — textbook  and  lecture  being  usu¬ 
ally  in  Latin — the  student  passing  from  the 
preparatory  seminary  is  required  to  have  an 
easy  reading  familiarity  and  a  fair  speaking 
facility  in  the  language.  The  two  years  of 
philosophy  are  devoted  to  logic,  psychology, 
metaphysics,  and  ethics  (including  sociologv), 
the  physical  sciences,  Hebrew,  and  Greek.  The 
theological  curriculum  of  four  years  is  organized 
as  follows: 

I.  Theology  in  its  Unity  (Synthesis) . — 1. 
The  theologian:  his  ideal,  moral,  and  intellec¬ 
tual  equipment.  2.  Nature,  origin,  and  classifi¬ 
cation  of  religion.  3.  Relation  of  theology  to 
religion.  4.  Object,  nature,  relations  (to  reason 
and  faith),  history  of  theological  science. 

II.  Departments  of  Theology  (Analysis) . — 

A.  Historical. — 1.  The  Bible,  criticism,  exege¬ 
sis.  2.  Biblical  theology:  (a)  history  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament;  (b)  their  general  doc¬ 
trinal  contents;  (c)  aids  to  study:  biblical 
philology,  archaeology,  hermeneutic's.  3.  Church 
history:  (1)  scope,  methods,  epochs;  (2)  divi¬ 
sions:  (a)  patrology ;  (b)  symbolism;  (c)  ec¬ 
clesiastical  archaeology  and  art;  (d)  auxiliary 
disciplines:  geography  and  statistics,  ecclesiasti¬ 
cal  chronology,  and  philology. 

B.  Systematic  Theology. — 1.  Apologetics.  2. 
Dogmatics,  relations  to  morals.  3.  Moral  theol¬ 
ogy  (Christian  ethics) . 

C.  Practical  Theology. — 1.  The  Christian  pas¬ 
torate  as  a  continuation  of  Christ’s  ministry. 


2.  Divisions:  catechetics :  pastoral  didactics;  the 
instruction  of  children.  3.  Homiletics:  theory 
of  sacred  eloquence.  4.  Liturgy.  5.  Theory  of 
the  relations  of  pastor  and  people. 

D.  Canon  Law. — Science  of  ecclesiastical  dis¬ 
cipline. 

In  the  philosophical  department  empirical 
psychology,  epistemology,  and  sociology  are  ab¬ 
sorbing  more  interest  and  are  being  pursued  in 
a  more  historical  light  and  a  more  critical  spirit 
than  was  the  case  a  generation  ago.  The  same 
is  true  of  biblical  studies,  ecclesiastical  history, 
and  apologetics  within  the  theological  domain. 

There  is  no  attempt  at  reconstructing  theol¬ 
ogy.  The  primary  principles  of  that  system  are 
the  articles  of  faith  contained  within  the  de¬ 
posit  of  revealed  truth,  which,  together  with 
the  assurance  of  inerrancy  in  discerning,  formu¬ 
lating,  and  interpreting  them,  she  claims  to  have 
received  from  her  Founder.  In  the  exercise  of 
the  logical  faculty  developing  those  principles 
and  coordinating  the  conclusions  into  a  sys¬ 
tematic  body  of  theological  science,  in  the  work 
of  the  critical  faculty  within  the  domains  of 
biblical,  historical,  and  scientific  studies,  she 
recognizes  the  fullest  rights  of  human  reason, 
provided  it  does  not  usurp  the  license  of  trans¬ 
gressing  the  ascertained  manifestations,  divine 
revelation. 

THE  PROTESTANT  SYSTEM 

The  great  leaders  of  the.  Protestant  Reforma¬ 
tion  insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  higher  edu¬ 
cation  for  the  clergy  at  the  universities.  This 
was  natural,  as  they  believed  in  an  established 
church  supported  by  the  state,  and  strongly 
emphasized  the  duty  of  its  ministers  to  inculcate 
sound  doctrine,  which  necessitates  special  theo¬ 
logical  training.  The  Anabaptist  thinkers,  who 
contended  for  freedom  of  conscience,  liberty  of 
prophesying,  and  complete  separation  of  church 
and  state,  put  the  emphasis  so  strongly  upon 
experience  and  conduct  as  to  make  doctrinal 
agreement  a  matter  of  secondary  importance, 
and  the  education  of  a  special  '  clerical  class 
seem  undesirable.  It  was  fortunate  that  the 
prevailing  tendencies  made  a  home  for  Protes¬ 
tant  theology  at  the  great  centres  of  intellectual 
life.  The  theological  curriculum  at  the  uni¬ 
versities  was  changed  in  several  respects,  par¬ 
ticularly  by  the  greater  attention  given  to  the 
biblical  studies,  the  importance  attached  to  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek  texts,  and  the  more  or  less 
determined  abandonment  of  the  allegorical 
method  of  interpretation.  Other  Lutherali  uni¬ 
versities  modeled  their  course  upon  that  pre¬ 
scribed  by  Luther  and  Melanchthon  at  Witten¬ 
berg.  Between  1529  and  1563  this  system  was 
introduced  at  Marburg,  Tubingen,"  Leipzig, 
Konigsberg,  Greifswald,  Heidelberg,  Jena,  Ros¬ 
tock,  Upsala,  and  Copenhagen.  Similar  courses 
of  theological  study  were  established  by  Beza  at 
Lausanne,  by  Calvin  at  Geneva,  and  theological 
schools  at  Nimes,  Sedan,  Saumur,  and  Mon- 
tauban  followed  the  same  methods.  In  Holland 
the  University  of  Leyden  (founded  1575)  be¬ 
came  the  centre  of  Protestant  theology.  The 
Free  Church  in  Scotland  established  three  divin¬ 
ity  halls  at  Edinburgh,  Aberdeen,  and  Glasgow, 
and  the  theological  education  at  the  universi¬ 
ties  of  St.  Andrews,  Aberdeen,  and  Glasgow  was 
likewise  modified  in  character.  Cambridge,  un¬ 
der  the  teachings  of  Erasmus,  Tyndale,  and 
Latimer,  became  the  foremost  exponent  of  the 
new  theological  as  well  as  humanistic  teaching 

o  “ 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION 

and  Vermigli  at  Oxford  expounded  Protestant 
principles  of  exegesis. 

If  the  theological  education  of  the  Reforma¬ 
tion  period  was  chiefly  characterized  by  the 
greater  attention  paid  to  the  Bible,  and  a  cer¬ 
tain  movement  of  thought  away  from  Catholic 
dogma,  its  most  marked  peculiarity  in  the  im¬ 
mediately  succeeding  period  was  the  inculcation 
of  Protestant  dogma,  on  which  a  growing  em¬ 
phasis  was  placed.  In  Germany  the  type  of 
teaching  represented  by  Flacius  proved  more 
acceptable  than  that  of  Melanchthon  and  his 
followers,  and  Calovius  bore  off  the  victory  over 
Calixtus  and  the  Helmstedt  school.  The  great¬ 
est  service  rendered  by  Flacius  was  the  atten¬ 
tion  he  and  the  other  Magdeburg  Centuriators 
paid  to  the  history  of  the  Church.  New  centres 
of  theological  study  were  created  at  Giessen, 
Kiel,  Dorpat,  Lund,  Groningen,  and  Utrecht.  In 
Holland  the  extreme  orthodox  tendencies  pre¬ 
vailing  at  the  Synod  of  Dort  were  offset  by  the 
influence  of  Scaliger  and  Grotius.  In  the  French 
schools  Cameron,  Amyrault,  and  Louis  Cappel 
maintained  a  more  liberal  type  of  thought.  The 
expatriation  of  the  Huguenots  left  only  Montau- 
ban  as  a  Protestant  school.  In  England  the 
theological  education  was  less  affected  by  exag¬ 
gerated  doctrine  concerning  the  Bible  than  was 
the  case  in  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Holland. 
The  Colonies  were  long  supplied  by  ministers 
who  had  had  their  training  in  European  univer¬ 
sities.  A  professorship  in  divinity  was  estab¬ 
lished  at  Harvard  College  in  1638,  and  a  sim¬ 
ilar  professorship  was  inaugurated  at  Yale  in 
1740. 

A  new  direction  was  given  to  theological  edu¬ 
cation  by  the  Pietist  movement.  At  Halle  a 
university  was  founded  in  1694,  where  it  was 
possible  for  Spener  and  Francke  to  exemplify 
their  principles.  They  maintained  that  the 
Christian  minister  must  himself  have  a  pro¬ 
found  religious  experience,  that  he  should  not 
be  bound  by  an  oath  to  teach  in  accordance 
with  man-made  creeds,  but  that  he  should  pro¬ 
claim  the  word  of  God  contained  in  the  Scrip¬ 
tures.  In  the  seminarium  ministerii  ecclesiastici 
established  at  Halle  in  1714  Francke  endeavored 
to  give  to  converted  men  such  a  knowledge  of 
the  Bible  and  such  an  acquaintance  with  the 
practical  duties  of  the  pastor  as  to  fit  them  to 
be  true  spiritual  leaders.  While  the  demand 
for  a  spiritual  crisis  rather  than  a  normal 
growth  of  religious  experience  could  not  be 
carried  out  in  a  state  church  and  had  a  tend¬ 
ency  to  foster  self-deception,  the  break  with 
dogmatism  and  the  centring  of  interest  upon 
the  practical  aspect  of  the  ministry,  bore  per¬ 
manent  results.  The  loosening  of  dogmatic  fet¬ 
ters  led  to  biblical  criticism,  as  is  seen  in  Dip- 
pel,  Edelmann,  Michaelis,  Zinzendorf,  and  Sem- 
ler,  and  a  new  estimate  of  the  history  of  the 
Church,  doing  more  justice  to  the  heretical 
bodies,  was  introduced  by  Gottfried  Arnold. 

At  the  English  universities  rationalism  exer¬ 
cised  a  greater  influence  than  pietism.  This  was 
largely  the  result  of  the  zealous  cultivation  of 
natural  science.  The  idea  that  revelation  itself 
is  to  stand  or  fall  by  the  test  of  reason  was  ac¬ 
cepted  by  the  apologists  as  well  as  by  the  Deists, 
by  Lardner  and  Paley  not  less  than  by  Collins 
and  Toland.  From  England  this  rationalistic 
movement  spread  to  the  Continent.  In  the 
school  of  the  Remonstrants  at  Amsterdam,  Le 
Clerc  expounded  to  theological  students  the 
principles  of  Collins  and  Locke.  Gottingen  was 


184  THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION 

established  in  1737,  largely  to  serve  as  a  bul¬ 
wark  against  supernaturalism,  and  other  centres 
of  rationalism  were  Jena,  Helmstedt,  and  Hei¬ 
delberg.  Theological  students  came  under  the 
influence  not  only  of  Eichhorn,  Paulus,  and 
Henke,  but  also  of  such  men  as  Reimarus  and 
Lessing,  Herder  and  Goethe,  Kant  and  Fichte. 
Each  movement  had  its  value.  Pietism  laid 
stress  upon  the  consciousness  of  an  inner  change, 
and  tended  to  the  supremacy  of  religious  emo¬ 
tion;  rationalism  put  the  emphasis  upon  the 
reasonableness  of  true  religion  and  the  suprem¬ 
acy  of  morality. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  certain  impor¬ 
tant  changes  occurred.  A  large  number  of 
schools  grew  up  in  Europe  and  America.  In 
Germany  the  most  important  additions  were 
the  universities  of  Berlin  (1810),  Bonn  (1818), 
and  Strassburg  (reorganized  1871).  In  Switz¬ 
erland  schools  unsupported  by  the  state  have 
been  established  at  Geneva,  Lausanne,  Neu- 
chatel,  Basel,  Bern,  and  Zurich,  and  state  uni¬ 
versities  teaching  theology  at  Fribourg  and 
Neuchatel.  In  France  the  theological  faculty 
of  the  University  of  Strassburg  was  removed  to 
Paris  in  1877,  and  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes 
was  founded  in  1868.  The  University  of  Am¬ 
sterdam  was  established  in  1877,  and  universi¬ 
ties  were  founded  in  Christiania  in  1813,  and 
Helsingfors  in  1827.  In  England,  besides  Ox¬ 
ford,  Cambridge,  and  Durham,  the  Church  of 
England  has  23  theological  schools,  the  English 
Methodists  10,  the  Congregationalists  11,  the 
Baptists  9,  the  Presbyterians  3,  the  Unitarians 
1,  and  two  are  undenominational.  Except  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Seminary  at  New  Brunswick, 
N.  J.  (1784),  and  the  United  Presbyterian 
Seminary  at  Xenia,  Ohio  (1794),  all  Protestant 
schools  of  theology  in  the  United  States  were 
founded  in  the  nineteenth  century.  They 
number  about  120.  When  the  large  extent  of 
territory,  the  numerous  denominations,  and  the 
special  needs  of  the  colored  and  the  foreign 
churches  are  considered,  the  number  is  not  ex¬ 
cessive,  although  many  of  them  are  still  very 
inadequately  equipped.  Some  of  the  schools  are 
connected  with  universities.  Many  are  located 
in  or  near  important  educational  centres.  The 
course  is  generally  three  years  in  length,  and 
a  collegiate  training  is  as  a  rule  required  for 
admission. 

A  tendency  to  seek  independence  of  educa¬ 
tional  control  is  characteristic  of  the  period.  In 
Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland,  and  France  the 
principle  of  academic  freedom  has  won  gen¬ 
eral  recognition.  Berlin  at  the  outset  repudi¬ 
ated  all  attachment  to  any  particular  creed  or 
school.  While  pressure  is  often  brought  to  bear 
in  the  matter  of  appointments,  the  tradition  of 
a  German  university  is  generally  the  determin¬ 
ing  feature.  In  Holland  the  relations  between 
pulpit  and  chair  are  more  cordial.  In  England 
and  Scotland  freedom  of  investigation  is  now 
generally  granted  to  the  biblical  teachers.  In 
the  United  States  and  Canada  theological  schools 
arose  under  the  control  of  the  denominations, 
and  only  a  few,  like  Harvard  and  Union  Semi¬ 
nary,  are  yet  independent.  In  some  schools  the 
connection  has  become  more  nominal  than  real, 
and  there  is  freedom  of  teaching,  while  the 
students  are  drawn  from  various  denominations, 
as  in  Yale  and  the  University  of  Chicago.  Some 
others  are  strictly  denominational  schools.  The 
advantages  of  university  connection  have  drawn 
schools  "into  affiliation  with  universities,  asj 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATION 


THEOLOGY 


Harvard,  Chicago,  Columbia,  Pennsylvania, 
California,  and  others. 

The  most  significant  change  in  theological 
education  during  the  century  was  the  general 
introduction  of  historico-critical  methods  of  in¬ 
vestigation.  In  the  interpretation  of  Hebrew 
and  early  Christian  literature,  and  the  study 
of  Church  history,  German  theological  teachers 
have  been  the  chief  leaders;  but,  owing  to  the 
relations  of  the  faculties  to  the  Christian  state 
as  well  as  to  the  Church,  no  provision  is  yet 
made  in  any  German  university  for  the  com¬ 
parative  study  of  the  religions  of  mankind. 
Paris  offers  the  amplest  facilities  for  such  study, 
but  Leyden  and  Amsterdam  also  pay  consider¬ 
able  attention  to  it.  Critical  methods  prevail 
in  Old  Testament  exegesis  in  Great  Britain  and 
America,  as  well  as  in  the  European  universi¬ 
ties.  There  is  less  consistency  in  their  applica¬ 
tion  to  New  Testament  exegesis.  The  treatment 
of  ecclesiastical  history  is  characterized  by  in¬ 
creasing  fairness  and  objectivity.  While  many 
contributions  have  been  made  to  dogmatics  by 
theological  teachers,  the  acceptance  of  the  re¬ 
sults  of  criticism  has  tended  to  render  impos¬ 
sible  the  old  type  of  systematic  theology.  As 
an  attempt  to  explain  the  Bible,  biblical  theol¬ 
ogy  has  taken  its  place.  As  a  statement  of 
the  meaning  of  creeds,  the  history  of  doctrine 
supplies  its  place.  As  an  attempt  to  bring  all 
truth  into  one  system,  it  becomes  a  state¬ 
ment  of  philosophy  and  religious  psychology. 

I  heology  has  been  enlarged  from  a  system 
of  reason  supported  by  proof  texts  to  a"  reli¬ 
gious  philosophy  of  the  world,  based  on  the 
whole  range  of  natural  science  and  human  ex¬ 
perience.  The  broadening  view  of  religion  has 
also  caused  a  new  emphasis  on  religious  edu¬ 
cation  and  social  subjects. 

Bibliography.  Roman  Catholic,  early  his¬ 
tory:  Gabriel  Compayre,  Abelard  and  the  Origin 
and  Early  History  of  the  Universities  (New 
York,  1893)  ;  A.  T.  Drane,  Christian  Schools 
and  Scholars,  or  Sketches  of  Education  from 
the  Christian  Era  to  the  Council  of  Trent  (new 
ed.,  ib.,  1910)  ;  F.  P.  Graves,  History  of  Edu¬ 
cation  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Transi¬ 
tion  to  Modern  Times  (ib.,  1910)  ;  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic,  general:  S.  J.  Hunter,  Outlines  of  Dogmatic 
Theology  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1890)  ;  J.  B.  Aubry, 
Essai  sur  la  methode  des  4tudes  ecclesiastiques 
en  France  (2  vols.,  Lille,  1891-92)  ;  Jules 
Didiot,  Cours  de  theologie  catholique  (5  vols., 
Paris,  1891-99)  ;  Heinrich  Kihn,  Encyklopddie 
und  Methodologie  der  Theologie  (Freiburg, 
1892)  ;  J.  B.  Aubry,  Les  grands  seminaires  en 
France  (2  vols.,  Lille,  1893)  ;  id.,  Quelques  idaes 
sur  la  theorie  catholique  des  sciences  et  sur  la 
synthase  des  connaissances  humaines  dans  la 
theologie  (Paris,  1894)  ;  J.  B.  Hogan,  Clerical 
Studies  (Boston,  1898)  ;  Cornelius  Krieg,  En¬ 
cyklopddie  der  theologischen  Wissenschaften 
(  Freiburg,  1899)  ;  L.  H.  Jordan,  The  Study  of 
Religion  in  the  Italian  Universities  (London, 
1909).  Protestant:  Karl  Schmidt,  Geschichte 
der  Erziehung  und  der  Unterrichts  ( 3d  ed., 
Kothen,  1876)  ;  K.  A.  Schmid,  Geschichte  der 
Erziehung  vom  Anfang  an  bis  aus  unsere  Zeit 
(Stuttgart,  1884-92);  W.  Lexis,  Die  deutschen 
Universitdten  (Berlin,  1893)  ;  Alfred  Cave,  In¬ 
troduction  to  Theology  (2d  ed.,  New  York, 
1896)  ;  E.  W.  Blatchford,  The  Theological  Semi¬ 
nary  from  a  Layman’s  Standpoint  (Chicago, 
1899)  ;  W.  Moeller,  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,  vol.  iii  (London,  1900)  ;  G.  B.  Smith, 


185 

Practical  Theology:  A  Neglected  Field  in  Theo¬ 
logical  Education  (Chicago,  1903)  ;  D.  S.  Hill, 
Education  and  Problems  of  the  Protestant  Min¬ 
istry  (  Worcester,  Mass,  1908)  ;  T.  F.  Gailor,  The 
Christian  Church  and  Education  (New  York, 
1910). 

THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY  OF  THE 
REFORMED  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA.  A 

divinity  school  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  or¬ 
ganized  in  1784.  Its  classes  were  held  in  New 
York  City  until  1796,  then  at  Flatbush,  L.  I., 
for  a  year  or  more,  and  again  in  New  York, 
till  1810,  when  it  was  removed  to  its  present 
home.  The  seminary  is  under  the  direct  con¬ 
trol  of  the  General  Synod  of  the  Reformed 
church.  Its  theology  is  in  sympathy  with  the 
moderate  Calvinism  of  the  Reformed  church 
standards.  The  school  has  a  well-equipped 
dormitory,  Peter  Hertzog  Hall ;  a  capacious 
building,  James  Suydam  Hall,  devoted  to  lec¬ 
ture  rooms,  museums,  and  gymnasium;  a  fire¬ 
proof  library  in  the  Gardner  A.  Sage  building, 
containing  in  1915  over  52,000  volumes;  and  five 
dwelling  houses  for  professors.  In  1915  the 
endowment  of  the  seminary  was  over  $650,000, 
and  the  attendance  was  29,  with  a  faculty  of 
eight  instructors.  The  president  in  1916  was 
J.  P.  Searle. 

THEOL'OGY  (Lat.  theologia,  from  Gk. 
OeoXoyia,  a  speaking  concerning  God,  from  Oeos, 
theos,  god  -$-  -Xoyla,  -logia,  account,  from  Xeyeiv, 
legein,  to  say).  A  term  which,  in  the  larger 
sense,  may  be  used  as  equivalent  to  the  science 
of  religion,  and  will  then  include  all  the  various 
theological  disciplines,  the  sacred  languages,  and 
the  interpretation  of  the  Bible;  the  history  of 
the  Church,  including  the  history  of  doctrine; 
the  history  of  religions  in  general;  the  contribu¬ 
tions  of  our  own  age  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
objects  of  theological  study  from  other  sciences, 
such  as  biology;  systematic  theology,  or  the 
system  of  doctrines  and  duties ;  and,  finally, 
practical  theology,  or  the  application  of  theol¬ 
ogy  to  life,  in  the  pulpit,  in  Church  adminis¬ 
tration,  and  in  the  various  forms  of  contact  with 
the  world.  But  more  strictly  and  correctly, 
the  term  “theology”  is  employed  at  present  of 
systematic  theology,  which  may  be  defined  as 
the  science  of  Christianity,  or  the  scientific  ex¬ 
planation  of  the  Christian  life,  the  development 
of  its  characteristic  principles,  conditions,  and 
general  relations.  Viewed  thus  it  yields  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  doctrines  and  a  system  of  duties,  or 
dogmatics  and  ethics.  The  term  was  used  in 
the  early  and  mediaeval  Church  in  a  narrower 
sense,  to  mean  the  specific  doctrine  of  God,  the 
rest  of  the  field  now  covered  by  the  word  being 
called  sacred  doctrine.  This  is  the  meaning  of 
it  as  late  as  Aquinas. 

The  claim  of  theology  to  be  a  science  depends 
upon  the  question  whether  there  are  any  peculiar 
facts  of  which  it  takes  cognizance,  as  it  pro¬ 
fesses,  and  whether  its  method  is  calculated  to 
yield  reliable  knowledge.  It  claims  as  its  field 
two  classes  of  facts — Christian  experience  and 
the  teachings  of  the  Bible.  In  method,  theology 
has  followed,  with  other  sciences,  the  prevailing 
methods  of  thought  in  the  various  ages.  In 
earlier  times  this  was  a  priori,  and  the  general 
conservatism  of  everything  connected  with  re¬ 
ligion  tended  to  retain  the  a  priori  method  as 
long  as  possible,  but  in  modern  times  theology 
uses  the  modern  methods  of  inductive  reason¬ 
ing,  desiring  to  find  the  truth  rather  than,  as 
in  scholasticism,  to  prove  traditional  doctrines. 


THEOLOGY 


186 


THEOPHILTJS 


Formerly  a  sharp  distinction  was  drawn  be¬ 
tween  natural  and  revealed  theology.  The  for¬ 
mer  embraced  those  doctrines  as  to  God,  free¬ 
dom,  and  immortality  which  could  be  reached 
without  the  aid  of  revelation,  and  upon  them 
was  built  the  proof  of  the  Bible  as  a  revelation 
from  God,  and  consequently  the  system  of  re¬ 
vealed  theology,  which  was  then  conceived  as 
exclusively  the  scientific  interpretation  of  the 
Bible.  But  with  the  increasing  evidence  that 
even  the  first  doctrines  of  natural  theology, 
such  as  the  existence  of  God,  have  been  histori¬ 
cally  dependent  upon  a  human  experience  which 
may  be  regarded  as  revelation,  and  that  the 
doctrines  of  revealed  theology  have  their  con¬ 
firmation  in  facts  drawn  from  other  sources 
than  the  Bible,  the  sharp  line  between  the  two 
departments  has  been  largely  erased.  Natural 
theology  is  now  replaced  by  apologetics,  the 
business  of  which  is  to  defend  the  doctrines  de¬ 
veloped  by  systematic  theology. 

Bibliography.  General:  Richard  Watson, 
Theological  Institutes  (new  ed.,  3  vols.,  London, 
1862)  ;  Charles  Hodge,  Systematic  Theology  (3 
vols.,  New  York,  1872)  ;  A.  V.  G.  Allen,  Con¬ 
tinuity  of  Christian  Thought:  A  Study  of  Mod¬ 
ern  Theology  in  the  Light  of  its  History  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1884)  ;  H.  C.  Sheldon,  History  of  Christian 
Doctrine  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1886)  ;  G.  P. 
Fisher,  History  of  Christian  Doctrine  (ib., 
1896)  ;  W.  N.  Clarke,  Outline  of  Christian  The¬ 
ology  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Edward  Caird,  Evolution  of 
Theology  in  the  Greek  Philosophers,  Gifford  Lec¬ 
tures  (2  vols.,  Glasgow,  1904)  ;  A.  H.  Strong, 
Systematic  Theology  ( 3  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1907- 
09)  ;  W.  A.  Brown,  Christian  Theology  in  Out¬ 
line  (New  Haven,  1915)  ;  A.  C.  McGiffert,  Rise 
of  Modern  Religious  Ideas  (New  York,  1915). 
Encyclopaedias:  J.  J.  Herzog,  Real-Encyclopddie 
fur  protestantische  Theologie  und  Kirche  (22 
vols.,  Gotha,  1853-68;  3d  ed.,  by  A.  Hauck,  ib., 
1896-1909)  ;  The  'New  Schaff -Herzog  Encyclo¬ 
pedia  (12  vols.,  New  York,  1908-14)  ;  The  Cath¬ 
olic  Encyclopedia  (16  vols.,  ib.,  1911-14).  Also: 
August  Neander,  History  of  Christian  Dogmas, 
Eng.  trans.  by  Ryland  (2  vols.,  London,  1858)  ; 
I.  A.  Dorner,  History  of  Protestant  Theology 
(Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1871)  ;  Adolf  Harnack, 
History  of  Dogma  (Eng.  trans.  from  3d  Ger. 
ed.,  by  Neil  Buchanan,  7  vols.,  Boston,  1897- 
1900),  and  other  histories  of  dogma.  See 
Tubingen  School. 

THEOLOGY,  Mercersburg.  See  Mercers- 
burg  Theology. 

THEOLOGY,  Natural.  See  Natural  The¬ 
ology. 

THEOLOGY,  Patristic.  See  Patristic 
Theology. 

THE'ON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  0<W)  OF  ALEX¬ 
ANDRIA  (c.370  a.d.).  One  of  the  last  of  the 
Greek  mathematicians  and  astronomers.  He  was 
a  teacher  at  Alexandria  and  the  father  of  the 
celebrated  Hypatia  (q.v.),  whose  name  is  also 
connected  with  the  history  of  mathematical  sci¬ 
ence.  Theon’s  chief  works  are  an  edition  of 
Euclid’s  Elements  and  a  commentary  on  Ptol¬ 
emy’s  Almagest.  The  former  was  prepared  for 
his  students  at  Alexandria  and  the  various  man¬ 
uscripts  have  played  an  important  role  in  all 
subsequent  attempts  to  reproduce  the  Elements. 
The  latter  is  especially  valuable  for  its  notes 
showing  the  use  of  sexagesimal  fractions  and 
the  operations  of  division  and  square  root. 

THEON  OF  SMYRNA,  smer'na  (c. 100  a.d.). 
A  Greek  mathematician  and  astronomer.  He 


was  the  author  of  a  work,  commonly  known  as 
the  Expositio,  treating  of  mathematical  rules 
necessary  for  the  study  of  Plato.  Two  books  of 
this  work,  probably  the  whole  of  it,  are  extant, 
one  on  arithmetic  and  the  other  on  astronomy. 
The  work  contains  two  propositions  on  the 
theory  of  numbers  of  peculiar  interest:  (1)  If 
n  is  any  number,  n2  or  n2  —  1  is  divisible  by  3  or 
4  or  both.  If  n2  is  divisible  by  3  and  not  by  4, 
n 2  —  1  is  divisible  by  4.  ( 2 )  If  two  groups  of 

numbers  are  arranged  as  follows: 


n\  =  1  +  0 
712  ~~  1  H-  1 

Tiz  =  2  -)-  3 
n4  =  5  -j-  7 


di  =  1  -f-  0  =  1 

di  —  2  — )—  1  =  3 

dz  —  4  -j-  3  —  7 

d4  =  10  +  7  =  17 


7lf  —  TVr—  i  -)-  dr-i  dj  —  271/— l  ~}~  dr— i, 

then  d2  is  of  the  form  2 n2  dz  1 ;  e.g.,  d2—\  — 
2  •  nt  —  1,  c?22  =  9  =  2  mA  -f-  1.  Theon  called 
these  numbers  diameters.  It  is  interesting  to 
observe  that  the  ratios 

di_  d2  _  3  dz _ 7 

nx~  L’  ^  “  2’  nz  ~  5’ 
are  the  convergents  of  the  continued  fraction 

1  -f  -  -  - 

and  hence  approximate  the  value  of  also 

that  these  diameters  are  solutions  of  a  pair  of 
indeterminate  quadratic  equations,  relations  un¬ 
known  to  Theon.  See  Pell,  with  reference  to 
the  Pell  Equation. 

THEOPH'ANO  (c.955-91).  The  wife  of 
Otho  II  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  the  Byzantine  Emperor  Romanus 
II,  and  was  married  to  Otho  II  at  Rome  in  972. 
She  was  a  woman  of  great  beauty  and  noble 
character  and  soon  won  great  influence  over  the 
Emperor,  in  whose  court  she  introduced  much  of 
the  learning  and  refinement  of  Constantinople. 
After  the  death  of  her  husband  (983)  she  ruled 
as  Regent  for  her  son  Otho  III  till  her  death. 

THEOPH'ANY  (ML.  theophania,  theofania, 
from  Gk.  deocfxxvia,  theophania,  deocpaveLa,  theo- 
phaneia,  from  deos,  theos,  god  -f-’  (paiveadai , 
phainesthai,  to  appear).  An  appearance  of  gods, 
or  of  God,  to  men.  In  the  heathen  religions 
theophanies  under  various  forms  were  regarded 
as  of  frequent  occurrence.  In  Christianity  the 
term  was  often  applied  in  the  ancient  church  to 
the  appearance  of  God  in  Christ,  in  distinction 
from  the  epiphany,  which  was  the  appearance 
in  the  form  of  a  dove,  and  the  audible  communi¬ 
cation  of  God,  at  the  baptism  of  Jesus  (Mark 
i.  9-11  and  parallels).  It  is  now  generally  re¬ 
stricted  to  the  appearances  of  God  as  related  in 
the  Old  Testament,  whether  in  personal  form 
or  by  any  other  means. 

THEOPHILTJS,  the-oPi-lus  (from  Gk.  0e6</u- 
\os,  beloved  of  God).  The  name  of  the  person 
to  whom  two  New  Testament  books,  the  third 
Gospel  and  the  Acts,  are  dedicated  (Luke  i.  3; 
Acts  i.  1 ) .  In  Luke  i.  3  he  is  addressed  as  “most 
excellent”  (Gk.  Kparurre) ,  from  which  one  would 
naturally  infer  that  he  was  a  man  of  rank 
or  high  position,  but  not  necessarily  (cf.  Ram¬ 
say,  St.  Paul  the  Traveler,  p.  388  f.)  a  Ro¬ 
man  official  of  equestrian  rank.  The  natural 
inference  from  Luke  j.  4  is  that  he  was  a  convert 
to  Christianity,  having  already  received  the  in¬ 
struction  usually  imparted  to  new  converts. 


THEOPHILUS 


THEOREM 


1  he  name  Theopliilus  was  not  uncommon  in  Jew¬ 
ish  circles,  being  borne  by  a  high  priest  who  held 
office  37-41  a.d.  (cf.  Josephus,  Ant.,  xviii,  5,  3; 
xix,  6,2),  and  even  as  early  as  c.254  b.c.  it  was 
held  by  a  member  of  a  Samaritan  community  in 
Egypt  (cf.  Deissmann,  Bibelstudien,  p.  19).  The 
Jews  may  have  considered  it  the  equivalent  of 
the  Heb.  El-dad  (probably  ‘‘beloved  of  God”), 
but  it  was  in  use  also  as  a  pure  Greek  name 
long  before  the  Christian  era.  Hence  one  should 
not  infer  that  Theophilus*  must  have  received 
this  name  as  his  Christian  name  when  baptized. 
Nothing  whatever  is  known  of  his  history,  not 
even  his  place  of  residence. 

THEOPHILUS.  The  hero  of  a  mediaeval 
legend,  which  became  a  precursor  of  the  Faust 
legend.  The  facts  appear  to  be  that  in  the 
sixth  century  there  was  a  Theophilus  who  was 
treasurer  of  the  church  at  Adana,  near  Tarsus, 
in  Cilicia  Secunda.  He  was  elected  Bishop,  but 
refused  the  honor,  out  of  humility.  Later  he 
quarreled  with  the  new  Bishop,  but  on  repent¬ 
ance  was  forgiven.  These  facts  were  embel¬ 
lished  by  later  story-tellers,  until  the  legend 
arose  that  the  devil  tempted  and  finally  won  him, 
making  him  sign  a  contract,  with  his  blood,  to 
give  his  soul  in  exchange  for  the  glories  of  this 
world.  Later  he  repented  and  prayed  to  the 
Virgin,  who  then  tore  the  parchment  from  the 
very  claws  of  Satan  and  returned  it  to  Theo¬ 
philus.  This  act  became  one  of  her  celebrated 
miracles.  The  legend  was  brought  to  the  West 
in  the  tenth  century,  and  quickly  spread  far 
and  wide.  It  was  made  the  subject  of  poems 
and  dramas  in  many  languages,  and  frequent  al¬ 
lusions  to  it  are  found  in  Latin,  German,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  Icelandic,  Swedish,  French,  and  Spanish 
literature,  while  it  is  also  the  subject  of  many 
celebrated  sculptures,  particularly  some  in  Notre 
Dame,  Paris. 

THE'OPHRAS'TUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  0e6- 
(ppacrros)  (c. 372— 287  b.c.).  A  Greek  philosopher, 
born  at  Eresus  in  Lesbos.  He  studied  philosophy 
at  Athens,  first  under  Plato  and  subsequently 
under  Aristotle,  who  at  his  death  made  him  head 
of  the  Peripatetic  school,  which  he  directed  for 
35  years  (322-287).  Under  his  leadership  the 
character  of  the  school  was  well  maintained;  it 
had  a  large  number  of  pupils,  and  enjoyed  a 
high  reputation  at  home  and  abroad.  In  philoso¬ 
phy  he  followed  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  his 
master,  but  was  more  inclined  to  natural  history 
than  to  metaphysics.  His  discourses  on  ethics 
were  greatly  admired,  but  his  chief  renown 
was  gained  by  his  botanical  works.  Two  of 
these,  his  History  of  Plants,  in  nine  books,  and 
his  Theoretical  Botany,  in  six,  are  still  extant, 
together  with  fragments  of  his  work  On  Miner¬ 
alogy  ( Ilepi  Aidwv) ,  On  Fire  (Ilepl  IIupos),  On 
the  Senses  (nept  Alcrdycreivv  /cat  AlaQyrwv) , 
Metaphysics  ( Mera0i/cri/cd ) ,  and  other  similar 
subjects.  Especially  famous  is  his  book  of 
sketches  called  Characters  ( 'KapaKrijpes ) .  They 
have  been  extremely  popular  and  have  been  imi¬ 
tated  many  times,  especially  by  the  French  and 
English  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  best 
complete  editions  of  his  works  are  by  Schneider 
(Leipzig,  1818)  and  by  Wimmer  (Paris,  1866). 
The  Characters  have  been  many  times  edited 
separately.  Especially  famous  are  the  edition 
by  Casaubon  with  commentary  (Leyden,  1592)  ; 
that  by  P.  C.  Jebb  (London,  1870;  revised  by  J. 
E.  Sandys,  1909)  ;  and  the  edition,  with  transla¬ 
tion  and  commentary,  by  the  Leipzig  Philological 
Society  (1897).  Consult:  Eduard  Zeller,  Aris- 
Vol.  XXII.— 13 


187 

totle  and  the  Earlier  Peripatetics  (Eng.  trans., 
London,  1897)  ;  Theodor  Gomperz,  Greek  Think¬ 
ers,  vol.  iv  (Eng.  trans.  by  G.  G.  Berry,  New 
Tork,  1912)  ;  H.  Ritter  and  L.  Preller,  Historic 
Philosophic  Greece  (9th  ed.,  Gotha,  1913). 

THEOPH'YLACT  (Gk.  0eo0i/\a/cros,  Theo- 
phylaktos)  (died  c.1107).  A  Bible  commenta¬ 
tor.  He  was  a  deacon  at  Constantinople  and 
became  tutor  to  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus, 
son  of  Michael  VII.  In  1078  Theophylact  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Achrida  and  Metropolitan 
of  Bulgaria.  He  labored  diligently  to  extend 
Christianity,  but  was  hindered  by  the  half- 
civilized  people  of  his  diocese,  and  vainly  en¬ 
deavored  to  lay  down  the  duties  of  his  office. 
He  wrote  valuable  commentaries  on  the  minor 
prophets  and  on  the  greater  part  of  the  New 
testament.  In  addition  he  wrote  130  epistles 
and  a  number  of  tracts,  including  one  on  Educa¬ 
tion  of  Princes.  His  commentaries  are  founded 
on  those  of  Chrysostom  ( q.v. ) .  His  exegesis  is 
direct,  precise,  and  textual  in  its  treatment.  His 
works  were  much  esteemed  by  later  writers. 
J.  F.  B.  M.  de  Rossi  published  his  works  in  Latin 
and  Greek  at  Venice  in  4  folio  volumes  (1754- 
63).  Consult  Karl  Krumbacher,  Geschichte 
der  byzantinischen  Litteratur  (2d  ed.,  Munich, 
1897). 

THE'OPHYI/LXNE.  See  Alkaloids. 

TIIE'OPOM'PUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  OeSTroyiros) 
OP  CHIOS  (c.378— c.300  b.c.).  A  Greek  his¬ 
torian.  In  early  life  he  left  home  with  his 
father,  who  was  banished  on  account  of  his  pre¬ 
dilection  for  the  Spartans,  and  took  refuge  in 
Athens.  There  he  was  trained  in  oratory  by 
Isocrates.  Besides  numerous  panegyrics,  of 
which  that  on  Mausolus  was  the  most  celebrated, 
his  works  included  'Zvvra^s  'E WyvacCjv,  or  'EWyvi- 
Kal  'I aropiai,  a  History  of  Greece  in  12  books, 
embracing  the  period  from  411  b.c.,  where 
Thucydides  breaks  off,  to  the  battle  of  Cnidus, 
in  394;  and  3?i\L7nriKa,  in  58  books,  a  history 
of  the  life  and  times  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 
Of  these  works  only  fragments  remain,  but  an 
abridgment  of  the  Latin  translation  of  the 
<&i\nnriK&,  by  Trogus  Pompeius,  has  been  pre¬ 
served  by  Justin.  Ancient  critics  commend  his 
accuracy,  but  blame  him  for  harshness  and  il- 
liberality.  This  was  due  to  his  fearless  exposi¬ 
tion  of  the  corruption  of  his  day.  According  to 
Pliny,  the  Elder,  he  was  the  first  Greek  writer 
to  make  any  definite  mention  of  Rome.  For  the 
fragments,  consult  Muller,  Fragmenta  Histo- 
ricorum  Grcecorum  (Paris,  1841)  ;  Biinger,  Theo- 
pompea  (Strassburg,  1874)  ;  and  a  complete  edi¬ 
tion,  including  the  fragments  of  Cratippus  by 
Grenfell  and  Hunt,  in  Hellenica  Oxyrhynchia 
(Oxford,  1909).  Consult  Christ-Schmid,  Ge¬ 
schichte  der  griechischen  Litteratur,  vol.  i  (5th 
ed.,  Munich,  1908)  ;  J.  B.  Bury,  The  Ancient 
Greek  Historians  (New  York,  1909)  ;  E.  M. 
Walker,  The  Hellenica  Oxyrhynchia  (Oxford, 
1913). 

THEOR/BO  (It.  tiorbo,  etymology  unknown). 
An  obsolete  musical  instrument  of  the  lute  fam¬ 
ily,  of  which  it  formed  the  bass.  Besides  strings 
running  over  the  finger  board,  it  had  a  number 
of  bass  strings  stretched  alongside  of  the  board. 
These  strings  were  longer  and  were  fastened  in 
a  separate  neck  attached  to  the  neck  containing 
the  strings  stopped  by  the  fingers.  The  theorbo 
was  indispensable  in  the  orchestra  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century  and  was  used  for  accompanying 
the  voice.  See  Plate  of  Musical  Instruments. 
THE'OREM  (Lat.  theorema,  from  Gk. 


THEORY 


188 


THEOSOPHY 


Oewppga,  sight,  principle  considered,  rule,  the¬ 
orem,  from  deupeiv,  theorein,  to  view,  from 
decopos,  theoros,  spectator,  from  deaadai,  thea- 
sthai,  to  view,  behold).  In  mathematics,  a 
proposition  to  be  demonstrated.  A  theorem  con¬ 
sists  of  two  parts:  the  hypothesis,  or  the  given, 
and  the  conclusion,  or  what  is  to  be  proved.  One 
theorem  is  the  converse  of  another  when  the  con¬ 
clusion  and  the  hypothesis  are  interchanged  in 
the  two  theorems.  The  converse  of  a  theorem  is, 
however,  not  necessarily  true.  A  corollary  (q.v.) 
of  a  theorem  is  a  truth  easily  deduced  from  it 
and  not  requiring  a  separate  demonstration.  A 
lemma  (q.v.)  is  generally  a  theorem  used  to  pre¬ 
pare  the  way  for  another  theorem. 

THEORY1.  See  Hypothesis. 

THE'OSOPH'ICAL  SOCIETY.  A  society 
founded  by  Helena  Petrovna  Blavatsky  (q.v.) 
in  New  York,  Nov.  17,  1875,  assisted  by  Col. 
Henry  S.  Olcott,  William  Q.  Judge,  and  others. 
Its  objects  were:  (1)  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a 
universal  brotherhood  of  humanity ;  (2)  to  study 
and  make  known  the  ancient  religions,  phil¬ 
osophies,  and  sciences;  (3)  to  investigate  the 
laws  of  nature  and  to  develop  the  divine  powers 
latent  in  man.  Blavatsky  left  New  York,  Dec. 
17,  1878,  and  went  to  India,  accompanied  by 
Colonel  Olcott,  where  a  system  of  propaganda 
was  organized  and  numerous  branches  were 
formed.  Judge  remained  in  New  York,  and  built 
up  the  society  in  the  United  States.  He  formed 
a  strong  branch,  the  Aryan  Theosophical  So¬ 
ciety,  in  New  York  City,  of  which  he  was  presi¬ 
dent.  Madame  Blavatsky  left  the  Theosophical 
Society  as  an  international  body  with  head¬ 
quarters  at  Adyar,  India,  and  with  three  sec¬ 
tions:  the  Indian,  comprising  the  Orient;  the 
English  Section,  having  jurisdiction  over  Eu¬ 
rope;  and  the  American  Section  for  America. 
Olcott,  at  Adyar,  was  president;  Judge,  at  New 
YY>rk,  vice  president.  Each  section  had  a  gen¬ 
eral  secretary — Bertram  Keightlev,  of  Adyar,  of 
the  Indian;  G.  R.  S.  Mead,  of  London,  of  the 
English;  and  Judge,  of  New  York,  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Section.  There  was  an  inner  body,  the 
Esoteric  Section  (E.  S.),  at  the  head  of  which 
was  Madame  Blavatsky.  At  her  death,  in  1891, 
she  was  succeeded  by  Judge  and  by  Annie  Besant, 
of  London,  jointly,  both  supposedly  mouthpieces 
of  an  unknown  master,  the  real  head  of  the  theo¬ 
sophical  movement.  Charges  of  fraudulent  use 
of  this  master’s  name  were  preferred  against 
Judge  by  Mrs.  Besant.  These  charges,  though 
never  legally  proved,  caused  a  split  between  the 
supporters  and  opponents  of  Judge.  In  Boston, 
in  April,  1895,  the  American  Section  almost 
unanimously  declared  its  autonomy  as  the  ‘‘Theo¬ 
sophical  Society  in  America”  (T.  S.  in  A.),  with 
Judge  as  president.  It  then  had  about  150 
branches,  and  in  1916  it  had  157  branches  with 
about  5000  members.  In  so  far  as  these  mem¬ 
bers  belonged  to  the  Esoteric  Section,  they  recog¬ 
nized  Judge  as  the  outer  head  (the  real  head 
being  the  unknown  master),  and,  following  their 
example,  those  Theosophists  throughout  the 
world  who  believed  the  charges  false  formed  in¬ 
dependent  bodies  in  their  separate  countries, 
called  respectively  the  Theosophical  Society  in 
England  (T.  S.  in  E. ),  in  Sweden  (T.  S.  in  S.), 
in  Australia,  etc. 

The  society  under  Olcott  kept  up  its  organiza¬ 
tion,  though  the  English  and  American  sections 
were  much  weakened.  Mrs.  Besant  remained  the 
head  of  that  Esoteric  Section  which  was  con¬ 
nected  with  the  societv  under  Olcott.  Judge 


died  March  19,  1890,  leaving  his  society  in  a 
flourishing  condition,  but  with  no  successor  as 
head  of  the  Esoteric  Section,  or  the  T.  S.  in  A. 
Katherine  A.  Tingley  then  obtained  recognition, 
first  from  a  few  members,  and  through  skillful 
advances  from  the  bulk  of  the  society,  as  the 
successor  of  Blavatsky  and  of  Judge.  At  a  con¬ 
vention  in  Chicago,  in  February,  1898,  she 
formed  “The  Universal  Brotherhood  Organiza¬ 
tion,”  of  which  she  was  the  absolute  ruler,  and 
the  possessor  of  all  its  property.  Of  the  rem¬ 
nants  of  the  T.  S.  in  A.  she  made  a  literary  de¬ 
partment  of  her  “Universal  Brotherhood.”  The 
headquarters  in  New  York  City  were  abandoned 
and  she  took  her  remaining  followers,  not  more 
than  a  dozen  of  the  old  members  of  the  T.  S.  in 
A.,  to  Point  Loma,  near  San  Diego,  Cal.,  where 
she  formed  a  colony.  The  Theosophical  Society 
in  America,  after  Tingley’s  departure  for  Point 
Loma,  soon  divided,  one  of  the  sections  having 
headquarters  in  New  York  and  the  other  in 
Brooklyn.  The  theosophical  movement  con¬ 
tinues,  however,  on  the  one  hand  as  the  organ¬ 
ization,  and  on  the  other,  under  the  form  of 
independent  local  societies,  recognized  as  theo¬ 
sophical  by  their  adherence  to  the  three  objects 
of  the  society.  Since  the  foundation  of  the  Theo¬ 
sophical  Society  in  1875  over  1400  branches  have 
been  chartered  in  different  countries.  In  1906 
the  total  membership  in  all  countries  was  ap¬ 
proximately  30,000.  The  parent  society  is  in¬ 
ternational,  with  headquarters  at  Adyar,  Ma¬ 
dras,  India.  In  1916  Mrs.  Annie  Besant  was 
president. 

THEOS'OPHY  (Gk.  Oeoacnpia,  theosophia,  wis¬ 
dom  in  divine  things,  knowledge  concerning  God, 
from  6eos,  theos,  god  +  <JO(pos,  sophos,  wise). 
A  name  used  for  any  system  of  philosophy  which 
starts  from  a  supposed  knowledge  of  God,  and 
proceeds  to  state  laws  of  the  universe  on  the 
basis  of  revelation  or  of  direct  knowledge. 
Usually  the  claim  of  a  supernatural  revelation 
is  made,  though  this  is  not  essential,  and 
usually,  also,  theosophy  is  mystical,  holding  that 
systems  of  truth  are  revealed  through  states  of 
mystic  feeling.  Tfie  term  has  been  applied  to 
cults  of  varying  tenets  and  diverse  uses  of  the 
concepts  of  divinity  at  different  periods.  An¬ 
cient  systems  of  belief  falling  under  this  head 
may  be  divided  roughly  into  Oriental  and  Occi¬ 
dental,  the  former  being  the  older.  The  earliest 
traces  of  theosophic  thought  are  found  in  the 
Sanskrit  Upanishads  (q.v.),  which  represent 
mystic  meditation  on  the  nature  of  the  All-Soul 
or  Atman.  It  is  in  a  sense  true  that  all  sub¬ 
sequent  Hindu  philosophy  is  theosophic.  From 
India  this  mystical  speculation  spread  to  Persia, 
and  from  the  Persians  it  was  absorbed  by  the 
Arabs  after  their  conquest  of  Iran.  In  a  some¬ 
what  similar  sense  the  Yi-King  and  the  Tao-teh- 
Iiing  of  China  may  be  regarded  as  theosophic. 

Among  the  Jews  a  theosophy  attained  wide 
currency  in  Europe  between  the  twelfth  and  six¬ 
teenth  centuries.  The  teachings  of  the  Cabbala 
(q.v.)  as  represented  in  the  writings  of  Simeon 
ben  Jochai  and  Moses  de  Leon,  however,  are  so 
widely  different  from  the  theosophy  of  India 
as  to  preclude  any  idea  of  Hindu  influence.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  caballistic  doctrines  were 
profoundly  modified  by  what  may  be  regarded 
as  the  typical  Occidental  theosophy — Neoplato¬ 
nism  (q.v.),  represented  by  Ammonius  Saccas, 
Plotinus,  Porphyrius,  and  Proclus — and  by  the 
Gnostics,  represented  by  Valentinus  and  Basi-, 
lides.  In  the  Middle  Ages  theosophy  was  taught 


THEOSOPHY 


THEOSOPHY 


bv  Tauler,  Eckhardt,  Paracelsus,  Van  Helmont, 
Robert  Fludd,  lliomas  Vaughan,  Heinrich  Kun- 
ratli,  Jakob  Boelime,  Johann  Georg  Gichtel,  and 
later  by  Count  Saint-Martin  and  Schelling.  At 
different  periods  in  history  men  appeared,  claim¬ 
ing  to  teach  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the 
existence  of  a  vast  cosmos,  moved  by  occult 
forces,  of  which  cosmos  this  earth  is  but  an 
infinitesimal  part,  they  claimed  to  show  the 
instability  of  material  existence,  the  reality  of 
an  occult  world  reaching  everywhere  into  ours. 

In  modern  times  the  name  “theosophy”  has  been 
given  to  a  form  of  belief  promulgated  by  a  Rus¬ 
sian,  Madame  Blavatsky  (q.v. ),  who  gave  out 
doctrines  concerning  cosmogony  and  anthropol- 
°£y>  which,  she  said,  were  obtained  from  certain 
Masters  who  had  reached  a  higher  plane  of  ex¬ 
istence  than  ordinary  mortals.  The  system  of 
thought  and  the  terms  used  are  largely  drawn 
from  Hinduism  and  Buddhism.  Adept,'  Master, 
Mahatma  (q.v.)  represent  different  degrees  of 
individual  spiritual  development  in  the  theo- 
sophical  system,  the  Mahatma  being  the  highest. 
The  authoritative  work  on  modern  theosophy  is 
Madame  Blavatsky’s  The  Secret  Doctrine,  which 
states  “the  three  fundamental  propositions”  as 
follows:  (1)  An  omnipresent,  eternal,  boundless, 
and  immutable  principle  on  which  all  speculation 
is  impossible,  since  it  transcends  the  power  of 
human  conception  and  could  only  be  dwarfed  by 
any  human  expression  or  similitude.  (2)  The 
eternity  of  the  universe  in  toto  as  a  boundless 
plane,  periodically  the  playground  of  number¬ 
less  universes  incessantly  manifesting  and  dis¬ 
appearing — the  law  of  periodicity."  (3)  The 
fundamental  identity  of  all  souls  with  the  uni¬ 
versal  Over-Soul,  the  latter  being  itself  an  as¬ 
pect  of  the  unknown  Root;  and  the  obligatory 
pilgrimage  of  every  soul — a  part  of  the  Over- 
Soul — through  the  cycle  of  incarnation  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  cyclic  and  karmic  law,  during  the 
whole  term.  The  esoteric  philosophy  admits  of 
no  privileges  or  special  gifts  in  man  save  those 
won  by  his  own  Ego  through  personal  effort  and 
merit  throughout  a  long  series  of  reincarnations. 

According  to  theosophic  teaching,  God  is  said 
to  be  infinite  and  absolute.  Therefore,  no  at¬ 
tempt  is  made  to  qualify  or  describe  the  Great 
Unknown,  which  is  the  source  of  both  matter 
and  spirit.  These  are  the  two  aspects  of  one 
root  nature.  According  to  immutable  law,  the 
spirit  involves  into  matter  and  matter  evolves 
the  spirit.  Thus  there  is  a  circulation  down¬ 
ward  and  upward,  from  spirit  into  matter  and 
from  matter  to  spirit.  Evolution  is  accepted, 
but  only  as  half  a  law,  whose  other  half  is  in¬ 
volution. 

All  worlds  pass  through  seven  great  periods 
of  manifestations  called  rounds.  Spiritual  at 
first,  they  become  denser  and  darker  in  the 
downward  cycle,  the  fourth  of  which  is  the 
densest  and  our  present  material  world.  Thence 
begins  its  upward  movement  towards  spiritual¬ 
ity.  The  advantage  gained  is  the  experience  and 
ultimately  the  emancipation  of  the  soul.  In 
each  of  these  rounds,  periods  of  incalculable 
duration,  there  are  seven  great  root  races.  Each 
root  race  has  seven  subdivisions  or  subraces 
corresponding  with  the  rounds,  which  become 
more  material  from  the  first  to  the  fourth.  We 
are  at  present  in  the  fifth  subrace  of  the  fifth 
root  race,  and  on  the  upward  cycle  of  the  fourth 
round.  Evolution  is  constant  progress,  an  un¬ 
folding  of  consciousness  from  the  most  primitive 
forms  of  life  to  the  highest  intelligence. 


189 

All  souls  are  the  same  in  essence,  but  they 
differ  in  degrees  of  development;  each  bears  a 
certain  relation  to  the  others  and  to  the  whole. 
The  more  advanced  souls  are  the  natural  guar¬ 
dians  of  the  less  developed.  Man  is  composed  of 
seven  principles,  which  are  divided  into  a  lower 
or  mortal,  and  a  higher  or  immortal  nature.  The 
lower  nature,  constituting  his  personalitv,  is 
fourfold.  One-fourth,  the  physical  body,  is  vis¬ 
ible,  three-fourths  invisible.  I  hese  three  are 
the  astral  or  design  body  (lingo,  Sarira) ,  on 
which  are  molded  the  physical  atoms,  then  the 
life  principle,  and  the  principle  of  desire.  The 
physical  body  (sthula  sarira)  is  material  with¬ 
out  form.  It  is  held  in  form  by  the  astral  body, 
and  moved  to  action  by  the  fire  of  desire  (kdma) . 
This  fourfold  nature  is  common  to  all  animal 
beings,  is  mortal  and  subject  to  dissolution  at 
death.  The  higher  nature  of  man  is  threefold, 
the  mind  ( monas ),  soul  (buddhi) ,  and  spirit 
(dtman) .  The  mind  distinguishes  man  from 
the  animal.  Entering  the  animal  body,  the  mind 
thinks  of  itself  as  separate  from  others.  The 
soul  is  universal,  overcoming  separateness  and 
showing  relationship  of  soul  with  soul.  The 
spirit  is  the  one  indivisible  which  passes  through 
all  things  and  unites  them  with  each  other. 
Death  is  the  separation  of  the  principles.  The 
physical  body  returns  to  the  elements  which  gave 
it.  The  astral  body  disintegrates  more  slowly. 
The  life  (prana,  literally  “breath”)  passes  at 
once  into  the  universal  life  (jlva) .  Desire  forms 
itself  into  a  body  (kdmarupa)  which  gradually 
becomes  exhausted,  leaving  seeds  (skandhasj, 
from  which  the  returning  soul  forms  a  later  and 
new  personality. 

I  he  trinity  of  mind,  soul,  and  spirit,  when 
f  1  eed  from  the  trammels  of  a  mortal  garment, 
passes  through  certain  states  of  consciousness 
until  it  reaches  the  condition  called  heaven 
(devacuna) ,  where  it  enjoys  a  period  of  bliss 
and  rest  proportionate  to  its  good  thoughts  and 
ideals  while  on  earth.  When  these  exalted  ideals 
have  been  exhausted,  its  period  of  rest  is  at  an 
end  and  it  descends  gradually  to  earth.  The 
trinity,  after  enjoying  its  rest,  and  realizing 
those  ideals  which  could  not  be  attained  on  earth, 
is  attracted  again  to  earth  by  the  unfulfilled 
longings  and  desires  which  remain  behind  as 
seeds.  These  it  animates.  It  sinks  into  the 
emotional  world,  is  attracted  to  a  particular 
family,  who  can  furnish  a  body  and  surroundings 
suited  to  its  new  experience,  and  is  reborn  into 
this  world.  The  higher  nature  must  become  con¬ 
sciously  immortal,  i.e.,  it  must  acquire  a  con¬ 
tinuity  of  consciousness,  thus  making  it  con¬ 
sciously  immortal  while  in  the  physical  bodv. 
One  earth  life  is  not  sufficient.  Hence  rebirth 
into  the  school  of  life  is  the  lot  of  the  soul  until 
all  the  lessons  have  been  learned.  This  doctrine 
is  closely  associated  with  that  of  Karma,  which 
is  the  law  of  balance,  of  action  and  reaction,  of 
effect  inevitably  connected  with  the  preceding 
cause.  It  retui  ns  to  man  measure  for  measure 
his  good  or  evil  thoughts  and  deeds.  It  is  in¬ 
separable  from  reincarnation.  When  at  last 
Karma  is  exhausted,  and  no  desire,  either  good 
or  evil,  is  left  to  produce  a  new  Karma,  then 
reincarnation  will  cease. 

The  phenomenon  of  life  is  a  question  of  planes  or 
states  of  consciousness.  Human  or  “I  am  I” 
consciousness  (manas)  is  the  self-identifvin^  of 
the  consciousness,  as  being  distinct  and  sepa¬ 
rate  from  others  by  the  intelligent  principle  of 
mind.  At  this  point  a  man  may  rise  to  the 


THEOTOCOPULI 


THEOTOCOPULI 


divine  or  sink  below  the  consciousness  of  the 
brute — at  will.  Universal  or  “I  am  thou  and 
thou  art  I”  consciousness  ( bucldhi )  is  the  relat¬ 
ing  of  the  elements  and  of  all  souls  with  each 
other,  thus  overcoming  the  sense  of  separateness 
of  the  mind  by  the  principle  of  the  divine  soul. 
Divine  consciousness  ( dtman )  sees  no  separate¬ 
ness,  but  unites  all  as  one. 

Hell  {avid)  is  a  low  and  depraved  condition 
on  this  earth.  A  life  of  intense  selfishness  and 
wickedness  with  no  spiritual  thoughts  or  aspira¬ 
tions  causes  the  immortal  soul  to  abandon  the 
body  before  death.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  not, 
however,  the  soul,  but  the  body  with  the  lower 
principles  which  is  lost.  After  the  death  of 
such  a  body  the  desires  with  a  reflection  of  the 
mind  may  be  reincarnated  in  human  form  almost 
immediately.  Such  a  creature  is  entirely 
material  and  animal,  intensely  selfish  in  its  pro¬ 
pensities,  and  doomed  to  final  destruction,  unless 
it  makes  a  strong  appeal  to  its  divine  soul,  in 
which  event  the  soul  might  again  connect  with  it 
and  try  to  help  it  on  its  upward  path. 

In  man  divine  powers  are  latent,  for  he  is 
essentially  a  soul,  a  divine  being.  By  purifica¬ 
tion  and  training  of  the  body,  the  latent  and 
divine  powers  will  develop  and  become  active. 
In  every  period  of  evolution  a  number  of  souls 
reach  perfection.  They  are  men  whom  the  bonds 
of  personality  no  longer  bind  to  the  attractions 
of  the  senses.  They  have  consciously  related 
themselves  to  the  source  of  their  being  and  have 
become  one  with  the  divine.  They  watch  over 
humanity  and  are  its  guardians.  Although  they 
have  earned  their  freedom  from  rebirth,  they 
prefer  to  remain  in  contact  with  men  on  earth, 
to  teach  and  to  guide  them.  At  certain  periods 
some  appear  among  men  as  great  lawgivers, 
rulers,  teachers ;  and  their  agents  found  religious 
systems  and  schools  of  philosophy. 

*  Bibliography.  A.  P.  Sinnett,  Esoteric  Bud¬ 
dhism  (Boston,  1884);  id.,  The  Occult  World 
(ib.,  1885)  ;  id.,  Growth  of  the  Soul  (London, 
1896)  ;  Anderson,  Reincarnation  (San  Francisco, 
1896)  ;  id.,  Septennary  Man  (ib.,  1895)  ;  Annie 
Besant,  Death  and  After?  (new  ed.,  London, 
1901);  Franz  Hartmann,  Magic,  Black  and 
White  (7th  Am.  ed.,  New  York,  1904)  ;  Bhaga 
van  Dasa,  Science  of  Peace  ( ib.,  1904)  ;  F.  D. 
Walker,  Reincarnation  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1904)  ;  An¬ 
nie  Besant,  Seven  Principles  of  Man  (rev.  ed., 
ib.,  1904)  ;  E.  D.  Walker,  Karma  (3d  ed.,  ib., 
1905)  ;  Richard  Ingalese,  From  Incarnation  to 
Incarnation  (rev.  ed.,  ib.,  1908)  ;  Annie  Besant, 
Theosophy  and  the  New  Psychology  (new  ed., 
London,  1909)  ;  H.  P.  H.  Blavatsky,  Secret  Doc¬ 
trine  (2  vols.,  Point  Loma,  Cal.,  1909)  ;  id.,  Isis 
Unveiled  (2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  ib.,  1910);  Annie 
Besant,  Popular  Lectures  on  Theosophy  (Lon¬ 
don,  1910)  ;  id.,  Esoteric  Christianity  (New 
York,  1910)  ;  id.,  Ancient  Wisdom  (new  ed., 
London,  1910);  id.,  The  Changing  World  (new 
ed.,  Chicago,  1910)  ;  W.  Q.  Judge,  Echoes  from 
the  Orient  (2d  ed.,  Point  Loma,  Cal.,  1910)  ;  H. 
p.  H.  Blavatsky,  Key  to  Theosophy  (3d  ed.,  ib., 
1913)  ;  Annie  Besant,  Man,  Whence  and  Whither 
(Madras,  1913)  ;  W.  Q.  Judge,  Ocean  of  Theos¬ 
ophy  (Los  Angeles,  1915).  For  its  history, 
consult:  A.  Lillie,  Madame  Blavatsky  and  her 
“Theosophy”  (London.  1895)  ;  H.  S.  Olcott,  Old 
Diary  Leaves,  3  series  (New  York,  1895-1907)  ; 
J.  H.  Fussel,  Incidents  in  the  History  of  the 
Theosophical  Movement  (Point  Loma,  1910). 
See  Theosophical  Society. 

THEOTOCOPULI,  tha-o'to-ko-poo'le,  Domen¬ 


ico,  known  as  El  Greco  (the  Greek)  (c.1547- 
1614).  The  foremost  Spanish  painter  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  He  was  born  at  Candia, 
Crete,  and  went  early  to  Venice,  where,  between 
1560  and  1570,  he  studied  with  Titian,  but  was 
most  influenced  by  Tintoretto.  Through  his 
compatriot  Giulio  Clovio,  the  miniature  painter, 
he  secured  in  1570  the  patronage  of  Cardinal 
Alessandro  Farnese  at  Rome,  where  he  practiced 
his  art  till  c.1576.  He  then  removed  to  Toledo, 
having  received  an  important  commission  from 
the  dean  of  the  cathedral.  There  is  record  in 
1577  of  a  lawsuit  with  the  chapter  of  the 
cathedral  over  his  painting  “L’Expolio,”  to 
which  they  objected  on  financial  and  theological 
grounds.  Another  ambitious  effort,  “1  he  Mar- 
tvrdom  of  San  Mauritius”  (Escorial),  painted 
for  Philip  II,  failed  to  meet  with  the  approval 
of  that  monarch.  He  was  successful  enough, 
however,  at  Toledo,  where  the  rest  ot  his  life 
was  spent.  He  received  important  commissions 
from  churches,  religious  houses,  and  the  nobil¬ 
ity.  The  princes  of  the  Church,  civic  rulers,  and 
notables  of  Toledo  sat  to  him  for  portraits,  be¬ 
sides  the  poets,  scholars,  and  artists  whom  he 
reckoned  among  his  friends.  He  was  a  man  of 
fine  culture,  the  possessor  of  a  library  rich  in 
classic  and  religious  lore,  and  wrote  an  impor¬ 
tant  work,  The  Art  of  Painting,  now  lost.  He 
lived  in  state  in  the  24  best  rooms  of  the  large 
palace  of  his  friend,  the  Marquis  of  Vilena, 
which  lay  high  over  the  Tajo,  with  the  fine  new 
of  Toledo  seen  in  his  landscapes  (Greco  Museum, 
Toledo,  and  Havemeyer  collection,  New  York). 
Part  of  the  palace  is  now  a  museum  bearing  his 
name.  All  Toledo  mourned  his  death  (April 
7,  1614),  and  he  was  interred  like  a  noble  in 
the  church  of  Santo  Domingo.  Five  sonnets, 
written  by  distinguished  poets,  extolled  his 
merits. 

The  early  or  Italian  period  of  El  Greco’s  work 
shows  the  influence  of  Venetian  color,  Tintoretto’s 
light  and  shade,  and  of  Michelangelo  in  fore¬ 
shortening  and  movement.  Here  belong  such 
works  as  “Christ  Healing  the  Blind  Man”  (Dres¬ 
den  and  Parma)  ;  “Boy  Lighting  a  Coal”  (Naples 
Gallery)  ;  the  “Adoration  of  the  Shepherds” 
(Vienna  Gallery)  ;  and  a  “St.  Jerome”  (Na¬ 
tional  Gallery,  London). 

His  early  work  at  Toledo  shows  a  transition 
from  the  Italian  to  his  later  style,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  decorations  of  Santo  Domingo 
(1577),  the  central  picture  of  which,  “The  As¬ 
cension,”  is  now  in  the  Art  Institute,  Chicago; 
in  “Christ  Despoiled  of  his  Garments”  (L’Ex- 
polio )  (1579),  still  in  Toledo  Cathedral:  and 

the  “San  Mauritius”  mentioned  above.  From 
c.1584  his  color  becomes  colder,  with  a  subtle 
use  of  blues,  grays,  and  pale  reds,  strong  con¬ 
trasts  of  pure  color,  increasing  emotional  in¬ 
tensity,  and  more  dramatic  light  and  shade  ef¬ 
fects.  *  El  Greco  became  the  foremost  exponent 
of  Spanish  mysticism  in  painting.  The  master¬ 
piece  of  this  period,  if  not  of  all  his  works,  is 
the  “Burial  of  Count  Orgaz”  in  San  Tom6,  a 
marvel  of  color  and  dramatic  feeling  and  fine 
composition.  Others  are:  “The  Baptism  of 
Christ,”  “The  Resurrection,”  “The  Crucifixion,” 
and  “The  Annunciation,”  all  in  the  Prado, 
Madrid. 

His  latest  style,  beginning  about  1604,  shows 
increasing  emotional  intensity  with  a  corre¬ 
sponding  neglect  of  technique,  the  figures  being 
elongated  out  of  all  proportion  in  an  effort  to 
obtain  imaginative,  visionary  effects.  To  this 


THERA 


191 


THERAPEUT7E 


period  belong  “Christ  Dead  in  the  Arms  of  God 
the  Father,”  “The  Ascension  of  San  Vicente” 
(finished  in  1613)  ;  the  five  scenes  from  the 
“Life  of  Mary  Magdalen”  (church  of  Titulcia)  ; 
“The  Pentecost”  (Prado,  Madrid)  ;  “Christ’s 
Agony  in  the  Garden”  (Lille  Museum)  ;  and  his 
last  work,  “The  Baptism  of  Christ,”  in  the  Hos¬ 
pital  of  San  Juan,  Toledo. 

El  Greco’s  highly  subjective  portraits  show  a 
wonderful  subtlety  of  delineation.  Among  the 
best-known  examples  are  those  of  Giulio  Clovio 
(Naples  Museum)  ;  the  “Man  with  his  Hand  on 
his  Breast”  (Prado,  Madrid)  ;  the  “Grand  In¬ 
quisitor  of  Spain”  (Havemeyer  collection,  New 
York)  ;  a  “Portrait  of  a  Lady”  (Van  Horne  col¬ 
lection,  Montreal)  ;  “A  Young  Greek  Woman” 
(Sir  John  Stirling  Maxwell,  London).  Of  the 
numerous  portraits  reputed  to  be  of  himself  the 
best  and  seemingly  most  authentic  belongs  to 
Senor  Beruete  (Madrid).  His  art  can  best  be 
studied  at  Toledo,  in  the  Museo  del  Greco,  the 
hospital,  the  cathedral,  and  other  churches.  In 
the  Prado,  Madrid,  are  24  examples,  in  the 
Escorial  six.  He  is  next  best  represented  in  the 
United  States.  In  New  York  the  Hispanic  So¬ 
ciety  possesses  six,  including  several  excellent 
examples;  the  Frick  collection  three;  the  Have¬ 
meyer  three;  and  many  are  owned  by  dealers, 
two  of  whom  held  exhibitions  of  his  works  in 
March,  1916.  In  Philadelphia  there  are  three 
examples  in  the  Johnson  and  two  in  the  Widener 
collections.  He  is  also  represented  in  the  pub¬ 
lic  collections  of  New  York,  Boston,  and  Chicago, 
and  in  those  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ger¬ 
many,  and  particularly  in  the  Royal  Gallery 
at  Bucharest,  Rumania. 

El  Greco  was  also  an  architect,  and  designed 
the  great  altars  containing  his  most  ambitious 
pictures,  and  the  wooden  statues  decorating 
them.  The  most  important  surviving  example 
is  a  portion  of  the  lost  altar  of  the  “Expolio,” 
in  the  seminary  of  Toledo.  His  son,  Jorge 
Manuel  (1578-1631),  assisted  his  father,  and 
later  succeeded  him  as  architect  to  the  cathedral. 
El  Greco’s  principal  pupil  was  Tristan,  and  he 
certainly  exercised  an  influence  on  the  young 
Velazquez.  At  the  present  time  El  Greco  is  one 
of  the  most  popular  of  all  the  old  masters, 
his  works  commanding  the  highest  prices.  More 
than  any  other  old  master  he  influenced  the 
Post-Impressionists  (see  Post-Impressionism), 
who  claimed  him  as  a  forerunner. 

Bibliography.  The  best  monograph  on  El 
Greco,  historically  and  critically,  is  by  Cossio 
(2  vols.,  Madrid,  1908),  upon  which  the  English 
work  by  Calvert  and  Gallichan  (New  York, 
1909)  is  based.  Consult  also:  Masters  in  Art, 
vol.  ix  (Boston,  1908)  ;  August  Mayer,  El  Greco: 
eine  Einfuhrung  in  das  Leben  und  Wirken  des 
Domenico  Theotocopuli  (Munich,  1911);  Mau¬ 
rice  Barres,  El  Greco  (Paris,  1911);  id.,  El 
Greco,  ou  le  secret  de  Tolede  (ib.,  1912)  ;  Hugo 
Kehrer,  Die  Kunst  des  Greco  (Munich,  1914). 

THE'RA.  The  ancient  name  of  Santorin 
(q.v.),  one  of  the  Cyclades.  The  chief  town  is 
Thera. 

THERAMENES,  the-ram'e-nez  (Lat.,  from 
Gk.  Orjpayevys)  (  ?-404  b.c.).  An  Athenian  poli¬ 
tician.  In  411  b.c.  he  was  a  leading  member 
of  the  oligarchy  of  the  Four  Hundred  at  Athens, 
but  soon,  going  over  to  the  opposition,  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  deposition  of  that  body.  In 
410  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Cyzicus,  and 
in  408  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Chalcedon  and 
the  capture  of  Byzantium.  At  the  battle  of 


Arginusoe,  406,  he  was  one  of  the  subordinate 
officers  in  the  Athenian  fleet,  and  after  the  bat¬ 
tle  was  ordered  to  return  to  the  spot  where  the 
action  had  taken  place  and  rescue  such  of  the 
disabled  ships  and  their  crews  as  he  could.  A 
severe  storm  having  intervened,  he  found  it  all 
but  impossible  to  execute  this  order,  and  as  a 
result  a  large  number  of  Athenian  citizens  were 
drowned.  Then,  anticipating  the  wrath  of  the 
people,  he  hastened  to  Athens  and  accused  the 
commanders  in  chief  of  negligence.  When,  in 
404  b.c.,  Athens  was  besieged  by  the  Lacede¬ 
monians,  Theramenes  was  sent  to  Lysander  to 
arrange  a  peace,  but,  after  remaining  in  Lysan- 
der’s  quarters  more  than  three  months,  until  the 
Athenians  were  reduced  to  such  a  state  of  suf¬ 
fering  that  they  were  ready  to  submit  to  any 
terms,  he  returned  to  report  that  he  could  ac¬ 
complish  nothing,  but  that  an  embassy  must  be 
sent  to  the  Spartan  ephors.  Being  a  second 
time  sent  forth,  this  time  to  Sparta,  he  concluded 
a  peace  unfavorable  to  the  Athenians.  He  was 
chosen  one  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  (q.v.)  who 
were  set  up  at  Athens,  but,  taking  sides  against 
the  more  violent  members  of  that  body,  he  was 
accused  by  Critias  of  being  a  traitor'  and  was 
put  to  death.  Consult  Pohlig,  Der  Athener 
Theramenes  (Leipzig,  1877),  and  B.  Perrin,  “The 
Rehabilitation  of  Theramenes,”  in  The  American 
Historical  Review,  vol.  ix  (New  York,  1904). 

THER'APEIUT.®  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  depcnrevTrjs,  therapeutes,  attendant,  servant, 
from  OepaiveveLv,  therapeuein,  to  attend,  from 
depdivwv,  therapon,  attendant).  The  name  of  an 
ascetic  sect  described  by  Philo  Judaeus  in  his 
treatise  On  the  Contemplative  Life.  There  were 
groups  of  this  sect  in  the  various  nomes  of 
Egypt,  and  elsewhere,  but  Philo  especially 
depicts  the  life  of  some  of  these  “servants  of 
God  and  physicians  of  the  soul”  who  were 
settled  in  yovaarypia,  monasteries,  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Mareotis  south  of  Alexandria.  In  their 
cells,  to  which  no  food  or  drink  was  brought, 
they  devoted  themselves  to  solitary  contempla¬ 
tion  and  allegorical  interpretation  of  the  Scrip¬ 
tures.  They  had  common  meals  in  the  evening, 
a  religious  service  on  the  Sgbbath,  and  a  great 
festive  meal  on  the  50th  day.  Eusebius  thought 
that  Philo  described  Christian  monks,  and  this 
view  was  still  held  by  Montfaucon.  Gratz,  Lu¬ 
cius,  Hilgenfeld,  Schurer,  and  others  have  re¬ 
garded  the  work  as  spurious  and  as  an  early 
description  of  Christian  monasticism.  Recently, 
however,  the  preponderance  of  scholarly  opinion 
is  in  favor  of  Philonic  authorship  and  the  real 
existence  of  the  Jewish  sect  of  the  Therapeutae. 
The  arguments  have  been  presented  with  great 
force  by  Massebieau,  Conybeare,  and  Wendland. 
Even  Brehier,  who  feels  that  the  question  can¬ 
not  be  decided  absolutely,  concludes  that  “one 
can,  without  contradiction,  ascribe  to  Philo  a 
eulogy  of  the  Therapeutae.”  Consult  the 
French  translation  by  Montfaucon,  Le  livre  de 
Philon  de  la  vie  contemplative  (Paris,  1709)  ;  and 
the  English  translations  by  Yonge,  The  Works 
of  Philo  Judcens  (London,  1854-55),  and  by  F. 
C.  Conybeare,  in  The  Jewish  Quarterly  Review, 
vol.  vii  (ib.,  1895)  ;  also  H.  Gratz,  Geschichte  der 
Juden  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1863)  ;  A.  Lucius,  Die 
Therapeuten  und  Hire  Stellung  in  der  Geschichte 
der  Askese  (Strassburg,  1880)  ;  A.  Hilgenfeld, 
in  Zeitschrift  fur  icissenschaftliche  Theologie 
(Jena,  1880)  ;  A.  Massebieau,.  “Le  traite  de  la 
vie  contemplative  et  la  question  des  Thera¬ 
peutes,”  in  Revue  de  Vhistoire  des  religions,  vol. 


THERAPEUTICS 


THERAPEUTICS 


xvi  (Paris,  1887)  ;  F.  C.  Conybeare,  Philo  About 
the  Contemplative  Life  (Oxford,  1895)  ;  Paul 
Wendland,  “Die  Tlierapeuten  und  die  philonische 
Sclirift  vom  besohaulichen  Leben,”  in  JaJir- 
biicher  fiir  classische  Philologie  (Leipzig,  1896)  ; 
Emil  Schiirer,  Geschichte  dcs  judischen  Volkes 
im  Zeitalter  Jesu  Christi,  vol.  iii  (4th  ed.,  Leip¬ 
zig,  1909;  Eng.  trans.  of  1st  ed.,  New  York, 
1896)  ;  E.  Brehier,  Les  idees  philosophiques  et 
religieuses  de  Philon  d’  Alexandria  (Paris,  1908). 

THER'APEU'TICS  (from  Gk.  OepairevriKos, 
the'rapeutilcos,  relating  to  medical  treatment, 
from  depcnrevTris,  therapeutcs,  attendant,  serv¬ 
ant).  The  branch  of  medicine  which  has  as  its 
object  the  cure  of  disease.  The  conception  of  dis¬ 
ease  which  is  found  among  primitive  races  is 
associated  with  the  idea  of  demon  possession. 
The  earliest  therapeutic  measures  were  devoted 
to  driving  out  these  demons  from  the  bodies  of 
their  victims.  Two  methods  were  employed :  one 
consisted  in  the  recital  of  charms  or  magic  over 
the  ailing  part,  or  over  the  sick  person;  and  the 
other  consisted  in  internal  administration  or 
external  application  of  certain  aromatic  or  bit¬ 
ter  herbs.  In  the  early  history  of  both  Eastern 
and  Western  nations  there  was  a  blending  of 
the  office  of  priest  and  physician.  Among  the 
ancient  Egyptians  the  treatment  of  disease  had 
acquired  a  character  by  no  means  unscientific. 
They  used  remedies  of  vegetable,  mineral,  and 
animal  nature,  many  of  acknowledged  value. 
Careful  directions  as  to  administration  of  drugs 
and  indications  for  their  use  have  been  found. 
Egyptian  physicians’  knowledge  of  hydrotherapy, 
dietetics,  and  hygiene  was  far  advanced.  Among 
the  Hebrews  the  infliction  and  cure  of  diseases 
is  on  various  occasions  in  Scripture  ascribed  to 
the  direct  interposition  of  God.  Their  methods 
of  treatment  consisted  principally  of  strict  hy¬ 
gienic  means,  attention  to  diet,  ablution,  sepa¬ 
ration,  and  combustion  of  infected  garments.  A 
large  list  of  remedies  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
The  Babylonians  had  no  practitioners  of  medi¬ 
cine;  they  exposed  their  sick  in  public  places  in 
order  that  travelers  might  help  as  to  the  best 
mode  of  cure.  In  Assyria  the  sick  were  sim¬ 
ilarly  exposed,  and  purges,  emetics,  and  blisters 
were  employed  for  three  days  successively  each 
month.  We  know  that  they  used  salt  and 
alum,  as  well  a's  fumigations  with  mixtures  of 
various  drugs.  The  Chinese  assert  that  with 
them  the  study  of  medicine  was  coeval  with  the 
foundation  of  their  empire.  They  possess  works 
on  treatment  of  great  antiquity.  Ginseng  they 
regarded  as  a  panacea,  and  also  employed  opium, 
mercury,  and  many  other  drugs  of  value.  The 
Greeks  may  have  borrowed  something  from  the 
Eastern  nations  of  their  knowledge  of  medicine 
and  treatment;  but  researches  have  shown  that 
under  the  scientific  spirit  of  Hippocrates  they 
had  evolved  a  fairly  good  system.  Hippocrates 
ascribed  disease  to  alterations  of  the  humors  of 
the  body  (the  blood,  phlegm,  and  yellow  and 
black  bile).  He  employed  baths,  diet,  exercise, 
blood-letting,  the  actual  cautery,  and  an  exten¬ 
sive  series  of  medicines.  The  Alexandrian 
school,  which  succeeded  the  Ilippocratean,  op¬ 
posed  bleeding  and  returned  to  simple  remedies. 
This  sect  was  followed  by  the  Empiricists,  who 
followed  experience  as  their  sole  guide.  Then 
came  the  Methodic  school,  which  explained  all 
normal  and  abnormal  processes  by  the  contrac¬ 
tion  and  relaxation  of  the  pores  of  the  body. 
They  regarded  all  medicines  as  possessing  astrin¬ 
gent  or  relaxant  qualities,  and  chose  remedies 


for  one  of  these  effects.  Galen  represented  the 
highest  development  of  Greek  medicine.  He  ex¬ 
plained  the  operation  of  drugs  by  reference  to 
their  elementary  qualities,  heat,  cold,  dryness, 
and  moisture.  In  the  early  periods  of  Roman 
history  medicine  was  practiced  by  the  slaves  and 
freedmen  and  its  highest  development  was 
reached  under  the  influence  of  the  Greek  school. 
In  the  Dark  Ages  medicine  was  practiced  by  the 
monks.  Magic  and  astrology  were  potent  in¬ 
fluences.  During  this  time  the  doctrine  of 
“signatures”  arose.  According  to  this  idea  a 
remedy  was  chosen  on  account  of  its  fancied 
resemblance  in  form  or  color  to  the  organ  af¬ 
fected.  To  this  doctrine  we  trace  the  introduc¬ 
tion  into  medicine  of  such  drugs  as  the  blood- 
root  and  liverwort.  The  old  Galenists  U3ed  only 
organic  drugs,  but  in  the  fifteenth  century  under 
Paracelsus  and  his  followers  there  was  an  over¬ 
throw  of  the  older  methods.  He  first  introduced 
chemical  agents  (employing  mercury  in  syphilis) 
and  substituted  tinctures,  essences,  and  extracts 
for  various  disgusting  preparations.  Towards 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  therapeutics  had  reached  a  most  compli¬ 
cated  stage.  There  were  theories  and  counter¬ 
theories  and  physicians  were  prescribing  huge 
doses  of  unpleasant  mixtures  in  the  hope  of 
securing  good  from  all  the  remedies  recom¬ 
mended.  A  natural  reaction  set  in  which  re¬ 
sulted  in  the  establishment  of  homoeopathy,  an 
outgrowth  of  the  reactionary  doctrine  of  vital¬ 
ism.  Later  there  arose  the  therapeutic  nihil¬ 
ists,  prominent  among  whom  were  Van  Swieten 
and  Skoda.  This  school  rejected  drug  treatment. 

Modern  therapeutics  may  be  said  to  have 
begun  with  the  discovery  of  morphine,  an  alka¬ 
loid  of  opium,  in  1817.  The  present  method 
of  treatment  is  embodied  in  rational  therapeu¬ 
tics,  which  implies  the  use  of  remedies  based 
on  a  knowledge  of  the  diseased  condition  present 
in  the  patient,  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  of 
disease  itself,  and  of  the  physiological  action 
of  the  agent  employed,  as  determined  by  ex¬ 
perimental  investigation  on  animals,  from  which 
may  be  deduced  the  action  on  men.  The  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  action  of  drugs  must  include  the 
manner  in  which  they  affect  nerve  centres, 
respiration,  circulation,  and  especially  their  in¬ 
fluence  on  blood  pressure  and  on  body  tempera- 
ature.  The  range  of  medicinal  doses,  as  well 
as  the  minimum  and  maximum  fatal  doses, 
must  also  be  determined.  In  treating  disease 
it  is  the  aim  of  the  physician  to  seek  the  cause 
of  the  condition  present  and  to  endeavor  from 
a  true  appreciation  of  the  knowledge  of  drug 
action  to  administer  curative  remedies.  A  rem¬ 
edy  which  will  usually  cure  a  certain  disease 
is 'called  a  specific.  Such  is  the  action  of  mer¬ 
cury  and  salvarsan  in  syphilis,  and  quinine  in 
malaria.  Empirical  therapeutics  was  based  on 
the  cumulative  evidence  that  certain  drugs  were 
of  service  in  certain  conditions,  and  experiment 
was  the  sure  guide.  Symptomatic  treatment 
aims  to  relieve  the  symptoms  of  disease  irrespec¬ 
tive  of  their  cause.  Rational  or  scientific  thera¬ 
peutics  recognizes  that  both  these  previous  meth¬ 
ods  may  have  to  be  followed  at  times,  but  it 
aims  especially  at  the  removal  of  the  cause  of 
disease  by  appropriate  treatment  of  whatever 
sort.  It  has  been  developed  by  the  increased 
knowledge  of  disease  which  we  have  acquired 
through  the  growth  of  the  sciences  of  pathology 
and  bacteriology.  Materia  medica  comprises  a 
knowledge  of  the  remedies  employed  in  medi- 


THERAPEUTICS  i93  THERIODOHTA 


cine;  while  the  methods  by  which  drugs  are  pre¬ 
pared  and  combined  for  administration,  as  well 
as  the  separation  of  the  active  principles  of 
drugs,  belongs  to  the  department  of  therapeutics 
known  as  pharmacy.  It  is  essential  that  there 
should  be  a  uniform  standard  of  strength  and 
purity  of  medicinal  products,  as  well  as  uni¬ 
formity  in  their  preparation,  and  to  attain  this 
object  the  various  countries  have  standards 
established  by  law  or  by  professional  authority, 
to  which  the  drugs  prepared  by  the  pharmacists 
must  conform.  These  standards  are  published 
by  each  nation  in  works  known  as  Pharma¬ 
copoeias.  The  first  United  States  Pharmacopoeia 
was  published  in  1820,  previous  to  which  time 
European  works  were  mainly  used  as  authori¬ 
ties.  This  work  is  revised  every  10  years  by 
a  committee  of  physicians  and  pharmacists. 
Those  preparations  which  follow  its  direction 
and  are  named  in  the  work  are  called  official. 
Unofficial  preparations,  including  many  newer 
drugs,  are  in  use.  The  best  of  these  are  finally 
included  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  (q.v.),  provided 
they  are  regarded  of  sufficient  value. 

The  term  “therapeutics”  is  usually  restricted 
to  the  administration  of  medicinal  drugs,  but 
in  its  broadest  sense,  general  therapeutics,  it 
includes  every  form  of  treatment.  Natural 
therapeutics  is  the  healing  power  of  nature  to 
cure  disease  through  the  operation  of  the  so- 
called  vis  medioatrix  natures.  In  what  is  known 
as  expectant  treatment  the  physician  depends 
solely  on  this  force  and  sustains  the  patient’s 
strength  by  food  and  nursing.  Treatment  by 
surgical  means  is  regarded  as  a  special  and 
separate  department  of  medicine.  A  large  num¬ 
ber  of  other  means  than  treatment  by  drugs 
are  in  use  and  each  is  designated  by  an  appro¬ 
priate  prefix.  Electrotherapeutics,  the  use  of 
electricity  as  a  healing  agent,  is  especially  valu¬ 
able  in  certain  cases  of  disease  of  the  nervous 
system  or  local  injury  to  a  nerve.  By  this  means 
nutrition  of  paralyzed  muscles  may  be  main¬ 
tained  by  electrical  stimulation  until  the  nerve 
is  in  a  condition  to  resume  its  function.  Radio¬ 
therapy  or  X-ray  therapy  is  the  use  of  the 
Rbntgen  rays  for  the  purpose  of  treatment. 
Hydrotherapy  is  treatment  by  the  application 
of  water,  either  as  baths  of  various  temperatures 
(balneotherapeutics)  or  by  drinking,  douching, 
spraying,  etc.  Suggestive  therapeutics,  a  branch 
of  mental  therapeutics,  is  the  name  given  to 
treatment  in  the  form  of  suggestion  made  to 
the  patient  while  in  an  induced  hypnotic  state, 
with  the  object  of  the  patient’s  following  the 
suggestion  when  out  of  the  hypnotic  state.  This 
treatment  is  of  limited  utility  in  a  few  varieties 
of  nervous  disease  of  so-called  functional  origin, 
in  which  no  organic  disease  exists.  Climato- 
therapeutics  is  the  utilization  of  certain  loca¬ 
tions  on  account  of  their  peculiar  adaptability 
to  the  patient’s  condition ;  as  the  sending  of 
patients  suffering  with  consumption  to  great 
altitudes  and  dry  climates.  Thermotherapeutics 
is  the  treatment  of  disease  by  the  application  of 
heat.  Therapeutics  fully  recognizes  the  value 
of  diet  in  disease  in  an  important  department 
of  the  subject  known  as  dietetics  or  dietothera- 
peutics.  The  use  of  extracts  of  various  glands 
of  the  body,  especially  of  the  thyroid  and  the 
suprarenal  glands,  has  attracted  considerable 
attention.  This  department  of  therapeutics  is 
called  opotherapy  or  organotherapy.  Massage 
and  various  allied  measures  have  a  prominent 
place  in  the  treatment  of  certain  conditions  and 


assist  in  sustaining  the  nutrition  of  the  muscles. 
Ibis  is  sometimes  called  mechanical  therapeutics 
or  mechanotherapy  ( q.v. ) .  See  also  the  separate 
articles  under  the  different  forms  of  therapeutics 
enumerated  here. 

There  have  been  a  number  of  methods  of  clas- 
sifving  remedies  followed  by  various  authorities, 
but  none  of  these  is  entirely  satisfactory.  The 
most  important  are:  (1)  the  botanical  method, 
which  groups  the  vegetable  remedies  according 
to  the  botanical  classifications;  and  (2)  the  ar¬ 
rangement  according  to  the  therapeutic  action 
of  drugs.  Many  drugs,  however,  are  used  for  a 
number  of  purposes,  and  it  is  undesirable  to  de¬ 
scribe  them  under  more  than  one  heading.  Fi¬ 
nally,  there  is  (3)  the  pharmacological  classifi¬ 
cation,  which  arranges  drugs  according  to  their 
action  on  living  matter.  This  method  does  not 
take  into  account  the  chemical  composition  or 
therapeutic  action  of  drugs,  but  those  having 
the  most  characteristics  in  common  are  placed 
together.  The  groups  are  named  for  the  most 
prominent  member  or  from  some  marked  prop¬ 
erty  possessed  by  all.  Consult:  H.  A.  Hare, 
Modern  Treatment  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  191CU 
11);  Frederick  Forchheimer,  Therapeusis  of  In¬ 
ternal  Diseases,  edited  by  Billings  and  Irons 
(2d  ed.,  5  vols.,  New  York,  1914)  ;  H.  A.  Hare, 
Textbook  of  Practical  Therapeutics  (15th  ed., 
Philadelphia,  1914)  ;  A.  R.  Cushny,  Textbook 
of  Pharmacology  and  Therapeutics  (6th  ed.,  ib., 
1915).  See  Psychotherapy. 

THERE'SA,  Saint.  See  Teresa. 
THEKESXNA,  ta're-ze'na,  or  THEREZXNA. 
The  capital  town  of  the  State  of  Piauhy,  Brazil, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Parnahyba,  220 
miles  from  the  city  of  that  name  at  its  mouth 
(Map:  Brazil,  J  5).  The  town  is  a  commercial 
centre  of  some  importance.  Pop.  (est.),  30,000. 

THERESI0PEL,  ta-ra/zg-o'p’l,  or  Maria- 
Theeesiopel  (Hung.,  Szabadka) .  A  royal  free 
city  of  the  county  of  Bacs,  Hungary,  109  miles 
by  rail  south-southeast  of  Budapest  (Map: 
Hungary,  F  3 ) .  It  is  a  scattered  town,  lying  in 
a  great,  rich  plain  between  the  Danube  and  the 
Theiss,  and  has  noteworthy  churches.  Theresi- 
opel  is  the  centre  of  a  fine  large  corn-raising 
district,  which  also  produces  tobacco.  The 
manufactures  include  linens  and  shoes.  The 
town  has  a  fine  trade  in  grain, .  wine,  horses, 
cattle,  hogs,  hides,  and  wool.  Pop.,  1900,  82,122; 
1910,  94.610. 

THE'RIA.  See  Eutiieria. 

THER'IDI'IIEE  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  Oepldiov,  theridion,  dimin.  of  0rjp,  ther,  wild 
beast).  A  family  of  spiders  known  as  the 
cobweb  weavers.  These  are  small  spiders  with 
very  slim  legs,  and  include  most  of  the  familiar 
house  spiders.  They  are  generally  soft  and  of 
a  light  color,  with  the  abdomen  large  and  round 
and  the  legs  lacking  in  spines.  The  eyes  are  all 
of  about  the  same  size  and  are  placed  in  two 
rows  across  the  front  of  the  head.  The  mandi¬ 
bles  are  weak  and  without  teeth  at  the  end.  The 
maxillae  are  pointed  at  the  end  and  turn  inward 
toward  each  other.  The  family  is  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  order  Arachnida.  Many  species  of 
Theridiidae  spin  their  webs  in  the  fields  on 
bushes.  The  web  is  a  flat  or  curved  sheet,  sup¬ 
ported  by  threads  which  run  in  many  directions, 
under  which  the  spider  hangs  head  downward. 
The  egg  cocoons  are  round  and  soft  and  hang 
in  the  web. 

THE'RIODON'TA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  OypLov,  therion,  dimin.  of  drip,  ther,  wild 


* 


THERIOSUCHUS 


THERMOCHEMISTRY 


beast  -f-  oSous,  odous,  tooth).  An  order  proposed 
by  Owen  to  include  the  mammal-like  reptiles 
with  mammal-like  teeth,  from  the  South  Afri¬ 
can  Karrov  formation.  The  group  has  since 
been  subdivided,  the  Lower  Permian  types  form¬ 
ing  the  Therocephalia,  the  Upper  Triassic  forms 
being  placed  in  the  order  Cynodontia. 

THE'RIOSU'CHUS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
Orjpiov,  therion,  dimin.  of  drip,  ther,  wild  beast 
+  < tovxos ,  souchos,  crocodile).  An  extinct  croco¬ 
dile  with  body  less  than  two  feet  long,  skeletons 
of  which  are  found  in  the  Purbeck  beds  of  the 
English  Upper  Jurassic.  See  Crocodile;  Teleo- 

SAURUS. 

THERMAE,  ther'me.  The  Latin  term,  used 
also  in  English,  for  a  Roman  bathing  establish¬ 
ment.  While  the  earlier  thermae  were  com¬ 
paratively  modest  in  size,  those  built  by  Agrippa 
(27  b.c.  )  and  by  the  emperors  Titus,  Trajan, 
Caracalla,  Diocletian,  and  Constantine,  were  of 
immense  size  and  complexity.  They  were  all  of 
one  general  type,  comprising  a  central  block 
flanked  by  courts,  set  upon  an  immense  terrace 
built  on  vaulted  supports.  Besides  the  frigi- 
dariurn  or  cold  plunge,  the  vast  vaulted  tepi- 
darium  or  warm  bath,  the  caldarium  and  suda¬ 
torium,  hot  vapor  chambers,  the  courts  with 
dressing  rooms  and  long  rows  of  smaller  bath 
chambers,  they  provided  also  gardens,  stadia, 
halls  for  clubs  and  lectures,  and  many  other 
features  for  exercise  and  recreation.  The  larg¬ 
est  was  that  of  Caracalla,  accommodating  3600 
bathers  at  once;  its  ruins  are  the  most  imposing 
in  Rome  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Colos¬ 
seum.  The  baths  of  the  Forum  and  the  Stabian 
thermae  at  Pompeii  are  well  preserved  and  very 
interesting,  though  of  small  size.  The  tepida- 
rium  of  the  thermae  of  Diocletian  at  Rome  is  now 
the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  degli  Angeli.  See 
Bath;  Roman  Art. 

THERMAE  ANTONINIAN7E.  See  Bath. 

THERMO  HERCULIS.  See  MehAdia. 

THERMAE  HIMERAEAE,  or  HIMEREN- 
SES.  See  Himera. 

THERMAE  TITIANAE.  See  Titus, 
Baths  of. 

THERMAE  TRA  JANAE.  See  Trajan, 
Baths  of. 

THERMAL  SPRING  (from  Gk.  Oep/xv, 
therme,  heat,  from  Oep^os,  thermos,  hot).  A 
spring  whose  temperature  is  higher  than  the 
average  temperature  of  the  locality  in  which  it 
emerges.  The  temperature  may  vary  therefore 
from  a  minimum  of  a  few  degrees  above  the 
freezing  point,  which,  however,  is  limited  to 
thermal  springs  in  high  altitudes  or  great  eleva¬ 
tions,  to  a  maximum  represented  by  the  boiling 
point  of  water  under  the  local  conditions.  When 
the  temperature  reaches  the  latter  limit  the  flow 
of  the  spring  may  take  the  form  of  periodical 
eruptions;  a  thermal  spring  of  this  character 
being  known  as  a  geyser  (q.v.).  The  higher 
temperature  of  thermal  springs  as  compared 
with  ordinary  springs  may  be  caused  by  volcanic 
agencies  or  by  the  circulation  of  the  waters  at 
great  depths  in  the  earth’s  crust  previous  to 
emergence.  The  hottest  springs  are  usually 
found  in  volcanic  regions,  their  high  tempera¬ 
ture  due  to  coming  in  contact  with  uncooled 
lava,  which,  buried  at  some  depth,  long  retains 
its  heat.  It  seems  probable,  also,  that  some 
springs  are  heated  by  gaseous  emanations  from 
the  earth’s  interior,  or,  indeed,  receive  material 
contributions  from  that  source.  Thermal  springs 
are  common  in  districts  that  have  been  free 


from  volcanic  disturbances,  at  least  since  re¬ 
mote  geological  times.  Such  increase  in  tem¬ 
perature  can  best  be  explained  by  peculiarities 
of  geological  structure  which  permit  the  sur¬ 
face  waters  to  descend  to  great  depths  when 
heated  and  thence  return  to  the  surface  under 
the  influence  of  hydrostatic  pressure.  See 
Spring. 

THERMES,  tarm  (Fr.,  from  Lat.  thermce, 
warm  baths).  The  only  remains  of  the  Roman 
palace  which  occupied  the  site  of  the  present 
Hotel  de  Cluny,  Paris.  The  ruins  are  those  of 
the  great  baths  connected  with  the  palace,  and 
include  a  frigidarium  65  feet  long  and  59  feet 
high,  still  uninjured,  although  up  to  1820  it  had 
long  borne  the  weight  of  a  garden  laid  out  over 
it.  The  ships’  prows  of  the  vaulting  are  said  to 
be  the  origin  of  the  arms  of  Paris.  A  collection 
of  Roman  antiquities  discovered  in  Paris  is  pre¬ 
served  in  the  hall. 

THERMIC  (ther'mlk)  FEVER.  See  Heat 

Stroke. 

THERMXDOR,  Fr.  pron.  tar'me'dor'  (Fr., 
from  Gk.  depuy,  therme,  heat  -j-  bwpov,  doron, 
gift).  The  eleventh  month  in  the  French  revolu¬ 
tionary  calendar.  It  extended  from  July  19 
to  August  18  in  the  years  I- VII  and  from  July 
20  to  August  19  in  the  years  VIII-XIIL  The 
9th  Thermidor  of  the  year  II  (July  27,  1794)  is 
historically  memorable  as  the  date  of  Robe¬ 
spierre’s  fall  and  the  termination  of  the  Reign 
of  Terror.  The  name  “Thermidorians”  was  given 
to  all  those  who  took  part  in  this  coup  d’etat, 
but  more  particularly  to  those  who  were  desirous 
of  restoring  the  monarchy.  See  French  Revo¬ 
lution;  Robespierre. 

THERMIT,  ther'mit.  See  Alumino-Tiier- 
mics  ;  Welding. 

THERMOBAROMETER.  See  Hypsometer. 

THERMOCHEMISTRY.  The  branch  of 
general  chemistry  that  deals  with  the  thermal 
phenomena  accompanying  chemical  transforma¬ 
tions.  Since  the  phenomena  in  question  are 
caused  partly  by  the  chemical  changes  proper, 
but  partly  also  by  the  purely  physical  changes 
of  state  that  often  accompany  chemical  re¬ 
actions,  the  scope  of  thermochemistry  must 
extend  over  physical  as  well  as  chemical  changes 
of  matter.  For  the  principles  of  thermochem- 
ical  notation,  see  Chemistry,  Transformations. 

What  has  thus  far  been  accomplished  in  the 
domain  of  thermochemistry  may  be  summed  up 
as  follows:  First,  a  large  number  of  trans¬ 
formations  have  been  subjected  to  calorimetric 
measurement,  and  so  the  total  amounts  of 
heat  given  off  or  absorbed  during  a  great  many 
changes  have  been  determined  experimentally; 
secondly,  the  principles  of  thermodynamics  have 
been  successfully  applied  to  the  consideration  of 
chemical  changes,  and  thus  thermochemistry 
has  been  highly  developed  theoretically. 

Experimental  Thermochemistry.  The  ac¬ 
tual  execution  of  thermochemical  measurements 
is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty,  owing  to  the 
considerable  errors  that  may  be  caused  by  more 
or  less  heat  being  lost  by  radiation  while  the 
measurement  is  being  carried  out.  The  heat 
given  off  or  absorbed  is  determined  by  keeping 
the  vessel  in  which  the  reaction  takes  place  im¬ 
mersed  in  a  known  quantity  of  water,  and  ob¬ 
serving  the  temperature  of  the  latter  before 
and  after  the  reaction.  In  recent  years  Richards 
and  other  experimenters  have  sought  alto¬ 
gether  to  eliminate  loss  of  heat  through  radia¬ 
tion,  by  keeping  the  vessel  surrounding  the 


THERMOCHEMISTRY  195  THERMOCHEMISTRY 


calorimeter  at  the  same  temperature  as  the 
calorimeter  itself  (adiabatic  calorimetry) .  But 
whatever  the  details  of  the  calorimetric  arrange¬ 
ment  many  reactions  would  remain  inaccessible 
to  thermochemical  investigation  if  it  were 
not  for  the  fact  that  early  in  the  history  of 
thermochemistry  a  principle  became  known 
that  permitted  of  ascertaining  the  heat  reac¬ 
tions  by  indirect  methods.  The  principle  in 
question  is  known  as  the  law  of  constant  heat 
sums.  While  clearly  established  by  Hess  in 
1844,  i.e-.,  before  the  law  of  the  conservation 
of  energy  became  known,  it  is  nothing  but  a 
special  form  of  the  law  of  conservation.  It  is 
as  follows:  The  amount  of  heat  given  off  or 
taken  up  when  a  given  chemical  system  is 
changed  into  another  is  the  same  whatever  the 
steps  in  which  the  change  may  take  place.  Let, 
e.g.,  the  given  chemical  system  consist  of  17 
grams  of  gaseous  ammonia  in  one  vessel,  its 
equivalent  36.5  grams  of  gaseous  hydrochloric 
acid  in  another  vessel,  and  a  large  quantity 
of  water.  This  system  may  be  changed  into  a 
dilute  aqueous  solution  of  ammonium  chloride 
in  two  different  ways :  ( 1 )  ammonia  and  hydro¬ 
chloric  acid  may  be  caused  to  combine  in  the 
gaseous  state,  yielding  solid  ammonium  chloride 
and  developing  42,100  calories  of  heat;  then 
the  ammonium  chloride  may  be  dissolved  in  the 
water — a  change  accompanied  by  the  absorption 
of  3900  calories;  or  (2)  the  gaseous  ammonia 
may  be  dissolved  in  a  large  amount  of  water — 
a  process  developing  8400  calories;  the  gaseous 
hydrochloric  acid  may  be  dissolved  in  a  sepa¬ 
rate  large  quantity  of  water — a  process  develop¬ 
ing  17,300  calories;  and  finally,  the  dilute 
aqueous  ammonia  may  be  mixed  with  the  dilute 
aqueous  hydrochloric  acid — a  process  developing 
12,300  calories.  Whichever  the  way  adopted, 
the  result  is  the  same — viz.  a  dilute  aqueous 
solution  of  ammonium  chloride.  The  heat  de¬ 
veloped  when  the  first  way  is  adopted  is 
42,100  —  3900  =  38,200  calories;  the  heat  de¬ 
veloped  when  the  second  way  is  adopted  is 
8400  -f-  17,300  -f-  12,300  =  38,000  calories. 
The  figures  38,200  and  38,000,  differing  by  only 
2  parts  in  382  (little  more  than  y2  per  cent), 
i.e.  by  less  than  the  unavoidable  experimental 
error,  must  be  considered  as  equal — which  is 
in  accordance  with  the  law  of  constant  heat 
sums.  If,  for  some  reason,  it  were  impossible 
directly  to  measure,  say,  the  heat  produced  by 
the  combination  of  gaseous  ammonia  and  gas¬ 
eous  hydrochloric  acid,  that  heat  might  be  cal¬ 
culated,  according  to  the  law  of  constant  heat 
sums,  by  adding  3900  calories  (the  heat  ab¬ 
sorbed  when  one  equivalent  of  ammonium  chlo¬ 
ride  is  dissolved  in  much  water)  and  38,000 
calories  ( the  total  heat  produced  during  the 
transformation,  by  the  second  way,  of  gaseous 
ammonia  and  hydrochloric  acid  into  dilute  am¬ 
monium  chloride).  The  sum,  41,900  calories, 
would  be  as  near  the  truth  as  the  42,100  calories 
found  by  direct  experiment. 

To  take  another,  even  simpler  example,  sup¬ 
pose  it  were  asked,  How  much  heat  would  be 
evolved  or  absorbed  in  the  transformation  of  12 
grams  of  amorphous  carbon  into  diamond?  The 
transformation,  although  accomplished  on  a 
minute  scale  by  Moissan,  in  his  electric  furnace, 
is  of  course  inaccessible  to  direct  calorimetric 
measurement.  But  the  law  of  constant  heat 
sums  permits  of  answering  the  question  by 
measuring  the  heat  of  combustion  of  amorphous 
carbon  and  that  of  diamond.  The  transforma¬ 


tion  of  amorphous  carbon  into  carbon  dioxide, 
whether  accomplished  by  direct  combustion  or 
by  first  changing  the  carbon  to  diamond  and 
then  burning  the  latter,  must  be  accompanied  by 
the  evolution  of  the  same  amount  of  heat,  viz. 
97,650  calories;  and  as  the  heat  of  combustion 
of  diamond  is  94,310  calories,  the  transforma¬ 
tion  of  amorphous  carbon  (12  grams)  into 
diamond  must,  according  to  the  law  of  constant 
heat  sums,  be  accompanied  by  the  evolution  of 
97,650  —  94,310  =  3340  calories. 

In  a  similar  manner  Hess’s  law  permits  of 
ascertaining  the  heat  that  would  be  developed 
during  the  formation  of  compounds  (e.g.  the 
majority  of  organic  compounds)  whose  forma¬ 
tion  from  the  elements  could  not  be  directly 
studied  calorimetrically.  Let  it  be  required, 
i.e.,  to  ascertain  the  heat  that  would  be  de¬ 
veloped  or  absorbed  if  ordinary  alcohol  (C2H0O) 
were  made  from  its  elements — carbon  ( in  the 
form  of  diamond),  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  To 
do  this,  we  may  determine  calorimetrically  the 
heat  (call  it  a)  developed  by  the  combustion 
of  one  gram  molecule  of  alcohol  and  the  heats 
of  combustion  (6  and  c)  of  quantities  of  isolated 
carbon  (diamond)  and  hydrogen  equal  to  those 
contained  in  one  gram  molecule  of  alcohol.  The 
three  combustions  may  be  represented  by  the 
following  equations: 

C2H5OH  -j-  60  =  2C02  -j-  3H20  -j-  a  calories ; 

2C  -j-  40  =  2C02  -j-  b  calories; 

3H2  -j-  30  =  3H20  -|-  c  calories. 

Adding  the  second  and  third  equations,  we  get : 

2C  +  3H2  +  70  =  2C02  +  3H20  +  6  -f  c, 

and  subtracting  the  first  equation  from  this, 
we  get: 

2C  +  3H2  +  O  -  C2H6OH  =  b  +  c  -  a, 
or  2C  +  3H2  +  O  =  C2H5OH  +  b  +  c  -a. 

This  last  equation,  expressed  in  words,  means 
that  if  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  combined 
to  form  ordinary  alcohol,  an  amount  of  heat 
would  be  formed  equal  to  the  heat  of  combustion 
of  the  isolated  elements  of  alcohol  minus  the 
heat  of  combustion  of  alcohol  itself  :  b,  the  heat 
of  combustion  of  two  atoms  (i.e.,  twice  12 
grams)  of  carbon  is  found  to  be  94,300  X  2  = 
188,600  calories;  c,  the  heat  of  combustion  of 
three  molecules  (i.e.,  3X2  grams)  of  hydrogen 
is  found  to  be  67,500  X  3  =  202,500  calories; 
finally,  a,  the  heat  of  combustion  of  one  molec¬ 
ule  (46  grams)  of  alcohol,  is  found  to  be  340,000 
calories.  Hence,  b  +  c  —  a,  the  heat  of  forma¬ 
tion  of  alcohol,  is  188,600  -J-  202,500  —  340,000 
=  51,100  calories.  See  Combustion. 

Theoretical  Thermochemistry.  This,  as 
already  stated  above,  consists  in  the  application 
of  the  principles  of  thermodynamics  to  chemi¬ 
cal  phenomena.  The  subject,  though  not  very 
difficult,  requires  a  working  knowledge  of  higher 
mathematics  and  thermodynamics,  and  can 
therefore  be  discussed  here  only  in  its  more  ele¬ 
mentary  aspects.  The  principal  questions  to 
which  thermodynamics  has  been  applied  con¬ 
cern  :  ( 1 )  the  influence  of  temperature  upon 

the  total  energy  change  of  reactions,  i.e.,  heat 
given  off  or  absorbed,  no  mechanical  work  being 
performed ;  ( 2 )  the  influence  of  temperature 

upon  the  velocity  of  reactions  (see  Reaction, 
Chemical)  ;  (3)  the  influence  of  temperature 
on  chemical  equilibrium;  (4)  the  determination 
of  the  maximum  mechanical  work  that  can  be 
performed  by  the  chemical  energy  of  reactions. 
We  will  briefly  consider  these  questions  in  order. 


THERMOCHEMISTRY 


THERMOCHEMISTRY  '  196 


With  reference  to  the  dependence  of  the 
energy  change  of  a  reaction  upon  the  tempera¬ 
ture,  the  verdict  of  thermodynamics  is,  first  of 
all,  that  in  case  the  heat  capacity  of  the  re¬ 
acting  substances  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
products  of  the  reaction,  the  energy  change  of 
the  reaction  does  not  vary  with  the  temperature. 
This  is  generally  the  case  when  the  reacting 
substances  and  the  products  of  the  reaction  are 
all  solids.  Thus  the  combination  of  silver  and 
solid  iodine  into  silver  iodide  sets  free  prac¬ 
tically  the  same  amount  of  heat  (about  14,000 
calories),  no  matter  at  what  temperature  the 
combination  is  caused  to  take  place.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  a  given  reaction  does  cause  a 
change  in  the  heat  capacity,  then,  if  t  denotes 
the  difference  between  two  temperatures  at 
which  the  reaction  may  take  place,  iq  —  u2  the 
difference  between  the  energy  change  at  the 
first  and  that  at  the  second  temperature,  and  c 
the  difference  between  the  heat  capacity  of  the 
reacting  substances  and  that  of  the  products 
of  the  reaction, 

ut  —  u2  —  ct. 

By  measuring  calorimetrically  the  heat  capaci¬ 
ties  in  question  a*d  the  energy  change  of  the 
reaction  at  some  one  temperature,  it  is  there¬ 
fore  easy  to  calculate  the  energy  change  of  the 
reaction'  at  any  other  temperature — a  result 
of  considerable  importance,  because  direct 
calorimetric  measurement  of  the  energy  change 
can  by  no  means  be  readily  carried  out  at  any 
desirable  temperature. 

As  to  the  velocity  of  reactions  (see  Reaction, 
Chemical),  it  is  well  known  that  rise  of  tem¬ 
perature  causes  the  velocity  of  reactions  to  in¬ 
crease  with  great  rapidity.  Usually  a  rise  of 
10°  C.  doubles  or  even  trebles  the  velocity.  In 
a  perfectly  general  manner,  however,  the  de¬ 
pendence  of  the  velocity  on  temperature  cannot 
as  yet  be  formulated.  Van’t  Hoff  has  succeeded  in 
showing  that  in  many  cases  the  dependence  of 
reaction  velocity  on  the  temperature  can  be  ex¬ 
pressed  by  simple  equations  of  the  following  form : 

log  k=  -|  +  B, 

an  equation  established  by  him  by  combining 
the  principles  of  thermodynamics  with  experi¬ 
mental  observations.  In  this  equation  k  stands 
for  the  velocity  at  the  instant  when  the  product 
of  the  active  masses  equals  unit;  T  stands  for 
the  absolute  temperature  (i.c.,  the  centigrade 
temperature  plus  273  degrees)  ;  and  A  and  B 
are  constants  whose  numerical  values  depend  on 
the  nature  of  the  substances  taking  part  in  the 
reaction.  If  k  is  actually  measured  at  only  two 
different  temperatures,  and  its  two  correspond¬ 
ing  values  (say  k  and  k2) ,  together  with  the 
two  temperature  numbers  (say  rl\  and  T2) ,  are 
substituted  in  the  above  equation,  we  get: 

logfci  =  -  +  B, 

log  hi.  —  -  y2  +  B, 

two  equations  with  two  unknowns, .  A  and  B. 
Solving  these  equations,  and  substituting  the 
resulting  numerical  values  of  A  and  B  in  the 
general  equation  given  above,  we  obtain  a  gen¬ 
eral  relation  between  k  and  T  for  the  given  re¬ 
action.  In  other  words,  we  can  readily  calculate 
what  may  be  termed  the  standard  velocity  for 
any  temperature  whatever — the  standard  veloc¬ 
ity  beine-  the  velocity  at  the  instant  the  concen- 


trations  of  the  reacting  substances  are  such 
that  the  product  of  their  active  masses  equals 
unit.  The  law  of  chemical  mass  action  then  per¬ 
mits  of  calculating  the  reaction  velocity  for  all 
other  possible  concentrations. 

With  reference  to  chemical  equilibrium  (see 
Reaction,  Chemical),  thermodynamics,  as 
Van’t  Hoff  has  shown,  permits  of  foreseeing 
the  equilibrium  of  a  reaction  at  some  tempera¬ 
ture  T2,  if  the  equilibrium  at  some  given  tem¬ 
perature  Tt  and  the  average  of  the  energy 
changes  (heats  given  off  or  taken  up-  by  the 
reaction)  at  the  two  temperatures  are  known. 
I11  this  manner  it  is  possible  to  calculate,  i.e., 
the  degree  of  dissociation  of  ammonium  chloride 
(see  Decomposition;  Dissociation)  at  dif¬ 
ferent  temperatures,  if  the  degree  of  dissociation 
at  some  one  temperature,  and  the  heat  of  dis¬ 
sociation,  are  known.  In  connection  with  the 
influence  of  changes  of  temperature  on  chemical 
equilibrium,  it  is  necessary  to  mention  also 
Gibbs’s  Phase  Rule,  which  is  of  great  importance 
in  classifying  the  phenomena  of  equilibrium  in 
material  systems.  See  Phase  Rule. 

One  more  important  application  of  thermody¬ 
namics  to  chemical  phenomena  has  been  made 
and  requires  mention.  Thermodynamics,  in 
studying  a  transformation  of  some  material  sys¬ 
tem,  endeavors  to  ascertain  the  maximum  me¬ 
chanical  work  that  might  be  produced  by  the 
transformation,  the  maximum  work  meaning 
the  work  that  might  be  obtained  by  the  use 
of  some  ideal  mechanical  device,  frictionless  and 
permitting,  so  to  speak,  of  no  leakage  of  energy. 
The  importance  of  knowing  this  maximum  of 
work  is  great.  Any  natural  change  taking  place 
of  itself — whether  it  be  the  falling  of  a  stone, 
expansion  of  a  compressed  gas,  combustion  of 
coal,  or  any  other  change,  mechanical  or  chemi¬ 
cal — may  be  used  to  produce  mechanical  work; 
and  no  "material  system  is  capable  of  changing 
unless  it  possesses  the  capacity  for  producing 
work — or,  as  Helmholtz  terms  it,  free.  energy. 
In  other  words,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  be¬ 
cause  a  system  can  produce  mechanical  work 
that  it  is  capable  of  changing  spontaneously. 
The  burning  of  coal  ( i.e.,  the  chemical  trans¬ 
formation  of  the  system,  carbon  and  oxygen), 
once  started,  can  go  on  of  itself  because  it  can 
be  used  to  produce  mechanical  work,  or,  what  is 
the  same,  because  the  system  carbon  and  oxy¬ 
gen  possesses  a  certain  amount  of  free  energy. 
When,  therefore,  the  free  energy  of  a  system 
has  been  used,  without  loss,  to  produce  mechani¬ 
cal  work,  and  that  work  has  been  measured,  we 
have  a  measure  of  the  cause  of  the  given  trans¬ 
formation.  •  The  cause  of  chemical  transforma¬ 
tions  is  generally  termed  chemical  affinity. 
Obviously,  then,  the  maximum  work  that  can  be 
produced  by  a  chemical  transformation  is  a 
measure  of  the  chemical  affinities  involved  in  it, 
and  this  is  why  the  determination  of  maximum 
work  has  great  importance  for  chemical  theory. 
But  it  may  also  be  valuable  for  purely  practical 
purposes.  Take,  e.g.,  again  the  combustion  of 
coal.  It  is  well  known  that  steam  engines  are 
verv  wasteful  of  energy.  In  connection  with 
the  problem  of  a  more  economic  use  of  coal 
the  question  must  naturally  arise,  How  much 
mechanical  work  could  possibly  be  obtained  alto¬ 
gether  by  burning  a  certain  amount  of  coal, 
supposing  that  an  ideally  perfect  device  were 
employed  for  the  purpose?  The  direct  measure¬ 
ment  of  the  maximum  work,  although  theoreti¬ 
cally  possible,  could  not  be  actually  carried  out. 


THERMOCHEMISTRY  197  THERMODYNAMICS 


But  the  maximum  work  of  a  reaction  can  be 
readily  calculated,  with  the  aid  of  thermody¬ 
namics,  if  the  concentrations  of  the  reacting  sub¬ 
stances  and  their  products,  when  in  the^state 
of  chemical  equilibrium,  are  known.  In  the 
case  of  the  combustion  of  coal  the  equilibrium 
concentrations  have  been  determined  by  in¬ 
direct  measurement,  and  on  the  basis  of  this 
Nernst  has  calculated  approximately  the  maxi¬ 
mum  work  of  the  combustion  for  three  dif¬ 
ferent  temperatures:  If  12  grams  of  carbon  were 
burned  at  the  absolute  zero  of  temperature 
(—  273°  C.),  the  equivalent  of  97,650  calories 
might  be  obtained;  at  18°  C.  the  maximum 
work  would  be  equivalent  to  91,470  calories;  at 
1000°  C.  the  equivalent  of  only  70,625  calories 
can  be  obtained;  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  heat  given  off  by  the  combustion  is  practi¬ 
cally  the  same  at  all  temperatures,  viz.,  97,650 
calories.  Only  at  the  absolute  zero  of  tempera¬ 
ture  could  the  heat  produced  by  the  combustion  of 
coal  be  entirely  transformed  into  mechanical  work. 

In  conclusion,  a  few  words  must  be  said 
with  reference  to  an  erroneous  principle  ^ 
has  gained  somewhat  wide  acceptance 
chemists,  viz.,  Berthelot’s  principle,  according 
to  which  it  is  the  heat  produced  by  a  reaction, 
and  not  the  maximum  possible  mechanical  work, 
that  measures  the  cause  of  the  reaction ;  and 
of  two  reactions  that  might  take  place  in  a 
given  system,  the  one  accompanied  by  the  great¬ 
est  evolution  of  heat  must  necessarily  take 
place.  This  principle  holds  good  often,  but  not 
always,  and  so  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  a 
law  of  nature.  The  most  important  argument 
against  it  is  that,  were  it  unlimited  in  its  ap¬ 
plication,  as  Berthelot  claims  it  to  be,  reversible 
reactions  would  be  impossible;  for  one  of  a  pair 
of  reversible  reactions  not  only  does  not  develop 
heat,  but  necessarily  absorbs" heat;  and  hence, 
if  Berthelot  s  principle  were  correct,  that  reac¬ 
tion  could  not  take  place  at  all,  and  its  op¬ 
posite  reaction  would  be  complete.  (See  Reac¬ 
tion,  Chemical.)  An  exceedingly  promising 
attempt  to  explain  the  facts  that"  led  Berthelot 
to  the  formulation  of  his  principle  has  in  re¬ 
cent  years  been  made  by  Nernst  (see  Nernst’s 
Heat  Theorem)  ;  but  this  matter  cannot  be 
discussed  in  the  present  article. 

The  principal  names  connected  with  experi¬ 
mental  thermochemistry  are  those  of  Hess, 
Julius  Thomsen,  Berthelot,  Stohmann,  and,  per¬ 
haps,  Richards.  The  first  to  apply  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  thermodynamics  to  chemical  phenomena 
was  Horstinann.  The  problem  was  next  taken 
up  by  Willard  Gibbs,  of  Yale  University,  whose 
thorough  and  original  treatment  of  the  subject 
remained  unknown  for  a  number  of  years.  The 
importance  of  Van’t  Hoff’s  thermochemical 
work  may  be  readily  seen  from  the  present 
sketch.  Finally,  Le  Chatelier,  Planck,  Riecke, 
and  Duhem  have  made  noteworthy  contributions 
to  the  mathematical  treatment  of  the  subject. 

Bibliography.  H.  P.  J.  J.  Thomsen,  Thermo- 
chemische  Untersuchungen  (4  vols.,  Leipzig, 
1882-86);  Muir  and  Wilson,  The  Elements  of 
Thermal  Chemistry  (London,  1885)  ;  Max  Nau- 
mann,  Grundriss  der  Thermochemie  (Bruns¬ 
wick,  1892);  H.  M.  Jahn,  Die  Griindsatze  der 
Thermochemie  (2d  ed.,  Vienna,  1892)  ;  P.  E.  M. 
Berthelot,  Traits  pratique  de  calorimetrie  chi- 
mique  (Paris,  1893)  ;  id.,  Thermochemie  (2 
vols.,  ib.,  1897)  ;  Max  Planck,  Grundriss  der 
allgemeinen  Thermochemie  (Breslau,  1893);  id., 
Treatise  on  Thermo-Chemistry  (Eng.  trans.  by 


Alexander  Ogg  (New  York,  1903)  ;  also  the 
literature  of  theoretical  and  physical  chemistry 
under  Chemistry. 

THERMOCOUPLE,  THERMOPILE.  See 

Thermoelectricity. 

THERMODYNAMICS  (from  Gk.  6epM, 
thermo,  heat  +  dvimyts,  dynamis,  power).  The 
application  of  the  principles  of  mechanics  to 
heat  phenomena.  It  is  shown  in  the  article 
Heat  that  all  heat  effects  can  be  traced  for 
tlieii  cause  to  work  having  been  done  against 
the  molecular  foices  of  the  body — c.g.,  friction, 
compression,  etc.  or  to  the  reception  of  energy 
by  the  minute  portions  of  the  body— e.g.,  radia¬ 
tion,  conduction,  etc.  In  short,  it  may  be  re¬ 
garded  as  proved  experimentally  that  heat 
effects  always  accompany  changes  in  the  in¬ 
trinsic  energy  of  a  body;  and  the  idea  that 
the  numerical  value  of  the  heat  effects  depends 
on  the  energy  added  to  the  minute  portions 
of  the  body  and  on  that  alone  is  now  accepted 
by  every  one.  If  a  small  amount  of  energy 
^ Q  18  added  to  a  body,  its  intrinsic  energy  is 
changed  (dU)  and  as  a  rule  a  certain  amount 
of  external  work  is  done  by  the  expansion  of 
the  body  ( pdX,  where  p  is  tlie  external  pressure 
on  the  body  and  dV  is  the  change  in  volume). 
By  the  conservation  of  energy,  then,  if  no  other 

work  is  done,  An  _  ,,,  . 

AQ  =  dU  +  pdV . 


This  is  sometimes  called  the  first  principle 
of  thermodynamics.  If  the  external  work  is 
of  other  form  than  that  due  to  expansion,  e.g., 
if  it  is  electric  work,  the  first  principle  mav  be 
written  .  „  yTT  , 

AQ  =  dU  +  ATI7. 


In  any  form  of  heat  engine — e.g.,  a  steam  en¬ 
gine — the  working  substance,  water,  starts  at 
ordinary  temperature;  heat  energy  is  added  to 
it  by  the  boiler;  it  reaches  a  high  temperature, 
that  of  the  boiler,  and  a  high  pressure;  it  ex¬ 
pands,  doing  work  in  pushing  out  the  piston; 
its  temperature  and  its  pressure  therefore  fall; 
the  cylinder  is  now  joined  to  the  condenser, 
and  the  steam  passes  out  and  is  condensed  to 
water,  giving  up  heat  energy;  the  piston  is 
drawn  back  and  the  process  is  repeated.  So 
far  as  the  heat  energy  and  work  are  concerned, 
heat  energy  (Qx)  at  a  high  temperature  has  been 
given  to  the  working  substance,  heat  energy 
(Q2)  at  a  low  temperature  is  taken  away  from 
it,  external  work  (IF)  is  done.  By  the  first 
principle  of  thermodynamics  TV  =  Qx  —  Q2,  since 
the  water  at  the  end  of  its  cycle  of  changes 
has  the  same  energy  that  it  had  at  the  be¬ 
ginning,  provided  its  temperature  and  volume 
are  the  same.  The  efficiency  of  the  process 

is  defined  as  the  ratio  ^  or  - 1  ~~  ^2.  In  con- 

sidering  the  efficiencies  of  various  processes, 
Sadi  Carnot  in  1824  was  led  to  imagine  one 
which  bears  his  name  and  which  can  be  dis¬ 
cussed  theoretically.  This  process  is  one  which 
consists  of  a  working  substance  inclosed  in  a 
cylinder  with  a  movable  piston  passing  around 
a  cycle  so  as  to  return  to  its  initial  condition. 
There  are  supposed  to  be  two  large  reservoirs 
of  a  liquid,  at  different  temperatures.  The 
cylinder  containing  the  working  substance  at 
a  high  pressure  and  small  volume  is  imagined 
placed  in  the  high-temperature  tank;  the  sub¬ 
stance  is  allowed  to  expand,  so  slowly  that  its 
temperature  remains  practically  unchanged  at 
that  of  the  surrounding  liquid  in  the  tank;  in 


THERMODYNAMICS  198 

doing  this,  heat  energy  must  flow  into  the  work¬ 
ing  substance,  otherwise  its  temperature  would 
fall;  after  the  volume  has  increased  sufficiently, 
the  cylinder  is  removed  from  the  tank,  and  the 
inclosed  substance  is  allowed  to  expand  under 
such  conditions  that  no  heat  energy  can  enter, 
and  its  temperature  falls;  when  it  reaches  that 
of  the  second  tank  the  cylinder  is  placed  in  it, 
the  piston  is  forced  in  by  external  force,  thus 
reducing  the  volume;  if  this  process  is  done 
slowly  the  temperature  will  not  rise,  but  heat 
energy  will  flow  out  into  the  liquid  of  the  tank; 
when  the  volume  is  sufficiently  reduced,  the 
cylinder  is  removed  and  the  piston  is  pushed 
in  under  such  conditions  that  no  heat  energy 
can  leave  or  enter;  if  the  volume  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  this  last  step  is  chosen  correctly  the 
working  substance  will  after  a  sufficient  com¬ 
pression  be  restored  to  its  original  condition. 
There  have  been  four  steps,  two  isothermal  and 
two  adiabatic.  The  net  result  is:  No  change 
in  the  working  substance;  external  work  (IV) 
done  by  the  substance;  heat  energy  Qx  with¬ 
drawn  from  the  high-temperature  tank;  heat- 
energy  Q2  given  out  to  the  low-temperature 
tank.  Therefore,  by  the  first  principle  of  thermo¬ 
dynamics, 

W  =  Qt-  Q2. 

This  process  of  Carnot’s  is  perfectly  rever¬ 
sible;  by  doing  an  amount  of  work  W  on  the 
working  substance  it  may  be  made  to  pass 
around  the  cycle  in  the  reverse  way;  the  low- 
temperature  bath  losing  an  amount  of  heat  en¬ 
ergy  Q2  and  the  high-temperature  bath  gaining 
an  amount  Qt.  The  conditions  for  reversibility 
are  that  each  point  of  the  whole  cycle  should 
be  one  of  equilibrium;  and  it  is  apparent  that 
for  this  to  be  satisfied  the  changes  must  all  be 
made  slowly,  and  that  when  the  substance  re¬ 
ceives  or  gives  out  heat  energy  it  must  be  in 
contact  with  a  large  tank  of  liquid  at  the  same 
temperature,  within  an  infinitesimal  amount,  as 
it  itself  is  at  that  instant.  (If  a  gas  expands 
out  of  a  high-pressure  reservoir  into  the  open 
air — e.g.,  illuminating  gas  rushing  out  .  of  a 
burner — the  process  is  irreversible;  if  in  an 
engine  the  flame  is  at  a  higher  temperature  than 
the  steam  in  the  boiler — as  it  always  is — the 
process  is  irreversible.)  It  was  stated  by  Car- 

W 

not  that  the  efficiency  of  his  process,  -z- ,  was 

0i 

the  same  for  all  working  substances  and  de¬ 
pended  alone  on  the  temperatures  of  the  two 
baths.  His  proof  was,  however,  erroneous,  and 
was  corrected  by  Clausius  in  1850,  who  showed 
that  the  statement  was  correct  if  one  assumed 
that  heat  energy  of  itself  always  passes  from 
high  to  low  temperature.  .  This  is  in  accord  with 
all  our  experiences  of  nature ;  thus,  if  a  hot  and  a 
cold  body  are  left  free  to  radiate  or  to  conduct 
to  each  other,  the  former  always  becomes  colder 
and  the  latter  warmer.  The  statement  that 
heat  energy  of  itself  does  always  pass  from  high 
to  low  temperature  is  called  the  second  prin¬ 
ciple  of  thermodynamics.  Lord  Kelvin  has 
shown  that  this  principle  is  identical  in  its  con¬ 
clusions  with  the  assumption  that  it  is  impos¬ 
sible  by  any  material  agency  to  derive  mechani¬ 
cal  effect  from  any  portion  of  matter  by  cooling 
it  below  the  temperature  of  the  coldest  of  the 
surrounding  objects. 

W 

Since  —  is  a  function  of  the  temperatures 

0i 

of  the  two  tanks  alone,  it  is  possible  to  give 


THERMODYNAMICS 

such  numbers  to  the  temperatures  o£  these 
tanks  as  will  be  independent  of  the  working  sub¬ 
stance  (i.e.,  thermometric  substance).  Lord 
Kelvin — then  William  Thomson — suggested  that 
the  numbers  Tt  and  T2  be  so  chosen  for  the 

temperatures  of  the  tanks  that  —  =  .  In 

this  case  Tl~T-  =  ^  =  5-  and  is  there- 

1 1  Vi  hh 

fore  independent  of  everything  except  the  tem¬ 
peratures.  Tt  —T2  may  be  given  any  arbitrary 
value,  e.g.,  100;  then  the  number  Tt  for  the 
temperature  of  the  hot  bath  is  determined  by 
performing  a  Carnot’s  process,  using  any  work¬ 
ing  substance.  All  other  thermometric  systems 
depend  upon  the  selection  of  the  thermometric 
substance,  and  no  two  systems  would  in  general 
give  the  same  numbers  for  the  same  tempera¬ 
ture.  Thus  the  great  scientific  advantage  of 
Thomson’s  absolute  scale  is  seen.  It  is  found 
by  direct  experiment  that  if  —  T2  is  chosen 
as  100  for  two  tanks  of  melting  ice  and  boil¬ 
ing  water,  the  numbers  on  Thomson’s  absolute 
scale  are  almost  exactly  the  same  as  obtained 
in  a  gas  thermometer  using  the  absolute  centi¬ 
grade  scale.  See  Thermometry. 

Since  the  efficiency  increases  as  T2  becomes 
smaller,  and  since  the  efficiency  cannot  be 
greater  than  unity,  there  must  be  a  minimum 
temperature  in  the  universe.  This  is  known  as 
the  absolute  zero;  its  value  is  about  — 273°  C., 
as  shown  by  the  agreement  between  the  two  abso¬ 
lute  scales  just  described. 

Carnot  stated  further  that  the  efficiency  of  an 
irreversible  process  could  not  be  greater  than 
that  of  a  reversible  one  with  the  two  limiting 
temperatures  of  the  tanks;  and  Clausius  proved 
that  this  is  true  if  the  second  principle  of 
thermodynamics  is  true. 

It  is  generally  accepted  that  the  efficiency  of 
an  irreversible  process  is  less  than  that  of  a 
reversible  one  between  the  same  two  tempera¬ 
tures,  but  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  deduction 
from  the  two  principles  of  thermodynamics.  All 
processes  in  nature — chemical,  electrical,  etc. — 
are  irreversible;  and  a  natural  systein  will 
therefore  be  in  equilibrium  if  all  imaginable 
processes  compatible  with  the  existing  condi¬ 
tions  necessarily  involve  an  efficiency  equal  to  or 
greater  than  that  which  corresponds  to  a  re¬ 
versible  process. 

Clausius  made  an  interesting  application  of 
Carnot’s  principle  and  Thomson’s  definition  of 

T\  Q\ 

temperature.  As  defined  above  —  q-,  i.e., 

Qi  __  Q2 .  pas8ing  around  a  Carnot’s 

rL\  T'l 

cycle  the  heat  added  to  the  working  substance 
is  Qt  and  it  is  added  while  the  body  is  at  tem¬ 
perature  Tt;  no  other  heat  is  added;  and  the 
heat  taken  away  is  Q2  while  the  body  is  at 
temperature  T2.  If  we  call  heat  added  positive, 
we  must  call  heat  taken  away  negative.  Now, 

form  the  summation  of  the  ratio  ^  for  the 

whole  cycle.  Along  the  higher  isothermal  this 

is  5l;  along  both  adiabatics  it  is  zero  (since 
T 1 

.  .  02 

AO  =  0)  ;  along  the  lower  isothermal  it  is  —  ■=■• 

1 2 

Hence  the  sum  is  ^  and  by  the  above 

1  i  1 2 

equation  this  sum  is  zero.  Since  it  is  possible 


THERMODYNAMICS 


199 


THERMOELECTRICITY 


to  break  up  any  cycle  of  operations  into  a 
series  of  Carnot’s  cycles,  it  is  evident  that 

the  summation  of  ~  around  any  cycle  equals 

zero;  or,  using  the  symbols  of  the  calculus, 

J' 7 around  a  cycle  =  0.  The  fundamental 


property  of  a  cycle  of  operations  is  that  the 
working  substance  returns  to  its  former  condi¬ 
tion.  So  this  equation  signifies  that  =  d<p, 

where  0  is  a  property  of  the  body  itself  (just 
as  are  its  temperature  and  its  volume).  This 
property  was  called  by  Clausius  the  entropy. 

If  two  bodies  at  different  temperatures  are 
allowed  to  come  to  equilibrium,  the  hotter  one 
will  lose  heat,  thus  having  its  entropy  decrease, 
the  colder  one  will  gain  heat,  thus  having  its 
entropy  increase.  The  decrease  in  entropy  of 

the  former  is  while  A Q  passes  from  it  to 
7  1 

the  colder  body ;  and  the  gain  in  entropy  of 

the  latter  owing  to  this  passage  is  But 

-*2 

Tt,  the  temperature  of  the  hot  body,  is  greater 
than  T2,  that  of  the  cold  body;  hence  consider¬ 
ing  the  two  bodies  as  a  system  there  has  been 
a  gain  in  entropy.  The  same  is  true  during  any 
actual  changes  in  nature,  such  as  relative  mo¬ 
tion,  which  always  involves  friction,  diffusion, 
etc.  Clausius  stated  this  by  saying  “the  entropy 
of  the  universe  tends  to  a  maximum.” 


This  fact  has  been  given  mathematical  ex¬ 
pression  in  a  different  form.  If  one  introduces 
into  Clausius’  equation  defining  entropy  the 
value  of  A Q  as  given  in  the  first  principle, 
the  equation  becomes  dU  -f-  pdV  =  Tduf>.  Apply 
this  to  a  system  of  bodies  which  are  in  equi¬ 
librium  with  each  other  and  with  external  con¬ 


ditions,  i.e.,  there  must  be  uniform  temperature 
and  uniform  pressure  within  the  system  and 
without.  Therefore,  the  above  equation  becomes 
d{U  +  pV  —  T(p)  =0,  where  U,  V,  and  0 
are  the  values  for  the  entire  system.  Now,  if 
the  system  is  not  in  equilibrium,  but  changes 
are  going  on,  and  if  there  is  a  constant  tempera¬ 
ture  and  a  constant  pressure  on  the  outside  of 
the  system,  it  is  not  difficult  to  prove  that 
d(U  +  P0 V  —  To0)<O  where  P0  and  T0  are 
these  external  values.  Thus,  there  is  a  function 
of  the  system,  viz.,  U  +  P0V  —  To0,  such  that 
under  constant  external  conditions,  if  any  in¬ 
ternal  changes  occur,  this  function  decreases. 
These  changes  will  cease  when  the  function 
reaches  its  minimum  value.  Such  a  function 
is  called  the  thermodynamic  potential  at  con¬ 
stant  pressure  and  temperature.  The  impor¬ 
tance  of  this  principle  in  considering  various 
chemical  changes  is  evident.  Gibbs,  Planck, 
Duhem,  and  others  have  made  brilliant  use  of 
it.. 


This  function  has  another  property  which  has 
been  emphasized  by  Planck,  and  which  justifies 
its  other  name  “characteristic  function.”  If 
the  independent  variables  of  the  system  are  p 
and  T,  as  they  are  in  most  experiments,  it 
may  be  proved  that,  provided  this  function  is 
known,  all  the  thermodynamic  properties  of  the 
system  may  be  deduced  from  it. 

In  what  has  gone  before  it  is  seen  that  there 
are  many  properties  of  the  system :  its  volume 
(I7),  its  pressure  (p),  its  temperature  (T), 
its  intrinsic  energy  ( U ),  and  its  entropy  (0). 
Any  two  of  these  may  be  taken  as  independent 


variables;  and  depending  on  this  selection,  there 
is  a  definite  characteristic  function.  Thus,  if 
T  and  V  are  the  variables,  this  function  is 
U  —  T<p,  which  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
work  of  Helmholtz,  and  which  he  called  the 
free  energy. 

It  is  clear  from  the  definition  of  entropy  given 

by  Clausius,  viz.,  d<f>  =  that  the  absolute 

value  of  the  entropy  is  not  defined,  only  changes 
in  its  value.  Therefore  direct  experiments  can¬ 
not  give  the  numerical  value  of  the  entropy 
for  any  body;  but  it  is  possible  and  allowable 
to  assign  a  definite  value  to  a  body  under 
definite  conditions  and  to  see  whether  this 
selection  is  justified  by  indirect  experiments. 
This  bold  step  was  taken  by  Nernst  (1906). 
What  his  theorem  amounts  to  is  to  assume  that 
“at  absolute  zero  the  entropy  of  every  chemically 
homogeneous  solid  or  liquid  body  has  the  nu¬ 
merical  value  zero.”  All  the  conclusions  drawn 
from  this  have  been  found  to  be  in  accord 
with  experiment.  Two  of  these  conclusions  are 
that  as  the  temperature  is  lowered  continuously, 
both  the  specific  heat  and  the  coefficient  of 
expansion  of  all  solids  approach  zero  values. 
Nernst  himself  has  investigated  the  specific 
heats  of  28  substances  at  the  lowest  tempera¬ 
tures  available,  and  has  shown  that  the  specific 
heat  approaches  zero.  Nernst  has  shown  further 
that  there  is  an  important  connection  between 
his  results  on  specific  heats  and  Planck’s 
quantum  hypothesis  as  to  the  nature  of  radia¬ 
tion  (q.v.).  Debye  (1912)  made  several  modi¬ 
fications  in  Nernst’s  theory,  and  succeeded  in 
deducing  from  Planck’s  equation  for  radiation 
a  formula  which  gives  the  correct  values  for 
specific  heats  at  low  temperatures.  One  conclu¬ 
sion  is  that  at  such  temperatures  the  specific 
heats  of  all  solids  is  proportional  to  the  cube 
of  the  absolute  temperature. 

Bibliography.  Edgar  Buckingham,  Theonj 
of  Thermodynamics  (New  York,  1900)  ;  Thomas 
Preston,  Theory  of  Heat  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1904)  ; 
G.  H.  Bryan,  Thermodynamics  (ib.,  1907)  ; 
C.  H.  Peabody,  Thermodynamics  of  the  Steam- 
Engine  and  other  Heat  Engines  (6th  ed.,  ib., 
1909)  ;  id.,  Thermodynamics  of  the  Steam  Tur¬ 
bine  (ib.,  1911)  ;  Max  Planck,  Vorlesungen  iiber 
Thermodynamik  (3d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1911);  F.  E. 
Cardullo,  Practical  Thermodynamics  (ib.,  1911)  ; 
W.  D.  Ennis,  Applied  Thermodynamics  for  En¬ 
gineers  (3d  ed.,  New  York,  1913)  ;  G.  A.  Good- 
enough,  Principles  of  Thermodynamics  (2d  ed., 
ib.,  1914)  ;  Moyer  and  Calderwood,  Engineering 
Thermodynamics  (ib.,  1915)  ;  Hirshfeld  and 

Barnard,  Elements  of  Heat  Power  Engineering 
(2d  ed.,  ib.,  1915)  ;  Lucke  and  Flather,  Text 
Book  of  Engineen'ing  Thermodynamics  ( ib., 
1915). 

THERMOELECTRICITY.  It  was  observed 
by  Seebeck  in  1822  that,  if  the  two  junctions  of 
a  closed  metallic  circuit  made  up  of  two  differ¬ 
ent  wires  in  series  were  at  different  tempera¬ 
tures,  there  was  produced  an  electric  current. 
As  the  difference  of  temperature  at  the  junc¬ 
tions  is  increased,  the  current  increases.  It 
was  shown,  however,  by  Cumming  in  1823,  that 
for  any  temperature  of  one  junction  there  is 
one  for  the  other  junction  such  that  there  is 
no  current;  this  is  known  as  the  temperature 
of  inversion.  If  in  general,  then,  the  tempera¬ 
tures  of  the  junctions  are  made  more  and  more 
different,  the  current  increases,  then  decreases, 
becomes  zero,  and  is  finally  reversed.  The 


THERMOELECTRICITY 


200 


THERMOMETER 


average  of  the  temperatures  of  the  junctions 
when  the  current  is  zero  is  called  the  neutral  tem¬ 
perature,  and  is  a  constant  for  any  two  bodies. 

These  thermoelectric  currents  are  due  to 
molecular  actions  at  the  junctions  and  also 
throughout  the  conducting  wires,  owing  to  their 
nonuniformity  of  temperature.  Where  the  two 
different  metals  join  there  are  electric  forces 
called  the  Peltier  electromotive  forces;  while  the 
electric  forces  through  the  conductors  themselves 
are  called  Thomson  electromotive  forces.  The 
existence  of  these  electromotive  forces  is  proved 
by  forcing  a  current  around  a  circuit  by  means 
of  a  battery  or  cell;  at  the  junctions  there  is 
rise  or  fall  of  temperature,  depending  upon  the 
direction  of  the  current,  showing  a  force  op¬ 
posing  or  helping  on  the  current;  similarly  the 
conductor  itself  has  its  temperature  raised  or 
lowered,  depending  upon  the  direction  of  the 
current — quite  apart  from  the  usual  heating 
effect  of  a  current. 

The  properties  of  thermoelectric  currents  are 
best  studied  by  diagrams.  Some  one  metal  is 
chosen  as  a  standard;  lead  is  generally  selected 
because  it  has  no  Thomson  effect.  A  circuit 
is  made  part  of  lead  and  part  of  another  metal; 
one  junction  is  kept  at  0°  C.,  and  while  the 
temperature  of  the  other  is  varied  continuously, 
both  above  and  below  zero  the  total  electro¬ 
motive  force  around  the  circuit  is  measured. 
These  values  of  the  E.M.F.  for  different  values 
of  the  temperature  of  the  variable  junction  are 
plotted  in  a  curve,  having  E.M.F.  for  ordinates 
and  temperatures  for  abscissae.  These  curves 
when  drawn  for  different  bodies — all  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  lead — are  found  to  be  approximately 
parabolas.  Another  form  of  diagram  is  made 
as  follows :  The  junctions  of  the  two  metals,  one 
of  which  is  lead,  are  kept  at  temperatures  T  and 
T  +  AT,  where  AT  is  a  small  quantity;  the 
resulting  E.M.F.  around  the  circuit  is  measured, 

o 

AK 

call  it  AE.  The  ratio  — —  is  called  the 

AT 

thermoelectric  power ;  it  is  evidently  a  func¬ 
tion  of  the  temperature  T,  and  when  plotted 
on  a  diagram  having  temperatures  as  abscissae, 
the  curves  are  practically  straight  lines. 

A  thermocouple  is  one  of  the  most  sensitive 
instruments  known  for  detecting  differences  in 
temperature.  It  can  be  improved  by  joining  in 
a  zigzag  series  several  couples:  first,  a  piece 
of  bismuth,  then  one  of  antimony,  then  one  of 
bismuth,  etc.,  the  first  end  of  the  first  piece  of 
bismuth  and  the  last  end  of  the  last  piece  of 
antimony  being  joined  by  a  wire  passing  around 
a  galvanometer.  Thus  every  other  junction  of 
bismuth  and  antimony  is  turned  to  form  one 
face  of  the  zigzag;  and,  if  one  face  is  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  the  other,  each  couple 
helps  the  others,  and  thus  a  considerable  cur¬ 
rent  may  be  produced  through  the  galvanometer. 
Such  a  combination  of  couples  forms  a  thermo¬ 
pile.  It  was  invented  by  Nobili  in  1834. 

Since  the  action  of  a  thermocouple  depends 
upon  raising  the  temperature  of  one  junction, 
it  is  evident  that  the  sensitiveness  of  the  in¬ 
strument  will  be  increased  if  the  quantities  of 
metal  used  at  the  junction  are  very  small,  so 
that  in  return  for  a  small  quantity  of  heat 
there  will  be  a  large  rise  in  temperature.  It 
will  be  increased  still  more  if  the  instrument  is 
in  a  vacuum  so  that  the  junction  does  not  lose 
heat  by  convection  currents.  Applying  these 
principles  A.  H.  Pfund  in  1913  constructed  a 
thermocouple  by  means  of  which  he  was  able 


to  measure  the  radiation  of  heat  from  some  of 
the  fixed  stars.  See  Thomson  Effect. 

THER'MOHYDROM'ETER.  See  Hydrom¬ 
eter. 

THERMOM'ETER  (from  Gk.  dep/nj,  therme, 

heat  -j-  pArpov,  metron,  measure).  An  instru¬ 
ment  for  measuring  temperature,  but  in  early 
times  erroneously  supposed  to  measure  heat. 
A  brief  account  of  the  underlying  theory  and 
the  history  of  thermometry  are  given  under 
the  title  Thermometry.  This  article  will  deal 
only  with  those  forms  of  thermometers  that  are 
at  present  in  ordinary  use. 

Air  or  Gas  Thermometer.  This  form  of  the 
instrument  is  accepted  as  the  standard  and 
the  indications  of  mercurial,  alcohol,  or  other 
thermometers  are  all  supposed  to  be  corrected 
so  as  to  agree  with  the  standard  adopted  by  the 
International  Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures 
at  Paris.  This  standard  consists  of  a  hollow 
bulb  of  platinum  filled  with  pure,  dry  hydrogen. 
When  kept  at  a  uniform  pressure  the  volume 
of  the  gas  expands  in  direct  proportion  to  its 
temperature.  By  calling  the  volume  at  the 
melting  point  of  ice  V,  and  the  volume  at  the 
boiling  point  of  water  V  +  100°,  we  establish 
a  scale  of  Centigrade  degrees,  which  may  be  ex¬ 
tended  above  or  below  these  limits,  so  that,  e.g., 
the  temperature  of  the  absolute  cold  or  entire 
absence  of  heat  would  be  — 2(3°  C.  and  the 
temperature  of  the  boiling  point  of  mercury 
would  be  about  -+-357°  C. 
are  needed  in  the  use 
of  the  air  thermometer, 
all  of  which  are  ex¬ 
plained  in  the  Travaux 
et  memoires  of  the  In¬ 
ternational  Bureau  of 
Weights  and  Measures, 
and  in  Guillaume,  Ther- 
mometrie  (Paris,  1890). 

According  to  the  theories 
of  thermodynamics  the 
peculiarities  of  platinum, 
hydrogen,  or  of  any 
other  materials  that  may 
be  used,  introduce  small 
irregularities,  so  that  the 
scale  of  equal  changes  of 
volume  is  not  exactly 
proportional  to  the  quan¬ 
tity  of  heat  or  the 
change  in  temperature. 

Therefore  some  recom¬ 
mend  that  a  slight  cor¬ 
rection  be  applied  to  the 
hydrogen  gas  thermom¬ 
eter  in  order  to  obtain 
the  ideal  thermodynamic 
equivalent.  The  hydro¬ 
gen  gas  thermometer  at 
the  present  time,  how¬ 
ever,  constitutes  the 
fundamental  standard, 
and  all  other  forms  are 
secondary  in  nature  and 
their  indications  are 
ultimately  corrected  to  give  the  gas  scale  of 
temperatures. 

In  Fig.  1  we  see  a  simple  or  portable  form 
of  air  thermometer,  as  arranged  by  Jolv,  for 
measuring  temperatures  below  the  boiling  point 
of  water.  The  large  glass  bulb  on  the  left 
is  filled  with  dry  air,  or  dry  hydrogen,  and 
ends  in  a  short  vertical  glass  tube  attached 


Numerous  precautions 


Fig.  1. 

JOLY  AIR  THERMOMETER. 


THERMOMETER 


201 


THERMOMETER 


to  the  flexible  rubber  tube  whose  other  end 
opens  into  another  short  glass  tube,  shown  on 
the  right-hand  side,  whose  upper  end  is  her¬ 
metically  closed  and  constitutes  the  vacuum 
chamber  of  a  barometric  column  of  mercury. 
rIhe  glass  bulb  is  immersed  .in  a  liquid  or  gas 
whose  temperature  is  to  be  measured.  If  the 
volume  of  the  inclosed  gas  expands  with  the 
higher  temperature  that  is  to  be  measured, 
then  this  expansion  is  counterbalanced  by  rais¬ 
ing  the  vacuum  chamber  and  the  flexible  tube 
on  the  right  until  the  increased  pressure  of 
the  mercury  column  compresses  the  expanding 
gas  in  the  large  bulb  so  as  to  keep  it  at  a 
constant  volume,  which  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  the  mercury  in  the  left-hand  tube  just 
touches  the  tip  of  a  fine  glass  point  that  is 
permanently  fastened  inside  the  tube.  The  pres¬ 
sure  exerted  by  the  mercurial  column  is  meas¬ 
ured  by  the  difference  in  the  level  of  the  mer¬ 
cury  in  the  right-hand  and  left-hand  tubes. 
The  scale  for  this  measurement  is  graduated  on 
a  strip  of  mirror  set  into  the  vertical  framework 
that  supports  the  bulb  and  the  tubes. 

In  Fig.  2  we  see  an  arrangement  of  the  air 
thermometer  for  more  exact  measurements,  etc. 
The  thermometric  substance  is  inclosed  in  the 


ured  may  completely  surround  the  bulb  by  flow¬ 
ing  in  at  E  and  out  at  F.  DD  are  metal 
screens.  There  are  a  number  of  mercurial  ther¬ 
mometers,  T,  which  are  at  the  same  temperature 
as  the  bulb.  The  bulb  communicates  With  the 
barometer  at  G  by  the  tube  C,  the  connection 
being  shown  enlarged  at  V.  The  pressure  of 
the  mercurial  column  needed  to  keep  the  gas 
in  the  bulb  at  a  constant  volume  is  that  due 
to  the  height  of  the  column  from  X  to  Y,  and 
may  amount  to  several  atmospheres,  or  to  a 
height  of  many  feet.  The  lower  end  of  the 


mercurial  column,  or  the  tube  U,  I,  J,  K,  is 
fixed,  but  the  upper  tube,  PQ,  can  be  raised 
indefinitely.  As  Q  rises  inside  of  the  large 
tube,  J ,  more  mercury  may  be  needed,  and  this 
is  supplied  from  the  reservoir,  R,  through  the 
llexible  tube,  L.  The  difference  in  height  be¬ 
tween  the  mercurial  surfaces  at  X  and  Z  is 
measured  by  a  reading  telescope  or  cathetometer. 
xl/  is  the  upright  standard  carrying  the  ap¬ 
paratus,  N  a  movable  cradle  for  the  barometer 
tube  worked  by  the  adjusting  screw  0.  8  is 

a  similar  arrangement  for  the  reservoir,  R, 
with  its  adjusting  screw,  U. 

Mercurial  Thermometer.  This  consists  fff  a 
glass  bulb  terminating  in  a  long  capillary  tube. 
The  bulb  and  lower  portion  of  the  tube  are 
filled  with  clean  mercury,  while  the  upper  por¬ 
tion  is  supposed  to  be  quite  empty  and  to  be 
hermetically  sealed.  When  the  bulb  is  warmed 
the  mercury  is  seen  to  rise  in  the  tube,  because 
♦it  expands  more  than  the  glass  of  the  bulb. 
This  difference  of  expansion  is  not  regular,  nor 
is  it  the  same  for  all  kinds  of  glass  or  for  im¬ 
pure  mercury.  If  we  wish  to  construct  an  inde¬ 
pendent  standard  mercurial  thermometer,  we 
immerse  the  bulb  in  melting  ice  and  make  a 
slight  scratch  on  the  glass  tube  to  mark  the 
height  of  the  mercurial  column.  A  similar 
mark  is  made  at  the  end  of  the  column  when 
the  thermometer  is  immersed  wholly  in  the 
steam  from  boiling  water,  the  exact"  tempera¬ 
ture  of  the  steam  depending  upon  the  air 
pressure  at  the  time.  The  space  between  the 
two  lines  is  divided  into  100  more  or  less 
equal  parts  for  Centigrade  degrees,  or  180 
equal  parts  for  Fahrenheit  degrees,  according  to 
the  exact  temperature  found  for  the  boiling 
water.  The  space  between  the  freezing  point 
and  the  boiling  point  on  a  thermometer  scale 
is  called  the  fundamental  distance.  Owing  to 
the  irregular  expansion  of  mercury  in  glass, 
the  so-called  standard  mercurial  thermometer 
will  differ  from  the  standard  air  thermometer 
by  as  much  as  half  a  degree  about  midway  be¬ 
tween  freezing  and  boiling  water.  Therefore  for 
accurate  work  the  mercurial  should  be  carefully 
compared  with  the  air  thermometer  and  the  re¬ 
sulting  system  of  corrections  throughout  the 
entire  length  of  the  scale  should  be  well  deter¬ 
mined  and  carefully  applied.  Owing  to  the 
gradual  contraction  of  the  glass  bulbs,  which 
goes  on  for  several  years  after  they  are  freshly 
made,  the  mercurial  thermometer  usually  has  an 
error  that  increases  with  the  lapse  of  time. 
This  error  is  due  to  the  change  in  the  volume 
of  the  bulb,  and  should  be  determined  after 
any  important  work  has  been  done  by  im¬ 
mediately  making  a  new  determination  of  the 
freezing  point.  Instead  of  this  procedure  the 
error  can  be  calculated  theoretically,  but  the 
actual  new  determination  is  far  preferable. 

A  thermometer  is  not  considered  first  class 
whose  errors  of  division  exceed  one  or  two  tenths 
of  a  degree  Centigrade,  or  two  or  three  tenths 
Fahrenheit,  especially  if  these  errors  change 
values  greatly  from  point  to  point  along  the 
scale.  In  determining  the  temperature  of  a 
liquid  by  the  use  of  the  mercurial  thermom¬ 
eter  one  must  be  very  careful  to  keep  the  liquid 
thoroughly  stirred,  because  when  permitted  to 
rest  the  colder  portions  of  the  liquid  settle.  In 
meteorological  work  all  thermometers  are  ex¬ 
posed  in  some  sort  of  protecting  cage  through 
which  the  wind  rnav  blow  freelv,  but  into  which 
the  sun’s  rays,  or  any  obnoxious  radiation,  can- 


THERMOMETER 


202 


THERMOMETER 


not  penetrate.  It  is  believed  that  after  making 
due  allowance  for  the  sluggishness  of  the  ther¬ 
mometers  and  the  inefficiency  of  the  screens  and 
the  ventilating  apparatus,  it  is  still  true  that 
the  various  meteorological  services  of  the  world 
obtain  the  temperature  of  the  air  within  a  half 
degree  Fahrenheit  or  two-tenths  Centigrade.  A 
general  comparison  between  the  Centigrade  and 
Fahrenheit  scales  is  here  given. 


Cent. 

Fahr. 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

*b 125° 

+257° 

0° 

+  32° 

100 

212 

-17.8 

0 

75 

167 

25 

-  13 

50 

122 

40 

40 

+  25 

+  77 

-273 

-491 

Dew-Point  Thermometer.  This  is  an  ordi¬ 
nary  thermometer  specially  arranged  for  the 
determination  of  the  temperature  at  which  dew 
is  formed  in  the  atmosphere  when  the  air  is 
cooled.  To  this  end  the  bulb  and  larger  part 
of  the  stem  of  the  thermometer  are  immersed 
in  a  thin  glass  cup  nearly  full  of  sulphuric 
ether.  A  current  of  air  is  driven  through  the 
ether,  causing  it  to  evaporate  and  therefore  to 
cool.  The  thermometer  follows  the  falling  tem¬ 
perature  of  the  ether  until  the  observer  per¬ 
ceives  the  deposition  of  dew  on  the  outside  of 
the  glass  cup.  The  current  of  air  is  then  cut 
off.  The  ether  and  glass  cup  begin  to  warm; 
the  dew  evaporates  from  the  surface,  and  as 
it  disappears  the  temperature  is  again  read  off. 
The  mean  of  the  two  readings  of  the  thermom¬ 
eter  corresponds  closely  to  the  dew  point.  The 
results  are  most  exact  when  the  cooling  is  so 
carefully  conducted  that  the  dew  forms  and  dis¬ 
appears  with  an  inappreciable  change  in  tem¬ 
perature  of  the  thermometer.  See  Hygrometer. 

Wet-Bulb  Thermometer.  This  is  an  ordi¬ 
nary  thermometer  whose  bulb  is  covered  very 
neatly  with  the  thinnest  muslin,  which  is  kept 
wet.  The  wet-bulb  thermometer  should  either 
be  rapidly  whirled  in  the  air  or  else  exposed 


Alcohol  Thermometer.  This  differs  from 
the  mercurial  thermometer  only  in  that  the  in¬ 
terior  liquid  is  alcohol.  But  this  difference  is 
important  from  many  points  of  view,  since  one 
class  of  errors  disappears  and  another  is  intro¬ 
duced.  Alcohol,  ether,  and  in  recent  years  tol¬ 
uol,  are  used  in  thermometers  for  the  measure¬ 
ment  of  very  low  temperatures,  since  mercury 
freezes  at  about  —40°  Fahrenheit.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  error  in  using  such  liquids  for  low  tem¬ 
peratures  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  liquid 
adheres  to  the  sides  of  the  glass  tube  and  re¬ 
quires  a  long  time  to  drain  down,  which  indeed 
it  never  does  perfectly. 

Solar-Radiation  Thermometer,  or  Black- 
Bulb  Thermometer.  This  is  essentially  an  or¬ 
dinary  mercurial  thermometer,  whose  bulb  is 
covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  nonreflecting  and 
almost  perfectly  absorbing  lampblack.  Under 
the  assumption  that  the  black -bulb  thermometer 
absorbs  and  radiates  more  easily  than  the  plain 
glass  bulb,  and  especially  more  so  than  a  pol¬ 
ished  silver  bulb,  the  difference  between  the 
readings  of  two  such  thermometers  exposed  to 
the  sunshine  will  depend  primarily  upon  the 
intensity  of  the  radiation  received  by  them. 
In  order  to  measure  the  solar  radiation,  it 
is  necessary,  first,  to  diminish  as  much  as  pos¬ 
sible  the  conduction  and  convection  of  heat 
to  or  from  thermometer  bulbs.  They  are, 
therefore,  inclosed  in  large  thin  glass  bulbs 
within  which  there  is  as  perfect  a  vacuum  as  it 
is  possible  to  make.  It  is  also  necessary  to 
cut  off  as  much  as  possible  of  radiation  from 
the  surrounding  objects,  and  especially  reflected 
sunshine,  by  means  of  screens.  Under  these  con¬ 
ditions  the  solar-radiation  thermometer,  or  the 
so-called  Arago-Davy  actinometer,  may  be  used 
in  two  ways :  ( 1 )  The  static  method.  The  ther¬ 
mometers  are  allowed  to  attain  the  highest  tem¬ 
peratures  they  can  in  the  full  sunshine;  the  dif¬ 
ference  between  their  readings  expresses  approxi¬ 
mately  the  intensity  of  the  solar  radiation,  the 
exact  value  of  which  may  be  more  exactly  com¬ 
puted  by  the  method  and  formulae  given  by  Pro¬ 


to  a  current  of  air  at  the  rate  of  five  or  ten 
feet  a  second.  The  evaporation  of  the  water 
cools  the  thermometer  to  the  temperature  of 
evaporation,  which  is  about  half  way  between 
the  temperature  of  the  air  and  the  temperature 
of  the  dew  point.  The  combination  of  a  dry- 
bulb  and  a  wet-bulb  thermometer  constitutes 
a  psychrometer,  and  the  whirled  or  ventilated 
psvchrometer  is  the  ordinary  apparatus  used 
by  meteorologists  for  determining  the  humidity 
of  the  atmosphere.  The  formulae  and  tables 
used  by  the  Weather  Bureau  in  this  work  are 
those  prepared  by  Prof.  C.  F.  Marvin  and 
published  as  Weather  Bureau  No.  235  (Wash¬ 
ington,  1900).  See  Hygrometer  for  illustration 
and  further  description. 


fessor  William  Ferrel  in  his  memoir  “Tem¬ 
perature  of  the  Atmosphere  and  Earth’s  Sur¬ 
face,”  pages  34-50,  Professional  Papers  of  the 
Signal  Service,  No.  13  (Washington,  1884).  (2) 
The  dynamic  method.  The  bright  and  black-bulb 
thermometers  are  successively  exposed  to  the  full 
sunshine  and  shaded  from  it  a  minute  at  a  time, 
so  that  one  may  determine  the  initial  rate  of  in¬ 
crease  of  temperature  in  the  sunshine  and  the 
rate  of  cooling  in  the  shade.  From  these  rates 
the  solar  radiation  is  calculated  by  the  formulae 
first  applied  by  Pouillet  to  his  actinometer. 
Much  more  exact  methods  of  measuring  radia¬ 
tion  are  now  employed.  See  Pyrheliometer. 

Maximum  Thermometer.  This  is  usually 
a  mercurial  thermometer  having  a  device  by 


THERMOMETER 


203  THERMOMETER 


which  the  top  of  the  column  of  mercury  remains 
at  the  highest  point  that  it  attains  during  any 
given  interval  of  time  until  the  observer  has 
recorded  the  reading  and  adjusts  the  instrument 
for  another  observation,  in  the  Rutherford 
maximum  the  stem  of  the  thermometer  lies  nearly 
horizontal.  The  rising  mercury  pushes  a  little 
steel  index  upward  within  the  bore  of  the  tube. 
When  the  temperature  falls  the  index  is  left  in 
place  until  the  observer  draws  it  back  to  the 
top  of  the  mercurial  column  by  means  of  a 
magnet.  In  the  Phillips  or  Walferdin  ther¬ 
mometer  the  thermometer  stem  is  horizontal.  A 
small  bubble  of  air  makes  a  permanent  break 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  mercurial  column. 
When  the  temperature  begins  to  fall  the  lower 
column  contracts  into  the  bulb,  but  the  upper 
portion  remains  and  registers  the  maximum  tem¬ 
perature.  The  Negretti  and  Zambra  maximum 
thermometer  has  the  bore  of  the  tube  constricted 
below  the  bottom  of  the  scale  so  that  the  mer¬ 
cury  that  has  pushed  up  past  this  point  can¬ 
not  easily  slide  back.  After  the  maximum  tem¬ 
perature  has  been  recorded  the  observer  forces 
the  column  of  mercury  back  by  whirling  the  ther- 


in  America  for  determining  the  temperature  of 
the  human  body  (mouth  or  rectum).  The  bulb 
is  of  high-grade  thin  glass,  and  the  stem  is  oval 
in  cross  section,  forming  a  cylindrical  lens  which 
serves  to  magnify  the  capillary  mercury  thread. 
Temperatures  from  94°  F.  to  110°  F.,  graduated 
in  one-fifth  degrees,  are  engraved  on  the  front 
of  the  lens  face.  The  thermometer  registers  the 
highest  temperature  to  which  it  is  exposed.  The 
self-registering  device  is  usually  obtained  by 
forming  a  constriction  or  trap  in  the  capillary 
tube  between  the  bulb  and  the  lowest  tempera¬ 
ture  graduation  on  the  scale,  of  exactly  the  cor¬ 
rect  size,  such  that  the  mercury  may  expand 
through  the  contraction  in  fine  globules*  but  can¬ 
not  flow  back.  From  one-half  to  three  minutes 
are  required  to  obtain  the  final  temperature  in¬ 
dication  when  placed  in  the  mouth,  and  before 
the  thermometer  is  used  again  the  mercury  col¬ 
umn  must  be  shaken  down  into  the  bulb.  To 
avoid  the  possible  objection  that  the  temperature 
graduations,  which  are  in  part  filled  with  black 
coloring  matter,  may  retain  disease  germs  not 
readily  removable  by  antiseptic  liquids,  clinical 
thermometers  are  sometimes  made  with  the 


CLINICAL  THERMOMETER. 


mometer  in  a  circle.  The  clinical  thermometers 
of  physicians  are  made  after  this  pattern. 

Minimum  Thermometer.  The  best  form 
of  this  is  the  Rutherford  alcohol  minimum,  in 
which  the  stem  is  kept  nearly  horizontal,  and 
the  contracting  column  of  alcohol  draws  down¬ 
ward  a  glass  index,  which  remains  in  place  when 
the  temperature  rises.  The  observer  sets  the 
index  anew  by  inverting  the  instrument,  when 
the  index  slowly  falls  to  the  end  of  the  column 
of  alcohol. 

Combined  Maximum  and  Minimum  or 
Six’s  Thermometer.  This  consists  of  a  U- 
shaped  tube  whose  upper  ends  have  respectively 
a  large  bulb  full  of  alcohol  and  a  small  bulb 
partly  full  of  alcohol.  The  lower  portion  of  the 
legs  of  the  U  is  filled  with  mercury  and  in  each 
leg  there  floats  an  index.  One  of  these  indices 
is  forced  up  by  the  expansion  of  the  alcohol  in 
the  bulb  and  the  index  is  left  at  the  maximum 
temperature.  The  other  index  is  raised  by  the 
contraction  of  the  alcohol  and  the  consequent 
rising  of  the  mercury  which  is  pushed  up  by  the 
expansive  force  of  the  air  pressure  in  the  small 
bulb.  Modifications  of  this  thermometer  are 
used  in  Austria,  England,  and  America,  but  none 
of  its  forms  is  considered  to  be  so  reliable  as 
the  separate  maximum  and  minimum  thermom¬ 
eters  previously  described. 

Upsetting  Thermometers.  These  were  in¬ 
vented  by  Negretti  and  Zambra  and  have  been 
modified  and  improved  from  time  to  time.  An 
ordinary  thermometer  has  its  tube  so  bent  that 
when  the  thermometer  is  turned  upside  down  the 
column  of  mercury  above  the  constriction  will 
run  off  into  a  separate  portion  of  the  tube,  where 
it  remains  until  the  observer  can  make  the  neces¬ 
sary  reading.  The  thermometer  is  especially 
adapted  for  recording  deep  ocean  temperatures 
or  temperatures  at  any  hour  of  the  night. 

Clinical  Thermometers.  These  are  used  to 
determine  the  body  temperature  of  animals.  The 
figure  illustrates  one  of  the  more  common  forms 
of  mercurv  in  glass  clinical  thermometers  used 
Vol.  XXII.— 14 


scale  inclosed  in  a  smooth  glass  tube,  or  a 
thermometer  of  the  type  illustrated  is  com¬ 
pletely  covered  by  a  thin  glass  envelope. 

Metallic  Thermometers.  These  depend  for 
their  action  upon  the  differential  expansion  of 
metals.  As  made  by  Breguet,  1817,  or  Herrman 
and  Pfister,  1865,  they  consist  essentially  of  two 
thin  spiral  bands  of  different  metals  soldered 
together.  Differences  of  temperature  cause  the 
spiral  to  coil  or  uncoil  and  the  apparatus  can 
easily  be  adapted  for  self-registration. 

Optical  Thermometers.  The  plane  of  polari¬ 
zation  of  a  quartz  crystal  is  rotated  about  the 
axis  of  a  beam  of  light  by  the  varying  tempera¬ 
ture  of  the  quartz,  increasing  with  great  regular¬ 
ity  with  the  increase  of  temperature.  This  ap¬ 
paratus  is  recommended  by  Cornu  for  the  study 
of  high  temperatures  when  the  gas  thermometer 
fails  because  of  the  softening  of  the  bulbs  con¬ 
taining  the  gas  or  air. 

Thermoelectric  Thermometers.  Melloni’s 
thermoelectric  pile.  Pairs  of  pieces  of  differ¬ 
ent  metals  are  soldered  together  and  the  ex¬ 
tremities  communicate  by  a  wire  with  a  needle 
galvanometer  or  voltmeter.  Any  difference  of 
temperature  between  two  consecutive  junctions 
causes  the  electric  current  to  traverse  the  wire; 
its  strength  is  an  index  of  the  temperature.  The 
absolute  value  of  the  galvanometer  scale  can  be 
expressed  in  thermometric  degrees  by  means  of 
careful  comparisons.  The  thermoelectric  ther¬ 
mometer  can  be  made  to  give  extremely  reliable 
results. 

Resistance  Thermometer.  Metallic  conduc¬ 
tors  of  electricity,  such  as  iron,  nickel,  platinum, 
and  the  like,  change  their  resistance  with  change 
of  temperature,  and  this  property  is  utilized  in 
the  construction  of  electrical  resistance  ther¬ 
mometers  which  have  now  become  one  of  the 
most  convenient  forms  of  secondary  thermom¬ 
eters  available  for  precise  temperature  measure¬ 
ments.  On  account  of  the  permanence  of  its 
properties  and  the  wide  range  of  temperatures 
over  which  it  may  be  employed,  pure  platinum 


THERMOMETER 


THERMOMETER 


204 


in  the  form  of  wires  or  other  appropriate  shape 
is  generally  best  suited  for  exact  work,  but 
nickel  is  also  excellent  for  many  purposes,  es¬ 
pecially  for  ordinary  temperatures.  One  great 
superiority  of  resistance  thermometers  is  their 
adaptability  to  almost  any  requirements  and  the 
further  fact  that  the  measuring  apparatus  may 
be  located  at  some  distance  from  the  wire  re¬ 
sistance  coil,  the  two  being  connected  by  ap¬ 
propriate  leads  arranged  to  eliminate  the  ef¬ 
fects  of  their  resistance.  A  Wheatstone  bridge 
with  accessories  is  employed  to  measure  the 
resistance  of  the  platinum  coil.  In  some  cases 
a  potentiometer  is  employed  for  the  same  pur¬ 
pose.  The  indications  of  resistance  thermometers 
must  be  reduced  to  the  gas  state  by  appropriate 
corrections  found  by  comparisons. 

Thermophone.  This  is  a  resistance  thermom¬ 
eter,  with  which  a  telephone  instead  of  a  galva¬ 
nometer  is  used  to  adjust  the  Wheatstone  bridge 
to  a  balance.  The  equality  of  resistance  is  indi¬ 
cated  by  the  absence  of  all  sound  when  one  lis¬ 
tens  at  the  telephone.  This  instrument,  the  in¬ 
vention  of  G.  C.  Whipple,  is  both  accurate  and 
portable  and  very  convenient  for  use  in  boats 
on  lakes  or  at  sea.  Consult  “The  Thermophone,” 
in  Technology  Quarterly,  vol.  viii,  p.  25  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1895). 

Langley’s  Bolometer.  This  is  a  differential 
thermometer  in  which  the  difference  of  tempera¬ 
ture  of  two  delicate  wires  is  shown  by  the  de¬ 
flections  of  a  galvanometric  needle.  See  Bolom- 

KTER. 

Deep-Sea  Thermometer.  This  is  an  ordinary 
or  self-registering  mercurial  thermometer  wholly 
inclosed  within  a  very  strong  protecting  case  of 
glass.  The  space  between  the  thermometer  and 
its  inclosure  is  partly  filled  with  water  or  mer¬ 
cury  above  which  some  air  remains.  When  this 
arrangement  is  lowered  to  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean  the  great  external  pressure  compresses 
the  inclosure  but  does  not  seriously  affect  the 
bulb  of  the  thermometer  within. 

Soil  Thermometer.  This  was  formerly  made 
with  a  large  bulb  and  wide  tube  many  feet 
in  length,  so  that  a  bulb  buried  at  a  depth  of 
even  20  feet  would  show  the  top  of  the  liquid 
column  above  the  surface  of  the  earth.  As  these 
were  expensive,  sluggish,  and  liable  to  accident, 
the  modern  practice  is  to  use  an  ordinary  ther¬ 
mometer  inclosed  in  a  wooden  tube  and  pushed 
down  to  the  proper  depth  in  a  hole  in  the 
ground.  Modern  electric  thermometers,  espe¬ 
cially  the  thermophone,  are  to  be  recommended. 

Nocturnal-Radiation  Thermometer.  This 
is  supposed  to  give  the  approximate  temperature 
of  a  surface  exposed  to  radiation  during  the 
nighttime.  The  bulb  is  of  glass,  sometimes,  but 
not  necessarily,  blackened;  it  is  fully  exposed  to 
the  open  sky.  If  all  terrestrial  heat  is  cut  off 
by  screens  the  thermometer  may  be  made  to  give 
an  indication  of  the  clearness  of  the  sky  or 
the  temperature  of  the  air  that  occupies  the 
dome  of  the  sky.  If,  however,  no  attempt  is 
made  to  cut  off  the  radiation  and  conduction  of 
heat,  the  thermometers  give  the  temperature  of 
the  leaves  on  the  trees.  If  the  thermometer  lies 
upon  the  upper  surface  of  a  metal  or  wooden  or 
stone  object,  it  gives  approximately  the  tem¬ 
perature  of  the  upper  surface  layer  of  that  ob¬ 
ject. 

Integrating  Thermometer.  This  is  intended 
to  sum  up  the  temperature,  or  it  may  be  the 
temperature  changes,  during  any  given  interval 
of  time.  A  clock  or  chronometer  whose  pendulum 


or  balance  wheel  is  uncompensated  or  even  in¬ 
tentionally  overcompensated  has  a  rate  that 
varies  with  the  temperature  and  becomes  an  ad¬ 
mirable  integrator.  A  metal  bar,  supported  on 
an  inclined  surface  by  means  of  sharp-pointed 
feet  at  either  end,  creeps  upward  with  alternat¬ 
ing  rising  and  falling  temperatures.  Each  step 
of  its  progress  is  proportional  to  the  difference 
between  the  successive  maxima  and  minima. 
Thus,  such  an  arrangement  will,  in  the  course  of 
a  month,  sum  up  the  daily  ranges  of  temperature. 

Evaporation  Thermometer.  In  1888  Dr. 
Miiller-Erzbacli  brought  out  a  thermometer  in 
which  a  vessel  full  of  water  in  the  sunshine  com¬ 
municates  with  an  empty  vessel  in  the  shade. 
The  water  evaporated  in  the  former  condenses 
over  into  the  latter  vessel,  where  it  is  absorbed 
by  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  The  weight  lost 
in  one  vessel  or  gained  in  the  other  is  an  index 
to  the  average  temperature  that  has  prevailed 
in  the  water  flask.  Comparative  observations 
give  the  means  of  converting  these  weights  into 
temperatures.  Experimental  tests  of  this  form 
of  integrating  thermometer  made  at  the  See- 
warte  in  Hamburg  show  that  this  apparatus 
gives  excellent  results  when  the  daily  temper¬ 
ature  variations  are  not  too  great. 

Thermographs.  This  term  may  include  all 
forms  of  apparatus  in  which  continuous  regis¬ 
tration  is  introduced.  To  this  end  the  English 
Meteorological  Office  employs  photography,  main¬ 
taining  a  continuous  photographic  register  of  the 
variations  of  the  top  of  the  mercurial  column. 
The  French  and  the  United  States  Weather  Bu¬ 
reaus  use  the  thermographs  made  by  Richard  at 
Paris,  in  which  some  form  of  metallic  thermome¬ 
ter  is  attached  to  a  pen  which  moves  vertically 
over  a  sheet  of  paper  that  is  drawn  horizontally 
by  clockwork  so  that  the  temperature  may  be 
subsequently  read  off  at  any  given  moment. 

Owing  to  the  great  importance  of  the  ther¬ 
mometer  in  every  branch  of  science  and  the  arts, 
the  principal  governments  of  the  world  have  es¬ 
tablished  bureaus  of  standards  for  the  compari¬ 
son  and  calibration  of  this  and  other  forms  of 
measuring  apparatus.  In  all  cases  private  in¬ 
dividuals  may  send  their  thermometers  to  these 
institutions  for  examination  and  may  receive 
certificates  stating  the  exact  value  of  the  correc¬ 
tions  for  their  errors  if  any  exist.  Such  institu¬ 
tions  are  the  following:  the  Kew  Observatory 
at  London,  now  a  branch  of  the  Bureau  of 
Standards;  the  Imperial  Physical  and  Technical 
Institute  at  Charlottenburg,  near  Berlin;  the 
International  Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures, 
Paris;  and  the  Bureau  of  Standards  established 
by  the  United  States  government  at  Washington, 
under  the  Treasury  Department  in  1900,  and 
later  transferred  to  the  Department  of  Com¬ 
merce.  See  Thermometry. 

Bibliography.  Cleveland  Abbe,  Meteorologi¬ 
cal  Apparatus  and  Methods  (Washington,  1887)  ; 
Gerland  and  Tramiiller,  Geschichte  der  vhysika- 
lischen  Experimentierkunst  (Leipzig,  1899)  ; 
Harker  and  Chappuis,  “Comparison  of  Platinum 
and  Gas  Thermometers,”  in  Royal  Society  of  Lon¬ 
don,  Philosophical  Transactions,  Series  A,  vol. 
194  (London,  1900)  ;  H.  C.  Bolton,  Evolution 
of  the  Thermometer,  1592—11(^3  (Easton,  Pa., 
1900)  ;  Waidner  and  Burgess,  Optical  Pyrometry 
(Washington,  1905)  ;  Paul  Samel,  Verwend- 
barkeit  von  siede  Thermometem  und  Quecksilber- 
barometem  zu  hohenmessung  (Marburg,  1910)  ; 
Dickinson  and  Muller,  in  United  States  Bureau  of 
Standards,  Bulletin,  vol.  ix  (Washington,  1912), 


THERMOMETER 


205 


THERMOMETER,  Clinical  or  Medical. 
See  Thermometer. 

THERMOM'ETRY  ( from  Gk.  deppnj,  tlierme, 
heat  +  -fierpia,  -metria,  measurement,  from 
li*Tpov,  metron,  measure).  The  science  of  as¬ 
signing1  proper  numerical  values  to  the  tempera¬ 
ture  of  bodies.  As  explained  in  Heat,  this  in¬ 
volves  several  steps,  the  arbitrary  selection  of 

( 1 )  some  substance  as  the  thermometric  body, 

(2)  some  property  of  it  which  changes  with  the 
temperature,  (3)  two  standard  thermal  states, 
e.g.,  melting  ice  and  boiling  water  at  standard 
pressures,  (4)  the  scale  or  the  number  of  de¬ 
grees  between  these  standard  temperatures,  and 
(5)  two  arbitrary  numbers  to  represent  these 
standard  temperatures. 

By  definition  the  temperature  on  the  standard 
hydrogen  thermometer,  Centigrade  scale,  is  as 
follows : 


Hydrogen  is  the  gas  used,  the  initial  pressure 
being  100  cm.  of  mercury.  Change  in  pressure  at 
constant  volume  is  the  effect  measured. 

The  two  standard  thermal  states  are  ( 1 )  melt¬ 
ing  ice  and  (2)  vapor  rising  from  boiling  water 
at  normal  atmospheric  pressure. 

One  hundred  degrees  are  chosen  between  these 
two  temperatures.  The  temperature  of  melting 
ice  is  called  0°.  Then,  if  p()  is  the  pressure  of  the 
gas  at  0°,  p100  that  at  100°,  and  p  that  at  the 
temperature  (O  to  which  a  number  is  to  be 
given, 


t=  100 


V  ~  Po 

P100  —  Po 


Other  gases  than  hydrogen  might  be  used ;  and 
the  same  definition  would  apply  to  temperature 
on  the  new  scale  as  on  the  hydrogen  scale. 
Slight  differences,  however,  would"  always  be  ob¬ 
served  between  the  numerical  values  for  the  same 
temperatures. 

If  the  change  in  volume  is  the  heat  effect  ob¬ 
served  as  the  temperature  is  changed,  the  pres¬ 
sure  being  kept  constant,  the  obvious  definition 
of  the  numerical  value  of  the  temperature  is 


t  =  100— - — , 

^ioo  —  Vo 

where  v0,  vw0,  v  are  the  measured  values  of  the 
volume  of  the  gas  or  liquid  at  0°,  100°,  t°. 

.  !he  change  in  the  electrical  resistance  of  a 
given  conductor  is  the  heat  effect  measured  as 
the  temperature  is  changed,  the  definition  of  t  is 


t  =  100 


R  —  Ro 

Rrn  —  Ro ’ 


where  R0,  R100,  R  are  the  electrical  resistances  at 
0°,  100°,  t°. 

Similarly  almost  any  heat  effect  of  any  body 
may  be  taken  as  the  one  to  measure  in  order  to 
secure  a  number  for  temperature;  but  the  num¬ 
bers  so  found  all  differ  in  general;  and  if  any 
thermometer  other  than  the  hydrogen  one  is 
actually  used,  the  observed  numbers  must  all  be 
corrected  by  a  calibration  table  connecting  the 
scale  of  the  thermometer  used  with  the  hydrogen 
one. 

For  measuring  ordinary  laboratory  tempera¬ 
tures  either  mercury-in-glass  or  air  thermom¬ 
eters  are  used ;  for  measuring  extremely  low  tem¬ 
peratures,  e.g.,  —  200°  C.,  a  hydrogen  thermome¬ 
ter  or  a  platinum -resistance  thermometer  is  gen¬ 
erally  used;  for  high  temperatures,  e.g.,  300°  C., 
a  platinum-resistance  thermometer  or  a  thermo¬ 
couple  is  used.  (See  Pyrometer;  Thermometer; 
Thermoelectricity.)  For  a  full  discussion 


THERMOMETRY 

of  these  and  other  methods  reference  should 
be  made  to  the  Reports  of  the  International  Con¬ 
gress  of  Physics,  Paris,  1900,  vol.  i,  articles  by 
Chappuis  and  Barus,  and  specially  to  the  publi¬ 
cations  of  the  National  Bureau  of  Standards, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

I  he  scale  of  temperature  as  defined  above  is 
known  as  the  Centigrade  or  Celsius  (q.v. )  scale. 
There  are  several  other  scales  in  use.  The 
Fahrenheit  scale  has  32°  for  the  melting  point 
of  ice  and  212°  for  the  boiling  point  of  water; 
the  Reaumur  (q.v.)  scale  has  0°  for  the  former 
temperature  and  80°  for  the  latter. 

It  is  evident  that  the  definition  of  tempera¬ 
ture  as  given  above  is  equivalent  to  stating  that 
in  the  equation  connecting  change  of  pressure 
with  change  of  temperature,  viz., 

P  —  Po  =  ap0t, 

a  is  a  constant,  the  same  at  all  temperatures. 
This  quantity  is  called  the  coefficient  of  expan¬ 
sion  at  constant  volume.  Its  numerical  value 
for  hydrogen  is  closely  Writing  the  last 

equation 

P  =  Po  (1  +  at), 

it  is  evident  that  if  t  =  —  273,  p  =  0.  For  a 
value  of  t  less  than  this,  the  pressure  would  be 
negative,  which  is  meaningless.  Therefore  t  = 

273  is  the  lowest  number  which  this  instru¬ 
ment  can  give;  and  the  corresponding  temperature 
is  called  absolute  zero  on  the  gas  scale.  If  273 
is  added  to  the  temperature  as  defined  above  on 
the  Centigrade  scale,  i.e.,  if  temperatures  are  cal¬ 
culated  from  absolute  zero  instead  of  from  the 
temperature  of  melting  ice,  the  scale  is  called 
the  absolute  gas  scale.  Or,  in  the  general  case, 
the  absolute  gas  scale  adds  to  the  temperature 
on  any  scale  the  reciprocal  of  the  coefficient  of 
cubical  expansion  of  hydrogen  as  determined  on 
that  scale — on  the  Centigrade  scale  this  recipro¬ 
cal  is  273.04,  and  so  t°  C.  is  ( t  -f  273.04)° 
absolute.  It  is  shown  in  thermodynamics  (q.v.) 
that  there  is  a  method  of  defining  tempera¬ 
ture  which  is  quite  independent  of  the  ther¬ 
mometric  substance,  and  in  which  the  only  arbi¬ 
trary  things  are  4he  choice  of  a  number  for  the 
difference  between  the  temperatures  of  any  two. 
thermal  states.  This  scale  is  called  Thomson’s  ab¬ 
solute  scale,  because  it  was  proposed  by  William 
Thomson  (later  Lord  Kelvin).  If  it' is  agreed 
to  have  the  temperature  of  freezing  and  boiling 
water  100°  apart,  it  is  found  that  the  numbers 
on  the  Thomson  absolute  scale  agree  most  re¬ 
markably  with  those  given  on  the  absolute  gas 
scale  as  defined  above. 

In  the  practical  use  of  thermometers  there  are 
numerous  precautions  and  corrections  which  are 
necessary,  and  for  these  reference  must  be  made 
to  some  laboratory  handbook. 

The  range  of  applicability  of  ordinary  ther¬ 
mometers  is  limited  in  many  ways:  the  liquid 
may  freeze  or  may  evaporate;  the  material  of 
the  bulb  may  change  its  volume  or  it  may  ab¬ 
sorb  some  of  the  gas  if  it  is  a  gas  thermometer, 
etc.  Thus  a  mercury  thermometer  cannot  be 
used  with  accuracy  above  about  450°  C. ;  a  hy¬ 
drogen  thermometer  cannot  be  used  above  500° 
C. ;  nor  a  nitrogen  thermometer  above  1550°  C. ; 
and  at  these  high  temperatures  extraordinary 
precautions  are  necessary  if  accuracy  is  to  be 
secured.  Within  recent  years  methods  for  giv¬ 
ing  numbers  to  temperatures  much  higher  even 
than  these  referred  to  have  been  perfected,  based 
upon  laws  of  radiation  (q.v.) .  It  has  been  shown 


THERMOMETRY 


206 


THERMOMETRY 


from  theory  that  there  are  two  laws  connecting 
temperature  with  the  radiation  from  a  black 
body.  These  may  be  stated  as  follows: 

1.  The  total  radiation  from  1  sq.  con.,  E  =  aT 4. 

2.  The  radiation  associated  with  waves  whose 
wave  lengths  lie  between  X  and  X  +  dk,  Jd\  = 
c  _JL 

— e  xrd\,  provided  the  waves  are  short,  i.e.,  vis- 
X5 

ible.  Where  T  is  the  absolute  temperature  on 
Thomson’s  scale,  X  is  the  wave  length,  e  is  the 
base  of  the  natural  system  of  logarithms,  and 
a,  b,  and  c  are  constants.  Calling  7'  273  +  t° 
C.,  it  is  possible  to  test  the  laws  by  meas¬ 
uring  the  radiation  from  black  bodies  whose 
temperatures  are  determined  by  nitrogen  ther¬ 
mometers.  In  this  way  the  values  of  the  con¬ 
stants  a,  1),  and  c  may  be  deduced.  Then,  in 
order  to  determine  the  temperature  of  any 
black  body  at  any  temperature,  no  matter  how 
high,  either  the  total  or  the  partial  radiation 
may  be  measured;  and  since  the  constants  are 
now  known,  the  value  of  T  may  be  deduced. 
This  scale  of  temperature  is  called  the  radiation 
scale.  It  is  obvious  that  the  method  just  indi¬ 
cated  can  be  applied  to  studying  the  temperatures 
of  black  bodies  only.  But,  if  there  is  any  body 
at  a  high  temperature,  it  must  be  possible  to 
have  a  black  body  at  a  somewhat  lower  tempera¬ 
ture  whose  total  radiation  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  former,  in  which  case,  if  the  total  radia¬ 
tion  from  this  is  measured  and  T  calculated,  it 
is  the  temperature  not  of  the  body  but  of  the 
equivalent  black  body — this  T  is  less  than  the 
temperature  of  the  body,  and  is  called  its  black- 
body  temperature  with  total  radiation.  Simi¬ 
larly,  if  a  partial  radiation  method  were  used,  a 
value  of  T  would  have  been  found,  less  than 
the  actual  temperature,  called  the  black-body 
temperature  with  radiation  of  a  definite  wave 
length.  C.  E.  Mendenhall  has  devised  a  method 
by  which  for  different  metals  it  is  possible  to 
find  the  difference  between  their  true  temperature 
and  their  black-body  temperature:  and  so,  if  the 
latter  is  observed,  the  former  may  be  deduced. 

Several  types  of  instruments  have  been  con¬ 
structed  for  obtaining  black-body  temperatures: 
one  set  making  use  of  the  Stefan-Boltzmann 
law  E  —  aT 4;  the  other,  of  Wien’s  law 

J  =  —.e  xt. 


One  of  the  best  known  of  the  former  is  the 
Fery  radiation  pyrometer,  which  is  essentially 
an  instrument  for  measuring  total  radiation. 
This  is  allowed  to  fall  upon  a  blackened  disk 
whose  temperature  is  read  by  a  thermocouple. 
In  practice  the  instrument  is  calibrated  by  meas¬ 
uring  the  E.  M.  F.  of  the  thermocouple  when  the 
instrument  is  exposed  to  radiation  from  a  black 
body  whose  temperature  can  be  varied  and 
measured.  Then,  when  the  instrument  is  directed 
to  the  body  whose  temperature  is  desired,  the 
E.  jVT.  F.  is  measured  and  the  corresponding  tem¬ 
perature  found  from  the  calibration  values. 

c  & 

In  the  use  of  Wien’s  equation  J  =  —e  XT, 

where  the  partial  radiation  only  is  studied,  X 
is  a  constant,  and  the  equation  can  be  put  in 

the  more  convenient  form  log  J=A—yp,  where 


for  a  known  value  of  X,  both  A  and  B  are  known 
constants.  Therefore,  to  determine  T  it  is  neces¬ 
sary  to  measure  J.  There  are  two  well-known 
instruments  in  ordinary  use,  the  Wanner  and 


the  Holborn-Kurlbaum  optical  pyrometers.  In 
the  former  instrument  the  light  from  the  body 
whose  temperature  is  desired  and  also  that  from 
a  standard  electric  lamp  is  dispersed  by  a  prism 
(or  passed  through  a  colored  screen,  e.g.,  a  piece 
of  colored  glass ) ,  and  only  light  of  one  color 
used;  and  that  from  the  standard  lamp  is  weak¬ 
ened  in  intensity  by  known  fractions  until  it 
equals  that  from  the  hot  body ;  then  the  in¬ 
tensity  of  the  standard  lamp  is  compared  with 
that  of  the  light  of  the  same  color  from  a 
black  body  of  a  known  temperature,  one  being 
altered  by  known  fractions  until  they  are  equal. 
Thus,  by  the  use  of  the  above  formula,  the  value 
of  T  may  be  deduced.  What  this  procedure 
really  amounts  to  is  this:  by  the  latter  observa¬ 
tion  the  intensity  of  the  standard  source  is 
measured,  since  A,  B,  and  T  are  known;  by  the 
first  observation  the  intensity  of  the  light  from 
the  body  whose  temperature  is  desired  is  meas¬ 
ured  in  terms  of  that  from  the  standard  source 
- — then,  since  J,  A,  and  B  are  known,  T  may  be 
deduced.  In  comparing  the  intensities  of  the 
two  lights,  a  polarization  photometer  is  used. 

The  Holborn-Kurlbaum  instrument  is  essen¬ 
tially  a  telescope  containing  in  the  focus  of  the 
eyepiece  the  filament  of  an  electric  lamp,  the 
current  through  which  can  be  varied.  Light  of 
one  color  is  secured  for  all  the  observations  by 
the  use  of  absorbing  screens.  In  order  to  cali¬ 
brate  the  instrument,  it  is  pointed  so  as  to  re¬ 
ceive  the  radiation  from  a  black  body  whose 
temperature  can  be  varied  and  can  be  measured; 
the  instrument  is  focused  so  as  to  bring  the 
light  from  the  black  body  into  focus  exactly 
in  the  plane  of  the  filament  of  the  lamp;  the 
current  through  this  is  varied  until  the  filament 
disappears  against  the  background,  showing  that 
the  intensities  of  the  two  are  equal.  The  tem¬ 
perature  of  the  black  body  and  the  current  in 
the  lamp  are  noted;  the  former  is  changed  and 
the  corresponding  current  is  observed,  etc.  Then, 
to  determine  the  black-body  temperature  of 
any  surface,  the  instrument  is  focused  upon  it 
and  the  value  of  the  current  in  the  lamp  is  ob¬ 
served,  which  corresponds  to  the  disappearance 
of  the  filament;  by  means  of  the  calibration  the 
temperature  may  be  deduced  at  once.  The  in¬ 
strument  may  be  used  in  a  different  manner  by 
applying  a  revolving  sectored  disk  to  lowrer  the 
intensity  of  the  light. 

History.  The  invention  of  the  thermometer 
must  be  attributed  to  Galileo,  who  in  about  the 
year  1593  made  an  open-air  thermoscope,  con¬ 
sisting  of  a  bulb  with  a  long  tube  attached, 
which  was  provided  with  a  scale  and  dipped 
below  the  surface  of  a  liquid — water  or  wine; 
some  of  the  air  was  expelled  from  the  bulb,  and 
so  the  liquid  rose  in  the  tube.  This  thermometer 
vras  used  by  Galileo  for  various  purposes,  such 
as  studying  freezing  mixtures  and  recording  at¬ 
mospheric  temperatures.  It  was  later  used 
(1611)  by  Sanctorius  in  the  diagnosis  cf  fevers. 
The  vrord  “thermoscope”  was  used  by  Bianconi 
in  1617  and  “thermometer”  in  1624  byLeurechon. 
The  first  scaled  thermometers  were  those  of 
Ferdinand  II,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  (1641)  ; 
these  contained  alcohol.  In  1661  Fabri  made  a 
scale,  using  as  the  fixed  temperatures  those  of 
snow  and  of  midsummer  heat.  Robert  Hooke  in 
1664  proposed  the  freezing  point  of  water  as  one 
of  the  fixed  temperatures;  and  in  1694  Renal  - 
dini  proposed  this  as  one,  and  the  boiling  point 
of  vrater  as  the  other.  In  1709  Fahrenheit  in¬ 
troduced  his  alcohol  thermometers,  and  in  1714 


THERMOPHORE 


207  THEROMORPHA 


his  mercury  ones.  About  1731  Reaumur  devised 
his  scale,  which  until  recently  was  in  extensive 
use  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  In  1742  Celsius 
proposed  a  Centigrade  scale,  with  the  tempera¬ 
tures  of  melting  ice  100°  and  boiling  water  0°. 
Christin,  working  independently  of  Celsius,  pro¬ 
posed  a  Centigrade  scale  in  1743  which  is  the 
Celsius  scale  inverted,  and  is  the  one  used  now. 
See  Radiation;  Thermometer.  For  bibliogra¬ 
phy,  see  Thermometer. 

THER'MOPHONE.  See  Thermometer. 
THER'MOPILE.  See  Thermoelectricity. 

THERMOPTL^l  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  QepgoTrvXcu , 
from  Oepgos,  thermos,  hot  +  -rrvXa,  pyla,  gate). 
A  pass  famous  in  ancient  Greek  history,  leading 
from  Thessaly  into  Loeris,  named  from  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  several  hot  springs  (Map:  Greece,  An¬ 
cient,  C  2).  It  lies  south  of  the  present  course  of 
the  river  Sperchius,  between  Mount  (Eta  and  the 
Maliac  Gulf.  In  ancient  times  it  was  only  a  nar¬ 
row  track,  less  than  50  feet  wide,  but  the  alluvial 
deposits  have  altered  the  coast  line  so  that  there 
is  now  a  broad  swampy  plain  from  a  mile  and  a 
half  to  three  miles  broad.  Thermopylae  has  won 
an  eternal  celebrity  as  the  scene  of  the  heroic 
death  of  Leonidas  I  (q.v.)  and  his  three  hundred 
Spartans  in  their  attempt  to .  stem  the  tide  of 
Persian  invasion  (480  b.c.).  But  he  was  be¬ 
trayed  by  Ephialtes,  a  Thessalian,  into  the  hands 
of  the  Persians,  who  advanced  by  a  path  over  the 
mountains  and  fell  upon  his  rear.  In  279  b.c. 
a  large  army  of  Greeks  held  Brennus  and  his 
Gauls  at  bay  until  they  also  found  a  path  over 
the  mountains.  The  Greeks,  however,  escaped  on 
their  fleet.  Again,  in  191  b.c.,  Antiochus  en¬ 
deavored  to  check  the  Romans  at  this  point,  but 
Cato  stormed  the  fortress  which  commanded  the 
path,  and,  aided  by  a  frontal  attack  of  the  main 
force,  routed  the  Syrian  army.  Consult  Herodo¬ 
tus,  vii,  175  ff.,  with  the  commentary  by  Messrs. 
How  and  Wells,  vol.  ii  (Oxford,  1912), 'and  that 
by  Macan  (London,  1908).  Consult  G.  B. 
Grundy,  The  Great  Persian  War  (London,  1893)  ; 
K.  Baedeker,  Greece  ( 4th  Eng.  ed.,  Leipzig,  1909)  . 

THERMOS  BOTTLE.  See  Liquefaction  of 
Gases. 

THER'MOSCOPE  ( from  Gk.  depyri,  therme, 
heat  +  (TKoireiv,  skopein,  to  look).  A  device  to 
indicate  relative  temperatures  by  making  use  of 
the  property  possessed  by  substances  of  changing 
their  state  or  volume  under  the  influence  of  heat. 
See  Thermometer. 

THER'MOTHER'APY.  See  Hot-Air  Treat¬ 
ment;  Therapeutics. 

THERMOTROPISM  (from  Gk.  6epyV, 
therme,  heat  +  rpoirp,  trope,  a  turning,  from 
rpeireiv,  trepein,  to  turn).  Primarily,  the  sen¬ 
sitiveness  of  plant  organs  to  unequal  tempera¬ 
tures  on  opposite  flanks  which  causes  them  to 
bend  (positively)  towards  or  (negatively)  away 
from  the  higher  temperature.  The  same  organ 
may  be  both  positively  and  negatively  thermo¬ 
tropic  at  different  ranges  of  temperature. 

THEROIGNE  DE  MERICOURT,  ta'rwan'y’ 
de  ma'rC'koor'  (1762—97).  A  prominent  figure 
during  the  French  Revolution.  She  was  born  at 
Marcourt,  near  Li6ge.  Her  true  name  was  Anne 
Josephe  Terwagne.  Knowing  all  the  leaders 
of  the  Revolution,  she  became  an  enthusiastic 
Republican  and  the  commander  of  the  mobs  of 
women  that  played  such  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
dramatic  days  of  the  Revolution.  Armed  with 
sabre  and  pistol,  she  led  her  feminine  battalions 
against  the  Bastille,  July  14,  1789,  to  Versailles 
on  October  5-6  of  the  same  year,  and  after  her 


return  from  an  Austrian  prison  was  prominent 
during  the  disturbances  on  June  20  and  Aug. 
10,  1792.  In  May,  1793,  while  defending  the 
Girondist  Brissot,  her  lover,  she  was  seized, 
stripped,  and  whipped  by  a  mob  of  maddened 
women.  She  became  insane  from  this  treat¬ 
ment,  and  spent  the  rest  of  her  life  in  La 
Salpetriere. 

THE'ROMORTHA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  Oyp,  ther,  wild  beast  -f-  yopcpr],  morphe, 
form).  A  name  applied  to  several  widely  dis¬ 
similar  groups  of  fossil  reptiles  which  possess 
certain  common  characters  of  skull,  vertebrae, 
limb  girdles,  and  digital  formula.  Another  or¬ 
dinary  name,  Anomodontia,  is  often  used  syn¬ 
onymously  with  Theromorpha.  The  theromorphs, 
together  with  the  turtles  and  plesiosaurs,  com¬ 
pose  the  great  reptilian  division  Synapsida  (Os¬ 
born),  characterized  by  certain  *  mammal-like 
features  of  the  skull  and  the  mammalian  digital 
formula.  All  known  theromorph  remains  have 
been  found  in  the  rocks  of  Permian  and  Triassic 
age.  They  were  for  the  most  part  animals  of 
rather  heavy  build,  adapted  to  land  life  and 
sluggish  habit,  though  one  group  appears  to  have 
been  marine.  The  following  suborders  are  com¬ 
monly  recognized: 

( 1 )  Cotylosauria  or  Pareiasauria.  A  group 
of  reptiles  having  a  solid  cranial  roof  with  a 
large  pineal  foramen,  and  usually  with  teeth  on 
the  vomer,  pterygoid,  and  palatine  bones.  It  is 
probable  that  these  forms  stand  closest  to  the 
ancestral  Stegocephalia  or  armored  Amphibia. 


skull  or  a  theriodont  (GdleSdlirus) . 

The  best-known  example  is  Pareiasaurus,  from 
the  Karoo  beds  of  South  Africa,  a  heavily  built 
land  animal,  8  feet  long.  (2)  Theriodontia. 
A  group  which  closely  resembles  mammals  in  the 
differentiation  of  the  teeth  into  incisors,  canines, 
and  molars,  and  in  certain  features  of  the  skull. 
Most  genera  have  a  distinctly  carnivorous  denti¬ 
tion,  but  a  few,  the  Gomphodontia,  have  crush¬ 
ing  molars.  Nearly  all  the  known  theriodonts 
are  from  the  South  African  Trias.  Cynognathus, 
in  which  the  skull  is  remarkably  doglike, 
equaled  the  black  bear  in  size  and  general  pro¬ 
portions.  Many  zoologists  believe  that  mammals 
have  been  derived  from  theriodonts.  ( 3 )  Di- 
cynodontia.  Land  reptiles  from  the  Trias  of 
Scotland  and  South  Africa,  known  chiefly  from 
the  skull,  which  is  greatly  modified,  having  the 
teeth  entirely  wanting,  as  in  Udenodon,  or  re¬ 
duced  to  a  single  pair  of  large  tusks  in  the 
upper  jaw,  as  in  Dicynodon  and  Gordonia. 

More  recent  research  seems  to  show  that  it  is 
advisable  to  separate  the  Cotylosauria  from  the 
mammal-like  reptiles  proper,  and  to  place  these 
latter  in  an  order,  Therapsida.  This  order  mav 
be  subdivided  into  five  groups  or  suborders. 
(1)  Dinocephalians.  These  form  a  well- 
marked  group  of  large,  heavily  built,  herbiv¬ 
orous  reptiles,  which  occur  in  South  Africa  and 
Russia,  and  are  especially  interesting  from  their 
forming  a  connecting  link  in  essential  structure 
between  tbe  pelecosaurs  of  America  and  the 
more  mammal-like  reptiles  of  South  Africa.  (2) 
Dromasaurlans.  A  group  of  small,  ratlike  run- 


THERON 


208 


THESEUS 


ning  reptiles,  which  form  the  earliest-known 
direct  ancestors  of  the  mammals.  (3)  Anomo- 
dontia.  Synonymous  with  the  Dicynodontia 
above  mentioned.  (4)  Therocephalians.  A 
group  of  carnivorous  reptiles  living  in  Middle 
and  Upper  Permian  times  in  South  Africa  and 
Russia.  Though  in  many  points  of  structure 
they  closely  agree  with  the  anomodonts,  they 
have  a  series  of  pointed  incisors,  one  or  two 
large  canines,  and  a  number  of  small,  pointed 
molar  teeth.  (5)  Cynodontia.  These  are  the 
extremely  mammal-like  carnivorous  reptiles 
which  flourished  in  Middle  and  Upper  Triassic 
times  in  South  Africa.  They  resemble  the  mam¬ 
mals  in  the  complicated  structure  of  the  molar 
teeth,  in  the  structure  of  the  skull,  and  in  the 
joints  of  the  toes,  and  there  is  little  doubt 
that  the  later  mammals  are  descended  from  a 
member  of  this  order. 

THERON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Qypwv)  (  ?-472 
b.c.  ) .  A  tyrant  of  Agrigentum  ( q.v. ) ,  c.488- 
472  b.c.  He  aided  Gelon  (q.v.)  to  win  the  great 
victory  over  the  Carthaginians  at  Himera,  in 
480  b.c.  (See  Sicily,  History.)  Consult  G. 
Grote,  Greece,  chap,  xliii,  and  E.  A.  Freeman, 
History  of  Sicily,  4  vols.  (Oxford,  1891-94). 

THEROP'ODA.  See  Dinosauria. 

THERSITES,  ther-sl'tez  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
OepaLrys ) .  In  the  Iliad,  ii,  the  ugliest  and  most 
impudent  talker  among  the  Greeks  assembled 
before  Troy.  He  is  represented  as  reviling  Aga¬ 
memnon  and  Achilles,  and  is  beaten  by  Odysseus 
for  his  insolence.  Later  writers  said  he  was  a 
son  of  Agrios,  brother  of  Gineus,  and  was  slain 
by  Achilles,  whom  he  had  mocked  after  the  death 
of  Pentliesilea. 

THERY,  Edmond  (1854-  ).  A  French 

economist,  born  at  Rognac.  He  was  sent  by  his 
government  to  various  countries  on  economic 
missions,  was  president  of  several  societies,  and 
was  made  Commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
He  wrote:  Sous  Vuniforme  (1879);  Les  re¬ 
formes  economiques  necessaires  (1885);  La 
crise  des  changes  (1894)  ;  Les  valeurs  mobilieres 
en  France  (1897)  ;  Europe  et  Etats-Unis  d’Ame- 
rique  (1899)  ;  Le  peril  jaune  (1901)  ;  La  France 
economique  et  financiere  pendant  le  dernier  quart 
de  sieole  (1900  )  ;  La  paix  armee  (1903)  ;  Etudes 
economiques  et  financieres,  1890-1903  (1904); 
La  banque  de  France  de  1897  d  1909  (1910)  ; 
L’Europe  economique  (1911);  La  fo'i'tune  pub- 
lique  de  France  (1912);  Le  regime  actuel  des 
chemins  de  fer  en  Russie  (1913). 

THESAU'RUS.  See  Dictionary. 

THESE'UM.  See  Athens. 

THESEUS,  the'sus  or  the'se-us  (Lat.,  from 
Gk.  Qgaevs ) .  The  national  hero  of  the  Athe¬ 
nians,  and,  next  to  Hercules,  the  most  famous 
character  of  Greek  legend.  His  story  owes  its 
prominence  largely  to  the  influence  of  Athens 
in  Greek  art  and  literature,  for  in  the  epic  The¬ 
seus  has  but  small  place.  A  doubtful  verse  in 
the  Iliads  associates  him,  not  with  Athens,  but 
with  the  Thessalian  Lapithae  and  their  conflict 
with  the  Centaurs,  and  he  appears  in  the  late 
passage  of  the  Odyssey  (book  xi),  which  de¬ 
scribes  the  visit  of  Odj’sseus  to  the  lower  world. 
The  early  art  knows  only  the  slaying  of  the 
Minotaur  (q.v.),  and  seems  to  have  borrowed 
the  type  from  Mycenaean  tradition.  Though  a 
thoroughly  satisfactory  analysis  of  the  Theseus 
legend  is  still  lacking,  it  seems  probable  that  it 
was  closely  connected  with  the  Marathonian 
tetrapolis,  then  crossed  to  Trcezen,  whence  it  re¬ 
turned  to  Athens.  Its  first  great  development 


occurred  under  the  Pisistratidae,  when  Theseus 
was  recognized  as  the  uniter  of  Attica,  and  the 
type  of  the  gentle  and  just  ruler,  beloved  of  his 
people,  a  sort  of  mythical  predecessor  of  Pisis- 
tratus.  ( See  Athens,  History,  first  para¬ 
graph.)  Soon  after  the  Persian  Avars  the 
democracy  transformed  him  into  its  real  founder 
who  protected  the  injured  from  other  states  and 
forced  Creon  and  Eurystheus  to  observe  justice 
and  humanity.  At  this  time  (473  b.c.)  his 
reputed  bones  were  brought  from  Scyros  to 
Athens  with  great  pomp  by  Cimon,  and  an 
lierobn,  the  Theseum  (q.v.),  Avas  erected.  In 
origin,  Theseus  is  probably  best  considered  as  a 
beneficent  deity,  a  local  parallel  to  Hercules, 
who  slays  monsters  and  gives  peace  and  security 
to  his  Avorshipers,  but,  like  other  nature  divini¬ 
ties,  descends  into  the  loAver  world  and  is  subject 
to  the  poAvers  of  death.  Legend  made  Theseus 
the  son  of  iEtlira,  daughter  of  Pittheus,  King 
of  Trcezen.  His  father  Avas  commonly  said  to  be 
iEgeus,  King  of  Athens,  though  early  legend  rec¬ 
ognized  the  paternity  of  Poseidon.  (The  tAvo 
versions  are  really  the  same,  HCgeus  being  origi¬ 
nally  a  name  of  the  sea  god. )  He  Avas  brought  up 
at  Trcezen,  and  on  reaching  manhood  proceeded 
to  his  father’s  residence  at  Athens.  On  his  Avay 
thither  across  the  isthmus  he  destroyed  robbers 
and  monsters  Avho  rendered  the  route  unsafe  for 
travelers,  such  as  Periphetes,  Sinis,  the  Crom- 
myonian  soav,  Sciron,  Cercyon,  and  Procrustes. 
(See  Procrustes.)  On  his  arrival  in  Athens  he 
found  the  sorceress  Medea  (q.v.)  living  as  his 
father’s  wife,  and  escaped  her  attempt  to  poison 
him  only  through  iEgeus’  timely  recognition  of 
his  own  SAVord  and  sandals,  AAThich  he  had  left 
in  Trcezen  for  his  son.  Medea  fled  and  Theseus 
overcame  Pallas  and  his  sons,  who  attempted  to 
secure  the  royal  poAver.  He  also  bound  the  Mara¬ 
thonian  bull,  Avhich  Avas  ravaging  the  tetrap¬ 
olis.  Then  came  the  expedition  to  Crete  to 
deliver  Athens  from  its  tribute  to  the  Minotaur 
(q.v.).  On  this  voyage  he  proved  his  descent 
from  Poseidon  by  bringing  back  the  ring  of 
Minos  from  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and  by  the 
help  of  Ariadne  (q.v.)  killed  the  Minotaur.  On 
his  Avay  back  he  founded  a  festival  of  Apollo  at 
Delos,  to  which  the  Athenians  ever  after  sent  an 
annual  embassy. 

As  his  father,  iEgeus,  had  destroyed  himself  in 
the  belief  that  his  son  had  perished  in  Crete, 
Theseus  noAv  became  King  of  Athens  and  con¬ 
solidated  into  one  state  the  tAvelve  independent 
communities  of  Attica,  in  celebration  of  which 
event  was  instituted  the  festival  of  the  Panathe- 
ntea  (q.v.).  That  the  festival  commemorated  such 
an  event  is  probable,  but  this  does  not  proA7e  the 
historical  personality  of  Theseus.  Legend  also 
told  of  his  friendship  for  the  Lapith  King  Piri- 
thofis,  at  Avhose  Avedding  he  fought  the  Centaurs 
( see  Lapith^e  ) ,  with  A\rhose  aid  he  carried  off 
Helen  to  Aphidna,  and  with  AAdiom  he  finally 
descended  to  the  loAver  world  that  his  friend 
might  carry  off  Persephone  as  his  bride.  Piri- 
thoiis  never  returned,  and  Theseus  remained  in 
captivity  till  Hercules,  on  his  quest  for  Cerberus, 
prevailed  on  Hades  to  release  him.  Athenian 
legend  also  told  of  the  great  invasion  of  the 
Amazons  (q.v.)  in  his  reign,  of  the  straits  to 
Avhich  they  reduced  the  Athenians,  and  of  their 
final  rout  by  the  hero,  aat]io  secured  as  Avife 
their  queen,  Antiope  or  Hippolyta  (q.v.),  by 
whom  he  had  a  son,  Hippolytus.  Later  he  mar¬ 
ried  Phaedra  (q.v.),  daughter  of  Minos  and 
sister  of  Ariadne.  It  was  said  that  during  his 


209 


THESMOPHORIA 

absence  in  the  lower  world  Menestheus,  with  the 
help  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  who  had  come  to  res¬ 
cue  Helen,  made  himself  King,  and  that  Theseus, 
unable  to  reestablish  his  authority,  went  to  Scy- 
ros,  where  he  was  murdered  by  Lycomedes 
(q.v. ).  Much  in  the  character  of  Theseus  as  it 
appears  in  legend  seems  due  to  Athenian  de¬ 
sire  to  represent  their  national  hero  as  the 
embodiment  in  heroic  times  of  the  virtues  on 
which  they  prided  themselves  in  historic  times, 
and  which  the  great  heroes  of  the  national  epic 
often  conspicuously  lacked.  Consult:  J.  E.  Har¬ 
rison,  Mythology  and  Monuments  of  Ancient 
Athens  (London,  1890);  Otto  Gruppe,  Griech- 
ische  Mythologie  und  Religionsgescliichte  (2 
yols.,  Munich,  1896)  ;  and  the  article  “Theseus” 
in  Friedrich  Liibker,  Reallexikon  des  klassischen 
Altertums  (8th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914). 

THES'MOFHO'RIA.  See  Greek  Festivals. 
THES'MQFHOR'XAZTUSiE  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
Qe<jfio(popiat;ov<jai,  Th  esm  op  horiazousai,  women 

celebrating  the  Thesmophoria ) .  A  comedy  by 
Aristophanes  (about  410  b.c.).  It  is  aimed 
against  Euripides  for  his  innovations  and  his 
dislike  for  women,  on  account  of  which  he  is 
dragged  to  justice  by  women  taking  part  in  the 
Thesmophoria. 

THESPE'SIUS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  Qeairecnos, 
divinely  sounding,  divine).  An  herbivorous 
ornithopod  dinosaur,  allied  to  Hadrosaurus  and 
Iguanodon,  which  it  closely  resembles,  found 
fossil  in  the  Upper  Cretaceous  beds  of  Colorado, 
Wyoming,  and  Montana.  It  is  a  large  animal, 
25  to  30  feet  long  and  10  to  15  feet  high,  with 
medium-sized  head,  small,  almost  useless  fore 
limbs,  and  well-developed  three-toed  hind  limbs 
upon  which  it  ran  in  bipedal  motion,  using  its 
heavy  tail  to  balance  the  forward  portion  of  the 
body.  Another  namq  for  this  creature  is  Clao- 
eaurus.  A  complete  skeleton  of  this  animal, 
mounted  as  if  in  the  act  of  running,  is  in  the 
museum  of  Yale  University.  Consult :  O.  C. 
Marsh,  “The  Dinosaurs  of  North  America,”  in 
Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  vol.  xvi,  part  i  (Washington,  1896)  ; 
Beecher,  “The  Reconstruction  of  a  Cretaceous 
Dinosaur,  Claosaurus  annectans  Marsh,”  in 
Transactions  of  the  Connecticut  Academy  of 
Sciences,  vol.  xi  (New  Haven,  1902).  See 
Dinosauria. 

THES'PLffi  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Oetrireial,  Thes- 
peiai,  Oeamal,  Tliespiai) ,  or  Thespia.  An  an¬ 
cient  town  in  Boeotia,  near  the  foot  of  Mount 
Helicon.  Like  Plataea  (q.v.),  it  was  hostile  to 
the  Theban  pretension  to  supremacy  in  Boeotia 
(see  Thebes),  and  these  two  were  the  only 
Boeotian  cities  which  refused  to  give  earth  and 
water  to  the  heralds  of  Xerxes  and  did  not  side 
with  the  Persians  at  the  battle  of  Salamis.  Seven 
hundred  Thespians  joined  Leonidas  at  Ther¬ 
mopylae  (q.v.),  and  were  slain  in  defending  the 
pass.  Thespiss  was  burned  by  Xerxes,  but  was 
subsequently  rebuilt.  Shortly  after  the  battle 
of  Leuctra  (371  b.c.)  it  was  again  destroyed, 
and  was  afterward  a  second  time  restored.  Here 
was  preserved  a  marble  statue  of  Eros  by  Prax¬ 
iteles  (q.v.).  On  account  of  the  vicinity  of 
Mount  Helicon  to  the  town  the  Muses  were 
called  ThespiaMes.  The  site  of  the  ancient  town 
was  near  the  modern  village  of  Eremokastro. 

THES'PIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Oea-TTLs) .  A  na¬ 
tive  of  the  Attic  deme  of  Icarus  in  the  sixth  cen¬ 
tury  b.c.,  called  the  father  of  Greek  tragedy.  He 
introduced  an  actor  to  reply  to  the  leader  of 
the  chorus,  who  before  had  recited  the  adven- 


THESSALONIANS 

tures  of  Dionysus  and  had  been  answered  by  the 
chorus,  and  thus  made  an  important  step  towards 
the  drama. 

TIIES'SALO'NIANS,  Epistles  to  the.  Two 
°f.  ^ie  Pauline  group  of  New  Testament 
epistles.  At  Ihessalonica,  the  modern  Salonika, 
then  the  capital  of  the  Roman  Province  of  Mace¬ 
donia,  a  Christian  church  was  founded  by  Paul, 
assisted  by  Silas  (Silvanus),  about  50  a.d.,  on 
the  Apostle’s  second  missionary  journey  (cf. 
Acts  xvii.  1-9).  This  church  was  composed,  like 
most  of  Paul  s  churches,  of  a  small  number  of 
converts  from  the  local  Jewish  synagogue,  to¬ 
gether  with  a  much  larger  number  of  Gentile 
Christians.  The  Jews  of  the  city,  however,  be¬ 
came  so  violently  hostile  that  the  missionaries, 
after  a  stay  of  not  more  than  a  few  months,  felt 
that  it  was  best  to  leave,  although  the  church 
was  still  very  immature.  From  Beroea,  the  next 
stopping  place  of  the  missionaries,  Paul  was 
driven  by  persecution  started  by  Jews  from  Thes¬ 
salonica.  He  went  on  to  Athens  and  eventually  to 
Corinth,  where  he  remained  a  year  and  a  half  ("un¬ 
til  the  fall  of  51  a.d.).  Anxious  and  uncertain 
over  the  condition  of  things  at  Thessalonica,  from 
Athens  Paul  sent  Timothy  thither  to  strengthen 
and  comfort  the  infant  church  (1  Thess.  iii.  1-2). 
Timothy  rejoined  Paul  at  Corinth  with  a  report 
that  rejoiced  the  Apostle’s  heart.  The  young 
church  was  indeed  tried  and  persecuted,  but 
thoroughly  loyal  to  the  faith  and  full  of  love 
for  the  missionaries.  At  the  same  time  Paul 
perceived  that  on  certain  matters  the  church 
was  in  sore  need  of  sound  advice.  Unable  to 
go  to  it  in  person,  he  sent  a  letter,  now  known 
as  1^  Thessalonians,  probably  the  earliest  of 
Paul  s  letters  still  extant.  Though  written  in 
the  name  of  the  three  missionaries  (i.  1),  the 
letter  was  essentially  Paul’s  own.  After  the 
usual  epistolary  greeting  (i.  1)  the  writers 
fervently  thank  God  as  they  recall  how  heartily 
the  Thessalonians  had  received  the  gospel  mes¬ 
sage,  and  for  their  exemplary  devotion  to  the 
gospel  ever  since  (i.  2-10).  Fearing  lest  their 
sudden  departure  from  Thessalonica  might  have 
given  rise  to  suspicions  or  even  charges  that 
they  were  impostors,  the  missionaries  protest 
their  sincerity  and  unselfish  love,  which  must 
have  been  evident  to  all  the  brethren  (ii.  1-12), 
and  are  thankful  that  their  message  had  been 
received  as  the  word  of  God,  although  persecu¬ 
tion  was  the  result  (ii.  13-16).  They  are  re¬ 
minded  how  Paul  had  earnestly  desired  to  re¬ 
visit  them  but  was  prevented  (ii.  17-20).  He 
had  therefore  sent  Timothy  (iii.  1-5),  who  had 
just  returned  with  a  most  comforting  report 
(iii.  6-10).  He  prays  that  he  may  be  guided  to 
see  them  again  and  that  they  may  be  preserved 
perfect  unto  the  end  (iii.  11-13).  The  letter 
now  becomes  less  personal  and  more  didactic. 
The  readers  are  reminded  that  they  must  live 
pure  and  holy  lives  (iv.  1-8)  and  abound  in 
brotherly  love  (iv.  9-12).  Those  who  had  re¬ 
cently  been  bereaved  and  were  in  fear  that  be¬ 
lievers  who  died  before  the  Parousia  would  not 
share  in  its  glory  and  blessing  are  comforted  by 
the  assurance  that  such  will  not  be  the  case 
(iv.  13-18).  The  teaching  is  added  that  the 
Parousia,  though  it  will  come  suddenly,  will 
bring  no  disaster  to  those  who  are  watchful 
and  faithful  (v.  1-11).  After  a  number  of  brief 
practical  exhortations  the  letter  closes  with  a 
prayer,  injunction  as  to  its  being  read  to  all, 
and  a  benediction  (v.  12-28).  The  whole  letter 
doubtless  reflects  the  general  character  of  Tim- 


THESSALONIANS 


210 


THESSALY 


othy’s  report  of  conditions  at  Thessalonica.  But 
it  is  more  than  a  message  based  on  that  report. 
It  also  reflects  and  unveils  the  Apostle’s  own 
state  of  mind  as  he  thought  of  himself  and  his 
message  in  connection  with  that  little  company 
of  believers,  bereft  of  his  counsel  and  subject 
to  trial  and  persecution.  The  epistle  is  a  most 
valuable  witness  to  Paul's  love  for  and  devotion 
to  his  converts.  The  absence  of  doctrinal  dis¬ 
cussion  incidentally  reveals  how  comparatively 
simple  Paul’s  missionary  preaching  was.  This 
infant  church,  but  a  few  months  old,  was  not 
prepared  for  such  deep  discussions  as  are  con¬ 
tained  in  Romans.  1  Thessalonians  bears  on  its 
face  so  unmistakably  the  stamp  of  genuineness 
that  it  is  accepted  as  Paul’s  by  practically  all 
modern  scholars. 

This  letter,  no  doubt,  was  eagerly  read  by  the 
believers  at  Thessalonica  and  its  admonitions 
heeded.  In  the  meantime  Paul  was  busy  with 
his  missionary  work  in  Corinth.  During  this 
period  Paul  iearned,  presumably  through  mes¬ 
sengers  from  Thessalonica,  that  while  the  gen¬ 
eral  condition  of  the  church  there  was  satis¬ 
factory,  yet  on  some  points  it  was  in  need  of 
further  instruction  or  admonition.  In  particu¬ 
lar  the  expectation  of  the  speedy  second  coming 
of  Christ  was  causing  some  a  great  deal  of 
anxiety,  and  in  other  cases  leading  to  the  ex¬ 
pression  of  startling  views.  Paul’s  teaching  on 
this  subject  was  as  yet  only  imperfectly  under¬ 
stood.  What  he  had  said  on  this  matter  in  his 
first  letter  had  produced  on  some  an  effect  other 
than  that  intended  by  the  Apostle.  Certain 
ones,  perhaps  those  of  a  more  excitable  tempera¬ 
ment,  were  asserting  that  the  Parousia  was  im¬ 
mediately  impending  (cf.  2  Thess.  ii.  2),  even 
claiming  (so  it  was  told  Paul)  that  letters  from 
Paul  contained  such  teaching.  Such  agitation 
led  some  to  neglect  their  everyday  duty  (cf. 
2  Thess.  iii.  10)  or  to  be  less  careful  to  main¬ 
tain  that  high  moral  standard  of  conduct  that 
Paul  always  made  absolutely  essential  (cf. 
2  Thess.  iii.  6-15).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
way  Paul  had  emphasized  (in  1  Thess.  v.  1-11) 
the  idea  that  the  day  of  the  Lord  would  take 
swift  vengeance  on  all  the  wicked  had  apparently 
led  some  oversensitive  souls  to  be  discouraged 
and  feel  that  they  were  unworthy  of  being  in¬ 
cluded  among  the  blessed  ones  destined  to  be 
‘‘ever  with  the  Lord”  after  his  Parousia. 
Mainly,  then,  to  reassure  the  timid  and  dis¬ 
heartened,  to  discourage  unwarranted  expecta¬ 
tion  as  to  the  immediateness  of  the  second  ad¬ 
vent,  and  to  give  helpful,  practical  advice,  such 
was  the  purpose  of  Paul  in  writing  2  Thessalon¬ 
ians.  The  encouraging  character  of  the  extended 
thanksgiving  section  (i.  3-12),  the  special  dis¬ 
cussion  of  the  Parousia  (ii.  1-12),  in  which  it  is 
explained  that  first  there  must  be  a  great  mani¬ 
festation  of  wickedness  which  is  now  held  in 
restraint  (by  the  Roman  government  with  its 
insistence  on  law  and  order?),  the  words  of  en¬ 
couragement  in  ii.  13—16,  and  the  practical  ad¬ 
vice  in  iii. — all  these  appear  perfectly  natural 
and  in  order  in  the  light  of  such  a  purpose. 

The  Pauline  authorship  of  2  Thessalonians  has 
been  seriously  questioned.  At  present,  however, 
the  acceptance  of  it  as  Paul’s  lias  become  more 
general.  The  grounds  for  assigning  it  to  some 
post-Pauline  writer  which  are  entitled  to  serious 
consideration  are  in  the  main  two :  ( a)  the  many 
close  resemblances  to  1  Thessalonians  in  vocabu¬ 
lary  and  style,  and  (6)  the  difference  between 
the  two  letters  in  the  treatment  of  the  subject 


of  the  Parousia  (1  Thess.  iv.  13-v.  11,  compared 
with  2  Thess.  ii.  1-12).  The  significance  of 
(a)  is  thought  to  be  that  it  indicates  the  work 
of  a  forger,  using  1  Thessalonians  as  his  model, 
while  (b)  is  said  to  prove  diversity  of  authorship. 
For  a  full  discussion  of  these  points  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  commentaries  noted  below. 
The  explanation  given  above  of  the  purpose  of 
2  Thessalonians  fully  meets,  it  is  believed,  these 
objections. 

In  both  letters  Paul  the  missionary  is  revealed 
as  in  no  other  of  his  extant  letters.  The  general 
character  of  his  missionary  preaching,  his  large 
sympathy  and  his  patience  with  the  faults  and 
limitations  of  his  converts,  his  high  hopes  for 
and  ideal  confidence  in  them,  his  anxious  care  for 
their  moral  and  spiritual  welfare,  his  firm  in¬ 
sistence  on  morality  (purity,  temperance,  in¬ 
dustry,  honesty,  etc. ) ,  and,  behind  all,  the 
Apostle’s  own  personal  consecration  and  faith — 
for  all  this  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians 
will  ever  remain  among  the  most  precious  me¬ 
morials  of  the  apostolic  age. 

Bibliography.  The  earlier  literature  on  these 
Epistles  is  amply  reviewed  in  the  larger  modern 
commentaries  and  need  not  be  cited  here.  Con¬ 
sult:  the  Introductions  of  Theodor  Zahn  (Ed¬ 
inburgh,  1909)  and  of  James  Moffatt  (New 
York,  1911),  and  for  commentaries:  W.  Borne- 
mann  in  the  Meyer  series  (6th  ed.,  Gottingen, 
1894)  ;  George  Milligan  (London,  1908)  ;  E.  von 
Dobschiitz  in  the  Meyer  series  (Ttli  ed.,  Gottin¬ 
gen,  1909),  in  many  respects  the  best  modern 
commentary  on  these  Epistles;  James  Moffatt, 
in  Expositor’s  Greeh  Testament  (New  York, 
1910)  ;  J.  E.  Frame,  in  International  Critical 
Commentary  ( ib.,  1912). 

THES'SALQNFCA  (Gk.  QeaaaXovlKy) .  An 
ancient  Greek  city,  on  the  northeastern  shore 
of  the  Tliermaic  Gulf  ill  Mygdonia.  Tradi¬ 
tion  told  of  an  early  city,  Eumathia  or  Halia, 
on  this  site,  but  the  historical  Greek  city  ap¬ 
pears  in  Herodotus  and  Thucydides  as  Thermae,  a 
name  due  to  the  presence  of  hot  springs  in  the 
neighborhood.  The  exact  origin  of  the  later 
name,  which  appears  in  Polybius,  is  uncertain. 
Most  probable  is  the  story  of  Strabo,  that  the 
town  was  enlarged  and  in  part  rebuilt  in  315  b.c. 
by  Cassander,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  his  wife, 
Thessalonica,  the  daughter  of  Philip  of  Macedon. 
Its  strong  fortifications  enabled  it  to  repel  a 
Roman  attack,  and  after  the  Roman  conquest  of 
Macedonia  (146  b.c.)  it  became  one  of  the  chief 
cities  of  the  province.  Situated  on  the  great  Via 
Egnatia,  it  attracted  a  large  trade  by  land  and 
sea,  while  the  support  given  to  Mark  Antony 
and  Octavian  seems  to  have  made  it  a  free  city. 
It  contained  a  considerable  Jewish  colony,  and 
was  the  seat  of  a  Christian  church,  founded  by 
the  Apostle  Paul.  It  was  severely  punished  by 
the  Emperor  Theodosius  I,  when  7000  citizens 
are  said  to  have  perished  because  of  an  uprising, 
but  appears  in  the  later  history  of  the  Empire 
as  a  strong  defense  against  the  Goths  and  Slavs. 
It  was,  however,  captured  by  the  Saracens  in 
904  a.d.,  by  the  Normans  in  1185,  and  finally  by 
the  Turks  in  1430.  For  the  modern  city,  see 
Saloniki. 

THES'SALY  (Lat.  Thessalia,  from  Gk.  9e<r- 
craXta,  Attic  9 erraXta,  Thettalia,  Thessaly,  from 
9 eo-<xaX6s,  Thessalos,  Attic  9 erraXos,  Thettalos, 
Thessalian) .  The  largest  division  of  ancient 
Greece,  separated  on  the  north  from  Macedonia 
by  the  Cambunian  Mountains,  and  on  the  west 
from  Epirus  by  the  Pindus  range.  The  JEgean 


THESSALY 


21 1 


THETIS 


Sea  is  on  the  east.  ( Map :  Greece,  Ancient,  C 
2. )  J  hough  Achaea,  yEnis,  and  Malis  can  prop¬ 
erly  be  included  in  the  general  term,  Thessaly 
proper  reaches  only  to  the  range  which  extends 
from  Pindus  to  the  head  of  the  Pagasaean  Gulf. 
Others,  who  include  Achaea  (Phthiotis),  call 
Mount  Othrys  the  southern  boundary.  Thessaly 
proper  is  a  vast  plain  shut  in  on  every  side  by 
mountains;  on  the  north  and  the  west  by  those 
already  named,  and  on  the  east  by  mounts 
Pelion  and  Ossa,  the  only  opening  being  the  Vale 
of  Tempe  (q.v. )  in  the  northeast  between  Ossa 
and  Olympus.  The  plain  of  Thessaly  is  said  at 
one  time  to  have  been  a  vast  lake,  the  waters  of 
which  found  an  outlet  by  the  Vale  of  Tempe. 
rJ  his  plain  is  drained  chiefly  by  the  river  Peneus 
(now  Salambria)  and  its  tributaries,  and  is  the 
most  fertile  in  all  Greece;  it  produced  in  ancient 
times  abundance  of  grain  and  cattle,  and  a  breed 
of  horses  considered  the  finest  in  Greece,  and  it 
still  yields  large  crops. 

History.  In  the  epic,  Thessaly  seems  inhab¬ 
ited  by  a  number  of  tribes,  among  whom  are  the 
Pelasgians  of  the  Peneus  valley,  and  the  Ach- 
ceans  and  Hellenes  in  the  south.  During  the 
migrations  that  marked  the  period  between  the 
heroic  age  and  that  of  historical  Greece,  tribes 
from  the  mountains  of  Epirus  and  the  north 
pushed  into  this  region,  driving  out  or  subju¬ 
gating  the  inhabitants.  Part  of  these  latter 
migrated  to  Asia  Minor,  where  they  colonized 
,/Eolis.  The  Boeotians,  too,  were  said  to  have 
been  crowded  out  by  the  newcomers,  blit  it  is 
probable  that  Boeotians  and  Phocians  were  really 
the  vanguard  of  the  invaders.  The  conquerors 
settled  in  the  Peneus  valley,  reducing  the  orig¬ 
inal  owners  to  serfs  of  the  soil,  who  cultivated 
the  land  on  their  own  account,  paying  a  fixed 
proportion  to  the  owners.  These  Penestse,  as 
they  were  called,  could  not  be  sold  out  of  the 
(Country  nor  put  to  death  without  a  trial.  The 
Thessalians  themselves  constituted  a  landed  no¬ 
bility  gathered  about  the  cities.  In  these  cities 
a  few  great  families  exercised  almost  unlimited 
power.  Of  these,  in  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries 
B.c.,  the  most  famous  were  the  Aleuadae  of  La¬ 
rissa  and  the  Scopadae  of  Crannon  and  Pharsalus. 
The  league  between  the  cities  was  a  loose  one, 
and  there,  was  no  supreme  authority,  except  as 
some  family  obtained  a  leading  position.  Four 
districts  were  recognized  from  early  times, 
Hestiaeotis  at  the  north,  Thessaliotis  and  Pelas- 
giotis  in  the  centre,  and  Phthiotis  in  the  south, 
each  of  which  in  the  fourth  century  was  led  by  a 
polemarch.  A  general  council  seems  to  have  met 
when  any  occasion  calling  for  united  action 
arose,  and  in  war  a  general  called  the  tagus 
(Tcryos)  was  chosen  as  commander  in  chief.  The 
league  was  thus  essentially  military,  but  there 
must  have  been  a  well-established  system,  for 
in  the  sixth  century  b.c.  the  Thessalians  were 
threatening  to  extend  their  power  over  southern 
Greece,  and  seem  at  one  time  to  have  occupied 
Phocis.  Their  strength  was  in  their  cavalry, 
composed  of  the  nobles,  to  which  were  added 
peltasts  or  light  infantry,  composed  probably  of 
Penestae. 

The  Thessalians  soon  brought  under  their  rule 
the  mountainous  districts  surrounding  the 
Peneus  valley,  occupied  by  the  Perrhaebians, 
Magnetes,  and  Achaeans  of  Phthiotis,  who  as  in¬ 
dependent  tribes  had  places  in  the  Amphictvonic 
Council  (q.v.),  but  later  paid  tribute  and  mili¬ 
tary  service  to  the  Thessalians.  The  other  bor¬ 
der  tribes  (Dolopians,  iEnianians,  and  Malians) 


were  also  in  actual,  if  not  nominal,  depend¬ 
ence.  The  power  of  Thessaly  received  a  check 
at  the  hands  of  the  Phocians,  and  after  the 
Persian  wars  it  played  but  a  small  part  in  Greek 
history,  until,  in  the  fourth  century  b.c.  for  a 
brief  period  it  was  united  under  the  rule  of  the 
able  tyrant  of  Pherse,  Jason,  who  secured  his 
election  as  tagus,  collected  a  strong  force  of  cav¬ 
alry  and  mercenary  infantry,  organized  a  fleet, 
and  at  the  time  of  his  assassination  (370  b.c.) 
seemed  likely  to  anticipate  the  career  of  Philip 
of  Macedon.  His  successors  were  blood-thirsty 
tyrants  and  the  united  Thessaly  was  quickly 
dissolved,  though  the  old  district  organization 
was  revived  under  the  influence  of  Pelopidas 
(q.v.)  and  the  Thebans.  During  the  Sacred 
wars  (q.v.)  the  country  was  at  one  time  occu¬ 
pied  by  the  Phocians,  but  in  352  b.c.  passed 
under  Macedonian  control,  and  in  344  b.c.  Philip 
was  elected  arclion  (the  new  name  of  the  tagus) 
of  Thessaly  and  the  country  was  virtually  united 
to  Macedon.  Thessaly  remained  subject  to  the 
Macedonian  kings  till  the  victory  of  Flamininus, 
at  Cynoscephalae,  in  197  b.c.,  placed  it  under  the 
protection  of  Rome.  Under  the  Roman  emperors 
Thessaly  .was  united  with  Macedonia,  but  after 
Constantine  it  was  a  separate  province.  In  1204, 
with  other  portions  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  it 
came  under  the  dominion  of  the  Venetians, 
and  in  the  fourteenth  century  it  was  conquered 
by  the  Turks.  The  southern  part  of  Thessaly 
was  freed  from  Turkish  rule  at  the  time  of  the 
Greek  Revolution.  The  bulk  of  the  region  was 
ceded  to  Greece  in  1881  as  a  result  of  the  de¬ 
mand  of  the  Great  Powers  made  on  the  conclu¬ 
sion  of  the  Russo-Turkisli  War.  A  small  moun¬ 
tainous  district  in  the  north  still  belongs  to 
Turkey.  In  1897  Thessaly  was  the  principal 
seat  of  the  Greco-Turkish  War,  the  Turks 
forcing  the  Milouna  and  Raveni  passes,  in  the 
Olympian  range,  on  the  frontier,  and  finally  oc¬ 
cupying  Larissa.  Thessaly  comprises  the  nomes 
of  Phthiotis,  Larissa,  Karditsa,  Trikkala,  and 
Magnesia.  Consult:  W.  M.  Leake,  Travels  in 
Northern  Greece  (4  vols.,  London,  1835)  ;  A. 
Philippson,  Thessalien  und  Epirus  ( Berlin, 
1897)  ;  R.  G.  Kent,  A  History  of  Thessaly  from 
the  Earliest  Historical  Times  to  the  Accession 
of  Philip  V  of  Macedon  (Lancaster,  Pa.,  1904)  ; 
K.  Baedeker,  Greece  (4th  Eng.  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1909)  ;  Wace  and  Thompson,  Prehistoric  Thes¬ 
saly  (Cambridge,  1912). 

THET'FOR-D.  A  municipal  and  Parliamen¬ 
tary  borough  and  market  town  in  Norfolk,  Eng¬ 
land,  on  the  Little  Ouse,  79  miles  northeast  of 
London  (Map:  England,  G  4).  It  has  an  event¬ 
ful  history  and  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III  con¬ 
tained  eight  monasteries  and  twenty  churches.  Its 
most  important  relic  of  antiquity  is  the  castle 
hill,  a  mound  1000  feet  in  circumference  and  100 
feet  high,  probably  the  largest  Celtic  earthwork 
in  England.  Pop.,  1901,  4600;  1911,  4778. 

THETEORD  MINES.  A  town  in  Megantic 
County,  Quebec,  Canada,  on  the  Quebec  Central 
Railway,  76  miles  by  rail  south  of  the  city  of 
Quebec.  There  are  asbestos  mines  in  the  vicin¬ 
ity,  and  the  town  has  various  manufactures. 
Pop.,  1901,  3256;  1911,  7261. 

THE'TIS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Gens).  The  most 
famous  of  the  Nereids  (q.v.),  daughter  of 
Nereus  and  the  Oceanid  Doris.  She  was 
loved  by  both  Zeus  and  Poseidon.  When 
Themis  prophesied  that  her  son  would  be 
mightier  than  his  father  the  gods  desisted  from 
their  suit  and  compelled  her  to  wed  Peleus 


THETIS’S  HAIR  STONE 


212 


THICKHEAD  ELY 


(q.v.).  By  Peleus  she  became  the  mother  of 
Achilles  (q.v.)*  In  Homer  she  is  represented  as 
living  with  her  father  in  the  depths  of  the  sea. 
She  was  said  to  have  protected  Dionysus  when 
he  fled  from  Lycurgus,  and  to  have  tended 
Hephaestus  when  he  was  hurled  from  heaven  by 
Hera. 

THETIS’S  HAIR  STONE.  See  Rock 

Crystal. 

THEURIET,  te're'a',  Andre  (1833-1907).  A 
French  poet  and  novelist,  born  in  Marly-le-Roi 
( Seine-et-Oise) .  He  studied  law  in  Paris,  began 
practice  in  1857,  and  soon  afterward  accepted  a 
position  in  a  department  of  the  Ministry  of 
Finance.  His  interests  soon  had  turned  to  liter¬ 
ature.  His  favorite  field  is  the  provincial  idyl 
of  humble  life.  His  first  poems  were  entitled 
Le  chemin  des  bois  (1867).  The  human  figures 
are  hewers  of  wood  whose  struggles  the  poet 
describes  truthfully  and  with  feeling.  Le  bleu 
et  le  noir,  poemes  de  la  vie  reelle  ( 1876)  is  among 
his  best  volumes  of  verse.  Theuriet  describes 
Breton  landscapes  with  charming  touches.  Of 
about  sixty  volumes  of  fiction  the  best  are  Le 
mariage  de  Gerard  (1875;  Eng.  trans.,  1906) 
and  Amour  d'automne  (1888).  He  also  wrote: 
Reine  des  hois  (1890)  ;  La  Chanoinesse  (1893)  ; 
La  scaur  de  lait  (1902)  ;  Godson  of  a  Marquis 
( 1906) .  The  nearest  analogue  to  his  best  fiction 
is  the  pastoral  work  of  George  Sand,  but  his 
style,  marked  by  occasional  archaisms,  more 
nearly  resembles  that  of  Bernardin  or  of  Rous¬ 
seau.  In  the  drama,  Theuriet  wrote  Jean-Marie 
(1871)  ;  La  maison  des  deux  Barbeaux  (1885)  ; 
and  Jours  d’ete  (1901).  In  1896  he  was  elected 
to  the  Academy. 

THEVENET,  tav'na',  Marius  (1845-1910). 
A  French  politician,  born  in  Lyons.  He  studied 
law  and  gained  great  distinction  at  the  bar  of 
his  native  city,  and  was  elected  a  deputy  from 
the  Department  of  the  Rhone  in  1885.  He  was 
appointed  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  Wor¬ 
ship  Feb.  22,  1889,  in  the  second  cabinet  of  Ti- 
rard.  He  displayed  great  activity  in  this  po¬ 
sition  in  the  suppression  of  Boulangism,  and 
vigorously  prosecuted  Paul  Deroulede  as  chief 
of  the  League  of  Patriots.  He  was  reelected 
deputy  in  1889,  lost  his  portfolio  at  the  fall  of 
the  ministry,  March  17,  1890,  and  in  1892  was 
elected  Senator  from  the  Department  of  the 
Rhone.  He  was  implicated  in  the  Panama  scan¬ 
dal,  but  escaped  prosecution.  His  militant  at¬ 
titude  in  the  Dreyfus  affair  caused  him  to  fail 
of  reelection  to  the  Senate  in  1900. 

THIBAUDEAU,  te'bo'do',  Antoine  Claire, 
Count  (1765-1854).  A  French  statesman  and 
historian,  born  at  Poitiers.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  French  Revolution  he  was  a  lawyer  in  his 
native  city.  Lie  was  elected  to  the  Convention  in 
1792,  joined  the  party  of  the  Mountain,  and 
voted  for  the  death  of  the  King.  In  1796  he  was 
chosen  President  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun¬ 
dred.  He  abandoned  his  extreme  views,  opposed 
the  coup  of  the  18th  Fructidor  (Sept.  4,  1797), 
and  was  saved  from  deportation  by  the  inter¬ 
vention  of  friends.  After  the  coup  of  the  18th 
Brumaire  (Nov.  9,  1799)  he  was  made  Prefect 
of  Bordeaux,  and  held  the  position  of  Councilor 
of  State  till  1808.  In  that  year  lie  became 
Prefect  of  the  Department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone. 
He  helped  in  the  collaboration  of  the  Code  and 
was  made  Count  of  the  Empire  in  1809.  On 
the  second  return  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  pro¬ 
scribed  as  a  regicide  and  lived  abroad  till  the 
revolution  of  1830.  He  was  made  a  Senator  by 


Napoleon  III,  and  died  in  Paris,  March  8,  1854. 
He  wrote:  Memoires  sur  la  Convention  et  le 
Directoire  (1824);  Memoires  sur  le  Consulat 
(1827);  Histoire  generalc  de  Fapoleon  Bona¬ 
parte  (1828)  ;  Le  Consulat  et  VEmpire  (1835)  ; 
Histoire  des  Etats  Generaux  et  des  institutions 
representatives  en  France  (1843).  His  auto¬ 
biography  appeared  in  1875. 

THIBAULT,  te'bo',  Jacques  Anatole.  See 
France,  Anatole. 

THIBAUT,  te'bo',  or  THEOBALD,  I  (1201- 

53J,  King  of  Navarre  from  1234  to  1253,  origin¬ 
ally  Count  of  Champagne  and  Brie.  He  was  born 
in  France  and  educated  at  the  court  of  Philip 
Augustus.  He  is  said  to  have  been  in  love  with 
Blanche  of  Castile,  Queen  of  Louis  VIII,  and 
when  Louis  died,  in  1226,  some  suspected  that 
he  had  been  poisoned  by  Thibaut.  The  latter  at 
first  allied  himself  with  the  league  of  nobles 
against  Blanche,  Regent  during  the  minority  of 
her  son,  but  was  soon  won  over  by  her.  On  the 
death  of  his  uncle,  Sancho  the  Strong  of  Na¬ 
varre,  in  1234,  he  succeeded  to  that  Kingdom. 
He  went  to  Palestine  in  1239,  but  was  badly  de¬ 
feated  at  Gaza.  He  was  a  friend  of  literature 
and  a  trouvere  of  no  mean  order,  Dante  and 
Petrarch  being  among  his  admirers.  His  poems 
were  first  published  by  Levesque  de  la  Ravalliere 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1742),  and  have  been  repub¬ 
lished  several  times  since.  Consult  Ernest  La- 
visse,  Histoire  de  France,  vol.  iii,  part  vi 
(Paris,  1901). 

THIBAUT,  Anton  Friedrich  Justus  ( 1772— 
1840).  A  German  jurist.  He  was  born  at 
Hameln,  and  studied  at  Gottingen,  Konigsberg, 
and  Kiel,  at  which  latter  university  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  civil  law  in  1798.  In 
1802-06  he  was  professor  at  Jena,  where  he 
became  a  friend  of  Goethe  and  Schiller.  In  the 
latter  year  he  went  as  professor  of  civil  law  to 
Heidelberg,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
He  published:  Tlieorie  der  logischen  Auslegung 
des  romisehen  Rechts  (1799;  2d  ed.,  1806); 
Ueber  Besitz  und  Verjahrung  (1802);  System 
des  Bandelet enrechts  (2  vols.,  1803;  9th  ed., 
1846);  Zivilistiscke  A  bhandhmgen  (1814). 

THIBET,  tib'et  or  ti-bet'.  A  dependency  of 
China.  See  Tibet. 

THIBODAUX,  te'bo -do'.  A  town  and  the 
parish  seat  of  Lafourche  Parish,  La.,  47  miles 
west  by  south  of  New  Orleans,  on  Bayou  La¬ 
fourche,  and  on  the  Texas  and  Pacific  and 
Morgan’s  Louisiana  and  Texas  railroads  (Map: 
Louisiana,  LI  7).  It  derives  considerable  com¬ 
mercial  importance  from  its  situation  in  a 
fertile  rice,  corn,  trucking,  and  sugar-cane  re¬ 
gion.  Foundry  products,  ice,  and  canned  goods 
are  manufactured.  Thibodaux  College,  Mount 
Carmel  Academy,  and  the  Guion  Academy  are 
here.  Pop.,  1900,  3253;  1910,  3824. 

THICKET  (AS.  piccet,  from  piece,  thick; 
connected  with  Ger.  dick,  Welsh,  Corn,  tew, 
thick,  and  Ger.  dicht,  Dan.  test,  Eng.  tight).  A 
plant  society  dominated  by  shrubs.  In  regions 
of  great  rainfall  thickets  may  be  regarded  as 
forerunners  of  forests,  but  in  many  arid  regions 
while  present  conditions  remain  they  are  usu¬ 
ally  the  ultimate  type  of  vegetation.  Various 
names  have  been  given  to  the  xerophytic  thicket 
areas.  In  the  southwestern  LTnited  States  they 
are  called  chaparral;  in  the  Mediterranean  re¬ 
gion,  maqui;  in  southern  South  America,  espi- 
nal;  in  Australia,  scrub. 

THICKHEAD  FLY.  Any  one  of  the  flies  of 
the  family  Conopidee,  a  group  comprising  species 


THICK-KNEE 


213 


THIEKS 


with  large  and  conspicuous  heads.  They  are 
rather  large  insects,  but  are  generally  slender 
and  with  a  stalked  abdomen.  They  frequent 
flowers  and  their  larvae  are  parasitic,  chiefly 
upon  bumblebees  and  wasps,  and  also  more 
rarely  upon  grasshoppers.  About  30  species 
occur  in  the  United  States. 

THICK-KNEE.  A  large,  plover-like  shore 
bird  of  the  Old  World,  representing  the  family 
(Edicnemidae,  of  which  several  species  are  known, 
all  characterized  by  the  enlargement  of  the 
tibiotarsal  joint.  The  familiar  one  of  western 
Europe  ((Edicnemus  cedicnemus)  is  known  in 
Great  Britain  as  the  great  or  stone  or  Norfolk 
plover,  or  stone  curlew,  and  is  a  favorite  among 
gunners.  See  Plate  of  Bustards. 

THICKLEY,  East.  See  Shildon  and  East 
Thickley. 

THIEBAUD,  tya/bo',  Georges  (1850-1915). 
A  French  publicist,  born  at  Toulouse.  He  was 
editor  of  the  Courrier  des  Ardennes,  went  to 
Paris  in  1885,  and  in  1887  initiated  and  man¬ 
aged  the  unsuccessful  campaign  of  General  Bou¬ 
langer  (q.v. )  for  the  presidency.  He  traveled 
through  France  to  popularize  the  idea  of  digging 
the  Panama  Canal  and  with  Barres  (q.v.) 
preached  nationalistic  ideals.  He  was  a  con¬ 
cise  and  brilliant  writer  as  well  as  a  gifted 
orator.  He  wrote:  Deposition  devant  la  haute 
cour  le  seize  decembre  (1889);  Le  devoir  na¬ 
tional  a  VHotel  de  Ville  and  Parlementaire  et 
plebiscitaire  (botli  1900)  ;  Le  parti  protestant 
et  le  progres  protestantisme  en  France  depuis  25 
ans  (1905);  Souvenirs  d’un  puhliciste  (1908); 
Le  secret  du  regne  (1909). 

THIEF  EIVER  FALLS.  A  city  and  the 
county  seat  of  Pennington  Co.,  Minn.,  50  miles 
by  rail  northeast  of  Crookston,  on  Red  Lake 
and  Thief  rivers  and  on  the  Great  Northern 
and  the  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  and  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  railroads  ( Map :  Minnesota,  A  2 ) .  It 
has  a  Carnegie  library  and  a  large  municipal 
auditorium.  The  city  is  situated  in  a  produc¬ 
tive  farming  region,  adapted  particularly  to 
the  growing  of  wheat,  and  has  large  ironworks 
and  a  foundry,  a  flour  mill,  and  a  sash  and  door 
factory.  Pop.,  1900,  1819;  1910,  3714. 

THIELE,  te'le,  Johannes  (1865-  ).  A 

German  chemist.  He  was  born  in  Ratibor  and 
was  educated  at  Breslau  and  Halle  (Ph.D., 
1890).  In  1893  he  was  called  to  Munich  and 
in  1902  to  Strassburg,  where  he  served  as  rector 
of  the  university  during  1910-11.  The  results 
of  his  many  investigations  were  communicated 
to  the  Berichte  der  Deutschen  Chemischen  Gesell- 
schaft  and  other  chemical  journals. 

THIELMANN,  teFman,  Johann  Adolf, 
Baron  (1765-1824).  A  Prussian  general,  born 
at  Dresden.  He  entered  a  Saxon  regimqnt  in 
1782,  served  through  the  Rhine  campaigns,  and 
fought  for  Prussia  in  the  battle  of  Jena  in 
1806.  He  was  next  sent  by  Saxony  as  ambas¬ 
sador  to  Napoleon  I,  became  his  ardent  admirer, 
and  did  much  to  bring  about  the  Franco-Saxon 
Alliance.  He  served  with  the  French  as  major 
in  the  campaign  of  1807 ;  fought  at  Friedland 
in  that  year,  was  made  major  general,  and  oper¬ 
ated  against  the  Austrians  in  Saxony.  In  the 
Russian  campaign  of  1812  he  commanded  a 
brigade  of  cavalry  and  for  exceptional  bravery 
in  the  battle  of  Borodino  was  made  Baron. 
As  commander  of  Torgau  in  the  early  part  of 
1813  he  entered  into  communications  with  the 
allies,  and  on  being  ordered  by  the  Saxon  King 
to  deliver  the  town  to  the  French,  resigned  his 


post  and  went  over  to  the  enemy.  He  was 
given  command  of  a  Saxon  corps  which  partici¬ 
pated  in  the  invasion  of  France  in  1814.  He 
next  joined  the  Prussian  army  (1815),  and  led 
the  Third  Army  Corps  at  Ligny  and  at  Wavre, 
contributing  materially  to  the  victory  at  Water¬ 
loo. 

THIELT,  telt.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
West  Flanders,  Belgium,  20  miles  southwest  of 
Ghent  (Map:  Belgium,  B  4).  It  has  an  ancient 
cloth  hall  and  belfry  and  manufactures  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  linen,  leather,  etc.  In  1383 
it  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by  fire,  and  has 
never  regained  its  importance.'  Pop.,  1900, 
10,727;  1910,  11,605. 

THIERRY,  tyAfie',  Amedee  (  1797-1873).  A 
French  historian,  born  at  Blois,  brother  of  the 
following.  He  was  associated  with  the  Roman¬ 
tic  school  and  especially  with  its  journal,  the 
Globe,  and  obtained  a  clerical  post  under  the 
government  in  recognition  of  His  contribution 
to  the  history  of  Guienne  in  1825.  His  Histoire 
des  Gaulois  (1828)  won  for  him  a  professorship 
of  history  at  Besangon,  but  his  teaching  proved 
unpalatable  to  the  reactionary  government  of 
Charles  X  and  his  course  of  lectures  was  sus¬ 
pended  by  official  order.  The  revolution  of 
1830  brought  to  him  the  Prefecture  of  Haute- 
Saone,  which  he  held  till  1838,  when  he  received 
the  office  of  Maitre  des  requctes.  In  1860  he 
was  appointed  Senator  of  the  Empire.  He  was 
advanced  to  high  office  in  the  Legion  of  Honor 
and  elected  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscrip¬ 
tions  in  1841.  The  most  important  of  his  books 
are:  Histoire  de  la  Gaule  sous  V administration 
romaine  (1840-47);  Histoire  d’Attila  (1856); 
Tableaux  de  V empire  romain  (1862);  Recits  de 
Vhistoire  romaine  (1860-64).  He  wrote  also 
Saint- Jerome  (1867)  and  Chrysostome  et  Eu- 
doxie  (1873). 

THIERRY,  Augustin  (1795-1856).  A 
French  historian,  born  at  Blois.  He  studied  at 
the  college  of  his  native  town  and  in  the  Ecole 
Normale  at  Paris,  and  became  a  teacher  in  a 
provincial  school.  In  1814  he  went  to  Paris, 
and  published  his  first  work,  De  la  reorganisa¬ 
tion  de  la  societe  europeenne.  Adopting  the 
views  of  Saint-Simon,  Thierry  became  his  assist¬ 
ant  for  three  years.  In  1S17  he  joined  Comte 
and  Dunoyer  as  editor  of  the  Censeur  Europeen, 
for  which  he  wrote  many  articles,  literary,  po¬ 
litical,  and  historical,  in  1820  he  became  en¬ 
gaged  on  the  Courrier  Fran-cais,  in  which  he 
published  his  Dix  lettres  sur  Vhistoire  de 
France.  Fie  then  turned  almost  exclusively  to 
historical  writing.  His  masterpiece,  L’Histoire 
de  la  conquete  d’Angleterre  par  les  Normands, 
was  first  published  in  1825.  His  Lettres  sur 
Vhistoire  appeared  in  1827.  In  1835  he  pub¬ 
lished  his  Dix  ans  d’etudes  historiques.  In  1840 
appeared  his  Recits  des  temps  merovingiens, 
which  gained  the  great  Gobert  prize.  His  last 
publication  was  the  Essai  sur  Vhistoire  de  la 
formation  et  de  progres  du  tiers-etat  (1853). 
He  edited  for  Guizot’s  Collection  des  monuments 
inedits  de  Vhistoire  de  France  the  Recueil  des 
monuments  inedits  de  Vhistoire  du  tiers-etat 
(1849-56).  He  died  May  22,  1856.  His  com¬ 
plete  works  were  published  in  10  volumes  (1856- 
60).  His  principal  works  have  been  translated 
into  English.  Consult  Valentin,  Augustin 
Thierry  (Paris,  1895). 

THIERS,  tyar.  The  capital  of  an  arron- 
dissement  in  the  Department  of  Puy-de-D6me. 
France,  23  miles  east-northeast  of  Clermont-Fer- 


THIERS 


214 


THIERSCH 


rand  (Map:  France,  S.,  H  3).  It  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  a  hillside  and  consists  of  an  upper 
and  a  lower  town,  the  latter  in  a  nearly  sunless 
gorge  (the  Ville  Noire  of  George  Sand's  novel  of 
that  name).  The  eleventh-century  Romanesque 
Gothic  church  of  Saint-Genes  contains  a  note¬ 
worthy  tomb  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the 
church  of  Le  Moutier  is  an  interesting  Ro¬ 
manesque  structure  founded  in  the  seventh  cen¬ 
tury.  The  town  is  noted  for  its  manufactures 
of  cutlerv,  buttons,  paper,  and  playing  cards. 
Pop.,  1901,  17,625;  1911,  17,437. 

THIERS,  tyar,  Adolphe  (1797-1877).  A 
French  statesman  and  historian,  born  at  Mar¬ 
seilles,  April  15,  1797.  He  was  distinguished  as 
a  student  at  the  lycee,  and  in  1815  he  went  to 
Aix  to  study  law.  1  There  he  formed  a  friendship 
with  Mignet,  the  historian,  in  company  with 
whom,  after  he  had  taken  his  degree  as  advocate 
(1818),  he  set  off  for  Paris.  Obtaining  an  in¬ 
troduction  to  Lafitte,  he  was  enrolled  among  the 
contributors  to  the  Constitutionnel,  then  the 
leading  Liberal  organ.  His  vigorous  articles 
attracted  attention  and  won  him  a  place  in  the 
most  brilliant  circles  of  the  Opposition.  His 
Histoire  de  la  revolution  frangaise  (1823-27) 
gave  him  high  rank  as  an  historian.  In  Jan¬ 
uary,  1830,  he,  with  Mignet  and  Armand  Carrel, 
established  an  able  Opposition  paper,  the  Na¬ 
tional.  Thiers  in  this  journal  waged  unrelenting 
war  against  the  Polignac  administration,  whose 
publication  of  the  celebrated  Ordinances  of  July 
brought  on  the  revolution  of  1830.  Under 
the  new  government  of  Louis  Philippe  Thiers 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Depu¬ 
ties,  where  he  quickly  made  his  mark  as  a  de¬ 
bater,  was  appointed  to  a  secretaryship  in  the 
Department  of  Finance,  and  in  October,  1832, 
was  made  Minister  of  the  Interior.  During  the 
next  four  years  he  acted  as  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  Minister  of  Commerce  and  Public 
Works,  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  under 
various  chiefs — Soult,  Gerard,  Mortier,  and  Bro¬ 
glie.  His  views  became  more  conservative,  and 
he  repressed  with  severity  the  democratic  up¬ 
risings  against  the  new  government.  In  Febru¬ 
ary,  1836,  he  became  President  of  the  Council 
and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  but  in  August 
retired  when  the  King  refused  to  approve  his 
plan  for  intervention  in  Spain  and  became  Op¬ 
position  leader.  In  March,  1840,  he  again  as¬ 
sumed  the  premiership  and  the  Ministry  of 
Foreign  Affairs.  He  wished  to  support  Mehemet 
Ali  (q.v. )  in  his  struggle  against  the  Sultan, 
thus  seeking  to  carry  out  the  Napoleonic  idea 
of  a  controlling  influence  by  France  in  Syria 
and  Egypt.  He  therefore  refused  to  enter  the 
alliance  of  Western  powers  formed  for  the  pres¬ 
ervation  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  (See  Quad¬ 
ruple  Alliance.  )  When  Mehemet  Ali  was 
driven  out  of  Syria,  popular  irritation  in  France, 
fostered  by  Thiers,  w’as  great,  but  Louis  Philippe 
refused  to  countenance  armed  interference,  as 
he  had  done  in  the  Spanish  matter,  and  accepted 
Thiers’s  resignation,  October,  1840.  The  next 
five  years  Thiers  spent  in  travel  and  in  work 
upon  his  second  history,  L’llistoire  du  consulat 
et  de  V empire  (1845-62).  After  1846  he  again 
became  active  politically,  and  appeared  fre¬ 
quently  in  the  Chamber  as  an  eloquent  spokes¬ 
man  of  the  Opposition.  In  the  revolution  of 
1848  his  part  was  that  of  a  Moderate  friendly 
to  the  Republic.  He  was  banished  after  the 
coup  d’etat  of  1851,  but  in  1852  was  permitted 
to  return  to  Paris. 


Thiers  entered  the  Corps  L6gislatif  in  1863, 
and  became  the  leader  of  the  Liberal  opposition, 
assailing  the  Imperial  policies  in  a  series  of 
masterly  speeches.  He  eloquently  opposed  the 
war  with  Prussia  and  predicted  the  defeat  of 
France.  After  the  collapse  of  the  Empire  he 
became  the  brains  of  the  rehabilitation  of 
France.  He  undertook  diplomatic  journeys  to 
England,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Italy,  on  behalf 
of  France — a  self-imposed  mission  in  which  he 
was  unsuccessful,  but  he  acquired  the  gratitude 
of  his  countrymen.  After  the  capitulation  of 
Paris  Thiers  was  elected  to  the  National  As¬ 
sembly  by  26  constituencies,  and  on  Feb.  17, 
1871,  became  chief  of  the  executive  power  in 
the  provisional  government,  and  as  such  nego¬ 
tiated  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Germany.  Upon 
the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  the  Commune  (q.v.) 
Thiers  took  swift  and  energetic  measures  for  its 
suppression.  On  Aug.  31,  1871,  the  National  As¬ 
sembly  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Republic,  making  his  term  of  office 
three  years.  Thiers,  contrary  to  the  expecta¬ 
tions  of  the  monarchical  parties,  became  con¬ 
vinced  of  the  need  of  a  republican  form  of  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  in  November,  1872,  sent  to  the 
National  Assembly  a  message  urging  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  formulating  an  organic  instrument  of 
government  for  the  Republic.  The  Clericals  and 
Monarchists  thereupon  decided  upon  his  fall, 
and,  as  the  result  of  a  vote  of  censure  passed 
on  the  ministry,  Thiers  resigned  May  24,  1873. 
He  retired  from  public  life  for  some  time,  but 
in  1S76  was  elected  from  Paris  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  exercising  his  influence  to  the  last 
in  the  defense  of  the  Republic  against  Mon¬ 
archist  plots. 

Thiers  was  perhaps  the  most  influential  po¬ 
litical  leader  France  has  produced.  His  figure 
was  small,  his  appearance  far  from  impressive, 
and  his  early  attempts  at  oratory  are  said  to 
have  been  ridiculous,  but  when  he  adopted  the 
rapid,  incisive  style  adapted  to  his  personality 
he  became  a  most  effective  speaker.  His  course 
as  a  statesman  was  guided  by  an  intense  love 
of  country,  bordering  on  Chauvinism,  and  the 
conviction  that  the  political  power  should  rei- 
pose  in  the  hands  of  the  middle  class  whose 
interests  and  tastes  he  so  well  represented.  His 
histories  are  merely  brilliant  eulogies  of  the 
Revolutionary  and  Napoleonic  ideals.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  in  1834.  His 
Notes  et  souvenirs  were  published  in  Paris  in 
1907. 

Bibliography.  Memoirs  of  M.  Thiers,  1870- 
1873  (Eng.  trans..  1915)  ;  also  Frangois  Le  Goff, 
The  Life  of  Louis  Adolphe  Thiers  (trans.  from 
the  unpublished  manuscript  by  Theodore  Stan¬ 
ton,  New  York,  1879)  ;  P.  L.  E.  de  Remusat, 
Thiers  (Eng.  trans.  by  M.  B.  Anderson,  Chicago, 
1889)  ;  Edgar  Zevort,  Thiers  (Paris,  1892)  ; 
id.,  “La  presidence  de  M.  Thiers,”  in  Histoire 
de  la  troisieme  republique,  vol.  i  (ib.,  1896)  ; 
G.  Hanotaux,  Le  gouvernement  de  M.  Thiers 
(ib.,  1903)  ;  E.  de  Marcere,  L’ Assemble  na¬ 
tionals  de  1871  (ib.,  1904)  ;  C.  Belot,  Le  pouvoir 
executif  sous  le  gQuvernement  de  M.  Thiers 
(Dijon,  1908)  ;  P.  F.  Simon,  Adolphe  Thiers: 
chef  du  pouvoir  executif  et  president  de  la  R6- 
publique  Frangaise  (Paris,  1911),  containing  a 
bibliography. 

THIERSCH,  tersli,  Friedrich  (1784-1860). 
A  German  classical  scholar,  born  at  Kirch- 
scheidungen,  and  educated  at  Leipzig  and  Got¬ 
tingen.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  professor  in 


THIERSCH  : 

the  newly  established  Gymnasium  in  Munich, 
where  he  became  the  founder  of  philological 
studies  in  Bavaria.  The  Philological  Institute 
established  by  him  was  joined  to  the  University 
of  Munich  in  1826.  As  a  result  of  his  sojourn 
in  Greece,  in  1831-32,  he  published  his  impor¬ 
tant  work  De  l’6tat  actuel  de  la  Grece,  etc. 
(1833).  He  was  a  prime  mover  in  establishing 
in  1837  regular  meetings  of  German  philologists 
and  teachers.  In  1848  he  became  president  of 
the  Bavarian  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  writ¬ 
ings  include:  Griechische  Grammatik  (3d  ed., 

1828) ;  Pindar  (1820);  TJeber  die  Epochen  der 
bildenden  Kunst  unter  den  Griechen  (2d  ed., 

1829) ;  Allgemeine  Aesthetik  in  akademisclien 
Lehrvort rd gen  (1846)  ;  and  many  works  on  edu¬ 
cation.  Consult  his  biography  by  his  son  Hein¬ 
rich  (Leipzig,  1866);  J.  E.  Sandys,  A  History 
of  Classical  Scholarship,  vol.  iii  (Cambridge, 
1908). 

THIERSCH,  Karl  (1822—95).  A  German 
surgeon,  born  at  Munich,  the  son  of  the  philolo¬ 
gist  Friedrich  Thiersch  (1784-1860).  He 
studied  in  Munich,  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Paris, 
and  was  a  pupil  of  Stromeyer  (q.v.).  In  1854 
he  became  professor  of  surgery  at  Erlangen  and 
in  1867  at  Leipzig.  In  the  Franco-German  War 
of  1870-71  he  served  as  consulting  surgeon. 
Thiersch  is  known  through  his  work  in  "  skin 
grafting  and  in  epithelial  cancer.  Moreover,  he 
was  one  of  the  first  continental  surgeons  to  ac¬ 
cept  the  teachings  of  Lister,  and  with  others  he 
introduced  salicylic  acid  in  the  treatment  of 
wounds.  Among  his  works  is  Der  Epithelial- 
lcrebs  namentlich  der  Haut  (1865). 

THIERSCH,  Ludwig  (1825-1909).  A  Ger¬ 
man  decorative  and  historical  painter.  He  was 
born  in  Munich  and  studied  at  the  Munich  Acad¬ 
emy.  After  visiting  Rome  he  was  for  three 
years  professor  at  the  Industrial  Art  School  at 
Athens,  where  he  was  engaged  by  the  Russian 
government  to  fresco  the  church  of  St.  Nicode- 
mus.  He  received  similar  commissions  for  the 
Greek  church  in  Vienna,  the  chapels  of  the  Grand 
Dukes  Nicholas  and  Michael,  and  the  Protestant 
church  of  St.  Catharine  at  St.  Petersburg  ( 1860- 
64)  and  for  the  Greek  churches  in  Karlsruhe 
(1864)  ,  London  (1880),  and  Paris  (1892). 

THIES  PROCESS.  See  Chlorination. 

THIETMAR,  tet'mar,  Bishop  of  Merseburg 
(975  or  976-1018).  A  German  chronicler  of 
aristocratic  family,  related  to  the  Emperor 
Henry  II.  Thietmar  was  educated  in  the  clois¬ 
ter  schools  at  Quedlinburg  and  Magdeburg,  was 
created  in  1002  Provost  of  Walbeck,  shared  in 
the  campaign  of  1007  against  Boseslav  of  Po¬ 
land,  and  in  1009  was  made  Bishop  of  Merse¬ 
burg.  He  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  for 
the  greater  part  at  court  and  sharing  in  cam¬ 
paigns  against  the  Slavs.  His  Chronicon  covers 
in  eight  books  the  period  from  Henry  I  (the 
Fowler)  to  1018,  and  the  last  three  books  are 
almost  a  diary.  It  is  rough  and  inflated  in 
diction,  credulous  in  narration,  but  shows  an 
earnest  search  for  truth,  and  is  the  principal 
source  of  history  for  the  Trans-Elbian  Slavic 
districts  during  the  period  it  covers.  The  best 
edition  of  the  Chronicon  is  by  Kurtz  in  Scrip- 
tores  Rerum  Germanicarum  (Hanover,  1889), 
in  the  Monumenta  Germanics  Historica.  It  was 
translated  by  Laurent  ( Berlin,  1848,  and  Leipzig, 
1892).  Consult  Kurze,  Bischof  Thietmar  von 
Merseburg  und  seine  Chronik  (Halle,  1890). 

THIGH.  The  portion  of  the  lower  extremity 
which  extends  from  the  hip  to  the  knee.  The 


15  THIOSINAMINE 

muscles  of  the  front  of  the  thigh  are  tensor 
fascise  femoris,  sartorius,  and  quadriceps  exten¬ 
sor,  the  last  of  which  is  a  powerful  group  of 
four  muscles  (rectus,  crureus,  and  the  two 
vasti )  which  are  inserted  below  into  the  patella, 
or  kneecap,  and  whose  action  is  to  strengthen 
the  knee,  thus  being  a  most  important  factor 
in  the  preservation  of  the  erect  position  and 
m  locomotion.  The  muscles  of  the  back  of 
the  thigh  are  biceps,  semitendinosus,  and  semi¬ 
membranosus,  also  called  the  hamstring  muscles. 
Their  action  is  to  flex  the  leg  on  the  thigh,  to 
support  the  pelvis  upon  the  head  of  the  femur, 
or  thigh,  bone,  and  to  draw  the  trunk  backward. 
On  the  inner  side  of  each  thigh  is  a  group  of 
adductor  muscles,  whose  action  is  to  bring 
the  knees  together.  There  is  but  one  bone  in 
the  thigh,  the  femur,  which  articulates  with 
the  pelvis  above  and  with  the  tibia  below.  The 
most  important  structures  of  the  thigh  lie 
in  the  triangle  of  Scarpa  (q.v.).  This  is 
bounded  above  by  Poupart’s  ligament,  which  is 
the  base  of  the  triangle,  internally  by  adductor 
longus,  and  externally  by  sartorius.  The  great 
femoral  arteryV  and  vein  pass  through  the  tri¬ 
angle,  dividing  it  into  nearly  equal  parts,  the  ar- 
tery  giving  off  here  the  profunda  femoris  and  the 
vein  receiving  the  long  saphenous.  The  anterior 
crural  nerve  lies  to  the  outer  side  of  the  artery. 
Femoral  hernia  appears  in  Scarpa’s  triangle, 
and  not  infrequently  the  extremity  of  a  fistula 
running  from  Pott’s  disease  of  the 'spine  appears 
in  this  space. 

THIG'MOTAX'IS.  See  Tropism,  Stereo- 
tropism. 

THIGMOT'ROPISM,  or  HAPTOTROPISM 

(from  Gk.  dlyya,  tliigma,  anything  touched  + 
Tpo-irr),  trope,  a  turning,  from  rperreir,  trepein,  to 
turn).  The  sensitiveness  of  organisms  to 
stimuli,  by  contact,  especially  to  prolonged  con¬ 
tact  with  solid  substances.  The  responses  in 
plants  depend  chiefly  upon  a  modification  of  the 
growth  of  the  organs  concerned.  It  is  espe¬ 
cially  marked  in  tendrils.  Other  examples  are 
to  be  found  in  the  similar  curvatures  of  the 
petioles  of  leaf  climbers,  and  in  the  stems  of 
dodder.  See  Growth;  Tropism,  Stereotropism. 

THIL'LY,  Frank  (1865-  ).  An  Amer¬ 

ican  educator,  born  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  He 
graduated  at  the  university  of  his  native  city 
in  1887  and  then  studied  at  Berlin  and  at 
Heidelberg.  He  was  professor  of  philosophy  at 
the  University  of  Missouri  (1893-1904)'  of 
psychology  at  Princeton  (1904-06),  of  philoso¬ 
phy  at  Cornell  (from  1906),  where  he  also  be¬ 
came  dean  of  the  Arts  College.  He  was  editor 
of  the  International  Journal  of  Ethics  (from 
1909)  and  president  of  the  American  Philosophi¬ 
cal  Association  (1912).  His  publications  in¬ 
clude:  Leibnitz’s  Controversy  with  Locke 

(1891)  ;  Introduction  to  Ethics  (1900)  ;  Process 
of  Inductive  Inference  (1904);  A  History  of 
Philosophy  (1914)  ;  and  translations  of  Weber’s 
History  of  Philosophy  (1896)  and  Paulsen’s  In¬ 
troduction  to  Philosophy  (1885)  and  System  of 
Ethics  (1899).  He  contributed  to  the  New 
International  Year  Book. 

THING.  See  Fierding  Court. 

THI'OAI/COHQLS.  See  Mercaptans. 
THI'OCYAN'IC  ACID.  See  Sulpiiocyanic 
Acid. 

THIONVILLE,  te'ON'vel'.  See  Diedenhofen. 

THIOSIN AMINE,  thl'o-sm-am'in  or  -en.  A 
substance  prepared  by  heating  together  oil  of 
mustard  3  parts,  alcoliol  3  parts,  and  ammonia 


THIOSTJLPHURIC  ACID 


216 


THIRTY  YEARS’  WAR 


6  parts,  and  known  chemically  as  allyl-sulpho- 
carbamide.  It  occurs  as  colorless  crystals, 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether  and  to  some  extent 
in  water,  with  a  bitter-sweetish  taste,  and  a 
faint  odor  of  garlic.  Its  main  use  in  medicine 
is  in  the  removal  of  scar  tissue  wherever  found. 
Thus  it  is  indicated  in  corneal  opacities,  keloid, 
deafness  due  to  thickening  of  the  tympanic 
membrane  or  fixation  of  the  ossicles.  Where 
possible  it  is  best  given  by  hypodermic  injection, 
but  it  is  also  said  to  be  moderately  efficient  when 
given  by  mouth  or  applied  locally  in  solution. 
Combined  with  sodium  salicylate  it  is  believed 
to  act  more  satisfactorily  and  to  give  less  pain 
when  injected. 

THI'OSULPHU'RIC  ACID  (from  Gk.  Belov, 
theion,  sulphur  +  Eng.  sulphuric),  H2S?03,  less 
properly  hyposulphurous  acid.  An  acid  com¬ 
pound  unknown  in  the  isolated  state  and  but 
little  known  in  the  form  of  dilute  aqueous  solu¬ 
tions,  but  well  known  in  the  form  of  its  salts, 
called  thiosulphates  (or  hyposulphites),  espe¬ 
cially  its  sodium  salt.  The  thiosulphates  are 
formed  by  the  action  of  metals  (such  as  zinc, 
iron,  etc.)  on  acid  sulphites.  The  thiosulphates 
of  the  alkalies  are  freely  soluble  in  water;  those 
of  the  alkaline  earths  are  much  less  soluble ; 
while  those  of  the  heavy  metals  are  by  them¬ 
selves  insoluble,  but  generally  form  soluble 
double  compounds  with  the  thiosulphates  of  the 
alkalies.  The  thiosulphate  of  sodium  may  be 
prepared  in  the  laboratory  by  boiling  a  solution 
of  sodium  sulphite  with  sulphur.  It  may  also 
be  made  from  the  thiosulphate  of  calcium.  The 
latter  is  produced  by  the  action  of  sulphur  on 
lime.  Hence  it  is  produced  (along  with  calcium 
pentasulphide)  when  lime  is  used  for  the  puri¬ 
fication  of  illuminating  gas.  Further,  it  is 
formed  when  a  solution  of  calcium  pentasulphide 
is  exposed  to  the  oxidizing  action  of  the  air — • 
a  reaction  causing  the  production  of  the  thi¬ 
osulphate  in  the  manufacture  of  soda  (q.v.) 
and  its  increased  production  in  the  purification 
of  illuminating  gas.  Aqueous  sodium  thiosul¬ 
phate  has  the  remarkable  property  of  dissolving 
the  halogen  salts  of  silver,  mercurous  chloride 
(calomel)  and  iodide,  the  iodide  and  the  sul¬ 
phate  of  lead,  the  sulphate  of  calcium,  and  the 
oxides  of  copper.  Owing  to  its  capacity  for 
dissolving  the  halogen  salts  of  silver  unaltered 
by  light,  it  is  extensively  used  in  photography. 
It  is  further  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
certain  coal-tar  colors  and  in  dyeing. 

THIRD.  See  Interval. 

THIRD  ESTATE  (Fr.  tiers  etat) .  See 
France;  French  Revolution;  States -General. 

THIRI/W  ALL,  Newell  Connop  ( 1797— 
1875).  An  English  historian  and  bishop,  born 
in  London.  He  studied  at  Charterhouse  School 
and  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1818.  In  1820  he  entered  Lincoln’s  Inn  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1825,  but  this  profession 
was  distasteful  and  he  spent  the  years  until 
1828  in  travel  and  literary  pursuits,  publishing 
translations  of  tales  from  Tieck  and  Schleier- 
macher’s  Critical  Essay  on  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Luke  (1825).  In  1827  be  took  up  his  residence 
in  Cambridge,  and  until  1834  held  various  offices 
in  the  university  when  he  was  called  upon  to 
resign  his  appointment  as  assistant  tutor  on 
account  of  a  pamphlet,  Letter  on  the  Admission 
of  Dissenters  to  Academical  Degrees.  He  ac¬ 
cepted  a  living  at  Kirby  Underdale  in  York¬ 
shire,  where  he  wrote  his  History  of  Greece 
(1835-44).  In  1840  he  was  appointed  Bishop 


at  St.  David’s  in  Wales;  in  1874  he  resigned 
his  see  and  retired  to  Bath,  where  he  died. 
With  J.  C.  Hare  he  translated  Niebuhr’s  History 
of  Rome  (1828-32).  His  Remains,  Literary 
and  Theological,  and  Essays,  Speeches,  and  Ser¬ 
mons  were  edited  by  J.  J.  S.  Perowne  (London, 
1877-80)  ;  his  Letters  to  a  Friend,  with  a  me¬ 
morial  sermon,  was  edited  by  Dean  Stanley  (ib., 
1882),  and  his  Letters,  Literary  and  Theological, 
with  a  Memoir,  by  Perowne  and  Stokes  (ib., 
1881). 

THIRST  (AS.  purst,  pyrst,  Ger.  Durst, 
thirst;  connected  with  Lat.  torrere,  to  parch, 
Gk.  repaeadai,  tersesthai,  to  become  dry).  A  sen¬ 
sation  normally  due  to  a  lack  of  water  in  the 
tissues  of  the  body.  Although  the  sensation  of 
thirst  is  referred  principally  to  the  mouth  and 
throat,  it  is  not  a  purely  local  feeling  and  can 
be  satisfied  by  the  introduction  of  fluid  into 
the  circulation  through  various  channels.  Water 
may  be  absorbed  and  thirst  relieved  by  transfu¬ 
sion  of  saline  solution  into  the  veins,  by  injec¬ 
tion  into  the  tissues  (hypodermoclysis) ,  and 
to  a  less  extent  by  absorption  from  the  skin,  as 
well  as  by  drinking.  In  a  state  of  thirst,  the 
body  fluids  become  reduced  in  volume,  and  of 
higher  specific  gravity  and  more  saline,  and 
these  conditions  explain  the  craving  for  water. 
Thirst  is  occasioned  physiologically  by  profuse 
perspiration  from  exercise — especially  in  a 
warm,  dry  atmosphere — by  a  highly  seasoned 
diet,  by  smoking,  or  by  salty  food.  Many  mor¬ 
bid  conditions  give  rise  to  thirst;  it  Is  always  an 
accompaniment  of  fevers  and  inflammations;  dis¬ 
eases  which,  like  cholera  asiatica,  diabetes,  and 
diarrhoea,  are  characterized  by  great  loss  of 
fluid  from  the  body,  are  thirst-producing.  Loss 
of  blood  brings  on  a  craving  for  liquids.  As  an 
exception  to  the  rule  that  fevers  demand  drink, 
it  may  be  noted  that  in  typhoid  fever  thirst 
is  sometimes  blunted  or  suppressed.  Thirst  is 
most  effectively  relieved  by  slightly  acidulated 
drinks,  these  provoking  an  outflow  of  saliva. 

THIRTY-NINE  ARTICLES  OF  RELI¬ 
GION,  The.  See  Articles,  The  Thirty-Nine. 

THIRTY  TYRANTS.  1.  A  body  of  rulers  in 
Athens,  invested  with  sovereign  power  after 
the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  404  b.o. 
They  were  all  native  Athenians,  chosen  by  the 
Spartan  conquerors,  who,  knowing  the  animosity 
existing  between  the  democracy  and  the  oligarchy 
of  Athens,  hoped  to  rule  the  city  through  the 
agency  of  the  latter.  One  of  "the  most  un¬ 
scrupulous  members  of  the  body  was  Critias 
(q.v.),  while  Theramenes  (q.v.)  headed  the 
moderate  division.  Their  rule,  after  a  year, 
was  overthrown  by  Thrasybulus  (q.v.).  2.  The 

petty  usurpers  who  sprang  up  during  the  reign 
of  the  Roman  emperors  Valerian  and  Gal- 
lienus  (q.v.)  (254-268  A.n.).  They  endeavored 

to  establish  themselves  as  independent  princes. 
In  reality,  historians  can  only  reckon  19 — 
Cyriades,  Macrianus,  Balista,  Odenathus,  and 
Zenobia,  in  the  East;  Postumus,  Lollianus,  Vic- 
torinus  (with  his  mother,  Victoria),  Marius, 
and  Tetricus,  in  the  West;  Ingenuus,  Regillianus 
(more  properly  Regalianus,  as  the  name  ap¬ 
pears  on  coins),  and  Aureolus,  in  Illyricum  and 
the  countries  about  the  Danube;  Saturninus, 
in  Pontus;  Trebellianus,  in  Isauria;  Piso,  in 
Thessaly;  Valens,  in  Achaea;  iEmilianus,  in 
Egypt;  and  Celsus,  in  Africa. 

THIRTY  YEARS’  WAR.  The  name  given 
to  the  great  European  struggle  (1618-48)  which 
marked  the  climax  of  the  Reformation  (q.v.), 


THIRTY  YEARS’  WAR 


THIRTY  YEARS’  WAR  ; 

closing  the  period  of  distinctively  religious  poli¬ 
tics  and  opening  that  in  which  secular  state¬ 
craft  replaced  it.  The  Religious  Peace  of  Augs¬ 
burg  (1555)  afforded  no  permanent  settlement 
of  the  questions  stirred  up  by  the  Protestant 
revolution.  Its  terms  recognized  only  Lutherans 
and  Catholics;  meanwhile  the  Calvinists  had 
grown  strong,  and,  unfortunately  for  the  Protes¬ 
tant  cause,  violent  enmity  existed  between  them 
and  the  Lutherans.  The  relations  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  and  the  German  princes  were  ill-defined, 
and  little  real  adjustment  had  been  reached.’ 
France  had  already  separated  her  natural  in¬ 
terests  from  the  affiliations  of  religion  and  aided 
the  German  Protestant  princes  in  their  in¬ 
subordination  towards  their  Tmnerial  Catholic 
head.  lhe  Reformation,  by  overthrowing  the 
idea  of  Christ’s  unity  in  the  Church,  broke 
down  the  theory  of  a  Holy  Roman  Empire  and 
put  forward  in  its  place  the  Germanic  idea  of 
autonomy  for  individual  states.  In  the  turmoil 
of  sixteenth-century  Europe  it  was  inevitable 
that  the  solvent  for  these  and  other  issues 
should  be  found  in  a  general  war.  The  outbreak 
came  in  an  unexpected  way.  The  liberal  reign 
of  Maximilian  II  (1564-76)  was  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  Protestantism  in  the  Austrian 
dominions.  His  successor,  Rudolph  II  (1576- 
1612),  brought  in  the  reactionary  Jesuit  in¬ 
fluence  and  allowed  full  play  to  the  forces 
of  the  Counter  Reformation.  Open  interference 
with  the  practice  of  the  Protestant  religion 
was  permitted  and  numbers  of  Protestant 
churches  were  destroyed.  In  1607  Maximilian  I, 
the  Catholic  Duke  of  Bavaria,  made  himself 
master  of  the  free  Imperial  city  of  Donauworth, 
whose  inhabitants  were  mainly  Protestants.  A 
number  of  Protestant  princes  and  cities  founded 
in  1608  the  Evangelical  Union  for  the  defense 
of  their  interests  and  their  faith,  and  this 
was  met  by  the  formation  of  the  Catholic 
League  under  the  leadership  of  Maximilian  of 
Bavaria  in  1600.  In  that  year  the  Emperor 
was  forced  to  publish  his  Majestdtsbrief,  by 
which  the  Protestants  of  Bohemia  were  guar¬ 
anteed  free  exercise  of  their  religion.  At  this 
time  the  political  state  of  the  Empire  was 
further  unsettled  by  the  Jiilich-Cleves  war  of 
succession.  (See  Julich.)  In  1612  the  Em¬ 
peror  Rudolph  II  died  arid  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Matthias,  to  whom  the  Archduchy 
of  Austria,  Moravia,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia 
had  previously  been  transferred  as  a  result  of 
Rudolph’s  reckless  rule.  In  1617  the  Bohemian 
estates  were  called  upon  to  crown,  as  their 
prospective  King,  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Styria, 
the  Hapsburg  heir  presumptive,  in  accordance 
with  a  custom  which  had  become  established. 
Ferdinand  had  made  himself  prominent  by  the 
relentless  manner  in  which  he  had  rooted  out 
Protestantism  in  his  paternal  Styrian  domin-' 
ions.  His  attitude  encouraged  the  Catholic 
church  in  Bohemia  in  its  aggressions,  and  soon 
a  dispute  regarding  the  interpretation  of  the 
Majestdtsbrief  brought  on  open  conflict.  On 
May  23,  1618,  a  body  of  Protestants,  led  by 
Count  Thurn,  entered  the  royal  palace  of 
Prague,  and  hurled  two  odious  representatives 
of  the  crown,  Martinitz  and  Slavata,  from  its 
windows.  This  defenestration,  the  victims  es¬ 
caping  with  their  lives,  inaugurated  a  struggle 
which  was  to  convulse  Europe  for  30  years. 

The  Bohemians  rose  under  Thurn,  and  the 
insurrection  spread  into  adjoining  Hapsburg 
dominions.  A  body  of  troops  of  the  Union, 


17 

under  Count  Mansfeld,  appeared,  and  Bethlen 
Gabor,  Prince  of  Transylvania,  prepared  to 
make  war  on  Austria.  Matthias  was  unpre¬ 
pared  to  meet  the  onslaught.  Spain  came  to 
his  aid,  but  the  Spanish  force  was  too  weak  to 
stay  the  advance  of  the  enemy.  The  Emperor 
died  in  March,  1610,  and  Ferdinand,  succeeding 
as  the  head  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  found 
himself  beleaguered  in  Vienna  by  the  victorious 
Thurn.  Through  firmness  he*  succeeded  in 
averting  the  fall  of  his  capital,  and  made  his 
way  to  Frankfort,  where  he  was  elected  Holy 
Roman  Emperor  as  Ferdinand  II  (August, 
1619).  The  Bohemians,  having  declared  their 
throne  vacant,  crowned  the  Elector  Palatine 
Frederick  V,  the  son-in-law  of  James  I  of 
England.  Ferdinand,  whose  capital  was  in  the 
meanwhile  again  threatened,  this  time  by  the 
Prince  of  Transylvania,  was  enabled  to  attack 
Frederick  by  means  of  the  forces  of  the  Catho¬ 
lic  League,  whose  leader,  Maximilian  of  Ba¬ 
varia,  was  offered  a  rich  indemnity.  John 
George,  Lutheran  Elector  of  Saxony,  eager  for 
territorial  acquisitions,  entered  the  field  against 
thg  Bohemians,  while  the  Spaniards  invaded 
the.  Lower  Palatinate.  The  Protestant  Union 
dared  not  move,  and  James  I  kept  aloof  from 
Frederick.  On  Nov.  8,  1620,  a  battle  was  fought 
at  the  White  Hill,  before  the  walls  of  Prague, 
in  which  the  army  of  the  League,  under  Tilly, 
was  completely  victorious.  Frederick  fled  from 
Bohemia,  which  was  chastised  in  a  fearful 
manner  by  the  Emperor,  and  forced  back  into 
the  fold  of  the  Catholic  church.  The  dissolu¬ 
tion  of  the  Evangelical  Union  ensued.  The 
cause  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  however,  whose 
hereditary  dominions,  the  Upper  and  the  Lower 
Palatinate,  were  assailed,  found  intrepid  cham¬ 
pions  in  Mansfeld  and  Christian  of  Brunswick, 
lawless  partisan  leaders.  George  Frederick, 
Margrave  of  Baden-Durlach,  also  took  up  arms 
for  Frederick,  and  with  Mansfeld  gained  a 
victory  over  Tilly  at  Wiesloch  on  April  27, 
1622.  On  May  6,  however,  the  former  was 
vanquished  by  Tilly  at  Wimpfen;  June  20  a 
like  disaster"  befell  Christian  of  Brunswick  at 
Hochst.  On  Aug.  6,  1623,  Christian  of  Bruns¬ 
wick  sustained  a  second  defeat  by  Tilly  at 
Stadtlohn.  Frederick  was  stripped  of  his  pos¬ 
sessions.  The  Upper  Palatinate  and  the  elec¬ 
toral  dignity  were  conferred  on  Maximilian  of 
Bavaria. 

The  war  might  have  ended  with  this  local 
struggle,  but  the  outrageous  treatment  to  which 
the  Protestant  states  of  north  Germany  were 
subjected  pressed  the  conflict  on  to  its  second 
phase.  Christian  IV  of  Denmark,  aided  by  a 
British  subsidy,  went  to  the  aid  of  his  German 
coreligionists  in  1625,  and,  being  joined  by  Mans¬ 
feld  and  Christian  of  Brunswick,  advanced  into 
Lower  Saxony,  whilrf  the  Emperor,  hampered 
by  the  political  jealousy  of  the  Catholic  League, 
was  at  first  unable  to  oppose  him.  It  was  at 
this  juncture  that  Wallenstein  came  forward 
and  placed  a  great  army,  raised  by  himself,  at 
the  disposal  of  Ferdinand.  This  army  acted  in 
cooperation  with  that  of  the  Catholic  League 
under  Tilly.  Mansfeld  was  completely  defeated 
by  Wallenstein  at  Dessau  (April  25,  1626), 
and  the  forces  of  Christian  IV  were  routed  by 
Tilly  at  Lutter  (Aug.  27,  1626).  Wallenstein 
marched  as  far  as  Hungary  in  pursuit  of  Mans¬ 
feld,  who  died  in  November,  1626.  The  com¬ 
bined  Imperialists  and  Leaguers  overran  north 
Germany  and  Wallenstein  penetrated  into  the 


2l8 


THIRTY  YEARS’  WAR 


THIRTY  YEARS’  WAR 

heart  of  Denmark.  The  Imperialist  commander 
conceived  the  design  of  making  Austria  a  power 
on  the  Baltic,  but  his  career  in  this  direction 
was  checked  by  the  heroic  defense  of  Stralsund 
(1628).  King"  Christian  was  forced  to  conclude 
the  humiliating  peace  of  Liibeck  (May  12, 
1629).  Inflamed  bv  success,  Ferdinand  had, 
on  March  6,  1829,  issued  the  Edict  of  Restitu¬ 
tion,  by  which  the  Protestant  titles  to  all  ec¬ 
clesiastical  lands  acquired  after  1552  were 
declared  void.  Thus  closed  the  second  period  of 
the  war,  with  the  Protestant  States  infuriated  by 
the  edict  and  the  proud  city  of  Magdeburg  alone 
in  arms  to  resist  its  execution. 

Richelieu  ( q.v. ) ,  developing  the  anti-Hapsburg 
policy  of ‘Henry  IV,  had  promoted,  as  far  as  the 
internal  affairs  of  France  would  allow,  dissen¬ 
sion  in  Germany.  He  now  succeeded  in  bringing 
into  the  struggle  the  able  and* ambitious  Protes¬ 
tant  King  of  Sweden,  Gustavus  Adolphus  (q.v.). 
This  ruler,  desirous  of  promoting  Protestantism 
and  of  securing  control  of  the  Baltic,  took 
the  field,  and  the  Swedish  phase  of  the  war 
began  with  the  landing  of  the  Swedes  on  the 
coast  of  Pomerania  in  the  summer  $>f  1630. 
Just  at  this  time  the  princes  of  the  Catliglic 
League,  exasperated  by  the  overbearing  conduct 
of  Wallenstein  and  the  excesses  of  his  goldiery., 
forced  the  Emperor  to  dismiss  him,  Tilly  being 
made  commander  in  chief  of  the  Catholic  forces. 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  who*  in  January,  1631,  en¬ 
tered  into  a  subsidiary  alliance  with  France, 
advanced  southward  into  Germany.  The  elec¬ 
tors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg  at  first  re¬ 
mained  neutral,  but  finally  were  forced  to  join 
him.  The  obstacles  in  his  path  delayed  him 
until  it  was  too  late  to  rescue  Magdeburg, 
which  on  May  20,  1631,  was  stormed  by  Tilly 
and  Pappenheim,  whose  troops  burned  the  town 
and  massacred  the  inhabitants.  On  Sept.  17 
(O.S.,  Sept.  7),  1631,  the  Swedish  King, 

strengthened  by  the  Saxon  army  under  Arnim, 
overwhelmed  Tilly  at  Breitenfeld,  near  Leipzig, 
a  victory  which  completely  restored  the  Protes¬ 
tant  cause.  He  then  victoriously  traversed  the 
Main  and  Rhine  valleys;  forced  the  passage  of 
the  Lech  in  front  of  the  army  of  Tilly,  who 
was  mortally  wounded  (April  15,  1632)  ;  entered 
Munich,  and  threatened  the  Hapsburg  domin¬ 
ions.  Wallenstein,  meanwhile,  had  been  recalled 
to  raise  and  command  the  Imperialist  armies 
to  meet  this  formidable  enemy.  He  compelled 
the  Swedes  by  skillful  strategy  to  return  to 
Saxony.  There  the  Swedes  won  the  battle  of 
Liitzen  ( q.v. )  *  Nov.  16  (O.S.,  Nov.  6),  1632, 
after  an  obstinate  engagement  in  which  Gus¬ 
tavus  was  killed.  His  death  was  a  severe  blow 
to  the  Protestant  cause,  but  the  energy  and 
ability  of  the  Swedish  Chancellor,  Oxenstierna 
(q.v.),  and  the  brilliant  talents  of  the  Swedish 
generals,  preserved  the  advantages  that  had 
been  gained.  After  the  battle  of  Liitzen  Wal¬ 
lenstein  remained  long  inactive,  engaging  in 
endless  negotiations.  Bernhard  (q.v.)  of  S'axe- 
Weimar,  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  Protestant 
leaders,  overran  Bavaria,  and  on  Nov.  14,  1633, 
stormed  Ratisbon.  The  behavior  of  Wallenstein, 
after  a  display  of  activity,  inaugurated  by  a 
victory  over  the  Swedes  at  Steinau,  Oct.  13, 

1633,  finally  left  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  Ferdi¬ 
nand  II  that  his  general  was  meditating  treason. 
He  was  deposed  from  his  command  and  was 
assassinated  at  Ege^  in  Bohemia,  on  Feb.  25, 

1634.  His  virtual  successor,  Gallas,  inflicted  a 
crushing  defeat  on  Bernhard  of  Weimar  and 


the  Swedish  general,  Horn,  at  Nordlingen  (Sept. 

6,  1634),  which  again  restored  to  the  Emperor 
a  preponderating  influence  in  Germany.  Saxony 
now  made  peace  at  Prague  (May  30,  1635), 
the  Elector  securing  important  territorial  gains. 
Other  Lutheran  states  withdrew  from  the  con¬ 
flict,  the  Calvinists  being  left  to  their  fate. 

Final  success  now  appeared  to  demand  only 
one  more  strenuous  effort  on  the  part  of  Aus¬ 
tria:  but  Oxenstierna  was  determined  to  pre¬ 
serve  to  Sweden  her  German  acquisitions,  and 
Richelieu  saw  that  the  time  had  come  for  France 
to  throw  herself  into  an  active  struggle  against 
both  Austria  and  Spain.  The  conflict  advanced 
into  its  final  and  most  extended  phase.  At  first 
the  Hapsburg  side  was  enabled  to  make  a  show 
of  strength,  loanee  being  invaded  by  a  combined 
force  of  Spaniards,  Imperialists,  and  Lotharin- 
gians,  but  with  such  commanders  on  their  side 
as  Bernhard  of  Weimar  and  the  Swedish  general 
Baner,  the  tide  soon  set  strongly  in  favor  of 
the  Protestants.  The  victory  of  Baner  over  the 
Imperialists  and  Saxons  at  Wittstock  (Oct.  4, 
1636)  restored  to  Sweden  the  advantage  lost 
two  years  before.  Bernhard  of  Weimar,  in  the 
pay  of  France,  fought  with  energy  and  success, 
ambitious  to  found  a  state  for  himself.  In  1638 
he  won  a  victory  at  Rheinfelden  and  reduced 
the  fortress  of  Breisach,  but  in  the  following 
year  hejnet  untimely  death.  In  February,  1637, 
Emperor  Ferdinand  II  died  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Ferdinand  III.  After  the  death  of 
Baner  in  1641,  the  Swedish  arms  were  led  to 
fresh  triumphs  by  Torstenson,  a  general  famous 
for  the  rapidity  of  movement.  He  defeated  the 
Archduke  Leopold  William  and  Piccolomini  at 
Breitenfeld  Nov.  2,  1642;  in  1644  he  overran 
Denmark,  whose  ruler,  Christian  IV,  had  been 
induced  to  take  up  arms  against  Sweden ;  in  the 
same  year  he  defeated  Gallas  at  Jiiterbock;  and 
on  Mar.  6,  1645,  he  won  a  great  victory  over 
the  Imperialists,  under  Hatzfeld,  at  Jankau, 
southern  Bohemia.  His  repeated  invasions  car¬ 
ried  devastation  and  ruin  into  the  territories, 
even  to  the  gates  of  Vienna,  until  the  Austrians 
hardly  dared  appear  north  of  the  Danube. 
Meanwhile,  in  the  west  and  south,  the  French 
were  waging  war  with  varying  success.  ^  In 
January,  1642,  they  were  successful  at  Kem- 
pen,  near  Diisseldorf,  and  in  May,  1643,  the 
Duke  d’Enghien  (the  future  Cond6)  won  a  sig¬ 
nal  victory  over  the  Spaniards  at  Rocroi,  but  on 
Nov.  24,  1643,  the  French-Weimar  forces  suf¬ 
fered  a  great  defeat  at  Tuttlingen,  in  Swabia, 
at  the  hands  of  Johann  von  Werth  and  Mercy. 
Conde  and  Turenne  restored  the  fortunes  of 
the  French  by  a  victory  at  Allersheim,  near 
Nordlingen,  Aug.  3,  1645.  The  Emperor  was 
now  deserted  bv  all  his  allies  except  the  Duke 
of  Bavaria,  whose  territories  were  already 
mostly  in  the  hands  of  Turenne  and  the  Swedish 
general  Wrangel;  and  a  combined  invasion  of 
Austria  from  the  west  and  north  was  on  the 
point  of  being  executed,  when  the  diplomatic 
representatives  of  the  different  .governments, 
who  had  been  at  work  for  seven  years  at 
Munster,  in  Westphalia,  and  at  Osnabriick, 
agreed  upon  terms  of  peace  which  closed  the 
struggle.  See  Westphalia,  Peace  of. 

Aside  from  the  political  disintegration  of 
Germany  which  resulted,  the  30  years’  struggle 
had  brought  desolation  upon  the  country. 
Scarcely  any  part  of  the  Empire  had  escaped 
the  horrors  of  the  conflict,  the  people  had  been 
made  the  victims  of  a  licentious  soldiery  whose 


THISBE 


THOBURN 


excesses  long  remained  in  popular  memory. 
YY  hole  regions  were  laid  waste,  prosperous 
towns  wiped  out,  commerce  and  industry  de¬ 
stroyed.  Germany  lost  half  of  her  population 
and  two-thirds  of  her  wealth;  in  Bohemia,  the 
decrease  in  population  rose  to  two-thirds  or 
more.  Religion  and  morality  sank  to  a  low 
ebb,  and  the  loss  entailed  on  the  intellectual 
side  was  one  which  it  took  generations  to  make 
good. 

Consult:  S.  R.  Gardiner,  The  Thirty  Years’ 
War  (London,  1874)  ;  Anton  Gindely,  Geschiclite 
des  dreissig  jdhrigen  Kriegs  (4  vols.,  Prague, 
1869-80;  Eng.  trans.  by  A.  Ten  Brook,  New 
\ork,  1884)  ;  “The  Thirty  Years5  War,”  in 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  vol.  iv  (New  York, 
1906),  containing  a  comprehensive  bibliography; 
J.  C.  F.  von  Schiller,  History  of  the  Thirty 
Years’  War  in  Germany  (Sterling  ed.,  Boston, 
1910).  Consult  also  references  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus;  Richelieu;  Wallenstein;  etc. 

THISBE.  See  Pyramus  AND  TlIISBE. 

THISTLE  (AS.  pistel,  OHG.  distula,  distil , 
Ger.  Distel,  thistle).  A  popular  name  for  va¬ 
rious  plants  of  the  family  Compositse.  They 
usually  have  stout,  spinv-tipped  herbage  or 
flowering  bracts.  They  are*'  widely  distributed, 
mostly  as  weeds.  In  the  United  States  the 
name  applies  to  the  species  of  Gnieus,  Cirsium, 
Carduus,  Onopordon,  Silybum,  Gentaurea,  and 
Sonchus.  By  some  botanists  the  first  two  genera 
are  combined  under  the  name  Gnieus.  The 
principal  distinction  between  these  two  is  that 
Cirsium  has  plumose  pappus  and  hence  is  often 
called  plume  thistle,  while  Cnicus  has  bristly 
pappus.  The  species  belonging  to  the  other 
genera  are  all  introduced  from  the  Old  World. 
The  pasture  thistle  ( Cirsium  pumilum) ,  yel¬ 
low  thistle  ( Cirsium  spinosissimum) ,  bull 

thistle  ( Cirsium  lanceolatum) ,  and  others  are 
comnton  and  troublesome  in  pastures  and  on 
roadsides.  Cirsium  arvensis,  the  so-called  Can¬ 
ada  thistle,  a  European  species,  is  one  of  the 
most  troublesome  and  difficult  to  eradicate  of  all. 
It  is  a  slender  perennial,  1  to  3  feet  high,  with 
rather  small,  rose-colored  flowers.  It  spreads 
rincipally  by  its  spreading  rootstocks,  but  can 
e  eradicated  by  persistent  cultivation.  The 
heads  are  imperfectly  dioecious  and  not  all  pro¬ 
duce  seed.  Among  the  other  common  European 
thistles  found  in  the  United  States  is  the  milk 
thistle  ( Silybum  marianum) ,  a  biennial  plant 
4  to  6  feet  tall.  The  leaves  are  sometimes  used 
as  salads,  or  as  potherbs.  The  roots,  for  which  it 
was  formerly  cultivated,  were  used  like  salsify. 
The  blessed  thistle  ( Cnicus  benedictus) ,  native 
of  Asia,  was  formerly  considered  to  have  medic¬ 
inal  properties.  It  resembles  the  star  thistle 
(Gentaurea) ,  of  which  there  are  many  species, 
the  best  known  of  which  are  Centaurea  calci- 
trapa  and  Centaurea  cyanus,  the  blue-bottle  or 
bachelor’s  button.  The  cotton  or  Scotch  thistle 
(Ortopordon  acanthium )  is  recognized  by  its 
deeply  honeycombed  receptacle  and  cottony  or 
woolly  leaves.  It  is  said  to  be  the  emblem  of 
Scotland,  but  Cirsium  acaulis,  a  stemless  thistle 
common  in  Scotland,  seems  more  worthy  this 
designation.  The  Carline  thistle  ( Carlina  vul¬ 
garis)  is  a  rather  troublesome  weed  in  poor 
soils  in  Europe,  and  was  named  Carline  thistle 
because  Charlemagne,  according  to  tradition, 
used  its  roots  as  a  cure  for  the  plague.  Species 
of  Sonchus  are  called  sowthistle,  of  which  three 
are  found  in  the  United  States,  Sonchus  olera- 
ceus,  the  common  sow  thistle,  Sonchus  asper,  the 
Vol.  XXII.— 15 


219 

spiny  leaved  sow  thistle,  and  Sonchus  arvensis, 
the  field  sow  thistle.  Other  plants  of  different 
families  are  sometimes  called  thistles,  as  species 
of  Dipsacus  (see  Teasel)  and  blue  thistle 
( Echium  vulgare) ,  the  latter  belonging  to  the 
family  Boraginacece.  See  Plate  of  Tansy,  etc. 

The  so-called  Russian  thistle  is  Salsola  tragus, 
a  plant  related  to  the  saltwort.  It  was  intro¬ 
duced  into  America  some  years  ago  in  flax 
seed,  and  was  for  a  time  a  very  troublesome 
weed  in  the  western  United  States.  Its  name 
thistle  came  from  the  spiny  leaves  and  stems. 

THISTLE.  A  steel  yacht  built  in  1887  at 
Glasgow.  She  lost  the  contest  for  the  America’s 
cup  to  the  Volunteer,  and  afterward  became  the 
property  of  the  German  Emperor  under  the 
name  of  Meteor.  See  Yachting. 

THISTLE,  Order  of  the;  less  commonly 
Order  of  Saint  Andrew.  A  Scottish  order 
having  the  year  787  as  the  mythical  date  of  its 
foundation.  It  was  established  by  James  V  in 
1540,  reorganized  by  James  II  of  Great  Britain 
in  1687,  and  a  second  time  reconstituted  by 
Queen  Anne  in  1703.  The  statute  of  1827  limits 
the  number  of  knights  to  16  members  of  the 
Scottish  nobility,  in  addition  to  the  sovereign 
and  princes  of  the  blood.  The  star  of  the  order 
is  of  silver  with  a  round  gold  plaque  bearing 
a  thistle  on  a  green  field.  The  ribbon  is  green. 
The  motto  runs,  Nemo  me  impure  lacessit. 
THISTLE  BIRD.  See  Goldfinch,  2. 
THISTLEWOOD  CONSPIRACY,  or  Cato 
Street  Conspiracy.  A  plot  against  the  Brit¬ 
ish  government  formed  in  1819-20  by  Arthur 
Thistlewood  (1770-1820).  It  was  planned  to 
murder- the  Ministers  at  a  dinner  given  by  Lord 
Harrowby  on  Feb.  23,  1820,  to  seize  the  Man¬ 
sion  House,  attack  the  Bank  of  England,  and 
to  set  fire  to  London  in  several  quarters.  All  of 
Thistlewood’s  intentions  were,  however,  regu¬ 
larly  reported  to  the  authorities  by  one  of  his 
confidants,  George  Edwards.  On  Feb.  21,  1820, 
the  conspirators  hired  a  loft  in  Cato  Street,  and 
there  they  were  arrested  on  February  23. 
Thistlewood  escaped,  but  was  captured  the  fol¬ 
lowing  day.  He  was  found  guilty  on  April  19, 
and  hanged  with  four  other  conspirators. 

THLINKITS,  tlm'kits.  See  Alaska,  Popu¬ 
lation. 

THNETOPSYCHITES.  See  Intermediate 
State. 

THO'AS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  0oas).  1.  The  son 
of  Dionysus  and  Ariadne.  He  was  King  of 
Lemnos  and  father  of  Hypsipyle  (q.v. ),  who 
saved  him  when  the  men  of  the  island  were 
killed  by  the  Lemnian  women.  2.  A  King  of 
Tauris.  Artemis  carried  Iphigenia  ( q.v. )  into 
his  dominion  after  saying  her  from  the  sacrifice 
at  Aulis. 

THO'BURN,  James  Mills  (1836-  ). 

An  American  Methodist  Episcopal  missionary 
bishop.  He  was  born  at  St.  Clairsville,  Ohio, 
graduated  at  Allegheny  College  (1857),  and  was 
admitted  to  the  Pittsburgh  Conference  (1858). 
From  1859  to  1908  (except  for  the  years  1886- 
88)  he  was  a  missionary  in  India,  becoming 
presiding  elder  of  the  Indian  Conference,  and 
for  the  last  20  years  of  the  period  being  mis¬ 
sionary  Bishop  of  Tndia  and  Malaysia.  He  pub¬ 
lished:  My  Missionary  Apprenticeship  (1887); 
Missionary  Addresses  Before  Theological  Schools 
(1887)  ;  India  and  Malaysia  (1893)  ;  Christless 
Nations:  Graves  Lectures  at  Syracuse  Univer¬ 
sity  (1895);  Light  in  the  East  (1898);  The 
Christian  Conquest  of  India  (1906)  ;  India  and 


THOLEN 


220 


THOMAS 


Southern  Asia  (1907).  Consult  W.  H.  Craw¬ 
ford,  Thoburn  and  India  (New  York,  1909). 

THOLEN,  to'len.  An  island  belonging  to  the 
Province  of  Zealand,  Netherlands,  22  miles 
north  by  west  of  Antwerp  (Map:  Netherlands, 
C  3 ) .  It  covers  an  area  of  about  47  square 
miles.  The  little  town  of  Tholen  is  in  the  east¬ 
ern  part.  Pop.,  1899,  3076;  1909,  3254. 

THOLUCK,  toTuk,  Friedrich  August  Gott- 
reu  (1799-1877).  A  German  theologian,  born 
in  Breslau.  He  became  professor  extraordinary 
of  theology  at  Berlin  in  1823,  and  full  pro¬ 
fessor  at  Halle  in  1826,  where  he  spent  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  his  life  with  the  exception  of  a  so¬ 
journ  in  Rome  in  1828-29.  Tholuck  was  an 
influential  preacher,  writer,  and  teacher  on 
behalf  of  a  religion  of  experience.  His  most  im¬ 
portant  work  was  exegetical.  His  commentaries 
on  the  Psalms,  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  John, 
Romans,  Hebrews,  have  all  been  translated  into 
English.  His  best-known  works  are  Die  wahre 
Weihe  dcs  Zweiflers  (1823;  9th  ed.,  1870;  Eng. 
trans.,  Guido  and  Julius ,  1854)  ;  Das  Alte 
Testament  im  Neuen  (1836;  7th  ed.,  1877)  ;  and 
Stunden  christlioher  Andacht  (1840;  Eng.  trans., 
Hours  of  Christian  Devotion,  New  York,  1875). 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned 
Lebenszeugen  der  lutherischen  Kirche  vor  und 
mdhrcnd  der  Zeit  des  dreissigjdhrigen  Krieges 
(1859)  and  Geschichte  des  Rationalismus  (1st 
part,  1865).  Consult  his  Life  by  L.  Witte 
(Bielefeld,  1884-86),  and  M.  Kahler,  August 
Tholucks  Gedachtnis  (Leipzig,  1899).  His  col¬ 
lected  works  were  published  at  Gotha  (11  vols., 
1863-72). 

THOM,  t6m,  John  Hamilton  (1808-94).  A 
Unitarian  clergyman  and  author,  born  at  Newry, 
County  Down,  Ireland,  where  his  father  was 
settled  as  a  Presbyterian  minister.  He  studied 
at  the  Belfast  Academical  Institution  with  a 
view  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  but  he  was 
won  over  to  Unitarianism  by  the  writings  of 
William  Ellery  Channing  (q.v.).  From  1831- 
54  and  from  1857-66  he  was  minister  of  Ren- 
shaw  Street  Chapel,  Liverpool.  From  1854  to 
1857  his  place  was  taken  by  William  Henry 
Channing  (q.v.).  Meanwhile  (1838)  he  became 
editor  of  the  Christian  Teaeher  (afterward  the 
Prospective  Revieiv ) .  In  company  with  Mar- 
tineau  he  conducted  a  famous  controversy  with 
Anglican  divines  on  the  interpretation  of  the 
New  Testament  (1839).  Besides  a  life  (1845) 
of  Joseph  Blanco  White,  Thom  published  mainly 
St.  Paul’s  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  (1861); 
Letters,  Embracing  his  Life,  by  John  James 
Tayler  (1872)  ;  Laws  of  Life  after  the  Mind  of 
Christ  ( 1883) .  After  his  death  appeared  A  Spir¬ 
itual  Faith  (1895). 

THOMA,  to'ma,  Hans  (1839-  ).  A  Ger¬ 

man  painter,  illustrator,  and  lithographer. 
With  Feuerbach,  Marees,  and  Bocklin,  he  be¬ 
came  one  of  the  leaders  of  modern  painting  in 
Germany.  He  was  born  at  Bernau,  in  the 
Black  Forest,  and  studied  at  the  Karlsruhe  Acad¬ 
emy  with  Schirmer,  at  Diisseldorf  (1867),  and 
then  in  Paris,  where  he  came  under  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  Courbet.  Afterward  he  spent  four 
years  in  Munich  with  Victor  Muller,  who  also 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  him.  His 
style,  however,  was  formed  chiefly  on  the  old 
German  wood  engravers.  After  a  visit  to  Italy 
he  settled  in  Frankfort,  and  in  1899  removed  to 
Karlsruhe,  where  he  was  appointed  director 
of  the  gallery  and  professor  at  the  Academy. 
His  intense  individuality  and  sometimes  defec¬ 


tive  technique  at  first  blinded  the  public  to 
the  freshness  and  richness  of  his  color,  the 
power  and  poetry  of  his  imagination,  and  the 
depth  of  his  sympathy  with  German  life,  but 
after  the  Collective  Exhibition  of  German  art 
at  Munich  in  1890  his  true  value  began  to 
be  appreciated.  His  paintings  cover  a  wide 
range — landscapes,  portraits,  genre  scenes  of 
German  life,  religious,  mythological,  allegorical, 
and  purely  fantastic  subjects.  He  also  did 
some  work  in  lithography,  etching,  and  illustra¬ 
tion.  His  lithographs  are  strong,  simple,  and 
full  of  decorative  value.  His  best-known  paint¬ 
ings  include:  “A  Spring  Idyl”  and  “The  Guard¬ 
ian  of  the  Valley”  (Dresden  Gallery)  ;  “Soli¬ 
tude”  ( Munich  Pinakothek )  ;  “On  the  W  ay  to 
the  Castle  of  the  Grail”  (Vienna  Gallery)  ;  “At 
Lake  Garda”  (Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York);  “Longing”  (1900);  “Paradise”  (1901); 
“Scenes  from  the  Life  of  Christ”  ( 1907—08, 
Karlsruhe  Gallery).  Consult:  Fritz  von  Ostini, 
“Thoma,”  in  Kiinstler-Monographien,  vol.  xlvi 
(Bielefeld,  1900)  ;  Franz  Servaes,  Hans  Thoma 
(Berlin,  1900)  ;  M.  Spanier,  Bans  Thoma  und 
seine  Kunst  (Leipzig,  1903)  ;  and  Henry  Thode, 
in  Der  Ring  des  Frangipani  (4th  ed.,  Frankfurt, 
1909). 

THOMA,  Ludwig  (1867-1921  ).  A  German 
journalist  and  author,  who  used  the  pseudonym 
of  Peter  Schlemihl.  He  was  born  in  Oberam- 
mergau,  Bavaria,  and  studied  law  at  Munich 
and  Erlangen,  practicing  his  profession  for  a 
time  at  Dachau  and  Munich.  After  1899  he 
was  editor  of  Simplicissimus.  He  is  noted 
for  his  rather  broadly  humorous  short  stories 
and  sketches,  especially  of  Bavarian  life,  for  his 
dramas  and  political  satires.  Among  his  writ¬ 
ings,  which  went  through  many  editions,  aje: 
Agricola  und  andere  Bauerngeschichten  (1897)  ; 
Assessor  Karlchen  und  andere  Geschichten 
(1900);  Die  Medaille,  a  comedy  (1901)  ;*  Die 
Lokalbahn,  a  comedy  (1902);  Lausbubenge- 
schichten  (1904)  ;  Andreas  Bost,  a  novel  (1905)  ; 
Tante  Frieda,  a  tale  (1906);  Moral,  a  comedy 
(1909);  Der  Wittiber,  a  novel  (1911);  Mag¬ 
dalena  (1912);  Das  Sduglingsheim  (1913). 

THOMAR,  Count  de.  See  Costa  Cabral, 
A.  B.  da. 

THOMAS,  tbm'as  (Gk.  Owpds,  Aram.  Te- 
’uma’,  from  Heb.  Toam,  twin) .  One  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles.  In  the  Synoptic  Gospels  and  the  Acts 
he  is  mentioned  by  this  name  in  the  lists  of  the 
twelve  disciples  (Mark  iii.  18;  Matt.  x.  3;  Luke 
vi.  15;  Acts  i.  13).  In  the  Fourth  Gospel,  how¬ 
ever,  it  is  made  apparent  that  this  name  is  an 
appellative  (John  xi.  16;  xx.  24;  xxi.  2).  In  the 
Sinai  tic  Syriac  manuscript  John  xiv.  22  reads 
“Thomas”  ^instead  of  “Judas,”  which  hints  at  an 
early  identification  of  Thomas  with  Judas,  the  son 
of  James.  This  identification  appears  also  in  the 
Syriac  source  from  which  Eusebius  translated 
the  story  of  King  Abgar  and  Thaddaeus,  and 
in  the  apocryphal  Acts  of  Thomas.  The  Fourth 
Gospel  alone  gives  us  any  information  of  him 
beyond  his  name,  disclosing  him  as  one  who  was 
inclined  to  overestimate  difficulties  (xiv.  5)  and 
to  be  troubled  with  doubts  (xx.  24,  25),  but, 
at  the  same  time,  as  one  whose  loyalty  to  the 
Master  made  him  willing  to  face  whatever  diffi¬ 
culties  there  were  (xi.  16),  and  whose  response 
to  the  Master’s  assurances  changed  his  doubts 
into  instant  faith  ( xx.  26-28 ) .  Though  nothing 
more  is  said  of  him  in  the  New  Testament,  he 
figures  prominently  in  the  traditions  concerning 
the  spread  of  Christianity  in  the  Far  East.  The 


THOMAS 


221 


Syrian  Abgar  legend  relates  that  it  was  lie  who 
sent  dhaddacus,  the  Apostle  of  eastern  Syria, 
to  that  country.  A  tradition  older  than  Eusebi*us 
gives  Parthia  as  his  mission  field;  while  another, 
embodied  in  the  Gnostic  Acts  of  Thomas,  made 
®  tlie  Apostle  of  India.  To  him  the  "Thomas 
Christians  of  southern  India  assign  their  origin. 
Mount  St.  Thomas,  near  Madras,  is  the  place  of 
his  reputed  martyrdom.  As  these  Christians 
were  closely  connected  with  east  Syrian  Chris¬ 
tianity,  it  is  probable  that  the  basis  of  the 
whole  fabric  of  tradition  is  some  actual  mis¬ 
sionary  labor  of  the  Apostle  Thomas  in  eastern 
Syria.  See  Apocrypha;  Christians  of  Saint 
Thomas. 

THOMAS,  Christians  of  Saint.  See  Chris¬ 
tians  of  Saint  Thomas. 

THOMAS,  Gospel  of.  See  Apocrypha,  New 
Testament. 

THOMAS,  A(lbert)  E(lls worth)  (1872- 
) .  An  American  playwright.  He  was  born 
at  Chester,  Mass.,  and  graduated  from  Brown 
University  in  1894.  From  1895  to  1909  he  was 
engaged  in  newspaper  work  in  Hew  York  on  the 
stalls  of  the  Tribune,  Evening  Post,  Times,  and 
Sun.  Thomas  wrote  the  novel  Cynthia’s  Re¬ 
bellion  (1904),  and  the  plays  Her  Husband’s 
Wife  (produced,  1910;  published,  1914);  What 
the  Doctor  Ordered  v  191 1 )  ;  The  Divorce  Fund 
(1911);  Little  Boy  Blue  (1911);  The  Rain¬ 
bow  (1912). 

THOMAS,  to'ma',  Ambroise  (1811-96).  A 
French  operatic  composer,  born  in  Metz.  In 
1828  he  entered  the  Paris  Conservatory,  studied 
under  Zimmermann  and  Kalkbrenner  (piano), 
and  under  Dourlen,  Barbereau,  and  Le  Suer 
(counterpoint,  harmony,  and  composition).  He 
won  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  in  1832.  He 
succeeded  Auber  as  director  of  the  Conservatory 
in  1871.  His  chief  success  lay  in  opera  comique, 
the  best  example  of  which  was  Mignon  (1866). 
His  compositions  include  the  operas :  Le  pander 
fleuri  (1839)  ;  Le  Ca'id  (1849)  ;  Le  songe  d’une 
nuit  d’ete  (1850);  Psyche  (1857);  Hamlet 
(1868);  Frangoise  de  Rimini  (1882);  ballets; 
cantatas;  a  requiem;  and  chamber  music. 
THOMAS,  to'ma',  Andr£  Antoine  (1857- 
).  A  French  philologist  and  historian.  He 
was  born  at  Saint- Yrieux-la-Montaigne  (Creuse), 
and  was  educated  in  Paris  at  the  Ecole  des 
Chartes  and  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes  (1875- 
/8),  passing  thence  to  the  Ecole  Francaise  at 
Rome  (18/9—81).  From  1881  to  1889  lie  taught 
in  the  faculty  of  letters,  1  oulouse,  and  there¬ 
after  in  the  University  of  Paris,  rising  to  be 
professor  of  French  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages 
and  Romance  philology.  His  work  is  character¬ 
ized  by  a  severe  and  careful  method  as  well  as 
a  perspicacious  originality.  He  came  to  be  gen¬ 
erally  considered  the  leading  lexicographical  au¬ 
thority  in  France.  In  1889  he  founded  at 
Toulouse  the  quarterly  review  Les  Annales  du 
Midi,  of  which  he  was  editor  until  1898.  His 
most  important  publications  are:  Les  etats 
Vf  ovinciaux  de  la  France  centrale  sous  Charles 
1 //  (2  vols.,  1879);  Inventaire  sommaire  des 
archives  communales  de  Limoges  (1882);  Nou- 
velles  recherches  sur  I’entrde  de  Spagne  (1882)  ; 
Francesco  da  Barberino,  etude  sur  la  littera- 
ture  provengale  en  Italie  (1883)  ;  Po4sies  com¬ 
pletes  de  Bertran  de  Born  (1888);  Essais  de 
philologie  frangaise  (1897)  ;  Melanges  d’ etymol¬ 
ogic  frangaise  (1902)  ;  Nouveaux  essais  de 
philologie  frangaise  (1904);  Le  comU  de  la 
Marche  ct  le  parlement  de  Poitiers  UdlH-lJ/SG) 


THOMAS 

(1910)  ;  Les  registres  de  Boniface  VIII  (3  vols. 
1884-1911),  with  G.  Digard  and  M.  Faucon; 
L  Entree  d’Espagne,  chanson  de  geste  franco- 
italienne  (2  vols.,  1913).  In  collaboration  with 
A.  Hatzfeld  and  A.  Darmesteter  he  published  the 
Diotionnaire  general  de  la  langue  frangaise  (2 
vols.,  1899-1900),  a  standard  French  lexicon. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  of  France 
and  director  of  courses  at  the  Ecole  des  Hautes 
Etudes. 

THOMAS,  tom'as,  Augustus  (1859-  ). 

An  American  playwright,  born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo" 
He  was  a  page  in  the  Forty-first  Congress,  and 
subsequently,  after  studying  law  and  gaining 
some  experience  in  practical  railway  work,  took 
to  journalism,  becoming  editor  and  proprietor  of 
the  Kansas  City  Mirror  in  1889.  Subsequentlv 
he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  playwriting.  His 
Alabama  (produced  189i)  and  Arizona  (pro¬ 
duced  1899;  published  1904)  were  played  both 
m  America  and  England.  Other  plays' include: 
In  Mizzoura,  Colorado,  The  Man  Upstairs,  Oliver 
Goldsmith,  The  Earl  of  Pawtucket,  The  Other 
Girl,  Mrs.  Leffingrv ell’s  Boots,  The  Education  of 
Mr.  Pipp,  Jim  Delanccy,  The  Embassy  Ball,  The 
Witching  Hour,  The  Harvest  Moon,  As  a  Man 
Thinks  (published  1911),  Indian  Summer,  The 
Rio  Grande.  A  master  in  the  technique  of  the 
drama,  Ihomas  reaches  a  high  artistic  level  in 
Arizona  and  The  Witching  Hour.  A  noveliza- 
tion  of  the  latter  appeared  in  1908.  He  was 
elected  .  to  membership  in  the  American  Acad¬ 
emy  oi  Arts  and  Letters,  was  awarded  the 
Rational  Institute’s  gold  medal  in  1913,  and  in 
1914  received  an  honorary  A.M.  degree  from 
Williams  College. 

.  THOMAS,  Brandon  (1856-1914).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  actor  and  playwright,  born  in  Liverpool.  H?s 
first  appearance  on  the  stage  was  in  1879.  His 
farce.  Charley’s  Aunt  (1892)  made  a  great  hit, 
running  for  1200  successive  performances  in 
London  and  afterward  standing  the  strain  of 
perennial  revival.  It  was  also  translated  into 
several  languages,  and  proved  a  success  abroad 
as  well  as  at  home.  Other  plays  of  Thomas’s 
were:  Comrades  (1882),  his  first  success;  The 
Colour  Sergeant  (1885);  The  Lodgers  (1887); 
The  Cola  Craze  (1S89)  ;  The  Lancashire  Sailor 
(1891);  Marriage  (1892);  22a  Curzon  Street 
(1898);  Women  Are  So  Serious  (1901);  Four- 
chette  and  Co.  (1904)  ;  and  A  Judge’s  Memory 
(1906).  J 

THOMAS,  Calvin  (1854-1919).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  scholar,  bom  near  Lapeer,  Mich.  He  o-rad- 
uated  in  1874  at  the  University  of  Michigan, 
where,  after  studying  philology  at  Leipzig,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  faculty,  rising  to  be 
professor  of  Germanic  languages'  and  literature 
(1886-96).  In  1896  he  accepted  the  correspond¬ 
ing  chair  at  Columbia  University.  Calvin 
Thomas  was  president  of  the  Modern' Language 
Association  of  America  in  1896-97,  and  of  the 
American  Dialect  Society  in  1912-13.  His  pub¬ 
lications  include:  A  Practical  German  Grammar 
(1895;  4th  ed.,  rev.,  1905);  Goethe  and  the 
Conduct  of  Life  (1886)  ;  The  Life  and  Works  of 
Schiller  (1901);  A  History  of  German  Litera¬ 
ture  ( 1909 ) .  In  addition  he  edited  Faust  (part 
i,  1892;  part  ii,  1897),  Hermann  und  Dorothea 
(1891),  and  Torquato  Tasso  (1888),  and  An 
Anthology  of  German  Literature  (1909),  and 
contributed  to  the  New  International  Ency¬ 
clopaedia. 

THOMAS,  Charles  Louis  Ambroise.  See 
Thomas,  Ambroise. 


THOMAS 


222 


THOMAS 


THOMAS,  Charles  Spalding  (1849-  #  )'. 

An  American  legislator.  He  was  born  at  Darien, 
Ga.,  graduated  LL.B.  from  the  University  of 
Michigan  in  1871,  and  practiced  law  at  Denver, 
Colo.,  in  1871-79,  at  Leadville  in  1879-85,  and 
again  at  Denver  after  1885.  Thomas  was  a 
member  of  the  Democratic  National  Committee 
from  1884  to  1896,  and  served  as  temporary 
chairman  of  the  Democratic  National  Conven¬ 
tion  at  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  in  1900.  From  1899 
to  1901  he  was  Governor  of  Colorado,  and  in 
1913  was  elected  United  States  Senator  for  the 
unexpired  term  of  Charles  J.  Hughes,  being  re¬ 
elected  for  the  term  1915-21. 

THOMAS,  Cyrus  (1825-1910).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  anthropologist,  born  at  Kingsport,  Tenn. 
Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1851,  he  practiced  law 
until  1865,  when  he  became  a  minister  of  the 
Evangelical  Lutheran  church.  He  served  as  an 
assistant  on  the  United  States  Geological  Sur¬ 
vey  in  1869-73,  as  professor  of  natural  science 
in  the  Southern  Illinois  Normal  University  in 

1873- 75,  as  State  entomologist  of  Illinois  in 

1874- 76,  and  as  a  member  of  the  United  States 
Entomological  Commission  in  1876-77.  From 
1882  until  his  death  he  was  archaeologist  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Ethnology.  He  pub¬ 
lished:  Synopsis  of  the  Acrididce  of  North  Amer¬ 
ica  (  1873);  Mound  Explorations  of  the  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology  (1887)  ;  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  North  American  Archccology 
(1898);  Indians  of  North  America  in  Historic 
Times  (1903),  with  W  J  McGee;  and  a  large 
number  of  bulletins  on  Indian  languages,  calen¬ 
dars,  writings,  and  similar  subjects. 

THOMAS,  David  (1813-94).  A  British  Con¬ 
gregational  minister.  He  was  born  at  Vatson, 
near  Tenby,  Wales;  was  educated  at  Newport- 
Pagnell  (now  Cheshunt)  College;  and  from  1844 
to  1877  was  minister  of  the  Stockwell  Independ¬ 
ent  Church,  London.  The  remainder  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  retirement.  He  was  greatly  ad¬ 
mired  as  a  preacher,  and  had  a  large  circle  of 
readers  for  his  monthly,  The  Homilist,  or  Voice 
for  the  Truth  (1852-82),  and  for  his  collection 
of  writings  called  The  Homilist  Library  ( 1882— 
89).  He  compiled  a  liturgy  for  Evangelical 
churches  (1856),  and  a  hymn  book  (1866), 
which  contained  some  fair  hymns  of  his  own 
composition. 

THOMAS,  Edith  Matilda  (1854-  ).  An 

American  writer.  She  was  born  in  Chatham, 
Ohio,  and  was  educated  at  the  normal  school  of 
Geneva,  Ohio.  She  began  writing  early  for  the 
local  newspapers,  and  was  encouraged  by  Mrs. 
Helen  Hunt  Jackson  in  1881  to  send  verse  to  more 
important  periodicals.  Her  first  volume  appeared 
in  1885,  entitled  A  Nets  Year's  Masque  and  Other 
Poems.  Other  books  are:  The  Round  Year 
(1886);  Lyrics  and  Sonnets  (1887);  Babes  of 
■the  Year  (1888)  ;  Babes  of  the  Nation  (1889)  ; 
Heaven  and  Earth  (1889)  ;  The  Inverted  Torch 
(1890)  ;  Fair  Shadow  Land  (1893)  ;  In  Sunshine 
Land  (1895);  In  the  Young  World  (1895); 
A  Winter  Swallow,  and  Other  Verse  (1896); 
The  Dancers  (1903);  Cassia,  and  Other  Verse 
(1905);  Children  of  Christmas  (1907);  The 
Guest  of  the  Gate  (1909);  The  White  Messen¬ 
ger,  and  Other  War  Poems  (1915). 

THOMAS,  George  Henry  (1816-70).  A  dis¬ 
tinguished  American  soldier,  born  in  Southamp¬ 
ton0  Co.,  Va.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1840;  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  distin¬ 
guished  himself  at  Monterey  and  Buena  Vista. 
After  the  close  of  the  Mexican  War  he  served 


a  year  in  Florida,  three  years  as  cavalry  and 
artillery  instructor  at  West  Point,  and  then  for 
fHe  years  in  Texas  as  major  in  the  Second 
Cavalry.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War, 
though  he  was  by  birth  and  associations  a 
Southerner,  he  adhered  to  the  Union  cause;  was 
lieutenant  colonel  (afterward  colonel)  of  the 
Second  Cavalry;  commanded  a  brigade  in  the 
first  Shenandoah  campaign;  and  early  in  1862 
won  the  battle  of  Mill  Springs,  Ky.  He  com¬ 
manded  the  right  wing  of  the  Army  of  the  Ten¬ 
nessee  during  the  siege  of  Corinth,  and  was  in 
full  command  during  a  great  part  of  June, 
1862.  He  held  command  of  the  centre  of  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  though  appointed 
to  supersede  Buell  as  commander  of  the  whole 
army,  asked  to  remain  in  a  subordinate  position. 
He  rendered  conspicuous  service  at  Perryville 
and  Stone  River  (q.v.),  and  led  the  Fourteenth 
Army  Corps  in  the  campaign  of  middle  Ten¬ 
nessee  in  the  summer  of  1863.  At  Chickamauga, 
Sept.  19-20,  1863,  Thomas  stood  firm,  and  re¬ 
sisted  the  concentrated  attack  of  a  victorious 
enemy,  gaining  the  title  of  “the  Rock  of  Cliicka- 
mauga.”  Soon  after  he  reluctantly  succeeded  to 
the  post  held  by  Rosecrans,  and  commanded  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland  at  Missionary  Ridge, 
and  in  the  campaign  of  1864  up  to  the  capture 
of  Atlanta.  When  Sherman  marched  thence  to 
the  sea,  Thomas  was  sent  into  Tennessee,  where, 
in  the  battle  of  Nashville,  Dec.  15-16,  1864,  he 
crushed  Hood’s  army.  He  was  at  once  appointed 
a  major  general  in  the  regular  army,  and  Con¬ 
gress  tendered  him  a  vote  of  thanks.  In  1865— 
66  General  Thomas  commanded  the  Military 
Division  of  the  Tennessee,  including  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Mississippi, 
and  the  Department  of  the  Tennessee,  including 
the  same  States,  in  1867.  From  June,  1869, 
until  his  death,  he  was  in  command  of  the  Mili¬ 
tary  Division  of  the  Pacific,  with  headquarters 
at  San  Francisco.  General  Thomas  was  a  man 
of  sterling  qualities,  and  a  courageous  and  skill¬ 
ful  officer.  He  enjoyed  to  a  marked  degree  the 
loyalty  of  his  men  and  the  confidence  of  his 
superiors.  Consult:  T.  B.  Van  Horne,  Life  of 
Major  General  G.  H.  Thomas  (New  York,  1882)  ; 
Henry  Coppee,  Life  of  General  Thomas  (ib., 
1893)  ;  Gamaliel  Bradford,  in  Union  Portraits 
(Boston,  1916). 

THOMAS,  Isaiah  (1749-1831).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  printer,  born  in  Boston,  Mass.  He  was 
a  printer  at  Newburyport  in  1767,  and  in  1770, 
in  partnership  with  his  former  employer,  estab¬ 
lished  the  Massachusetts  Spy,  becoming  sole  edi¬ 
tor  at  the  end  of  three  months,  and  conducting 
the  paper  first  at  Boston  and  then  (after  1774) 
at  Worcester  until  1801.  Flis  paper  became  the 
organ  of  the  Whig  or  Patriot  party,  and  fear¬ 
lessly  attacked  the  measures  of  the  British  min¬ 
istry.  At  ’Worcester  and  later  at  Walpole,  N.  H., 
he  published  a  number  of  reprints  of  standard 
English  works,  besides  Bibles,  hymn  books,  school 
books  then  in  general  use,  and  a  magazine. 
The  Farmers’  Museum.  In  1788  he  opened  a 
bookstore  and  publishing  house  in  Boston  and 
(1789-1796)  published  The  Massachusetts  Maga¬ 
zine.  -  He  issued  the  Neiv  England  Almanac 
(1775-1801),  wrote  an  excellent  History  of 
Printing  in  America  ( 1810) ,  and  founded  (1812) 
the*  American  Antiquarian  Society,  giving  it  his 
large  library  and  a  liberal  endowment.  Consult 
B.  °F.  Thomas,  Memoir  of  Isaiah  Thomas  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1874),  and  “Diary  of  Isaiah  Thomas,  1805- 
1828,”  edited  bv  B.  T.  Hill,  in  American  An- 


THOMAS 


THOMAS 


223 


tiquarian  Society,  Transactions,  vols.  ix,  x  (Wor¬ 
cester,  1909). 

THOMAS,  John  (  1725— 7G).  An  American 
soldier,  born  at  Marshfield,  Mass.  He  studied 
medicine,  and  became  eminent  as  a  physician. 
In  1746  he  served  as  surgeon  in  a  regiment  sent 
to  Nova  Scotia,  and  in  1747  acted  first  as  sur¬ 
geon  and  then  as  lieutenant  under  Shirley.  In 

1759  he  became  a  colonel  of  provincials,  and  in 

1760  led  a  regiment  at  Crown  Point  and  was  at 
the  capture  of  Montreal.  He  was  appointed  a 
brigadier  general  in  June,  1775,  and  a  major 
general  in  the  following  March.  During  the 
siege  of  Boston  he  was  stationed  on  the  Roxbury 
side,  and  on  the  night  of  March  4,  1776,  with 
3000  men,  occupied  Dorchester  Heights,  thus 
rendering  Boston  untenable  for  the  British,  who 
evacuated  it  on  the  17th.  He  then  was  appointed 
to  succeed  Montgomery  in  Canada,  and  took  com¬ 
mand  before  Quebec  on  May  1;  but,  finding  the 
army  small  in  numbers  and  weakened  by  dis¬ 
ease,  he  ordered  a  retreat.  Contracting  the 
smallpox,  he  died  near  Montreal  on  May  30. 

THOMAS,  John  Jacob  (1810-95).  An 
American  horticulturist  and  writer.  He  was 
born  near  Lake  Cayuga,  in  central  New  York, 
and  there  spent  his  life  on  a  farm.  For  nearly 
60  years  he  exercised  a  wide  influence  as  an  edi¬ 
torial  writer  for  the  Cultivator  and  the  Country 
Gentleman,  his  articles  dealing  with  a  great  va¬ 
riety  of  practical  farm  topics.  He  also  pub¬ 
lished  a  book,  Farm  Implements  and  Machinery 
(1869),  and  a  nine-volume  work,  Rural  Affairs 
(1855-81),  both  of  which  were  valuable  in  their 
day  and  serve  as  records  of  their  time.  His  fame 
rests  chiefly  upon  his  work  as  a  pomologist  and 
upon  his  book,  The  Amen'ican  Fruit  Culturist, 
which  appeared  first  in  1845.  As  revised  by 
W.  H.  S.  Wood  in  1897  it  reached  its  twentieth 
edition.  The  twenty-first  edition  was  issued  in 
1903,  and  this  was  reprinted  in  1909. 

THOMAS,  Joseph  (1811—91).  An  American 
lexicographer  and  physician.  He  was  born  in 
Cayuga  Co.,  N.  Y. ;  educated  at  the  Polytechnic 
Institute,  Troy,  and  at  Yale  College,  and  then 
studied  medicine  in  Philadelphia.  In  1857-58 
in  India,  and  afterward  in  Egypt,  he  made  a 
special  study  of  Sanskrit,  Persian,  Arabic,  and 
other  Oriental  languages.  Subsequently  he  be¬ 
came  professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  at  Haver- 
ford  College,  Pa.  In  association  with  Thomas 
Baldwin  he  published  in  1845  A  Pronouncing 
Gazetteer,  in  1854  A  Few  and  Complete  Gazet¬ 
teer  of  the  United  States,  and  in  1855  The  Com¬ 
plete  Pronouncing  Gazetteer  of  the  World,  which 
lias  been  often  revised.  In  1870—71  appeared 
his  Universal  Pronouncing  Dictionary  of  Bi¬ 
ography  and  Mythology,  a  work  of  painstaking 
labor  (3d  ed.,  revised,  1905).  Thomas  also 
edited  A  Comprehensive  Medical  Dictionary 
(1864;  revised,  1886). 

THOMAS,  Lorenzo  (1804-75).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  soldier,  born  in  Newcastle,  Del.  He  gradu¬ 
ated  at  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1823,  and  served  in  the  Florida  War.  In  1838 
he  was  appointed  assistant  adjutant  general,  in 
1839-40  was  chief  of  staff  of  the  forces  in  Flor¬ 
ida,  served  in  the  Mexican  War  as  chief  of  staff 
of  Gen.  W.  O.  Butler,  and  was  brevetted  lieu¬ 
tenant  colonel  for  gallantry  at  Monterey.  From 
1861  to  1863  he  was  adjutant  general  with  rank 
of  brigadier  general,  and  during  the  remaining 
two  years  of  the  war  organized  colored  troops 
in  the  Southern  States.  President  Johnson  in 
1868  appointed  him  Secretary  of  War,  dismissing 


Stanton,  but  as  the  latter  refused  to  vacate  his 
post,  Thomas  did  not  assume  the  office.  In  1865 
he  was  brevetted  major  general,  -and  in  1869 
was  retired. 

THOMAS,  M(artiia)  Carey  (1857-  ). 

An  American  educator,  born  at  Baltimore,  Md. 
She  graduated  at  Cornell  in  1877,  and  studied 
also  at  Johns  Hopkins  and  at  Leipzig  and  Zurich 
(Ph.D.,  1883).  She  was  the  first  woman  to  re- 
ceive  such  a  doctorate  at  a  European  university. 
In  1885  she  became  professor  of  English  and 
dean,  and  in  1895  president,  of  Bryn  Mawr  Col¬ 
lege.  She  was  elected  a  trustee  of  Cornell,  and 
was  honored  by  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  the 
Western  University  of  Pennsylvania  and  from 
Brown.  She  published:  Sir  Gawayne  and  the 
Green  Knight  (1883);  Education  of  Women 
(1900)  ,  and  articles  in  the  Educational  Review. 
In  1915  Miss  Mary  Garrett,  who  had  been  promi¬ 
nent  in  suffrage  work  and  a  benefactor  of  Bryn 
Mawr,  left  to  President  Thomas  $15,000,000  to 
be  disposed  of  as  she  saw  fit. 

THOMAS,  Seth,  (1785—1859).  An  American 
manufacturer,  born  in  Wolcott,  Conn.  After  re¬ 
ceiving  a  meagre  education,  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  carpenter  and  joiner  in  New  Haven.  Sub¬ 
sequently  he  settled  in  Plymouth  Hollow  (now 
Ihomaston)  and  with  two  partners  began  the 
manufacture  of  clocks,  finally  becoming  sole 
proprietor  of  an  establishment  which  grew  to 
be  one  of  the  largest  clock  factories  in  the  world. 

THOMAS,  Sidney  Gilchrist  (1850-85).  A 
British  metallurgist  and  inventor.  Born  in  Lon¬ 
don,  he  received  an  elementary  education  at 
Dulwich  College,  but  by  study  after  hours  spent 
as  a  clerk  was  able  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  chem¬ 
istry,  especially  in  its  relations  to  technology. 
When  opportunity  offered  he  attended  lectures 
at  the  Royal  School  of  Mines  and  was  able  to 
pass  examinations  for  the  degree  in  metallurgy, 
but  this  was  denied  him,  owing  to  absence  from 
day  lectures.  From  1870  he  worked  on  the 
elimination  of  phosphorus  in  the  Bessemer  con¬ 
verter,  and  in  1875  reached  a  practical  solution 
of  the  problem  by  employing  a  basic  lining  of 
magnesia  or  magnesian  limestone.  He  secured 
the  cooperation  of  his  cousin  Percy  Gilchrist, 
also  a  chemist,  and  after  obtaining  a  first  patent 
in  November,  1877,  announced  the  invention  in 
the  following  year.  The  process  (discussed  un¬ 
der  Iron  and  Steel,  Bessemer  Process )  soon 
came  into  wide  use  everywhere,  and  Thomas  re¬ 
ceived  both  financial  returns  and  scientific  hon¬ 
ors,  notable  among  which  was  the  Bessemer 
medal  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  of  Great 
Britain  in  1883.  Consult  Jeans,  Creators  of 
the  Age  of  Steel  (London,  1884). 

THOMAS,  Theodore  (1831-1905).  An 
American  orchestral  conductor,  born  in  Esens, 
East  Friesland.  He  received  his  musical  educa¬ 
tion  from  his  father,  and  played  the  violin  at 
public  concerts  when  only  six  years  of  age.  He 
came  with  his  parents  to  America  in  1845,  was 
a  member  of  the  orchestra  of  the  Italian  opera 
in  New  York,  and  played  first  violin  in  the  first 
American  concert  tour  of  Jenny  Lind.  In  1861 
he  began  the  formation  of  an  orchestra  that  be¬ 
came  famous,  and  in  1864  gave  his  first  sym¬ 
phony  concerts  in  New  York.  In  1866  he*  in¬ 
stituted  summer-night  festivals.  For  nine  years 
from  1869  he  made  an  annual  round  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  American  cities.  In  1878  he  accepted  the 
position  of  director  of  the  College  of  Music  at 
Cincinnati,  but  in  1880  he  returned  to  New 
York,  where  he  was  conductor  of  the  Philhar- 


THOMAS 


THOMAS  SLAG 


224 


monic  Society  until  1890.  The  orchestra  which 
he  built  up  in  Chicago,  where  he  lived  there¬ 
after,  came  to  be  recognized  as  one  of  the  great 
orchestras  of  the  world.  Notwithstanding  a 
heavy  annual  deficit,  the  orchestra’s  guarantors 
supported  Thomas  in  his  determination  to  pre¬ 
sent  nothing  but  the  best  in  music.  He  finally 
succeeded  in  winning  the  public  to  his  own  ideals. 
(See  Chicago  Orchestra.)  Consult  G.  P.  Up¬ 
ton,  ed.,  Theodore  Thomas:  a  Musical  Autobi¬ 
ography  (2  vols.,  Chicago,  1905),  and  for  side¬ 
lights,  Rose  Fay  Thomas  (his  wife),  Our  Moun¬ 
tain  Garden  (New  York,  1904;  new  ed.,  1915). 

THOMAS,  Theodore  Gaillard  (1832-1903). 
An  American  gynaecologist,  born  in  Edisto 
Island,  S.  C.,  and  educated  in  Charleston.  He 
studied  in  Europe,  principally  in  Paris  and 
Dublin,  in  1853-55,  and  began  the  practice  of 
his  profession  in  New  York.  He  was  a  lecturer 
in  New  York  University  (1855-63),  and  pro¬ 
fessor  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons, 
New  York  City  (1863-89),  where  he  held  the 
chair  of  gynaecology  when  he  retired.  Thomas 
was  the  first  to  perform  and  publish  an  account 
of  vaginal  ovariotomy  (1870).  He  wrote  Dis¬ 
eases  of  Women  (Philadelphia,  1868),  which 
passed  through  six  editions  in  English,  and  was 
translated  into  French,  German,  Spanish,  Chi¬ 
nese,  and  Italian. 

THOMAS,  W.  H.  Griffith  (1861-  ).  A 

Canadian  theologian.  He  was  born  in  England, 
graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  was 
ordained  priest  of  the  Church  of  England  in 
1885.  After  filling  several  minor  appointments 
he  was  vicar  of  St.  Paul’s,  Portman  Square, 
London,  in  1896-1905,  and  principal  of  Wycliffe 
Hall,  Oxford,  in  1905-10.  In  the  latter  year  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  Old  Testament  at 
Wycliffe  College,  Toronto.  His  publications  in¬ 
clude:  Methods  of  Bible  Study  (1902);  Hand¬ 
book  of  the  Acts  (1905);  The  Catholic  Faith 
(1906)  ;  Commentary  on  Genesis  (3  vols.,  1907- 
OS)  ;  The  Power  of  Peace  (1908)  ;  Christianity 
in  Christ  (1909);  Life  Abiding  and  Abounding 
(1909)  ;  Commentary  on  Romans  (3  vols.,  1911- 
12);  The  Work  of  the  Ministry  (1911);  The 
Holy  Spirit  of  God  (1913)  ;  The  Prayers  of  St. 
Paul  (1914). 

THOMAS  A  BECKET,  a  bek'et.  See  Becket. 

THOMAS  A  KEM'FIS.  See  Kempis. 

THOMAS  AQUINAS.  See  Aquinas. 

THOMAS  HUBBARD,  Cape.  See  Heiberg 
Land. 

THOMASIUS,  td-ma'ze-us,  Christian  (1655- 
1728).  A  German  philosopher  and  jurist,  born 
in  Leipzig.  He  began  to  lecture  in  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Leipzig.  His  lectures  were  free  from  ped¬ 
antry,  arid  were  delivered  in  the  German  lan¬ 
guage  instead  of  the  traditional  Latin.  These 
innovations  brought  hostility  from  conservative 
educators.  He  edited  the  first  scientific  journal 
in  German,  but  its  liberal  tone  excited  so  much 
opposition  that  he  was  forced  to  leave  Leipzig. 
He  went  to  Halle  in  1690,  where  he  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  university  and  its  first  pro¬ 
fessor  of  jurisprudence.  His  great  aim  was  to 
harmonize  and  blend  science  and  life.  His  im¬ 
portant  works  were :  Institutionum  Jurispru¬ 
dential  Divince  Libri  Tres  (1688);  Fundamenta 
Juris  Naturce  et  Gentium  (1705)  ;  and  Geschichte 
der  Weisheit  und  Thorheit.  Consult  B.  A.  Wag¬ 
ner,  Christian  Thomasius :  ein  Beitrag  zur 
Wiirdigung  seiner  Verdienste  um  die  deutsche 
Litteratur  (Berlin,  1872)  ;  R.  Kayser,  Thom¬ 


asius  und  der  Pietismus  (Hamburg,  1900)  ; 
A.  D.  White,  Seven  Great  Statesmen  in  the  War¬ 
fare  of  Humanity  with  Unreason  (New  York, 
1910). 

THOMASIUS,  Gottfried  (1802-75).  A  Ger¬ 
man  theologian.  He  was  born  at  Egenhausen, 
Wiirttemberg,  studied  at  Erlangen,  Halle,  and 
Berlin,  and  was  professor  of  systematic  theology 
at  Erlangen  from  1842  till  his  death.  His  most 
important  publications  were:  Origines  (1837); 
Christi  Person  und  Werk  (1852-61;  3d  ed., 
1886-88)  ;  Die  christliche  Dogmengescliichte 
(1874-76;  2d  ed.,  1886-89).  Consult  A.  von 
Stahlin,  Lohe,  Thomasius,  Harless  (Leipzig, 
1887). 

THOMAS  ( Lat .  pron.  tho'mas)  MAGIS'TER 
(Gk.  O oj/ias  6  Mayiarpos,  Thomas  ho  Magistros, 
Master  Thomas).  A  Greek  rhetorician  and 
grammarian  of  the  early  part  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  born  probably  at  Thessalonica.  For 
some  time  at  the  court  of  the  Byzantine  Emperor 
Andronicus  Palteologus  II,  he  held  important 
offices.  Later,  having  retired  to  a  monastery, 
he  compiled  a  Lexicon  of  Attic  Greek  (WKXoyal 
’Ovoyaruv  ’Attikuv).  His  works  also  include 
scholia  to  JEschylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  and 
three  plays  of  Aristophanes,  which  are  preserved 
with  the  other  scholia  to  those  authors,  as  well 
as  lives  of  these  writers  which  have  come  down 
to  us  in  the  manuscripts  of  their  works.  Letters 
and  orations  of  Thomas  Magister  have  been  pre¬ 
served.  Especially  noteworthy  is  the  oration  on 
Gregorv  of  Nazianzus.  The  earliest  edition  of 
the  Lexicon  is  that  of  Z.  Callierges  (1517)  ;  the 
latest,  that  of  Ritschl  (1832). 

THOMAS  OE  AQUINO.  See  Aquinas, 
Thomas. 

THOMAS  OE  CELANO,  cha-laYio  (c.1200- 
c.1255).  One  of  the  first  members  of  the  Fran¬ 
ciscan  Order.  He  was  born  at  Celano,  in  the 
Abruzzi,  became  acquainted  with  Francis  of 
Assisi,  and  Avas  in  1221  sent  by  him  upon  a  mis¬ 
sion  to  Germany.  In  1222  he  was  placed  over 
the  monasteries  of  Worms,  Speyer,  Mainz,  and 
Cologne,  but  in  1230  we  find  him  again  in  Italy. 
His  intimacy  with  Francis  eminently  fitted  him 
to  be  his  biographer,  and  he  wrote  two  sketches 
of  the  saint,  which  are  of  primary  importance 
(Eng.  trans.,  1908),  as  well  as  the  Life 
of  St.  Clara  (Eng.  trans.,  1910).  Of  more 
universal  interest  is  his  claim,  now  prac¬ 
tically  admitted  by  all  scholars,  to  be  considered 
the  author  of  the  Dies  Irce  (q.v. ),  except  perhaps 

flip  loaf  oi V  VOTQPQ 

THOMAS  OE  ERCELDOUNE.  See  Thomas 

the  Rhymer. 

THOMAS  SLAG,  Piiosphatic  Slag,  Basic 
Slag.  A  by-product  of  the  manufacture  of  steel 
from  piiosphatic  ores  by  the  basic  or  Thomas 
(see  Thomas,  S.  G. )  process,  in  which  phos¬ 
phorus  is  eliminated  from  the  pig  iron  by  means 
of  basic  (rich  in  lime)  lining  to  the  Bessemer 
converters  and  by  adding  lime  to  the  molten  pig 
iron.  The  slag  is  therefore  rich  in  lime  (about 
15  per  cent  in  the  free  state  and  40  per  cent  com¬ 
bined  with  other  substances).  The  phosphoric 
acid  content  of  the  product  as  found  in  the  mar¬ 
ket  is  very  variable,  ranging  from  10  to  25  per 
cent.  Slag  of  average  quality  contains  15  to  20 
per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid.  In  good  slag  80 
per  cent  of  this  phosphoric  acid  should  be  avail¬ 
able,  as  shown  by  the  chemical  methods  of  de¬ 
termining  availability,  viz.,  treatment  with  a 
weak  solution  of  citric  acid  or  ammonium  citrate. 
The  phosphoric  acid  of  slag,  unlike  that  of  super- 


THOMPSON 


THOMAS  THE  RHYMER 


225 


phosphates,  is  practically  insoluble  in  water. 
Attempts  have  been  made  with  some  success  to 
prepare  a  slag  in  which  the  phosphoric  acid  is 
more  available  by  fusing  the  product  as  obtained 
from  the  converters  at  about  900°  C.  with  suffi¬ 
cient  silica  (quartz)  to  convert  the  free  lime 
into  silicate.  Such  slag  differs  materially  from 
the  untreated  product  not  only  in  containing  a 
higher  percentage  of  available  phosphoric  acid 
and  of  silica,  but  in  being  practically  devoid  of 
free  lime.  Basic  slag  is  not  suited  to  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  superphosphates  and  is  generally  used 
without  any  treatment  except  fine  grinding. 
The  value  of  the  material  depends  very  largely 
upon  its  fineness. 

Slag  has  been  used  in  large  quantities  for 
agricultural  purposes  in  Europe  for  a  number  of 
years.  At  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
War  in  1914  the  world’s  consumption  had  reached 
about  4,500,000  tons  annually.  It  has  not  been 
extensively  introduced  into  the  United  States, 
although  a  limited  amount  is  being  made  there. 
Experiments  have  shown  slag  to  be  a  very  val¬ 
uable  phosphatic  fertilizer,  and  on  account  of  its 
high  percentage  of  lime  especially  suited  to  use 
on  acid  soils  and  those  rich  in  organic  matter. 
It  would  not  be  wise  to  use  it  freely  on  poor 
sandy  soils  deficient  in  organic  matter. 

Slag  appears  to  be  especially  suited  to  legumi¬ 
nous  crops.  Six  hundred  to  1000  pounds  per 
acre  is  considered  a  liberal  dressing.  It  should 
not  be  mixed  with  ammonium  sulphate  before 
use,  since  its  high  percentage  of  free  lime  is 
likely  to  cause  a  loss  of  ammonia  by  volatiliza¬ 
tion.  Mixtures  of  the  slag  with  other  salts, 
such  as  muriate  of  potash  and  nitrate  of  soda, 
cake  badly  and  are  difficult  to  handle  and  dis¬ 
tribute  uniformly.  See  Manures  and  Manuring. 

THOMAS  THE  RHYMER,  or  more  correctly 
Thomas  of  Erceldoune,  or  Thomas  Learmont 
(  C.1220-C.1297) .  A  Scottish  seer  and  poet,  about 
whom  very  little  is  positively  known.  Ercel¬ 
doune  (now  called  Earlston)  was  a  village  in 
Berwickshire  on  the  river  Leader,  about  two 
miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Tweed.  There 
is  mention  of  Thomas  as  a  seer  in  the  con¬ 
tinuation  of  Fordun’s  Scotichronicon,  attributed 
to  Walter  Bower  (died  1449).  For  centuries  all 
sorts  of  prophecies  were  connected  with  his 
name.  A  collection  of  them  was  published  at 
Edinburgh  in  1603  under  the  title  The  Whole 
Prophesie  of  Scotland.  To  Thomas  the  Rhvmer 
has  been  attributed  a  beautiful  fairy  story  in 
verse.  According  to  the  legend,  Thomas  met  a 
lady  fair”  at  Huntly  Banks  and  was  conveyed 
to  fairyland,  where  he  acquired  knowledge  that 
made  him  famed.  After  some  time  there  he 
was  permitted  to  go  to  the  earth  to  practice  his 
prophetic  skill,  on  condition  that  he  should 
return  at  the  fairy’3  bidding.  One  day,  while 
he  was  making  merry  with  his  friends,  the  sum¬ 
mons  came.  He  disappeared  in  the  forest  and 
never  came  again  to  earth.  The  poem,  consist¬ 
ing  of  the  minstrel’s  usual  prologue  and  three 
fyttes,  contains  700  lines.  It  exists  in  four 
complete  manuscripts,  the  oldest  being  the 
Thornton  at  Cambridge  (assigned  to  1430-40). 
Though  they  are  all  in  English,  they  point  to  an 
older  original,  which  may  have  been  the  com¬ 
position  of  Thomas.  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  others 
also  ascribed  to  Thomas  the  verse  romance  of 
Sir  Tristrem.  It  exists  in  a  single  manuscript 
in  the  Advocates’  Library  at  Edinburgh. 
Though  the  poem  contains  allusions  to  Thomas 
of  Erceldoune,  his  authorship  is  now  questioned. 


Consult  The  Romance  and  Prophecies  of  Thomas 
of  Erceldoune,  edited  by  J.  A.  H.  Murray  for 
the  Early  English  Text  Society  (London,  1875)  ; 
Thomas  of  Erceldoune,  edited  by  Brandi  (Ber¬ 
lin,  1880). 

THOMASTON.  A  town  in  Litchfield  Co., 
Conn.,  10  miles  by  rail  north  of  Waterbury,  on 
the  Naugatuck  River  and  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Con¬ 
necticut,  C  3).  4 here  are  large  clock  and  watch 

factories,  a  brass  rolling  mill,  and  manufactories 
of  cutlery  and  brass  products.  Pop.,  1900,  3300; 
1910,  3533. 

THOMASVILLE,  tom'as-vil.  A  city  and 
the  county  seat  of  Thomas  Co.,  Ga.,  200  miles 
west  of  Savannah,  on  the  Ochlocknee  River  and 
on  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the  Atlanta,  Bir¬ 
mingham,  and  Atlantic,  and  the  Florida  Central 
railroads  (Map:  Georgia,  B  5).  It  is  pictur¬ 
esquely  situated  on  high  ground,  and  has  at¬ 
tained  considerable  prominence  as  a  winter  and 
health  resort.  There  are  three  large  hotels.  The 
South  Georgia  College  and  Young’s  College  for 
Women  are  here,  and  the  city  has  also  a  public 
library,  a  normal  school  for  negroes,  the  Vashti 
Home  for  Girls,  and  Paradise,  McIntyre,  and 
Magnolia  parks.  Thomasville  is  surrounded  by 
a  fertile  region  producing  cotton,  sugar  cane, 
tobacco,  melons,  figs,  pears,  grapes,  and  vege¬ 
tables.  Its  manufacturing  interests  are  centred 
mainly  in  the  lumber  industry,  and  there  are  iron¬ 
works.  Thomasville  was  settled  in  1850  and 
received  its  present  charter  in  1889.  Pop.,  1900 
5322;  1910,  6727. 

^  THOMASVILLE.  A  city  in  Davidson  Co., 
N.  C.,  22  miles  southwest  of  Greensboro,  on  the 
Southern  and  the  Carolina  and  Yadkin  railroads 
(Map:  North  Carolina,  B  2).  It  contains  the 
Thomasville  Baptist  Orphanage.  There  are  ma¬ 
chine  shops,  a  veneer  and  woodworking  plant, 
cotton  mills,  and  manufactories  of  chairs, 
spokes,  handles,  and  furniture.  Pop.,  1910,  3877. 

THOME,  td'ma',  Francois  (commonly  called 
Francis)  (1850—1909).  A  French  composer, 
born  at  Port-Louis,  Mauritius.  From  1866  to 
1870  he  attended  the  Paris  Conservatory,  study¬ 
ing  pianoforte  with  Marmontel  and  theory  with 
Duprato.  He  is  known  chiefly  for  his  piano 
pieces,  which  are  distinguished  by  grace  and  re¬ 
finement.  His  ballets  and  pantomimes  enjoyed 
considerable  popularity  during  the  composer’s 
life. 

THOMIST,  thoYnist.  A  follower  of  Thomas 
Aquinas  (q.v.)  in  philosophy  or  theology.  See 
Auexandrists. 

TKQMMEN,  tom'men,  Achilles  (1832-93). 
An  Austrian  engineer,  born  at  Basel,  and  edu¬ 
cated  at  the  university  of  his  native  town  and  in 
the  polytechnic  institute  of  Karlsruhe.  He  built 
the  railroad  over  the  Brenner  Pass  in  1861-67. 
From  1867  to  1869  he  was  head  of  the  railroad 
system  of  Hungary.  He  wrote  Die  Gotthard- 
hahn-Bemerlcungen  zur  Reform  (1877). 

THOMPSON,  tomp'son.  A  town,  including 
several  villages,  in  Windham  Co.,  Conn.,  3 
miles  northeast  of  Putnam,  on  the  Quinebaug 
River,  and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and 
Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Connecticut,  H  2). 
Farming  and  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods 
and  woolens  are  the  leading  industries  of  the 
community.  Originally  a  part  of  Killinglv, 
Thompson  became  a  parish  in  1728,  and  was  in¬ 
corporated  as  a  town  in  1785.  Pop.,  1900,  6442; 
1910,  4804. 

THOMPSON,  Augustus  Charles  (1812- 


THOMPSON 


226 


THOMPSON 


1901).  An  American  Congregational  clergyman. 
He  was  born  at  Goshen,  Conn.,  and  studied  at 
Yale  College,  at  Hartford  Theological  Seminary, 
and  the  University  of  Berlin.  He  became  pastor 
of  the  Eliot  Congregational  Church,  Roxbury, 
Mass.  (1842).  He  visited  India  with  Dr.  Rufus 
Anderson  (1854-55),  and  lectured  on  foreign 
missions  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
(1877-80),  at  Boston  University  (1882),  and 
at  Hartford  Theological  Seminary  (1885-86). 
His  publications  include  memorials  of  Mrs.  Anna 
J.  Waters  (1854),  of  H.  M.  Mill  (1856),  of  Rev. 
Dr.  Rufus  Anderson  (1880)  ;  Moravian  Missions 
(1882);  Foreign  Missions  (1889);  Protestant 
Missions  (1894);  Eliot  Memorial  (Boston, 
1900)  ;  and  numerous  works  of  a  popular  char¬ 
acter. 

THOMPSON,  Benjamin.  See  Rumfoed, 
Benjamin  Thompson,  Count. 

THOMPSON,  Charles  Miner  (1864-  ). 

An  American  editor  and  author.  He  was  born 
at  Montpelier,  Vt.,  and  graduated  from  Harvard 
in  1886.  In  1887-90  he  served  as  literary  editor 
of  the  Boston  Advertiser.  He  was  associate  edi¬ 
tor  of  the  Youth’s  Companion  from  1890  to  1911, 
thereafter  editor  in  chief,  and  after  1912  part 
owner.  Among  his  entertaining  stories  are: 
The  Nimble  Dollar  (1895),  a  book  for  boys;  The 
Calico  Cat  (1908)  ;  An  Army  Mule  (1910). 

THOMPSON,  Daniel  Greenleaf  (1850-97). 
An  American  psychologist  and  sociologist.  He 
graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1869  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  New  York  in  1872.  How¬ 
ever,  he  devoted  his  time  mainly  to  the  psy¬ 
chology  of  religion  and  sociological  subjects,  and 
is  chiefly  known  for  his  System  of  Psychology  (2 
vols.,  1884)  ;  The  Religious  Sentiments  of  the 
Human  Mind  (1888);  Social  Progress  (1889); 
The  Philosophy  of  Fiction  in  Literature  (1890)  ; 
Politics  in  a  Democracy  (1893).  In  his  books 
Thompson  takes  a  position  violently  antagonistic 
to  various  dogmas. 

THOMPSON,  Daniel  Pierce  (1795-1868). 
An  American  lawyer,  politician,  and  novelist, 
born  at  Charlestown,  Mass.  He  graduated  at 
Middlebury  College  (1820),  went  to  Virginia  as 
tutor,  studied  law  there,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  (1823).  He  settled  in  Montpelier,  Vt.,  in 
1824,  held  various  legal  offices  in  that  State, 
compiled,  by  legislative  appointment,  Laws  of 
Vermont  from  1824  doion  to  and  including  the 
Year  183iff  (1835),  was  Secretary  of  State  of 
Vermont  (1853-55),  and  editor  of  a  political 
weekly,  The  Green  Mountain  Freeman  (1849— 
56 ) .  *  His  first  novel  was  a  satire  on  the  Anti- 
Masonic  agitation,  The  Adventures  of  Timothy 
Peacock  (1835).  In  the  same  year  was  pub¬ 
lished  his  May  Martin,  or  the  Money  Diggers. 
Much  popularity  was  achieved  by  The  Green 
Mountain  Boys  (1840)  and  The  Rangers  (1857), 
romances  of  Revolutionary  Vermont.  He  also 
wrote  a  History  of  Montpelier,  1181-1860 
(1860). 

THOMPSON,  David  (1770-1857).  A  Cana¬ 
dian  explorer,  born  in  Westminster,  London. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  in  1789  came 
to  America  in  the  service  of  the  Hudson’s  Bay 
Company.  He  became  engaged  in  explorations 
near  the  Great  Lakes,  in  i 798  discovered  Turtle 
Lake,  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
in  1807-11  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
explored  the  course  of  the  Columbia  River.  In 
1797  he  became  connected  with  the  Northwest 
Company.  He  was  with  the  Canadian-United 
States  boundary  survey  (1816-26),  later  hav¬ 


ing  charge  of  surveying  and  exploring  expedi¬ 
tions  in  the  Canadian  Northwest.  He  published 
A  Map  of  the  Northwest  Territory  of  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Canada  (1814). 

THOMPSON,  Denman  (1833-1911).  An 
American  actor,  best  known  for  his  impersona¬ 
tion  of  the  rustic  “Josh”  Whitcomb.  He  was 
born  in  Erie  Co.,  Pa.,  but  passed  his  boyhood 
in  Swanzey,  N.  H.,  where  he  found  some  types 
that  he  later  made  famous.  His  stage  d6but  was 
at  Lowell,  Mass.,  in  1852.  Joshua  Whitcomb 
was  first  brought  out  in  1875.  In  1886  Mr. 
Thompson  produced  The  Old  Homestead,  in  which 
the  same  leading  character  appears,  and  this 
play,  with  its  depiction  of  country  life,  became 
the  material  of  his  subsequent  popularity.  It 
ran  for  four  successive  seasons  in  New  York 
(1888-91),  and  toured  the  United  States  for 
years.  Consult  McKay  and  Wingate,  Famous 
American  Actors  of  To-Day  (New  York,  1896). 

THOMPSON,  Sir  Edward  Maunde  (1840- 
).  An  English  antiquary,  born  in  Jamaica, 
West  Indies.  After  studying  at  Rugby  and  at 
University  College,  Oxford,  he  was  called  to  the 
bar  at  the  Middle  Temple  in  1867.  In  1861 
he  was  appointed  assistant  in  the  British  Mu¬ 
seum;  in  1878  he  became  keeper  of  the  manu¬ 
scripts  and  Egerton  librarian;  and  was  princi¬ 
pal  librarian  (1888-1909).  He  was  Sandars 
reader  in  bibliography  at  Cambridge  (1895-96; 
1905-06),  and  was  knighted  in  1895,  receiving 
the  G.C.B.  in  1909.  Editions  by  him  include: 
Chronicon  Anglice,  1328-88,  in  the  “Rolls  Se¬ 
ries”  (1874);  and,  for  various  societies:  Letters 
of  Humphrey  IWideaux  (1875)  ;  Chronicon  Adce 
de  Usk,  1311-1404  (1876);  Correspondence  of 
the  Family  of  Hatton  (1878)  ;  Diary  of  Richard 
Cocks  in  Japan,  1615-22  (1883);  the  facsimile 
of  the  “Laurentian  Sophocles”  (1885),  with 
Professor  Jebb.  Thompson’s  Handbook  of  Greek 
and  Latin  Palaeography  (1893)  appeared  in  an 
enlarged  edition  as  Introduction  to  Greek  and 
Latin  Palaeography  (1912). 

THOMPSON,  Ernest  Seton.  See  Seton,. 
Ernest  Thompson. 

THOMPSON,  Francis  (1860-1907).  An 
English  poet,  the  son  of  a  Lancashire  physician. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Ushaw  Roman  Catholic 
College,  near  Durham,  and  then  studied  medi¬ 
cine  at  Owens  College,  Manchester.  Giving  up 
medicine,  he  went  to  London,  where,  after  a  sharp 
struggle  with  poverty,  he  was  “discovered”  and 
rescued  by  Wilfrid  and  Alice  Meynell  (qq.v.), 
and  then  suddenly  found  himself  famous.  His 
Poems  (1893)  ran  through  several  editions,  re¬ 
ceiving  high  praise  from  the  reviewers  and  from 
Browning.  This  volume  was  followed  by  Sister 
Songs  (1895)  and  New  Poems  (1897).  Thomp¬ 
son’s  early  experience  broke  down  his  health,  and 
he  died  of  tuberculosis.  Essentially  a  mystic, 
he  takes  high  rank  among  the  poets  of  his 
time.  In  prose,  he  wrote  literary  criticism 
for  the  Academy  and  the  Athenceum;  Health 
and  Holiness  (1905),  and  the  following  books 
posthumously  published:  Life  of  St.  Ignatius 
Loyola  (1909);  the  admirable  essay,  Shelley 
(2d  ed.,  1909)  ;  A  Renegade  Poet,  and  Other  Es¬ 
says  (1910)  ;  Life  of  John  Baptist  de  la  Galle 
(1911).  A  three-volume  edition  of  his  Works 
appeared  in  New  York  in  1913.  Consult:  P.  E. 
Morej  Shelburne  Essays  (7th  series,  New  York, 
1910)  ;  G.  A.  Beacock,  Francis  Thompson  (Mar¬ 
burg,  1912);  K.  Rooker,  Francis  Thompson  (in 
French,  London,  1913)  ;  Everard  Meynell,  Life 
of  Francis  Thompson  (New  York,  1913) 


THOMPSON 


227 


THOMPSON 


THOMPSON,  George  (1804-78).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  abolitionist.  He  was  born  in  Liverpool, 
England,  and  first  became  known  in  1833  by  his 
lectures  in  connection  with  the  antislavery  agi¬ 
tation  throughout  the  British  colonies.  He  was 
largely  instrumental  in  procuring  the  freedom  of 
the  slaves  and  the  abolition  of  the  apprentice¬ 
ship  system.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Anti- 
Corn  Law  League,  and  also  took  an  active  part 
in  forming  the  British  India  Association,  which 
procured  better  government  for  the  people  of 
India.  He  was  associated  with  Garrison,  Whit¬ 
tier,  and  others  in  the  anti  slavery  movement  in 
the  United  States,  and  a  visit  which  he  paid  to 
that  country  in  1834  led  to  the  formation  of  up¬ 
ward  of  150  antislavery  societies.  He  belonged 
to  the  National  Parliamentary  Reform  Associa¬ 
tion  of  England,  and  from  1847  to  1852  was  a 
member  of  Parliament  for  the  Tower  Hamlets 
District,  London. 

THOMPSON,  Sir  Henry  (1820-1904).  An 
English  surgeon,  born  in  Framlingham,  Suffolk. 
He  was  educated  at  University  College,  London, 
and  was  appointed  assistant  surgeon  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity  College  Hospital,  London,  in  1856;  sur¬ 
geon  in  1863;  professor  of  clinical  surgery  in 
1866;  and  consulting  surgeon  in  1874.  In  1884 
he  was  professor  of  surgery  and  pathology  in 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  London.  He  was 
especially  known  through  his  operation  upon  the 
bladder.  In  1864  he  became  surgeon  extraordi¬ 
nary  to  Leopold  I  of  Belgium  (by  whom,  owing 
to  the  success  of  an  operation,  he  was  knighted 
in  1867),  and  in  1868  to  his  successor,  Leopold 
II.  He  also  operated  upon  Napoleon  III  (1872) 
shortly  before  the  ex-Emperor’s  death.  He  stud¬ 
ied  painting,  and  frequently  exhibited  pictures 
at  the  Royal  Academy  ( London ) ,  the  Salon 
(Paris),  and  elsewhere.  He  first  brought  be¬ 
fore  the  English  public  the  desirability  of  cre¬ 
mation  and  in  1874  founded  the  Cremation  So¬ 
ciety  of  London.  Several  of  his  books  were 
translated  into  German  and  French.  The  best 
known  include:  Practical  Lithotomy  and  Lith- 
otrity  (1863)  ;  Clinical  Lectures  on  Diseases  of 
the  Urinary  Organs  (1868)  ;  Modern  Cremation 
(1890)  ;  On  Food  and  Feeding  (1901)  ;  and  the 
novels  Charley  Kingston’s  Aunt  and  All  But, 
which  appeared  under  the  pseudonym  of  “Pen 
Oliver.” 

THOMPSON,  Jacob  (1810-85).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  politician,  born  in  Caswell  Co.,  N.  C.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
and  in  1834  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  in 
the  next  year  removed  to  the  Chickasaw  country 
in  Mississippi.  From  1839  to  1851  he  was  a 
member  of  the  United  States  House  of  Represen¬ 
tatives,  served  as  chairman  of  the  Committee 
on  Indian  Affairs,  and  advocated  nonacceptance 
of  the  Compromise  of  1850.  In  1857  he  became 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  and  greatly  systema¬ 
tized  the  work  of  the  department,  though  the 
defalcation  of  a  trusted  clerk  clouded  his  ad¬ 
ministration.  In  January,  1861,  he  resigned  and 
was  appointed  aid  to  General  Beauregard,  and 
served  with  him  through  the  Shiloh  campaign. 
From  1862  to  1864  Thompson  was  Governor  of 
Mississippi.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  sent  as 
Confederate  Commissioner  to  Canada,  and  to 
organize  the  Confederate  sympathizers  in  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois.  Unsuccessful  attempts 
were  made  to  capture  the  gunboat  Michigan,  and 
to  organize  the  escaped  Confederate  prisoners, 
and  to  take  Camp  Douglas,  free  the  prisoners 
there  confined,  and  take  Chicago.  After  the 


assassination  of  Lincoln,  Thompson  was  charged 
with  complicity,  and  a  price  was  put  upon  his 
head.  He  escaped  to  Europe,  "however,  and  re¬ 
mained  there  some  time.  When  he  returned  he 
was  not  brought  to  trial,  though'  a  civil  suit 
was  brought  in  1876  for  the  money  taken  by 
the  dishonest  clerk  while  Thompson  was  Secre¬ 
tary  of  the  Interior. 

THOMPSON,  John  Reuben  (1823-73).  An 
American  journalist  and  poet,  born  in  Richmond, 
Va.  He  graduated  at  the  University  of  Virginia 
(1844),  practiced  law  in  Richmond,  became  in 
1847  editor  of  the  Southern  Literary  Messenger, 
which  for  12  years  he  made  influential.  In  it 
appeared  early  writings  of  D.  G.  Mitchell,  John 
E.  Cooke,  Philip  P.  Cooke,  Paul  Hayne,  and 
Henry  Timrod.  In  1859  he  moved  to  Augusta, 
Ga.,  to  edit  The  Southern  Field  and  Fireside. 
The  Civil  War  drove  him  in  1863  to  London, 
where  he  wrote  for  English  magazines  defending 
the  Confederacy.  After  the  war  he  returned  to 
America  and  was  literary  editor  of  the  New 
York  Evening  Post  till  1872.  His  poems  enjoyed 
local  popularity. 

THOMPSON,  Sir  John  Sparrow  David 
(1844-94).  A  Canadian  statesman,  born  at 
Halifax,  Nova  Scotia.  He  received  a  common- 
school  education  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1865..  Here  his  ability  and  industry  soon 
placed  him  in  the  first  rank.  He  took  an  active 
interest  in  politics  and  in  1877  was  elected  to 
the  Nova  Scotia  Assembly.  The  next  year  he 
was  appointed  Attorney-General  and  in  1881  he 
became  Premier.  In  1882  he  was  appointed  a 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Nova  Scotia, 
but  in  1885  he  gave  up  this  position  to  accept  the 
portfolio  of  Minister  of  Justice  in  the  Dominion 
government,  and  in  1886  he  brilliantly  defended 
the  conduct  of  the  administration  in  regard  to 
Louis  Riel  (q.v.).  The  next  year  he  was  chosen 
legal  adviser  to  the  British  plenipotentiaries 
who  negotiated  the  fisheries  treaty  of  1887  with 
the  United  States,  and  as  a  reward  for  his 
services  was  knighted  (K.C.M.G.).  In  1892 
he  became  Prime  Minister  of  Canada  and  in 
1893  one  of  the  arbitrators  on  the  Bering  Sea 
Controversy  (q.v.).  He  died  while  in  Windsor 
Castle,  where  he  had  just  taken  the  oath  as  a 
member  of  the  Queen’s  Privy  Council. 

THOMPSON,  Joseph  Parrish  (1819-79). 
An  American  clergyman  and  scholar,  born  in 
Philadelphia.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1838, 
was  ordained  a  Congregational  minister  in  1840, 
was  pastor  in  New  Haven  (1840-45)  and  New 
York  (1845-71),  lecturer  on  Egyptology  at  An¬ 
dover  (1871),  and  engaged  in  Oriental  studies, 
chiefly  in  Berlin,  from  1872  till  his  death. 
Thompson  aided  in  establishing  the  New  York 
Independent.  Among  his  publications  the  more 
noteworthy  are :  Egypt,  Past  and  Present  ( 1856 )  : 
Man  in  Genesis  and  Geology  (1869)  ;  Church  and 
State  in  the  United  States  (1874)  ;  The  United 
States  as  a  Nation  (1877);  The  Workman,  his 
False  Friends  and  his  True  Friends  (1879). 
His  political  and  social  essays  are  gathered  in 
American  Comments  on  European  Questions 
( 1884 ) 

THOMPSON,  Launt  (1833-94).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  sculptor,  born  in  Abbeyleix,  Queen’s  County, 
Ireland.  He  came  to  America  in  1847,  settling 
at  Albany,  where  he  was  a  pupil  and  assistant 
of  Erastus  Palmer,  with  whom  he  remained  nine 
years.  In  1858  he  opened  a  studio  in  New  York 
City,  where  he  first  attracted  attention  by  his 
medallion  heads  and  later  by  some  successful 


THOMPSON 


228 


THOMPSON 


portrait  busts  and  statues.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy  in  1862.  In 
1868  he  passed  a  year  at  Rome,  and  in  1875-87 
again  visited  Italy,  residing  principally  at  Flor¬ 
ence.  His  best-known  medallions  are  “Morning 
Glory”  and  a  portrait  of  Gen.  John  A.  Dix. 
Among  his  statues,  which  are  characterized  by 
good  workmanship  and  dignified  presentation, 
are:  Napoleon  (1867,  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York)  ;  President  Abraham  Pierson  (1874, 
Yale  University)  ;  Gen.  Ambrose  Burnside,  an 
equestrian  statue  at  Providence,  R.  I.;  Gen.  Win¬ 
field  Scott  and  Admiral  Dupont,  equestrian  stat¬ 
ues  in  Washington.  Good  examples  of  his  nu¬ 
merous  busts  are  those  of  Edwin  Booth  as  Ham¬ 
let,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  and  William  Cullen 
Bryant  (Metropolitan  Museum,  New  lY>rk). 

THOMPSON,  (James)  Maurice  (1844- 
1901).  An  American  novelist,  poet,  and  journal¬ 
ist,  born  in  Fairfield,  Ind.  His  boyhood  was 
spent  chiefly  in  Kentucky  and  Georgia.  He 
served  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  after  the 
war  returned  to  Indiana,  and  practiced  law  and 
civil  engineering  at  Crawfordsville.  From  1885 
to  1889  he  was  State  geologist.  In  1890  he  went 
to  New  York  and  joined  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
Independent,  having  already  made  a  name  for 
himself  in  literature  by  Hoosier  Mosaics  (  1875), 
The  Witchery  of  Archery  (1878),  A  Tallahassee 
Girl  (1882),  His  Second  Campaign  (1882), 
Songs  of  Fair  Weather  (1883),  At  Love's  Ex¬ 
tremes  ( 1885) ,  By-Ways  and  Bird  Notes  ( 1885) , 
The  Boy’s  Book  of  Sport  (1886),  A  Banker  of 
Bankersville  (1886),  Sylvan  Secrets  (1887), 
The  Story  of  Louisiana  (1888),  and  A  Fortnight 
of  Folly  (1888).  His  later  writings  include: 
Poems  (1892);  The  Ethics  of  Literary  Art 
(1893);  The  Ocala  Boy  (1895);  My  Winter 
Garden  (1900),  good  impressionist  descriptions 
of  subtropical  Louisiana;  Alice  of  Old  Vincennes 
( 1900) ,  a  very  popular  novel  and  his  best.  Post¬ 
humously  printed  were  two  immature  novels, 
Sweetheart  Manette  and  Milly  (1901). 

THOMPSON,  Mortimer  (1832-75).  An 
American  journalist  and  humorist,  born  at  Riga, 
Monroe  Co.,  N.  Y.  He  studied  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Michigan,  contributed  humorous  articles 
to  the  Advertiser  of  Detroit,  and  afterward  was 
a  writer  for  the  New  York  Tribune,  in  which 
were  published  his  series  of  letters  from  Niagara 
Falls  and  his  account  of  the  Pierce-Butler  slave 
auction  at  Savannah,  printed  by  the  Antislavery 
Society  as  a  tract.  For  several  years  he  was  a 
popular  lecturer.  He  published  under  the  pseu¬ 
donym  “Q.  K.  Philander  Doesticks,  P.B.” — inter¬ 
preted  by  him  as  “Queer  Kritter,  Philander  Doe- 
sticks,  Perfect  Brick” — a  number  of  volumes,  in¬ 
cluding  Doesticks — What  he  Says  (1855);  a 
parody  of  Hiawatha,  Plu-ri-bus-tah :  A  Song 
that’s  by  No  Author  (1856);  and  Nothing  to 
Say,  Being  a  Satire  on  Snobbery  (1857). 

THOMPSON,  Richard  Wigginton  (1809- 
1900).  An  American  political  leader,  born  in 
Culpeper  Co.,  Va.  In  1831  he  removed 
to  Louisville,  Ky.,  but  soon  afterward  went  to 
Lawrence  Co.,  Ind.,  where  in  1834  he  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar.  In  1840  he  was  elected  to  Con¬ 
gress,  and  in  1847  was  again  elected.  He  was 
appointed  judge  of  the  Fifth  Indiana  Circuit  in 
1867,  and  in  1877  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
in  the  cabinet-  of  President  Hayes.  His  publica¬ 
tions  include:  The  Papacy  and  the  Civil  Power 
(1876);  History  of  Protective  Tariff  Laws 
(1888)  ;  Personal  Recollections  of  Sixteen  Presi¬ 
dents  (1894)  ;  Footprints  of  the  Jesuits  (1894). 


THOMPSON,  Robert  Ellis  (1844-  ). 

An  American  educator,  born  near  Lurgan,  Ire¬ 
land.  At  an  early  age  he  emigrated  to  the 
United  States,  and  in  1865  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  From  1868  until 
1892  he  was  a  professor  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  in  1894  became  principal  of 
the  Philadelphia  Central  High  School.  He  was 
editorially  connected  with  several  periodicals, 
and  published:  A  History  of  the  Presbyterian 
Churches  of  America  (1895)  ;  The  Hand  of  God 
in  American  History  (1902);  Harvard  Univer¬ 
sity  Lectures  on  Protection  to  Home  Industries 
(1908);  The  Historic  Episcopate  (1910);  The 
History  of  the  Dwelling  House  and  its  Future 
(1914). 

THOMPSON,  Silvanus  Phillips  (1851- 
1916).  An  English  physicist.  He  was  born  at 
Y^ork,  and  was  educated  at  the  Royal  School  of 
Mines  and  the  University  of  London  (B.A., 
1869;  B.Sc.,  1876;  D.Sc./l878).  He  was  lec¬ 
turer  and  professor  of  experimental  physics  in 
the  University  College,  Bristol,  from  1876  to 
1885,  when  he  became  principal  and  professor 
of  physics  in  the  City  and  Guilds  Technical  Col¬ 
lege,  Finsbury.  Professor  Thompson  did  much 
to  spread  knowledge  of  electricity,  while  also 
carrying  on  original  researches.  His  publications 
include:  a  popular  textbook,  Elementary  Les¬ 
sons  in  Electricity  and  Magnetism  (1881;  7th 
ed.,  rev.,  1915)  ;  Dynamo-Electric  Machinery 
(1886;  7th  ed.,  1904);  Light,  Visible  and  In¬ 
visible  (1897;  2d  ed.,  1910)  ;  Polyphase  Electric 
Currents  and  Alternate-Current  Motors  (1895)  ; 
Michael  Faraday:  His  Life  and  Work  (1898)  ; 
The  Life  of  Lord  Kelvin  (1910). 

THOMPSON,  Smith  (1768-1843).  An  Amer¬ 
ican  jurist  and  cabinet  officer.  He  was  born  in 
Stanford,  Dutchess  Co.,  N.  Y.,  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  1788,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1792,  having  studied  under  Chan¬ 
cellor  Kent.  After  serving  as  a  member  of  the 
New  York  Legislature  (1800)  and  of  the  State 
Constitutional  Convention  (1801),  he  became  as¬ 
sociate  justice  of  the  State  Supreme  Court  ( 1802- 
14),  and  Chief  Justice  (1814-18).  In  1818  he 
became  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  Monroe’s  cab¬ 
inet,  and  in  1823  was  appointed  to  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court,  of  which  he  remained  an 
associate  justice  until  his  death. 

THOMPSON,  Thomas  Perrgnet  (1783- 
1869).  An  English  general  and  political  re¬ 
former.  He  was  born  in  Hull  and  was  educated 
at  Queens’  College,  Cambridge.  He  took  part  in 
the  Buenos  Aires  campaign,  1807,  and  in  1808 
was  made  Governor  of  Sierra  Leone.  His  recall 
to  England  in  1810  was  due  to  the  influence  of 
the  slave  traders,  against  whose  traffic  he  had 
taken  active  measures.  He  was  with  the  British 
army  in  the  Peninsular  and  French  campaigns 
of  1813  and  1814,  and  in  the  Indian  Pindari 
campaign  of  1818.  In  1820,  with  a  small  force, 
he  was  defeated  at  Sur,  on  the  Arabian  coast, 
by  a  band  of  Arabs,  whom  he  was  attempting  to 
punish  for  piracy.  He  returned  to  England  and 
in  1824  became  one  of  the  founders,  and  later 
proprietor,  of  the  Westminster  Review,  to  which 
he  was  a  versatile  and  prolific  contributor. 
Amon"  his  well-known  publications  are  Cate- 
chi  sm° on  the  Corn  Laws  (1827),  Catechism  on 
the  Currency  ( 1848) ,  Fallacies  against  the  Ballot 
(1855).  His  miscellaneous  writings  were  pub¬ 
lished  as  Exercises,  Political  and  Other  (6  vols., 
1S42).  He  was  elected  to  Parliament  (1835, 
1847,  and  1857).  He  became  general  in  1868. 


THOMPSON  229  THOMSEN 


THOMPSON,  Waddy  (1798-1868).  An 
American  legislator  and  diplomat,  born  in  Pick- 
ensville,  .S.  C.  He  graduated  at  the  South  Caro¬ 
lina  College  in  1814  and  in  1819  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  I  rom  1835  to  1841  he  was  a  member 
of  the  National  House  of  Representatives  as  a 
Whig,  and  in  1840  was  chairman  of  the  Com¬ 
mittee  on  Military  Affairs.  In  1842-44  he  was 
Minister  to  Mexico,  and  secured  the  release  of 
200  Texan  prisoners.  He  published  Recollections 
of  Mexico  (1846). 

THOMPSON,  William  (1725-81).  An 
American  soldier.  He  was  born  in  Ireland,  emi¬ 
grated  to  Pennsylvania,  served  (1759-60)  as 
captain  of  militia  in  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
and  in  June,  1775,  was  placed  in  command  of 
eight  Pennsylvania  companies,  with  the  rank  of 
colonel.  In  January,  1776,  he  took  the  same  rank 
in  the  regular  Continental  army,  and  on  March  1 
became  brigadier  general.  (V  March  19  he  re- 
lie\ed  Gen.  Charles  Lee  at  New  York,  and  in 
April  led  14  regiments  to  Canada  to  re¬ 
enforce  Gen.  John  Thomas,  assuming  chief 
command  during  Thomas’s  illness  and  holding 
it  until  the  arrival  (June  4)  of  General  Sulli¬ 
van.  He  led  the  Americans  in  the  unsuccessful 
attack  on  the  English  at  Three  Rivers  ( June 
6),  and  was  taken  prisoner.  Though  imme¬ 
diately  paroled,  he  was  not  exchanged  until 
Oct.  25,  1780. 

THOMPSON,  William  Howard  (1871- 
).  An  American  legislator.  He  was  born 
at  Crawfordsville,  Ind.,  and  moved  to  Kansas 
with  his  parents  in  1880.  After  graduating 
from  the  Seneca  (Kans.)  Normal  School  in  1886 
he  studied  law  under  his  father,  and  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  Kansas  bar  in  1894.  A  Democrat 
in  politics,  he  served  as  clerk  of  the  Kansas 
Court  of  Appeals  from  1897  to  1901,  was  judge 
of  the  thirty-second  judicial  district  of  Kansas 
in  1906-13,  and  was  elected  United  States  Sena¬ 
tor  for  the  term  1913-19. 

THOMPSON,  William  Tappan  (1812-82). 
An  American  journalist  and  humorist,  born  at 
Ravenna,  Ohio.  He  removed  to  Philadelphia, 
subsequently  to  Florida,  and  thence,  in  1835,  to 
Augusta,  Ga.,  where  he  was  attached  to  the  staff 
of  several  literary  weekly  papers.  To  the  Mis¬ 
cellany,  of  Madison,  Ga.,  he  contributed  the 
Major  Jones  Letters,”  upon  which  his  fame  as  a 
humorist  rests.  They  were  published  in  book 
form  as  Major  Jones’s  Courtship  (1840).  In 
1850  he  established  at  Savannah  the  Morning 
News,  which  he  continued  to  edit  during  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  his  life.  In  the  Civil  War  he  served 
m  the  Confederate  army  as  a  private  and  on 
the  staff  of  Gen.  J.  E.  Brown.  He  published 
Major  Jones’s  Chronicles  of  Pineville  (1843)  and 
Major  Jones’s  Sketches  of  Travel  (1848).  A 
posthumous  collection,  entitled  John’s  Alive,  or 
the  Bride  of  a  Ghost,  and  other  Sketches,  was 
published  by  his  daughter,  Mrs.  M.  A.  Wade,  in 
1883. 

THOMPSON,  Wordsworth  (1840-96).  An 
American  genre  and  historical  painter.  He  was 
born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  studied  under  Gleyre 
and  Pasini  in  Paris.  In  1868  he  opened  a  studio  . 
in  New  York  City,  being  elected  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  in  1875,  and  of  the  So¬ 
ciety  of  American  Artists  two  years  later.  He 
is  best  known  as  a  painter  of  American  histori¬ 
cal  subjects,  executed  with  a  smooth  but  skill¬ 
ful  technique.  Among  his  paintings  are  the 
‘"Review  at  Annapolis,  Maryland,  1776”  (Buffalo 
Academy)  ;  “Passing  the  Outpost”  (Union 


League  Club,  New  York)  ;  a  “New  England 
Homestead,”  awarded  a  gold  medal  at  the  Paris 
exhibition,  1889;  and  his  last  and  best  work, 
“Old  Bruton  Church,  Virginia,  in  the  time  of 
Lord  Dunmore”  (Metropolitan  Museum). 

THOMPSON  RIVER  INDIANS.  An  im¬ 
portant  Salishan-speaking  tribe  of  Indians  for¬ 
merly  residing  on  the  river  of  the  same  name  in 
British  Columbia.  Their  proper  name  is  Ntlaky- 
apamuk,  and  their  culture  is  typically  interior 
Salishan  (q.v.).  Consult:  James  Teit,  “Tradi¬ 
tions  of  the  Thompson  River  Indians,”  in  Ameri¬ 
can  lolk-Lore  Society,  Memoirs,  vol.  vi  (Boston, 
1898)  ;  id.,  “Thompson  River  Indians  of  British 
Columbia,,  and  “Mythology  of  the  Thompson 
River  Indians,  in  Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedi¬ 
tion,  Publications,  vol.  i,  part  iv  and  vol.  viii, 
part  ii,  published  by  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  (New  York,  1900,  and  Leyden, 
1912).  J  ’ 

THOMPSON  SETON,  Ernest.  See  Seton, 
E.  T. 

THOMS,  tomz,  William  John  (1803-85). 
An  English  antiquary,  born  in  London.  For  sev- 
eial  yeais,  up  to  1845,  he  was  a  clerk  at  Chelsea 
Hospital,  and  then  was  appointed  clerk  of  the 
House  of  Lords;  and  from  1863  to  1882  he  was 
its  deputy  librarian.  In  recognition  of  his 
scholarship  he  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries  (1838)  and  secretary  of  the  Cam¬ 
den  Society  (1838—73).  Thoms  is  most  widely 
known  as  the  founder  (1849)  of  Notes  and 
Queries.  Thoms  published  a  large  number  of 
books  of  great  value  to  the  student  and  to  the 
curious.  Among  them  are  Early  Prose  Romance 
(1827-28;  revised  by  another  hand,  1858); 
Lays  and  Legends  of  Vannous  Nations  (1834); 
Anecdotes  and  Traditions  Illustrative  of  Early 
English  History  and  Literature  (Camden  So¬ 
ciety,  1839);  Hannah  Liglitfoot  (1867);  the 
Death  of  Charles  I  (1872)  ;  and  Human  Lon¬ 
gevity  (1873).  Consult  Thoms’s  reminiscences 
under  the  title  “Gossip  of  an  Old  Bookworm,” 
m  Nineteenth  Century  (London,  July  and  De¬ 
cember,  1881). 

THOMSEN,  tom'sen,  Julius  (1826-1909). 

A  Danish  chemist,  born  in  Copenhagen.  He  was 
educated  in  the  Copenhagen  Polytechnic  School, 
where  he  was  professor  of  chemistry  (1847-56)’ 
and  of  which  he  was  director  (1883-92).  For 
30  years  (1856—86)  he  held  a  chair  in  the  Mili¬ 
tary  High  School,  and  for  25  years  (1866-91) 
occupied  one  in  the  University  of  Copenhagen. 
Thomsen  was  the  inventor  of  a  process  for "the 
manufacture  of  soda  from  cryolite,  brought  from 
Greenland,  but  he  became  best  known  by  his 
researches  on  thermochemistry,  the  results  of 
which  are  given  in  his  Thermochemiske  Under- 
sogelser  (1869-73;  Ger.  trans.,  1882-86;  Emr. 
trans.,  1908). 

THOMSEN,  Vilhelm  Ludvig  Peter  (1842- 

).  A  Danish  philologist,  born  in  Copen¬ 
hagen,  where  he  became  professor  of  compara¬ 
tive  philology  at  the  university  in  1887.  He 
traveled  extensively  in  Europe  and  Asia.  Among 
his  works  are  Den  gotiske  Sprogklasscs  Indfly- 
delse  pan  den  finske  (1869)  ;  The  Relations  Be¬ 
tween  Ancient  Russia  and  Scandinavia  and  the 
Origin  of  the  Russian  State  (1877;  Ger.  trans., 
1879),  originally  lectures  delivered  at  Oxford 
University;  the  important  D6chiffrement  des  in¬ 
scriptions  de  I’Orkhon  (1894)  and  Inscriptions 
de  I’Orkhon,  dtchiffrtes  par  V.  L.  P.  Thomsen 
(1896),  wherein  he  claims  that  certain  ancient 
inscriptions  found  in  Mongolia  represent  the 


THOMSON 


THOMSON 


oldest  forms  known  of  the  Turkish  language. 
Other  works  deal  with  Lycian,  Etruscan,  and 
Runic  inscriptions.  Thomsen  was  one  of  the 
foremost  philologists  of  his  time. 

THOMSON,  tom'son,  Alexander  (1817-75). 
A  Scottish  architect,  born  at  Balfron.  At  the 
age  of  17  he  entered  an  architect's  office  in  Glas¬ 
gow  and  became  deeply  interested  in  Greek  archi¬ 
tecture.  When  some  years  later  he  began  to 
practice  architecture  independently,  he  showed 
much  originality  and  cleverness  in  adapting 
Greek  motives  to  the  modern  requirements  of 
churches  and  public  buildings;  but  modern  criti¬ 
cism  denies  the  validity  of  the  theory  on  which 
his  designs  were  based,  and  regards  his  buildings 
in  Glasgow  (churches,  Egyptian  hall,  etc.)  and 
Edinburgh  as  curiosities  rather  than  as  master¬ 
pieces.  He  is  often  referred  to  as  “Greek 
Thomson.” 

THOMSON,  toN'soN',  Cesar  (1857-  ). 

A  Belgian  violinist,  born  at  Liege.  He  made 
successful  tours  through  Spain  and  Italy  and 
became  a  member  of  Bilse’s  orchestra  at  Berlin. 
He  gave  instruction  on  the  violin  at  the  Liege 
Conservatory  from  1883  to  1897.  In  1894  and 
1895  he  made  trips  to  the  United  States,  and 
four  years  later  he  became  Ysave’s  successor  as 
professor  of  violin  playing  at  the  Brussels  Con¬ 
servatory.  He  is  noted  for  his  double-stop  tech¬ 
nique  and  for  his  clean-cut  bowing. 

THOMSON,  Charles.  See  Ritchie,  Baron. 

THOMSON,  tom'son,  Charles  (1729-1824). 
An  American  patriot.  He  was  born  in  County 
Derry,  Ireland,  and  in  1740  was  brought  to  New 
Castie,  Del.  He  was  educated  at  New  London, 
Pa.,  and  when  very  young  assumed  charge  of  the 
Friends’  Academy  at  New  Castle.  He  took  an 
active  interest  in  all  the  controversies  between 
the  colonies  and  the  British  ministry,  and,  re¬ 
moving  to  Philadelphia  in  1774,  was  chosen 
secretary  of  the  Continental  Congress,  in  which 
capacity  he  served  until  1789,  keeping  a  careful 
record  of  all  the  proceedings  and  making  copious 
notes  of  the  debates.  John  i^dams  (in  his  diary 
for  Sept.  30,  1774)  speaks  of  him  as  “the  Sam 
Adams  of  Philadelphia,  the  life  of  the  cause  of 
liberty.”  In  1789  he  was  delegated  to  announce 
to  Washington,  at  Mount  Vernon,  his  election  to 
the  presidency.  He  published  An  Enquiry  into 
the  Causes  of  the  Alienation  of  the  Delaware  and 
Shawanese  Indians  (1759);  an  able  translation 
of  the  Bible,  containing  the  first  English  version 
of  the  Septuagint  (4  vols.,  1808)  ;  and  a  Synop¬ 
sis  of  the  Four  Evangelists  (1815) .  He  also  pre¬ 
pared  a  history  of  the  Revolution,  which,  how¬ 
ever,  he  destroyed  in  manuscript.  Consult  L.  R. 
Harley,  The  Life  of  Charles  Thomson  (Philadel¬ 
phia,  1900) . 

THOMSON,  Charles  Edward  Poulett,  first 
Baron  Sydenham.  See  Sydenham. 

THOMSON,  Sir  Charles  Wyville  (1830- 
82 ) .  A  British  naturalist,  born  in  Scotland  as 
Wyville  Thomas  Charles,  which  name  was 
changed  when  he  was  knighted.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  in  medicine,  but  turned  his  attention  to 
botany,  and  afterward  to  a  broader  considera¬ 
tion  of  natural  history,  and  became  in  1853  pro¬ 
fessor  of  natural  history  in  Queen’s  College, 
Cork.  In  1860  he  became  professor  of  natural 
science  at  Belfast,  and  in  1870  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Edinburgh.  He  became  interested  in 
problems  relating  to  deep-sea  life,  and  in  1868, 
with  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter,  made  investigations 
north  of  Scotland  in  the  gunboat  Lightning. 
Other  ocean  voyages  for  scientific  sounding  and 


230 

dredging  were  conducted  subsequently,  and  their 
results  were  popularly  explained  in  The  Depths 
of  the  Sea  (  1873),  a  volume  which  attracted 
much  attention.  The  interest  thus  aroused  was 
influential  in  causing  the  British  government  to 
undertake  the  renowned  Challenger  Xq.v.)  ex¬ 
ploring  expedition,  the  scientific  conduct  of  which 
was  given  to  Professor  Thomson.  Its  successful 
and  brilliant  outcome  was  recognized  at  its  close 
(  1876)  by  the  conferring  of  knighthood  upon 
Thomson  and  by  scientific  honors  from  many 
countries.  Sir  Wyville  resumed  his  lectures  at 
the  university,  and  began  to  superintend  the  dis¬ 
posal  of  scientific  material  from  the  expedition, 
placing  it  in  the  hands  of  specialists  for  ex¬ 
haustive  study.  He  prepared  a  general  narra¬ 
tive,  The  Voyage  of  the  Challenger  (2  vols., 
1877),  but  became  ill  in  1879  and  died  in  1882. 
Besides  these  books,  he  was  the  author  of  over 
forty  papers  of  importance  published  in  scien¬ 
tific  periodicals,  relating  largely  to  marine  zo¬ 
ology  and  especially  to  echinoderms,  recent  and 
fossil.  He  devised  many  methods  and  invented 
much  apparatus  used  in  deep-sea  exploration 
(q.v.). 

THOMSON,  Edward  (1810-70).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  Methodist  Episcopal  bishop.  He  was  born 
at  Portsea,  England,  came  to  America  in  1818, 
and  settled  in  Wooster,  Ohio.  He  graduated  in 
medicine  from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1829.  After  joining  the  Ohio  conference  in 
1833  he  was  pastor  at  Norwalk  and  Sandusky. 
In  1836  he  was  stationed  at  Detroit.  Later  he 
was  successively  principal  of  Norwalk  Seminary, 
editor  of  the  Ladies’  Repository,  president  of 
Ohio  Wesleyan  University  (1846-60),  and  editor 
of  the  Christian  Advocate  and  Journal,  New 
York.  Soon  after  he  was  elected  Bishop  in  1864 
he  made  a  world-wide  survey  of  Methodist  mis¬ 
sions.  He  published:  Moral  and  Religious  Es¬ 
says  (1856);  Educational  Essays  (1856); 
Sketches,  Biographical  and  Incidental  (1856); 
Letters  from  Europe  (1856)  ;  Our  Oriental  Mis¬ 
sions  (1870);  Evidences  of  Revealed  Religion 
(1872). 

THOMSON,  Edward  William  (1849-  ). 

A  Canadian  journalist,  story  writer,  and  poet. 
He  was  born  in  Peel  County,  Ontario.  He  served 
in  the  American  Civil  War  in  1864-65,  and  for 
some  years  was  a  civil  engineer  on  the  Carillon 
Canal.  Entering  journalism,  he  was  chief  edito¬ 
rial  writer  on  the  Toronto  Globe  in  1879-91; 
went  to  Boston,  where  he  was  editor  of  the 
Youth’s  Companion  (1891-1901);  returned  to 
Canada,  became  Ottawa  correspondent  of  the 
Boston  Transcript,  and  contributed  to  many  pe¬ 
riodicals.  He  published:  Old  Man  Savarin  and 
Other  Stories  (1895)  ;  Walter  Gibbs,  the  Young 
Boss,  and  Other  Stories  (1896)  ;  Between  Earth 
and  Sky  (1897)  ;  Aucassin  and  Nicolette,  a  ver¬ 
sification  of  M.  S.  Henry’s  translation  (1898): 
Peter  Ottawa  (1908);  When  Lincoln  Died  and 
Other  Poems  (1909);  The  Many-Mansioned 
House  and  Other  Poems  (1909). 

THOMSON,  Elihu  (1853-  ).  An  Amer¬ 

ican  electrical  engineer.  He  was  born  in  Man- 
.  Chester,  England,  and  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1858.  He  was  educated  in  the  Philadelphia 
Central  High  School  (A.B.,  1870),  where  he  was 
professor  of  chemistry  and  mechanics  until  1880. 
Meanwhile  he  devoted  much  attention  to  the 
study  of  electricity,  and  lectured  at  Franklin  In¬ 
stitute.  In  1880  he  became  electrician  to  the 
Thomson-Houston  Electric  Company,  which  was 
organized  by  him,  and  subsequently  he  became 


THOMSON 


THOMSON 


231 

associated  also  with  the  General  Electric  Com¬ 


pany.  He  devoted  himself  to  inventions  relating 
to  arc  lighting,  incandescent  lighting,  motor  work 
inducting  systems,  and  especially  electric  weld¬ 
ing.  In  recognition  of  his  extensive  contribu¬ 
tions  to  applied  science  numerous  honors  were 
bestowed  upon  him:  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  and  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  En¬ 
gineers  (1889),  and  was  appointed  Officer  of 
the  I  rencli  Legion  of  Honor,  received  the  Rum- 
ford  medal  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  grand  prizes  at  Paris  in  1889  and 
1900  and  at  St.  Louis  in  1904,  the  Edison  medal 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi¬ 
neers,  and  others. 

THOMSON,  George  (1757-1851).  A  Scot¬ 
tish  composer,  born  at  Limekilns,  Fife.  He  was 
a  constant  and  untiring  collector  of  Scotch, 
Welsh,  and  Irish  melodies,  and  had  the  most 
celebrated  musicians  of  that  period,  among  them 
Haydn  and  Beethoven,  engaged  in  writing  ac¬ 
companiments  for  them.  Each  song  contained  a 
prelude,  code,  and  ad  libitum  parts  throughout 
for  violin,  flute,  or  cello.  Among  his  works  are: 
A  Select  Collection  of  Original  Scottish  Airs;  A 
Collection  of  Songs  of  Robert  Burns,  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  etc.  (1822)  ;  Select  Collection  of  Original 
Welsh  Airs  (1809);  and  a  Select  Collection  of 
Original  Irish  Airs  (1814  to  1816);  besides  20 
Scottish  melodies  (1839).  He  died  at  Leith. 
Consult  I.  C.  Hadden,  George  Thomson  (London, 
1898). 

THOMSON,  James  (1700—48).  A  Scottish 
poet,  born  at  Ednam,  in  Roxburghshire,  where 
his  father  was  minister.  After  attending  school 
at  Jedburgh  Abbey  by  the  Tweed,  he  was  sent  to 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  (1715)  with  a  view 
to  the  Church.  Forsaking  all  thought  of  the 
ministry,  he  went  to  London  to  seek  fame  and 
fortune  in  poetry  (1725).  Though  poor,  he  was 
well  received  by  the  Duke  of  Montrose  and 
others,  who  helped  him  bring  out  Winter  (1726). 
This  was  followed  by  Summer  (1727)  and  Spring 
(1728).  In  1730  appeared  Autumn,  bound  with 
the  previous  poems  under  the  title  of  The  Sea¬ 
sons.  These  poems,  issued  separately  and  col¬ 
lectively,  were  from  the  first  successful,  and  were 
exceedingly  popular  for  a  century.  They  marked 
the  return  of  blank  verse  and  a  feeling  for  na¬ 
ture,  of  which  there  had  been  few  traces  since 
Milton.  With  The  Seasons  the  literary  histo¬ 
rian  dates  the  beginning  of  the  romantic  move¬ 
ment  in  English  literature.  Appointed  in  1730 
tutor  to  the  son  of  Sir  Charles  Talbot,  afterward 
Lord  Chancellor,  Thomson  traveled  for  three 
years  in  France  and  Italy.  On  his  pupil’s  death 
(1733)  he  returned  to  London  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  secretary  of 
briefs,  a  sinecure,  at  a  salary  of  £300  a  year. 
He  was  now  able  to  settle  in  a  pretty  cottage  at 
Richmond.  The  death  of  his  patron  in  1737 
ended  his  sinecure;  but  through  Lyttelton  he  ob¬ 
tained  from  the  Prince  of  Wales  a  pension  of 
£100  (1738).  He  now  revised  The  Seasons,  en¬ 
larging  greatly  each  poem.  The  new  edition  was 
published  in  1744.  In  1740  appeared  The  Masque 
of  Alfred,  written  by  Thomson  and  David  Mallet 
and  containing  Thomson’s  famous  ode,  “Rule 
Britannia,”  the  national  patriotic  hymn  of  Eng¬ 
land.  At  Richmond,  too,  was  written  Thomson’s 
finest  poem,  The  Castle  of  Indolence  ( 1748) .  For 
it  he  employed  the  Spenserian  stanza.  The  poem 
is  exquisitely  colored  and  reveals  here  and  there 
rare  gleams  of  imagination.  Besides  these  sig¬ 


nificant  and  beautiful  poems,  Thomson  was  the 
author  of  several  tragedies,  of  which  Sophonisba, 
pioduced  at  Drury  Lane  (Feb.  28,  1730),  was 
the  first,  and  Tancred  and  Sigismunda,  produced 
at  Drury  Lane  by  Garrick  (March  18,  1745),  the 
most  successful.  His  cenotaph  was  erected  in 
\\  estminster  Abbey  by  the  side  of  Shakespeare’s. 

Tianslations  and  imitations  of  The  Seasons 
were  numerous  in  France  and  Germany.  Thom¬ 
son  was  thus  a  forerunner  of  the  romantic  re¬ 
vival,  not  only  for  England,  but  for  the 
Continent. 

Bibliography.  The  first  collected  edition  of 
Ins  Works  was  edited  by  George,  Lord  Lyttelton 
(4  vols.,  London,  1750)  ;  the  best  modern  edition 
of  his  Works  is  the  Aldine,  edited  with  a  biog¬ 
raphy  by  D.  C.  Tovey  (ib.,  1897).  Consult  also: 
Leon  Morel,  James  Thomson,  sa  vie  et  ses  oeuvres 
(Paris,  1895);  Lefevre  Deumier,  in  Celebrites 
anglaises  (ib.,  1895)  ;  Joseph  Texte,  Cosmopoli- 
tisme  litteraire  au  XVIIIeme  siecle  (ib.,  1895; 
Eng.  trails,  by  J.  W.  Matthews,  New  York, 
1899);  W.  Bayne,  Life  of  James  Thomson,  in 
the  “Famous  Scots  Series”  (Edinburgh,  1898); 
Samuel  Johnson,  “Thomson,”  in  Lives  of  the 
British  Poets,  vol.  iii,  edited  by  G.  B.  Hill  (Ox¬ 
ford,  1905)  ;  and  G.  C.  Macaulay,  James  Thom¬ 
son  (New  York,  1908).  See  Romanticism. 

THOMSON,  James  (1822-92).  A  British 
physicist  and  engineer,  the  elder  brother  of  Wil¬ 
liam  Thomson,  Lord  Kelvin  (q.v. ).  He  was  born 
at  Belfast  and  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  He  settled  as  a  civil  engineer  in  Bel¬ 
fast,  where  in  1857  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  civil  engineering  in  Queen’s  College.  In  1873 
he  was  elected  professor  in  Glasgow  University, 
succeeding  W.  J.  M.  Rankine  ( q.v. ) .  He  made 
many  improvements  in  hydraulic  machinery  and 
predicted  from  theory  the  effect  of  pressure  in 
lowering  the  freezing  point  of  water.  ( See  Rege¬ 
lation.)  His  collected  papers  in  physics  and 
engineering,  together  with  unpublished  mate¬ 
rial,  were  edited  by  Sir  Joseph  Larmor  and 
James  Thomson,  with  a  biographical  sketch  by 
J.  T.  Bottomley  (Cambridge,  Eng.,  1912). 

THOMSON,’  James  (1834-82).  An  English 
poet,  born  at  Port  Glasgow,  Scotland.  In  1840 
his  father  was  disabled  by  a  paralytic  stroke  and 
two  years  later  his  mother  died.’  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  the  Royal  Caledonian  Asylum  (1842- 
1850)  and  then  entered  (1850)  the  Military 
Asylum,  Chelsea,  to  qualify  as  an  army  school¬ 
master.  The  next  year  he  was  sent  as  a  teacher 
to  Ballincollig,  near  Cork,  where  he  fell  in  love 
with  a  beautiful  girl,  who  died  in  1853.  After 
serving  as  schoolmaster  at  various  other  places, 
he  was  discharged  from  the  service  in  1862 
for  a  trivial  offense  against  discipline.  Through 
the  influence  of  his  friend  Charles  Bradlaugh,  he 
obtained  a  clerkship  in  London;  and  under  the 
pen  name  of  Bysshe  Vanolis,  or  shortened  to 
B.  V.  (Bysshe,  the  middle  name  of  Shelley  and 
Vanolis,  an  anagram  of  Novalis),  he  began  writ¬ 
ing  for  the  radical  magazines,  and  proved  him¬ 
self  a  vigorous  and  active  champion  of  free 
thought.  Except  for  a  few  months  in  the  United 
States  and  as  correspondent  for  the  New  York 
World  in  Spain  (1873),  he  passed  the  last  16 
years  of  his  life  in  a  one-room  London  lodging. 
He  died  an  inebriate  in  University  College  Hos¬ 
pital.  Thomson  was  a  thorough -going  pessimist 
wholly  out  of  joint  with  the  ways  of  men.  He 
first  attracted  attention  as  a  poet  with  his  “City 
of  Dreadful  Night”  (in  the  National  Reformer, 
1874,  reprinted  with  other  poems  in  1880),  a 


THOMSON 


232 


THOMSON 


lurid  poem  of  great  imaginative  power.  Hardly 
less  impressive  is  the  volume  entitled  Vane’s 
Story,  Weddah  and  Om-el-Bonain,  and  Other 
Poems  (1881).  The  same  year  he  collected  some 
of  his  prose  writings  under  the  title  Essays  and 
Phantasies.  After  his  death  appeared  A  Voice 
from  the  Nile,  and  Other  Poems  (1884)  ;  Satires 
and  Profanities  (1884)  ;  and  Poems,  Essays,  and 
Fragments  (1892).  Consult  Poetical  Works,  ed¬ 
ited  with  memoir  by  Bertram  Dobell  (London, 
1895)  ;  also  H.  S.  Salt,  Life  of  James  Thomson 
(ib.,  1889)  ;  Bertram  Dobell,  in  Biographical 
and  Critical  Studies  (ib.,  1896)  ;  P.  E.  More, 
Shelburne  Essays,  5th  series  (New  York,  1908). 

THOMSON,  John  (1778-1840).  A  Scottish 
landscape  painter.  He  was  born  at  Dailly,  Ayr¬ 
shire,  and  studied  for  a  short  time  under  Alex¬ 
ander  Nasmyth.  Destined  for  the  church,  and 
for  35  years  minister  at  Duddingston,  near  Edin¬ 
burgh,  Thomson  lacked  systematic  artistic  train¬ 
ing,  but  nevertheless  he  was  the  greatest  Scot¬ 
tish  landscape  painter  of  his  time  and  the  first 
to  render  the  true  character  of  Scottish  scenery. 
Among  his  finest  paintings  are  “Aberlady  Bay” 
and  three  other  landscapes  in  the  National  Gal¬ 
lery,  Edinburgh:  “Fast  Castle,”  “Castle  Baan,” 
and  the  “Graves  of  the  Martyrs.”  He  was  an  in¬ 
timate  friend  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

THOMSON,  John  Arthur  (1861-  ).  A 

British  zoologist,  born  in  East  Lothian,  and 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Edinburgh,  Jena, 
and  Berlin.  He  was  for  a  time  lecturer  on  zo¬ 
ology  and  biology  at  Edinburgh  University  and 
was  University  Gifford  lecturer  at  St.  Andrews 
in  1915.  Among  his  writings  are:  Evolution  of 
Sex  (1899;  3d  ed.,  1901),  with  Patrick  Geddes; 
The  Study  of  Animal  Life  (3d  ed.,  1896)  ;  Out¬ 
lines  of  Zoology  (6th  ed.,  1914)  ;  The  Science  of 
Life  (1904);  Progress  of  Science  in  the  Nine¬ 
teenth  Century  (1904)  ;  Herbert  Spencer  (1906)  ; 
Heredity  (1908;  2d  ed.,  1912);  The  Bible  of 
Nature  (1909);  Darwinism  and  Human  Life 
(1910)  ;  The  Biology  of  the  Seasons  (1911)  ;  Ev¬ 
olution  (1911),  with  Geddes;  Introduction  to 
Science  (1911);  Sex  (1914),  with  Geddes;  The 
Wonder  of  Life  (1914). 

THOMSON,  Joseph  (1858-95).  A  Scottish 
traveler  and  explorer.  He  was  born  in  Dum¬ 
friesshire,  and  after  studying  at  Edinburgh  under 
Sir  Archibald  Geikie  joined  Keith  Johnston’s 
east  central  African  expedition  (  1878),  and 
after  Johnston’s  death  became  leader  in  June, 
1879.  He  reached  Lake  Tanganyika,  and  then 
started  to  go  to  the  Congo,  but  was  held  back  by 
his  carriers.  He  discovered  Lake  Rukwa  and 
afterward  went  to  Bagamoyo  on  the  coast,  whence 
he  sailed  to  London.  He  headed  an  expedition 
to  Masai  Land  in  1882;  went  to  Sokoto  in  behalf 
of  the  Royal  Niger  Company  in  1885,  when  he 
secured  a  part  of  the  Central  Sudan  to  Great 
Britain ;  and,  after  exploring  the  Atlas  Moun¬ 
tains  in  Morocco  (1888),  visited  the  region  be¬ 
tween  lakes  Nyassa  and  Bangweolo.  In  all  his 
journeys  he  showed  great  tact  and  presence  of 
mind  and  avoided  serious  conflict  with  the  na¬ 
tives.  He  published  To  the  Central  African 
Lakes  and  Back  (1881);  Through  Masai  Land 
(1885;  rev.  ed.,  1887);  Ulu:  An  African  Ro¬ 
mance  (1888),  with  Miss  Harris-Smith ;  Travels 
in  the  Atlas  and  Southern  Morocco  (18S9)  ;  and 
Mungo  Park  and  the  Niger  (1890).  He  also 
wrote  a  large  number  of  articles  on  his  explora¬ 
tions,  and  on  geographical  and  geological  sub¬ 
jects.  Consult  J.  B.  Thomson,  Joseph  Thomson, 
African  Explorer  (London,  1896). 


THOMSON,  Sir  Joseph  John  (1856-  ). 

An  English  physicist.  He  was  born  near  Man¬ 
chester  and  was  educated  at  Owens  College  in 
that  city  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  with  honors  in  1880.  In 
1884  he  became  Cavendish  professor  of  experi¬ 
mental  physics  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1905  was 
appointed  professor  of  physics  in  the  Royal  In¬ 
stitution.  At  Princeton  University  in  1896  he 
delivered  a  series  of  lectures,  published  in  1897 
as  Discharge  of  Electricity  through  Gases.  In 
1903  he  again  visited  the  United  States,  where 
he  received  honorary  degrees  from  Columbia, 
Princeton,  and  Johns  Hopkins.  Thomson  was 
awarded  medals  by  the  Royal  Society,  the  Hodg¬ 
kins  medal  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
(1902),  and  the  Nobel  prize  in  physics  for 
1906.  He  was  knighted  in  1908  and  received  the 
Order  of  Merit.  To  Thomson,  more  than  to  any 
one  else,  is  due  the  development  of  the  modern 
ionic  theory  of  electricity,  the  theoretical  and 
experimental  discussion  of  radioactivity,  and 
the  electrical  theory  of  inertia  of  matter.  His 
papers  on  these  subjects  were  epoch  making. 
(See  X  Rays.)  In  1914  he  delivered  at  Oxford 
the  Romanes  lecture,  which  appeared  as  The 
Atomic  Theory.  He  published  also:  On  the  Mo¬ 
tion  of  Vortex  Rings  (1883);  Application  of 
Dynamics  to  Physics  and  Chemistry  (188S); 
Recent  Researches  in  Electricity  and  Magnetism 
(1893);  Elements  of  the  Mathematical  Theory 
of  Electricity  and  Magnetism  (1895);  Conduc¬ 
tion  of  Electricity  through  Gases  ( 1903 )  ;  Elec¬ 
tricity  and  Matter  (1904),  Silliman  lectures  at 
Yale;  Corpuscular  Theory  of  Matter  (1907); 
Rays  of  Positive  Electricity  and  their  Applica¬ 
tion  to  Chemical  Analyses  (1913)  ;  Thermochem¬ 
istry  (1915).  With  J.  H.  Poynting  (q.v.)  he 
wrote  A  Text  Book  of  Physics  (1899-1914).  In 
another  field  Thomson  identified  himself  with 
the  Society  for  Psvchical  Research. 

THOMSON,  Thomas  (1773-1852).  A  Scot¬ 
tish  chemist,  born  at  Crieff,  Perthshire.  He  was 
educated  at  St.  Andrews  and  at  Edinburgh.  As 
early  as  1802  he  published  a  System  of  Chemis¬ 
try.  In  1817  he  was  appointed  lecturer,  and  in 
IS  18  regius  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Glasgow.  Thomson  was  the  first  to 
publish  ( System  of  Chemistry,  3d  ed.,  1807)  a 
detailed  account  of  Dalton’s  atomic  theory,  which 
had  been  communicated  to  him  in  a  private  in¬ 
terview  (1804)  and  which  Dalton  himself  did 
not  publish  until  1808.  He  was  also  the  first 
English  chemist  to  give  laboratory  instruction 
to  students.  His  works  include:  Elements  of 
Chemistry  (1810)  ;  An  attempt  to  Establish  the 
First  Principles  of  Chemistry  by  Experiment 
(1825;  the  analytical  data  of  the  elements  were 
shown  by  Berzelius  to  be  far  from  accurate)  ; 
Chemistry  of  Organic  Bodies  (1838)  ;  History  of 
Chemistry  (1830-31)  ;  History  of  the  Royal  So¬ 
ciety  (1812);  Outlines  of  Mineralogy  and  Geol¬ 
ogy  (1836). 

THOMSON,  Sir  William.  See  Kelvin,  Wil¬ 
liam  Thomson,  first  Baron. 

THOMSON,  William  McClure  (1806-94). 
An  American  Presbyterian  missionary  and 
writer.  He  was  born  in  Springfield  (now  Spring 
Dale),  Ohio,  and  graduated  at  Miami  College 
(1826)  ;  studied  at  Princeton  Theological  Semi¬ 
nary;  and  went  as  a  missionary  of  the  American 
Board  to  Syria  and  Palestine  (1833).  The  next 
year  he  went  to  Beirut  and  there  resided  till  his 
return  to  America  in  1876.  His  reputation  rests 
upon  his  familiar  work,  The  Land  and  the  Book, 


THOMSON  EFFECT 


233 


THOREAU 


Biblical  Illustrations  Drawn  from  the  Manners 
and  Customs ,  the  Scenes  and  the  Scenery  of  the 
Holy  Land  (1859;  2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  1880-85;  re¬ 
issue,  1  vol.,  1911). 

THOMSON  EFFECT.  A  thermal  effect  in 
an  electric  circuit  where  the  temperature  of 
the  wire  carrying  the  current  varies  from 
point  to  point.  When  the  current  is  flowing  in 
one  direction  along  such  a  conductor,  heat  will 
be  liberated  at  a  given  point,  whereas  if  the  cur¬ 
rent  is  reversed  the  heat  at  this  point  will  be 
absorbed.  The  relative  direction  of  the  current 
and  the  absorption  or  liberation  of  heat  depend 
upon  the  metal.  See  Thermoelectricity. 

THOMSONITE,  tom'sun-it.  See  Chloras- 

TROLITE. 

THOR,  thor  (Icel.  p6rr,  thunderer;  cf.  Lat. 
tonare,  Ger.  donner) .  In  Scandinavian  my¬ 
thology,  the  god  of  thunder.  He  was  the  son  of 
Odin  and  Frigg,  while  his  wife  was  Sif  the  De¬ 
lighter.  His  palace,  where  he  received  the  war¬ 
riors  who  had  fallen  in  battle,  was  called  Bils- 
kirnir.  Thunder  was  caused  by  the  rolling  of 
his  chariot,  which  was  drawn  by  h  e-goats.  He 
was  in  the  vigor  of  youth,  had  a  red  beard,  and 
was  the  strongest  of  all  the  gods.  He  was  a 
terror  to  the  giants,  with  whom  he  was  perpetu¬ 
ally  at  strife,  and  whom  he  struck  down  with  his 
hammer  Mjolnir,  or  the  smasher,  which  returned 
to  his  hand  after  being  hurled.  In  the  contest 
at  the  twilight  of  the  gods  Thor  slew  the  serpent 
of  Midgard,  but  fell  at  the  same  time  poisoned 
by  the  venom  exhaled  from  its  mouth.  The  name 
of  Thor  was  widespread.  The  Saxons  worshiped 
him  as  Thunar,  and  Torden,  the  "wrathful  deity 
dreaded  by  the  Lapps,  is  evidently  the  Scandi¬ 
navian  Thor.  The  Gallic  god  Tarannis,  or  Tan- 
arus,  appears  also  to  be  identical.  Of  all  the 
iEsir  (q.v. ),  Thor  had  unquestionably  the  most 
worshipers.  In  Norway  he  was  the  national  god, 
and  there,  as  in  Iceland,  temples  were  almost 
exclusively  erected  to  him.  Offerings  were  made 
to  him,  particularly  in  times  of  pestilence. 
Thursday  was  named  for  him.  The  heathen 
Scandinavians  marked  their  rune  stones  with  the 
sign  of  the  hammer  of  Thor.  See  Ragnarok; 
Scandinavian  and  Teutonic  Mythology. 

THORACIC  (tho-ras'ik)  DUCT  (from  Lat. 
thorax,  from  Gk.  6upa£,  breastplate,  part  of 
the  body  covered  by  the  breastplate,  thorax ) . 
A  canal  equal  in  diameter  to  a  goose  quill,  pro¬ 
ceeding  from  the  receptaculum  chyli  (into  which 
the  contents  of  the  lacteals  are  collected,  and 
which  is  situated  in  the  front  of  the  body  of 
the  second  lumbar  vertebra ) ,  which  ascends 
along  the  front  of  the  vertebral  column,  between 
the  aorta  and  ascending  vena  cava,  as  high  as 
the  fourth  dorsal  vertebra;  it  then  inclines  to 
the  left,  and  passing  behind  the  arch  of  the 
aorta,  ascends  as  high  as  the  seventh  cervical 
vertebra,  when  it  bends  forward  and  downward, 
and  empties  into  the  subclavian  at  its  junction 
with  the  internal  jugular  vein  of  the  left  side, 
where  it  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  semilunar 
valves,  which  prevent  the  admission  of  venous 
blood  into  it.  It  is  also  provided  with  other 
valves  on  its  upward  course.  It  is  the  common 
trunk  of  all  the  lymphatic  vessels  of  the  body, 
excepting  those  of  the  right  side  of  the  head, 
neck,  thorax,  the  right  upper  extremity,  the 
right  lung,' right  side  of  the  heart,  and  the  upper 
surface  of  the  liver,  the  lymphatics  of  ivhich 
empty  into  the  right  lymphatic  duct,  a  vessel 
less  than  an  inch  long,  which  pours  its  contents 
into  the  right  subclavian  or  internal  jugular 


vein.  This  duct  is  not  liable  to  any  special 
diseases,  but  if  its  function  of  conveying  chvle 
from  its  source  into  the  general  circulation  "be 
interfered  with,  by  injury,  hemorrhage,  or  in¬ 
flammation,  or  by  the  pressure  of  a  tumor,  nu¬ 
trition  is  impaired  and  there  may  be  an  accumu¬ 
lation  of  chylous  fluid  in  the  peritoneal  cavity 
or  pericardium  or  pleura,  or  there  may  be  chy- 
luria,  or  chylous  oedema  of  the  pelvis,  genitals, 
or  lower  abdominal  wall. 

THORAH.  See  Toraii. 

THO'RAX.  See  Chest. 

THORBECKE,  tor'bek-e,  Heinrich  (1837- 
90) .  A  German  Arabic  scholar.  He  was  born  at 
Meiningen,  and  studied  at  Munich  and  Leipzig. 
He  was  appointed  professor  at  Heidelberg  ( 1873) 
and  at  Halle  (1885).  He  is  especially  noted  for 
his  knowledge  of  Arabic  poetry.  He  "published : 
Antarah,  ein  vorislamitischer  Dichter  (  1867); 
Al-Harlri’s  Durrat-al-gaicnvas  (1871);  Al- 
A’schd’s  Lobgedicht  auf  Mahammed  (1875)  ;  Ibn 
Duraid's  Kitdb  al-maldhin  (1882);  Die  Mufad- 
dali-jdt  (1885)  ;  Mihail  Sabbag’s  Grammatik  der 
arabischen  TJmgangssprache  in  Syrien  und 
Aegypten  (1886). 

THOREAU,  tho'rd  or  tho-ro',  Henry  David 
( 1817-62) .  An  American  naturalist  and  author, 
of  French  and  Scotch  extraction,  born  at  Con¬ 
cord,  Mass.,  where  his  father  was  a  manufacturer 
of  lead  pencils.  At  this  trade  the  younger  Tho- 
reau  worked  at  intervals.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  in  1837,  and  was  for  five  or  six  years 
engaged  in  school  teaching  and  tutoring  in  Con¬ 
cord  and  at  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.  Preferring  to 
live  a  life  of  contemplation,  he  abandoned  teach¬ 
ing  and  proceeded,  during  the  rest  of  his  days, 
to  demonstrate  how  simply  and  agreeably  a  man 
might  live.  He  was  for  a  time  an  inmate  of 
Emerson’s  house,  but  his  most  characteristic  act 
was  his  residence,  from  July,  1845,  to  September, 
1847,  in  a  hut  on  the  shores  of  Walden  Pond,  a 
beautiful  body  of  water  on  the  outskirts  of  Con¬ 
cord.  Here  he  lived,  doing  what  little  work  was 
necessary  to  supply  the  necessaries  of  life,  and 
devoting  the  major  part  of  his  time  to  the  study 
of  nature  and  to  the  society  of  friends.  On  leav¬ 
ing  Walden  he  again  lived  with  Emerson,  1847- 
48,  and  the  years  after  1849  were  spent  with 
his  parents  and  sister  at  Concord.  During  his 
life  at  Walden  Pond  and  elsewhere  in  Concord, 
he  supported  himself  by  odd  jobs  of  gardening, 
land  surveying,  carpentering,  etc.,  but  without 
more  exertion  than  he  needed  to  keep  himself  in 
food  and  clothing.  His  leisure  time  he  devoted 
to  the  study  of  nature,  to  the  reading  of  Greek, 
Latin,  French,  and  English  classical  literature, 
to  excursions,  to  pondering  metaphysical  prob¬ 
lems,  and  to  friendly  chat  with  his  neighbors,  by 
whom  he  was  beloved. 

From  1837  till  his  death  he  kept  a  journal^ 
and  this  furnished  the  source  and  basis  of 
writings,  and  gave  them  uniformity  of  eh; 

Of  the  volumes  which  comprise^ 
the  standard  Riverside  edition.  ~* 

Familiar  Letters  of  Tho^ 
born)  but  two  appeaj 
first  of  these,  A  We<tf 
mac  Rivers  (1849^ 
trip  taken  in 
rable  descript 
ture,  mingle 
tal  philosj 
experienc 
at  Wald  " 

(1854), 


THORESEN 


234 


THORNDIKE 


ognized  as  one  of  the  most  original  and  sincere 
productions  in  American  letters  and  as  one  of 
the  most  genuine  of  woodland  books.  It  gives  a 
plain  unaffected  statement  of  the  reasons  for  the 
author’s  life  as  a  hermit,  and  an  admirably  spe¬ 
cific  account  of  the  main  details  of  that  life. 
The  other  volumes,  largely  made  up  of  material 
from  his  journal,  and  edited  and  published  post¬ 
humously,  are:  Excursions  (1863);  The  Maine 
Woods  (1864)  ;  Cape  Cod  (1865)  ;  Early  Spring 
in  Massachusetts  (1881)  ;  Summer  (1884)  ;  Win¬ 
ter  (1888);  Autumn  (1892);  and  Miscellanies 
(1894).  In  1905  appeared  The  First  and  Last 
Journeys  of  Thoreau,  lately  discovered  among  his 
unpublished  Journals  and  Manuscripts  (ed.  by 
F.  B.  Sanborn,  Boston).  A  new  and  complete 
edition  was  published  in  1906.  Their  publica¬ 
tion  indicated  an  increasing  interest  in  Thoreau 
and  a  sense  of  the  permanent  value  of  his  work. 
The  literary  quality  of  the  writing  was  high;  he 
had  a  marked  gift  for  style,  and  wrote  with 
great  care  and  unfailing  freshness.  His  best  es¬ 
says,  to  be  found  in  the  volumes  entitled  Mis¬ 
cellanies  and  Excursions,  are  perhaps  not  ex¬ 
celled  in  American  literature,  whether  for  sub¬ 
stance  or  for  style,  and  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  the  work  of  any  of  his  contemporaries  is 
wearing  as  well.  His  poems  are  interesting,  but 
occupy  a  minor  place  in  his  writings. 

Bibliography.  A.  H.  Japp,  Thoreau:  His 
Life  and  Aims  (Boston,  1877)  ;  H.  S.  Salt,  Life 
of  David  Henry  Thoreau,  in  “Great  Writers 
Series”  (New  York,  1896)  ;  F.  B.  Sanborn,  Henry 
D.  Thoreau,  in  “American  Men  of  Letters”  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1896)  ;  A.  R.  Marble,  Thoreau:  His  Home, 
Friends,  and  Books  (New  York,  1902)  :  W.  E. 
Channing,  Thoreau:  The  Poet-Naturalist  (new 
ed.,  Boston,  1902)  ;  R.  W.  Emerson,  in  Biograph¬ 
ical  Studies  (Centenary  ed.,  ib.,  1903)  ;  Brad¬ 
ford  Torrey,  in  Friends  on  the  Shelf  (ib.,  1906)  ; 
Arthur  Rickett,  The  Vagabond  in  Literature 
(New  York,  1906)  ;  P.  E.  More,  in  Shelburne 
Essays,  First  and  Fifth  Series  (ib.,  1907-08); 
W.  M.  Payne,  in  Leading  American  Essayists 
(ib.,  1910). 

THORESEN,  tS'ra-sen  (Anna)  Magdalene 
(Kragh)  (1819-1903).  A  Norwegian  poet,  born 
at  Fredericia,  in  Denmark.  She  married  a  Nor¬ 
wegian  clergyman  and  gained  opportunity  to 
study  the  peasant  life  and  wilder  nature  of  that 
country.  Her  sympathetic  observations  found 
literary  expression  in  Fortcellinger  (Tales, 
1863)  ;  Signes  Historic  (1864)  ;  Solen  i  Siljeda- 
len  (1868);  Billeder  fra  Vestkysten  af  Norge 
( Pictures  from  the  West  Coast  of  Norway, 
1872)  ;  Nyere  Fortcellinger  (1873)  ;  Herluf  Nor- 
dal  (  1879)  ;  she  published  also  two  volumes  of 
poems  (1860  and  1887)  ;  several  dramas,  among 
them  Et  Rigt  Parti  (1870),  the  story  Billeder 
fra  Midnatsolens  Land  (2  vols.,  1884-86),  and 
volume  of  tales  (1899).  Her  earlier 
n  _was  translated  into  German  by  Reinmar: 

Hrzdhlungen  (5  vols.,  Berlin,  1878— 
mr  biography  by  Clara  Bergsoe 

See  Ari  Tiiorgilsson. 
^oriurn  silicate  crys- 
stem.  It  has  a 
yellow  to  dark 
ious  places  in 
oxide  that 

kScandina- 
,ient  dis- 
n  mona- 


zite,  orangite,  thorite,  and  other  minerals  con¬ 
taining  the  cerium  group  of  metals,  and  found 
in  Brazil,  Norway,  and  in  North  and  South 
Carolina.  For  the  extraction  of  thorium,  mona- 
zite  sand  is  heated  with  strong  sulphuric  acid, 
then  cold  water  is  added,  and  the  resulting  solu¬ 
tion  is  separated  from  the  insoluble  residue  and 
partially  precipitated  with  alkali;  the  precipi¬ 
tate  is  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  from 
this  acid  solution  the  thorium  is  precipitated,  in 
the  form  of  its  oxalate,  with  oxalic  acid.  The 
metal  itself  may  be  obtained  by  decomposing 
thorium  chloride  with  potassium  or  sodium. 
Thorium  (symbol,  Th;  atomic  weight,  232.4)  is 
a  gray  powder  which  assumes  an  iron-gray  lustre 
when  burnished.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
about  11  and  takes  fire  when  heated  in  air, 
burning  with  a  bright  flame.  It  combines  with 
oxygen,  forming  a  white  dioxide  (Th02),  called 
thoria,  and  a  peroxide.  None  of  the  compounds 
of  thorium  have  any  important  commercial  value 
except  the  dioxide,  which  has  been  used  with 
ceria  in  the  mantle  of  the  Welsbach  burner.  Tho¬ 
rium  is  a  distinctly  radioactive  element,  its  grad¬ 
ual  disintegration  producing  a  series  of  elements 
of  more  or  less  ephemeral  existence,  like  the 
series  yielded  by  radium.  See  Radioactivity. 

THORN.  See  Crataegus. 

THORN,  torn.  A  strongly  fortified  town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  Province  of  West  Prussia,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Vistula,  which  here  divides 
into  two  branches,  87  miles  northeast  of  Posen 
( Map :  Germany,  H  2 ) .  There  are  many  antique 
houses  with  striking  architectural  features.  The 
ruins  of  a  castle  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  the  church 
of  St.  John  (1231-60),  the  Gothic  St.  James 
(1309  ),  and  the  Marienkirche  (1367)  are  worthy 
of  notice,  also  a  town  hall  with  museum,  library, 
and  archives.  In  the  market  place  stands  a 
bronze  statue  of  Copernicus,  who  was  born  here. 
There  are  iron  foundries,  and  machine,  tobacco, 
and  soap  works.  The  town  carries  on  trade  by 
water  and  rail  in  corn,  lumber,  mineral  waters, 
chocolate,  gingerbread,  and  alcohol.  Thorn  was 
founded  in  1231  by  the  Knights  of  the  Teutonic 
Order.  It  became  an  important  member  of  the 
Hanseatic  League.  It  was  annexed  in  1454  to 
Poland.  In  1466  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
here  between  Poland  and  the  Teutonic  Knights 
(q.v. ).  The  town  became  a  part  of  Prussia  in 
1793.  Pop.,  1900,  29,626;  1910,  46,227.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  Great  War  which  began  in  1914 
Thorn  was  bombarded  and  seriously  threatened 
by  the  Russians.  (See  War  in  Europe.)  Con¬ 
sult  Kestner,  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  Stadt 
Thorn  (Thorn,  1883). 

THORN,  Christ's.  See  Jujube, 

THORNABY  (thor'na-b!)  ON  TEES,  for¬ 
merly  South  Stockton  (Map:  England,  E  2). 
A  municipal  borough  in  the  North  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  England,  suburban  to  Stockton, 
with  which  its  manufacturing  industries  and 
public  works  are  identified.  It  is  mentioned  as 
Thormodby  in  Domesday.  Pop.,  1901,  16,053; 
1911,  18,605. 

THORN  ACACIA.  See  Locust  Tree. 

THORN  APPLE.  See  Stramonium. 

THORN'DIKE,  Ashley  Horace  (1871- 
) .  An  American  English  scholar,  brother  of 
Edward  L.  Thorndike.  He  was  born  at  Houl- 
ton,  Me.,  and  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University 
in  1893,  later  taking  higher  degrees  at  Harvard. 
After  serving  as  principal  of  Smith  Academy, 
Hatfield,  Mass.,  and  teaching  at  Boston  Univer¬ 
sity  and  at  Western  Reserve,  he  held  a  chair 


THORNDIKE 


235 


THORNYCROFT 


at  Northwestern  (1902-0G),  and  served  there¬ 
after  as  professor  of  English  at  Columbia.  He 
wrote:  Influence  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  on 
Shakespeare  (1901);  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and 
Composition  (1905)  ;  Tragedy  (1908)  ;  Everyday 
English  (1913);  Shakespeare’s  Theatre  (1916). 

THORNDIKE,  Edward  Lee  (1874-  ). 

An  American  psychologist,  brother  of  Ashley  H. 
Thorndike.  He  was  born  at  Williamsburg,  Mass., 
and  graduated  from  Wesleyan  University  in 
1895,  from  Harvard  in  1896,  and  from  Colum¬ 
bia  (Ph.D. )  in  1898.  In  1898-99  he  taught  at 
Western  Reserve  University,  and  afterward  was 
identified  with  Teachers  College,  Columbia,  where 
by  1904  he  had  become  professor  of  educational 
psychology.  In  1912  he  was  president  of  the 
American  Psychological  Association.  Besides 
monographs  and  articles,  he  published:  The  Hu¬ 
man  Nature  Club  ( 1901 )  ;  Educational  Psychology 
(1903;  3d  ed.,  3  vols.,  1913-14);  Mental  and 
Social  Measurements  (1904;  2d  ed.,  rev.,  1913)  ; 
The  Elements  of  Psychology  (1905)  ;  Principles 
of  Teaching  ( 1905 )  ;  Animal  Intelligence  ( 1911 )  ; 
Education :  A  First  Book  (1912  )  ;  The  Measure¬ 
ment  of  Ability  in  Reading  (1914)  ;  Educational 
Psychology ,  Briefer  Course  (1914). 

THORNE,  Will(iam  James)  (1857-  ). 

An  English  labor  leader  and  Socialist,  born  at 
Birmingham.  He  began  to  work  when  six  years 
old.  He  founded  the  National  Union  of  Gas- 
workers  and  General  Laborers  in  1889,  and  there¬ 
after  was  its  general  secretary.  He  was  elected 
in  1890  to  the  town  council  of  West  Ham,  of 
which  he  was  deputy  mayor  in  1898,  and  he  en¬ 
tered  the  House  of  Commons  in  January,  1906. 

THORN'HILL.  A  town  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  England,  l1/^  miles  south  of  Dews¬ 
bury.  It  is  a  prosperous  woolen-milling  town 
and  also  manufactures  carpets  and  shoddy.  Pop., 
1901,  10,290;  1911,  10,974. 

THORN'TON,  Sir  Edward  (1817-1906).  An 
English  diplomat.  He  was  born  in  London  and 
was  educated  at  King’s  College,  London,  and  at 
Pembroke  College,  Cambridge.  He  entered  the 
diplomatic  service  as  attache  to  the  mission  at 
Turin  in  1842,  filled  the  same  position  in  Mexico 
in  1845,  and  was  made  Secretary  of  Legation 
in  that  capital  in  1S53.  During  1848  he  did 
much  to  forward  the  conclusion  of  the  important 
Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo.  In  1852  he  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  Legation  at  Buenos  Aires; 
charge  d’affaires  to  Uruguay  (1854);  Minister 
to  the  Argentine  Republic  in  1859,  to  Brazil  in 
1865,  and  from  1867  to  1881  to  the  United 
States.  He  was  knighted  in  1870;  in  1871  was 
a  member  of  the  commission  on  the  Alabama 
Claims,  and  was  appointed  Privy  Councilor;  and 
in  1873  was  arbitrator  in  the  commission  on  the 
Mexican  and  United  States  claims.  He  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1881, 
Ambassador  at  Constantinople  in  1884,  and  re¬ 
tired  to  private  life  in  1887. 

THORNTON,  John  Wingate  (1818-78). 
An  American  historian,  born  at  Saco,  Me.  He 
graduated  at  the  Harvard  Law  School  in  1840, 
and  became  a  practicing  lawyer.  His  great  in¬ 
terest,  however,  lay  in  genealogical  and  histori¬ 
cal  work,  and  he  published  a  number  of  books 
along  these  lines,  including:  The  Landing  at 
Cape  Ann  (1854)  ;  The  First  Records  of  Anglo- 
American  Colonization  (1859)  ;  The  Pulpit  of  the 
American  Revolution  (1860).  He  was  the 
founder  of  the  New  England  Historical  and  Gen¬ 
ealogical  Society  (1844).  Consult  Amory,  Me¬ 
moir  of  J.  TF.  Thornton  (Boston,  1879). 

Vol.  XXII.— 16 


THORNTON,  Matthew  (1714-1803).  A 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
was  born  in  Ireland;  went  to  America  in  1717, 
lived  at  Wiscasset,  Me.,  and  later  at  .Worcester, 
Mass.,  where  he  was  educated;  settled  as  a  phy¬ 
sician  at  Londonderry,  N.  H.,  and  was  surgeon 
under  Sir  William  Pepperell  in  the  Louisburg 
expedition  of  1745.  He  was  president  of  the 
provincial  convention  of  1775,  and  in  1776 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress,  tak¬ 
ing  his  seat  in  November,  when  he  was  allowed 
to  sign  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  though 
not  elected  until  after  its  passage.  He  was  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  prior  to 
1776,  and  from  1776  to  1782  was  a  judge  of  the 
New  Hampshire  Supreme  Court. 

THORNTON,  William  (1762-1828).  An 
American  architect,  born  on  Tortola  Island  in 
the  West  Indies.  He  was  without  technical 
training,  but  cultivated  the  study  of  classic 
architecture  as  a  gentleman  amateur,  and  in 
1793  submitted  plans  for  the  proposed  Capitol 
at  Washington  to  the  Commissioners  of  the  Dis¬ 
trict  of  Columbia.  These  plans  were  approved 
by  President  Washington,  and  their  execution 
was  begun  under  the  superintendence  of  Stephen 
Hallet,  a  Frenchman,  and  James  Hoban  (q.v. )  ; 
but  in  1794  Thornton,  who  had  come  to  the 
United  States  meanwhile,  was  appointed  a  com¬ 
missioner  of  the  District,  and  in  that  capacity 
until  1802  supervised  the  work.  His  design, 
though  later  modified  in  detail,  survives  in  the 
central  block  of  the  Capitol,  in  spite  of  the  fire 
of  1814.  He  also  designed  the  “Octagon”  man 
sion  at  Washington.  From  1802  until  the  time 
of  his  death  Thornton  held  the  office  of  Commis¬ 
sioner  of  Pensions. 

THORN'WELL,  James  Henley  (1812-62). 
An  American  Southern  Presbyterian  theologian. 
He  was  born  in  Marlborough  District,  S.  C.,  and 
graduated  at  South  Carolina  College,  Colum¬ 
bia,  in  1829.  He  held  several  pastorates;  was 
for  a  time  president  of  South  Carolina  College, 
and  held  professorships  in  the  theological  semi¬ 
nary  at  Columbia.  He  published  Arguments  of 
Romanists  Discussed  and  Refuted  (1845),  Dis¬ 
courses  on  Truth  (1854),  On  the  Rights  and 
Duties  of  Masters  (1861),  The  State  of  the 
Country  (1861),  and  was  one  of  the  most  ortho¬ 
dox  and  conservative  of  theologians.  His  col¬ 
lected  writings  were  published  at  Richmond 
(1871-73).  Consult  his  Life  and  Letters  by 
B.  M.  Palmer  (Richmond,  1875)  and  J.  L.  Girar¬ 
deau  (1871-73). 

THORN' YCROFT',  Sir  John  Isaac  (1843- 
) .  An  English  naval  architect,  brother  of 
William  Hamo  Thornvcroft.  He  was  born 
in  Rome.  Early  showing  an  aptitude  for  me¬ 
chanics,  at  18  he  built  a  steam  launch,  the 
Nautilus,  which  was  the  fastest  boat  of  its  kind 
on  the  Thames.  Earlier,  he  had  constructed  a 
little  model  steamer  which  contained  several  im¬ 
portant  innovations  afterward  introduced  by  him 
into  his  torpedo  boats.  After  completing  the  en¬ 
gineering  course  at  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
he  opened  a  shipyard  at  Chiswick  in  1866,  and 
achieved  remarkable  success  as  a  builder  of  tor¬ 
pedo  boats.  Among  his  improvements  were  the 
closed  stoke-hole  and  fan,  a  special  indicator,  a 
water-tube  boiler,  and  the  turbine  propeller.  He 
contributed  to  the  Transactions  of  the  British 
Association  and  to  the  publications  of  the  Insti¬ 
tution  of  Naval  Architects  (of  which  he  became 
vice  president)  and  the  Institution  of  Civil  En¬ 
gineers.  In  1902  he  was  knighted. 


THORNYCROFT 


THORPE 


236 


THORNYCROFT,  William  Hamo  (1850- 
) .  An  English  sculptor,  the  son  of  Thomas 
Thornycroft  (1815-85),  a  sculptor  of  classical 
tendencies,-  and  Mary  Thornycroft,  a  pupil  of 
John  Gibson,  who  carved  many  statues  and  busts 
of  the  royal  family  for  Queen  Victoria.  He  was 
born  in  London  and  studied  with  his  father,  at 
the  Royal  Academy  Schools,  and  also  in  Italy. 
He  first  won  recognition  with  his  “Warrior  Bear¬ 
ing  a  Wounded  Youth”  (1876).  His  ideal  fig¬ 
ures  were  at  first  conceived  in  a  strongly  classic 
spirit  with  much  beauty  and  purity  of  taste. 
To  this  style  belong  such  works  as  “Lot’s  Wife” 
(1878)  ;  “Artemis”  (1880,  Duke  of  Westminster, 
Eaton  Hall,  Chester)  ;  “Teucer,”  perhaps  his 
masterpiece  (1881,  Tate  Gallery,  London),  and 
“Medea”  (1888).  He  afterward  became  more 
modern  in  treatment  and  spirit,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  “Mower”  (1884,  Liverpool  Gallery),  and 
the  “Sower”  (1886).  Among  his  many  public 
monuments,  the  most  notable  include  the  Stan¬ 
ley  Memorial  (1898,  Holyhead  Church);  the 
General  Gordon  monument  in  Trafalgar  Square, 
London;  the  statue  of  Queen  Victoria  in  the 
Royal  Exchange;  Bishop  Goodwin  of  Carlisle 
(1895,  Carlisle  Cathedral);  Cromwell  (1900, 
Westminster)  ;  the  colossal  “King  Alfred”  (1901, 
Winchester)  ;  the  Gladstone  Monument  (Strand, 
London)  ;  the  Armstrong  Memorial  (Newcastle)  ; 
and  the  statue  of  Tennyson  ( 1909,  Trinity  Col¬ 
lege,  Cambridge).  He  also  executed  some  not¬ 
able  work  in  relief  and  in  decorative  sculpture. 
Thornycroft  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  (1888),  honorary  member,  Royal  Acad¬ 
emy  of  Munich  (1889),  and  received  gold  medals 
at  the  Royal  Academy  (1875)  and  in  Paris 
(1900).  See  Thornycroft,  Sir  John  Isaac. 

THORODDSEN,  thor'od-SEn,  J6n  Thordar- 
son  (1819-68).  An  Icelandic  poet  and  novelist, 
born  at  Reykholar.  After  studying  law  at  the 
University  of  Copenhagen,  he  took  part  in  the 
war  against  the  Schleswig-Holstein  insurgents 
and  in  1850  returned  to  Iceland.  He  died  at 
Borgarfjartharsysla.  In  point  of  both  time  and 
excellence,  Thoroddsen  is  the  first  Icelandic  nov¬ 
elist.  His  best-known  works  are  his  first  novel, 
Piltur  og  Stxilka  (Lad  and  Lass)  (1850;  many 
editions;  Ger.,  Dan.,  and  Dutch  trans.),  and 
Mathur  og  Kona  (Man  and  Wife),  published 
posthumously  (1876).  These  books  are  charac¬ 
terized  by  a  faithful  delineation  of  Icelandic  life 
and  by  a  quaint  and  pleasing  humor.  Thorodd¬ 
sen  also  wrote  a  number  of  witty  and  satirical 
poems,  published  in  1871.  Consult  Poestion, 
Islandische  Dichter  der  Neuzeit  (1897). 

THOROLD,  tho'ruld.  A  town  in  Welland 
County,  Ontario,  Canada,  on  the  Welland  Canal 
and  on  the  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Niagara,  St. 
Catherines,  and  Toronto  Electric  railways  (Map: 
Ontario,  F  7 ) .  It  has  a  public  library.  There 
are  various  manufactures.  Pop.,  1901,  1979; 
1911,  2273. 

THOR'OLD,  Anthony  Wilson  (1825-95). 
An  English  bishop.  He  was  born  at  Hough  am 
in  Lincolnshire;  graduated  at  Queen’s  College, 
Oxford,  in  1847 ;  entered  the  ministry,  and  filled 
prominent  livings  in  London  from  1857  till  lie 
became  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1877.  In  1890 
he  was  transferred  to  Winchester.  He  is  best 
known  as  the  author  of  the  devotional  works,  of 
rare  spirituality:  The  Presence  of  Christ  ( 1869)  ; 
The  Gospel  of  Christ  (1882)  ;  The  Yoke  of  Christ 
(1884);  Questions  of  Faith  and  Duty  (1892); 
The  Tenderness  of  Christ  (1894).  Consult 
his  Life  by  Simpkinson  (London,  1896). 


THOROUGHBASS.  See  Figured  Bass. 

THOROTJGHWORT.  See  Boneset;  Eupa- 

TORIUM. 

THORPE,  Benjamin  (1782-1S70).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  philologist  who  studied  at  Copenhagen  under 
the  famous  philologist  Rasmus  Kristian  Rask 
(q.v. ).  While  there  he  published  a  translation 
of  Rask’s  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar  (1830;  rev., 
1865).  Returning  to  England  (1830),  he  con¬ 
tinued  his  studies  in  Old  English  and  Old  Norse. 
Most  widely  known  in  his  Northern  Mythology, 
comprising  the  principal  popular  Traditions  and 
Superstitions  of  Scandinavia,  North  Germany, 
and  the  Netherlands  (3  vols.,  1851).  This  was 
supplemented  by  Yule  Tide  Stories:  A  Collec¬ 
tion  of  Scandinavian  Tales  (1853)  and  a  trans¬ 
lation  of  the  Edda  of  Scemund  the  Learned. 
(1866).  Thorpe’s  pioneer  work  in  Old  English 
translation,  philology,  and  history  is  still  of 
great  value.  Among  his  publications  in  this 
department  are  Ccedmon’s  Metrical  Paraphrase 
(1832)  ;  Analecta  Anglo-Saxonica  (1834;  3d  ed., 
1868)  ;  Ancient  Laws  and  Institutes  of  England 
( 1840)  ;  Codex  Exoniensis,  a  Collection  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  Poetry,  with  English  Translation  and 
Notes  (1842)  ;  Anglo-Saxon  Poems  of  Beowulf, 
with  a  Literal  Translation,  Notes,  and  Glossary 
(1855);  The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  according 
to  the  several  Original  Authorities  (2  vols., 
1861)  ;  and  Diplomatarium  Anglicum  /Evi  Sax- 
onici:  A  Collection  of  English  Charters  from 
605  to  1066  (1865). 

THORPE,  Sir  Edward  (1845-  ).  An 

English  chemist.  He  was  born  near  Manchester 
and  was  educated  at  Owens  College,  where  he 
came  under  the  influence  of  Sir  Henry  E.  Roscoe 
( q.v. ) .  Later  he  studied  at  Bonn  and  Heidel¬ 
berg  (Ph.D.).  He  was  professor  successively  in 
the  Andersonian  Institution,  Yorkshire  College, 
Leeds,  and  the  Royal  College  of  Science,  Lon¬ 
don.  In  1909  he  was  knighted.  At  various 
times  he  served  as  president  of  the  Society  of 
Chemical  Industry,  the  Chemical  Society  of  Lon¬ 
don,  and  the  chemical  section  of  the  British 
Association.  Besides  many  addresses  and  im¬ 
portant  papers  he  published:  Chemical  Problems 
(1870);  Qualitative  Analysis  (1873);  Quanti¬ 
tative  Analysis  (1873);  Inorganic  Chemistry 
(2  vols.,  1874)  ;  A  Dictionary  of  Applied  Chem¬ 
istry  (3  vols.,  1893;  5  vols.,  1912)  ;  A  History 
of  Chemistry  (2  vols.,  1909-10). 

THORPE,  Francis  Newton  (1857-  ). 

An  American  historian,  born  at  Swampscott, 
Mass.  He  was  educated  at  Syracuse  University 
and  at  the  Law  School  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  From  1885  until  1898  he  was 
fellow,  and  professor  of  American  constitutional 
history,  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  In 
1910  he  accepted  the  chair  of  political  science 
and  constitutional  law  at  the  University  of 
Pittsburgh.  He  published:  The  Government  of 
the  People  of  the  United  States  (1889)  ;  A  Con¬ 
stitutional  History  of  the  American  People, 
1776-1850  (2  vols.,  1898)  ;  The  Constitutional 
History  of  the  United  States,  1765-1895  (3  vols., 
1901);  Short  Constitutional  History  of  the 
United  States  (1904)  ;  An  American  Fruit  Farm 
(1915).  He  edited  The  History  of  the  Civil 
1  Var — National  View  (1906)  and  The  States¬ 
manship  of  Andrew  Jackson  (1909). 

THORPE,  Rose  Hartwick  (1850-  ).  An 

American  author,  born  at  Mishawaka,  Ind.  In 
1871  she  was  married  to  E.  Carson  Thorpe. 
She  became  best  known  for  her  ballad  Curfew 
Must  Not  Ring  To-Night  (1882).  The  Poetical 


THORVALDSEN 


237  THORVALDSEN 


Works  of  Rose  Hartwick  Thorpe  were  published 
in  1912.  In  addition  to  verse  she  wrote  several 
stories. 

THORVALDSEN,  tor'wqld-sen  (Ger.  Thor- 
waldsen )  ,j  Bertel  (1770-1844).  An  eminent 
Danish  sculptor,  the  most  important  and  gifted 
exponent  of  classicism  in  sculpture  (q.v. )  in 
the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  born  at  Copen¬ 
hagen,  Nov.  19,  1770,  the  son  of  an  Icelandic 
carpenter  and  carver  of  figures  upon  galleons. 
He  was  sent  to  the  academy  at  the  age  of  11, 
and  received,  in  1793,  the'  great  gold  medal, 
with  a  stipend  for  three  years’  study  at  Rome. 
rJ  his  city,  however,  he  did  not  reach  until  March, 
1797.  In  Rome  he  was  less  influenced  by  the 
master  works  of  antiquity  than  by  Carstens 
(q.v.)  who  had  already  been  his  model  at  Copen¬ 
hagen.  On  the  point  of  returning  home,  in  1803, 
he  received  a  commission  from  Sir  Thomas  Hope 
to  execute  in  marble  the  colossal  statue  of 
“Jason  with  the  Golden  Fleece,”  the  plaster  cast 
of  which  had  called  forth  the  admiration  of  all 
connoisseurs  and  critics,  and  even  of  Canova. 
Orders  now  came  in  abundance,  especially  after 
he  had  finished  the  spirited  relief  of  the  “Abduc¬ 
tion  of  Briseis,”  one  of  his  most  perfect  crea¬ 
tions  in  the  realm  of  relief  sculpture.  In  1804 
he  produced  the  famous  group  of  “Cupid  and 
Psyche,”  and  the  relief  of  “Dance  of  the  Muses 
on  Mount  Helicon,”  and  in  1805  the  statues  of 
“Apollo,”  “Bacchus,”  and  “Ganymede,”  which 
was  later  followed  by  a  “Ganymede  Filling  the 
Cup,’  and  the  graceful  group  of  “Ganvmede 
Watering  the  Eagle  of  Zeus.”  With  his  in¬ 
creasing  reputation  came  new  distinctions  and 
honors;  in  1804  the  Florence  Academy  appointed 
him  professor  and  in  1808  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Accademia  di  San  Luca  in  Rome, 
sending  as  his  reception  piece  the  relief  “A 
Genio  Lumen.”  About  1809  Thorvaldsen  won 
a  new  patron  in  Crown  Prince  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
who  sought  his  advice  in  purchasing  antique 
works  of  art  and  commissioned  him  to  execute 
a  statue  of  “Adonis”  (1832,  Glyptothek, 
Munich ) . 

To  the  year  1809  belong  four  of  his  most  at¬ 
tractive  reliefs,  the  group  of  “Hector,  Paris, 
and  Helena,”  and  three  other  mythological  sub¬ 
jects,  and  in  1810-11  he  carved  the  life-size 
statue  of  “Psyche,”  one  of  his  creations  ap¬ 
proaching  nearest  to  the  spirit  of  antique  art, 
and  a  heroic-sized  “Mars  Weighing  Cupid’s  Ar¬ 
rows.”  In  honor  of  the  proposed  visit  of  Napo¬ 
leon  to  Rome  he  was  commissioned  to  model  a 
frieze  representing  the  “Entry  of  Alexander  the 
Great  into  Babylon,”  witli  which  he  achieved 
prodigious  success.  The  marble  version  found  a 
permanent  home  in  the  Villa  Carlotta  on  Lake 
Como,  and  a  modified  replica  was  acquired  by 
the  Danish  government  for  Kristiansborg  Castle. 
From  a  purely  artistic  point  of  view  the  “Memo¬ 
rial  to  Baroness  Schubart”  (1814)  is  most  akin 
to  the  Greek  reliefs  of  the  fourth  century  b.c., 
and  of  his  compositions  dating  from  1814-15, 
the  medallions  of  “Morning”  and  “Night”  have 
probably  given  him  the  widest  reputation.  In 
1816-18  he  produced  “Venus  with  the  Apple,” 
“Hebe,”  “Cupid  Triumphant,”  “Bacchante  Danc¬ 
ing,”  “Shepherd  Boy  Resting,”  “Mercury,  Slayer 
of  Argus,”  and  “The  Three  Graces.”  The  latter 
subject  he  treated  even  more  successfully  in 
the  high  relief  for  the  tomb  of  the  Milanese 
painter  Appiani.  A  series  of  charming  reliefs 
with  Cupid  as  the  central  figure  date  from  the 
same  period.  The  year  1819  saw  the  realization 


of  the  unique  “Lion  of  Lucerne,”  a  memorial  to 
the  Swiss  guards  who  fell  guarding  Versailles 
Palace,  chiseled  out  of  the  natural  rock  by  the 
Swiss  sculptor  Ahorn  after  Thorvaldsen’s  model. 

Arriving  at  Copenhagen  in  October  of  the 
same  year,  he  was  received  with  great  honors. 
He  received  a  commission  for  the  plastic  decora¬ 
tion  of  Vor  Fruekirke  (Church  of  Our  Lady), 
with  figures,  groups,  and  reliefs,  executed  sub¬ 
sequently  in  Rome.  They  comprise  the  colossal 
statue  of  “Christus  Consolator,”  one  of  his 
masterpieces,  the  statues  of  the  “Twelve  Apos¬ 
tles,”  and  the  reliefs  of  the  “Institution  of  Bap¬ 
tism”  and  of  the  “Institution  of  the  Holy  Com¬ 
munion.”  The  Christ  was  finished  by  his  own 
hand,  the  others  with  the  assistance  of  his 
pupils  after  his  return  to  Rome.  He  left  Copen¬ 
hagen  in  1820  and,  having  arranged  at  Warsaw 
for  the  erection  of  his  equestrian  statue  of 
Prince  Poniatowski  and  the  Copernicus  Monu¬ 
ment,  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  devoted  him¬ 
self  zealously  to  his  new  commissions.  To  these 
were  added  the  “Monument  to  Pope  Pius  VII” 
in  St.  Peter’s  (1831),  and  the  statue  of  Lord 
Byron  (1835,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge).  A 
statue  of  “Hope”  (1829)  adorns  the  tomb  of 
the  Humboldt  family  in  the  park  at  Teo-el 
near  Berlin. 

I11  1825  Thorvaldsen  was  elected  president  of 
the  Accademia  di  San  Luca  in  Rome,  notwith¬ 
standing  the  objections  to  him  as  a  Protestant. 
Important  works,  other  than  those  already  men¬ 
tioned,  are  the  statue  of  Duke  Eugene  of 
Leuchtenberg,  in  St.  Michael’s  Church,  Mu¬ 
nich,  and  the  equestrian  statue  of  the  “Elector 
Maximilian  I”  (Munich),  the  first  instance  in 
which  he  represents  an  historical  personage  in 
the  costume  of  the  time.  This  was  done  most 
successfully  in  the  statue  of  Conradin,  Last  of 
the  Hohenstaufen,  in  Santa  Maria  del  Car¬ 
mine,  at  Naples.  Besides  reliefs  of  antique 
subjects,  he  produced  in  the  thirties  the  figure 
of  a  “Young  Dancer”  (1837,  Palazzo  Torlonia) 
and  a  colossal  statue  of  “Vulcan,”  one  of  his 
last  works  at  Rome. 

His  return,  consequent  upon  the  King’s  re¬ 
quest,  was  made  in  a  royal  Danish  frigate. 
Besides  his  monumental  tasks  for  the  Frue¬ 
kirke,  it  was  principally  reliefs  from  Greek 
mythology  tha^  now  claimed  his  attention,  and 
in  the  3pringvof  1841  he  repaired  once  more  to 
Rome  to  finish  some  subjects  he  had  left  behind. 
His  journey  through  Germany  was  a  triumphal 
progress,  and  after  one  year  in  Rome  he  returned 
to  Copenhagen,  devoting  himself  to  work  in 
relief.  The  pieces  known  as  “Christmas  Joy  in 
Heaven,”  “The  Rape  of  Hylas,”  and  the  famous 
“Four  Seasons”  are  the  most  remarkable.  He 
died  at  the  theatre,  on  March  24,  1844,  and  was 
escorted  to  his  burial  place  with  princely  honors. 
His  possessions  were  bequeathed  to  his  native 
city  for  the  establishment  of  the  Thorvaldsen 
Museum,  in  which  all  his  works,  in  the  original 
or  in  plaster  models,  his  sketches  and  studies, 
and  his  art  collections  are  preserved,  and  in 
the  court  of  which  he  lies  buried.  His  art  is 
the  best  which  the  so-called  classicist  tendency 
has  produced  in  sculpture.  Unlike  Canova,  his 
inspiration  was  Greek  rather  than  Roman,  and 
his  works  approach  nearest  of  all  to  the  purity 
and  repose  of  Greek  art.  He  excelled  especially 
in  relief  and  in  ideal  and  mythological  sub¬ 
jects.  As  he  sought  chiefly  to  attain  general 
types,  his  art  was  deficient  in  characterization, 
and  also  in  dramatic  action. 


THOS 


THOTHMES 


238 


Bibliography.  J.  C.  Andersen,  B.  Thorvald¬ 
sen  (Berlin,  1845)  ;  J.  M.  Thiele,  Life  of  Thor¬ 
valdsen ,  translated  from  the  Danish  by  M.  R. 
Barnard  (London,  1865)  ;  id.,  Thorvaldsen  and 
his  Works,  English  translation  by  Sinning  (New 
York,  1869)  ;  Eugene  Plon,  Thorvaldsen :  sa  vie 
et  son  oeuvre  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1874)  ;  M.  Hammer- 
ich,  Tliorwaldsen  und  seine  Zeit  (Gotha,  1876)  ; 
H.  Liicke,  “Canova  und  Thorvaldsen,”  in  Dohme, 
Kunst  und  Kiinstler  des  neunzehnten  Jahrhun- 
derts,  vol.  i  (Leipzig,  1886)  ;  Julius  Lange,  Thor- 
waldsen’s  Darstellung  des  Mensehen,  German 
translation  by  Mathilde  Mann  (Berlin,  1894); 
Adolf  Rosenberg,  “Thorvaldsen,”  in  Kiinstler - 
monographien,  No.  16  (Bielefeld,  1901). 

TITOS,  thoz.  A  tall,  non-Mongoloid  people  of 
Tonking,  in  the  valley  of  the  Claire  River,  with 
subbrachycephalic  head  form,  a  member  of  the 
Mois  (q.v.)  group  of  tribes.  They  are  husband¬ 
men,  living  in  houses  on  piles,  and  wearing  a 
very  picturesque  costume.  The  Thos  and  the 
Muongs  (q.v.)  of  the  valley  of  the  Black  River 
in  Tongking  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
principal  groups  of  the  Thai  stock,  to  which  be¬ 
long  the  Shans  ( q.v. ) ,  the  Laotians  ( see  Laos  ) , 
and  the  Siamese.  Consult  Garcin,  JJn  an  chez 
les  Muongs  au  Tonkin  (Paris,  1891)  ;  De  Lanes- 
san,  L’lndo-Chine  frangaise  (ib.,  1889)  ;  Pinabel, 
Sur  quelques  peuples  sauvages  dependant  du 
Tong-King  (ib.,  1884). 

THOTH,  thoth  or  tot  (Gk.  Giod,  Thoth, 
Qwvd,  Thoyth,  Gevd,  Theyth,  from  Egypt.  Dhut'i) . 
An  Egyptian  deity  identified  by  the  Greeks  with 
Mercury  (q.v.).  Consult  E.  A.  T.  Wallis  Budge, 
The  Gods  of  the  Egyptians  (London,  1904).  See 
Hermetic  and  Plate  of  Egyptian  Deities. 

THOTHMES,  thoth'mez  or  tothnes  (Egypt. 
Dhuti-mose,  son  of  Thoth;  Gk.  T ovdyuais,  Touth- 
mosis)  or  Tahutimes.  The  name  of  four  kings 
of  Egypt  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty. 

Thothmes  I  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
Amenopliis  I  (q.v.)  and  ascended  the  throne 
about  1560  b.c.  According  to  Manetlio,  as  cited 
by  Africanus,  he  reigned  for  22  years,  though 
no  date  higher  than  his  ninth  regal  year  has 
as  yet  been  found  upon  the  monuments.  The 
first  recorded  military  expedition  of  Thothmes 
I  was  against  the  Nubians,  whom  he  defeated, 
returning  in  triumph  to  Thebes  with  the  body 
of  their  chief  at  the  bow  of  his  ship.  In  his 
third  year  he  found  it  necessary  to  chastise 
the  Nubian  tribes  in  another  expedition.  Not 
long  after,  he  invaded  Asia  and,  marching  as 
far  as  the  Euphrates,  set  up  a  stele  which  was 
later  seen  and  mentioned  by  Thothmes  III.  The 
remainder  of  his  reign  seems  to  have  been 
peaceful  and  was  largely  devoted  to  building 
operations.  At  Karnak  (q.v.)  he  built  two 
pylons  and  two  hypostyle  halls,  and  erected 
two  obelisks,  one  of  which  (76  feet  high)  is 
still  standing.  (See  Obelisk.)  He  also  con¬ 
structed  buildings  in  the  necropolis  of  Thebes, 
at  Abydos,  at  Ibrim  (a  rock-hewn  chapel),  and 
at  other  places.  The  coffin  of  Thothmes  I  was 
found  in  1881  at  Deir  el  Bahri,  but  whether  the 
mummy  it  contained  is  that  of  the  King  is  not 
altogether  certain. 

Thothmes  II,  the  son  and  successor  of  Thoth¬ 
mes  I,  reigned  for  about  nine  years,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  monuments,  and  according  to  Manetlio 
for  12  or  13  years.  An  inscription  at  Assuan, 
dated  in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  states  that 
he  sent  an  expedition  against  Nubian  tribes 
who  had  raided  his  territory,  and  he  seems  to 
have  fought  against  the  Asiatic  Bedouin,  but 


he  undertook  no  extensive  wars.  He  made 
additions  to  the  great  Temple  of  Ammon  at 
Karnak,  and  his  name  is  inscribed  upon  build¬ 
ings  in  many  parts  of  Egypt.  The  mummy  of 
the  King,  found  in  1881  at  Deir  el  Bahri,  is 
that  of  a  young  man,  apparently  not  over  30 
years  of  age.  His  sister  and  wife,  the  able  and 
energetic  Hatshepsut  (see  Hatasu),  was  co¬ 
regent  throughout  his  reign,  and  was  the  real 
ruler  of  the  kingdom. 

Thothmes  III  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  all 
the  Egyptian  monarchs.  The  evidence  as  to  his 
parentage  is  not  altogether  clear,  but  in  all 
probability  he  was  the  son  of  Thothmes  I  by  a 
wife  named  Iset,  or  Isis,  and  the  half  brother 
of  the  great  Queen  Hatshepsut  ( Hatasu ) .  In 
a  short  time  the  party 'of  Hatshepsut  was  able 
to  thrust  Thothmes  III  into  the  background. 
Her  rule  was,  however,  soon  terminated  for  a 
while  by  the  coalition  of  Thothmes  I  and  II  who 
got  control  and  ruled  together  until  the  death 
of  the  former  gave  the  party  of  Thothmes  III  a 
chance  to  regain  the  throne.  The  Queen,  how¬ 
ever,  was  powerful  enough  to  dominate  and 
until  her  death  the  government  seems  to  have 
been  in  her  hands,  while  she  seems  to  have 
allowed  Thothmes  III  merely  a  nominal  share  in 
the  government.  As  soon  as  her  death  left  him 
sole  ruler  he  entered  upon  a  career  of  conquest 
unrivaled  in  the  annals  of  Egyptian  history. 
Assembling  an  army  for  the  invasion  of  Syria, 
he  celebrated  the  twenty-third  anniversary  of 
his  accession  at  Gaza.  Marching  thence  through 
the  passes  of  Mount  Carmel,  he  defeated  the 
allied  Syrian  forces  on  the  plain  of  Esdraelon 
and  forced  them  to  take  refuge  in  the  city  of 
Megiddo,  which  capitulated  after  a  brief  siege. 
The  captive  Syrian  chiefs  were  restored  to  their 
dignities  -  as  vassals  of  Egypt,  and  Thothmes, 
after  receiving  messages  of  congratulation  from 
many  foreign  princes,  among  them  the  King 
of  Assyria,  returned  laden  with  booty.  The 
conquest  was  not  yet  complete.  Some  of  the 
Syrian  and  Phoenician  cities  offered  stubborn 
resistance  and  there  were  frequent  revolts,  op¬ 
ponents  of  Egypt  being  encouraged  and  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  powerful  State  of  Mitanni  (see 
Amarna  Letters),  which  at  that  time  occupied 
northern  Syria  and  northern  Mesopotamia. 
War  with  this  state  soon  followed,  in  the  course 
of  which  Thothmes  ravaged  Mitannian  territory 
and  captured  a  number  of  cities,  including  the 
important  city  of  Carchemish,  on  the  Euphrates. 
He  gained  no  permanent  possessions  in  this 
quarter,  but  the  result  of  the  war  enabled  him 
to  extend  his  dominions,  undisturbed  by  Mitan¬ 
nian  interference,  over  northern  Palestine  and 
Phoenicia.  At  the  city  of  Ni,  near  the  Lower 
Orontes,  he  set  up  a  stele  to  mark  the  limit  of 
the  Egyptian  Empire  in  that  quarter.  During 
his  reign  Thothmes  conducted  at  least  14  Asiatic 
campaigns,  and  the  booty  and  tribute  he  ob¬ 
tained  were  lavished  upon  the  Egyptian  temples. 
In  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  reign  he  caused  the 
old  canal  at  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile  to 
be  cleared  and  sailed  through  it  on  an  expedi¬ 
tion  against  the  Nubians.  As  a  builder  Thoth¬ 
mes  was  hardly  less  energetic  than  as  a  warrior, 
and  his  monuments  occur  throughout  Egypt  and 
Nubia.  He  made  important  additions  to  the 
great  Temple  of  Ammon  at  Karnak  and  caused 
his  annals  to  be  inscribed  upon  its  walls,  and 
he  also  built  at  Heliopolis,  Memphis,  Abydos, 
Hermonthis,  Edfu,  Esneh,  Ombos,  and  other 
places.  In  Nubia,  where  he  built  or  restored 


THORVALDSEN 

“CHRIST,”  FROM  THE  STATUE  IN  THE  CHURCH  OF  OUR  LADY  AT  COPENHAGEN 


T!’“  . TV 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  Qf  ILLINOIS 


THOU 


THOUGHT 


239 


many  temples,  he  was  the  founder  of  the  large 
temple  at  Soleb,  near  the  third  cataract. 
Thothmes  III  died  about  1485  b.c.  (Breasted 
says  1447)  ;  his  mummy  was  among  those  found 
at  Deir  el  Bahri  in  1881. 

Thothmes  IV,  the  son  of  Amenophis  II  (q.v.) 
and  the  grandson  of  Thothmes  III,  ruled  for 
nine  years  from  about  1460  b.c.  He  conducted 
military  expeditions  to  Nubia  and  to  Phoeni¬ 
cia,  collecting  booty  and  tribute  in  both  coun¬ 
tries,  and  an  inscription  at  Ghizeh  records  that 
he  cleared  away  the  sand  from  the  great  Sphinx 
(q.v.).  From  the  Amarna  tablets  it  appears 
that  he  maintained  friendly  relations  with  Baby¬ 
lonia  and  with  Mitanni,  and  married  the  daugh¬ 
ter  of  Antatama,  King  of  the  latter  country. 

Consult:  Eduard  Meyer,  Geschichte  des  alien 
TEgyptens  (Berlin,  1887);  W.  M.  Flinders  Pe¬ 
trie,  A  History  of  Egypt  (New  York,  1897)  ; 
E.  A.  T.  Wallis  Budge,  A  History  of  Egypt  (ib., 
1902)  ;  Max  Muller,  “Die  alten  A^gypter  als 
Krieger  und  Eroberer  in  Asien,”  in  Der  alte 
Orient,  vol.  v  (Leipzig,  1903)  ;  J.  H.  Breasted, 
Ancient  Records  of  Egypt  (5  vols.,  Chicago, 
1907)  ;  id.,  A  History  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians 
(New  York,  1908). 

THOU,  too,  Jacques  Auguste  de  (1553- 
1617).  A  French  historian,  born  in  Paris.  He 
studied  jurisprudence  at  Orleans  and  Valence 
and  in  1576  became  an  ecclesiastical  councilor 
of  the  Parlement  of  Paris.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  Politiques  (q.v.).  De  Thou  was 
made  keeper  of  the  Royal  Library  and  vice 
president  of  the  Parlement  by  Henry  of  Navarre. 
In  1591  he  began  his  great  work,  the  Historia 
Sui  Temporis,  which  covered  the  period  from  the 
death  of  Francis  I  to  that  of  Henry  IV  (1547- 
1610),  and  which  occupied  him  during  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  his  life.  He  took  an  important  part 
in  the  drawing  up  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  The 
history  was  completed  by  Rigault  from  materials 
left  by  De  Thou  and  comprises  in  its  full  form 
143  books.  The  work  is  marked  by  striking 
fairness  and  a  faithful  adherence  to  fact,  remark¬ 
able  in  a  history  dealing  with  a  period  of  bitter 
partisan  spirit,  civil  war,  and  anarchy.  The 
history  was  published  in  11  volumes  (Paris, 
1609-14)  and  4  volumes  (Frankfort,  1625),  both 
in  Latin.  A  French  translation  appeared  in  10 
volumes  (Paris,  1740),  and  one  in  English  by 
Buckley  in  7  volumes  (London,  1773).  After 
De  Thou’s  death  appeared  his  memoirs,  Thuani 
I Commentarii  de  Vita  Sua  (Orleans,  1620).  Con¬ 
sult:  Collinson,  Life  of  Thuanus,  with  some  Ac¬ 
count  of  his  Writings  (London,  1807)  ;  Chasles, 
Discours  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages  de  J.  A.  De 
Thou  (Paris,  1824). 

THOUARS,  Dupetit-.  See  Dupetit-Tiiouars. 

THOUGHT.  In  logic,  thought  is  the  intel¬ 
lectual  act  whereby  all  knowledge  is  obtained 
(see  Logic;  Knowledge;  Judgment;  Concept; 
Inference).  In  functional  psychology  the  term 
is  used  in  a  narrower  sense,  to  denote  the  high¬ 
est  or  most  complex  intellectual  function,  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  sense  perception  as  dealing  with 
general  or  abstract  rather  than  with  concrete 
objects,  and  from  memory  as  being  constructive 
rather  than  purely  representative. 

The  thought  consciousness  itself  resembles  in 
general  pattern  that  of  active  imagination.  Ac¬ 
tive  attention  is  characteristic  of  both,  and  in 
both  the  content  processes  depend  not  merely 
upon  associative,  but  also  and  essentially  upon 
determining  tendencies,  set  into  activity  by  the 
presence  of  a  particular  problem.  In  imagina¬ 


tion,  however,  the  problem  is  the  production 
of  a  single,  and  as  yet  unrealized  object:  a 
machine,  a  future  event,  a  work  of  art.  In 
thought,  on  the  other  hand,  the  problem  is  the 
relation  of  some  object  of  thought,  taken  by 
the  thinker  as  real,  to  other  objects  or  to  truth. 
rIhis  diilerence  of  problem  involves  first  a  dif¬ 
ference  of  attitude;  in  imagination  the  attitude 
is  that  of  newness  or  strangeness,  while  in 
thought  it  is  that  of  validity  or  consistency. 
More  importantly,  it  involves  further  a  typical 
difference  in  the  course  of  consciousness.  Imag¬ 
ination  begins  with  a  more  or  less  complete 
apprehension  of  the  requirements  to  be  met, 
proceeds  by  a  sort  of  constructive  realization, 
and  ends  with  an  idea  which  satisfies  those 
requirements.  Thought  typically  begins  with 
the  aggregate  idea  (see  Idea),  advances  by 
repeated  dissections,  and  ends  when  the  various 
parts  or  aspects  of  the  idea  have  been  com¬ 
pletely  related.  These  features  of  similarity 
and  difference  have  been  expressed  in  the  exag¬ 
gerated  statement  that  imagination  is  thinking 
in  images  (typically  concrete),  and  thought  is 
imagining  in  words  (typically  abstract). 

The  fact  appears  to  be  that,  although  thought 
may  originally  have  implied  the  presence  of 
language  (q.v.),  and  still  is  carried  on  to  a  large 
extent  in  words,  it  may  now  go  on  in  other 
terms  as  well.  Even  in  the  early  experimental 
investigations  of  thought,  it  became  evident  that 
any  idea,  and  not  merely  verbal  ideas,  might 
carry  the  meaning  of  generality  or  of  abstract¬ 
ness.  Under  suitable  determination,  e.g.,  the 
abstract  meaning  of  triangle  may  be  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  visual  image  of  an  equilateral 
triangle,  or  by  a  flicker  of  kinaesthesis  accom¬ 
panying  eye  movement  towards  a  board  on  which 
triangles  have  recently  been  drawn,  just  as 
well  as  by  the  word  “triangle”  itself.  Further¬ 
more,  observers  frequently  reported  yet  other 
processes  which  seemed  not  to  belong  definitely 
to  any  previously  recognized  class  of  mental 
formations.  They  found,  e.g.,  doubts,  assur¬ 
ances,  beliefs,  expectations,  consciousness  of 
such-and-such  matters,  thoughts  about  this  or 
that, — conscious  contents  which  represented  as 
if  in  a  nutshell  wide  ranges  of  meaning  and 
knowledge.  These  contents  they  were  unable, 
under  the  complex  and  poorly  controlled  con¬ 
ditions  of  experimentation,  to  reduce  to  familiar 
elements ;  they  merely  indicated  and  named 
them.  To  such  formations  the  name  of  “con¬ 
scious  attitudes”  ( Bewusstseinslagen )  was 
given.  Later  experiments,  under  conditions  more 
favorable  for  analysis,  have  demonstrated  the 
complex  character  of  many  conscious  attitudes, 
and  have  shown  that  they  can  be  reduced  to 
sensation,  image,  and  affection.  In  particular, 
the  use  of  the  genetic  method  reveals  the  atti¬ 
tudes  as  condensations  of  sensation  and  image, 
often  affectively  toned,  and  shows  that  they  take 
shape  partly  under  the  laws  of  repeated  impres¬ 
sion  (association),  and  partly  under  those  of 
selective  attention  (determination). 

The  thought  idea  (abstract  idea,  general  idea, 
conscious  attitude)  may  further  be  replaced, 
in  accordance  with  the  general  laws  of  meaning 
and  abstraction  (q.v.),  by  purely  physiological 
processes.  The  classical  example  of  such  a  case 
is  that  of  knowing  perfectly  well  what  we  intend 
to  say  without  the  least  representation  of  the 
coming  sentence  in  any  sort  of  imagery.  If  we 
here  refuse  to  regard  the  nervous  set  or  dis¬ 
position  as  the  vehicle  of  logical  meaning,  we 


THOUSAND  AND  ONE  DAYS 


THRACE 


240 


must  have  recourse  to  a  novel  type  of  mental 
content,  a  thought  element  whose  essence  is  to 
point  beyond  itself  and  whose  nature  (aside 
from  this  indication  of  function)  is  not  de- 
scribable.  Many  psychologists  at  the  present 
time  hold,  in  fact,  to  some  form  of  the  doctrine 
of  imageless  thought,  and  maintain  that  con¬ 
sciousness  is  made  up  of  functional  acts  as  well 
as  of  content  processes.  The  point  of  view  from 
which  such  a  belief  derives  has  been  set  forth 
under  Mind  (q.v.). 

Consult:  A.  Messer,  Empfindung  und  Denken 
(Leipzig,  1908)  ;  E.  B.  Titchener,  Experimental 
Psychology  of  the  Thought-Processes  (New 
York,  1909)  ;  W.  B.  Pillsbury,  Psychology  of 
Reasoning  (ib.,  1910)  ;  A.  Messer,  Psychologie 
(Stuttgart,  1914);  R.  M.  Ogden,  Introduction 
to  General  Psychology  (New  York,  1914). 

THOUSAND  AND  ONE  DAYS.  An  imita¬ 
tion  of  the  Thousand  Nights  and  One  Night,  or 
Arabian  Nights  (q.v.),  written  by  Petis  de  la 
Croix,  a  French  Orientalist  and  traveler,  in 
1710. 

THOUSAND  AND  ONE  NIGHTS.  See 

Arabian  Nights. 

THOUSAND  ISLANDS,  The.  A  collection 
of  small  islands,  numbering  about  1700,  situated 
in  an  expansion  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  about 
40  miles  long  and  from  4  to  7  miles  wide,  be¬ 
tween  Ontario,  Canada,  and  Jefferson  and  St. 
Lawrence  counties,  New  York  (Map:  Ontario, 
J  5 ) .  They  are  favorite  resorts  for  summer 
tourists  on  account  of  their  picturesque  beauty. 
Many  are  private  property  and  contain  the 
summer  homes  of  wealthy  Americans  and  Cana¬ 
dians. 

THOUSAND  LEGS.  See  Myriapoda. 

TEOYEAS,  Paul  de  Rapin  de.  See  Rapin 
de  Tiioyras,  Paul  de. 

THRACE,  thras  (Lat.  Thracia,  from  Gk. 
Qp&K7],  Thrake,  Thrace,  from  0 /sa|,  Thrax,  Thra¬ 
cian  ) .  The  ancient  name  of  an  extensive  region 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
whose  boundaries  varied  at  different  periods.  At 
first  the  designation  seems  to  have  included  part 
of  Macedonia,  where  early  story  knows  of  Thra¬ 
cians  in  Pieria,  with  whom  was  connected  the 
worship  of  the  Muses,  mythical  bards,  and 
Dionysus.  Later  the  name  was  applied  to  the 
great  district  northeast  of  Macedonia,  with  the 
Danube  on  the  north,  on  the  east  the  Euxine, 
on  the  south  the  Bosporus,  Propontis  (Sea  of 
Marmora),  Hellespont,  the  Aegean,  and  Mace¬ 
donia,  and  on  the  west  Illyria  and  Macedonia. 
Under  the  Romans  it  designated  the  region 
south  of  the  Haemus  Mountains  (Balkans),  the 
region  to  the  north  being  the  Province  of  Moesia. 
This  part  of  Thrace  belongs  mostly  to  Servia. 
(See  Servia,  History.)  From  the  Haemus  three 
lesser  chains  stretch  south.  The  three  most 
,  important  rivers  of  Thrace  were  the  Strymon 
(mod.  Struma),  which  during  the  Greek  period 
formed  the  boundary  between  Thrace  and  Mace¬ 
donia;  the  Nestus  (mod.  Kara-Su)  ;  and  the 
Hebrus  (mod.  Maritza,  q.v.),  the  largest — all 
flowing  southward  into  the  Aegean  Sea.  The 
climate  was  considered  by  the  Greeks  very  se¬ 
vere — even  that  of  AEnos,  on  the  shores  of  the 
Aegean,  was  described  by  Athenseus  as  eight 
months  of  cold  and  four  months  of  winter.  The 
country  was  largely  uncultivated  and  covered 
with  forests,  but  the  river  valleys  were  fertile. 
The  chief  products  were  grain,  millet,  wine,  and 
hemp.  Cattle,  sheep,  horses,  and  swine  were 
raised  in  great  numbers.  The  minerals  were  a 


vast  source  of  wealth,  the  rich  gold  mines  of 
Mount  Pangaeus  attracting  the  Thasians,  and 
leading  the  Athenians  to  the  foundation  of 
Amphipolis. 

While  the  exact  relation  between  Thracians 
and  Greeks  is  still  uncertain,  it  is  clear  that 
the  former  belonged  to  the  great  Indo-European 
family,  and  were  probably  closely  akin  to  the 
Phrygians  of  Asia  Minor,  whose  language  indi¬ 
cates  some  connection  in  the  past  with  the 
Hellenic  people.  In  historic  times  the  Thracians 
appear  as  a  wild  and  barbarous  race,  fond  of 
war,  ruled  over  by  many  petty  kings.  In  the 
sixth  century  B.c.  they  were  subdued  by  the 
Persians,  but  after  the  retreat  of  Xerxes  re¬ 
sumed  independence,  of  which  they  had  probably 
been  only  nominally  deprived  by  their  con¬ 
querors.  In  the  fifth  century  a  King,  Teres, 
seems  to  have  secured  a  decided  supremacy, 
and  under  his  rule  and  that  of  his  son  Sitalces, 
with  whom  the  Athenians  contracted  an  alliance, 
it  is  possible  to  speak  of  a  Thracian  kingdom. 
After  the  death  of  Sitalces  his  territory  was 
divided  into  three  parts,  and  internecine  strife 
was  resumed.  Thrace  thus  fell  an  easy  prey  to 
Philip  of  Macedon  (after  359  b.c.),  who  in¬ 
corporated  the  western  portion  of  the  country, 
as  far  as  the  Nestus,  in  Macedonia,  while  Mace¬ 
donian  garrisons  held  the  rest  of  the  country. 
After  the  fall  of  Macedon  before  the  power  of 
Rome  (168  b.c.)  Thrace  was  for  a  short  time 
independent,  but  in  133  b.c.  it  came  under  the 
Roman  rule.  Moesia  was  formed  into  a  prov¬ 
ince  in  29  b.c.,  but  Thrace  continued  under  de¬ 
pendent  kings  until  46  a.d.,  when  it  was  organ¬ 
ized  as  a  province.  After  the  division  of  the 
Roman  Empire  (395)  it  shared  the  history  of 
the  Eastern  Empire.  The  natural  resources  of 
the  country  and  the  opportunities  for  profitable 
trade  early  led  to  the  establishment  of  Greek 
colonies  along  the  coast.  The  first  were  natu¬ 
rally  along  the  waters  flowing  to  the  Black  Sea, 
among  them  Byzantium,  Selymbria,  Perinthus, 
Sestus,  and  Elseus.  Before  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century  b.c.  Miltiades  had  secured  the  Thracian 
Chersonese  (the  modern  Peninsula  of  Gallipoli) 
for  Athens.  Along  .  the  AEgean  coast  were 
Amphipolis,  Abdera,  Mesembria,  AEnus,  and 
many  others,  while  on  the  Black  Sea  were 
Istrus,  Tomi,  Odessus,  and  Apollonia.  These 
colonies,  however,  never  attempted  to  control 
the  interior,  and,  though  they  submitted  to 
the  Persians,  and  later  to  the  Macedonians  and 
Romans,  their  history  belongs  to  Greece  rather 
than  to  Thrace.  In  334  a.d.  a  colony  of  Sarma- 
tians  was  planted  in  Thrace  by  Constantine, 
and  in  376  another  of  Goths  by  permission  of 
Valens.  In  395  it  was  overrun  by  Alaric  and 
in  447  by  Attila.  Soon  after  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century  Sultan  Amurath  I  obtained 
possession  of  all  its  fortresses,  except  Constan¬ 
tinople.  After  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in 
1453  all  of  Thrace  came  under  the  control  of 
the  Turks.  As  a  result  of  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  (  1878)  the  northern  part  of  Thrace  was 
set  up  as  a  separate  administrative  district 
(Eastern  Rumelia).  The  Conference  of  London 
in  1913,  which  closed  the  Balkan  Wars  (q.v.), 
gave  this  province  outright  to  Bulgaria.  Con¬ 
sult:  Hiller  von  Gaertringen,  De  Grcecomm 
Fabulis  ad  Thraces  Pertinentibus  (Gottingen, 
1886)  ;  Tomaschek,  Die  alten  Thraker  (Vienna, 
1893-95)  ;  Kalopathakes,  De  Thracia,  Provincia 
Romana  (Berlin,  1894)  ;  W.  Ridgway,  The  Early 
Age  of  Greece,  vol.  i  (Cambridge,  1902)  ;  and  the 


THRACES 


THREADFISH 


241 


article  “Thrakien”  in  Friedrich  Liibker,  Real¬ 
lexikon  des  klassisohen  Altertums  (8th  ed., 
Leipzig,  1914).  See  Balkan  Peninsula; 
Bulgaria. 

THRACES.  The  name  given  by  the  Romans 
to  a  kind  of  gladiator  (q.v. ). 

THRA'CIAN  SA'MOS.  See  Samotiirace. 

THRALE,  thral,  Hester  Lynch.  An  English 
author.  See  Piozzi. 

THRA'SEA  PiE'TUS  (Publius  Clodius 
Thrasea  Phcttjs  )  (c.20-66  a.d.).  A  Roman  of 
Nero’s  time,  famous,  as  a  Stoic  philosopher.  He 
was  born  at  Patavium  ( Padua ) .  As  Stoic  he 
took  as  his  model  Cato  the  Younger  (q.v.).  He 
married  Arria  the  Younger  (see  Arria,  at  the 
end),  and  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to 
Helvidius  Priscus  (q.v.).  His  independence  and 
boldness  of  speech  won  the  hatred  of  Nero,  and 
the  Senate,  at  Nero’s  command,  condemned  him 
to  death.  Consult  Pliny,  Epistles,  iii,  6,  with 
the  notes  in  the  edition  of  that  book  by  J.  E.  B. 
Mayor  (London,  1880),  and  Tacitus,  Annales, 
xvi,  21-35. 

THRASH'ER  (variant  of  thrusher,  from 
thrush ) .  A  name  given  in  the  United  States  to 
the  various  species  of  thrushlike  wrens  of  the 


genus  Harporhynchus  or  Toxostoma.  They  have 
generally  a  rather  long  decurved  bill,  not  notched 
near  the  tip;  short  concave  wings,  much  shorter 
than  the  tail.  In  color  they  are  brown  or  ash 
above,  usually  spotted  on  the  breast.  Their 
names  are  brown  thrasher  ( Toxostoma  rufum)  ; 
Cape  San  Lucas  thrasher  ( T .  cinereum)  ;  gray 
curve-bill  thrasher  ( T .  curvirostre)  ;  California 
thrasher  (T.  redivivum)  ;  crissal  thrasher  (T. 
crissale)  ;  and  Arizona  or  Bendire’s  thrasher 
(T.  bendirei)  ;  besides  which  there  are  several 
subspecies.  Only  the  brown  thrasher  is  widely 
distributed;  all  the  others  are  confined  to  the 


southwestern  United  States,  especially  Arizona 
and  Mexico.  The  brown  thrasher,  often  im¬ 
properly  called  brown  thrush,  is  common  in  the 
eastern  United  States,  ranging  north  to  Canada 
and  west  to  the  Rockies.  It  is  migratory  in  the 
north,  but  winters  in  the  Southern  States.  It 
is  about  a  foot  long,  rich  ferruginous  above, 
creamy,  spotted  with  brown  beneath.  It  is  one 


of  the  finest  songsters  native  to  America  and 
is  also  a  very  fine  mimic,  thus  resembling  the 
mocking  bird,  to  which  it  is  nearly  related.  Its 
nest  is  placed  in  a  low  bush  or  on  a  brush  heap, 
and  the  eggs  are  profusely  peppered  with  brown 
specks.  The  brown  thrasher,  although  a  vege¬ 
tarian  in  part,  still  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
beneficial  bird  because  of  the  numerous  grass¬ 
hoppers,  caterpillars,  and  bugs  destroyed  by  it. 
Y  hile  it  does  destroy  some  young  grain  and 
fruit  it  more  than  makes  up"  for  this  in  the 
destruction  of  cutworms  and  cankerworms, 
larva?  very  injurious  to  crops.  See  Plate  of 
Eggs  of  American  Song  Birds.  Consult  Coues, 
Birds  of  the  Colorado  Valley  (Washington, 
1878),  and  E.  H.  Forbush,  Useful  Birds  and 
their  Protection,  published  by  the  Massachu¬ 
setts  State  Board  of  Agriculture  (Boston,  1913). 

THRAS'YBTULUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Qpaav^ov- 
\os,  Thrasyboulos)  (  ?— 390  b.c.)  .  An  Athenian  gen¬ 
eral  and  a  prominent  member  of  the  democratic 
party  at  Athens  during  the  last  years  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War.  In  company  with  Thrasyl- 
lus  at  Samos,  in  411,  he  vigorously  opposed  the 
establishment  of  the  Four  Hundred,  and  helped 
secure  the  recall  of  Alcibiades  from  exile.  In 
the  same  year  he,  with  Thrasyllus,  defeated  the 
Peloponnesian  admiral  Mindarus  at  Cynossema, 
and  in  407,  in  command  of  a  fleet  of  30  vessels, 
he  compelled  the  submission  of  the  revolted 
cities  in  Thrace.  He  held  a  subordinate  com¬ 
mand  in  the  battle  of  Arginusse  (406  b.c.),  and 
afterward  concurred  with  Theramenes  (q.v.) 
in  the  accusation  of  the  generals  therein  en¬ 
gaged.  Being  banished  (404)  by  the  Thirty 
Tyrants  ( q.v. ) ,  he  went  to  Thebes,  where  he 
planned  the  overthrow  of  the  Thirty  and  the  re¬ 
establishment  of  the  democracy.  With  100  men, 
refugees  also,  he  seized  the  deserted  fort  of 
Phyle,  and,  joined  by  others,  advanced  on  the 
Piraeus.  In  the  ensuing  battle  the  Thirty  were 
worsted,  and,  as  a  result,  the  democratic  form 
of  government  was  soon  reestablished  at  Athens. 
In  395  Thrasybulus  commanded  a  force  sent  to 
assist  Thebes  against  the  Spartans.  In  391  he 
was  dispatched,  in  command  of  40  triremes,  to 
the  assistance  of  Rhodes,  but,  first  sailing  to 
the  Hellespont,  succeeded  in  extending  the  al¬ 
liances  of  Athens  in  those  regions.  When  the 
fleet  of  Thrasybulus  reached  Pamphylia  he  was 
slain  by  night  in  his  tent  by  the  people  of  As- 
pendus,  in  consequence  of  some  of  his  soldiers’ 
misdeeds. 

THRASYL'LUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  QpacrvWos) , 
Monument  of.  A  clioragic  monument  at  Athens 
erected  in  320  b.c.,  by  Thrasyllus,  in  a  cave 
above  the  Theatre  of  Dionysus.  An  ornamental 
architectural  front  closed  the  cave  and  was  sur¬ 
mounted  by  a  statue  of  Dionysus,  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  The  monument  is  in  ruins, 
except  an  inscribed  architrave,  and  two  columns 
for  votive  tripods,  on  the  rock  face  above  the 
cave. 

THREAD.  A  twisted  filament  of  two  or 
more  strands  of  some  such  substance  as  cotton, 
silk,  or  wool,  spun  out  to  a  considerable  length, 
and  suitable  for  sewing.  See  Spinning. 

THREADEIN.  See  Barbudo;  Mango  Fish. 

THREADFISH,  Cobbler  Fish,  or  Sunfish. 
A  well-known  fish  ( Alectis  ciliaris)  allied  to 
the  pompanos,  of  both  coasts  of  tropical  Amer¬ 
ica,  where  it  has  some  commercial  importance. 
It  is  of  moderate  size,  has  the  curious  shape 
shown  in  the  illustration,  and  owes  its  names 
to  the  long  filaments  (becoming  shorter  with 


THREAD  HERRING 


THREE  RIVERS 


242 


THREADFISH. 


THREAD  HERRING,  or  Machuelo.  A 

small  fish  ( Opisthonema  oglinum) ,  closely  re¬ 
lated  to  sardines  and  menhaden,  common  along 
the  southern  coast;  it  is  12  inches  long,  bluish 
above  and  silvery  below,  with  an  indistinct 
bluish  shoulder  spot,  and  has  a  long  dorsal-fin 
filament,  from  which  the  fish  receives  its  name. 

THREAD'NEE'DLE  STREET.  A  London 
street,  on  which  stands  the  Bank  of  England, 
hence  popularly  called  the  Old  Lady  of  Thread- 
needle  Street.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  said 
to  be  the  three  needles  as  the  escutcheon  of  the 
Needlemakers’  Company. 

THREADWORMS.  The  threadworms  or 
roundworms,  so  called  from  their  slender  round 
threadlike  body,  are  members  of  the  class  Nema- 
telminthes,  order  Nematoidea.  The  dense  skin  is 
not  segmented,  and  the  body  cavity  (coelome)  is 
not  lined  with  epithelium,  but  is  directly  bounded 
by  the  muscles  of  the  body.  There  is  a  definite 
digestive  canal.  Two  excretory  canals  open  in 
front  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  body,  while 
the  nervous  system  consists  of  a  ring  around 
the  pharynx,  from  which  two  main  nerve  cords 
pass  backward.  The  true  threadworms  undergo 
no  metamorphosis.  They  are  mostly  parasitic 
and  usually  bisexual.  Some  are  free,  living 
coiled  up  under  stones  between  tide  marks; 
certain  minute  species  occur  in  fresh  water  or 
damp  earth.  A  few  live  in  plants,  and  Tylencha 
tritiei  damages  wheat.  The  more  common  para¬ 
sitic  forms  are  species  of  Ascaris,  Trichina, 
Oxyuris,  etc.  Of  Ascaris,  the  human  round- 
worm  (Ascaris  lumbricoides )  is  remarkable  for 
its  great  size,  being  5-6  inches  long,  and  about 
^  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  it  has  three  papillae 
around  the  mouth  and  is  milk  white.  The 
common  pinworm  ( Oxyuris  vermicularis)  lives 
in  the  rectum  of  children;  the  palisade  worm 
( Eustrongylus  gigas) ,  one  female  of  which  was 
39  inches  in  length  and  the  thickness  of  a  quill, 
the  male  being  one-third  as  long,  has  been  found 
living  in  man;  allied  species  occur  in  the  brain 
or  brain  cavitv  of  birds.  Among  the  most 
formidable  human  parasites  of  this  group  are 
the  Trichina  (q.v.),  the  guinea  worm  (q.v.), 
and  the  species  of  Filaria.  Filaria  sanguinis 
hominis,  a  microscopic  threadworm  found  liv¬ 
ing  in  the  blood  of  the  mosquito  in  India  and 
China,  is  thought  to  occasion  the  disease  known 
as  elephantiasis.  The  formidable  disease  beri¬ 
beri  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  a  nematode  worm, 
whose  eggs  and  embryos  swarm  by  millions  in 
soil  and  puddles  near  villages.  In  certain  spe¬ 
cies  of  the  family  Anguillulidae  there  is  an 
alternation  of  generations  (see  Partiienogene- 


sis),  from  an  hermaphroditic  internal  parasitic 
to  a  free  dioecious  generation.  Thus  Rhabditis 
( Rhabdonema )  nigrovenosa  lives  in  mud,  and 
gives  rise  to  a  second  form  living  in  the  lungs 
of  frogs. 

THREATS.  See  Blackmail;  Conspiracy; 
False  Imprisonment;  Intimidation;  and  con¬ 
sult  the  authorities  referred  to  under  Conspi¬ 
racy  and  Criminal  Law. 

THREE  CHAPTER  CONTROVERSY.  See 

Chapters,  The  Three. 

THREE  CHOIRS  FESTIVAL.  An  English 
musical  festival  which  had  its  first  regular  or¬ 
ganization  in  1724,  when  the  three  cathedral 
choirs  of  Gloucester,  Worcester,  and  Hereford 
joined  for  the  performance  of  a  cathedral  serv¬ 
ice,  and  an  oratorio  performance  given  in  the 
Shire  Hall.  The  proceeds  have  always  been  de¬ 
voted  to  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  the  widows  and 
orphans  of  the  poorer  clergy  of  the  three  dio¬ 
ceses.  In  1753  the  festival  was  extended  to 
three  days,  and  in  1836  to  four  days,  the  period 
which  still  prevails.  The  festivals  are  held  al¬ 
ternately  in  each  of  the  three  cities. 

THREE-COLOR  PROCESS.  A  photome¬ 
chanical  process  of  reproducing  in  color  appli¬ 
cable  either  to  stone  or  metal.  The  general  proc¬ 
ess  consists  in  first  making  three  photograph 
negatives  of  the  same  subject  through  three  dif¬ 
ferent  color  screens  representing  the  three  pri¬ 
mary  colors,  red,  yellow,  and  blue.  From  these 
three  negatives  printing  blocks  are  made  and 
the  result  is  obtained  by  making  three  printings, 
one  from  each  block,  with  three  different  pig¬ 
ments,  each  pigment  representing  as  nearly  as 
possible  the  color  originally  used  in  the  color 
screen.  The  accuracy  of  the  finished  picture 
depends,  therefore,  to  a  great  extent,  upon  the 
correctness  of  the  pigments  selected.  In  much 
of  the  best  modern  color  work  a  fourth  plate 
printing  in  black  or  gray  is  employed  to  give 
greater  depth  to  the  shadows.  Reference  should 
also  be  made  to  Color  Photography,  where  the 
underlying  principles  are  explained.  The  method 
of  making  the  metal  half-tone  plates  is  discussed 
under  Photo-Engraving;  while  three-color  work 
with  stone  plates  is  treated  under  Lithography. 

THREE  EMPERORS’  LEAGUE.  See 
Triple  Alliance. 

THREE  IMPOSTORS,  The.  See  Impostors, 

e  Three 

THREE  KINGS  OF  COLOGNE.  The  three 

wise  men  of  the  East  or  Magi  who  followed  the 
star  to  the  birthplace  of  the  infant  Jesus.  Their 
names  are  usually  given  as  Gaspar,  Melchior, 
and  Balthazar.  Their  bones  are  supposed  to  be 
preserved  in  Cologne  cathedral. 

THREE  MUSKETEERS.  See  Trois  Mous- 
quetaires. 

THREE  RIVERS  ( correctly,  Trois  Rivieres  ) . 
A  port  of  entry  and  the  capital  of  St.  Maurice 
County,  Quebec,  Canada,  at  the  junction  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Maurice  rivers,  and  on 
the  Grand  Trunk  and  the  Canadian  Pacific 
railroads,  midway  between  Montreal  and  Quebec 
(Map:  Quebec,  H  5).  It  was  founded  in  1634 
by  Laviolette,  who  was  sent  by  Champlain,,  and 
is  23  miles  from  the  famous  falls  of  Shawinigan. 
It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  convent,  a 
classical  college,  a  commercial  academy,  and 
various  manufactures.  Here  on  June  8,  1776, 
an  American  force  of  about  2000  men  under 
General  Thompson  attacked  a  British  force  of 
about  6000  men,  and  was  disastrously  defeated. 
Pop.,  1901,  9981;  1911,  13,691. 


THREE  COLOR  PROCESS 

4 


COPrPiGM  1903  5r  DOOO,  MEAO  4  COMPANY 


V  r\ . ■~Y  . 

t'NiVtRbllV  U*  ill INOIS 


THREE  RIVERS 


243 


THREE  RIVERS.  A  city  in  St.  Joseph 
Co.,  Mich.,  25  miles  south  of  Kalamazoo,  on 
the  Michigan  Central  and  the  New  York  Cen¬ 
tral  railroads  (Map:  Michigan,  D  7).  It  is 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  St.  Joseph,  Por- 
tage,  and  Rocky  rivers.  The  leading  manu¬ 
factures  are  cars,  railroad  supplies,  marine  en¬ 
gines,  leather,  robes,  knit  goods,  paper,  tools, 
brass,  and  foundry  and  machine-shop  products. 
It  maintains  a  Carnegie  library.  Pop.,  1900 
3550;  1910,  5072. 

THRESHER  SHARK,  Fox  Shark,  or 
S winglet ail .  A  peculiar  shark  (Alopias  vulpes ) 
abounding  in  all  warm  seas,  especially  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic,  and  distinguished 
by  its  long  tail.  (See  Plate  of  Great  Sharks 
under  Shark.  )  This  is  an  extension  of  the  up¬ 
per  lobe  of  the  heterocercal  tail  to  a  length 
equal  to  or  exceeding  that  of  the  body,  and  is 
used  in  obtaining  the  food.  This  shark  feeds  on 
schools  of  herring,  menhaden,  etc.,  rushing  into 
them,  and  threshing  about  with  its  tail.  It  is 
about  15  feet  long,  lead  color  above,  whitish 
beneath. 

THRESHING  (from  thresh,  AS.  perscan, 
OHG.  clrescan,  G,er.  dreschen,  to  thresh)  and 
Threshing  Machines.  Threshing  is  the  sepa¬ 
rating  of  the  grain  or  seeds  of  plants  from  the 
straw  or  haulm.  This  has  been  accomplished 
in  various  ages  and  countries  by  differing  means, 
more  or  less  effective.  The  first  method  known 
was  the  beating  out  of  the  grain  from  the  ears 
with  a  stick.  An  improvement  on  this  was  the 
practice  of  the  ancients  of  spreading  the  loos¬ 
ened  sheaves  of  grain  on  a  circular  piece  of  hard 
ground  and  driving  oxen  or  other  animals  over 
it,  so  as  to  tread  the  grain  out;  but  as  this 
was  found  to  damage  some  of  the  grain,  it  was 
partially  superseded  in  later  times  by  the 
threshing  sledge,  a  heavy  frame  mounted  on 
three  rollers,  or  having  pieces  of  iron  or  sharp 
flints  fastened  to  the  lower  side,  in  place  of 
rollers.  The  threshing  sledge  is  still  to  be  seen 
in  operation  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Georgia, 
and  Syria.  The  primitive  implement  in  north¬ 
ern  Europe  was  the  stick,  and  an  improved 
modification  of  it,  the  flail,  which  consists  of 
two  sticks  loosely  fastened  together  by  stout 
thongs,  is  still  sometimes  used"  in  Europe  and 
America. 

Early  but  unsuccessful  inventions  to  supersede 
the  flail  by  a  machine,  both  in  England  and 
America,  were  largely  of  the  rotary  beater  or 
flail  type,  as  was  that  devised  by  Meiizie  in  1750. 


In  1786,  however,  Andrew  Meikle,  an  ingenious 
Scotch  mechanic,  produced  a  threshing  machine 
so  perfect  that,  despite  nearly  a  century  of  im¬ 
provers,  it  is  essentially  the  machine  of  its  in¬ 
ventor  and  embodies  many  of  the  essential  fea¬ 
tures  of  the  improved  modern  machine. 


THRESHING 

Meikle  s  drum  with  two  grooved  cylinders 
have,  however,  been  almost  entirely  superseded 
in  modern  machines  by  a  high-speed  cylinder 
with  radial  teeth  playing  between  inwardly  pro¬ 
jecting  teeth  set  in  a  fixed  concave  or  section 
of  a  cylinder.  With  the  exception  of  the  endless 
apron  machine  patented  by  the  Pitt  Brothers 
of  Winthrop,  Me.,  in  1837,  little  progress  was 
made  in  perfecting  the  threshing  machine  in 
America  prior  to  1840.  Since  that  date  im¬ 
provement  has  been  rapid,  and  the  modern 
American  machine  with  a  capacity  of  1000 
bushels  per  day  is  a  marvel  of  ingenuity  and 
efficiency.  The  first  machine  merely  threshed 
the  grain.  In  its  most  advanced  form  the  mod¬ 
ern  machine  cuts  the  bands  of  the  sheaves  and 
feeds  itself;  thoroughly  separates  the  grain  from 
the  straw;  winnows  and  weighs  the  grain  and 
deposits  it  in  sacks  or  loads  it  into  wagons;  re¬ 
moves  the  straw  and  stacks  it.  The  figure  shows 
the  principal  features  of  the  interior  construc¬ 
tion  of  a  simpler  form  of  modern  thresher.  The 
concave  is  open  and  has  in  rear  an  open  grate 
so  that  the  larger  part  of  the  grain  is  separated 
from  the  straw  at  this  point  and  is  conveyed  di¬ 
rectly  to  the  fan.  A  considerable  portion,  how¬ 
ever,  still  remains  in  the  straw  and  can  be  sepa¬ 
rated  only  by  further  agitation,  which  is  secured 
by  the  vibrating  separator,  revolving  pickers  or 
beaters,  and  shaking  forks  shown  in  the  centre 
of  the  machine  to  the  rear  of  the  cylinder. 
These  devices  beat  the  straw  thoroughly  while /C 
conveying  it  to  the  rear  of  the  machine,  where 
it  is  taken  by  the  stacker,  which  consists  either 
of  an  elevator  or  tube  with  blast.  The  sepa¬ 
rated  grain  drops  through  the  perforated  bottom 
of  the  separator  and  with  the  grain  coming 
directly  from  the  drum  is  carried  to  the  fan¬ 
ning  mill  by  means  of  a  vibrating  platform  or 
conveyor  located  immediately  beneath  the  sepa¬ 
rator.  The  parts  of  the  modern  thresher  are  in 
large  measure  adjustable,  so  that  it  may  be 
adapted  to  different  kinds  of  grain  and  to  a 
variety  of  conditions,  but  separate  machines 
for  special  purposes  are  also  made,  as,  e.g., 
for  threshing  rice,  peas  and  beans,  peanuts, 
clover,  and  for  husking  maize  and  shredding  the 
fodder.  Pea  and  bean  threshers  usually  have 
two  cylinders  running  at  different  rates  of  speed. 
Clover  hullers  have  an  additional  hulling  cylin¬ 
der.  Inventive  genius  is  also  being  exercised 

in  devising  ingen¬ 
ious  accessories  to 
the  thresher  proper 
— automatic  band 
cutters  and  feed¬ 
ers,  stackers,  and 
grain  measurers 
and  loaders. 

The  motive  force 
is  horse  power  or 
steam.  The  former 
(treads  and 
sweeps )  was  most 
common  in  the 
earlier  days,  but 
has  been  largely 
superseded  by  the 
portable  steam  en¬ 
gine  and  the  internal  combustion  engine.  En¬ 
gines  with  straw-burning  furnaces  have  been 
used  in  Hungary  and  in  the  rice  regions  of  the 
United  States. 

Thresher  fires  are  of  frequent  occurrence, 
often  due,  as  the  Washington  Agricultural  Ex¬ 


longitudinal  SECTION  OF  MODERN  THRESHER. 


\ 


THRIFT 


244 


THROAT 


pert  Station  has  shown  ( Bulletin  117),  to  igni¬ 
tion  and  explosion  of  dust  by  static  electricity 
generated  by  the  cylinder.  The  danger  is  espe¬ 
cially  great  in  very  dry  seasons  and  with  a 
large  amount  of  smut  and  organic  dust  from 
broken  grain  and  straw.  One  of  the  preventives 
suggested  is  to  ground  the  cylinder.  Consult: 
G.  F.  Conner,  Science  of  Threshing  (St.  Joseph, 
Mich.,  190G )  ;  Davidson  and  Chase,  Farm  Ma¬ 
chinery  and  Farm  Motors  (New  \ork,  1908)  ; 
G.  F.  Conner,  “Using  the  Modern  Grain  Separa¬ 
tor,”  in  Poicer  Farming  (Chicago,  January, 
1916). 

THRIFT  (Icel.  prift,  from  prifa,  to  thrive, 
clutch,  grip;  so  called  from  the  rapid  growth  of 
the  plant),  Armeria.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
family  Plumbaginacese,  having  the  flowers  col¬ 
lected  into  a  rounded  head.  By  many  botanists 
it  has  been  regarded  as  a  subdivision  of  the 
genus  Statice,  from  which  it  is  distinguished 
chiefly  by  having  the  flowers  in  heads.  The 
common  thrift  ( Armeria  maritime)  is  a  Euro¬ 
pean  seacoast  plant  which  grows  in  turflike 
form,  with  linear  leaves,  scapes  a  few  inches 
high,  and  beautiful  rose-colored  flowers  in  mid¬ 
summer.  Being  hardy  and  easily  cultivated,  it 
is  often  planted  in  gardens  as  a  border,  but  it 
must  be  renewed  every  two  or  three  years;  the 
smallest  roots  grow,  however,  with  great  readi¬ 
ness  in  the  moist  weather  of  spring.  A  num¬ 
ber  of  other  species,  i.e.,  Armeria  elongate,  Ar¬ 
meria  plantaginea,  are  planted  as  ornamentals. 

THRIPS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  dpip,  woodworm). 
Any  one  of  the  minute  insects  of  the  order  Thy- 
sanoptera.  They  are  slender  insects  with  four 
wings,  which  are  also  very  slender  and  short, 
perfectly  transparent,  and  without  veins.  The 
wings  are  fringed  with  long,  delicate  hairs,  and 
when  at  rest  lie  along  the  back  of  the  abdomen. 
The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete,  and  the  mouth 
parts  function  in  sucking,  but  are  intermediate 
between  true  biting  and  true  sucking  mouth 
parts.  The  feet  bear  each  a  little  bladder-like 
vesicle  at  the  tip,  from  which  an  old  name  of  the 
order  (Physapoda)  was  derived.  Thrips  are 
found  in  flowers,  and  do  some  damage  to  the  es¬ 
sential  organs.  They  also  occur  upon  the  leaves 
of  plants,  and  one  species  damages  onions  (see 
Onion  Insects)  and  tobacco.  Another  species 
( IAmothrips  poaphagus)  works  in  the  joints  of 
timothy  grass,  causing  the  heads  prematurely  to 
turn  yellow  and  die.  Some  species  have  been 
observed  feeding  upon  other  insects  and  others 
undoubtedly  have  some  beneficial  effect  as  pol¬ 
linators  of  flowers.  Parthenogenesis  sometimes 
occurs  with  these  insects.  Rather  more  than  30 
species  occur  in  the  United  States.  The  name 
“thrips”  has  been  erroneously  applied  by  vine 
growers  to  some  of  the  leaf  hoppers  of  the  fam¬ 
ily  Jasskke.  Consult  Hinds,  Contribution  to  a 
Monograph  of  the  Insects  of  the  Order  Thysan- 
optera  Inhabiting  North  America  (Washington, 
1902).  See  Leaf  Hopper. 

THROAT  (AS.  'protu,  OHG.  drozza,  Ger. 
Drossel,  throat;  connected  with  MHG.  strozze, 
throat,  Ger.  strotzen,  to  swell,  Eng.  strut),  Af¬ 
fections  of  the.  The  throat  includes  those 
structures  lying  behind  and  below  the  anterior 
pillars  of  the  fauces.  In  common  acceptation, 
it  also  means  the  anterior  portion  of  the  neck, 
containing  the  windpipe,  gullet,  and  a  number 
of  large  blood  vessels  and  nerves.  The  throat 
may  be  divided  anatomically  into  the  pharynx 
and  the  larynx,  the  latter  being  the  upper  part 
of  the  windpipe  and  the  principal  organ  of  the 


voice.  The  nasal  passages  and  the  Eustachian 
tubes  open  into  the  pharynx,  and  its  entrance 
is  nearly  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  lymphoid 
tissue,  comprising  the  faucial,  lingual,  and 
pharyngeal  tonsils.  The  first  of  these  (usually 
called  the  tonsils)  are  always  present,  and 
often  enlarged,  and  are  situated  at  the  sides 
of  the  fauces  between  the  anterior  and  posterior 
pillars.  The  lingual  tonsil,  when  it  exists,  lies 
at  the  base  of  the  tongue,  in  front  of  the  epi¬ 
glottis.  The  pharyngeal  tonsils,  more  often 
called  adenoid  growths,  spring  from  the  roof 
and  sides  of  the  pharyngeal  vault.  They  are 
often  present  in  children  and  when  in  any 
amount  constitute  a  pathological  condition,  giv¬ 
ing  rise  to  obstructed  nasal  breathing,  nasal 
catarrh,  and  general  poor  health.  Any  or  all 
of  these  structures  may  be  involved  in  diseases 
of  the  throat,  and  expert  examination  of  them 
is  often  necessary.  Inspection  is  usually  con¬ 
ducted  by  light  reflected  into  the  throat  from 
a  head  mirror,  a  circular,  concave  reflector 
pierced  with  a  hole  for  vision.  The  light  is 
projected  through  the  open  mouth  upon  the 
back  of  the  throat.  From  this  point  the  rays 
of  light  may  be  reflected  by  means  of  a  small 
mirror  introduced  into  the  pharynx  either  down¬ 
ward  to  examine  the  larynx  (laryngoscopy)  or 
upward  to  inspect  the  posterior  nares  and  the 
vault  of  the  pharynx  (rhinoscopy),  the  tongue 
being  meanwhile  held  out  or  depressed.  In 
direct  examination  the  tonsils,  soft  palate,  uvula, 
posterior  wall  of  the  pharynx,  and  often  the 
top  of  the  epiglottis  may  be  seen.  Laryngoscopy 
shows  the  whole  of  the  epiglottis,  the  root  of  the 
tongue,  lingual  tonsil,  the  true  and  false  vocal 
cords,  the  opening  of  the  glottis,  and  even  the 
bifurcation  of  the  trachea.  The  throat  is  lined 
with  mucous  membrane,  plentifully  supplied 
with  blood  vessels,  glands,  and  nerves,  and  is 
often  the  seat  of  acute  or  chronic  catarrhal 
inflammation.  Acute  or  chronic  inflammation 
of  either  the  pharynx  or  larynx  may  be  due 
to  exposure,  sudden  change  of  temperature,  the 
inhalation  of  dust,  steam,  or  irritating  vapors, 
indigestion  and  constipation,  and  certain  dis¬ 
eases  such  as  rheumatism,  gout,  and  tubercu¬ 
losis.  Specific  inflammations  of  the  throat  ac¬ 
companying  scarlatina  and  diphtheria  are  de¬ 
scribed  under  these  titles.  Catarrhal  inflamma¬ 
tion  of  the  throat  is  marked  by  a  sense  of  dry¬ 
ness,  or  of  a  foreign  body  in  the  pharynx,  a 
slight  but  annoying  cough,  and  the  expectoration 
of  viscid,  tenacious  mucus,  sometimes  tinged 
with  blood.  The  voice  is  hoarse,  easily  fatigued, 
or  entirely  absent.  In  the  treatment  of  catar¬ 
rhal  conditions  in  this  region,  alkaline  and  an¬ 
tiseptic  douches  are  given  to  remove  the  mucous 
accumulations,  and  stimulating  and  astringent 
applications,  such  as  tannin,  iron,  and  nitrate 
of  silver,  used  to  reduce  congestion  and  restore 
the  membrane  to  its  normal  action.  Naso¬ 
pharyngeal  catarrh  is  frequently  caused  by  in¬ 
tranasal  abnormities  and  may  as  often  be  reme¬ 
died  by  restoring  natural  respiration  through 
the  nose.  Chronic  inflammation  of  the  acces¬ 
sory  sinuses  of  the  nose  is  often  a  sequel  of  the 
acute  infectious  diseases  such  as  grippe,  and 
tends  to  keep  up  a  chronic  nasal  discharge. 
General  tonic  treatment  is  always  necessary. 
Internally  iron,  quinine,  and  strychnine  are  the 
best  remedies. 

Abscesses  sometimes  occur  in  the  throat  either 
in  the  region  of  the  tonsils  (see  Quinsy)  or  at 
the  base  of  the  tongue.  An  acute  and  alarming 


THRUSH 


THROMBOSIS 

inflammation  of  the  loose  tissues  about  the 
larynx  is  found  in  connection  with  abscess, 
acute  laryngitis,  the  injecting  of  scalding  fluids 
or  irritant  poisons,  and  as  a  complication  of 
certain  diseases  such  as  smallpox,  scarlatina,  or 
Blights  disease.  In  this  condition,  known  as 
oedema  of  the  glottis,  the  swollen  and  dropsical 
tissues  fill  up  or  overlap  the  opening  of  the 
glottis,  preventing  the  ingress  of  air  and  threat¬ 
ening  immediate  suffocation.  If  not  speedily 
relieved,  oedema  of  the  glottis  causes  death  by 
asphyxiation.  This  affection  is  treated  by  punc¬ 
ture  or  scarification  of  the  dropsical  sac,  the 
application  of  leeches  over  the  sides  of  the 
larynx,  and  the  administration  of  pilocarpine. 
Sometimes  intubation,  laryngotomy,  or  trache¬ 
otomy  may  be  necessary,  intubation  consists  in 
the  introduction  of  a  metal  or  hard-rubber  tube 
between  the  vocal  cords,  with  a  flange  resting 
above  them  to  prevent  slipping  into  the  trachea. 
Laryngotomy  or  tracheotomy  is  employed  when 
intubation  is  not  feasible.  The  former  consists 
in  opening  the  larynx  from  the  outside  through 
the  cricothyroid  membrane,  and  introducing  a 
tube  through  which  the  patient  breathes.  In 
tracheotomy  the  opening  is  made  lower  down, 
in  the  trachea. 

Tuberculous  laryngitis  occurs  in  many  phthis¬ 
ical  patients.  There  is  swelling,  ulceration,  and 
destruction  of  the  vocal  cords  and  adjacent 
structures,  with  hoarseness,  loss  of  voice,  great 
pain,  and  inability  to  swallow  solid  food.  Syph¬ 
ilis,  particularly  in  its  tertiary  stage,  often  at¬ 
tacks  the  throat,  producing  fibrous  tissue  which 
gradually  contracts,  and  narrows,  distorts,  and 
partially  destroys  the  larynx.  Foreign  bodies 
sometimes  find  their  way  into  the  larynx,  and 
if  small  may  pass  into  the  trachea  or  bronchial 
tubes,  and  failing  removal  may  produce  death 
by  suffocation  or  set  up  a  fatal  pneumonia.  In 
children  it  is  often  possible  by  inverting  and 
shaking  the  patient  to  dislodge  a  foreign  body; 
in  other  cases  these  have  to  be  removed  by 
specially  devised  instruments  or  a  cutting  opera¬ 
tion.  A  long,  electrically  lighted  metal  tube 
called  a  bronchoscope  is  now  generally  employed 
for  the  purpose.  Cancer  and  other  tumors"  of 
a  polypoid  or  fibrous  character  may  develop  in 
the  larynx  or  its  neighborhood.  Cancer  is  nearly 
always  fatal.  Consult:  J.  W.  Downie,  Clinical 
Manual  for  Study  of  Diseases  of  the  Throat  (2d 
ed.,  New  York,  1906)  ;  W.  L.  Ballenger,  Diseases 
of  the  Nose,  Throat,  and  Ear:  Medical  and  Sur¬ 
gical  (4th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1914);  D.  B.  Kyle, 
Textbook  of  Diseases  of  the  Nose  and  Throat 
(5th  ed.,  ib.,  1914);  H.  W.  Loeb  and  others, 
Operative  Surgery  of  the  Nose,  Throat,  and  Ear 
(2  vols.,  St.  Louis,  1914-15)  ;  B.  C.  Giles,  Nose, 
Throat,  and  Ear:  Their  Function#  and  Diseases 
(Philadelphia,  1915).  See  Adenoid,  Adenoids; 
Catarrh;  Diphtheria;  Laryngitis;  Quinsy: 
Tonsil. 

THRQMBO'SIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  Qpoyfiw- 
cns,  the  state  of  being  curdled,  from  0p6/x(3os, 
throw  bos,  curd,  clot).  A  term,  originally  sug¬ 
gested  by  Virchow,  and  employed  to  designate 
an  affection  of  the  blood  vessels  (either  veins  or 
arteries)  which  essentially  consists  in  a  coagula¬ 
tion  of  blood  (forming  a  true  clot)  at  a  certain 
fixed  spot,  owing  to  disease  of  the  blood  vessel, 
pressure  against  its  side  or  laceration  of  it, 
or  microbial  infection.  It  is  a  common  cause 
of  sudden  death  in  persons  who  appear  to  be  in 
robust  health.  If  death  does  not  result,  after 
the  detachment  of  a  thrombus  and  its  lodgment, 


245 

as  an  embolism,  in  a  cerebral  artery,  softening 
of  the  brain  follows.  See  Apoplexy;  Embolism! 

THROM'BUS.  A  stratified  clot  formed 
within  a  blood  vessel  by  coagulation  at  a  bifurca¬ 
tion  of  a  vessel  or  upon  a  surface  roughened, 
e,o')  inflammatory  or  sclerotic  changes.  See 
Thrombosis. 

THEONDHJEM.  See  Trondhjem. 

THROOP.  A  borough  in  Lackawanna  Co., 
la.,  adjoining  Scranton,  on  the  New  York,  On¬ 
tario,  and  Western  and  the  Delaware,  Lacka¬ 
wanna,  and  Western  railroads.  There  are  pro¬ 
ductive  coal  mines  and  a  silk  mill.  Pop.,  1900 
2204;  1910,  5133.  1 

THROOP,  Montgomery  Hunt  (1827-92). 
An  American  lawyer,  nephew  of  Enos  T.  Throcm 
Governor  of  New  York.  He  was  born  at  Au¬ 
burn,  N.  Y.,  was  educated  at  Hobart  College 
and  abroad,  was  admitted  to  the  New  York 
bar  in  1848,  and  practiced  in  partnership  with 
Roscoe  Conkling.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  a 
commissioner  to  revise  the  statutes  of  the  State ; 
afterward  was  chairman  of  the  commission  that 
prepared  the  Code  of  Civil  Procedure,  and  after 
1878  devoted  himself  to  legal  writing.  His  pub¬ 
lications  include  a  Treatise  on  the  Validity  of 
Verbal  Agreements  (1870);  an  Annotated  Code 
of  Civil  Procedure  (1880);  and  the  Revised 
Statutes  of  New  York  ( 1888) . 

THROSTLE.  See  Spinning. 

THROW  (AS.  prawan,  OHG.  drahan,  drajan, 
Ger.  drehen,  to  turn,  twist).  The  term  applied 
in  mining  to  the  amount  of  dislocation  (q.v. ), 
in  a  vertical  direction,  produced  by  a  fault  in 
the  strata.  That  side  of  the  fracture  which  has 
moved  downward  relatively  is  spoken  of  as  the 
downthrow  side,  the  opposite  one  as  the  up¬ 
throw.  See  Fault. 

THRUSH  (AS.  pry  see,  OHG.  droscela,  Bav. 
Droschel,  thrush;  connected  with  AS.  prostle, 
prosle,  Eng.  throstle,  Ger.  Drossel,  thrush). 
The  thrushes  comprise  the  subfamily  Turdinae 
of  the  family  Turdidse,  usually  ranked  as  the 
highest  group  of  birds.  They  have  a  bill  of 
moderate  size,  straight,  shorter  than  the  head, 
and  provided  at  the  base  with  rictal  bristles; 
the  nostrils  are  oval  and  bare;  the  tarsi  are 
long,  slender,  and  booted;  ten  primaries  are 
present,  but  the  outermost  is  exceedingly  small ; 
tail  shorter  than  wings.  About  150  species,  all 
of  moderate  size,  are  known,  and  they  are  widely 
distributed,  and  most  of  them  are  migratorv.  A 
few  species  are  gregarious,  but  the  majority  live 
singly  or  in  pairs.  Their  food  is  mainly  adult 
insects  and  caterpillars,  of  which  they  "destroy 
incalculable  numbers,  but  in  winter  '  they  eat 
berries  and  seeds,  and  in  spring  small  fruits. 
Thrushes  are  to  be  considered  as  birds  of  eco¬ 
nomic  value  both  because  of  their  destruction  of 
many  insect  pests,  such  as  the  forest  tent  cater¬ 
pillar  and  the  gypsy  moth,  and  also  because  cer¬ 
tain  of  the  thrushes  aid  in  reforesting  burnt 
areas  through  eating  stone  fruits,  as  cherries. 
All  are  excellent  singers,  and  some  are  counted 
the  best  of  bird  songsters. 

In  America,  north  of  Mexico,  there  are  about 
a  dozert  species  of  thrush,  of  which  the  best 
known  is  the  common  robin  (q.v.),  which  ranges 
over  the  whole  continent.  In  Lower  California 
there  is  an  allied  species;  and  in  the  Northwest 
occurs  the  varied  thrush.  (See  Oregon  Robin.) 
The  more  distinctive  thrushes  are  considerably 
smaller  than  the  robin,  and  all  of  them  are  birds 
of  the  woods.  They  belong  to  the  genus  Eylo- 
cichla,  formerly  included  in  T urdus. 


THRUSH 


THUCYDIDES 


246 


The  best  known  are  the  Wilson’s  thrush  or 
veerv  ( H .  fuscescens) ,  the  song  or  wood  thrush 
( H .  mustelina) ,  the  olive-backed  thrush  (H. 
ustulata) ,  and  the  hermit  thrush  (II.  guttata), 
the  two  latter  being  divided  into  a  number  of 
subspecies.  All  these  are  seven  or  eight  inches 
long,  olive  or  brown  above,  white,  more  or  less 
creamy,  and  spotted  below.  The  wood  thrush 
or  wood  robin  is  a  less  retiring  bird,  not  infre¬ 
quently  seen  on  lawns  and  in  orchards.  He  is 
larger  than  the  veery,  with  the  head  bright  cin¬ 
namon  brown,  changing  gradually  into  light 
olive  brown  towards  the  tail.  Moreover,  he  is 
thickly  marked  with  large  round  black  spots  un¬ 
derneath.  The  song  of  this  thrush,  especially  as 
evening  approaches,  is  remarkably  sweet  and 
has  made  him  a  great  favorite  with  bird  lovers. 
The  ordinary  calling  note  has  been  likened  to 
striking  pebbles  together;  it  is  utterly  unlike 
the  clear  whistle  of  the  veery.  The  nest  is 
usually  in  a  bush  or  on  a  tree  limb  or  a  stump, 
live  or  ten  feet  from  the  ground,  and  is  dis- 
tinctivelv  characterized  by  always  having  a 
foundation  of  dead  leaves,  often  with  some  mud. 
The  eggs  are  clear  blue.  The  olive-backed  thrush 
is  a  more  northerly  species  than  either  of  the 
preceding,  and  occurs  in  the  United  States 
chiefly  as  a  migrant,  while  it  winters  in  the 
tropics.  It  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  uni¬ 
form  olive  upper  parts,  and  the  bright  buff  lores 
and  rings  around  the  eyes.  The  only  species  with 
which  it  is  at  all  likely  to  be  confused  is  the 
gray-cheeked  thrush  (H.  alicice) ,  a  bird  of  simi¬ 
lar  range  and  habits,  without  the  buff  lores  and 
eye  rings,  and  formerly  regarded  only  as  a  va¬ 
riety.  The  eggs  of  both  are  blue,  spotted  and 
speckled  with  bright  brown.  The  hermit  thrush 
may  be  easily  recognized  by  the  fact  that  the 
tail  is  rufous,  brighter  than  the  back.  It  is 
also  a  somewhat  smaller  and  more  slender  bird 
than  either  the  veery  or  wood  thrush.  It  is 
distributed  over  the  whole  of  North  America, 
but  breeds  mainly  north  of  the  United  States. 
There  are  several  subspecies  recognized  by 
names,  as  in  the  preceding  species.  Owing  to 
priority  of  description  the  olive-backed  thrush 
of  the  East  is  the  subspecies  sioainsoni  and  the 
hermit  thrush  of  the  same  region  is  the  sub¬ 
species  pallasi.  The  latter  is  one  of  the  most 
renowned  songsters  of  America,  although,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  its  northern  breeding  grounds  and  re¬ 
tiring  habits,  few  persons  hear  it.  While  some 
regard  the  notes  as  not  essentially  superior  to 
those  of  the  wood  thrush,  most  writers  on  bird 
music  agree  that,  for  purity  and  sweetness  of 
tone  and  exquisite  modulation,  the  hermit  is 
unequaled.  The  nest  and  eggs  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  the  veery. 

The  thrushes  of  the  Old  World  are  numerous 
and  well-known  birds,  of  which  several  are 
common  in  Great  Britain,  as  the  song  thrush  or 
mavis,  the  mistle  thrush,  blackbird,  ouzel,  field¬ 
fare,  and  redwing  (qq.v.). 

The  name  “thrush”  is  sometimes  given  to  birds 
of  other  families,  which  are  exceptional  song¬ 
sters.  Thus  in  the  United  States  the  thrasher 
(q.v.),  one  of  the  finest  singers  of  all,  is 
often  called  brown  thrush,  although  more  nearly 
a  wren.  On  the  other  hand,  various  members 
of  the  family  are  known  by  other  names,  as  the 
bluebird,  robin  redbreast,  stonechat,  and  various 
small  Oriental  genera. 

The  Turdina?,  characterized  by  the  fact  that 
the  young  are  constantly  spotted,  although  they 
may  become  concolorous  when  adult,  is  only  one 


of  the  five  subfamilies  into  which,  according  to 
some  authors,  the  great  thrush  family  (Turdidse) 
is  divided.  The  other  subfamilies  are  the  Myio- 
dectinae,  a  small  group  of  brownish  flycatcher¬ 
like  birds;  the  Sylviinae,  or  Old  World  warblers 
(see  Warbler);  the  Polioptilinae,  or  gnat 
catchers  and  wren  tits  (qq.v.)  ;  and  the  Minima?, 
or  American  mocking  birds,  including  the  incom¬ 
parable  mocking  bird  of  the  Southern  States.  It 
should  be  added  that  some  ornithologists  object 
to  this  widely  inclusive  use  of  the  family  name 
and  confine  it  to  the  thrushes  proper.  Consult 
authorities  cited  under  Bird.  Consult  Forbush, 
Useful  Birds  and  their  Protection,  Massachu¬ 
setts  Board  of  Agriculture  (Boston,  1913). 

THRUSH  ( dialectic  Swed.  trosk,  Swed.  torsk, 
tongue  thrush).  An  inflammation  and  ulcera¬ 
tion  of  the  sensitive  surfaces  within  the  frog  of 
horses’  feet,  giving  rise  to  a  fetid  discharge,  con¬ 
stituting  unsoundness,  and  usually  causing  lame¬ 
ness.  Want  of  cleanliness  is  the  chief  cause. 
The  disease  is  most  common  in  draft  horses. 
The  term  “thrush”  is  often  applied  to  foot-and- 
mouth  disease  (q.v.).  Consult  Leonard  Pearson 
and  others,  Special  Report  on  Diseases  of  the 
Horse,  published  by  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  (rev.  ed.,  Washington,  1911) . 

THRUSH;  Sprue;  Infantile  Sore  Mouth. 
A  disease  of  early  infancy,  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  small,  roundish  white  specks  or 
patches  on  the  lining  membrane  of  the  cavity  of 
the  mouth  and  throat,  on  the  surface  of  the 
tongue,  the  angles  of  the  lips,  etc.  These 
patches,  which  are  termed  aphthce,  look  like 
minute  drops  of  tallow  or  fragments  of  curd, 
and  are  formed  by  elevated  portions  of  epithelium 
covering  a  drop  of  serous  fluid;  and  as  the  dead 
epithelium  falls  off,  a  red,  usually  raw,  surface 
is  exposed.  The  cause  is  a  fungus,  the  Oidium 
(or  Saccharomyces)  albicans,  which  combines 
with  cast-off  epithelial  cells  and  with  food 
(milk)  to  form  the  spongy,  fragile  membrane. 
In  thrush  crops  of  these  little  patches  com¬ 
monly  succeed  one  another.  These  spots  render 
the  mouth  hot  and  tender,  and  sucking  is  there¬ 
fore  accompanied  by  difficulty  and  pain.  The 
general  symptoms  are  fever,  flatulence,  colic, 
and  diarrhoea.  The  stools  are  green,  slimy,  and 
acrid.  The  disorder  usually  lasts  8  or  10 
days,  and  is  attended  with  danger  only  when 
the  local  affection  becomes  gangrenous.  Thrush 
is  contagious  and  is  transmitted  chiefly  by  dirty 
nipples  and  feeding  bottles.  The  disease  rarely 
appears  in  healthy  individuals,  but  in  those 
whose  vitality  has  been  impaired  by  the  exan¬ 
themata,  pneumonia,  or  even  slight  intestinal 
disturbances,  it  may  be  contracted.  Acidity  of 
the  saliva,  often  produced  by  fermentation  of 
milk  curds,  or  normal  in  infants,  may  further 
the  growth  of  the  thrush  fungus.  The  preven¬ 
tive  treatment  is  absolute  cleanliness  of  nursing 
bottle  and  nipples  and  pasteurizing  the  milk: 
too  vigorous  cleansing  of  the  child’s  mouth  is 
bad.  When  the  disease  is  established,  gentle 
cleansing  of  the  oral  cavity  with  a  solution  of 
borax,  boracic  acid,  or  bicarbonate  of  soda,  or 
potassium  permanganate,  together  with  such 
constitutional  treatment  as  may  be  needed,  is 
indicated. 

THUCYDIDES,  thu-sidT-dez  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
QovKvdidps,  Thoukydides)  ( ?-c.399  b.c.).  A  fa¬ 
mous  Greek  historian,  son  of  Olorus  and 
Hegesipyle,  born  in  the  Attic  deme  Halimus. 
The  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown,  but  was  cer¬ 
tainly  not  earlier  than  470  b.c.  nor  later  than 


WOOD  THRUSH  -TURDUS  MUSTELINUS  4  BLUEBIRD-  SlALIA  SIALIS 

BALTIMORE  ORIOLE-  ICTERUS  GALBULA  5  NIGHTINGALE  -  DAU  LIAS  LUSCINIA 

MOCKING  BIRD  -  MIMUS  POLYG  LOTTOS  6  SC  AR  LET  TAN  A  G  E  R  -  P  I  R  A  N  GA  ERYTHROMELAS 

7  RED-SPOTTED  BLUETHROAT  -  CYAN  OSYLYI A  Sll  Fr.ir  A 


* 


HNiVERSITV  Of  ILLINOIS 


THUCYDIDES 


THUG 


247 


454.  Conservative  opinion  now  favors  a  date 
near  the  latter  year.  By  descent  he  belonged 
to  an  ancient  aristocratic  family  on  one  side, 
and  on  the  other  was  connected  with  a  line  of 
Thracian  princes.  From  this  Thracian  side  of 
his  family  he  possessed  gold  mines  in  Thrace 
(q.v.)  opposite  the  island  of  Thasos  (q.v.).  He 
was  well  educated;  tradition  says  that  he  was 
the  pupil  of  Antiphon  and  Anaxagoras.  In 
politics  he  favored  the  aristocratic  party,  but 
his  views  are  all  marked  by  moderation  and 
fairness.  When  the  Peloponnesian  War  broke 
out,  Thucydides  was  of  an  age  to  enable  him 
to  discern  the  importance  of  the  contest  and  to 
form  plans  for  recording  its  course  and  result. 
In  424  he  was  appointed  to  command  a  portion 
of  the  fleet  off  the  Thracian  coast,  and  "in  the 
same  year  he  failed  to  arrive  in  time  to  relieve 
Amphipolis  ( q.v. ) ,  which  was  besieged  by  Brasi- 
das  (q.v.).  For  this  failure  he  was  condemned 
to  death  for  treason,  but  left  Athens  and  lived 
the  next  20  years  in  exile.  This  period  he  spent 
partly  on  his  estates  in  Thrace  and  partly 
without  doubt  in  examination  of  the  scenes  of 
the  war  in  Italy  and  Sicily.  He  also  resided 
for  a  time  at  the  court  of  King  Archelaus  (q.v.) 
in  Macedonia.  After  the  restoration  of  the 
democracy  at  Athens  in  403,  Thucydides  was 
recalled  from  exile.  His  history,  which  covers 
21  years  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  breaks  off 
in  the  middle  of  the  year  411.  The  last  book 
did  not  receive  its  final  form,  but  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  that  it  comes  from  his  hand. 
The  present  division  into  eight  books  was  made 
by  later  grammarians. 

Thucydides  is  now  regarded  by  all  as  the  first 
critical  historian  and  the  greatest  historian  of 
antiquity.  He  brought  to  his  undertaking  a 
practical  acquaintance  with  politics  and  mili¬ 
tary  science,  his  natural  endowments  fitted  him 
to  pass  impartial  judgment  on  the  events  that 
he  narrates,  and  he  emphasizes  more  than  once 
the  care  with  which  he  endeavored  to  find  out 
the  truth.  His  materials  were  obtained  in  the 
main  by  personal  observation  or  by  questioning 
those  who  had  been  upon  the  ground;  but  for 
the  earlier  period  he  depended  upon  his  predeces¬ 
sors.  His  purpose  being  to  narrate  the  war,  he 
clung  closely  to  his  subject  and  made  few  digres¬ 
sions,  so  that  we  have  to  regret  that  he  has  noth¬ 
ing  to  say  of  literature,  art,  or  the  conditions  of 
the  people.  But  the  military  movements  of  the 
time  are  portrayed  with  a  vividness  which  has 
never  been  equaled.  In  form,  his  history  is 
strictly  annalistic,  the  account  being  givpn  b/ 
summers  and  by  winters,  so  that  his  v  >rk  t- 
fers  from  his  failure  to  group  events  •  ■  d  1  v  '  y 
His  style  is  the  older  Attic.  His  y  <  *  ^re 
not  polished  or  rounded  out,  and  his  1  tj  after 
brevity  often  makes  his  meaning  <  sc;  re  and 
hard  to  reach.  Yet  his  style  was  ly  ad¬ 

mired  in  antiquity,  and  became  F.  ,del  of 
many  historians  in  the  following  c  e  u  es  (e.g., 
among  the  Romans,  Sallust  and  F  ,us).  In 
his  characterization  of  the  leaders  1  struggle 
between  Athens  and  Sparta  he  most  sue* 

cessful,  and  frequently  employs  ■  (reat  skill 
speeches  which  he  puts  into  the  ths. 

Bibliography.  Of  critical  ■!  d  ■  s  the  most 
important  are  by  Bekker  (3  vr  din,  1821)  ; 

Haase  (Paris,  1846);  Iiude  0  Is.,  Leipzig, 
1898—1901).  There  are  anruf  ,  editions  by 
Thomas  Arnold  (3d  ed.,  3  '■■Ys.  Ixford,  1847- 
54);  Bloomfield  (2  vols.,  !  ondon,  1842-43); 
Kruger  (3d  ed.,  2  vols.,  Bi  rii*.,  1861);  and, 


most  ^useful  of  all,  Classen  (8  vols.,  Berlin, 
1862-78;  frequently  reedited).  Editions  of  single 
books  are  very  numerous.  Consult  also  the 
Lexicon  Thucydideum  by  Betant  (Geneva,  1843)  ; 
Index  Thucydideus  by  Von  Essen  (Berlin,  1887). 
I  he  best  English  translations  of  the  history  are 
by  Bloomfield  (3  vols.,  London,  1829)  ;  IT.  Dale, 
in  the  Bohn  Classical  Library;  and  Benjamin 
Jowett,  with  introduction  and  historical  notes 
(2  vols.,  London,  1881;  Boston,  1883).  On  the 
speeches  see  Wilkins’s  translation  (3d  ed.,  Lon¬ 
don,  1881)  and  Jebb’s  essay  in  Abbott’s  Ilellen- 
ica  (ib.,  1880).  Consult  also,  besides  the  stand¬ 
ard  histories  of  Greece,  Christ-Schmid,  Ge- 
schichte  der  griechischen  Litteratur,  vol.  i  (5th 
ed.,  Munich,  1908);  A.  and  M.  Croiset,  An 
Abridged  History  of  G-reek  Literature  (Eng. 
trans.  by  G.  F.  Heffelbower,  New  York,  1904)  ; 
W.  C.  Wright,  A  Short  History  of  Greek  Litera¬ 
ture  (ib.,  1907);  'F.  M.  Cornford,  Thucydides 
Mythohistoricus  (ib.,  1907)  ;  J.  B.  Bury,  The 
Ancient  Greek  Historians  (ib.,  1909) ;  "G.  B. 
Grundy,  Thucydides  and  the  History  of  his  Age 
(London,  1911)  ;  and  the  article  “Thukydides,” 
in  Friedrich  Lubker,  Reallexikon  des  klasSischen 
Altertums  (8th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914). 

THUG  (Hind,  thag,  a  cheat,  from  Skt.  sthaga, 
rascal).  The  name  in  northern  India  of  a  re¬ 
ligious  fraternity  which  committed  murders  in 
honor  of  Kali  (q.v.),  the  wife  of  Siva  (q.v.), 
and  lived  chiefly  upon  the  plunder  obtained 
from  its  victims.  In  the  south  of  India  they 
used  to  live  under  the  protection  of  the  native 
chieftains  in  consideration  of  a  settled  contribu¬ 
tion.  The  Thugs  were  first  generally  known 
about  1800,  although  they  existed  as  early  as 
1290.  Although  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century  they  had  become  little  more  than 
murderers,  the  original  religious  character  of 
their  deeds  survived  in  many  ways,  particularly 
in  the  bloodless  character  of  their  assassination, 
which  points  back  to  an  unbloody  sacrifice  in 
honor  of  the  female  aspect  of  the  destructive 
power  of  nature.  They  really  formed  a  caste, 
as  the  profession  was  in  the  main  hereditary, 
although  a  few  recruits  were  admitted  from 
without,  and  a  number  of  Mohammedans  joined 
the  order.  When  they  learned  through  watchers 
or  spies  th°:  persons  of  property  were  about  to 
undertak  ;;  ourt  y,  they  either  managed  to 
accon  ■  thorn  or  to  follow  them,  often  for 
hundreo  >  miles  before  a  safe  opportunity 
^  cself  for  accomplishing  their  purpose, 
they  threw  around  the  neck  of  the  vic- 
in  a  cloth  called  the  rumal,  or  yard  of  cotton, 
v  ith  a  knot  in  the  left  end,  which  one  of  the 
gang  held  at  one  end,  while  the  other  was  seized 
by  an  accomplice.  While  these  two  Thugs  drew 
the  noose  tight  and  pressed  the  head  of  their 
victim  forward,  a  third  seized  him  by  the  leg 
and  thus  threw  him  to  the  ground.  If  properly 
strangled,  the  sacrifice  was  dead  before  he 
touched  the  ground.  The  utmost  care  was  taken 
to  commit  the  murder  in  an  unfrequented  spot, 
and  the  body  was  buried  in  a  place  where  it 
was  not  likely  to  be  found. 

Another  class  of  Thugs  murdered  those  in 
charge  of  children,  whom  the  assassins  then 
sold  into  slavery.  Castes  or  classes  exempt 
from  the  Thugs  were  washermen,  sweepers, 
musicians,  poets,  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  oil 
venders,  cripples,  lepers,  bearers  of  the  holy 
Ganges  water,  and  those  who  had  with  them  a 
cow.  Neither  would  a  true  Thug  kill  a  woman. 

A  portion  of  the  plunder  was  usually  set  aside 


THTJGUT 


THUMMEL 


248 


for  their  tutelary  deity,  and  a  part  was  often 
allotted  for  the  widows  and  families  of  deceased 
Thugs. 

Kali  was  believed  to  have  formerly  assisted 
the  Thugs  in  disposing  of  the  bodies  of  their  vic¬ 
tims  by  devouring  them.  But  through  an  in¬ 
discretion  of  one  of  the  fraternity,  who  looked 
back,  she  became  displeased,  and  condemned  them 
to  bury  their  victims.  But  though  she  refused 
her  assistance,  she  presented  her  worshipers  with 
one  of  her  teeth  for  a  pickaxe,  a  rib  for  a  knife, 
and  the  hem  of  her  lower  garment  for  a  noose. 
On  the  faith  of  this  legend  the  pickaxe  was  the 
instrument  especially  esteemed  by  the  Thugs 
and  its  fabrication  was  the  subject  of  cere¬ 
monials.  After  every  murder  the  Thugs  per¬ 
formed  a  special  solemnity  called  tapuni,  which 
was  celebrated  in  honor  of  Kali.  Another  feast 
observed  by  the  Thugs  throughout  India  was 
called  Kurhae  Kama  or  Kote,  likewise  in  honor 
of  Kali.  The  superstitions  of  the  Thugs  were 
of  Hindu  origin;  but  they  were  adopted  also 
by  Mohammedan  Thugs,  who  sometimes  identi¬ 
fied  Kali  and  Fatima. 

It  was  only  after  1831  that  energetic  meas¬ 
ures  against  the  Thugs  were  adopted  by  the 
British  authorities,  and  in  1835  almost  400  were 
hanged  and  986  were  transported  or  imprisoned 
for  life.  By  1840  they  were  practically  sup¬ 
pressed. 

Bibliography.  Sir  W.  H.  Sleeman,  Rama- 
seeana  (Calcutta,  1836)  ;  Edward  Thornton, 
Illustrations  of  the  History  and  Practices  of  the 
Thugs  (London,  1837)  ;  James  Hutton,  Account 
of  the  Thugs  and  Dacoits  (ib.,  1857)  ;  Meadows 
Taylor,  Confessions  of  a  Thug  (3  vols.,  ib., 
1839;  new  ed.,  ib.,  1873-79);  Caleb  Wright, 
India  and  its  Inhabitants  (Cincinnati,  1885)  ; 
E.  W.  Hopkins,  Religions  of  India  (Boston, 
1895). 

THTJGUT,  too'goot,  Franz  Maria,  Baron 
(1736-1818).  An  Austrian  statesman,  born  at 
Linz.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Oriental  Acad¬ 
emy  in  Vienna  in  1752,  went  to  Constantinople 
in  1754,  and  became  court  interpreter  at  Vienna 
in  1766.  He  was  appointed  diplomatic  repre¬ 
sentative  at  Constantinople  in  1769  and  obtained 
the  cession  of  Bukowina  to  Austria  in  1771.  In 
1780  he  was  made  Austrian  Ambassador  at  War¬ 
saw  and  in  1787  at  Naples.  He  negotiated  the 
Peace  of  Sistova  with  Turkey  in  1790  -  was  made 
Director  General  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  L793,  in 
which  capacity  he  continued  the  anti-Prussian 
policy  of  Kaunitz,  but  sought  also  to  advance 
Austrian  interests  at  the  expense  of  France. 
This  plunged  the  country  into  the  disastrous 
war  with  revolutionary  France,  which  ended 
with  the  Peace  of  Campo-Formio  (q.v. )  in  1797. 
After  acting  for  some  time  as  administrator  in 
the  newly  acquired  Italian  provinces,  he  took 
up  his  old  post  in  the  ministry.  He  retired  in 
1800  and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  at  Press- 
burg  and  Vienna  to  the  study  of  Oriental 
literature. 

THUILLE,  too-effe,  Ludwig  (1861-1907).  A 
German  composer,  born  at  Bozen  (Tirol).  After 
receiving  his  first  instruction  from  his  father, 
an  enthusiastic  amateur,  he  was  placed  in  1877 
under  Pembaur  at  Innsbruck.  In  1879-81  he 
attended  the  Musikschule  at  Munich,  where  he 
studied  piano  with  Barmann  and  organ  and 
composition  with  Rheinberger.  In  1883  he  wa? 
appointed  instructor  of  piano  and  theory,  and 
in  1890  became  professor.  He  died  in  Municl. 
His  works  comprise  a  sextet  for  piano  and 


strings;  a  piano  quintet;  a  sonata  for  cello 
and  piano;  several  choruses  for  female  voices; 
and  the  operas  Theuerdank  (1897),  Lobetana 
(1898:  in  New  York,  1911),  Gugeline  (1901). 
Together  with  R.  Louis  he  wrote  an  excellent 
Harmonielehre  (1907). 

THU'JA.  A  genus  of  Conifers  including 
about  four  species  which  occur  in  North  Amer¬ 
ica  and  eastern  Asia.  The  common  representa¬ 
tive  is  Thuja  occidentals  (white  cedar  or  arbor 
vitae). 

THULE,  thu'le  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Oov\v, 
Thoule) .  The  name  generally  given  by  the  an¬ 
cients  to  the  most  northerly  part  of  Europe 
known  to  them.  According  to  Pliny  the  Elder 
it  was  an  island  in  the  northern  ocean,  discov¬ 
ered  by  the  navigator  Pytheas  (q.v.),  who 
reached  it  after  six  days’  sail  from  the  Orcades. 
Many  modern  geographers  identify  Thule  with 
Iceland.  Some,  however,  prefer  to  seek  for  it  in 
that  part  of  Norway  called  Thile  or  Thilemark, 
or  in  Jutland,  the  extremity  of  which  is  known 
as  Thy  or  Thyland.  Perhaps  Mainland,  the 
principal  member  of  the  Shetland  group,  has 
the  best  claim  to  being  regarded  as  the  Thule  of 
Pytheas.  The  Romans  used  the  phrase  Ultima 
Thule  to  denote  the  most  distant  unknown  land. 

THU'LIUM.  A  rare  chemical  element  that 
occurs  in  the  minerals  euxenite,  samarskite, 
ytterspar,  and  others.  Its  existence  was  first 
suspected  by  Cleve  in  1879,  but  it  was  first  iso¬ 
lated  in  a  probably  pure  state  by  Urbain  in 
1900.  The  element  (symbol  Tm;  atomic  weight 
168.5)  forms  an  oxide  of  the  formula  Tm203 
and  a  series  of  well-defined  salts. 

THUMANN,  tooYnan,  Paul  (1834-1908).  A 
German  illustrator  and  painter,  born  in 
Tschacksdorf,  Brandenburg.  He  studied  in  Ber¬ 
lin,  Dresden,  and  Weimar,  and  taught  succes¬ 
sively  in  the  academies  of  Weimar,  Dresden,  and 
Berlin.  He  illustrated  Chamisso’s  Frauenliebe 
und  -Leben  and  Lebenslieder  und  -Bilder, 
Goethe’s  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  Heine’s  Buch 
der  Lieder,  Tennyson’s  Enoch  Arden,  etc.  His 
paintings  include  five  scenes  from  the  life  of 
Luther  (1872-73),  in  the  Wartburg,  near  Eise¬ 
nach.  His  work  is  characteristically  German 
and  his  early  style  possessed  much  freshness 
and  charm;  later  it  became  sentimentalized. 

THUMB.  See  Hand. 

THUMB,  tump,  Albert  (1865-1914).  A  Ger¬ 
man  Greek  scholar,  born  at  Freiburg.  He  was 
educated  at  Freiberg,  Heidelberg,  Leipzig,  and 
Berlin.  In  1890-92  and  again  in  1894  and  1912 
he  journeyed  and  studied  in  Greece.  From  1895 
to*  1901  he  was  professor  at  Freiburg,  from  1901 
to  1909  at  Marburg,  from  1909  to  his  death  at 
Stra^sburg.  He  was  an  authority  on  modern 
Greek.  ,  His  publications  include :  Die  neugrie- 
chische  Sprache  (1892)  ;  Handbuch  der  neugrie- 
chischen  Sprache  (1895;  2d  ed.,  1910;  for  an 
elaborate  summary  of  this  book  in  English  by 
C.  D.  Buck,  consult  Classical  Philology,  vol. 
ix,  pp.  84" -9 6,  Chicago,  1914)  ;  Handbuch  der 
Sanskrit  (2*  vols.,  1905)  ;  a  revision  (the  fourth 
edition)  of  K.  Brugmann’s  Griechische  Gram- 
matik  (1913)  . 

THUMB,  Tom.  See  Stratton,  Charles 

Sherwood. 

THUMB  BIBLE.  See  Bible,  Curious  Edi¬ 
tions  of. 

THUMMEL,  tu'mel,  Moritz  August  von 
(1738-1817).  A  German  statesman  and  author, 
born  at  Schoenfeld'.  In  1768  he  became  Minister 
to  Duke  Ernest  Frederick  of  Saxe-Coburg,  from 


THUMMIM 


249 


THURBER 


whose  service  he  retired  in  1783.  He  wrote  a 
humorous  prose  epic,  Wilhelmine  (1764);  a 
story  in  verse,  Inokulation  der  Liebe  (1771); 
and  a  pai  tly  autobiographical  and  once  very 
popular  novel,  in  10  volumes,  Reise  in  die  mit- 
t  a  g  lichen  Provinzen  von  Frankreich  (1791- 
1805 ) .  Der  heiligc  Kilian  was  posthumously 
published  in  1818.  His  works  (in  6  vols.,  1812) 
were  edited  by  himself  with  a  biography  (1820) 
by  Gruner,  and  reedited  (8  vols.,  1854-55). 

THUMMIM.  See  Urim  and  Thummim. 

THUN,  toon.  A  town  of  Switzerland,  on  the 
Aar,  near  where  it  issues  from  the  Lake  of 
Thun,  19  miles  southeast  of  Bern,  1845  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  one  mile  from  the  Lake 
of  Thun  (Map:  Switzerland,  B  2).  The  old 
castle  of  the  twelfth  century  with  its  corner 
towers  and  the  Gothic  church  are  the  chief 
buildings.  There  is  a  military  institution  for 
aimy  officers,  as  the  town  is  the  chief  artillery 
arsenal  of  Switzerland.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  pottery  and  bricks.  Many  tourists  visit 
the  town  on  their  way  to  the  Bernese  Oberland. 
Pop.,  1900,  6100;  1910,  7415. 

THUN,  Lake  of.  A  lake  in  the  Canton  of 
Bern,  Switzerland,  between  the  town  of  Inter¬ 
laken  on  the  east  and  that  of  Thun  on  the  north¬ 
west  (Map:  Switzerland,  B  2).  It  is  10y2  miles 
long  and  2}/o  miles  wide.  The  scenery,  though 
scarcely  grand,  is  very  attractive.  The  railway 
from  Thun  to  Interlaken  skirts  the  south  shore. 

THUNBERG,  tobn'herK,  Gael  Petek  (1743- 
1828).  A  Swedish  botanist.  He  studied  with 
Linnaeus  at  Upsala;  sailed  with  a  Dutch  ship 
as  surgeon  (1771-75),  cruising  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope;  lived  six  years  in  Java  and  Japan, 
returning  in  1779  to  Sweden,  where  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  successor  to  Linnaeus  in  1781  as  profes¬ 
sor  of  botany  at  the  University  of  Upsala.  To 
the  university  he  donated  his  large  and  valuable 
collections  of  plants.  He  was  honorary  member 
of  60  learned  societies  at  home  and  abroad. 
A  genus  of  about  50  species  of  the  family  Acan- 
thaceae  and  numerous  Oriental  species  of  other 
genera  are  named  in  his  honor.  Among  his  writ¬ 
ings  are:  Flora  Japonica  (1784)  ;  Resa  uti  Eu- 
ropa,  Africa,  Asia  (4  vols.,  1788-93;  Ger.,  Fr., 
and  Eng.  trans., — Travels  in  Europe,  Africa,  and 
Asia,  1796);  Prodromus  plantarum  Capensium 
(2  vols.,  1794-1805);  Flora  Capensis  (1807-13; 
new  ed.,  1823) . 

THUNDER.  See  Lightning. 
THUNDERCLOUD  (c.1856-1916) .  An 
American  Blackfoot  Indian  chief,  born  in  Can¬ 
ada.  He  served  as  a  scout  for  the  United  States 
army  in  1872-76,  and  participated  in  the  cap¬ 
ture  of  Bed  Cloud  (q.v.).  He  was  one  of  the 
Indian  guides  of  King  Edward  VII  (then  Prince 
of  Wales),  when  he  hunted  in  the  Northwest. 
Later  Chief  Thundercloud  became  famous  as  an 
artist’s  model,  posing  for  Frederic  Remington, 
Edwin  A.  Abbey,  John  S.  Sargent,  Karl  Bitter, 
and  Howard  Pyle  (qq.v.).  He  is  found  in  many 
of  the  historical  paintings  in  the  capitol  at  St. 
Paul,  Minn.,  which  are  the  work  of  F.  D.  Millet, 
Kenyon  Cox,  Douglas  Volk,  and  Edwin  H. 
Blashfield  (qq.v.).  Victor  Brenner  used  his 
head  for  the  gold  coins  minted  by  the  govern¬ 
ment.  He  died  in  a  lodging  house  at  Roches¬ 
ter,  N.  Y. 

THUNDERING  LEGION.  See  Legion,  The 
Thundering. 

THUNDERSTORM.  See  Brontometer. 
THUNEN,  tu'nen,  Johann  Heinrich  von 
(1783-1850).  A  German  economist,  born  in 


Oldenburg.  After  receiving  a  thorough  educa¬ 
tion  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  agriculture 
and  passing  two  semesters  at  Gottingen,  he 
bought  in  1810  an  estate  called  Tellow,  iii  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin,  which  under  his  skillful  man¬ 
agement  became  famous  as  a  model  farm.  His 
fame  rests  on  his  work  Der  isolirte  Staat  in 
Beziehung  auf  Landwirtschaft  und  National- 
okonomie,  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared  in 
1826,  the  second  in  1850  and  1863,  and  the  third 
in  1863.  In  this  work  Thiinen  simplified  the 
complex  conditions  of  economic  life  bv  imagining 
an  isolated  state,  circular  in  form,  with  land  of 
equal  fertility,  laborers  of  equal  productivitv, 
with  the  sole  city  and  market  at  the  centre. 
Haying  so  simplified  his  premises,  he  proceeded 
to  investigate,  principally,  the  effect  of  distance 
from  the  market  upon  the  agricultural  economy 
of  the  several  zones  of  the  territory  surrounding 
the  maiket.  In  the  second  volume  Thiinen 
struck  a  new  note  in  the  political  economy  of  his 
time  by  protesting  against  the  common  treat¬ 
ment  of  wages  as  the  price  of  an  inanimate  com¬ 
modity,  and  insisting  upon  the  introduction  of 
ethical  factors.  His  treatment  here,  as  gener¬ 
ally,  was  highly  abstract,  and  with  the  aid  of 
the  differential  calculus  he  arrived  at  the  con¬ 
clusion  that  natural  wages  —  y  ap,  where  a  is 
the  amount  required  to  support  the  laborer  and 
his  family  and  p  is  the  product  of  the  labor  of 
one  man,  this  product  being  defined  as  that  part 
of  the  gross  product  remaining  after  deduction 
of  profits,  insurance,  and  cost  of  management. 
This  law  of  wTages  expresses  in  a  highly  inter¬ 
esting  way  the  modern  theory  that  wages  vary 
as  the  productivity  of  the  laborer.  At  Thunen’s 
request  it  was  engraved  on  his  tombstone.  Con¬ 
sult:  H.  Schumacher,  ,7.  77.  von  Thiinen,  ein 
Forscherleben  (2d  ed.,  Rostock,  1883);  H.  L. 
Moore,  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics, 
vol.  ix  (Boston,  1895).  See  Political  Economy. 
THUNNY.  See  Tunny. 

THUN  UND  HOHENSTEIN,  toon  unt  ho'- 
en-stln,  Leo,  Count  (1811-88).  An  Austrian 
statesman,  born  at  Tetschen,  in  Bohemia.  Be¬ 
fore  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  secretary  in 
the  Imperial  Chancery,  and  in  that  year  became 
Governor  of  Bohemia.  From  1849 ‘to  1860  he 
was  Minister  of  Public  Worship  and  Instruc¬ 
tion.  He  introduced  mapy  reforms  in  educa¬ 
tional  systems.  In  1861  he  was  elected  to  the 
Bohemian  Diet,  where  he  became  the  leader  of 
the  Feudalists,  and  he  continued  this  attitude 
in  the  Austrian  House  of  Peers,  which  he  entered 
in  the  same  year.  In  1867  he  strenuously  op¬ 
posed  the  Ausgleich  with  Hungary.  He  retired 
from  the  Bohemian  Diet  in  1871,  and  reentered 
it  in  1883. 

THUR'BER,  George  (1821-90).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  botanist,  naturalist,  and  editor.  He  was 
born  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  where  he  obtained  his 
early  education.  From  1850  to  1853  he  was 
botanist,  commissary,  and  quartermaster  of  the 
United  States  Boundary  Commission  upon  the 
Mexican  and  United  States  borders,  where  he 
collected  a  large  number  of  new  species  of 
plants.  In  1856  he  became  lecturer  upon  botany 
and  materia  medica  in  the  Cooper  Union  and 
College  of  Pharmacy  of  New  York,  and  in  1859 
professor  of  botany  and  horticulture  in  the 
Michigan  Agricultural  College,  which  institu¬ 
tion  he  left  in  1863  to  become  editor  of  the 
American  Agriculturist,  a  post  which  he  held 
until  shortly  before  his  death.  In  addition,  he 
edited  various  horticultural  and  agricultural 


THURE AU -DAN  GIN 


THURINGIA 


250 


books,  and  revised  and  in  part  rewrote  Darling¬ 
ton’s  Agricultural  Botany. 

THUREAU-DANGIN,  tu'ro'-diiN'gaN',  Paul 
(1837-1913).  A  French  historian,  born  in  Paris. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Lyc6e  Louis  le  Grand 
and  afterward  took  up  the  study  of  law.  In 
1893  he  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy, 
of  which  he  became  the  permanent  secretary 
in  1908.  His  literary  output,  though  not  large, 
is  notably  scholarly.  He  wrote:  La  Pologne 
et  les  traites  de  Vienne  (1863)  ;  Paris,  capitate 
pendant  la  revolution  frangaise  (1872);  Roy- 
alistes  et  republicains  (1874);  Le  parti  lib¬ 
eral  sous  la  restauration ;  I’eglise  et  Vetat  sous 
la  monarchic  de  juillet  (1879);  L’histoire  de 
la  monarchic  de  juillet  (7  vols.,  1884-92),  his 
most  important  work;  Histoire  de  la  renais¬ 
sance  catholique  en  Angleterre  au  XIXe  siecle 
(1906;  Eng.  trans.,  ed.  and  rev.  by  Wilfred 
Wilberforce,  2  vols.,  1914).  He  was  several 
times  awarded  the  Gobert  prize  by  the  French 
Academy. 

THURET,  tu'r&'j  Gustave  (1817-75).  A 
French  botanist,  born  in  Paris.  While  attached 
to  the  French  Embassy  at  Constantinople  he  col¬ 
lected  plants  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and  re¬ 
turned  to  France  in  1844.  His  specialty  was 
algae  and  his  Recherches  sur  les  zoospores  des 
algues  et  les  antheridees  des  cryptogames  (1851) 
were  crowned  by  the  academy.  Other  publica¬ 
tions  include  Recherches  sur  la  fecondation  des 
Fucactes  (1855-57),  and  numerous  monographs, 
such  as  Essai  de  classification  des  Nostochinees 
(1875).  He  established  a  splendid  botanical 
garden  at  Antibes,  where  he  planted  the  first 
eucalyptus  trees  in  Europe,  and  which  he  be¬ 
queathed  to  the  state.  He  died  at  Nice. 

THURGAU,  toor'gou,  or  Thurgovie.  A  can¬ 
ton  in  the  northeast  of  Switzerland,  separated 
from  Germany  by  Lake  Constance  (Map:  Switz¬ 
erland,  D  1).  Area,  381  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  elevated  but  not  mountainous,  and  is 
cut  by  the  valley  of  the  Thur,  the  chief  river 
of  the  canton.  Almost  the  entire  area  of  the 
canton  is  productive,  and  the  chief  occupations  of 
the  inhabitants  are  agriculture  and  viticulture. 
Stock  raising  and  cheese  making  are  also  impor¬ 
tant  industries.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  knit  goods,  machinery, 
leather,  etc.  The  constitution  of  the  canton, 
dating  from  1869,  is  purely  democratic,  the 
members  of  the  Legislative  Assembly  as  well  as 
of  the  Executive  Council  being  elected  directly 
by  the  people.  The  obligatory  referendum  and 
the  initiative  are  in  force.  Pop.,  1900,  113,221; 
1910,  134,055,  largely  German-speaking  Prot¬ 
estants.  Capital,  Frauenfeld  (q.v. ). 

Prior  to  the  ninth  century  the  country  known 
as  Thurgau  comprised  almost  the  entire  region 
bounded  by  Lake  Lucerne,  the  Rhine,  the  Reuss, 
and  Lake  Constance.  With  the  extinction  of 
the  house  of  Ivyburg,  Thurgau,  reduced  almost 
to  its  present  size,  passed  in  1264  to  the  house 
of  Hapsburg.  In  1460  the  country  was  seized 
by  the  Confederates  and  occupied  the  position  of 
a  subject  district  until  1798,  when  it  was  made 
a  canton  of  the  Helvetic  Republic.  In  1803  it 
was  constituted  a  canton  of  the  reorganized 
Swiss  Confederation.  Consult  Meyer,  Thur- 
gauisches  Urkundenbuch  (Frauenfeld,  1881  et 
seq. ) ,  and  Pupikofer,  Geschichte  des  Thurgaus 
(ib.,  1884-89). 

THU'RIBLE.  See  Censer. 

THU'RIEER  (Lat.,  incense  bearer).  The  at¬ 
tendant  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  at  solemn 


mass,  vespers,  and  other  ceremonies,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  carry  the  thurible,  or  incense  vessel, 
and  either  to  minister  incense  himself,  or  to 
present  the  thurible  for  that  purpose  to  the 
officiating  priest.  The  office  of  thurifer  orig¬ 
inally  belonged  to  the  so-called  minor  order  of 
acolyte,  but  is  now  commonly  exercised  by  lay¬ 
men.  See  Censer;  Incense. 

THU'RII.  A  city  in  Magna  Grsecia  (south¬ 
ern  Italy),  founded  by  the  people  of  the  neigh¬ 
boring  city  of  Sybaris  (q.v.)  after  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  latter.  In  443  b.c.  a  colony,  of  which 
Herodotus  (q.v.)  was  a  member,  went  from 
Athens  to  Thurii.  For  a  long  time  the  city 
prospered.  It  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Ro¬ 
mans  in  282  b.c.,  but  was  plundered  by  Hanni¬ 
bal  in  204  b.c.  A  Roman  colony  came  to  the 
city  in  193  b.c.,  but  the  city  declined  presently 
and  at  last  was  wholly  deserted.  Only  scanty 
ruins  remain. 

THURINGER  WALD,  tu'ring-er  valt  (Ger., 
Thuringian  Forest).  A  mountain  range  of  cen¬ 
tral  Germany,  extending  from  the  banks  of  the 
Werra  near  Eisenach  in  a  southeasterly  direc¬ 
tion  to  the  north  boundary  of  Bavaria,  where 
it  joins  the  Frankenwald,  a  ramification  of  the 
Fichtelgebirge  (Map:  Germany,  D  3).  It  forms 
the  southwest  boundary  of  the  trough  of  Thu¬ 
ringia,  which  in  outward  features  resembles  a 
plateau  extending  to  the  Harz  Mountains. 
Length,  about  70  miles;  highest  summit,  Gross- 
Beerberg,  3238  feet.  The  range  falls  steeply 
towards  the  northeast  and  is  covered  to  the  sum¬ 
mits  with  magnificent  pine  forests.  The  Triassic 
deposits  which  once  clothed  its  surface  have  been 
worn  away,  exposing  older  granites,  porphyries, 
and  schists.  It  is  rich  in  minerals,  among 
which  iron  ore,  copper,  manganese,  and  gypsum 
are  the  most  important.  The  range  passes 
through  a  well-populated  industrial  region. 

THURXN'GIA  (Ger.  Thuringen) .  A  pic¬ 
turesque  region  of  Germany,  traversed  by  the 
Thiiringer  Wald  (q.v.),  lying  between  the  Prus¬ 
sian  Province  of  Saxony  on  the  north  and  Ba¬ 
varia  on  the  south,  and  between  the  Kingdom  of 
Saxony  on  the  east  and  the  Prussian  Province 
of  Hesse-Nassau  on  the  west  (Map:  Germany, 
D  3).  It  embraces  a  number  of  duchies  and 
principalities  together  with  some  Prussian  dis¬ 
tricts.  The  so-called  Thuringian  states  are 
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Saxe- 
Meiningen,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt,  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  and  the  two 
Reuss  principalities.  The  .largest  city  is  Er¬ 
furt,  in  the  Prussian  Province  of  Saxony.  The 
region  took  its  name  from  the  Thuringians,  who 
at  the  time  of  the  great  migration  of  nations  es¬ 
tablished  an  extensive  kingdom  near  the  centre 
of  the  present  Germany.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  sixth  century  the  Franks  overthrew  this 
kingdom,  of  which  the  northern  part  was  joined 
to  the  country  of  the  Saxons  and  the  southern 
to  Franconia.  The  name  Thuringia  came  to  be 
applied  to  the  country  between  the  rivers  Werra 
and  Saale  and  the  Harz  and  Thuringian  moun¬ 
tains.  Under  the  weak  Merovingian  rulers  dukes 
arose  in  this  Thuringia,  which  for  a  time  was 
virtually  independent.  Christianity  was  intro¬ 
duced  in  the  eighth  century.  Under  the  Carlo- 
vingian  sovereigns  Thuringia  constituted  an  im¬ 
portant  frontier  province  or  march,  whose  Gov¬ 
ernor  was  charged  with  the  task  of  repressing 
or  keeping  down  the  Slavic  Serbs.  In  the  tenth 
century  the  country  was  under  the  rule  of  the 
dukes  "of  Saxony.  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 


251 


THURNEYSEN 


THURINGIAN  DIALECT 


centuries  the  landgraves  of  Thuringia  held  a 
prominent  place  among  the  German  princes. 
They  had  their  seat  at  the  famous  Castle  of 
Wartburg.  (See  Eisenach.)  Landgrave  Her¬ 
mann  I  (1190-1216)  is  noted  as  a  patron  of  the 
minnesingers.  I  he  old  dynasty  of  landgraves 
became  extinct  in  1247.  The  Landgraviate  of 
Thuringia  then  passed  to  the  house  of  Wettin, 
which  ruled  in  the  Margraviate  of  Meissen,  and 
which  in  the  fifteenth  century  came  into  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  electoral  Duchy  of  Saxony.  On  the 
partition  of  the  Saxon  dominions  in  1485  be¬ 
tween  the  Ernestine  and  Albertine  lines  the  bulk 
of  the  Thuringian  possessions  passed  to  the 
Ernestine  or  electoral  branch.  After  the  War 
of  the  Schmalkald  League  (1546-47)  the  Er¬ 
nestine  house  was  stripped  of  its  possessions 
outside  of  Thuringia.  Here  arose  the  various 
modern  Saxon  (Thuringian)  duchies.  (See 
Saxe- Weimar.  )  Consult:  Thomas  Knocken- 
hauer,  Geschichte  Thiiringens  in  der  karolin- 
gischen  und  sdchsischen  Zeit  (Gotha,  1863)  ; 
id.,  Geschichte  Thiiringens  zur  Zeit  des  ersten 
Landgrafenhauses  (ib.,  1871);  Ernst  Devrient, 
Thuringische  Geschichte  (Leipzig,  1907). 

THURXN'GIAN  DIALECT.  See  German 
Language. 

THURINGIAN  FOREST.  See  Tiiuringer 
Wald. 

THURLOE,  thfir'lo,  John  (1616-68).  An 
English  Puritan  statesman.  After  Cromwell 
was  proclaimed  Protector,  Thurloe  was  ap¬ 
pointed  chief  of  the  intelligence  department,  a 
position  which  he  managed  with  striking  fidel¬ 
ity  and  success.  He  continued  as  Secretary  of 
State  under  Richard  Cromwell  until  May,  1659, 
and  in  spite  of  royalist  opposition  in  1660  was 
reappointed  prior  to  the  Restoration.  After 
Charles  II’s  return  he  was  arrested  on  a  charge 
of  high  treason,  but  soon  afterward  was  freed 
on  condition  of  attending  on  the  secretaries  of 
state  whenever  they  should  require  his  service. 
His  large  collection  of  state  papers  and  cor¬ 
respondence,  comprising  the  most  authentic  ma¬ 
terials  respecting  the  period  of  the  Civil  War 
and  Cromwell’s  Protectorate,  were  discovered  in 
a  secret  recess  in  his  chambers  at  Lincoln’s  Inn 
during  the  reign  of  William  III*  and  are  now 
in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford.  Dr.  Thomas 
Birch  issued  a  Collection  of  State  Papers;  con¬ 
taining  authentic  memorials  of  the  English  af¬ 
fairs  from  the  year  1638  to  the  Restoration  of 
King  Charles  II,  published  from  the  originals, 
etc.,  prefixed  by  a  Life  of  Thurloe  (London, 
1742). 

THUR'LOW,  Edward,  Baron  (1731-1806). 
An  English  lawyer.  He  was  born  at  Bracon-Ash, 
Norfolk,  was  educated  at  Caius  College,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1754. 
At  this  time  he  formed  an  intimate  friendship 
with  the  poet  William  Cowper.  Through  the 
patronage  of  the  Viscount  Weymouth,  Thurlow 
was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Tamwo.rth  in  1768. 
In  1770  he  was  appointed  Solicitor-General  and 
the  next  year  Attorney-General.  He  attracted 
the  favorable  notice  of  George  III  by  zealously 
supporting  the  governmental  policy  of  coercing 
the  American  Colonies,  and  in  1778  was  made 
Baron  Thurlow  of  Ashfield  and  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer,  which  office  he  retained  under 
the  Rockingham  administration.  Under  the 
coalition  ministry  he  was  compelled  to  retire; 
but  he  -  was  restored  as  Chancellor  when  Pitt 
came  to  power.  For  a  time  he  supported  the 
government;  but,  relying  on  the  favor  of  the 

Vol.  XXII.— 17 


King,  he  finally  ventured  to  oppose  the  meas¬ 
ures  of  his  colleagues.  Pitt  then  intimated 
that  he  or  Thurlow  must  retire,  and  the  King 
consented  to  the  removal  of  Thurlow  (1792)° 
Consult  Edward  Foss,  Judges  of  England,  with 
Sketches  of  their  Lives  (London,  1848-64). 

THUR'MAN,  Allen  Granbery  (1813-95). 
An  American  political  leader  and  legislator,  born 
in  Lynchburg,  Va.  In  1819  he  was  taken  by  his 
parents  to  Chillicothe,  Ohio.  He  studied  law  in 
the  office  of  his  uncle,  William  Allen  (1806-79; 
q.v.),  became  private  secretary  to  Governor 
Robert  Lucas  in  1834,  and  in  1835  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  and  became  a  partner  of  Allen.  In 
1845-47  he  was  a  Democratic  member  of  Con¬ 
gress,  then  resumed  his  law  practice,  and  from 
1851  to  1856  was  on  the  bench  of  the  Ohio 
Supreme  Court,  after  December,  1854,  as  Chief 
Justice.  In  1867  he  was  the  Democratic  candi¬ 
date  for  Governor  of  Ohio,  but  was  defeated  by 
R.  B.  Hayes.  From'  1869  to  1881  he  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  United  States  Senate,  and  the  leader 
of  the  Democrats  in  that  body.  In  the  Forty- 
sixth  Congress  he  was  elected  President  pro 
tempore  of  the  Senate*  He  was  active  as  an 
advocate  of  a  liberal  reconstruction  policy,  was 
one  of  the  authors  of  the  bill  creating  the 
Electoral  Commission  in  1876,  and  a  member  of 
that  body.  He  was  also  the  author  of  the  well- 
known  Thurman  Act,  designed  to  compel  the 
Pacific  railroads  which  had  received  government 
aid  to  fulfill  their  obligations  to  the  govern¬ 
ment,  and  secured  the  passage  of  the  bill.  In 
1881  he  was  appointed  by  President  Garfield  a 
member  of  the  International  Monetary  Confer¬ 
ence  at  Paris.  In  1888  he  was  nominated  by 
acclamation  for  Vice  President  on  the  Cleveland 
ticket,  which  was  defeated  by  Harrison  and 
Morton.  Consult  Hensel  and  Parker,  Lives  and 
Public  Services  of  Grover  Cleveland  and  Allen 
G.  Thurman  (Philadelphia,  1892). — His  son, 
Allen  W.  Thurman  (born  1847),  was  prom¬ 
inent  as  a  Democrat  in  Ohio  and  became  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Special  State  Canal  Commissioners. 

THURN  tobrn,  Heinrich  Matthias,  Count 
(1580-1640).  A  leader  of  the  Bohemian  Prot¬ 
estants  in  the  Thirty  Years’  War.  For  his  serv¬ 
ices  in  the  Turkish  wars  the  Emperor  Rudolph 
II  made  him  Burgrave  of  Karlstein  in  Bohemia. 
He  was  among  those  who  wrung  from  Rudolph 
the  Majestdtsbrief  of  1609,  an  edict  of  tolera¬ 
tion,  and  was  named  by  the  Bohemian  estates 
one  of  the  Thirty  Defenders  of  the  Faith.  He 
was  deprived  of  his  estates  and  title  soon  after. 
On  May  23,  1618,  he  gave  the  signal  for  the 
Protestant  uprising  in  Bohemia  by  the  defenes¬ 
tration  of  the  Imperial  legates  at  Prague.  (See 
Thirty  Years’  War.)  At  the  head  of  the  Prot¬ 
estant  forces  he  besieged  the  Emperor  Ferdinand 
II  in  Vienna  (1619),  but  was  finally  compelled 
to  withdraw.  After  the  battle  of  the  White  Hill 
in  1620,  in  which  the  army  of  Frederick,  the 
Protestant  King  of  Bohemia,  was  vanquished, 
he  sought  refuge  with  Bethlen  Gabor,  ruler  of 
Transylvania.  In  1626  he  commanded  a  corps 
in  Silesia.  Later  he  joined  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
and  fought  at  Leipzig  (1631)  and  Liitzen 
(1632). 

THURNEYSEN,  toor'nt-zen,  Rudolph  (1857- 
) .  A  German  Celtic  philologist.  He  was 
born  in  Basel,  and  studied  at  the  universities 
of  Basel,  Leipzig,  Berlin,  and  Paris.  From  1882 
to  18S7  he  was  successively  privatdocent  and 
assistant  professor  of  Romance  philology  in  the 
1  niversity  of  Jena,  and  then  was  professor  of 


THURSBY 


THYESTES 


252 


comparative  philology  at  the  University  of  Frei¬ 
burg  in  Baden.  In  1912  he  was  called  to  a 
similar  chair  at  Bonn.  He  wrote:  Ueber  Her- 
kunft  and  Bildung  der  lateinischen  Verba  auf 
-io  (1879);  Das  Verbum  etre  and  die  franz- 
osische  Conjugation  (1882);  Keltoromanisches 
(1884);  Der  Saturnier  (1885);  Mittelirische 
V erslehren  (1891);  Sagen  aus  dem  alten  In¬ 
land  (1901)  ;  Handbuch  des  altirischen  (2  vols., 
1909). 

THURS'BY,  Emma  (1857-  ).  An  Amer¬ 

ican  singer,  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  She  stud¬ 
ied  in  the  United  States  under  Julius  Meyer, 
Errani,  and  Madame  Rudersdorff,  and  also 
abroad.  She  made  a  successful  tour  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  (1875),  and  was 
warmly  received  in  England  and  France  (1878— 
79),  afterward  being  engaged  by  Maurice 
Strakosch  as  prima  donna  of  his  company 
(1880)’.  A  subsequent  tour  of  the  United  States 
with  Theodore  Thomas  was  especially  successful. 
In  1903  she  made  a  tour  of  Japan  and  China. 
In  her  prime  she  was  frequently  compared  with 
Patti. 

THUR'STON,  John  Mellen  (1847-1916). 
An  American  politician  and  lawyer,  born  in 
Montpelier,  Vt.  He  removed  to  Wisconsin, 
where  he  was  educated  at  Wayland  Academy, 
Beaver  Dam,  in  1869  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  in  the  following  year  took  up  the  practice 
of  law  at  Omaha,  Neb.  He  allied  himself  with 
the  Republican  party,  and  was  elected  to  the 
State  Legislature  in  1875.  In  1895-1901  he 
served  as  United  States  Senator,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  a  commissioner  for  the  Louisi¬ 
ana  Purchase  Exposition  at  St.  Louis.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  Republican  National  conven¬ 
tions  in  1888  and  1896.  From  1888  he  was 
general  counsel  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway. 

THURSTON,  Katherine  Cecil  (c.1864- 
1911).  A  British  novelist,  born  in  Cork,  Ire¬ 
land.  In  1901  she  was  married  to  Ernest  T. 
Thurston,  an  English  novelist,  from  whom  she 
subsequently  secured  a  divorce.  She  is  princi¬ 
pally  known  for  her  novel  The  Masquerader 
(published  in  England  as  John  Chilcote,  M.P., 
1904),  which  had  a  large  and  deserved  success. 
Other  of  her  books  include:  The  Circle  (1903)  ; 
The  Gambled  (1906);  Mystics  (1907);  The  Fly 
on  the  Wheel  (1908);  and  Max  (1910). 

THURSTON,  Robert  Henry  (1839-1903). 
An  American  engineer  and  educator,  born  in 
Providence,  R.  I.  He  graduated  at  Brown  Uni¬ 
versity  in  1859.  During  the  Civil  W^r  he 
served  in  the  Federal  navy  as  an  engineer,  and 
in  1865  he  was  appointed  assistant  professor  of 
natural  and  experimental  philosophy  at  Annap¬ 
olis.  He  was  professor  of  engineering  at  Stevens 
Institute  of  Technology  from  1871  to  1885,  and 
in  the  latter  year  conducted  a  series  of  impor¬ 
tant  experiments  on  steam  boilers.  Thurston 
was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Scientific 
Commission  to  the  Vienna  Exhibition  in  1873, 
and  edited  the  Report  of  the  commissioners, 
which  included  his  individual  report  on  ma¬ 
chinery  and  manufactures  (1875-76).  From 
1885  till  His  death  lie  was  director  of  Sibley 
College,  Cornell,  and  professor  of  mechanical 
engineering  in  the  university.  His  thorough¬ 
ness,  organizing  ability,  and  genius  as  a  teacher 
placed  him  in  the  front  rank  of  educators  in  his 
field.  His  writings,  notably  influential  because 
clear,  comprehensible,  and  reliable,  include:  A 
History  of  the  Growth  of  the  Steam  Engine 

(1878;  4th  ed.,  rev.,  1902;  Ger.  and  Fr.  trans. )  ; 


Manual  of  Steam  Boilers  (1888;  7th  ed.,  1901)  ; 
Manual  of  the  Steam  Engine  (1891;  5th  ed., 
1900-02)  ;  Materials  of  Engineering  (3  vols., 
1883-84;  new  ed.,  1907-10);  Stationary  Steam 
Engines  (1884;  7th  ed.,  1902);  Treatise  on 
Friction  and  Lost  Work  in  Machinery  and  Mill 
Work  (1885;  7th  ed.,  1903);  A  Handbook  of 
Engine  and  Boiler  Trials,  and  of  the  Indicator 
and  Prong  Brake  (1890;  5th  ed.,  1903)  ;  A  Text¬ 
book  of  the  Materials  of  Construction  (1890; 
6th  ed.,  1900);  Life  of  Robert  Fulton  (1891). 
Professor  Thurston’s  inventions  include  a  mag¬ 
nesium-ribbon  lamp,  a  magnesium-burning  naval 
and  army  signal  apparatus,  and  autographic 
recording  and  testing  machine,  a  steam-engine 
governor,  and  an  apparatus  for  determining  the 
value  of  lubricants.  From  1880  to  1883  he 
served  as  first  president  of  the  American  So¬ 
ciety  of  Mechanical  Engineers.  Consult  W.  F. 
Durand,  Robert  Henry  Thurston  (Washington, 
1904). 

THURY,  tu're',  Vicomte  de.  See  Hericart- 
Ferrand,  L.  E.  F. 

THUSNELDA.  See  Germanicus  Uesar. 

THWAITES,  thwats,  Reuben  Gold  (1853- 
1913).  An  American  historical  writer,  born  in 
Dorchester,  Mass.  In  1866  he  removed  to  Wis¬ 
consin.  From  1876  to  1886  he  was  managing 
editor  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Journal,  at  Madi¬ 
son.  From  1886  he  was  secretary  and  super¬ 
intendent  of  the  State  Flistorical  Society  of 
Wisconsin.  In  1899  he  was  president  of  the 
American  Library  Association.  He  edited  the 
Wisconsin  Historical  Collections  (vols.  xi-xix, 
1888-1911)  ;  The  Jesuit  Relations  (73  vols.,  1896- 
1901);  Early  Western  Travels,  1748-1846  (32 
vols.,  1904-07)  ;  Original  Journals  of  Lewis  and 
Clark  (7  vols.,  1905)  ;  and  similar  works.  He 
also  published:  Down  Historic  Waterways 
(1888;  2d  ed.,  rev.,  1902)  ;  The  Colonies,  1492- 
1750  (1891);  Daniel  Boone  (1902);  Father 

Marquette  (1902)  ;  George  Rogers  Clark  (1903)  ; 
Brief  History  of  Rocky  Mountain  Exploration 
(1904)  ;  France  in  America  (1905)  ;  Wisconsin 
(1909);  School  History  of  the  United  States 
(1912).  For  a  critical  analysis  of  the  work  of 
Thwaites  consult  an  article  by  C.  V7.  Alvord, 
Proceedings  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  Historical 
Association  (Cedar  Rapids,  la.,  1913-14)  ;  con¬ 
sult  also  F.  J.  Turner,  Reuben  Gold  Thwaites 
(Madison,  W7is.,  1914). 

THWING,  twang,  Charles  Franklin  (1853- 
) .  An  American  clergyman  and  educator, 
born  at  New  Sharon,  Me.  He  graduated  from 
Harvard  in  1876,  and  from  the  Andover  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary  in  1879;  was  pastor  of  churches 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  in  Minneapolis,  and  in 
1890  became  president  of  Adelbert  College  and 
Western  Reserve  University  at  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
He  published:  The  Reading  of  Books  (1883); 
The  Family  (1886;  2d  ed.,  1913),  with  Carrie  F. 
Butler  Thwing;  Within  College  Walls  (1893); 
College  Administration  (1900);  History  of 
Higher  Education  in  America  (1906);  Educar- 
tion  in  the  Far  East  (1909)  ;  A  History  of  Edu¬ 
cation  in  the  United  States  since  the  Civil  War 
(1910);  Universities  of  the  World  (1911); 
Letters  from  a  Father  to  his  Son  Entering  Col¬ 
lege  (1912)  ;  Letters  from  a  Father  to  his 
Daughter  Entering  College  (1913)  ;  The  Ameri¬ 
can  College  (1914). 

THYESTES,  thi-es'tSz  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Qvea- 
T7)s ) .  The  son  of  Pelops  (q.v.)  and  Hippodamia. 
Having  seduced  HSrope,  the  wife  of  his  brother 
Atreus  (q.v.),  he  was  banished  from  Mycense 


THYLACINE 


253 


TI 


GARDEN  THYME. 


(q.v.),  and  in  revenge  sent  Plisthenes,  the  son 
of  Atreus,  whom  he  had  brought  up,  to  slay  his 
father.  Atreus,  not  recognizing  Plisthenes, 

killed  him.  In  revenge,  summoning  Thyestes  to 
Mycenae,  he  placed  before  him  at  a  feast  "the  flesh 
of  Tln'estes’  two  sons. 

THY'LACINE.  See  Dasyure. 

THYME,  tun  (OF.,  Fr.  thym,  from  Lat.  thy- 
mum,  from  Gk.  6vp.ov,  Ovpos,  thyme,  sweetbread, 
warty  excrescence;  connected  with  6vo  s,  thy  os, 
incense).  Thymus.  A  genus  of  humble  half- 
shrubby  plants,  of  the  family  Labiatae,  having  a 
two-lipped  calyx  and  four  diverging  stamens. 

Garden  thyme  ( Thym  us  vul¬ 
garis)  is  6  to  10  inches  high, 
with  narrow,  almost  linear 
leaves,  and  whitish  or  red¬ 
dish  flowers,  which  grow 
in  separate  whorls,  six  in 
a  whorl.  It  is  common 
upon  dry  hills  in  southern 
Europe,  and  is  cultivated  in 
gardens  for  its  fragrance 
and  as  a  culinary  herb.  It 
is  also  used  in  medicijie. 
Wild  thyme  ( Thymus  ser- 
pyllum)  has  a  procumbent 
stem  with  many  branches, 
2  to  3  feet  long,  oval  leaves, 
and  purplish  flowers,  ar¬ 
ranged  in  whorls,  which  are 
united  in  a  head.  It  is 
abundant  on  hills  and  moun¬ 
tains  in  all  parts  of  Europe 
and  northern  Asia.  It  is 
less  fragrant  than  garden 
thyme,  but  both  species  con¬ 
tain  an  aromatic  essential  oil.  The  lemon  thyme, 
or  lemon-scented  thyme,  is  a  variety  of  Thymus 
serpyllum,  generally  of  lower  growth  than  the 
common  thyme.  No  species  is  indigenous  in 
America. 

THYMOL,  tlm'ol  or  -61.  The  active  prin¬ 
ciple  of  the  oil  of  thyme,  having  powerful  anti¬ 
septic  and  anaesthetic  properties.  Its  chemical 
formula  is  C10H14O.  It  occurs  in  large,  colorless 
plates,  having  a  thymelike  odor,  vThich  are 
slightly  soluble  in  water  and  readily  soluble  in 
alcohol.  Besides  its  employment  in  the  form  of 
a  spray  in  infections  of  the  upper  respiratory 
tract,  it  is  given  in  intestinal  affections  and  is 
almost  a  specific  in  hookworm  disease  (q.v.). 

THY'MUS  GLAND  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
dvgos,  thyme,  so  called  from  its  fancied  resem¬ 
blance  to  a  branch  of  sweet  thyme).  A  ductless 
gland,  peculiar  to  infantile  life.  In  the  human 
being  it  occupies  a  space  in  the  neck  below  the 
thyroid  gland  and  in  the  chest  beneath  the  ster¬ 
num  in  the  anterior  mediastinal  space,  on  the 
level  of  the  fourth  costal  cartilage.  The  gland 
is  developed  early  in  foetal  life,  increases  in  size 
during  the  first  two  or  three  years  of  life,  then 
remains  stationary  until  the  tenth  to  the  four¬ 
teenth  year,  when  it  begins  to  atrophy  and  un¬ 
dergo  fatty  degeneration.  At  its  maximum 
development  the  organ  is  over  2  inches  long, 
114  inches  broad,  and  about  %  of  an  inch  thick. 
At  birth  its  weight  is  normally  about  half 
an  ounce.  Comparatively  little  is  known  of  the 
function  of  this  organ,  but  it  is  believed  to 
manufacture  an  internal  secretion,  which  has  a 
profound  influence  on  growth  and  development, 
and  is  concerned  in  the  retention  of  the  calcium 
salts  by  the  body  for  the  formation  of  bone. 
The  thymus  gland  of  young  ‘animals  such  as 


the  lamb  and  calf  constitutes  the  delicacy  known 
as  sweetbreads,  though  the  pancreas  or  belly 
sweetbread  of  certain  animals  is  often  substi¬ 
tuted  in  trade  for  this  article.  Thymus  has 
been  used  in  medicine  in  the  treatment  of  mal¬ 
nutrition,  delayed  growth,  rickets,  and  rheuma¬ 
toid  arthritis.  See  Alimentary  System;  Or¬ 
ganotherapy. 

THY'NI.  See  Bitiiynia. 

TKY'SOID  GLAND  (from  Gk.  9vpeoeL5r)s, 
thyi  eoeides,  shield-shaped,  from  Ovpeos,  thyreos, 
large  oblong  shield,  from  dvpa,  thyra,  door  -j- 
eiSos,  eidos,  form).  One  of  the  ductless  or  vas¬ 
cular  glands,  lying  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
trachea,  and  consisting  of  two  lateral  lobes, 
placed  one  on  each  side  of  this  canal,  and  con¬ 
nected  together  by  a  narrow  transverse  portion 
at  the  lower  third,  called  the  isthmus.  It  is  of 
a  brownish-red  color  and  its  normal  weight  is 
about  an  ounce.  Each  lobe  is  somewhat  conical, 
and  is  about  2  inches  long  and  %  of  an  inch 
broad.  Minute  examination  of  the  gland  shows 
it  to  consist  of  lobes  and  lobules  held  together 
by  connective  tissue.  Each  lobule  is  made  up 
of  numerous  completely  closed  sacs  0.04  to  0.1 
inch  in  diameter.  The  sacs  contain  a  trans¬ 
parent,  viscid,  albuminous  fluid.  Each  sac  is 
surrounded  by  a  plexus  of  capillary  blood  vessels 
which  do  not  pierce  the  lining  of  the  3acs. 
Numerous  lymphatic  vessels  are  also  present. 
At  an  early  period  the  sacs  dilate,  their  cellular 
lining  atrophies,  and  their  contents  undergo  col¬ 
loid  degeneration.  The  function  of  the  thyroid 
gland  is  mainly  the  production  of  an  internal 
secretion  which  influences  bodily  nutrition  in 
many  ways.  It  is  subject  to  several  varieties 
of  enlargement  known  under  the  general  name 
of  goitre,  and  is  also  the  seat  of  various  benign 
and  malignant  tumors!.  Myxoedema  (q.v.)  is" a 
condition  of  the  system  brought  about  through 
loss  of  function  of  the  thyroid  gland,  either  from 
atrophy  or  removal  of  the  organ.  The  prepared 
extract  of  the  thyroid  gland  of  the  sheep  is  used 
in  the  treatment  of  this  condition.  See  Ali¬ 
mentary  System;  Cretinism;  Organotherapy; 
Secretions,  Internal. 

THYR'SUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Ovpcros,  stalk, 
stem).  An  ivy  and  vine  wreathed  staff  tipped 
with  a  pine  cone,  which  was  carried  by  Bacchus 
(q.v.)  and  his  followers  in  their  religious  rites. 

TITYSSEN,  tgs'sen,  August  (1840-  ). 

A  German  industrial  leader.  He  engaged  in 
the  iron  industry  in  the  late  sixties  at  DuTsburg, 
but  after  18/1  lived  at  Mulheim-Ruhr,  where  he 
founded  the  firm  of  Thyssen  and  Company,  the 
parent  house  of  his  many  industrial  interests. 
He  became  the  chief  owner  of  a  mining  company 
employing  about  18,000  men,  of  641  coke  ovens, 
and  of  7  blast  furnaces.  He  built  the  first  500- 
ton  blast  furnace  in  Germany,  the  first  100-ton 
Martin  furnace,  and  the  first  large  tube  works. 

TI,  te  ( Polynesian  name),  Cordyline  termi- 
nalis.  A  treelike  plant  of  the  family  Liliacese, 
found  in  southeastern  Asia,  the  eastern  Archi¬ 
pelago,  and  the  Hawaiian  and  other  Pacific 
islands.  It  sometimes  exceeds  12  feet  in  height. 
The  reddish,  lanceolate  leaves  are  used  as  cattle 
food  and  as  thatch  for  houses,  as  food  wrappers, 
etc.  Their  fibres  are  sometimes  made  into  cloth! 
The  large,  hard,  fibrous,  and  almost  insipid  root 
becomes  soft  and  sweet  when  baked.  It  is 
very  nutritious,  and  is  much  used  as  an 
article  of  food.  The  juice  is  used  for  mak¬ 
ing  sugar,  a  fermented  beverage,  and  a  dis¬ 
tilled  liquor.  Fully  25  varieties  of  Cordyline 


TIAHUANACO 


TIBALDI 


254 


are  grown  under  glass  for  their  ornamental, 
often  variegated,  foliage.  See  Hog  Plum. 

TIAHUANACO,  te-a'wa-na'ko.  A  ruined 
city  of  Bolivia,  a  few  miles  from  the  Peruvian 
frontier,  on  an  arid  plain  midway  between  lakes 
Titicaca  and  Aullagas,  at  an  elevation  of  12,- 
900  feet.  The  present  town  of  the  same  name 
stands  a  short  distance  from  the  ruins  and  is 
built  for  the  most  part  of  beautifully  cut  stones 
from  the  ancient  buildings.  In  the  ruined  town 
five  great  structures  besides  an  equal  number  of 
shapeless  mounds  may  be  traced.  These  build¬ 
ings  are  commonly  known  as  the  Fortress,  the 
Temple,  the  Palace,  the  Hall  of  Justice,  and  the 
Sanctuary.  The  fortress  consists  of  a  rectangu¬ 
lar  mass  of  earth  620  feet  long,  450  feet  wide, 
and  about  50  feet  high,  supported  by  walls  of 
stone  forming  terraces,  the  walls  sloping  inward. 
On  the  summit  are  traces  of  rectangular  build¬ 
ings.  Adjoining  the  pyramid  to  the  east  is  a 
rectangular  apron  mound.  The  Fortress  has 
been  almost  destroyed  by  excavations  for  treas¬ 
ures,  but  these  diggings  show  that  there  were 
subterranean  structures  within  the  mound.  All 
the  buildings  of  Tiahuanaco  are  oriented  to 
within  10  degrees  of  the  cardinal  points.  The 
Temple,  believed  to  be  the  oldest  building  here, 
is  a  rectangle  388  by  455  feet,  defined  by  erect 
stones  between  8  and  10  feet  high,  2  by  4  feet 
broad,  and  from  20  to  30  inches  thick.  On  the 
eastern  side,  aligned  along  a  lower  terrace,  are 
10  columns  about  15  feet  high,  by  4  feet  by  3 
feet.  The  interior  of  the  rectangle  is  raised 
8  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground  and  has  a 
sunken  court  280  feet  long  and  190  feet  broad. 
To  the  east  of  the  Temple  is  the  Palace,  of  which 
the  massive  foundation  remains,  composed  of 
blocks  of  trachyte  8  to  10  feet  long  and  5  feet 
wide.  The  piers  of  this  building  are  deeply 
sunk  in  the  ground  and  rest  on  a  pavement  of 
cut  stones.  The  Hall  of  Justice  stood  at  one 
end  of  a  sunken  court  in  a  rectangle  in  plan  like 
that  of  the  Temple.  It  was  a  platform  131  feet 
long  and  23  broad,  built  of  enormous  blocks  of 
stone,  and  had  three  groups  of  alcoves  or  seats 
arranged  at  the  ends  and  in  the  centre,  and 
between  the  central  and  side  groups  were  mono¬ 
lithic  doorways  with  sculptured  friezes.  The 
Hall  of  Justice  also  stands  on  a  raised  area,  in 
the  centre  of  which  was  a  building  about  50 
feet  square,  constructed  of  very  large  stones, 
and  called  the  Sanctuary.  Within  the  building 
is  a  slab  of  stone  13  feet  4  inches  square  and 
20  inches  thick.  On  its  surface  is  cut  what 
seems  to  be  the  plan  of  a  building  resembling 
that  of  the  Fortress,  and  six  niches  in  which 
perhaps  statues  were  located. 

Tiahuanaco  is  famous  for  its  great  monolithic 
gateway  of  hard  trachyte  13  feet  5  inches,  long, 
7  feet  2  inches  high  above  ground,  and  18  inches 
thick.  The  lintel  over  the  front  of  the  gateway 
is  sculptured  in  low  relief  and  the  back  is  carved 
to  represent  doors  and  windows.  The  masonry 
at  Tiahuanaco  is  laid  without  mortar,  the  stones 
on  each  course  are  tongued  and  grooved  at  the 
ends,  and  bronze  pins  and  T-clamps  were  em¬ 
ployed  to  hold  the  courses  in  place.  Earlier 
travelers  speak  of  statuary  at  Tiahuanaco,  but 
these  pieces  have  been  destroyed  except  a  head, 
which  belonged  to  a  figure  probably  about  18 
feet  high.  The  building  stone  was  transported 
from  15  to  40  miles  and  the  dressing  was  done 
with  bronze  and  stone  tools.  There  is  no  reliable 
tradition  as  to  the  builders,  who  it  is  supposed 
were  the  Incas  or  Aymaras,  and  no  reason  can 


be  assigned  for  the  location  of  the  city  on  a  bar¬ 
ren  plain  at  a  great  altitude,  unless  it  be  that 
the  foundation  was  determined  by  religious 
ideas.  Consult  Stiibel  and  Uhle,  Die  Ruinen- 
stdtte  von  Tiahuanaco  (Breslau,  1892). 

TIAN-SHAN,  te-iin'  shan',  or  Celestial 
Mountains.  A  great  mountain  system  of  Cen¬ 
tral  Asia  1500  miles  long  (Map:  Asia,  J,  K  4). 
It  begins  near  the  Desert  of  Gobi  in  a  rocky 
crest, ^  and,  running  soutlnvestward,  is  joined 
by  a  second,  a  third,  and  many  other  ranges, 
which,  as  they  advance  westward,  open  out  more 
or  less  fanwise,  the  several  ranges  being  con¬ 
nected  by  intervening  plateaus,  and  continuing 
to  preserve  somewhat  of  a  parallel  direction. 
Towards  the  centre  the  plateau  is  250  miles 
wide,  while  to  the  west  the  ridges  become  re¬ 
duced  in  number,  and  sink  into  the  plains  about 
Tashkend,  in  southeast  Russian  Turkestan.  It 
forms  the  north  boundary  of  the  great  Tarim 
Basin,  which  it  separates  from  the  watersheds 
of  Lake  Balkash  and  the  Syr-Darya.  It  is  con¬ 
nected  by  broken  ranges  with  the  Altai  Moun¬ 
tains  to"  the  north,  and,  through  the  Sarikal, 
with  the  Kuen-lun,  Hindu-Ivush,  and  Himalaya 
systems.  In  the  central  portion  there  is  a  main 
ridge  forming  an  unbroken  wall  covered  with 
perpetual  snow  throughout  its  length,  and  cul¬ 
minating  in  the  west  in  the  Khan-Tengri,  a 
peak  bearing  enormous  glaciers  and  reaching  an 
altitude  of  24,000  feet.  East  of  this  ridge  the 
mountains  descend  in  a  broad  plateau  with  scat¬ 
tered  peaks  and  ridges  from  6000  to  10,000  feet 
high.  In  the  west  portion  there  are  several 
important  passes  affording  routes  between  Rus¬ 
sian  and  East  Turkestan.  The  system  incloses 
numerous  large  longitudinal  valleys  whose  bot¬ 
toms  form  wide  steppe  regions.  Above,  the 
slopes  are  covered  with  spruce  forests  succeeded 
by  an  alpine  flora  to  the  snow  line.  The  loftiest 
group  in  the  eastern  portion,  the  Bogdo-ola,  is 
held  sacred  by  the  Mongolians.  Consult  Gott¬ 
fried  Merzbacher,  Central  Tian-Shan  Mountains 
(New  York,  1905). 

TIARA,  ti-a'ra  or  te-ii'ra  (Lat.  tiara,  tiaras, 
from  Gk.  ndpa,  Tiapr]s,  headdress  of  the  Persian 
kings) .  The  triple  crown  of  the  Pope.  Although 
a  cap  called  a  tiara  was  worn  by  some  Oriental 
monarchs,  as  by  the  Achsemenid  dynasty  of  Per¬ 
sia,  as  an  ecclesiastical  headdress  it  has  more 
affinity  with  that  of  the  Jewish  high  priests,  the 
form  of  which  is  more  or  less  preserved  in  the 
mitres  worn  by  the  bishops  of  the  Eastern  church 
to-day.  (See  Costume,  Ecclesiastical.)  It 
is  composed  of  a  high  cap  of  gold  cloth,  encircled 
by  three  coronets,  with  a  mound  and  cross  of 
gold  on  the  top.  From  the  cap  hang  two  pend¬ 
ants,  embroidered  and  fringed  at  the  ends.  The 
original  papal  crown  consisted  of  the  cap  alone, 
and  was  first  used  by  Pope  Nicholas  I  (858- 
867 ) .  Alexander  II "  added  a  second  coronet 
about  1065,  and  Urban  V  (1362-70)  the  third. 
A  symbolic  meaning  has  since  been  found  in  the 
triple  crown,  as  representing  the  authority  of 
the  Pope  over  the  Church  militant,  expectant, 
and  triumphant.  It  is  placed  on  the  Pope’s  head 
at  his  coronation  by  the  second  cardinal  deacon, 
with  the  words  “Receive  the  tiara,  adorned  with 
three  crowns,  and  know  that  thou  art  father  of 
princes  and  kings,  ruler  of  the  world,  vicar  of 
our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.”  At  ceremonies  of  a 
purely  spiritual  character  the  Pope  wears  the 
mitre,  like  other'  bishops,  not  the  tiara.  See 
Crown. 

TIBALDI,  te-biiFde,  Pellegrino  (1527-98). 


TIBBTJS 


TIBERIUS 


255 


An  Italian  architect  and  painter,  born  at  Bo¬ 
logna.  A  pupil  of  Daniele  da  Volterra  in  paint¬ 
ing,  lie  subsequently  worked  both  as  an  architect 
and  painter  under  the  influence  of  Michelangelo 
in  Home,  whither  he  had  gone  in  1547.  His 
graceful  altar  pieces,  especially  attractive 
through  the  loveliness  of  the  female  heads,  are 
very  rare.  Of  his  frescoes  “Hercules  Taming 
the  Animals”  may  still  be  seen  in  the  Loggia 
dei  Mercanti  (Exchange)  at  Ancona.  He  is 
important  also  as  an  architect  of  the  late 
Renaissance,  especially  in  Milan  where  ( 1560— 
70)  he  designed  the  Jesuit  church  of  San  Fedele, 
reconstructed  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  and 
designed  the  baroque  facade  of  the  cathedral. 
Called  to  Madrid  by  Philip  II  in  J5S6  to  take 
part  in  the  erection  of  the  Escorial,  Tibaldi  also 
decorated  its  library  with  warmly  colored  fres¬ 
coes,  was  created  Marchese  di  Valsolda,  and 
after  nine  years  returned  to  Milan,  where  he 
died.  Consult  Zanotti,  Le  pitture  di  Pellegrino 
Tibaldi  (Venice,  1756),  and  Gurlitt,  Der  Ba- 
rockstil  in  Italien  (Stuttgart,  1887). 

TIB'BUS,  TIBUS,  or  TUBUS  (rock  people). 
A  people  inhabiting  Tibesti,  in  the  eastern 
Sahara,  and  extending  southward  into  the  Su¬ 
dan.  Von  Luschan  regards  them  as  possibly 
related  to  the  central  Sudanese  negroes  such  as 
the  Kanuri.  In  these  different  areas  they  vary 
greatly  in  hair  and  features.  There  are  only 
70,000  of  them  spread  over  an  area  of  300,000 
square  miles,  under  the  names,  Tedas,  Dasas, 
Bedeyat,  Zoghawa,  and  Bulzeda.  For  genera¬ 
tions  they  have  been  active  in  the  traffic  by 
caravan  across  the  Sahara.  In  religion  they 
are  Mohammedan.  Consult  Rohlfs,  Quer  durch 
Afrika,  vol.  i  (Leipzig,  1874),  and  Nachtigal, 
Sahara  und  Sudan  (Berlin,  1879-89). 

TUBER  (Lat.  Tiberis,  poetical  Thybris;  Ital. 
Teve're ).  The  principal  river  of  central  Italy. 
It  rises  in  Tuscany,  at  the  south  of  the  Monte 
Fumajolo,  in  the  Province  of  Arezzo,  about  30 
miles  east  of  the  source  of  the  Arno,  at  an 
altitude  of  more  than  3600  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  flows  towards  the  south  in  a  wind¬ 
ing  course,  across  Perugia  (Umbria).  After 
receiving  the  waters  of  many  small  streams, 
at  Orte,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Nera  (the 
ancient  Nar),  it  forms  the  boundary  between 
Umbria  and  Rome,  encircling  Mount  Soracte  and 
entering  the  Campagna  Romana  (Map:  Italy, 
D  4).  About  three  miles  above  Rome  it  is 
swelled  by  the  Anio  (now  Aniene  or  Teverone), 
then  passes  through  the  city  of  Rome,  where  it 
forms  an  island,  the  Insula  Tiberina  (now  Isola 
di  San  Bartolommeo),  and  enters  the  Tyrrhen¬ 
ian  Sea  about  26  miles  below. 

The  total  length  of  the  Tiber  is  245  miles; 
its  breadth  at  Rome  is  about  250  feet.  It  is  a 
swift-running  stream,  carrying  down  an  enor¬ 
mous  amount  of  alluvial  matter,  which,  in  solu¬ 
tion,  gives  the  water  that  yellowish  color  for 
which  the  flavus  Tiberis  was  renowned.  The 
sediment  deposited  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber 
is  pushing  out  the  land  at  the  rate  of  about  ten 
feet  a  year,  so  that  the  ruins  of  Ostia,  the  ancient 
harbor  of  Rome,  are  now  more  than  four  miles 
inland.  The  delta  is  formed  of  two  mouths;  the 
fiumicino,  originally  a  channel  dug  by  Trajan 
for  his  harbor  (Portus  Traiani),  now  the  larger 
and  navigable  branch,  and  the  fiumara,  now  al¬ 
most  choked  by  sand  banks;  and  these  inclose 
the  Isola  Sacra,  a  desolate  and  unhealthful 
island  once  sacred  to  a  Venus.  The  Tiber  is 
navigable  by  small  steamers  as  far  as  Rome,  and 


by  smaller  craft  60  miles  higher  up.  It  is  sub¬ 
ject  to  frequent  and  often  disastrous  inunda¬ 
tions,  of  which  the  ancient  writers  have  recorded 
no  less  than  23.  Among  the  more  famous  floods 
are  that  mentioned  by  Horace  (Odes,  1,  2),  that 
of  1598,  when  the  water  at  Rome  rose  51^4 
feet,  and  that  of  1900,  when  it  reached  a  flood 
height  of  almost  54  feet.  To  remedy  this  evil, 
the  government,  beginning  in  1876,  constructed 
massive  embankments  at  Rome,  at  the  expense 
of  more  than  $25,000,000;  but  the  carefully 
planned  work  has  proved  defective.  The  stream 
on  the  north  of  the  Tiber  island  has  become 
clogged  with  sand,  and  in  the  flood  of  1900  fully 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  the  south  embankment 
was  carried  away  by  the  water.  Consult  Nar- 
ducci,  Saggio  di  Bibliografia  del  Tevere  (Rome, 
1876),  and  S.  A.  Smith,  The  Tiber  and  its  Tribu¬ 
taries  (London,  1877). 

TIBE'RIAS,  Lake  or  Sea  of.  A  lake  in 
Palestine.  See  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

TIEE'RII  CAS'TRUM.  The  Roman  name 
of  the  site  now  occupied  by  the  Bavarian  town 
of  Lindau  (q.v. ). 

TIBE'RIUS  (Tiberius  Claudius  Nero 
Ufsar)  (42  b.c-37  a.d.).  The  second  Emperor 
of  Rome  (14-37  a.d.).  He  was  the  son  of 
Tiberius  Claudius  Nero  and  Livia  Drusilla 
(q.v.),  and  was  adopted  by  Augustus  (q.v.) 
when  the  latter  married  Livia  in  38  b.c.,  after 
her  compulsory  divorce.  He  was  carefully  edu¬ 
cated,  and  early  manifested  intellectual  power 
and  military  skill.  His  first  important  com¬ 
mand  was  the  expedition  sent  in  20  b.c.  to  re¬ 
store  Tigranes  (q.v.)  to  the  throne  of  Armenia. 
A  more  noteworthy  commission  was  given  him 
in  15  b.c.,  when,  in  company  with  his  younger 
brother  Drusus  (q.v.),  he  defeated  the  Rhaetians. 
Two  years  later  he  was  consul  with  P.  Quin- 
tilius  Varus,  and  in  11  b.c.  he  fought  success¬ 
fully  against  the  Dalmatians  and  Pannonians. 
The  death  of  Drusus  in  9  b.c.  recalled  Tiberius 
to  Germany,  but  in  7  b.c.  he  held  the  consul¬ 
ship  for  the  second  time.  The  troubles  which 
were  to  overshadow  his  life  had,  however,  al¬ 
ready  beg*un.  In  11  b.c.  he  had  been  forced  by 
Augustus  to  divorce  his  wife,  Vipsania  Agrip¬ 
pina,  whom  he  loved  deeply,  and  to  marry  the 
Emperor’s  daughter  Julia,  the  widow  of  Marcus 
Vipsanius  Agrippa  (q.v.).  Her  conduct,  and 
perhaps  his  own  jealousy  of  the  growing  favor 
of  Gains  and  Lucius  Caesar,  the  two  grandsons  of 
Augustus,  children  of  Julia  and  Agrippa,  led 
him  to  retire,  against  the  Emperor’s  will,  to 
Rhodes  in  6  b.c.,  the  year  in  which  the  tri- 
bunician  power  was  conferred  upon  him  for  five 
years.  He  remained  in  Rhodes  seven  years,  and 
before  his  return  Julia  had  been  banished  for 
life  to  the  island  of  Pandataria.  The  death  of 
Lucius  Caesar  in  2  a.d.  and  of  Gaius  in  4  led 
Augustus  to  adopt  Tiberius  as  his  heir.  From 
this  time  until  the  Emperor’s  death  Tiberius 
was  in  command  of  the  Roman  armies,  and  cam¬ 
paign  followed  campaign.  In  4  a.d.  he  reduced 
Germany  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Elbe,  from  6  to 
9  he  waged  war  again  in  Dalmatia  and  Pan- 
nonia,  and  from  10  to  11  he  held  the  Rhine 
against  the  Germans  who  had  defeated  Varus 
(q.v.).  In  12  he  was  honored  with  a  W’ell- 
earned  triumph. 

When  the  death  of  Augustus  occurred,  August 
19,  14,  Tiberius  was  on  his  way  to  Illyricum. 
He  was  summoned  home  by  his  mother,  and  at 
once  assumed  control  of  the  Empire.  Despite  his 
execution  of  Postumus  Agrippa,  the  grandson 


TIBERIUS  CLAUDIUS 


TIBET 


256 


of  Augustus,  his  reign  was  at  first  beneficent. 
Gradually,  however,  a  change  took  place  in 
Tiberius.  He  minimized  the  power  of  the  peo¬ 
ple,  and  transferred  the  election  of  magistrates 
from  them  to  the  Senate.  At  the  same  time  he 
watched  with  suspicion  the  increasing  popular¬ 
ity  of  Germanicus  Csesar  (q.v.),  his  nephew.  In 
19  Germanicus  died,  poisoned,  reports  current 
at  the  time  declared,  at  the  instigation  of  his 
uncle.  About  this  time  the  evil  genius  of  the 
reign  of  Tiberius,  iElius  Sejanus  (q.v.),  gained 
his  ascendancy  over  the  Emperor.  Under  his 
influence  a  system  of  espionage  was  instituted 
which  doomed  all  who  in  any  way  opposed  Tiber¬ 
ius.  Freedom  was  abolished  in  Rome,  the  Senate 
was  demoralized,  and  the  Emperor  sank  to  the 
level  of  a  cruel  and  ruthless  tyrant.  In  23 
Sejanus  abetted  the  murder  of  the  only  son  of 
Tiberius,  Drusus  Caesar  (q.v.).  Three  years 
later  the  Emperor  left  Rome  with  Sejanus,  going 
first  to  Campania  and  in  27  to  Capri,  where  he 
remained  till  his  death. 

In  29  Livia  Drusilla  died,  thus  removing  one 
of  the  last  barriers  to  the  complete  degeneration 
of  her  son.  Two  years  later  Tiberius  learned  of 
the  treachery  and  ambition  of  Sejanus,  who  was 
put  to  death,  only  to  be  replaced  by  Macro,  as 
corrupt  as  his  predecessor.  In  37  Tiberius  died, 
smothered,  though  already  on  his  death  bed,  by 
Macro,  and  was  succeeded  by  Caligula  (q.v.). 
The  reign  of  Tiberius  was  beneficial  to  the 
Empire  at  large,  and  the  provinces  especially 
flourished  under  his  sway.  Only  in  Rome,  and 
only  where  his  personal  interests  were  at  stake, 
was  he  merciless. 

The  writings  of  Tiberius  have  been  lost.  His 
style  is  said  to  have  been  obscure,  archaic,  and 
affected.  He  wrote  a  brief  autobiography,  a  lyric 
on  the  death  of  Lucius  Caesar,  and  a  number  of 
Greek  poems. 

Bibliography.  Eduard  Pasch,  Zur  Kritifo 
der  Geschichte  des  Kaisers  Tiberius  (Altenburg, 
1866)  ;  A.  W.  T.  Stahr,  Tiberius’  Leben,  Regie -. 
rung,  Charakter  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1873)  ;  H.  Schiller, 
Geschichte  der  rbmischen  Kaizerzeit  (Gotha, 
1883)  ;  Sabine  Baring-Gould,  Tragedy  of  the 
Ccesars  (5th  ed.,  London,  1901);  j.  C.  Tarver, 
Tiberius  the  Tyrant  (New  York,  1902)  ;  E.  S. 
Beesly,  Catiline,  Clodius,  and  Tiberius  (ib., 
1907)  ;  T.  S.  Jerome,  “The  Tacitean  Tiberius:  A 
Study  in  Historiographic  Method,”  in  Classical 
Philology,  vii,  265-292  (Chicago,  1912)  ;  and  the 
article  “Iulius,  34,”  in  Friedrich  Liibker,  Real- 
lexikon  des  klassischen  Altertums  (8th  ed., 
Leipzig,  1914). 

TIBERIUS  CLAUDIUS.  See  Claudius  I. 

TIBET,  or  THIBET,  tib'et  or  tl-bet'.  A 
province  in  Central  Asia  forming  the  southwest 
part  of  China,  and  under  the  suzerainty  of  that 
country.  In  its  main  features  it  is  now  fairly 
well  known  through  the  efforts  of  many  ex¬ 
plorers,  in  spite  of  the  policy  of  exclusion.  The 
name  long  covered  half  of  Kashmir  in  the  west 
occupied  by  peoples  of  Tibetan  origin.  But 
three  regions  are  now  excluded  from  Tibet: 
(1)  Little  Tibet,  between  74°  and  79°  east  long., 
now  included  in  Kashmir,  and  composed  of  Bal- 
tistan  and  Ladakh  (qq.v.)  ;  (2)  and  (3)  the 

two  regions  known  as  Ku-ku-nor  and  the 
Ts’aidam,  or  Ch’aidam,  lying  south  of  the  Nan- 
shan,  east  of  tfie  Altin-tagh,  and  north  of  the 
curve  formed  by  the  eastern  and  southeastern 
extension  of  the  Kuen-lun  system,  bearing  the 
names  of  Akka,  Tolai,  Angirtekshia,  Barkhan- 
Bhoba,  Shuga,  etc.  Area,  463,200  square  miles. 


Physical  Features.  Tibet  is  the  highest  and 
most  massive  plateau  in  the  world,  suspended 
between  the  two  great  continental  chains  of  the 
Kuen-lun  and  the  Himalaya.  This  lofty  table¬ 
land  contrasts  sharply  with  the  lowlands  of 
Hindustan  on  one  side  of  it  and  the  desert  of 
the  Tarim  basin  on  the  other,  the  latter  being 
one  of  the  lowest  depressions  in  the  interior  of 
any  continent;  so  that  the  highest  plateau  on 
the  earth’s  surface  rises  close  to  one  of  the 
deepest  depressions  in  the  interior  of  the  dry 
land.  Within  the  mountains  forming  the  periph¬ 
ery  of  this  wide-spreading  highland  three  dis¬ 
tinct  physical  features  may  be  recognized:  (1) 
The  great  plain  stretching  away  from  the  west¬ 
ern  confines , of  Tibet  for  about  700  miles  east 
and  spanning  the  parallels  of  latitude  between 
the  Kuen-lun  and  the  valley  of  the  Sanpo,  which 
collects  the  northern  drainage  of  the  Himalaya; 
(2)  the  valleys  and  ranges  of  south  Tibet,  in¬ 
cluding  the  valley  of  the  Sanpo  or  upper  Brah¬ 
maputra  ;  and  ( 3 )  the  intricate  system  of  ranges 
and  gorges  in  the  east  and  southeast  which  con¬ 
tain  the  sources  of  great  rivers  of  China,  Indo- 
China,  Siam,  and  Burma. 

The  table-land  or  high  plateau  has  an  eleva¬ 
tion  of  14,000  to  17,000  feet  in  the  west  and 
slopes  very  gradually  to  the  east  and  south. 
Some  important  areas  have  not  yet  been  visited, 
but  explorers’  routes  seem  to  show  that  most 
of  the  surface  is  a  mass  of  mountains  and  val¬ 
leys,  the  elevations  rising  from  2000  to  3000  feet 
above  the  plain.  A  great  many  depressions  con¬ 
tain  lakes  which  are  salt  unless  they  are  drained 
to  other  lakes,  the  entire  hydrography  being  a 
system  of  closed  basins. 

The  long  east  and  west  depression  of  south 
Tibet  is  still  very  high  land,  its  ranges  running 
parallel  with  the  Himalaya  and  its  fertile  val¬ 
leys  containing  most  of  the  population  of  Tibet. 
The  valley  of  the  Sanpo  is  most  important  both 
for  agriculture  and  transportation.  In  this 
southern  part  of  the  country  are  the  seat  of 
the  government  and  the  centres  of  culture  and 
refinement;  and  far  in  the  west  of  south  Tibet, 
within  a  few  days’  march  of  one  another,  are 
the  sources  of  three  great  rivers — the  Brahma¬ 
putra,  Sutlej,  and  Indus. 

Eastern  Tibet  is  a  mass  of  ranges,  partly  cov¬ 
ered  with  timber.  It  has  more  streams  that  rise 
in  neighboring  valleys,  but  reach  different  seas 
as  great  rivers,  than  any  other  part  of  the 
world.  The  mountains  among  which  they  rise 
have  a  larger  rainfall  than  the  plains  to  the 
west,  for  they  are  reached  by  moist  winds  from 
the  Indian  Ocean.  Thus  the  headwaters  of  the 
Hoang,  the  Yangtse,  the  Mekong,  and  the  Sal  win 
rivers  are  already  important  streams  before 
leaving  Tibet.  These  highlands,  15  times  more 
extensive  than  the  Alps,  are  not  so  well  known 
as  the  western  plateau. 

Climate.  Owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  air, 
precipitation,  either  as  rain  or  snow,  is  small 
except  among  the  eastern  ranges  to  which  humid 
winds  have  access.  The  climate,  however,  is 
severe  on  account  of  the  great  elevation  in  lati¬ 
tudes  corresponding  with  those  of  the  Mississippi 
delta  and  Memphis.  Explorers  have  found  the 
winter  cold,  combined  with  deficiency  of  oxygen 
on  the  plateau,  almost  unendurable,  and  several 
of  them  have  lost  all  their  pack  animals.  The 
rarefaction  of  the  air  and  the  clearness  of  the 
sky  give  the  rays  of  the  summer  sun  full  power 
and  the  hottest  of  days  are  often  succeeded  by 
night  temperatures  below  freezing.  The  extremes 


TIBET 


257 


TIBET 


of  temperature  are  less  in  tlie  partly  wooded  and 
lower  levels  of  east  and  south  Tibet. 

Flora.  Trees  do  not  grow  on  the  table-lands 
except  in  sheltered  depressions,  and  then  they 
are  stunted.  It  lias  been  settled  that  the  flora, 
so  far  as  the  northern  and  eastern  sections  are 
concerned,  belongs  to  the  Arctic  alpine  division 
of  the  great  northern  region.  In  the  south,  the 
hot  summer  days,  with  irrigation,  perfect  a  large 
variety  of  fruits  and  farm  products.  In  the 
sheltered  valleys  of  southeast  and  east  Tibet 
are  forests  of  timber  still  untouched. 

Fauna.  This  includes  the  wild  yak  ( Poepli - 
agus  grunniens) ,  antelope,  gazelle,  kyang  or 
wild  ass  {E quits  hemionus) ,  nyang  or  mountain 
sheep  and  goats  (found  above  an  elevation  of 
15,000  feet),  wolf,  fox,  wild  dog,  bear  (regarded 
by  the  natives  with  dread  as  the  primitive 
speechless  wild  man  and  hence  unmolested ) , 
musk  deer,  and  hare.  In  gam§  birds — especially 
in  eastern  Tibet — there  are  the  sand  grouse, 
several  species  of  pheasant,  ducks,  teal,  the  bar¬ 
headed  goose,  coolen,  etc.  Among  the  domestic 
animals  are  the  horse,  sheep,  cat,  and  dog,  but 
no  fowls.  Song  birds  are  not  found,  except  as 
birds  of  passage. 

Mineral  Resources.  Clay,  slate,  granite, 
quartz,  and  limestone  are  the  chief  materials 
forming  the  mountain  ranges.  The  country  is 
known  to  be  extremely  rich  in  minerals,  and 
gold,  silver,  iron,  and  coal  are  prominent. 
Gold  washing  is  a  common  occupation  both  in 
the  east  and  west.  In  Thok  J olang,  in  the 
southwest  part  of  the  Chang-tang,  Littledale 
found  mining  operations  carried  on  six  months 
of  the  year,  exclusively  by  Lhasa  people.  Lapis 
lazuli  and  other  semiprecious  stones,  as  well  as 
gems,  are  extensively  used  for  personal  adorn¬ 
ment  by  both  sexes,  and  it  is  supposed  the  coun¬ 
try  must  be  rich  in  these.  The  Kuen-lun  Moun¬ 
tains  have  for  many  centuries  been  the  chief 
source  of  the  jade  supplies  of  China. 

Agriculture.  Farming  and  the  tending  of 
flocks  and  herds  are  the  chief  occupations,  but, 
owing  to  the  elevated  and  rugged  nature  of  the 
country,  both  are  attended  with  many  hard¬ 
ships.  The  Chang-tang  (north  plain)  has  some 
grass,  but  it  is  only  at  elevations  less  than  13,500 
feet  that  the  growing  of  barley — the  hardiest  of 
all  the  cereals,  and  the  chief  article  of  food  in 
Tibet — becomes  possible.  The  other  crops  are 
wheat,  buckwheat,  cabbages,  potatoes,  turnips, 
radishes,  and  pulse,  and  among  the  fruits,  ap¬ 
ples,  apricots  (especially  in  the  western  prov¬ 
ince),  and  peaches,  and  in  the  south  pomegran¬ 
ates  and  jujubes.  In  much  of  the  extreme  south 
agriculture  in  the  valleys  is  in  a  flourishing 
condition. 

Industries.  Tibet  has  no  factories,  but  many 
minor  industries  are  carried  on  in  the  settled 
districts,  and  the  people  are  reputed  to  be  skill¬ 
ful  weavers,'  potters,  and  metal  workers.  Many 
women  embroider  artistically  with  gold  thread 
and  colored  silks  and  manufacture  large  quanti¬ 
ties  of  felt.  An  excellent  kind  of  serge  called 
pulo  is  produced  everywhere. 

Commerce.  The  chief  products  of  Tibet  are 
wool,  lambskins,  lynx,  fox,  leopard,  and  other 
skins,  yak  tails,  used  in  India  as  chowries  or 
flyflaps,  deers’  horns,  musk,  rhubarb,  gold  dust, 
precious  stones,  borax,  nitre,  salt,  and  live  stock. 
Much  of  the  wool  (from  goats)  goes  to  Kashmir 
to  be  manufactured  into  Kashmir  shawls.  In 
exchange  for  these  Tibet  receives  tea,  cotton,  and 
cotton  goods,  silk,  sugar,  and  tobacco  from  both 


China  and  India;  satins,  gold  brocades,  red 
leather,  chinaware,  gun  barrels,  hardware,  drugs, 
and  flour  from  China;  leather  and  saddles  from 
Mongolia;  broadcloth,  indigo,  spices,  coral  beads, 
and  pearls  from  India;  and  rice  from  Sikkim. 
Owing  to  the  failure  of  Tibet  to  keep  Yatung, 
near  the  Indian  frontier,  open  to  trade,  the  In¬ 
dian  government  sent  an  armed  mission  to  Tibet 
in  1904  (the  Younghusband  expedition),  which 
compelled  the  Tibetans  to  open  Yatung,  Gyangtse, 
and  Gartok  to  British  trade,  and  British  agents 
are  now  established  at  those  towns.  The  treaty 
signed  by  Tibet  also  provides  that  all  forts  be¬ 
tween  the  Indian  frontier  and  Gyangtse  on  routes 
traversed  by  merchants  shall  be  destroyed  and 
that  no  customs  duties  shall  be  imposed  upon 
merchandise  excepting  those  agreed  upon  by 
Great  Britain  and  Tibet. 

Transportation  and  Communication.  Lhasa, 
the  capital,  is  the  great  central  mart,  from 
which  trade  routes  radiate  in  all  directions. 
There  are  three  highroads  from  Lhasa  to  the 
Chinese  border  and  others  to  various  points  on 
the  frontier  of  Mongolia,  Bhutan,  and  India  and 
through  southern  Tibet,  from  Lhasa  to  Gartok, 
700  miles.  Transportation  is  difficult  and  tedi¬ 
ous,  most  of  these  journeys  requiring  months  to 
complete.  Robbers  are  numerous  and  bold,  hence 
traders  travel  in  large  companies ;  the  pack 
animals  are  yaks,  mules,  ponies,  and,  where  the 
road  is  too  stony  for  the  yak,  sheep  are  used,  one 
sheep  carrying  25  to  30  pounds.  Food,  fodder, 
and  tents  must  be  carried;  the  passes  are  precip¬ 
itous  and  frequently  blocked  with  snow.  The 
animals  are  never  housed  by  the  way,  and  the 
mortality  among  them  is  very  great.  In  the  set¬ 
tled  parts  of  the  country  the  streams  are  usually 
bridged,  or  if  unfordable  they  can  be  crossed  in 
round  wickerwork  boats  covered  with  skins,  the 
animals  swimming. 

Government.  At  the  present  day  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  Tibet  is  in  a  very  uncertain  state,  be¬ 
cause  the  country  claims  independence  of  China, 
to  which  China  does  not  agree,  and  because  of 
the  great  increase  of  British  influence  over 
Tibetan  affairs  since  the  Younghusband  expedi¬ 
tion  of  1904  and  the  Simla  Conference  of  1913— 
14.  Before  the  present  unrest  the  government  was 
as  follows:  At  the  head  stood  the  Dalai  Lama, 
theoretically  an  absolute  ruler,  residing  in  the 
Potala  or  palace  near  Lhasa.  Practically,  how¬ 
ever,  his  action  was  restrained  to  spiritual  af¬ 
fairs,  and  he  was  represented  in  political  matters 
by  a  regent,  chosen  for  life  by  the  Chinese  gov¬ 
ernment  from  among  the  chief  lamas.  This 
regent,  in  rank  a  step  below  the  Dalai  Lama, 
was  supposed  to  be  the  most  learned  lama  in  the 
country.  Then  came  four  ministers  of  state,  one 
of  them  a  lama  and  the  other  three  laymen.  The 
one  who  had  served  longest  was  Prime  Minister. 
Behind  this  machinery  were  two  Ambans  who 
represented  Chinese  authority  and  had  charge 
of  foreign  and  military  affairs.  Both  the  civil 
and  religious  duties  were  largely  in  the  hands 
of  Tibetans.  There  were  courts  of  justice  with 
two  judges  residing  in  Lhasa. 

Population.  Officially,  the  population  of 
Tibet  is  given  as  6,430,000,  and  by  the  Chinese 
Michengpu  census  of  1910  as  6,500,000,  about  14 
to  the  square  mile.  But  these  figures  are  far 
too  high.  Little  estimates  the  number  at  about 
1,000,000,  and  Pere  Richard  at  from  2,000,000  to 
3,000,000.  Rockhill  estimates  the  population  of 
central  Tibet  during  the  middle  of  last  century 
at  1,500,000,  and  this  same  authority  regards 


TIBET 


TIBET 


258 


the  present  population  of  the  entire  area  now 
known  as  Tibet  as  3,500,000,  which  is  no  doubt 
near  the  truth.  Many  influences  are  at  work 
to  keep  down  the  population,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  the  absence  of  immigration,  the 
prevalence  of  polyandry  and  of  celibacy  among 
the  lamaists,  and  the  great  hardships  of  life 
among  conditions  that  render  the  struggle  for 
existence  intense  and  incessant. 

Religion.  Bon,  the  indigenous  religion  of  the 
country,  is  a  kind  of  Shamanism  (q.v.).  It  still 
has  many  adherents,  especially  in  eastern  Tibet; 
but  the  state  religion,  and  the  prevailing  one, 
is  the  corrupt  form  of  Buddhism  called  Lamaism 
(q.v.).  There  are  several  sects,  but  the  most 
powerful  is  the  Gelugpa,  which  constitutes  the 
established  church.  (See  Tsong-k’a-pa. )  For 
the  mass  both  of  lamas  and  people  religion  is 
reduced  to  a  system  of  magic  in  which  worship 
has  no  object  except  to  conjure  the  evil  spirits. 
Followers  of  this  sect  wear  yellow  caps  as  dis¬ 
tinct  from  the  unreformed  Nyingmepas,  who 
wear  red  caps,  and  are  the  next  most  powerful 
sect.  The  lamas  or  monks  are  very  numerous 
and  dwell  in  great  lamaseries,  of  which  there 
are  a  great  number.  The  largest  is  7  miles  west 
of  Lhasa,  and  is  known  as  the  Dupon  monastery. 
It  is  a  city  in  itself  and  accommodates  at  present 
7500  lamas.  Here  is  the  Great  Oracle  of  State, 
operated  by  supposedly  inspired  lamas.  Its  in¬ 
fluence  is  even  greater  than  ancient  Delphi.  The 
Sera  monastery  at  Lhasa  has  5500  lamas,  and 
the  Gandan  monastery  about  2000.  These  15,000 
lamas  practically  control  the  country,  and  at 
times  even  the  Dalai  Lama  and  the  Ambans 
are  forced  to  give  way  to  them.  The  power  and 
richness  of  the  monasteries  increase  yearly,  and 
education  is  chiefly  in  their  hands. 

Ethnology.  Judged  by  their  language  alone, 
Tibetans  proper  belong  to  the  Tibeto-Indo-Chi- 
nese  branch  of  Keane’s  Homo  Mongolicus.  Phys¬ 
ically,  however,  they  exhibit  marked  variations, 
there  being  present  at  least  two  types — one  Mon¬ 
goloid,  the  other  a  somewhat  slender  figure,  thin, 
prominent,  often  aquiline  nose,  straight  eyes,  and 
long,  sometimes  wavy  hair.  In  the  permanently 
settled  portions  of  the  country,  where  centres 
of  population  have  existed  for  centuries,  the 
people  have  varied  considerably  from  the  orig¬ 
inal  type,  the  result  being  a  mixed  race,  becoming 
more  Chinese  as  one  goes  towards  China,  or  more 
Indian  (Nepalese  or  Kashmiri)  as  one  travels 
southward  or  westward.  This  mixture  is  in  part 
due  to  the  concubinage  of  native  women  with 
foreign  traders,  soldiers,  pilgrims,  officials,  etc., 
and  in  part  to  the  system  of  polyandry.  Mo¬ 
nogamy  prevails  among  the  nomads,  but  else¬ 
where  polyandry  is  common,  one  woman  becoming 
the  wife  of  the  brothers  of  a  family,  the  oldest 
being  considered  the  father  of  all  the  children, 
the  others  being  regarded  merely  as  uncles. 
There  is  also  some  polygamy  among  the  wealthy, 
as  in  China. 

History.  The  early  history  of  Tibet  is  leg¬ 
endary  and  obscure.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
century  Tibet  extended  from  Kuku  Nor  and 
Ladakh  on  the  north  into  India  in  the  south, 
while  on  the  east  the  tribesmen  came  into  fre¬ 
quent  conflict  with  China,  and  it  is  recorded 
that  they  even  entered  Chang-an,  the  capital,  in 
763.  In  747  the  famous  Indian  wizard  and 
teacher,  Padma-sambhava,  had  arrived;  he  made 
a  long  missionary  journey  through  the  country, 
everywhere  vanquishing  the  Shamanistic  devils, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  Lamaism.  In  749  the 


first  monastery  was  built.  Muni-tsanpo  came  to 
the  throne  in  789.  In  order  to  better  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  poor  he  compelled  the  rich  to  share 
their  wealth  with  the  indigent.  This  leveling 
process  was  unsuccessful.  Lang-dharma,  who 
died  in  899,  left  only  minor  sons;  the  kingdom 
was  broken  up  into  two,  later  into  a  number  of 
petty  principalities,  and  it  was  easy  for  Genghis 
Khan  to  incorporate  Tibet  into  his  empire  in 
1206. 

Kublai  Khan,  the  conqueror  of  China,  actively 
promoted  the  spread  of  Buddhism  throughout 
the  Mongol  Empire.  Buddhism  having  entered 
from  India  and  China  in  the  first  half  of  the 
seventh  century,  the  language  was  reduced  to 
writing,  the  translation  of  the  sacred  books  was 
begun,  and  about  650  the  first  temple — the  Lab- 
rang,  at  Lhasa — was  erected.  From  this  time 
forth  the  internal  history  of  Tibet  is  the  history 
of  the  struggle  of  Buddhism  (already  corrupt) 
with  the  indigenous  Shamanism  (q.v.),  the  rise 
and  development  of  Lamaism  (q.v.)  and  the 
Lamaistic  hierarchy,  the  abolition  of  the  kingly 
dignity  and  the  establishment  of  the  supremacy 
of  the  Grand  Lama  at  Lhasa  as  the  head  of  both 
church  and  state.  In  1270  he  made  the  chief 
of  the  Sakya  sect  head  of  the  church,  and  con¬ 
ferred  on  him  the  temporal  power.  Near  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century  arose  Tsong-k’a-pa 
( q.v. ) ,  the  great  reformer,  through  whose  ef¬ 
forts  Lamaism  was  purified  somewhat,  and  a 
new  and  powerful  sect,  the  Gelugpa,  was 
founded.  In  1642  Kushri  Khan,  the  Mongol 
Prince  of  Kuku  Nor,  conquered  Tibet,  and  in 
1645  made  over  the  sovereignty  of  it  to  the 
Grand  Lama  of  the  time,  with  the  title  of  Dalai 
(or  Tale)  Lama.  He  has  continued  ever  since 
to  be  both  the  head  of  the  state  and  the  head 
of  the  church,  the  Chinese  Empire  having  con¬ 
firmed  him  in  both  offices  in  1650.  In  1717  the 
Sungars  invaded  the  countrv,  but  were  driven  out 
by  Chinese  armies  in  1720,  when  eastern  Tibet 
was  placed  under  the  direct  rule  of  Chinese  of¬ 
ficials  at  Kansu  and  Szechwan.  In  1774  War¬ 
ren  Hastings  sent  from  India  an  envoy  to  nego¬ 
tiate  friendly  commercial  relations  between  Tibet 
and  the  British  East  India  Company.  Another 
embassy  was  sent  under  Turner  in  1783,  but 
his  efforts  were  made  futile  by  the  policy  of  the 
company  under  the  administration  of  Lord  Corn¬ 
wallis,  who,  under  treaty  engagements  with 
Nepal,  assisted  the  Gurkhas  when  in  1790  they 
invaded  Tibet  and  plundered  Tashilunpo.  They 
were  driven  out  in  1792  and  the  passes  between 
India  and  Tibet  remained  virtually  closed  until 
1903. 

The  latter  years  of  the  Manchu  dynasty  saw  a 
steady  decline  in  Chinese  control  over  Tibet. 
The  inability  of  the  Peking  government  to  es¬ 
tablish  order  and  security  finally  led  to  the  send¬ 
ing  of  a  mission  with  an  escort  (the  Young- 
husband  expedition)  by  the  Indian' government 
to  Lhasa  in  1904,  in  order  to  arrange  matters 
directly  with  the  Tibetan  authorities.  ( See 
above.)  These  direct  negotiations  between  India 
and  Tibet  led  to  a  protest  from  the  Chinese 
government,  who  demanded  recognition  as  the 
suzerain  of  Tibet.  The  lengthy  negotiations 
which  followed  resulted  in  the  Anglo-Chinese 
convention  of  1906,  supplemented  by  a  trade 
agreement  in  1908.  China,  as  the  recognized 
sovereign  power  in  Tibet,  paid  to  the  British 
an  indemnity  of  2,500,000  rupees,  and  Great 
Britain  began  to  evacuate  the  Cliumbi  valley  in 
Februarv,  1908. 

V  ' 


TIBET 


TIBIA 


259 


Great  Britain  next  made  a  convention  with 
Russia,  Aug.  31,  1907,  in  which  both  high  con¬ 
tracting  parties  agreed  not  to  enter  into  negotia¬ 
tions  with  Tibet  except  through  the  Chinese 
government;  nor  was  either  power  to  send  rep¬ 
resentatives  to  Lhasa. 

The  Chinese  retained  their  hold  on  Tibet  until 
the  revolution  of  1911.  When  it  broke  out  the 
Chinese  garrison  at  Lhasa  mutinied  in  sympathy, 
but  their  lawless  excesses  against  the  inhabitants 
led  to  a  revolt.  They  were  besieged  in  Lhasa 
until  August,  1912,  when  they  were  forced  to 
retire,  minus  arms  and  ammunition,  from  Tibet 
by  way  of  India.  An  expedition  was  immediately 
organized  in  China  for  the  purpose  of  reconquer¬ 
ing  Tibet,  and  it  would  have  been  successful 
had  not  Great  Britain  protested  that  such  ex¬ 
pedition  was  a  violation  of  the  Anglo-Chinese 
treaty  of  1906.  China  claimed  the  right  to  send 
troops  into  Tibet  to  restore  order  and  to  pacify 
the  borderland,  also  to  police  and  administer 
the  country  according  to  her  suzerain  rights. 
She  disclaimed  all  intention  to  convert  Tibet 
into  a  Chinese  province.  Great  Britain,  how¬ 
ever,  prevented  the  sending  of  the  expedition 
and  the  consequent  subjugation  of  the  country 
by  the  Chinese. 

By  1913  all  Chinese  troops  had  been  driven 
out  of  Tibet,  and  the  Tibetans  claimed  inde¬ 
pendence.  An  agreement  to  that  effect  Was 
made,  Jan.  11,  1913,  with  Mongolia.  The  Dalai 
Lama,  as  Sovereign  of  Tibet,  approved  of  the 
formation  of  an  independent  state  in  Mongolia 
(Outer),  which,  had  also  revolted  from  Chinese 
authority,  while  the  Sovereign  of  Mongolia  (the 
Hutukhta  of  Urga)  likewise  approved  of  Tibet 
as  an  independent  state.  Buddhism  was  to  be 
established  on  a  firm  footing,  and  mutual  as¬ 
sistance  and  protection  (against  China)  was 
promised  by  one  new  state  to  the  other. 

An  attempt  to  end  the  anomalous  situation 
in  Tibet  and  to  establish  its  status  was  made 
by  the  Simla  Conference,  which  met  in  October, 
1913,  with  representatives  from  China,  the  In¬ 
dian  government,  and  the  Dalai  Lama.  The 
conference  resulted,  April  27,  1914,  in  a  pro¬ 
visional  agreement  of  11  articles  and  a  later  ex¬ 
change  of  notes  of  seven  articles.  The  following 
provisions  were  adopted :  ( 1 )  For  administra¬ 

tive  purposes  Tibet  was  to  be  divided  into  Outer 
and  Inner  Tibet,  Inner  Tibet  being  the  region 
adjacent  to  China.  (2)  Tibet  was  to  form 
part  of  Chinese  territory,  under  Chinese  suzer¬ 
ainty.  (3)  Outer  Tibet  was  to  be  autonomous. 
Great  Britain  and  China  were  to  abstain  from 
all  interference  with  its  administration.  China 
was  to  agree  that  Outer  Tibet  would  not  be  rep¬ 
resented  in  any  future  Chinese  parliament,  and 
was  not  to  send  troops  into  the  country,  or 
establish  any  Chinese  colonies  or  civil  or  mili¬ 
tary  officers  in  that  region.  (4)  A  Chinese  of¬ 
ficial  was  to  be  maintained  at  Lhasa,  with  an 
eshort  of  300  men.  (5)  The  British  agent  at 
Gyangtse  might  visit  Lhasa  with  an  escort.  (6) 
The  trade  regulations  of  1893  and  1908  were  to 
be  cancelled.  ( 7 )  Difficulties  between  the  Chi¬ 
nese  and  Tibetan  (Outer)  governments  arising 
out  of  this  agreement  were  to  be  referred  to 
Great  Britain  for  adjudication. 

The  Chinese  government  at  Peking  repudiated 
the  acts  of  its  representative  and  refused  to 
sign,  although  Great  Britain  and  Tibet  signed 
on  July  3,  1914.  China  based  her  refusal  on  the 
fact  that  Chiamdo  was  included  in  Outer  instead 
of  Inner  Tibet,  and  that  Litang  and  Ba+ang  in 


Inner  Tibet  were  in  reality  parts  of  Szechwan 
Province.  Great  Britain  notified  the  Chinese 
government  that,  until  the  convention  was 
signed,  China  would  be  deprived  of  all  the  rights 
and  benefits  accruing  to  her  therefrom. 

Bibliography.  Samuel  Turner,  Account  of 
an  Embassy  to  the  Court  of  the  Teshoo  Lama  in 
Tibet  (London,  1800)  ;  Thomas  Thomson,  West¬ 
ern  Himalaya  and  Tibet  (ib.,  1852)  ;  Koppen, 
Tibet  und  der  Lamaismus  bis  zur  Zeit  der  Mon¬ 
gol  enherr  sclia  ft  (Berlin,  1859)  ;  Sir  T.  E.  Gor¬ 
don,  Roof  of  the  World  (Edinburgh,  1876)  ; 
Konrad  Ganzemuller,  Tibet  nach  den  Resultaten 
geographischer  Forscliungen  fruherer  und  neues- 
ter  Zeit  (Stuttgart,  1878)  ;  W.  J.  Gill,  River  of 
Golden  Sand  (2  vols.,  London,  1880)  ;  W.  W. 
Rockhill,  Land  of  the  Lamas  (New  York,  1891)  ; 
A.  E.  Pratt,  To  the  Snows  of  Tibet  through 
China  (London,  1892)  ;  E.  Lamairesse,  L’Empire 
Chinois;  la  Bouddhisme  en  Chine  et  en  Thibet 
(Paris,  1893)  ;  W.  W.  Rockhill,  Diary  of  a 
Journey  through  Mongolia  and  Tibet  in  1891 
and  1892  (Washington,  1894)  ;  I.  B.  Bishop, 
Among  the  Tibetans  (Oxford,  1894)  ;  A.  H.  S. 
Landor,  In  the  Forbidden  Land ;  an  Account  of  a 
Journey  in  Tibet  (2  vols.,  London,  1898)  ;  E.  R. 
Hue,  Travels  in  Tartary,  Tibet,  and  China,  Dur¬ 
ing  the  Years  181fJf-5-6,  trans.  from  the  French 
by  W.  Hazlitt  (2  vols.,  Chicago,  1898);  M.  S. 
Wellby,  Through  Unknown  Tibet  (London, 
1898)  ;  H.  H.  P.  Deasy,  In  Tibet  and  Chinese 
Turkestan  (New  York,  1901);  A.  J.  Little, 
Mount  Omi  and  Beyond,  a  Record  of  Travel  on 
the  Thibetan  Border  (London,  1901);  Sven 
Iledin,  Central  Asia  and  Tibet  towards  the  Holy 
City  of  Lassa  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1903)  ;  id.,  Adven¬ 
tures  in  Tibet  (ib.,  1904);  Das  Sarat  Chandra, 
Journey  to  Lhasa  and  Central  Tibet,  ed.  by  W. 
W.  Rockhill  (new  ed.,  New  York,  1904)  ;  Perce¬ 
val  Landon,  The  Opening  of  Tibet  (ib.,  1905)  ; 
L.  A.  Waddell,  Lhasa  and  its  Mysteries,  with  a 
Record  of  the  Expedition  of  1903-1,90 J  (London, 
1905)  ;  T.  H.  Holdich,  Tibet  the  Mysterious 
(New  York,  1906)  ;  W.  J.  Ottley,  With  Mounted 
Infantry  in  Tibet  (London,  1906)  ;  Ahmad  Shah, 
Four  Years  in  Tibet  (Benares,  1906)  ;  C.  A. 
Sherring,  Western  Tibet  and  the  British  Border¬ 
land  (New  York,  1906)  ;  W.  Filchner,  Das 
Kloster  Kumburn  in  Tibet :  ein  Beitrag  zu  seiner 
Gesqhiclite  (Berlin,  1906)  ;  id.,  Das  Rdtsel  des 
Matschu ;  meine  Tibet-expedition  (ib.,  1907); 
A.  H.  Francke,  A  History  of  Western  Tibet,  One 
of  the  Unknoion  Empires  (London,  1907)  ;  Sven 
Hedin,  Trans-Himalaya ;  Discoveries  and  Ad¬ 
ventures  in  Tibet  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1909-13)  ;  F.  E. 
Younghusband,  India  and  Tibet  (ib.,  1910)  .  For 
language  see  H.  A.  Jaschlce,  Tibetan  Grammar 
(2d  ed.,  London,  1881);  id.,  Tibetan-English 
Dictionary  (ib.,  1881);  Dictionnaire  Thibttain- 
latin-frangais  (Hongkong,  1899)  ;  Graham  Sand¬ 
berg,  Handbook  of  Colloquial  Tibetan  (Calcutta, 
1894). 

TIBET,  Little.  See  Baltistan. 

TIB'IA  (Lat.,  shin  bone).  In  anatomy,  the 
larger  of  the  two  bones  forming  the  leg,  the 
other  being  the  fibula.  It  articulates  with  the 
femur  above  and  with  the  astragalus  below. 

The  tibia  was  also  the  name  of  the  com¬ 
monest  musical  instrument  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  It  was  a  pipe  or  flute,  originally 
made  of  bone,  but  later  of  a  reed,  with  the 
opening  at  the  top,  protected  by  a  natural  knot, 
with  a  tongue  beneath,  partially  detached  by 
a  longitudinal  slit.  It  was  used  at  festivals, 
sacrifices,  and  dances,  as  an  accompaniment  to 


TIBULLUS 


260 


TICINO 


the  rowing  of  the  trireme,  sometimes  also  to  the 
march  of  troops  to  battle.  The  tibia  dextra 
was  the  bass  instrument  and  was  held  in  the 
right  hand,  the  tibia  sinistra,  or  treble  instru¬ 
ment,  in  the  left.  The  tibiae  pares  were  both 
treble  or  both  bass,  and  the  tibiie  impares  were 
one  bass  and  one  treble. 

TIBUL'LUS,  Albius  (c.54-c.19  b.c.).  A 
Roman  elegiac  poet,  born  of  a  noble  family. 
He  inherited  an  estate  at  Pedum,  between  Tibur 
and  Prseneste,  which  had  been  either  wholly 
or  partially  confiscated  in  the  civil  wars.  Tibul¬ 
lus,  however,  recovered  part  of  his  property,  and 
spent  there  the  best  part  of  his  life.  He  was 
patronized  by  Messala,  whom  in  31  he  ac¬ 
companied  to  Aquitania,  to  help  suppress  a 
serious  revolt.  He  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Atax,  a  final  blow  to  the  insurgents;  and  he 
celebrates  in  a  fine  strain  of  poetry  his  honorable 
part  in  the  campaign.  Next  year  Messala  was 
sent  to  the  East,  and  again  Tibullus  accom¬ 
panied  him;  but,  having  been  obliged  from  ill¬ 
ness  to  stop  at  Corcyra,  he  returned  to  Rome. 
Henceforth  he  devoted  himself  to  poetry.  His 
Elegies  (four  books)  are  mainly  addressed  to 
his  mistresses,  Delia,  Nemesis,  and  Glycera.  The 
third  book  is  now  believed  to  be  the  work, 
not  of  Tibullus,  but  of  an  inferior  poet;  while 
the  hexameter  poem  on  Messala  (opening  the 
fourth  book)  is  also  supposed  to  be  by  another. 
The  character  of  Tibullus  was  pure,  amiable, 
and  winning.  During  life  he  had  the  honor  of 
being  addressed  in  an  ode  and  an  epistle  by 
Horace;  after  death,  of  being  bewailed  in  an 
elegy  of  matchless  beauty  by  Ovid.  The  best 
editions  are  those  of  Raehrens  (Leipzig,  1878), 
Hiller  (ib.,  1885),  Muller  (ib.,  1885),  Postgate 
(1906),  and,  with  admirable  Introduction  and 
Commentary,  by  K.  F.  Smith  (New  York,  1913). 
The  poems  were  translated  into  English  by 
Grainger  (1752)  and  Cranstoun  (1872),  into 
English  prose  by  Kelly  (1854),  and  into  English 
verse  by  T.  C.  Williams  (1905).  Consult:  W.  Y. 
Sellar,  Horace  and  the  Elegiac  Poets  (Oxford, 
1892)  ;  J.  W.  Duff,  A  Literary  History  of  Rome 
(New  York,  1909)  ;  W.  S.  Teuffel,  Geschichte 
der  romischen  Litteratur,  vol.  ii  (6th  ed.,  Leip¬ 
zig,  1910)  ;  Martin  Schanz,  Geschichte  der 
romischen  Litteratur,  vol.  ii,  part  i  (3d  ed., 
Munich,  1911). 

TI'BUR.  See  Tivoli. 

TIBUS.  See  Tibbus. 

TICAO,  te-ka'6.  An  island  belonging  to  the 
Philippine  Province  of  Masbate  (q.v.). 

TIC  DOULOUREUX,  tik  dbo'  loo'roo',  Fr. 
pron.  -re.  See  Facial  Neuralgia. 

TICK'BORNE  TRIAL.  A  celebrated  trial 
in  which  an  impostor  attempted  to  obtain  pos¬ 
session  of  the  Tichborne  estates  in  Hampshire 
and  Dorsetshire,  England,  by  assuming  to  be 
the  heir,  Roger  Charles  Tichborne.  The  case  was 
remarkable  for  the  interest  it  aroused,  for  the 
thoroughness  of  the  trial,  and  for  the  impostor’s 
success  in  deceiving  many  people.  The  real 
Roger  Charles  Tichborne  was  born  in  1829,  and 
after  some  education  in  France,  and  at  the  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  College  at  Stonyhurst,  England, 
entered  the  British  army.  His  accent  and  ec¬ 
centricities  made  him  unpopular  and  he  re¬ 
signed  and  went  to  Brazil.  In  1854  he  sailed 
from  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  the  ship  Bella,  which 
was  lost  at  sea  with  all  011  board.  His  father, 
Sir  James  Tichborne,  died  in  1862,  and  as  Roger 
was  supposed  to  be  dead,  a  younger  son,  Alfred, 
became  heir.  Lady  Tichborne  refused  to  believe 


that  her  son  Roger  was  dead,  and  advertised 
extensively  for  information  regarding  his  where¬ 
abouts.  In  1865  a  butcher,  Arthur  Orton,  who 
resided  at  Wagga  Wagga,  in  New  South  Wales, 
under  the  name  of  Thomas  Castro,  conceived 
the  idea  of  representing  himself  to  be  Roger 
Charles  Tichborne  and  claiming  the  estates.  He 
wrote  a  letter  to  Lady  Tichborne  claiming  to 
be  her  son.  The  letter  was  illiterate  and  con¬ 
tained  statements  as  to  his  identification  which 
were  wholly  false  and  inapplicable  to  the  true 
heir.  He  subsequently  came  to  England,  went 
over  the  Tichborne  estates,  gained  all  the  infor¬ 
mation  he  could  as  to  the  former  life  and  habits 
of  Roger,  and  succeeded  in  convincing  the  family 
solicitor  and  others  of  his  identity.  In  January, 
1S66,  he  called  on  Lady  Tichborne  in  Paris 
and  was  received  as  her  son.  This  was  re¬ 
markable,  as  there  was  no  similarity  in  the 
*  _  ** 

appearance  of  Orton  and  Roger  Tichborne,  and 
Orton  had  no  knowledge  of  the  French  language, 
in  which  the  true  heir  was  proficient.  After 
this  recognition  he  had  great  success  in  gaining 
adherents,  but  the  Tichborne  family  repudiated 
him,  and  investigated  his  life,  discovering  his 
true  name  and  past  career.  He  •  succeeded  in 
raising  large  sums  of  money  by  issuing  bonds, 
payable  upon  his  obtaining  possession  of  the 
property.  These  were  widely  distributed.  He 
brought  ejectment  suits  to  recover  the  estates  in 
1871,  and  succeeded  in  inducing  over  100  wit¬ 
nesses  to  swear  that  they  recognized  him  or  be¬ 
lieved  him  to  be  Roger  Tichborne.  Despite  his 
ignorance,  he  exhibited  remarkable  shrewdness 
and  cunning  at  the  trial,  which  lasted  103  days 
and  ended  in  his  being  nonsuited.  In  1873  he 
was  tried  for  perjury,  being  defended  by  Edward 
Kenealy,  and  after  a  trial  of  188  days  was 
convicted,  and  sentenced  to  14  years’  penal 
servitude.  He  was  released  in  1884,  and  unsuc¬ 
cessfully  attempted  to  stir  up  public  sentiment 
in  his  favor.  The  cost  of  the  two  trials  has 
been  estimated  at  £200,000.  Orton  died  in 
abject  poverty  in  1898.  Consult  The  Tichborne 
Romance  (Manchester,  England,  1871)  and 
Charge  of  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  England  in  the 
Case  of  Queen  vs.  Thomas  Castro  (London, 
1874). 

TICINO,  tg-che'nd.  A  river  of  Switzerland 
and  north  Italy  ( Map :  Switzerland,  C  3 ) .  It 
rises  on  the  south  slope  of  the  St.  Gotthard, 
flovrs  in  a  general  southerly  course  through  Lago 
Maggiore,  and  empties  into  the  Po  after  passing 
the  city  of  Pavia.  Its  length  is  154  miles. 
Its  upper  course  is  a  wild  mountain  torrent 
flowing  through  romantic  gorges,  but  below  the 
lake  it  is  navigable  and  communicates  with 
several  canals. 

TICINO  (Ger.  Tessin).  A  southern  canton  of 
Switzerland,  bordering  on  Italy.  Area,  1088 
square  miles  (Map:  Switzerland,  C  2).  It  has 
a  very  mountainous  surface  intersected  by  the 
valleys  of  the  Ticino,  Maggia,  Moesa,  and  of  a 
few  other  streams.  In  the  north  rise  the  Lepon- 
tine  Alps  with  the  St.  Gotthard,  in  the  east 
are  the  Adula  Alps,  wiiile  the  south  around 
Lago  Maggiore  is  comparatively  low,  and  is 
the  most  fertile  part  of  the  canton.  Notwith¬ 
standing  its  mountainous  character,  Ticino  has 
two-thirds  of  its  area  under  cultivation.  Cereals 
are  the  chief  products,  but  southern  fruits  and 
grapes  are  also  cultivated  on  a  large  scale. 
The  manufacturing  industries  are  undeveloped 
and  native  artisans  emigrate  annually  to  other 
parts  of  Europe.  The  chief  means  of  transpor- 


TXCINUM 


261 


TICKELL 


tation  is  the  St.  Gotthard  Railway.  The  con¬ 
stitution  (as  amended  in  1892  and  1904)  pro¬ 
vides  for  a  Legislative  Assembly  elected  by  the 
people  on  the  basis  of  proportional  representa¬ 
tion,  and  an  Executive  Council,  also  elected  by 
the  people.  The  optional  referendum  prevails. 
Pop.,  1900,  138,638;  1910,  158,556,  almost  ex¬ 
clusively  Italians.  Capital,  Bellinzona  (q.v. ). 

Ticino  as  part  of  Gallia  Cisalpina  was  early 
joined  to  the  Roman  Republic.  After  the  de¬ 
cline  of  the  Roman  poAver  it  passed  successively 
into  the  hands  of  the  Ostrogoths,  Lombards,  and 
Franks.  During  the  later  mediawal  period  its 
territory  formed  a  portion  of  the  Duchy  of 
Milan,  from  which  it  was  wrested  in  successive 
conquests  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen¬ 
turies  by  the  members  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy, 
whose  title  was  confirmed  by  the  Eternal  Peace 
of  1516.  The  attempt  to  establish  Protestantism 
in  the  District  of  Locarno  Avas  rigorously 
stamped  out  by  the  exile  of  members  of  that 
faith  in  1555.  Ihe  rule  of  the  Italian  district 
by  the  other  members  of  the  confederacy  was 
harsh,  but  only  one  rebellion,  in  1755,  marked 
its  course.  In  1798  this  district,  divided  into 
the  cantons  of  Bellinzona  and  Lugano,  was  con¬ 
stituted  part  of  the  Helvetic  Republic;  in  1803 
they  were  united  into  one  canton — Ticino — 
Avhich  received  greater  privileges  as  a  full 
member  of  the  confederacy.  Other  difficulties 
Avere  removed  by  the  constitution  of  1830,  but 
measures  of  a  religious  and  commercial  nature 
have  often  separated  the  inhabitants  from  the 
sympathy  of  their  northern  neighbors,  and  local 
struggles  of  Radical  and  Ultramontane  parties 
have  often  necessitated  Federal  interference. 
Consult  Motta,  Bibliografia  storica  ticinese  (Zu¬ 
rich,  1887)  ;  Samuel  Butler,  Alps  and  Sanctu¬ 
aries  of  Piedmont  and  the  Canton  Ticino  (New 
York,  1913) . 

TICI'NUM.  See  Pavia  ( second  paragraph ) . 

TICK  (AS.,  ticia,  misAvritten  for  tiica,  tica, 
Ger.  Zecke,  tick;  connected  with  Armen,  tiz, 
tick).  One  of  those  members  of  the  order  Aca- 
rina  which  belong  to  the  families  Argasidse  and 
Ixodidae,  which  have  been  grouped  together  in  the 
superfamily  Ixodoidea.  The  ticks  or  louse  flies 
are  eight-legged  creatures  in  which  the  cephalo- 
thorax  is  coalesced  with  the  abdomen.  The 
newly  hatched  individual  is  flat  and  nearly  cir¬ 
cular  and  has  only  six  legs.  With  the  first  molt 
it  enters  the  second  or  nymphal  stage,  which 
is  characterized  by  the  presence  of  a  fourth  pair 
of  legs.  After  the  second  molt  it  becomes  ma¬ 
ture.  In  the  free-living  state  the  body  of  a 
mature  tick  is  flattened  dorsally  and  is  of  an 
oval  shape.  The  body  is  covered  with  a  leathery 
integument  which  generally  assumes  on  the 
dorsal  surface  a  hardened,  chitinous,  more  or 
less  smooth,  and  darker  appearance.  Near  the 
margin  it  is  impressed  by  a  depressed  line  leav¬ 
ing  a  distinct  rim  around  the  body. 

All  ticks,  so  far  as  knoAvn,  although  found 
upon  plants  in  their  early  stages,  are  parasites 
of  animals.  The  young  seek  on  every  possible 
occasion  to  fasten  themselves  to  vertebrate  ani¬ 
mals,  usually  mammals  and  birds,  choosing  spots 
AArhere  the  skin  is  soft.  When  the  young  first 
fasten  themselves  they  cannot  penetrate  deeply 
enough  to  draw  blood,  but  the  irritation  causes  a 
suppuration  on  which  they  feed.  When  thev 
ha\-e  grown  sufficiently  to  enable  them  to  reach 
a  blood  vessel,  the  small,  flat,  semitransparent 
creatures  soon  become  distended,  the  body  be¬ 
comes  rounded,  and  the  color  frequently  becomes 


dark  red.  In  a  week  or  more  the  larva  is 
transformed  into  the  nymph,  Avhich  at  the  ex¬ 
piration  of  another  week  is  changed  to  a  mature 
individual.  Only  the  female  sucks  blood,  so  far 
as  is  knoAAm.  The  male  retains  its  form  and 
size,  and  although  it  attaches  itself  to  warm¬ 
blooded  animals,  it  evidently  does  so  only  to 
seek  the  female. 

Several  species  occur  in  the  United  States. 
The  common  dog  tick  or  wood  tick  ( Derma - 
centor  electus )  is  found  frequently  in  the  AAroods 
in  the  Northern  States.  The  common  tick  oc¬ 
curring  upon  the  ground  squirrel  in  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  A'alley  is  Ixodes  rioinus.  Argas  miniatus 
is  destructive  to  chickens  in  parts  of  Texas  and 
Florida,  and  Argas  reflexus,  the  pigeon  tick,  is 
common  in  pigeon  houses  in  Europe  and  the 
southern  United  States.  This  species  is  capable 
of  living  a  great  length  of  time  without  food. 
In  Persia  a  species,  the  miana  bug  (Argas 
persicus) ,  lives  in  houses  and  seeks  human  prey 
at  night;  its  bite  causes  serious  disturbance, 
and  is  said  even  to  cause  death.  In  South 
America  a  species  known  as  garapate  (Am- 
blyomma  americanum)  occurs  in  dry,  bushy 
places,  where  it  clings  to  twigs  and  transfers  it¬ 
self  to  passing  horses  or  cattle.  It  also  lives 
in  the  United  States  and  has  been  found  on 
human  beings.  Eight  species  of  ticks  in  the 
United  States  have  been  found  upon  cattle,  one 
associated  with  the  Texas  cattle  fever  ( Bo- 
ophilus  annul atus )  being  the  most  noted  and 
most  destructive.  Other  species  of  the  same 
genus  transmit  the  same  or  similar  diseases 
of  cattle  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  Bobphilus 
australis  transmits  what  is  probably  the  same 
disease  in  Australia,  and  Bobphilus  decoloratus 
(the  so-called  blue  tick)  acts  the  same  way 
in  South  Africa,  carrying  the  disease  commonly 
known  as  red  water.  Texas  cattle  fever  is  par¬ 
ticularly  destructive  to  northern  cattle  that 
have  been  shipped  south  or  that  have  been 
brought  into  contact  with  southern  infested 
cattle  shipped  north.  The  dipping  of  cattle  in 
vats  containing  cottonseed  oil  or  any  one  of 
seATeral  mixtures,  knoAvn  as  cattle  dips,  destrovs 
the  ticks. 

Certain  mites  of  the  family  Gamasidse  are 
sometimes  known  as  ticks,  although  the  name  in 
this  application  is  erroneous.  The  bird  tick 
( Dermanyssus  avium )  is  a  familiar  parasite  of 
caged  birds.  The  poultry  tick  ( Dermanyssus 
gallince  )  t  also  knoAvn  as  the  little  chicken  mite, 
clings  to  fowls  and  sucks  their  blood.  Certain 
of  the  true  insects  are  also  erroneously  called 
ticks.  For  example,  the  flies  of  the  family  Hip- 
poboscidae  are  quite  generally  knoAvn  as  bird 
ticks.  (See  Forest  Fly;  Pupipara.)  The  de¬ 
graded  Avingless  flies  of  the  family  Nycteribiid* 
are  called  bat  ticks. 

Consult  G.  H.  F.  Nuttall  and  others,  Ticks: 

A  Monograph  of  the  Ixodoidea  (2  vols.,  NeAv 
York,  1908-11),  containing  a  bibliography,  and 
W.  A.  Hooker  and  others,  Life  History  and 
Bionomics  of  some  North  American  Ticks 
(Washington,  1912).  See  also  Dove  Tick; 
Louse  Fly. 

TICK'ELL,  Thomas  (1686-1740).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  poet,  born  at  Bridekirk,  in  Cumberland.  He 
was  educated  at  Queen’s  College,  Oxford,  of 
which  he  became  fellow  (1710-26).  He  at¬ 
tracted  the  attention  of  Addison  by  some  lines 
praising  the  latter’s  Rosamond ;  and  Addison, 
on  becoming  Secretary  of  State  in  1717,  made 
him  Undersecretary.  He  Avas  secretary  to  the 


TICKER 


262 


TICKET  OF  LEAVE 


Lords  Justices  of  Ireland  from  1724  till  liis 
death.  He  published  Prospect  of  Peace  (1712), 
The  Royal  Progress  (1714),  and  a  poetical 
version  of  the  first  book  of  the  Iliad  (1715), 
out  of  which  grew  the  famous  quarrel  between 
Pope  (q.v.)  and  Addison  (q.v.).  His  best- 
known  poem  is  Colin  and  Lucy;  the  longest  is 
Kensington  Gardens  (1722).  Goldsmith  calls 
his  Elegy  on  Addison  (prefixed  to  Addison’s 
Works,  1721)  one  of  the  finest  odes  in  our 
language.  Consult  Samuel  Johnson,  Lives  of 
the  British  Poets,  vol.  ii  (ed.  by  G.  B.  Hill, 
Oxford,  1905). 

TICKER.  See  Telegraph. 

TICKET  (OF.  estiquette,  etiquette,  Fr.  eti¬ 
quette,  ticket,  label,  etiquette,  from  OHG.  steh- 
han,  Ger.  stechen,  to  stick).  A  slip  of  paper 
containing  a  statement  or  certificate  that  the 
person  to  whom  it  is  issued,  or  the  holder,  is 
entitled  to  some  right  or  privilege  therein  re¬ 
ferred  to  or  described,  as  railroad  tickets, 
theatre  tickets,  pawn  tickets,  and  lottery  tickets. 
A  ticket  is  evidence  of  a  contract  between  the 
holder  of  the  ticket  and  the  person  or  corpora¬ 
tion  issuing  it.  Usually  tickets  do  not  purport 
to  express  the  entire  contract  between  the 
parties,  and  the  terms  or  conditions  which  are 
not  expressed  may  be  supplied  by  parol  evidence 
(q.v.).  Where  the  ticket  grants  the  right  or 
privilege  of  using  the  grantor’s  real  estate, 
as  in  case  of  theatre  tickets,  the  holder  of 
the  ticket  acquires  no  title  or  interest  in  the 
real  estate,  but  becomes  a  mere  licensee  (see 
License)  entitled  to  use  the  real  estate  in  the 
manner  and  for  the  purposes  specified.  The 
licensor  or  grantor  of  the  ticket,  however,  may 
at  will  revoke  the  license,  even  though  such  a 
revocation  is  a  breach  of  the  contract ;  and 
upon  such  revocation  the  holder  of  the  ticket 
becomes  a  mere  trespasser  and  may  be  sum¬ 
marily  ejected,  but  only  necessary  force  can 
lawfully  be  used  for  that  purpose.  He  may, 
however,  be  entitled  to  recover  damages  for 
breach  of  the  contract  in  ejecting  him.  This 
right  of  the  theatre  proprietor,  however,  is  not 
an  absolute  one,  to  be  exercised  under  all  cir¬ 
cumstances,  and  if  the  discrimination  against 
a  patron  is  for  reasons  of  race,  creed,  or  color 
a  severe  penalty  will  be  imposed  for  each  ejec¬ 
tion  or  revocation  of  license.  Furthermore,,  a 
license,  evidenced  by  a  ticket,  may  become  ir¬ 
revocable  when  coupled  with  an  interest,  as  in 
cases  where  the  licensee  has  an  interest  in  the 
property  or  enterprise  which  is  involved  in  the 
transaction.  The  courts  of  New  York  have  held 
that  an  adverse  critic  may  be  excluded,  inasmuch 
as  his  exclusion  is  not  on  the  ground  of  dis¬ 
crimination  for  reasons  of  race,  creed,  or  color. 
See  Theatre. 

This  rule  does  not  apply  in  the  case  of 
tickets  issued  by  common  carriers,  who,  by  virtue 
of  their  public  calling,  are  compelled  to  accept 
for  carriage  all  who  pay  a  reasonable  fare  and 
comply  with  their  reasonable  rules  and  regula¬ 
tions.'  Passenger  tickets  under  ordinary  cir¬ 
cumstances  are  generally  now  held  to  be 
contracts,  and  not  mere  symbols  or  means  of 
identification  of  the  passenger,  so  that  the 
holder  of  a  ticket  is  deemed  to  assent  to  its 
terms.  Such  stipulations,  which  usually  restrict 
the  liability  of  the  carrier,  have  been  held  to 
be  valid  and  binding  if  reasonable  and  not 
against  public  policy.  Common  carriers  may 
require  passengers  to  buy  tickets  as  a  condi¬ 
tion  of  their  being  carried;  and,  when  reasonable 


opportunity  to  do  so  is  given,  the  carrier  may 
charge  an  additional  rate  when  the  passenger 
has  failed  to  buy  a  ticket.  Common  carriers 
may  make  any  condition  as  to  the  time  and 
use  of  tickets  which  is  reasonable.  Thus  pro¬ 
visions  contained  in  the  ticket  that  it  shall  be 
used  before  a  date  named,  or  that  it  shall 
be  stamped  by  the  carrier  before  it  is  presented 
for  a  return  trip,  or  that  it  shall  not  be  trans¬ 
ferable,  have  been  held  to  be  valid. 

The  carrier  may  require  the  passenger  to 
produce  the  ticket  or  an  identification  check  for 
inspection  whenever  requested  to  do  so,  and 
upon  the  passenger’s  failure  to  comply  with  the 
regulation  may  eject  him.  This  appears  to  be 
the  general  rule  even  when  the  passenger’s  in¬ 
ability  to  comply  with  the  regulation  is  due 
to  the  neglect  of  the  carrier’s  agents,  as  when 
the  wrong  ticket  is  given  out  by  the  carrier’s 
ticket  agent  or  the  wrong  coupon  is  taken  up 
by  one  conductor,  so  that  the  passenger  is  left 
without  the  proper  coupon  at  a  subsequent 
stage  of  his  journey.  The  passenger’s  right  in 
such  a  case  is  not  to  insist  upon  being  carried 
without  payment  of  the  fare  demanded  by  the 
conductor  or  other  agent  of  the  carrier,  but  to 
pay  the  fare  demanded  and  to  bring  an  action 
against  the  carrier  for  breach  of  the  contract 
evidenced  by  the  ticket.  Purchase  of  a  ticket 
entitles  the  holder  to  all  the  accommodations 
usually  given  by  the  carrier  to  holders  of  that 
class  of  tickets.  If,  however,  they  are  not 
provided,  as  in  case  the  carrier  fails  without 
excuse  to  provide  the  passenger  with  a  seat,  his 
right  is  not  to  refuse  to  pay  fare  or  surrender 
his  ticket,  but  to  recover  damages  for  the  car¬ 
rier’s  breach  of  contract  or  undertaking  to  carry. 
Where  the  passenger  is  riding  on  a  free  pass 
the  duty  of  the  carrier  towards  him  is  the  same 
as  that  owing  to  a  trespasser,  viz.,  to  refrain 
from  wanton  or  willful  injury.  See  Carrier, 
Common;  Transportation;  etc. 

TICKET  OF  LEAVE.  In  Great  Britain 
and  its  Australian  colonies,  a  kind  of  permit 
or  license  granting  a  prisoner  his  liberty  for 
good  conduct,  and  revocable  for  subsequent  mis¬ 
conduct,  under  the  terms  of  its  conditions.  The 
term  was  first  applied  to  the  license  of  liberty 
granted  to  convicts  in  Van  Diemen’s  Land  as  a 
part  of  the  reform  in  prison  methods  in  1840, 
and  later  to  those  who  were  granted  a  similar 
license  in  England  as  a  partial  compensation 
for  their  long  term  of  imprisonment  after  trans¬ 
portation  had  been  discontinued,  but  the  terms 
of  sentence  had  not  been  shortened.  These  con¬ 
victs  became  so  numerous,  and  the  number  of 
crimes  committed  by  them  became  so  serious, 
that  a  still  further'  reform  led  to  the  system 
of  granting  the  license  upon  the  mark  system, 
under  which  it  was  given  only  to  convicts  sen¬ 
tenced  for  terms  longer  than  two  years,  who 
by  their  work  and  industry,  as  shown  by  their 
marks,  became  entitled  to  it.  Under  this  system 
the  ticket  of  leave  has  been  found  to  work  well, 
its  chief  defect  being  the  drawback  put  upon  the 
prisoner’s  chance  of  success  in  obtaining,  work 
and  living  among  reputable  people  by  his  lia¬ 
bility  to  constant  surveillance  by  the  police  of¬ 
ficials.  This  defect  is  largely  removed  bv  the 
existence  of  various  private  charitable  institu¬ 
tions  which  look  after  the  prisoners  who  place 
themselves  under  their  charge  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  remove  the  publicity  of  their  being 
watched.  The  prisoner  is  practically  free  to 
come  and  go  as  he  chooses  within  a  certain 


TICK  FEVER 


TICUNA 


263 


district,  under  certain  conditions  of  living  an 
honest,  industrious  life  among  honest  people, 
and  making  periodical  reports. 

1  lie  eilectiveness  of  such  a  system  of  reward¬ 
ing  good  conduct  on  the  part  of  prisoners,  arid 
inducing  them  to  live  honest  lives  without  im¬ 
prisonment,  but  yet  where  their  conduct  is 
subject  to  control,  has  become  so  generally  recog¬ 
nized  that  similar  acts  have  been  passed  in 
many  of  the  United  States,  the  license  being 
generally  called  a  parole.  Most  of  these  acts 
have  been  passed  since  1890,  and  under  none  of 
them  can  a  parole  be  granted  to  a  person  con¬ 
victed  of  murder  in  either  the  first  or  second 
degree;  and  most  of  them  refuse  it  to  a  pris¬ 
oner  serving  under  a  second  conviction  of  crime. 

Consult  Penology,  and  works  referred  to 
there;  Prisons. 

TICK  FEVER.  See  Spotted  Fever. 

TICKLING.  See  Cutaneous  Sensations; 
Laughter. 

TICK'NOR,  Francis  Orrery  (1822-74).  An 
American  poet,  born  in  Baldwin  Co.,  Ga.  He 
studied  medicine  in  the  North  and  practiced  his 
profession  at  Columbus,  Ga.  A  small  volume  of 
miscellaneous  verses — Poems,  with  a  memoir, 
by  Paul  H.  Hayne — was  published  in  1879. 
Two  poems  of  Ticknor’s  are  well  known  and 
rank  among  the  best  lyrics  produced  in  the 
South.  They  are  the  pathetic  “Little  Giffen” 
and  the  stirring  “Virginians  of  the  Valley.” 
His  Poems,  edited  and  collected  by  M.  C.  Tick¬ 
nor,  appeared  in  New  York  in  191  i. 

TICKNOR,  George  (1791—1871).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  literary  critic  and  historian,  born  in  Boston. 
Educated  in  a  scholarly  home,  a  graduate  of 
Dartmouth  (1807),  admitted  to  the  Boston  bar 
in  1813,  he  gave  up  the  legal^profession  for 
literature,  went  to  Europe  in  1815,  studied  four 
years  at  Gottingen  and  in  other  continental 
cities,  and  returned  in  1819  with  a  valuable 
library  to  a  professorship  of  modern  languages 
and  literature  in  Harvard  College.  Here  he 
devoted  himself  especially  to  French  and  Span¬ 
ish,  attracting  marry  beyond  the  university  cir¬ 
cle.  He  resigned  his  professorship  in  1835, 
passed  three  years  in  Europe  and  11  more  years 
in  elaborating  his  greatest  work,  History  of 
Spanish  Literature  (1849),  which  was  trans¬ 
lated  into  German  and  Spanish  and  came  to  be 
regarded  as  a  standard  work  even  in  Spain.  It 
was  reissued  in  1854,  and  again  reedited  and 
enlarged  in  1863.  A  fourth  edition  embodies  his 
latest  revisions.  He  published  also  a  Life  of 
William  Hiokling  Prescott  (1864)  and  several 
minor  works.  His  Life,  Letters,  and  Journals 
are  collected  in  two  volumes  (1876).  Other 
letters  describing  his  life  as  a  German  student 
may  be  found  in  W.  P.  Trent’s  English  Culture 
in  Virginia  (Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies). 
His  library,  containing  one  of  the  best  collec¬ 
tions  of  Spanish  literature  in  existence,  was  be¬ 
queathed  to  the  Boston  Public  Library.  As  an 
educator  Ticknor  was  in  advance  of  his  genera¬ 
tion;  as  a  citizen  he  represented  the  best  tradi¬ 
tions  of  Boston;  as  a  scholar  he  held  his  own 
with  the  erudite  men  of  his  day,  but  his  great¬ 
est  work  is  now  losing  its  prestige. 

TICKNOR,  William  Davis  (1810-64).  An 
American  publisher,  born  at  Lebanon,  N.  H.  He 
helped  to  found  at  Boston  in  1832  the  publish¬ 
ing  firm  of  Allen  and  Ticknor,  succeeding  to 
the  business  of  Carter  and  Hendee.  His  partner 
retiring  the  next  year,  Ticknor  carried  on  the 
business  alone  for  some  six  or  seven  years,  and 


then  John  Reed  and  James  T.  Fields  (q.v. ), 
flic  latter  formerly  in  the  employ  of  Carter  and 
Hendee,  joined  him.  For  about  10  years  after 
1854,  when  Reed  withdrew,  the  firm  name  read 
Ticknor  and  Fields.  Ticknor  and  Fields  became 
the  publishers  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly  and  the 
North  American  Review.  Their  office,  in  the 
“Old  Corner  Book  Store”  building  (still  stand¬ 
ing  in  1916),  was  a  gathering  place  for  the  lead¬ 
ing  literary  men  of  the  time.  They  were  among 
the  first  American  publishers  to  make  payments 
for  editions  of  English  and  other  foreign  au¬ 
thors,  beginning  with  £100  to  Tennyson  in  1842. 

TICON  'DERO'GA.  A  village  in  Essex  Co., 
N.  Y.,  100  miles  north  by  east  of  Albany,  on 
the  creek  which  conveys  the  waters  of  Lake 
George  into  Lake  Champlain,  and  on  the  Dela¬ 
ware  and  Hudson  and  the  Rutland  railroads 
(Map:  New  York,  G  3).  It  is  rich  in  reminis¬ 
cences  of  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  periods. 
The  vicinity  is  noted  for  its  extensive  produc¬ 
tion  of  crystalline  graphite,  furnishing  the 
greater  part  of  the  total  output  of  the  United 
States.  The  water  power  afforded  by  the  falls 
is  utilized  by  several  industrial  establishments. 
Paper,  wood  pulp,  and  lumber  products  consti¬ 
tute  the  leading  manufactures.  Pop.,  1900, 
1911;  1910,  2475;  1915  (State  census),  2918. 

In  1755  the  French,  recognizing  the  strategic 
value  of  the  promontory,  built  a  fort  here  and 
called  it  Fort  Carillon  (chime  of  bells),  in  allu¬ 
sion  to  the  pleasing  sound  of  the  waterfalls 
near  by.  Several  years  later  the  present  name 
was  adopted.  In  1757  Montcalm  assembled  here 
a  force  of  9000  men,  with  which  he  took  Fort 
William  Henry,  on  Lake  George.  On  July  8, 
1758,  General  Abercromby,  with  15,000  men, 
stormed  Fort  Carillon,  but  was  repulsed  with  a 
loss  of  2000,  Viscount  George  A.  Howe  being 
among  the  killed.  In  1759  General  Amherst 
with  a  force  of  12,000  men  invested  it,  and  the 
French  being  too  weak  to  withstand  an  at¬ 
tack,  dismantled  and  abandoned  both  this  fort 
and  Crown  Point,  which  were  then  enlarged  and 
strengthened  by  the  English.  Being  "weakly 
garrisoned  after  the,  cession  of  Canada  to  Great 
Britain,  Ticonderoga  was  surprised  and  cap¬ 
tured  on  May  10,  1775,  by  Ethan  Allen.  On 
June  30,  1777,  Burgoyne  invested  it,  and  on 
July  5,  by  placing  a  battery  on  Mount  Defiance, 
a  higher  point,  then  called  Sugar  Loaf  Hill, 
he  forced  the  garrison  to  evacuate  the  place. 
Later  in  the  year  General  Lincoln  attacked  the 
British  here  and  captured  Mount  Defiance,  re¬ 
leasing  100  American  prisoners  and  taking  293 
of  the  English,  but  he  failed  to  recover  the  fort 
itself.  After  Burgoyne  surrendered  at  Sara¬ 
toga,  the  English  garrison  was  removed  and 
the  fort  dismantled,  though  in  1780  another 
English  force  under  General  Haldimand  was 
stationed  here.  The  fort  has  gradually  fallen 
in  ruins.  Consult  W.  C.  Watson,  Military  and 
Civil  History  of  the  County  of  Essex,  New  York 
(Albany,  1869),  and  L.  E.  Chittenden,  “The 
Capture  of  Ticonderoga,”  in  Vermont  Historical 
Society,  Proceedings  (Montpelier,  1872). 

TIC-POLONGA.  See  Daboia  and  Colored 
Plate  under  Snake. 

TICUNA,  te-kbo'na,  or  Tucuna.  A  wild 
tribe  of  uncertain  affinity  inhabiting  the  forests 
of  the  Upper  Amazon  ( Maranon )  about  the  con¬ 
fluence  of  the  Javary,  on  the  Brazil-Peru  fron¬ 
tier.  They  go  naked,  excepting  for  necklaces 
of  monkey  teeth  and  armlets  of  feathers,  and 
depend  for  a  living  upon  hunting  and  fishing. 


TIDAL 


TIDE 


264 


Physically  they  are  well  formed,  and  rather 
slender,  with  dark  complexion  and  mild  ex¬ 
pression.  In  disposition  they  are  honest  and 
direct.  They  bury  their  dead  in  great  earthen 
jars,  with  their  face  turned  towards  the  rising 
sun,  and  weapons  and  fruit  placed  upon  the 
bosom.  They  have  interesting  masked  dances 
and  an  operation  allied  to  circumcision  is  prac¬ 
ticed  on  infants  at  the  time  of  assigning  them 
names.  Jesuit  missions  were  established  be¬ 
tween  1083  and  1727.  Consult  K.  F.  P.  von 
Martius,  Ethnographic  und  Sprachenkunde  Bra- 
siliens,  vol.  i  (Erlangen,  1863),  and  A.  F.  Cham¬ 
berlain  in  Journal  de  la  Societe  des  Ameri¬ 
canist  es  de  Paris,  new  series,  vol.  vii  (Paris, 
1910). 

TIDAL  (Heb.  Tid‘al).  A  king  of  Gonm, 
who,  according  to  Gen.  xiv.  1,  accompanied  Chedor- 
laomer  of  Elam,  Amraphel  of  Shinar,  and  Ai  ioch 
of  Ellasar  in  an  expedition  against  Palestine. 
Goiim  is  supposed  by  many  scholars  to  be  a 
clerical  error  for  Gutim.  Tidal  would  then  be 
a  ruler  of  Gutium  ( see  Arrapachitts  ;  Ar- 
pachshad),  like  Amraphel  subject  to  the  suze¬ 
rainty  of  Elam.  Amraphel  is,  no  doubt,  identi¬ 
cal  with  Hammurapi  (2141-2081  b.c.),  and  the 
passage  referring  to  Tidal  in  Gen.  xiv  may  have 
been  drawn  from  a  cuneiform  account.  The 
name  Tudhul,  which  may  have  been  rendered 
Tid‘al,  occurs  in  a  late  cuneiform  inscription, 
as  the  son  of  Gannazi;  but  the  mutilated  text 
does  not  permit  any  definite  conclusion.  See 
Chedorlaomer. 

TIDAL  WAVE.  A  term  erroneously  applied 
to  almost  any  unexpected  wave  that  inundates 
the  seacoast  or  the  shore  of  a  great  lake.  These 
waves  are  rarely,  if  ever,  due  to  the  tides, 
since  the  tidal  wave  is  a  phenomenon  admitting 
of  exact  calculation  and  prediction ;  on  the 
other  hand,  they  may  usually  be  traced  to  some 
distant  earthquake  or  violent  storm.  The  Mes¬ 
sina  earthquake  of  1908  which  had  its  origin  in 
the  narrow  strait  between  Sicily  and  the  Italian 
coast  set  up  sea  waves  which  reached  a  height 
of  35  or  40  feet  and  were  responsible  for 
much  damage.  The  Galveston  floods  of  1900 
and  1915  were  caused  by  the  piling  up  of  the 
waters  driven  in  by  West  Indian  hurricanes. 
See  Earthquake;  Inundation. 

TIDE  (AS.  tid,  OHG.  zit,  Ger.  Zeit,  time; 
connected  with  Skt.  a-diti,  boundless,  and  ulti¬ 
mately  with  Eng.  time).  The  daily  rising  and 
falling  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  When  the 
water  has  reached  the  highest  point  it  is  called 
high  water,  and  at  its  lowest  point  low  water. 
The  rising  of  the  water  is  called  flood,  the  fall¬ 
ing  ebb.  ‘  Tides  are  caused  by  the  gravitational 
attraction  or  pull  of  the  sun  and  moon  upon  the 
water,  and  upon  the  earth  itself.  The  moon, 
being  so  much  nearer  than  the  sun,  is  of  course 
the  principal  cause.  When  the  moon  is  directly 
over  a  given  place  it  pulls  the  water  under  it, 
and  thus  tends  to  heap  up  a  tidal  wave  just 
under  the  moon.  At  the  same  time  it  is  pulling 
the  earth  itself;  but  it  pulls  the  water  more 
than  the  earth  underneath,  simply  because  the 
moon  is  nearer  to  the  water  on  the  surface  than 
it  is  to  the  solid  earth  behind  it.  For  we  must 
remember  that,  according  to  Newton’s  law  of 
attraction,  the  pull  decreases  rapidly  when  the 
body  pulled  is  removed  to  a  greater  distance.  But 
this  reason  also  makes  the  attraction  exerted 
upon  the  solid  earth  greater  than  that  affecting 
the  mass  of  water  upon  the  side  of  the  earth 
remote  from  the  moon.  This  water,  being  still 


farther  away  than  is  the  solid  earth,  gets^  the 
least  pull  of  all.  The  earth  is,  so  to  speak, 
pulled  away  from  that  part  of  the  ocean.  This 
causes  another  distinct  heaping  up  of  water  on 
the  farther  side  of  the  earth  giving  us  a  second 
tidal  wave.  There  should  be,  therefore,  two 
lunar  tidal-wave  crests,  one  directly  under  the 
moon  and  the  other  on  the  side  of  the  earth 
diametrically  opposite.  At  these  points  it  will 
be  high  water,  while  along  the  circle  of  the 
earth  distant  90°  from  the  sublunar  point  it 
will  be  low  water.  In  the  same  way,  -the  sun 
gives  rise  to  two  tidal-wave  crests  which,  how¬ 
ever,  are  not  so  pronounced  as  those  due  to  the 
moon,  since,  on  account  of  the  greater  distance 
of  the  former  body  and  notwithstanding  its 
enormously  greater  mass,  its  tide-raising  force  is 
only  about  f  of  that  of  the  moon.  The  actual 
tide,  then,  will  be  that  due  to  the  added  effects 
of  the  solar  and  lunar  tide-raising  forces,  which 
result  in  a  tidal  wave  with  two  crests  that  are 
at  times  a  little  in  advance,  at  others  a  little 
behind,  the  positions  of  the  crests  due  to  the 
moon  alone,  depending  on  the  relative  positions 
of  the  sun  and  moon.  The  double  tidal  wave 
explains  why  there  are  two  high  tides  and  two 
low  tides  every  24  hours;  actually  the  average 
period  is  24  hours  51  minutes,  since,  owing  to 
the  eastward  motion  of  the  moon,  it  comes  to 
the  meridian  later  each  day,  the  average  daily 
retardation  being  51  minutes.  At  new  and  full 
moon,  the  earth,  sun,  and  moon  are  in  a  direct 
line  with  one  another,  and  consequently  the 
crests  of  the  solar  and  lunar  tidal  waves  will 
then  coincide,  and  we  shall  have  high  water 
higher,  and  low  water  lower,  than  the  average; 
these  are  the  spring  tides.  On  the  other  hand, 
at  first  and  third  quarters,  the  moon  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  sun  as  seen  from  the 
earth,  and  the  crests  of  \he  lunar  tide  coincide 
with  the  troughs  of  the  solar  tide,  with  the 
result  that  high  water  is  lower,  and  low  water 
higher,  than  the  average;  these  are  the  neap 
tides.  The  heights  of  spring  and  neap  tides 
are  very  nearly  in  the  ratio?  of  13  to  5.  Both 
tides  are  most  marked  about  January  when 
the  sun  is  nearest  the  earth  and  therefore  its 
tide-raising  force  is  greatest  whether  acting 
with  or  against  that  of  the  moon.  Between  new 
moon  and  first  quarter,  and  also  between  full 
moon  and  last  quarter,  the  crest  of  the  solar 
tide  is  in  advance  of  that  of  the  lunar  tide, 
and  consequently  high  water  occurs  a  little 
before  the  time  at  which  it  would  be  due  were 
the  moon  the  only  tide-raising  body  concerned; 
and  the  tides  are  then  said  to  prime.  On  the 
other  hand,  between  first  quarter  and  full  moon, 
and  between  last  quarter  and  new  moon,  high 
water  is  later  in  arriving,  and  the  tides  are  said 
to  lag.  The  foregoing  explanation  is  called  the 
equilibrium  theory  of  the  tides.  It  is  very 
plausible,  but  unfortunately  it  fails  to  agree 
with  observed  facts,  though  it  is  nevertheless 
of  great  use  in  leading  up  to  a  better  theory. 
Under  the  equilibrium  theory  we  should  expect 
high  water  at  any  place  about  the  time  when 
the  moon,  as  astronomers  say,  passes  the  merid¬ 
ian.  This  time  might  be  modified  by  the  solar 
effects,  as  we  have  seen,  but  only  to  a  trifling 
amount  which  can  be  easily  calculated.  Un¬ 
fortunately,  this  theory  is  not  in  accord  with 
observation.  There  are  places  where  the  high 
water  comes  as  much  as  six  hours  away  from 
the  meridian  passage  of  the  moon.  In  other 
words,  the  equilibrium  theory  is  at  times  in 


TIDE 


265 


TIDE  WATERS 


error  by  the  maximum  possible  amount.  The 
trouble  is  that  it  tells  us  what  would  happen 
if  the  forces  governing  the  tides  had  plenty  of 
time  to  act.  But  the  turning  of  the  earth  on 
its  axis  continually  presents  a  new  meridian  to 
the  moon,  so  that  the  tidal-wave  crest  is  al¬ 
ways  following  the  moon,  ever  trying  to  be 
highest  directly  under  it.  Thus  what  should 
occur  under  the  equilibrium  theory  is  greatly 
modified  by  the  theory  of  the  motion  of  fluid 
waves.  Phis  leads  then  to  the  dvnamical  theory 
of  the  tides. 

A  consideration  of  the  subject  is  much  simpli¬ 
fied  by  assuming  a  condition  of  things  that  does 
not  really  exist  in  nature.  Let  us  imagine  a 
canal  full  of  water  encircling  the  earth*  at  the 
equator.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  the  first  to 
investigate  what  would  happen  to  a  wave  set  in 
motion  in  such  a  canal.  It  can  be  shown 
mathematically  that  the  speed  at  which  such 
a  wave  would  travel  depends  simply  on  the 
depth  of  the  canal.  The  deeper  the  canal, 
the  greater  the  speed  of  the  wave.  This  is, 
of  course,  very  important,  and  shows  what  a 
perfectly  free  wave  would  do  under  such  simpli¬ 
fied  conditions.  It  can  even  be  computed  that 
if  the  canal  Avere  13%  miles  deep,  the  wave  would 
ti  aA  el  round  the  earth  in  exactly  twenty-four 
hours.  Noav,  it  is  the  tendency  of  the  sun  and 
moon  to  set  such  a  free  wave  in  motion  at  each 
instant  of  time;  and  these  go  on  traveling  along 
more  or  less  like  the  supposed  simple  Avave  in  the 
.canal.  If  the  ocean  were  13%  miles  deep,  the 
waves  would  have  a  period  of  one  day;  and  the 
neAV  free  waves  forming  all  the  time"  would  re¬ 
inforce  the  old  ones,  leading  to  an  enormous 
tidal  accumulation.  Fortunately,  the  ocean  is 
much  less  than  13%  miles  deep,  and  the 
waves  travel  much  more  slowly  than  once  a  day. 
It  may  happen,  therefore,  that  as  the  Avaves 
travel  around  the  earth,  their  speed  may  be 
such  that  we  shall  find  a  wave  holloAv  instead 
of  a  wave  crest  under  the  moon.  Thus,  the 
modification  of  the  equilibrium  theory  by  the 
Avave  motion  may  at  times  completely  reverse 
things,  giving  us  low  tide  when  we  should  ex¬ 
pect  high  tide. 

.we  may  carry  the  canal  idea  a  step  further, 
Avith  a  remarkably  interesting  result.  Suppose 
the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  were  covered  Avith 
a  series  of  canals  parallel  to  the  equatorial 
canal.  Then,  as  we  approach  the  pole,  the 
canals  will  be  shorter,  since  the  equatorial  cir¬ 
cumference  of  the  earth  is  longer  than  it  is 
in  any  other  latitude.  Thus  the  Avaves  in  high 
latitudes  would  not  have  so  far  to  go  as  the 
waves  in  the  Ioav  latitudes,  and  so  might  tend 
to  reinforce  each  other  as  explained  above.  So 
Ave  might  have  inverted  tides  in  the  equatorial 
regions  and  direct  ones  in  the  polar  regions; 
and  in  some  intermediate  latitude  there  Avould 
be,  as  Darwin  says,  “very  great  tides,  the  na¬ 
ture  of  Avhich  cannot  be  specified  exactly.’5  This 
AA'ould  occur,  as  we  have  seen,  Avhere  the  earth’s 
circumference  is  short  enough  to  permit  a 
free  wave  to  go  all  around  in  about  24  hours. 
These  dynamical  considerations  of  Avave  mo¬ 
tion  in  canals  lead  to  results  bearing  some 
sort  of  resemblance  to  the  actual  observed  phe¬ 
nomena  of  nature.  It  should  be  noted,  of  course, 
that  the  foregoing  considerations  refer  to  theo¬ 
retical  conditions  such  as  Avould  exist  if  the 
earth  AA'ere  simply  covered  Avith  a  layer  of  Avater. 
But  the  actual  facts  of  nature  are  so  different 
t  ey  modify  very  greatly  the  theoretical 


tidal  action  of  the  sun  and  moon.  So  large 
a  part  of  the  terrestrial  surface  is  covered  by 
land  that  the  free  motion  of  tidal  waves  is 
seriously  impeded.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to 
predict  the  times  of  high  water  accurately 
from  theoretical  considerations  alone.  Fortu¬ 
nately,  the  practical  prediction  of  the  time  of 
high  water  for  any  place  can  be  effected  by 
analyzing  a  long  series  of  tidal  observations 
made  at  the  place  in  question.  This  method  of 
procedure  has  been  in  use  for  manv  years,  and 
we  now  possess  tidal  tables  for  all"  principal 
seaports  accurate  enough  for  navigation. 

.  A  modification  of  ordinary  tides  occurs  in 
rivers.  Here  the  tidal  rise  appears  of  course 
as  a  strong  current  running  up-stream,  Aidiere 
the  ocean  level  outside  the  river-mouth  has  been 
raised.  At  times  this  tidal  current  advances 
with  a  high  and  dangerous  wave  crest  (called  a 
bore),  and  it  may  acquire  velocity  enough  to 
raise  the  AArater  level  in  the  river  considerably 
aboA  e  that  of  the  ocean  outside.  These  phenom¬ 
ena,  and  indeed  all  tidal  phenomena,  are  partly 
modified  by  the  configuration  of  the  coast  line 
and  the  depth  of  Avater.  (See  Hydrography.) 
Consult:  Sir  R.  S.  Ball,  Time  and  Tide  (Lon¬ 
don,  1892)  ;  G.  H.  DarAvin,  Tides  and  Kindred 
Phenomena  in  the  Solar  System  (Boston, 
1898)  ;  William  Dampier,  in  Voyages  (2  vols., 
ib.,  1906)  ;  W.  H.  Wheeler,  Practical  Manual 
of  Tides  and  I Vaves  (ib.,  1906)  ;  W.  B.  DaAvson, 
Methods  of  Investigation  of  Tides  and  Current  's 
(OttaAva,  1911);  W.  H.  Hunter,  Rivers  and 
Estuaries,  or  Streams  and  Tides  (New  York 
1913). 

TIDEMAND,  te'da-man,  Adolf  (1814-76). 

A  Norwegian  genre  painter,  born  at  Mandal. 
He  studied  at  the  Academy  of  Copenhagen  and 
under  Hildebrandt  and  Schadow  at  Diisseldorf. 
whence  he  went  to  Munich  and  later  to  Rome. 
Afterward  he  usually  spent  the  summer  in  Nor- 
Avay  and  the  winter  in  Diisseldorf.  Besides 
large  historical  compositions,  he  painted  chiefly 
genre  scenes  illustrating  Norwegian  peasant  life, 
which  he  depicted,  in  the  manner  of  the  Dus- 
seldorf  school,  from  the  idyllic  and  romantic 
rather  than  the  pictorial  side.  Such  are:  “De¬ 
votional  Meeting  of  the  Haugianers”  (gold 
medal,  1848,  Christiania  and  Diisseldorf  gal¬ 
leries)  ;  a  cycle  of  10  pictures  (1850,  Chateau 
of  Oscarsliall,  near  Christiania)  ;  “Summer 
Evening  on  a  Lake”  (1851,  National  Gallerv, 
Berlin ) . 

TIDE  WATERS;  The  legal  term  for  Avaters 
subject  to  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide.  For¬ 
merly  the  term  was  synonymous  with  navigable 
Avaters.  The  modern  development  of  waterways 
and  commerce  has  made  many  nontidal  Avaters, 
such  as  canals,  lakes,  and  rivers,  navigable,  and 
the  terms  are  now  interchangeable.  Navigable 
means  for  the  ordinary  modes  of  travel  or  trade. 
The  fact  that  a  body  of  AA^ater  or  stream  is 
not.  navigable  throughout,  or  that  it  is  only 
periodically  navigable,  is  immaterial.  Nor  does 
it  mean  Avater  that  is  used  for  pleasure  alone, 
such  as  shalloAv  streams  or  marshes,  Avhere  a 
row  boat  may  be  floated.  The  legal  questions 
arising  concern  first  the  water,  and  second,  the 
shore  and  land  under  Avater.  Under  the  first 
heading  are  questions  relating  to  navigation  and 
fishing,  and  under  the  second,  OAvnership  of  the 
shore,  pier  rights,  and  oystering.  Because  they 
are  navigable  such  A\raters,  in  the  same  ivay  as 
highAvays,  are  considered  public  property."  In 
England  the  common  Irav  theory  Avas  that  such 


TIDE  WATERS 


266 


TIECK 


waters,  land  thereunder,  and  land  between  high 
and  low  watermark,  belonged  to  the  crown. 
Following  that  theory  the  separate  States  in 
the  United  States  have  ownership,  but  under 
the  powers  delegated  to  it  by  the  Constitution 
the  Federal  government  regulates  foreign  and 
interstate  commerce,  and  exercises  supervision 
over  interstate  waterways,  also  in  regard  to 
irrigation.  ( See  Water  Rights.  )  Before  their 
admission  as  States  the  title  to  tidal  waters  and 
land  within  Territories  is  in  the  Federal  govern¬ 
ment.  The  question  of  control  over  boundary 
waters  often  arises  between  States,  both  foreign 
and  in  the  United  States,  but  is  usually  settled 
by  conventions.  (See  Territorial  Waters.) 
Navigable  waters  may  not  be  obstructed  in  any 
manner  which  would  interfere  with  navigation 
or  use  by  the  public.  They  may  be  privately 
owned,  such  as  canals  and  small  lakes,  but 
thev  are  subject  to  the  supervision  of  the 
State.  Any  obstruction  may  be  removed  as  a 
nuisance.  Bridges  may  be  placed  over  tidal  or 
navigable  waters,  but  they  must  be  built  in 
such  a  manner — either  with  draws  or  of  suf¬ 
ficient  height — as  not  to  prevent  ordinary  trans¬ 
portation  on  the  water  beneath.  A  grant  to  a 
railroad  to  erect  a  causeway  without  adequate 
provision  in  this  regard  would  be  considered 
illegal.  The  right  of  fishing  on  tidal  waters  is 
a  public  right,  on  the  theory  that  such  waters 
belong  to  the  State.  It  is  usually  supervised 
by  commissions  or  officials. 

In  regard  to  the  shore  and  land  under  water 
the  public  has  no  right  to  the  use  of  the  banks 
of  a  stream,  and  on  the  seashore  no  right  of  land¬ 
ing  except  where  the  shore  is  connected  with 
a  public  highway.  It  has,  however,  the  right 
of  passage  over  lands  between  high  and  low 
watermark.  The  famous  Cliff  Walk  at  New¬ 
port,  R.  I.,  is  an  illustration  of  this  principle 
— the  public  having  the  right  of  passage  over 
the  shore  when  the  tide  is  out,  the  owners  of 
the  upland  have  found  it  more  convenient  to 
provide  a  fixed  walk.  Frequently  grants  are 
made  by  the  State  to  municipalities,  as  in  the 
case  of  New  York  City,  and  at  times  to  in¬ 
dividuals.  By  early  statute  in  Maine,  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  New  Hampshire,  and  Virginia,  title  to 
land  between  high  and  low  water  was  granted 
to  the  owners  of  the  upland,  and  in  all  States 
such  grants  must  be  authorized  by  special 
statute.  In  isolated  instances  rights  have  been 
acquired  by  use  and  prescription. 

The  ownership  and  use  of  the  banks  of  a 
stream  and  of  the  shore  involve  questions  of 
riparian  rights  (q.v.) .  Broadly  it  may  be  stated 
that  while  on  nontidal  waters  the  rights  of  the 
littoral  owners  to  the  centre  of  lake  or  streams 
are  absolute,  on  navigable  waters  they  are 
limited.  The  littoral  owner  has  the  right  of 
access  to  the  point  of  navigation,  i.e.,  he  may 
build  a  pier  or  wharf  to  the  navigable  part  of 
the  water,  but  he  must  not  in  any  way  inter¬ 
fere  with  navigation  nor  with  his  adjacent 
neighbor.  Land  under  water  belongs  usually 
to  the  State,  but  title  thereto  may  be  given  by 
special  grant  where  the  owner  of  the  shore  in¬ 
tends  filling  in,  or  for  bulkheads  or  wharves. 
Special  grants  are  in  existence  of  the  bottoms 
of  bays  or  lakes  independent  of  ownership 
of  the  upland,  the  right,  e.g.,  of  oystering  on 
the  bottom  being  absolute  while  the  right  of  the 
public  to  navigation  on  the  surface  remains. 
Consult  Gould,  Law  of  Waters  (Chicago,  1900). 
See  High  Seas  ;  Mare  Clausum. 


TIDORE,  te-do'ra.  A  small  island  of  the 
Molucca  Archipelago,  off  the  west  coast  of 
Gilolo,  a  few  miles  south  of  Ternate  (q.v.). 
It  is  important  as  the  seat  of  the  Sultan  of 
Tidore,  who,  under  Dutch  supervision,  resides 
at  Soa  Sia  and  exercises  authority  over  parts 
of  New  Guinea  and  neighboring  islands.  Pop., 
about  10,000,  consisting  mainly  of  Mohamme¬ 
dans.  See  Moluccas. 

TIE.  In  music,  an  arch  drawn  over  two  notes 
on  the  same  degree,  uniting  them  so  that  they 
are  played  or  sung  as  one  single  note  of  the 
same  value.  See  Syncotatton. 

TIECK,  tek,  Christian  Friedrich  (177 6— 
1851).  A  German  sculptor.  He  was  born  in 
Berlin  and  studied  there  under  Schadow,  and 
later  under  David  d’ Angers  in  Paris.  In  1801- 
05  he  was  employed  at  Weimar,  where  he  was 
associated  with  Goethe,  and  modeled  his  bust. 
After  a  sojourn  in  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Mu¬ 
nich,  where  he  made  numerous  busts,  including 
those  of  Prince  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  Schelling, 
Humboldt,  and  his  brother,  Ludwig  Tieck,  he 
returned  in  1819  to  Berlin,  and  in  1820  was 
made  professor  at  the  academy.  His.  chief 
works  in  Berlin  are  a  mythological  relief  for 
the  Royal  Theatre,  the  bronze  group  of  “Horse 
Tamers”  on  the  roof  of  the  Berlin  Museum,  and 
a  statue  of  Schinkel  in  the  corridor.  Tieck’s 
style  remained  thoroughly  classical,  unaffected 
bv  the  naturalism  of  his  contemporary  Rauch. 

‘  TIECK,  Ludwig  ( 1773-1853 ) .  A  German  ro¬ 
mantic  novelist,  translator,  and  critic,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  Berlin.  After  stud¬ 
ies  at  Halle,  Gottingen,  and  Erlangen  and  four 
years  of  literary  work  in  Berlin,  Tieck  went  to 
Jena  in  1799  and  joined  the  Schlegels  and 
Novalis  in  their  romantic  agitation.  Leaving 
Jena,  he  went  to  Dresden,  moved  to  Ziebingen 
near  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  visited  Italy 
(1805),  England  and  France  (1817),  and  in 
1825  became  director  of  the  Dresden  Court 
Theatre  after  having  since  1819  been  the  centre 
of  a  literary  circle  there.  Royal  favor  brought 
him  in  1841  back  to  Berlin,  where  his  dramatic 
talents  were  used  in  the  production  of  several 
Greek  plays.  Tieck’s  significant  literary  career 
opens  with  Abdallah  (1795),  Sternbalds^Wande- 
rungen  (1798),  and  William  Lovell  (1795—96), 
the  last  a  novel  of  “storm  and  stress.”  His 
youthful  imagination  ran  riot  also  in  mediaeval 
legends  and  fairy  tales,  e.g.,  the  three  volumes 
of'  Volksmdrchen  (1797),  among  which  were  ver¬ 
sions  of  Puss  in  Boots  and  Bluebeard.  A  com¬ 
edy,  The  World  Topsy-Turvy  (1799),  Die  ver- 
kehrte  Welt,  proclaimed  even  more  emphatically 
his  period  of  romantic  revolt.  To  this  year 
belongs  also  the  ultraromantic  work  written  in 
collaboration  with  Wackenroder,  Phantasien 
iiber  die  Kunst,  full  of  enthusiasm  and  of  a 
mystic  religiosity.  His  Romantische  Dichtungen 
(2  vols.,  1799  and  1800)  were  the  first  work 
to  show  the  direct  influence  of  association  with 
the  Schlegels.  They  were  followed  by  an  admir¬ 
able  translation  of  Don  Quixote  (1799-1801) 
and  by  Liaiser  Octavianus  (1804),  which  he 
published  as  a  Lustspiel.  This  period  of  rapid 
production  was  succeeded  by  an  attack  of  the 
gout.  His  subsequent  work  is  less  mystic,  less 
erratic,  more  artistic,  e.g.,  Phantasus  (1812— 
17),  but  Tieck  did  not  reach  his  mature  style 
till  his  visit  to  England,  the  direct  results  of 
which  are  Shakespeares  Vorschule  (1823—29), 
Dramaturgische  Blatter  (1826).  and  the  noble 
continuation  of  Schlegel’s  translation  of  Shake- 


TIEDEMANN 


TIENTSIN 


267 


speare,  of  which  he  was  the  moving  spirit, 
although  his  daughter,  Dorothea,  and  Count 
Baudissin  did  the  actual  work.  Indirectly  the 
same  influence  is  seen  in  the  N ovellenkranz 
(1831—35;  12  vols.,  1853).  Tieck’s  Works  are 
in  28  volumes  (1828-54);  select  works  edited 
by  Witkowski  (4  vols.,  Leipzig,  1903)  and  by 
B*ernd  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1908).  Some  tales  and 
novels  are  translated  by  Carlyle,  by  Thirlwall, 
and  others.  Consult  the  German  studies  by 
Kopke  (Leipzig,  1855)  and  Friesen  (Vienna, 
1871).  Carlyle’s  Essay  on  Tieck  was  published 
in  1827  and  introduced  him  to  English  readers. 

TIEDEMANN,  te'de-man,  Friedrich  (1781- 
18G1).  A  German  anatomist  and  physiologist. 
Born  and  educated  at  Marburg,  the  son  of  the 
philologist  Dietrich  Tiedemann  (1748-1803),  he 
studied  medicine  at  Marburg,  Wurzburg,  and 
Paris,  and  became  professor  of  anatomy  and 
zoology  at  Landshut  (1806)  and  professor  of 
anatomy  and  physiology  at  Heidelberg  (1816), 
resigning  from  the  latter  office  in  1849.  He 
became  known  as  one  of  the  leaders  in  his  pro¬ 
fession.  Tiedemann’s  later  years  were  spent  at 
Frankfort-on-Main  and  Munich.  Among  his 
many  works  are:  Anatomie  des  Fischherzens 
(1809);  Anatomie  der  kopfiosen  Missgeburten 
(1813);  Anatomie  and  Bildungsgeschichte  des 
Gehirns  (1816);  Physiologie  des  Menschen 
(1830-36);  Geschichte  des  Tabaks  (1854). 

TIEDGE,  tet/ge,  Christoph  August  (1752- 
1841).  A  German  poet,  born  at  Gardelegen, 
Prussian  Saxony.  After  studying  jurisprudence 
at  Halle,  he  was  secretary  and  tutor  at  Magde¬ 
burg,  Ellrich,  and  Halberstadt,  and  in  1799 
settled  in  Berlin.  There  he  met  the  celebrated 
Elisa  von  der  Kecke,  whom  he  accompanied  on  a 
journey  to  Italy  in  1804-06,  remaining  after¬ 
ward  her  faithful  companion,  first  in  Berlin  and 
from  1819  on  at  Dresden,  where,  placed  beyond 
material  care  by  his  friend’s  last  will,  he  con¬ 
tinued  to  live  until  death.  Some  lyrics,  of 
which  “Schone  Minka,  ich  muss  scheiden”  is 
still  unforgotten,  first  established  his  reputa¬ 
tion,  and  Urania  iiber  Gott,  Unsterblichkeit  und 
Freiheit  (1800;  18th  ed.,  1862),  a  lyric-didactic 
poem,  inspired  by  the  ethics  of  Kant,  enjoyed 
wide  popularity  in  its  day.  A  kind  of  sequel 
to  it  were  the  Wanderungen  durch  den  Markt 
des  Lebens  (1833).  Among  his  other  poetical 
efforts,  the  Elegien  und  vermischte  Gediclite 
(1803)  met  with  the  greatest  success.  After 
his  death  the  Tiedge  Foundation  was  estab¬ 
lished  (1842)  in  Dresden  for  the  purpose  of 
caring  for  the  poet’s  grave  and  of  granting  sub¬ 
ventions  to  poets  and  artists  or  their  widows 
and  children.  Administered  byt  the  Saxon  Min¬ 
istry  of  Public  Instruction,  its  funds  amounted 
to  more  than  662,000  marks,  in  1901.  Consult: 
Falkenstein,  Tiedges  Leben  und  poetischer  Each- 
lass  (Leipzig,  1841);  Eberhard,  Blicke  in 
Tiedges  und  Elisas  Leben  (Berlin,  1844)  ;  and 
Kern,  Beitriige  zu  einer  Charakteristik  des 
Dichters  Tiedge  (ib.,  1896). 

TIEFFENBRUCKER,  te'fen-bruk'er.  See 
Duiffopruggar,  Caspar. 

TIEGHEM,  Philippe  Edouard  L^on.  See 
Van  Tieghem,  P.  E.  L. 

TIEL,  tel.  A  town  in  the  Netherlands,  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Gelderland,  situated  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Waal,  19  miles  west  of  Nimeguen  (Map: 
Netherlands,  D  3).  The  town  possesses  the 
beautiful  church  of  St.  Mary,  the  church  of  St. 
Martin,  dating  probably  from  the  twelfth  cen¬ 
tury,  and  a  communal  college.  Tiel  was  an 
Vol.  XXIL— 18 


important  commercial  centre  as  early  as  972, 
when  it  received  municipal  privileges  from  the 
Emperor  Otho  I.  It  is  the  principal  trading 
place  of  the  Neuse-Waal  district.  It  manu¬ 
factures  mustard,  madder,  furniture,  and  to¬ 
bacco.  Pop.,  1909,  10,654. 

TIELE,  te'le,  Cornelis  Petrus  (1830-1902). 
A  Dutch  theologian.  He  was  born  near  Leyden, 
and  studied  at  Leyden  and  Amsterdam.  He 
then  entered  the  ministry,  being  connected  with 
the  Remonstrant  or  Radical  sect  of  the  Evangeli¬ 
cal  church,  and  served  churches  at  Moordrecht 
and  Rotterdam  (1853-72).  Meanwhile  he  con¬ 
tinued  his  theological  studies  and  published  a 
valuable  work  on  Zoroastrianism,  De  Godsdienst 
van  Zarathustra  (1864).  In  1866  he  began  with 
Kuenen  the  editing  of  the  Theologiscli  Tijd- 
schrift  which  at  once  became  one  of  the  leading 
continental  reviews.  In  1872  he  published  a 
Comparative  History  of  Egyptian  and  Semitic 
Religions.  In  1873  he  became  professor  of 
theology  at  the  Remonstrant  Seminary  at  Ley¬ 
den,  and  while  there  published  a  Manual  of  the 
History  of  Religions  (1876),  which  at  once  took 
a  leading  place  in  the  literature  of  the  subject 
(Eng.  trans.,  1877).  In  1877  Tiele  became  pro¬ 
fessor  in  the  newly  founded  chair  of  the  history 
and  philosophy  of  religion  at  the  University 
of  Leyden,  from  which  he  retired  in  1901.  In 
1886-88  he  published  Babylonisch-assyrische  Ge¬ 
schichte.  In  1893  he  began  the  publication  of 
a  monumental  work  on  The  History  of  Religions 
Dotcn  to  the  Days  of  Alexander  the  Great 
(translated  into  German,  Geschichte  der  Reli¬ 
gion  im  Alterthum ,  Gotha,  1895).  In  1896-97 
he  gave  two  courses  of  lectures  at  Edinburgh  on 
the  Gifford  Foundation,  published  as  The  Ele¬ 
ments  of  the  Science  of  Religion  (1897-99),  and 
also  in  Holland  and  Germany.  Consult  The 
Study  of  Religion  (New  York,  1902),  and  L.  H. 
Jordan,  Comparative  Religion  (ib.,  1905). 

TIENEN,  te'nen.  A  town  of  Belgium.  See 
Tirlemont. 

TIENTSIN,  tyen'tsm';  properly  TIEN¬ 
TSIN  ( Heaven’s  Ford ) .  A  city  and  treaty 
port  of  Province  of  Chihli,  China,  situated  on 
the  eastern  edge  of  the  Great  Plain,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Pei -ho  (Map:  China,  L  4).  It 
is  at  the  junction  of  the  Pei-ho  with  the  Grand 
Canal,  which,  prior  to  the  silting  of  the  canal, 
afforded  easy  inland  communication  with  many 
of  the  great  cities  of  the  country  and  bore 
to  Tientsin  the  great  fleets  of  junks  engaged  in 
the  transportation  from  the  south  of  the  tribute- 
rice  for  the  provisioning  of  Peking.  It  is  70 
miles  by  water  from  the  sea,  and  about  70 
southeast  of  Peking.  It  is  in  rail  communica¬ 
tion  with  Peking,  the  Kaiping  coal  mines,  Shan- 
liai-kwan,  and  Manchuria,  and  with  Paotingfu, 
and  thence  southward  through  Chingting  with 
Hankow.  The  city,  which  was  only  a  wei  or 
military  station  until  1782,  is  comparatively 
small.  Its  walls  of  brick  and  stone  are  30  feet 
high,  nearly  4  miles  in  circuit,  and  pierced 
with  four  gates  surmounted  with  towers.  The 
houses  are  generally  of  brick  or  pressed  mud, 
and  only  one  story  high.  Like  those  of  most 
Chinese  cities,  the  streets  are  filthy  and  ill-kept. 
The  suburbs  are  very  large,  and  in  them  is  car¬ 
ried  on  most  of  the  trade.  Pop.,  about  800,000. 
In  1860  Tientsin  was  opened  by  treaty  to 
foreign  residence  and  trade.  The  foreign  settle- 
ment — known  as  Tsuchulin,  or  Red  Bamboo 
Grove — is  also  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  and  about  1^  miles  below  the  city. 


TIENTSIN 


268 


TIEPOLO 


but  within  the  line  of  circumvallation  known 
as  San-ko-lin-sin’s  Folly.  (See  Seng-ko-lin- 
sin.)  It  is  laid  out  in  foreign  style,  has  a 
jetty  or  pier  and  a  fine  esplanade  along  the 
river  bank,  well-kept  streets,  fine  dwellings  and 
warehouses,  gas,  electric  lights,  and  many  good 
public  buildings,  such  as  the  customhouse  and 
the  town  hall,  known  as  Gordon  Hall.  There 
are  schools,  hospitals,  clubhouses,  and  the  naval 
school  established  by  Li  Hung  Chang,  and  within 
a  short  distance  are  two  well-equipped  arsenals. 
The  government  of  the  settlement  is  vested  in 
a  municipal  council  elected  by  and  composed  of 
the  land  renters. 

Tientsin  has  no  factories.  Its  principal  manu¬ 
factures  are  straw  braid  and  samshu,  and  cured 
skins  and  tobacco.  There  is  an  immense  trade 
in  salt. 

The  customs  collections  at  Tientsin  for  1913 
were  second  highest  of  all  Chinese  ports  and 
amounted  to  $3,253,966.  Direct  foreign  imports 
in  1913  equaled  $38,053,534,  and  foreign  im¬ 
ports  from  Chinese  ports  to  Tientsin,  $15,018,- 
693,  a  total  of  $53,072,227.  The  net  value  of 
native  Chinese  goods  imported  into  Tientsin  in 
1913  was  $18,424,399.  Exports  reached  a  total 
of  $28,031,010.  Foreign  goods  sent  inland  from 
Tientsin  amounted  to  $27,700,000.  Shipping 
consisted  of  1001  steamers  entering  with  total 
tonnage  of  1,247,767,  and  clearances  of  998 
steamers  with  tonnage  of  1,244,188.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  imports  are  woolens,  drills,  sheetings, 
shirtings,  jeans,  twills,  seaweed,  sugar,  rice, 
grain,  kerosene  oil,  tea,  opium,  cigarettes,  paper, 
munitions  of  war,  steel,  and  salt  (the  last  is  a 
government  monopoly).  The  articles  of  export 
are  samshu,  straw  braid,  furs,  goatskins,  camels’ 
wool,  coal,  wood,  tobacco,  fruit,  and  rhubarb. 
A  very  large  proportion  of  the  tea  consumed  in 
Asiatic  Russia  is  shipped  from  the  south  to 
Tientsin,  from  which  point  it  is  taken  overland 
by  caravans  to  Kalgan  and  thence  to  Siberian 
ports. 

In  1853  Tientsin  was  besieged  by  a  strong 
force  of  Taiping  rebels  on  their  way  to  Peking, 
but  they  were  defeated  by  the  Mongol  general 
San-ko-iin-sin  and  driven  off.  In  1860  it  was 
taken  by  the  Anglo-French  punitive  expedition 
on  its  way  to  Peking.  While  Li  Hung  Chang 
was  Viceroy  of  Chihli,  from  1870  to  1895,  he 
made  his  headquarters  at  Tientsin,  and  in  con¬ 
sequence  the  city  was  the  centre  of  much  politi¬ 
cal  interest.  its  importance  in  this  respect 
greatly  declined  when  Li  was  removed  from 
office  "after  the  disastrous  war  with  Japan  in 
1894-95.  During  the  Boxer  uprising  in  1900 
the  foreign  settlement  suffered  from  the  besieg¬ 
ing  Boxers,  and  the  city  from  the  relieving 
forces  of  the  allies.  The  city  held  out  until 
the  severe  fighting  of  July  13-14,  during  which 
the  allies  lost  in  killed  and  wounded  between 
800  and  900,  the  United  States  contingent,  in 
proportion  to  its  number,  suffering  most.  The 
city  is  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  world 
by"  cable.  Owing  to  the  importance  of  the  for¬ 
eign  business  interests  centred  here,  and  the 
proximity  of  the  town  to  Peking,  the  Viceroy  of 
the  province,  whose  seat  is  at  Paotingfu,  spends 
a  large  portion  of  the  year  here.  As  the  river 
freezes  over  in  winter,  Tientsin  is  cut  off  from 
the  outer  world  from  about  November  to  April, 
but  the  foreign  admirals  always  agree  to  have 
at  least  one  gunboat  stationed  off  the  bund 
during  that  period.  The  foreign  concessions  are 
favorite  places  of  residence  for  the  native 


Chinese  merchants  and  business  men,  because  of 
the  settled  and  orderly  conditions. 

TIEPOLO,  te-a'po-16,  Giovanni  Battista 
(1696-1770).  The  last  great  master  of  the 
Venetian  school  of  painting.  He  was  born  April 
.  5,  1696,  but  was  not  a  member  of  the  celebrated 
family  of  Tiepolo,  as  has  been  supposed.  At  an 
early  age  he  was  placed  with  the  painter  Lazzarini, 
a  mannerist,  and  perhaps  studied  with  Piazzetta. 
He  was,  however,  more  influenced  by  Veronese. 
It  is  impossible  to  fix  the  dates  for  his  pictures 
before  1737.  We  know  that  he  was  famous 
long  before  that,  and  was  patronized  by  the 
Doge  Cornaro  and  noble  Venetian  families,  and 
by  many  cities  and  churches  in  northern  Italy. 
The  first  of  his  principal  works  that  can  with 
certainty  be  dated  are  the  beautiful  decorations 
of  the  Villa  Valmerana  at  Vicenza,  executed  in 
1737.  The  subjects  are  taken  from  Homer, 
Vergil,  Ariosto,  and  Tasso.  In  freshness  and 
charm,  in  conception  and  technique,  they  bear 
favorable  comparison  with  Veronese’s  master¬ 
pieces  in  the  Villa  Maser.  In  1739  followed 
the  three  ceiling  decorations  in  Santa  Maria  del 
Rosario  (Venice),  including  the  “Institution  of 
the  Rosarv,”  and  in  1743-44  those  of  the  church 
of  the  Scalzi,  the  chief  of  which  represents 
“Angels  Bearing  the  Casa  Santa  from  Nazareth 
to  Loreto”  (these  were  ruined  by  an  Austrian 
bomb  in  1915).  To  the  same  period  belong  the 
ceiling  paintings  of  the  Palazzo  Rezzonico,  and 
about  1745  he  decorated  the  grand  hall  of  the 
Palazzo  Labia.  The  ceiling  is  highly  fantastic, 
and  the  illusive  architectural  decorations  of  the 
walls  form  an  admirable  framing  for  two  of  his 
best  frescoes,  “Cleopatra’s  Banquet”  and  the 
“Embarkment  of  Cleopatra  and  Antony.”  The 
date  of  his  decorations  in  the  archiepiscopal 
palace  at  Udine,  one  of  his  best  works,  is  not 
known. 

Under  the  patronage  of  Karl  Philipp  of  Grei- 
fenklau,  Bishop  of  Wurzburg,  Tiepolo  passed  the 
years  1750-53  in  that  city,  engaged  in  decorat¬ 
ing  the  episcopal  (now  the  royal)  palace.  On 
the  lofty  ceiling  over  the  grand  staircase  he 
painted  frescoes  of  “Olympus”  and  of  the  “Four 
Quarters  of  the  Earth”;  in  the  Kaisersaal,  three 
scenes  from  the  life  of  Frederick  Barbarossa;  in 
the  chapel,  two  large  altarpieces,  the  “Ascen¬ 
sion  of  the  Virgin”  and  the  “Fall  of  the  Angels.” 
Returning  to  Venice  in  1754,  he  became  director 
of  the  Venetian  Academy.  Between  this  time 
and  his  departure  for  Spain  he  painted  another 
grand  ceiling  decoration,  the  “Triumph  of 
Faith,”  in  the  Chiesa  della  Pieta,  and  perhaps 
most  of  his  easel  pictures.  In  1763  he  was 
summoned  by  King  Charles  III  to  Spain  to 
decorate  the  roy^l  palace.  In  the  guard  room 
he  painted  the  “Smithy  of  Vulcan,”  in  the  ante¬ 
room  an  “Apotheosis  of  Spain,”  and  in  the 
throne  room  magnificent  ceiling  frescoes  of 
“Spain  and  her  Provinces.”  At  Madrid  he  exe¬ 
cuted  most  of  his  etchings,  about  50  plates, 
the  most  important,  showing  the  influence  of 
Goya,  being  the  series  Scherzi  di  Fantasia.  He 
died  at  Madrid,  March  22,  1770. 

In  the  classical  reaction  immediately  follow¬ 
ing  Tiepolo’s  death,  scant  justice  was  done  him, 
and  not  until  comparatively  recent  times  has 
he  been  accorded  his  place.  His  art  is  essen¬ 
tially  decorative,  and  harmonizes  perfectly  with 
the  rococo  architecture  of  the  day.  The  color 
is  light  and  flaky,  and  exquisitely  delicate,  and 
the  treatment  of.  light  is  above  reproach.  To 
a  wonderfully  rich  fantasy  and  invention  he 


I 


TIERCE 


269  TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO 


joined  an  equal  facility  of  execution.  Some¬ 
times  he  degenerates  into  extravagances,  and 
what  prevents  him  from  ranking  with  the  great¬ 
est  artists  of  all  time  is  the  frivolity  of  his  con¬ 
ceptions  and  the  artificiality  consequent  upon 
the  lack  of  a  more  direct  contact  with  nature. 

Tiepolo’s  easel  pictures  show  the  same  grace 
of  form  and  charm  of  color  as  his  frescoes,  and 
are  more  carefully  composed  and  executed. 
Among  the  best  known  are  “Christ  in  the  Gar¬ 
den  of  Olives”  and  “Calchas  and  Iphigenia,” 
in  the  Lichtenstein  Gallery  at  Vienna;  “St. 
Catharine  of  Siena”  and  an  “Adoration  of  the 
Kings,”  in  the  Imperial  Gallery  (ib.)  ;  “Martyr¬ 
dom  of  St.  Agatha”  and  “After  the  Bath,”  in 
the  Berlin  Museum;  the  “Immaculate  Concep¬ 
tion”  at  Vicenza  and  Madrid;  and  a  “Holy 
Family  with  St.  Gaetano,”  in  the  Venetian 
Academy.  In  the  Venetian  churches  are  several 
altarpieces,  like  “Madonna  in  Glory”  in  the 
church  of  the  Jesuits,  and  “Christ  Bearing  the 
Cross”  in  Sant’  Aluise.  lie  is  represented  in 
the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  by  five 
.canvases,  including  two  sketches  for  ceiling 
decoration.  Of  his  two  sons,  who  assisted  in 
most  of  his  works,  Domenico  (1727-1804) 
etched  several  of  his  father’s  paintings  and 
painted  inferior  frescoes  in  his  style,  while 
of  Lorenzo,  the  younger  son,  almost  "nothing  is 
known. 

Bibliography.  Zanetti,  Della  pittura  vene- 
ziana  (Venice,  1771)  ;  J.  C.  Wessely,  “Giovanni 
Battista  Tiepolo,’’  in  Kunst  und  Kiinstler 
italiens,  vol.  xlvii  (Leipzig,  1877);  Urbani  de 
Gheltof,  Tiepolo  e  la  sua  famiglia  (Venice, 
1879);  id.,  Tiepolo  in  Ispagna  (Venice,  1881); 
F.  F.  Leitschuh,  Giovanni  Battista  Tiepolo: 
eine  Studie  zur  Kunst geschichte  des  1,8  Jahr- 
hunderts  (Wurzburg,  i896)  ;  F.  H.  Meissner, 
“Tiepolo,”  in  Kiinstler-Mcmographien,  vol.  xxii 
(Bielefeld,  1897)  ;  Masters  in  Art,  vol.  vi  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1907)  ;  P.  G.  Malmenti,  G.  B.  Tiepolo,  la 
sui  vita  e  le  sue  opere  (Milan,  1909),  the  most 
complete  monograph  on  the  subject. 

TIERCE  (OF.,  Fr.  tiers,  third  part,  from  Lat. 
tertius,  third,  from  tres,  three).  In  music,  an 
interval  (q.v.)  synonymous  with  a  third.  In 
the  organ,  a  mutation  stop  pitched  2  y3  octaves 
above  the  diapason. 

TIERCE.  In  heraldry  (q.v.),  a  term  of 
blazon  used  to  indicate  that  the  field  is  divided 
by  lines  into  three  equal  parts  of  different 
tinctures. 

TIER'CEROON.  See  Quadroon. 

TIERGARTEN,  ter'gar-ten  (Ger.,  Zoological 
Garden ) .  The  largest  park  of  Berlin,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Spree  and  west  of  the  Branden¬ 
burg  Gate.  It  contains  600  acres  and  is  about 
2  miles  long.  It  contains  a  number  of  fine 
statues  and  the  column  of  victory  from  which 
the  Siegesallee,  the  most  fashionable  drive  of  the 
city,  leads  south. 

TIER'NEY,  George  (1761-1830).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  politician.  He  was  born  at  Gibraltar,  Spain, 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  and  in 
1778  entered  Parliament  as  a  Whig.  There  he 
soon  acquired  a  high  reputation  as  a  debater, 
and,  after  Fox’s  withdrawal,  became  a  prom¬ 
inent,  if  not  tbe  leading  opponent  of  Pitt’s  policy. 
For  several  years  it  was  his  custom  to  bring 
forward  a  series  of  resolutions  opposed  to  those 
of  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  He  was 
finally  accused  by  the  latter  of  deliberately  im¬ 
peding  public  business,  and  as  a  consequence 
fought  a  bloodless  duel  with  him.  In  1803  he 


became  Treasurer  of  the  Navy  and  a  Privy  Coun¬ 
cilor,  and  after  acting  as  Secretary  of  State  for 
Ireland  (1806)  was  President  of  "the  Board  of 
Control  (1806-07)  and  Master  of  the  Mint  in 
Canning’s  ministry  J 1827-28).  After  1817  he 
was  the  recognized  leader  of  the  Opposition. 

TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO,  tS-er'ra  del  fwa'go 
( Sp.,  Land  of  Fire;  formerly  often  written  in 
the  corrupted  form  Terra  "del  Fuego).  An 
archipelago  between  lat.  52 6  40'  and  55°  59' 
S.,  off  the  extreme  south  end  of  South  Amer¬ 
ica,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait 
of  Magellan  (Map:  America,  South,  C  8).  It 
consists  of  a  large  main  island  sometimes  called 
King  Charles  South  Land,  and  a  number  of 
smaller  islands,  lying  to  the  west  and  south  of  it, 
the  southern  group  being  separated  from  tbe  main 
island  by  Beagle  Channel.  The  total  area  of 
the  archipelago  is  estimated  at  over  27,000  square 
miles,  of  which  the  main  island  occupies  more 
than  four-fifths.  The  principal  of  the  smaller 
islands  are,  beginning  at  the  northwest,  Deso- 
lacion,  Santa  Inez,  Clarence,  Hoste,  Navarin, 
Wollaston,  and  at  the  extreme  south,  Horn 
Island,  ending  in  Cape  Horn.  At  the  extreme 
east  lies  the  isolated  Staten  Island  or  Isla  de 
los  Estados.  All  these  islands  are  separated 
from  each  other  and  from  the  mainland  by  nar¬ 
row,  deep,  and  tortuous  channels,  and  are,  to¬ 
gether  with  the  west  coast  of  the  main  island, 
deeply  indented  by  narrow  fiords.  The  east 
coast  is  more  regular.  The  Andean  mountain 
system  is  continued  in  several  ranges  through 
the  western  part  of  the  archipelago,  covering 
all  the  smaller  islands  and  the  western  half 
of  the  main  island.  They  are  mostly  of  Mesozoic 
formation  with  considerable  granitic  and  volcanic 
intrusions,  though  there  are  no  volcanoes. 
Their  height  averages  3500  feet,  and  Mount 
Sarmiento,  an  imposing  snow-clad  peak  on  the 
southwestern  peninsula  of  the  main  island,  has 
an  altitude  of  7200  feet.  The  eastern  half  of 
the  main  island  is  a  continuation  of  the  Pata¬ 
gonian  plateau. 

The  climate  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  is  not  so 
rigorous  as  it  was  formerly  supposed  to  be. 
It  is  an  equable  oceanic  climate  with  no  extreme 
heat  or  cold.  A  meteorological  station  estab¬ 
lished  since  1896  at  Ushuaia  on  Beagle  Channel 
shows  a  mean  temperature  for  January  to  be 
52.7°  and  for  July  31°.  The  rainfall  is  greater 
than  on  the  Patagonian  plateau,  and  the  country 
is  more  favorable  for  settlement  than  the  more 
northern  regions.  The  eastern  region  has  good 
soil  and  pasture  land,  and  along  the  base  of  the 
mountains  there  are  extensive  forests  of  beech 
( Fagus  antarctica)  and  pine.  The  western  is¬ 
lands,  not  yet  thoroughly  explored,  are  less  fa¬ 
vorable  as  regards  climate  and  soil,  but  in  the 
east  and  along  Beagle  Channel  hardy  cereals 
will  ripen,  and  considerable  areas  of  land  have 
already  been  brought  under  cultivation  by  white 
settlers.  Agriculture  and  cattle  raising  "are  the 
main  occupations,  though  gold  has  been  found 
in  paying  quantities,  and  seams  of  lignite  have 
also  been  discovered.  The  native  Fuegians  are 
rapidly  disappearing,  and  now  number  probably 
less  than  1000.  They  belong  to  three  distinct 
tribes — the  Aliculufs  in  the  central  regions,  the 
Onas  in  the  west,  and  the  Yaghans  in  the  south. 
Politically  the  portion  of  the  main  island  lying 
east  of  a  line  running  from  the  eastern  entrance 
of  the  Strait  of  Magellan  to  the  middle  of  Beagle 
Channel,  together  with  the  Isla  de  los  Estados, 
constitutes  the  Argentine  Territory  of  Tierra 


270 


TIFFANY 


TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO 

del  Fuego  (q.v.).  (See  also  Argentina,  His¬ 
tory.  )  °  The  remaining  portions  belong  to 

the  Chilean  Territory  of  Magallanes.  The  civil¬ 
ized  population  of  the  Argentine  Territory,  which 
contains  practically  all  the  inhabitants,  was 
2500  in  1912.  The  archipelago  was  discovered 
by  Magellan  in  1520,  but  not  systematically  ex¬ 
plored  until  late  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Bibliography.  Bove,  Patagonia,  Terra  del 
Fuoco  (Genoa,  1883)  ;  Hyadcs  and  Deniker,  An- 
thropologie  et  ethnographie  (Paris,  1891);  W. 
Conway,  Aconcagua  and  Tierra  del  Fuego  (Lon¬ 
don,  1902);  R.  Crawshay,  The  Birds  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego  (ib.,  1907);  Wilhelm  Riinz,  Das 
Feuerland  nach  seiner  Geschiclite,  seiner  Natur, 
und  seiner  Bewohnern  (Alirweiler,  1910). 

TIERRA  ,  DEL  FUEGO.  A  territory  of  Ar¬ 
gentina,  formed  of  a  portion  of  the  main  island 
of  the  Archipelago  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  (q.v.) 
and  of  the  Isla  de  los  Estados  (Map:  Argentina, 
F  8).  Its  area  is  about  8299  square  miles. 
The  territory  of  the  island  was  in  dispute  until 
1881,  when  by  arbitration  of  the  United  States 
it  was  divided  between  Chile  and  Argentina. 
The  territorial  government  of  the  Argentine 
portion  was  organized  in  1884.  The  principal 
river  is  the  Poppei.  The  chief  industries  are 
lumbering,  seal  fishing,  and  sheep  raising. 
Pop.  (est.),  2500,  not  including  the  Indians  of 
the  Ona  tribes.  The  capital  is  Ushuaia  (q.v.). 

TIERS  ETAT,  te-ar'  za'ta'.  See  States- 
General. 

TIES,  Railway.  See  Railways. 

TIETJENS,  te'tyens,  or  TITIENS,  Teresa 
(1831-77).  An  operatic  singer,  born  at  Ham¬ 
burg,  of  Hungarian  parents.  She  made  her 
d6but  in  that  city  in  the  character  of  Lucrezia 
Borgia  in  1849,  taking  at  once  a  very  high  posi¬ 
tion  on  the  lyric  stage;  at  Frankfort  and  Vienna 
she  was  even  more  warmly  received;  and  her 
first  appearance  in  London  in  1858  was  a  com¬ 
plete  triumph.  After  this  she  remained  perma¬ 
nently  in  London,  making  only  two  more  tours, 
one  to  Paris  (1863)  and  one  to  the  United 
States  (1875).  She  died  in  London.  The  great 
volume  and  purity  of  her  voice  and  her  sympa¬ 
thetic  and  dignified  acting  combined  to  make 
her  famous  in  strong  dramatic  parts. 

TIF'FANY,  Charles  Comfort  (1829-1907). 
An  American  Protestant  Episcopal  clergyman. 
He  was  born  in  Baltimore;  studied  at  Dickinson 
College,  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  at 
Halle,  Heidelberg,  and  Berlin;  and  was  ordained 
priest  in  1866.  "He  was  rector  at  Fordham,  N.  Y. 

(  1867-70),  assistant  rector  at  Trinity  Church, 
Boston  (1871-74),  rector  in  New  York  (1874- 
90),  and  Archdeacon  of  New  York  (1893-1902). 
His  publications  include  History  of  the  Protes¬ 
tant  Episcopal  Church  (1895)  and  The  Prayer 
Boole  and,  Christian  Life  (1897). 

TIFFANY,  Charles  Lewis  (1812-1902). 
An  American  merchant.  He  was  born  at  Kil- 
lingly,  Conn.,  and  after  receiving  an  academic 
education  at  Plainfield  Academy,  and  serving  an 
apprenticeship  in  a  cotton  manufactory,  he  re¬ 
moved  to  New  York  City  in  1837.  There  in 
partnership  with  a  fellow  townsman,  John  B. 
Young,  on  a  borrowed  capital  of  $1000,  he  es¬ 
tablished  at  259  Broadway,  next  door  to  A.  T. 
Stewart’s,  a  stationery  and  fancy-goods  store. 
The  venture  prospered,  and  gradually  the  jewelry 
part  of  the  business  became  the  most  important. 
In  1847  the  firm  began  the  manufacture  of  gold 
jewelry.  In  1848,  when  as  a  result  of  wide¬ 
spread  revolutionary  movements  in  Europe  the 


price  of  diamonds  fell  one-half,  Mr.  Tiffany.  sent 
word  to  his  partner,  who  was  then  in  Paris,  ta 
buy  all  the  diamonds  he  could.  This  was  done; 
the  house  reaped  a  large  fortune  and  became  one 
of  the  principal  firms  of  diamond  merchants  in 
the  world.  Several  times  rapidly  increasing 
business  necessitated  moving  farther  up  town 
and  the  firm  name  was  changed  somewhat,  finally 
becoming  Tiffany  &  Co.  in  1851.  At  that  time  a 
branch  house  was  established  in  Paris.  During 
the  Civil  War  Mr.  Tiffany  placed  his  store  and 
resources  at  the  disposal  of  the  government,  and 
it  became  for  a  time  one  of  the  principal  depots 
of  military  supplies.  During  the  draft  riots 
(q.v.)  in  1863  the  store  was  barricaded  and  the 
clerks  were  armed  in  preparation  for  a  threatened 
attack  of  the  mob.  In  1868  the  firm  ,was  incor¬ 
porated  and  in  1870  removed  to  a  specially  con¬ 
structed  building  on  Union  Square.  At  that 
time,  in  addition  to  the  Paris  branch,  a  branch 
house  was  maintained  in  London,  and  an  office 
and  watch  factory  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  and 
the  house  took  rank  as  the  leading  importers 
of  gems  and  works  of  art  as  well  as  the  chief 
manufacturing  jewelers  in  America.  In  1905 
the  firm  removed  to  a  splendid  new  building  at 
Fifth  Avenue  and  Thirty-seventh  Street.  Mr. 
Tiffany  was  the  first  to  adopt  the  department- 
store  plan  for  the  jewelry  business  and  was  the 
originator  of  many  ideas  and  methods  in  the 
jewelry  trade  since  generally  adopted.  The  ster¬ 
ling  silver  standard  0.925  fine,  adopted  by  him  in 
1851,  became  the  recognized  standard  throughout 
the  country.  Mr.  Tiffany  was  made  a  member  of 
the  French  Legion  of  Honor  in  1878  and  received 
at  various  times  decorations  from  other  foreign 
rulers.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  fine  arts, 
and  did  much  to  encourage  and  promote  the 
study  and  knowledge  of  art  in  America.  For  his 
son,  see  Tiffany,  Louis  Comfort. 

TIFFANY,  Louis.  Comfort  (1848-  ). 

An  American  decorative  designer  and  painter. 
He  was  born  in  New  York  City,  a  son  of  Charles 
Lewis  Tiffany  (q.v.),  and  studied  under  .George 
Inness  and  Samuel  Coleman,  and  in  Paris  with 
Leon  Bailly,  making  a  special  study  of  the  deco¬ 
rative  arts  in  their  relation  to  architecture, 
After  his  return  to  the  United  States  he  devoted 
himself  to  stained  glasses,  enamels,  and  other 
decorative  work  in  connection  with  the  Allied 
Arts  Company  and  the  Tiffany  Studios,  New 
York,  of  which  he  became  director.  He  intro¬ 
duced  the  art  of  mosaic  in  America,  pro¬ 
ducing  designs  of  strength  and  fine  decorative 
quality.  His  best-known  invention  is  the  Tif¬ 
fany  favrile  glass,  fvhich  possesses  delicate 
refracting  powers  capable  of  iridescent  effects. 
Louis  Tiffany  made  paintings  on  glass  to  serve  as 
windows  in  the  old  Columbia  University  Library; 
in  Memorial  Hall,  Harvard;  and  in  Chittenden 
Library,  Yale;  and  for  numerous  churches,  in¬ 
cluding  the  church  of  the  Pilgrims,  Brooklyn, 
and  All  Angels  Church,  New  York.  His  prin¬ 
cipal  mosaics  are  in  the  crypt  of  St.  John’s 
Cathedral,  New  York.  Good  examples  of  his 
easel  paintings,  principally  Oriental  scenes,  are: 
“Algerian  Shops”  (1895)  and  “The  Pool’ 
(1896).  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  Academy  in  1880,  and  Chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  (1900).  His  numerous  prizes 
include  gold  medals  at  Paris  (1900),  Buffalo 
(1901),  Dresden  (1901),  St.  Louis  (1904), 
Jamestown  (1907),  and  San  Francisco  (1915). 
Consult  The  Art  Work  of  Louis  C.  Tiffany  (Gar¬ 
den  City,  N.  Y.,  1914). 


TIFFIN 


271  TIGER 


TIF'FIN.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Seneca  Co.,  Ohio,  42  miles  southeast  of  Toledo, 
on  the  Sandusky  River,  here  spanned  by  several 
bridges,  and  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago,  and  St.  Louis  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  D 
3).  It  is  the  seat  of  Heidelberg  University  (Re¬ 
formed),  opened  in  1850,  and  of  the  College  of 
the  Ursuline  Sisters,  and  has  the  National 
Home  of  the  Junior  O.  U.  A.  M.  and  a  public  li¬ 
brary.  Other  prominent  features  are  the  court¬ 
house  and  Riverview  Park.  Among  its  manu¬ 
factures  are  tools,  pottery,  glass,  emery  wheels, 
elevating  and  hoisting  machinery,  church  furni¬ 
ture,  agricultural  implements,  wagons,  well-drill¬ 
ing  machines,  nail,  bolt,  and  nut  machines,  un¬ 
derwear,  gloves,  and  woolen  goods.  Pop.,  1900, 
10,989;  1910,  11,894;  1915,  12,370;  1920,  14,375. 

TIFFIN,  Edwakd  (1766-1829).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  physician,  preacher,  and  political  leader. 
He  was  born  at  Carlisle,  England,  removed  to 
Charlestown,  Va.,  about  1786,  and  graduated  in 
medicine  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1789.  In  1792  he  became  a  local  preacher  in  the 
Methodist  church,  and  also  studied  law.  About 
1798  he  removed  to  Chillicothe,  in  the  Northwest 
Territory,  and  in  1799  was  Speaker  of  the  Terri¬ 
torial  Legislature.  In  1802  he  presided  over 
the  convention  to  frame  a  State  constitution  of 
Ohio,  and  was  the  first  Governor  of  the  State 
(1803-07).  During  his  second  term  he  arrested 
the  Burr-Blennerhasset  expedition.  In  1807-09 
he  was  a  member  of  the  United  States  Senate,  but 
resigned,  and  in  1809  was  Speaker  of  the  Ohio 
Legislature.  When  the  General  Land  Office  was 
established  in  1812,  President  Madison  appointed 
Tiffin  the  first  Commissioner,  and  by  his  fore¬ 
sight  the  latter  saved  all  the  papers  when  the 
Capitol  was  burned  by  the  British  troops  in  1814. 
From  1815  until  just  before  his  death  he  was 
Surveyor-General  of  the  Northwest  Territory. 

TIFLIS',  Russ.  pron.  tyef-lyes'.  A  govern¬ 
ment  in  the  centre  of  Transcaucasia,  Russia. 
Area,  23,146  square  miles  (Map:  Russia,  F  6). 
It  belongs  to  the  region  of  the  Caucasus  (q.v.) 
and  contains  numerous  snow-clad  peaks,  includ¬ 
ing  Kazbek,  over  16,000  feet  in  height.  Be¬ 
tween  the  mountain  chains  are  deep  and  narrow 
valleys,  which  make  Tiflis  one  of  the  most  pic¬ 
turesque  and  striking  parts  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  principal  river  is  the  Kur.  The  climate  is 
very  severe  in  the  mountainous  region.  About 
one-third  of  the  total  area  is  covered  with  for¬ 
ests.  Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation  in 
the  valleys  and  stock  raising  in  the  mountain 
regions.  Besides  cereals,  of  which  wheat  is  the 
most  important,  fruits,  especially  grapes,  are 
extensively  raised.  Various  metals  occur  and 
copper  is  mined  to  some  extent.  The  chief  manu¬ 
factures  are  flour,  cotton  goods,  tobacco,  spirits, 
etc.  The  natives  produce  various  woolen  arti¬ 
cles,  such  as  felt,  rough  cloth,  etc.,  copper  and 
silver  articles,  silver  thread,  filigree  work,  etc. 
Pop.,  1912,  1,202,500,  of  whom  the  Georgians 
and  the  Armenians  constituted  45  and  24  per 
cent,  respectively,  and  the  Russians  less  than 
5  per  cent. 

TIFLIS.  The  former  Georgian  capital,  the 
administrative  centre  of  the  Caucasus,  and  the 
capital  of  the  Government  of  Tiflis,  situated  on 
the  Kur,  about  340  miles  by  rail  northwest  of 
the  seaport  of  Baku  (Map:  Russia,  G  6).  The 
town  presents  a  very  mixed  appearance.  The 
Russian  quarter  is  well  built,  with  handsome 
churches  and  public  buildings  and  European 


shops,  while  the  native  quarter  is  built  in  Orien¬ 
tal  fashion.  The  most  noteworthy  ecclesiastical 

*/ 

structures  are  the  ancient  cathedral  of  Zion, 
containing  interesting  icons  and  manuscripts;  the 
monastery  of  St.  David;  and  the  old  church  in 
the  fortress,  supposed  to  date  from  the  fifth  cen¬ 
tury.  There  are  a  natural-history  museum  with 
a  library,  a  sericultural  station  with  a  museum, 
and  extensive  botanical  gardens.  Agriculture  is 
its  chief  occupation.  Lying  at  the  intersection 
of  the  trading  routes  from  the  Caspian  to  the 
Black  Sea  and  from  the  Armenian  uplands  across 
the  Caucasus,  Tiflis  enjoys  considerable  prosper¬ 
ity.  The  principal  manufactures  are  felt,  cotton 
goods,  woolens,  carpets,  leather  products,  oil, 
wine,  and  tobacco.  '  The  trade,  mostly  in  Armen¬ 
ian  hands,  is  very  extensive,  Tiflis,  in  virtue  of 
its  railway  connection  with  the  two  main  sea¬ 
ports  of  the  Caucasus,  as  well  as  with  European 
Russia,  being  the  distributing  centre  for  Trans¬ 
caucasia.  Pop.,  1913,  350,000,  principally  Ar¬ 
menians,  Georgians,  and  Russians.  The  environs 
abound  in  sulphurous  springs.  The  city  is  very 
hot  in  summer,  when  its  mean  temperature  is 
74°  F. 

TIGER  (Lat.  tigris,  from  Gk.  rcypis,  tiger; 
probably  connected  with  Av.  tlyra,  arrow,  tiyra, 
sharp ) .  The  largest  and  most  powerful  of  cats, 
Felis  tigris,  and  the  most  specialized  and  efficient 
of  the  Carnivora,  comparable  only  with  the  lion, 
and  very  similar  in  size  and  structure,  but  dif¬ 
ferent  in  appearance  and  habits.  It  is  more 
slender  and  catlike  than  the  lion,  with  a  rounder 
head,  no  trace  of  a  mane,  but  with  hair  of  the 
cheeks  rather  long  and  spreading.  Its  skull 
may  be  distinguished  from  that  of  the  lion  by  the 
fact  that  the  nasal  bones  reach  backward  beyond 
the  frontal  processes  of  the  maxillae.  The  males 
are  larger  than  the  females,  and  make  a  more 
square,  less  oval  footprint  or  “pug.”  The  pupil 
of  the  eye  is  round,  however  much  contracted. 
The  average  size  of  an  adult  male  is  9  y2  feet 
from  nose  to  tip  of  tail.  Authentic  measure¬ 
ments  exceeding  11  feet  are  very  rare,  and  sto¬ 
ries  of  15  to  18  feet  entirely  erroneous.  Its 
height  at  the  shoulder  is  proportionately  less 
than  that  of  the  lion,  a  large  male  measuring 
from  3 Vs  to  3 feet.  A  10-foot  tiger  will 
weigh  about  500  pounds.  The  hair  is  thick, 
fine,  and  shining;  imiffie~nffitler-eeuntries  thicker 
and  longer  thafi  in  tropical  regions.  The  color 
is  a  bright  tawny  yellow,  beautifully  marked 
with  dark  transverse  bands,,  passing  into  pure 
white  on  the  underparts ;  the  dark  bands  are 
continued  as  rings  on  the  tail,  which  is  long 
and  .tapering^  and  has  no  terminal  tuft.  These 
colors  and  stripes  so  blend  with  the  gloom  and 
slender  shadows  of  the  bamboo  jungle  or  long 
grass  as  to  make  a  lurking  animal  practically 
invisible. 

The  tiger  inhabits  Asia,  where  it  has  an  ex¬ 
tensive  but  rather  localized  distribution.  West- 
wardly  its  range  extends  to  the  lower  Euphrates 
and  the  southern  shores  of  the  Caspian ;  but  it 
does  not  occur  in  Persia  south  of  the  Elburz 
Mountains,  nor  in  Beluchistan  or  Afghanistan. 
Northward,  it  is  to  be  found  throughout  south¬ 
ern  Siberia  and  Mongolia,  eastward  in  the  Amur 
valley  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  in  Sakhalin  and 
Japan.  The  elevated  Tibetan  plateau  has  no 
tigers.  Southward  the  species  ranges  through¬ 
out  China,  Siam,  Burma,  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
Sumatra,  Java,  and  Bali,  and  all  of  India,  but 
is  unknown  in  Ceylon.  This  is  an  evidence  lead¬ 
ing  naturalists  to  conclude  that  the  tiger  is  a 


TIGER 


272 


TIGER  FLOWER 


% 

comparatively  recent  immigrant  into  the  south, 
and  not  naturally  a  tropical  species. 

In  general  the  tiger  is  an  inhabitant  of  woods 
and  thickets  and  although  able  to  leap  into  or 
climb  trees  (except  smooth,  perfectly  upright 
ones),  it  does  so  only  for  some  special  purpose. 
Usually  it  hides  in  dense  cover  by  day  and 
roams  for  prey  at  night.  It  is  most  numerous 
in  the  swampy  shore  jungles  around  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  and  on  the  Malayan  coasts  and  marshy 
estuaries,  where  it  swims  miles  from  island  to 
island  or  across  rivers  and  inlets. 

Its  prey  consists  of  almost  anything  in  the 
way  of  flesh,  from  a  bison  or  crocodile  to  any 
small  creature  which  it  may  strike  down.  Car¬ 
rion  may  be  eaten  under  stress  of  famine,  but  as 
a  rule  the  animal  devours  only  what  it  has  itself 
killed,  and  ordinarily  does  not  even  return  to 
a  carcass  from  which  it  has  taken  one  full  meal. 
It  stalks  its  prey,  or  lies  in  ambush  and  leaps 
upon  it  like  other  cats;  and  its  method  of  kill- 
in"  large  animals  is  to  seize  the  shoulders  with 
one  paw,  grasp  the  forehead  with  the  other,  and 
break  the  neck  by  a  twisting  pull.  A  band  of 
bison  or  wild  oxen,  guarded  by  bulls  (see 
Bison),  will  beat  it  off  and  often  kill  it;  even 
a  single  bull  in  favorable  circumstances  is  a 
match  for  it.  The  elephant  and  rhinoceros  have 
little  to  fear,  and  a  bear  will  make  a  stout  re¬ 
sistance,  but  such  encounters  rarely  occur;  nor 
do  fights  between  male  tigers  seem  to  be  com¬ 
mon,  as  this  cat  is  not,  like  the  lion,  polygamous. 
In  India  and  eastward  the  tiger  subsists  largely 
upon  domestic  cattle  and  hogs,  and  upon  human 
beings.  Man-eaters,  when  they  do  not  wholly  de¬ 
pend  upon  human  victims,  apparently  prefer 
them;  many,  but  not  all,  of  these  victims  are 
old  and  feeble.  The  destruction  of  human  life 
in  India  and  eastward  is  great,  and  there  seems 
little  diminution  in  spite  of  improved  arms, 
number  of  sportsmen,  and  government  rewards. 
In  1902  about  1300  lives  were  so  lost  in  British 
India  alone.  The  prey  when  struck  down  is 
usually  carried  away  by  the  tiger  to  be  eaten 
elsewhere,  and  many  stories  of  the  tiger’s 
strength  have  been  related.  A  tiger  will  lift 
from  the  ground  and  partly  carry,  partly  drag, 
an  animal  of  200  or  300  pounds’  weight,  with 
considerable  ease. 

>  Tigers  are  solitary  beasts,  rarely  hunting  even 
in  pairs,  and  much  less  noisy  than  the  lion. 
Their  usual  call  is  a  prolonged,  moaning,  thrill¬ 
ing  sound,  repeated  twice  or  thrice  and  becom¬ 
ing  louder  or  quicker.  In  the  cooler  season  they 
wander  widely,  but  in  the  hot  weather  remain 
in  some  narrow  district  near  water — a  single 
one  in  each  beat.  Tigresses  breed  irregularly, 
once  in  two  or  three  years  only,  regardless  of 
season,  and  produce  usually  two  cubs,  almost 
invariably  one  male  and  the  other  female.  The 
cubs  require  three  years  to  reach  maturity  and 
stay  with  their  mother  most  of  this  time.  When 
caught  young  tigers  may  easily  be  tamed,  but 
are  more  difficult  to  rear  and  less  tractable  than 
lions.  Captive  and  tamed  tigers  have  been  kept 
by  the  East  Indian  rulers  from  the  days  of  an¬ 
tiquity,  and  a  favorite  amusement  was  to  pit 
them  in  the  arena  against  lions,  in  which  com¬ 
bats  they  were  usually  victorious.  The  royal 
Bengal  tiger  has  been  a  part  of  the  showman’s 
stock  in  trade  ever  since,  and  is  to  be  seen  in 
every  menagerie,  where  these  animals  breed,  but 
less  readily  than  do  the  lions.  Some  have  been 
trained  to  go  through  certain  performances. 

Bibliography.  Fayrer,  Royal  Tiger  of  Ben¬ 


gal  (London,  1875)  ;  D.  G.  Elliot,  Monograph  of 
the  Felidce  (1878-83)  ;  Pollok,  Sport  in  British 
Burma  (London,  1879)  ;  W.  T.  Blanford,  Fauna 
of  British  India  ( ib.,  1888)  ;  Baker,  Wild  Beasts 
and  their  Ways  (ib.,  1890)  ;  St.  G.  J.  Mivart, 
The  Cat  (New  York,  1892)  ;  Sanderson,  Wild 
Beasts  of  India  (London,  1893)  ;  Porter,  Wild 
Beasts  (New  York,  1894)  ;  Richard  Lydekker, 
The  Game  Animals  of  India,  Burma,  Malaya  and 
Tibet  (London,  1907)  ;  Augustus  Mockler- Ferry¬ 
man,  Life-Sto/ry  of  a  Tiger  (New  York,  1910)  ; 
Sainthill  Eardley-Wilmot,  Life  of  a  Tiger  (ib., 
1911);  also  general  natural  histories,  and  the 
writings  of  Kinloch,  Forsyth,  Shakespeare,  Wal¬ 
lace,  Rice,  Baldwin,  Dawson,  and  other  sports¬ 
men  travelers  in  eastern  Asia.  See  Tiger  Hunt¬ 
ing  ;  Hunting  Big  Game  ;  Colored  Plate  of 
Felidae  accompanying  article  Lion. 

TIGER  BEETLE.  One  of  the  active,  preda¬ 
tory  beetles  of  the  family  Cicindelidae.  Of  car¬ 
nivorous  beetles  they  are  among  the  most  active, 
voracious,  and  fierce,  whence  their  name.  They 
frequent  sandy  places  and  earthen  paths,  and 
when  approached  run  rapidly  for  some  distance, 
occasionally  turning  suddenly  back,  and  often 
taking  to  flight.  While  variously  colored,  and 
sometimes  even  bright  green  spotted  with  yel¬ 
lowish,  they  harmonize  as  a  rule  with  the  gen¬ 
eral  color  of  their  environment.  Their  larvae 
live  in  deep,  straight  vertical  burrows  in  the 
ground,  and  station  themselves  near  the  burrow’s 
mouth,  holding  themselves  in  position  by  means 
of  a  pair  of  strong  hooks  on  the  fifth  segment  of 
the  abdomen.  The  head  and  thorax  are  broad, 
and  are  used  to  block  the  mouth  of  the  burrow 
while  waiting  for  prey.  The  food  consists  of 
insects  which  alight  on  the  spot  or  run  over  it. 
Some  1500  species  are  known,  the  majority  in¬ 
habiting  the  tropics.  Some  species  are  wingless, 
others  very  active;  some  are  found  only  on  the 
mounds  of  termites;  some  fre¬ 
quent  the  trunks  of  trees,  which 
they  ascend  in  a  spiral  man¬ 
ner.  Less  than  100  species  are 
known  in  the  United  States, 
but  tiger  beetles  are  abundant 
and  are  seen  everywhere.  The 
largest  American  form  is  Am- 
blychila  eylindriformis,  found 
in  sandy  regions  in  the 
mid-Western  States.  Tetracha 
Carolina  and  Tetracha  virginica 
are  large  greenish  species  oc¬ 
curring  in  the  Atlantic  and  Southern  States. 
The  genus  Cicindela  contains  more  than  half  the 
species  in  the  entire  family,  and  a  great  major¬ 
ity  of  the  forms  which  are  found  in  North  Amer¬ 
ica.  A  typical  American  species,  the  spotted 
tiger  beetle  ( Cicindela  sex- guttata) ,  is  depicted 
upon  the  Colored  Plate  of  Insects. 

TIGER  CAT.  Any  wild  cat  of  medium  size 
which  resembles  the  tiger  in  form  or  markings. 
The  ocelot,  serval  (qq.v. ),  and  especially  the 
cliati  (Felis  mitis)  of  South  America,  and 
clouded  tiger  of  India,  are  frequently  so  called. 
See  Wildcat. 

TIGER  EYE.  See  Crocidolite. 

TIGER  FLOWER  (so  called  from  the  color¬ 
ing),  Tigridia  pavonia.  A  plant  of  the  family 
Iridaceae,  distinguished  by  the  three  large  outer 
segments  of  the  perianth  and  by  the  filaments 
being  united  into  a  long  cylinder.  It  is  a  na¬ 
tive  of  Mexico,  but  hardy  enough  to  endure 
the  climate  of  the  United  States,  and  it  is  often 
cultivated  in  flower  gardens  for  the  singularity 


TIGER  HUNTING 


and  great  beauty  of  its  ephemeral  flowers.  The 
root  is  a  scaly  bulb. 

TIGER  HUNTING.  A  sport  which  probably 
taxes  man’s  skill  and  courage  in  a  higher  degree 
than  the  pursuit  of  any  other  sort  of  game,  and 
may  justly  be  placed  first  in  the  lists  of  the 
chase.  The  enormous  strength  of  the  beast, 
coupled  with  savage  cunning,  renders  it  the  most 
formidable  of  brute  foes.  Nothing  is  more 
patent  in  the  voluminous  history  of  the  sport 
(see  Tiger  for  outline  of  pertinent  literature) 
than  that  no  two  tigers  behave  in  the  same  way 
when  encountered;  the  same  animal  may  act 
differently  at  different  times.  Tigers  learn  by 
experience,  have  no  fear  of  man  as  man,  and 
rarely  make  tactical  mistakes.  In  some  parts 
of  India  hunters  in  parties  go  after  them  on 
foot,  but  this  is  regarded  as  extremely  rash; 
the  hunter’s  handicap  is  far  too  great,  and  few 
men  dare  its  risks.  Methods  usually  chosen 
are:  (1)  lying  in  wait  for  the  animal' at  night 
(when  there  is  moonlight)  on  an  elevated  plat¬ 
form,  or  (2)  seeking  him  upon  the  back  of  a 
trained  elephant.  The  former  is  the  choice  in 
cases  where  a  tiger  is  known  to  haunt  a  particu¬ 
lar  locality.  The  hunter  then  chooses  a  likely 
spot  and  builds  a  platform  or  machan  (usually 
in  a  small  tree),  which  must  be  raised  not  less 
than  12  feet  above  the  ground,  and  be  large 
enough  to  hold  two  persons.  On  the  ground 
near  by  is  placed  the  carcass  of  a  deer  or  cow; 
an  even  better  bait  is  a  tethered  live  goat.  An 
hour  before  sunset  the  hunter,  with  a  native  as¬ 
sistant,  climbs  upon  the  platform  and  awaits  the 
coming  of  the  tiger.  Sometimes  the  animal 
steals  out  of  the  shadows  and  seizes  and  carries 
off  the  prey  too  quickly  for  a  shot.  Again  it 
will  stalk  boldly  out  and  stand  in  full  view. 
Sometimes  when  fired  at,  but  not  killed,  it  darts 
back  into  the  jungle  and  disappears,  but  it  may 
also  attack  and  tear  down  the  machan,  or  lurk 
near  by  to  seize  the  men  when  they  descend. 

The  most  effective  method  of  hunting  the  tiger 
is  by  means  of  elephants,  and  with  the  aid  of 
native  shikaries  and  beaters.  Frequently  the 
preparations  are  upon  a  scale  of  royal  magnifi¬ 
cence,  for  so  kings  and  princes  are  accustomed 
to  entertain  one  another  in  the  East,  especially 
when  a  native  ruler  desires  to  honor  or  gratify 
some  European  guest  or  ally.  On  such  oc¬ 
casions  the  game  has  been  surrounded  and 
watched  for  days  by  an  army  of  natives.  King 
Edward  VII  was  thus  entertained  when  visiting 
India  as  the  Prince  of  Wales.  The  method  is 
to  surround  the  tiger  by  a  sufficient  number  of 
beaters,  who  by  noise  of  drums  drive  it  towards 
the  favorable  spot  where  the  sportsmen  are 
waiting  upon  the  backs  of  elephants,  which  are 
furnished  with  open,  boxlike  howdahs.  As  the 
circle  narrows  the  drivers  become  more  cautious, 
for  the  animal  knows  the  country  perfectly,  and 
will  make  use  of  every  means  of  escape  or  at¬ 
tack.  Men  are  stationed  in  trees  to  try  to  trace 
his  movements  and  warn  by  cries  and  signs. 
Meanwhile  the  sportsmen  press  forward  on  their 
elephants,  depending  largely  upon  the  sagacity 
of  these  animals  for  a  warning  of  the  terrific 
and  usually  unforeseen  charge  of  the  animal, 
which  may  by  a  bold  leap  tear  the  hunter  from 
the  howdah,  or  stampede  the  elephant,  or  get 
through  the  barrier  alive.  Nine  out  of  ten  ele¬ 
phants,  even  if  stanch  before,  will  become  panic- 
stricken  and  bolt,  when  the  danger  of  their 
riders  being  dashed  against  a  tree  and  killed  is 
imminent.  Unforeseen  casualties  are  numerous, 


TIGLATH-PILESER 

and  the  reward  is  only  a  hide,  which  may  often 
be  of  inferior  beauty  and  value. 

TIGER  LAKE.  See  NAnuEL-HuAPi. 

TIGER  LILY.  See  Lily. 

TIGER  MOTH.  A  name  applied  on  account 
of  their  coloration  to  certain  moths  of  the  family 
Arctiidse,  as  Arctia  nais,  and  especially  to  the 
Isabella  tiger  moth  ( Isia  isabella) ,  an  American 
species,  grayish  yellow  with  black  markings. 
The  caterpillar  is  known  as  the  woolly  bear,  and 
is  densely  clothed  with  reddish  brown  and  black 
hairs.  It  feeds  upon  a  great  variety  of  low- 
growing  herbage.  See  Colored  Plate  of  Ameri¬ 
can  Moths,  under  Motii. 

TIGER  SHARK.  The  largest,  fiercest,  and 
most  formidable  of  West  Indian  sharks  ( Galeo - 
cerdo  tigrinus) ,  brown  in  color,  with  numerous 
small  dark  spots  which  give  the  fish  its  name, 
but  grow  indistinct  with  age. 

TIGER  SNAKE.  An  elapine,  poisonous 
snake  (Hoplocephalus  curtus)  of  Australia.  See 
Death  Adder. 

TIGERT,  John  James  (1856-1906).  An 
American  Methodist  bishop,  born  in  Louisville, 
Ky.  He  graduated  from  Vanderbilt  University 
in  1877  and  later  studied  at  the  Southern  Bap¬ 
tist  Theological  Seminary.  Between  1881  and 
1890  he  was  tutor  and  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  in  Vanderbilt  University.  He  en¬ 
tered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South  in  1890.  From  1894  to  1906  he 
was  the  editor  of  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Re¬ 
view  of  Nashville  and  the  book  editor  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South.  In  1906 
he  was  elected  bishop.  He  edited  several  works, 
among  them  The  Doctrines  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  America  (2  vols.,  1902), 
and  wrote:  A  Constitutional  History  of  American 
Episcopal  Methodism  (1894;  2d  ed.,  revised  and 
enlarged,  1904)  ;  The  Making  of  Methodism 
(1898);  Theism  (1901);  The  Christianity  of 
Christ  and  his  Apostles  (1905). 

TIGER  WOLF.  See  Dasyure. 

TIGHE,  ti,  Mrs.  Mary  (Blachford)  ( 1772— 
1810).  An  Irish  poet.  Her  father,  a  clergyman, 
was  a  librarian  in  Dublin.  In  1793  she  married 
her  cousin,  Henry  Tighe,  a  member  of  the  Irish 
Parliament.  Mrs.  Tighe  was  greatly  admired 
for  her  beauty,  and  for  her  poem,  in  Spenserian 
stanzas,  Psyche,  or  the  Legend  of  Love  (pri¬ 
vately  printed  in  1805).  The  poem  was  a  ver¬ 
sion  of  the  story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  in  the 
Golden  Ass  of  Apuleius.  This  and  other  poems 
were  published  in  1811,  with  a  portrait  after  a 
painting  bv  Romney. 

TIG'LATH-PILE'SER  (Heb.;  Ass.  Tukulti- 
apal-E-sharra,  My  confidence  is  the  son  of 
Esharra,  i.e.,  Ninib).  The  name  of  several 
Assyrian  kings:  1.  Tiglath-pileser  I  (c.1140- 
1105  b.c.  )  was  the  son  of  Asurresisi  II.  Under 
him  the  dominion  of  Assyria  was  considerably 
enlarged  by  conquests  in  northern  Syria,  Com- 
magene,  Melitene,  Cappadocia,  Armenia,  and 
Kurdistan.  He  claimed  to  have  conquered  no 
less  than  42  countries,  and  in  his  days  Baby¬ 
lonia  was  forced  to  acknowledge  Assyrian  su¬ 
premacy.  He  placed  his  statue  on  the  Supnat, 
a  tributary  of  the  Tigris.  Twice  he  invaded 
the  south  and  entered  the  city  of  Babylon  itself. 
His  activity  in  rearing  temples  and  palaces 
was  no.  less  remarkable,  and  he  devoted  himself 
especially  to  the  embellishment  of  the  old  city  of 
Assur  (q.v. )  on  the  Tigris,  which  he  once  more 
made  the  seat  of  government  in  place  of  Calah. 
Although  he  was  able  to  hand  over  the  succes- 


TIGLATH-PILESER 


TIGRIS 


274 


sion  to  his  son  Asurbelkala,  his  great  empire 
was  not  maintained,  and  shortly  afterward  a 
period  of  decay  set  in.  2.  Tiglath-pileser  II 
(c.1050  b.c.  )  is"  little  known.  3.  Tiglath-pileser 
III  (c.950  b.c.)  apparently  belonged  to  the  same 
dynasty,  but  no  inscriptions  by  him  throw  any 
light  "upon  his  reign.  4.  Tiglath-pileser  IV 
(745-728  b.c.)  was  a  usurper.  Rising  from  ob¬ 
scurity,  he  either  set  on  foot  a  rebellion  against 
Asurnirari  IV,  or  availed  himself  of  an  oppo¬ 
sition  that  had  sprung  up  against  this  King  to 
seize  the  throne  for  himself.  He  assumed  the 
name  of  Tiglath-pileser  as  King,  his  original 
name  having  been  Pulu  or  Pul,  by  which  he 
continued  to  be  known  in  Babylonia  and  which 
is  given  to  him  likewise  in  the  Old  Testament 
(2  Kings  xv.  19).  To  reenforce  his  position 
lie  proceeded  to  the  south  and  brought  to  sub¬ 
mission  the  Aramaean  tribes,  who  had  been  caus¬ 
ing:  the  Babvlonians  considerable  trouble.  Se- 
curing  in  this  way  the  good  will  of  the  Baby¬ 
lonians,  by  whom  he  was  hailed  as  a  deliverer, 
he  could "  devote  himself  to  the  troublesome  t 
neighbors  in  Media  to  the  east  of  Assyria.  Two 
expeditions  were  required  before  the  pacification 
of  the  country  was  secured.  Tiglath-pileser  IV 
appears  to  have  introduced  the  policy  of  planting 
Assyrian  colonies  in  hostile  districts  with  a 
view  of  thus  making  Assyrian  influence  a  more 
permanent  factor  than  could  be  accomplished 
merely  by  military  invasions.  Successful  also 
in  breaking  up  a  combination  that  had  been 
formed  against  him  in  Ararat  under  the  leader¬ 
ship  of  Sarduris  II,  aided  by  a  group^of  allies 
in  Asia  Minor,  he  secured  a  large  booty  in  a 
battle  in  which  he  claims  to  have  captured  no 
fewer  than  72,950  soldiers  of  the  enemy.  He 
encountered  more  difficulty  in  quelling  a  revolt 
in  northern  Syria  in  742-740  b.c.  As  early  as 
739  b.c.  there  was  a  conflict  between  the  Assyr¬ 
ians  and  Azariah  of  Jaudi.  The  King  overthrew 
Azariah  and  his  allies  and  again  showed  his  ad¬ 
ministrative  abilities  by  placing  the  hostile  dis¬ 
trict,  divided  into  small  principalities,  under 
Assyrian  governors.  He  enumerates  in  liis  in¬ 
scriptions  a  long  list  of  rulers  of  petty  states  in 
Asia  Minor  and  Syria  who  brought  him  tribute, 
and  among  these  we  find  Menahem  of  Samaria, 
the  notice  thus  confirming  the  statement  in  2 
Kings  xv.  19-21. 

In  734  b.c.  Tiglath-pileser  IV  again  proceeded 
to  the  west,  being  appealed  to  by  Ahaz,  King  of 
Judah  (2  Kings  xvi.  7),  to  assist  him  against 
the  combination  formed  by  Pekah,  King  of 
Israel,  and  Rezin  of  Damascus.  Rezin  was  de¬ 
feated  and  fled  to  his  capital,  and  while  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  Assyrian  army  laid  siege  to  it,  an¬ 
other  section  was  sent  to  ravage  and  plunder 
the  Syrian,  Israelitish,  and  Philistine  towns.  In 
732  b.c.  Damascus  fell  and  an  Assyrian  official 
was  appointed  governor.  Among  those  who 
hastened  to  pay  homage  to  Tiglath-pileser,  we 
find  his  vassal  King  Ahaz  of  Judah.  This  visit 
is  the  one  referred  to  in  2  Kings  xvi.  10.  Tig¬ 
lath-pileser  IV  also  claims  to  have  deposed 
Pekah  of  Israel  and  to  have  put  Hoshea  in  his 
place.  According  to  the  biblical  statement  (2 
Kings  xv.  30)  Pekah  was  murdered  in  the  course 
of  a  revolt  instigated  by  Hoshea,  who  no  doubt 
was  abetted  by  the  Assyrian  King.  Shortly 
after  his  successful  campaign  in  Syria  and  Pal¬ 
estine,  Tiglath-pileser  IV  was  obliged  to  pro¬ 
ceed  once  more  against  Babylonia,  where  trouble 
had  broken  out.  Two  years  elapsed  before  he 
could  take  the  decisive  step  of  having  himself 


crowned  King  of  Babylonia.  The  ceremony  took 
place  on  the  Babylonian  New  Year’s  festival  of 
the  year  728  b.c.  As  King  of  Babylonia  he 
assumed  his  original  name  of  Pulu  (identical 
with  Parus  in  the  Ptolemaic  canon).  Not  long 
afterward,  in  728  b.c.,  he  died,  leaving  his  pol¬ 
icy  of  political  centralization  to  be  carried  on 
by  his  son  Shalmaneser  V.  Consult  the  Baby- 
lonian-Assyrian  histories  of  Winckler,  Tiele, 
Hommel,  Rogers,  Johns,  and  other  works  quoted 
in  the  article  on  Assyria. 

TIG'LIUM,  Oil  of.  See  Croton  Oil. 

TIGRA'NES  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tiypavys,  Ar¬ 
men.,  Tigran  ) .  The  name  of  several  kings  of 
ancient  Armenia.  The  most  famous  was  Ti- 
granes  the  Great,  who  was  born  about  121  b.c. 
He  was  for  many  years  a  hostage  at  the  Par¬ 
thian  court,  but  was  exchanged  for  70  districts 
about  95  b.c.,  when  lie  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
He  made  an  alliance  with  his  father-in-law, 
Mithridates  (q.v.),  King  of  Pontus,  against  the 
Romans.  About  83  b.c.  he  conquered  Syria, 
later  extending  his  power  over  much  of  Asia 
Minor,  besides  taking  from  the  Parthians  Meso¬ 
potamia  and  other  provinces.  In  71  b.c.  Mith¬ 
ridates  fled  to  him  for  refuge  from  the  Roman 
general  Lucullus  (q.v.).  In  69  b.c.  Tigranes 
was  defeated  by  the  Romans  at  Tigranocerta. 
his  newly  founded  capital,  although  a  mutiny 
prevented  Lucullus  from  following  up  his  advan¬ 
tage.  Three  years  later  Pompeius  (q.v.)  took 
the  field  against  the  Armenians,  and  in  64  b.c. 
after  a  long  siege  compelled  Tigranes  to  sur¬ 
render  at  Artaxata.  He  remained  in  posses¬ 
sion  of  Armenia  Major,  and  died  about  56  b.c., 
being  succeeded  by  his  son  Xrtavasdes.  Consult 
Theodore  Reinach,  Mithridate  Eupator  roi  de 
Pont  (Paris,  1890). 

TIGRE,  te-gra'.  The  northernmost  of  the 
three  divisions  of  Abyssinia  proper,  lying  north 
of  the  Bahr  el  Aswad  (Map:  Egypt,  D  5).  The 
capital  is  Adowa  (q.v.).  Tigre  contains  the 
town  of  Axum  (q.v.),  which  is  noted  for  its 
antiquities  and  which  was  the  capital  of  the  old 
Ethiopic  empire.  The  language  of  the  country 
is  Tigrina,  a  Semitic  dialect  which  more  nearly 
resembles  the  ancient  Geez  than  does  the  Am- 
haric  ( q.v. ) .  Tigr6  is  administered  by  a  ras 
and  is  variously  called  a  division,  a  province, 
or  a  kingdom  of  the  Abyssinian  Empire. 

TI'GRIS  (Greek,  from  the  old  Persian  tigra, 
an  arrow).  One  of  the  two  large  rivers  which 
inclose  the  historic  region  of  Mesopotamia,  in 
Asiatic  Turkey  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  E  3). 
Its  origin  is  usually  traced  to  the  southern 
flank  of  the  eastern  Tauric  Mountains  south  of 
Kharput,  but  the  Bitlis  and  Botan  springs,  on 
the  south  slope  of  the  Van  Mountains,  supply 
the  greater  head  of  water.  Thence  it  flows  in  a 
winding  southeast  course  of  about  950  miles 
till  it  joins  the  Euphrates  at  Korn  a  to  form 
the  Shat  el  Arab,  which  after  a  short  course 
flows  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  Tigris  is  a 
rapid  and  turbid  stream.  In  its  upper  course  it 
receives  numerous  tributaries  from  both  sides. 
Below  Mosul,  the  tributaries  come  nearly  all 
from  the  east,  the  region  between  the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates  being  here  a  desert  over-* 
grown  with  wormwood  and  similar  scrub.  Far¬ 
ther  down  the  Tigris  communicates  across  the 
desert  with  the  Euphrates  by  a  number  of  bayous 
or  canals,  some  of  which  are  dry  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  At  the  confluence  the  Tigris, 
though  shorter  than  the  Euphrates,  is  more  vo¬ 
luminous,  and  it  is  navigable  for  steamers  to 


TIGTJA 


275 


TILDEN 


Bagdad,  above  which  foreign  steamers  are  not 
allowed.  Thence  smaller  vessels  proceed  to 
Mosul,  and  above  that  city  rafts  descend  (they 
are  broken  up  and  transported  back  by  camel) 
from  Diarbekir,  almost  at  the  source  of  the 
river.  The  main  tributary  of  the  Tigris  is  the 
Diyala,  which  joins  it  from  the  east,  a  short 
distance  below  Bagdad,  and  which  is  navigable 
for  some  distance  by  small  vessels.  Next  to 
the  Diyala,  the  largest  affluent  is  the  Greater 
Zab.  Outside  of  the  three  cities  mentioned  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris  are  very  thinly  populated. 
Among  the  remains  of  ancient  cities  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tigris  are  those  of  Nineveh,  Seleu- 
cia,  and  Ctesiphon. 

TIG-UA,  te'gwa.  A  group  of  pueblos  in  New 
Mexico  speaking  a  Tanoan  language.  See  Ta- 
noan  Stock. 

TIKTJS.  See  Bulatj. 

TILANUS,  te-la'nus,  Christian  Bernard 
(1796-1883).  A  Dutch  surgeon,  born  at  Har- 
derwijk.  He  studied  medicine  at  Utrecht  (M.D., 
1819)  and  became,  in  1828,  professor  of  surgery 
and  gynecology  at  Amsterdam.  Before  his  time 
the  teachers  of  surgery  in  the  Netherlands,  who 
were  also  anatomists,  had  taught  the  subject 
from  the  theoretical  standpoint  only,  while  prac¬ 
tice  was  left  to  a  less  highly  educated  clan  of 
surgeons.  Tilanus  was  a  practical  surgeon  as 
well  as  a  professor.  In  1848,  at  his  instance,  a 
chair  of  gynecology,  separate  from  surgery,  was 
founded.  He  retired  in  1872,  but  his  influence 
upon  surgical  education  in  Holland  continued  to 
be  of  great  importance. 

TILBURGf,  tll'berg.  A  manufacturing  town 
in  the  Netherlands,  Province  of  North  Brabant, 
36  miles  southeast  of  Rotterdam,  and  19  miles 
east  of  Breda  (Map:  Netherlands,  D  3).  The 
town  has  a  new  church  in  the  Gothic  style, 
and  a  cloth  hall,  and  is  besides  an  important 
manufacturing  centre,  with  more  than  300  fac¬ 
tories,  most  of  them  woolen  and  cloth  mills,  and 
tanneries,  and  iron  foundries.  Pop.,  1910, 
50,326. 

TILBURY,  Gervase  of.  See  Gervase  of 
Tilbury. 

TILTBURY  FORT.  A  fortification  in  Essex, 
England,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames,  op¬ 
posite  Gravesend,  30  miles  below  London  (Map: 
England,  G  5 ) .  Originally  erected  in  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII  as  a  blockhouse,  it  was  con¬ 
verted  (1667)  into  a  regular  fortification  after 
the  bold  expedition  of  De  Ruyter  into  the 
Thames  and  Medway,  and  has  been  greatly 
strengthened  since  1861.  The  large  docks,  com¬ 
prising  588  acres,  are  important,  as  the  pas¬ 
senger  traffic  with  London  by  steamship  centres 
here. 

TIL'DEN,  Douglas  (1860-  ).  An  Amer¬ 

ican  sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Chico,  Cal., 
and  studied  at  the  National  Academy  of  Design, 
New  \ork,  with  Ward,  Flagg,  and  Mowbray,  and 
for  several  years  under  Paul  Chopin  in  Paris. 
Afterward  he  was  professor  of  sculpture  at  the 
Mark  Hopkins  Art  Institute,  University  of 
California  (1894-1900).  Good  examples  of  his 
work,  which  is  modern  in  spirit  and  treats 
typically  American  subjects  in  a  robust,  realis¬ 
tic  manner,  are:  “Baseball  Player”  (1889,  Gol¬ 
den  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco)  ;  “Tired  Boxer” 
(1890,  Olympic  Club,  San  Francisco);  “Indian 
Bear  Hunt”  (1892);  “Foot-Ball  Players”  (1893, 
University  of  California)  ;  the  “Native  Sons’ 
Fountain”  (1894)  and  the  overexuberant  “Me¬ 
chanics’  Fountain,”  both  in  San  Francisco.  Im¬ 


portant  among  his  various  public  monuments 
are:  the  “Commemoration  of  the  Admission  of 
California  into  the  Union”;  “California  Volun¬ 
teers  of  the  Spanish-American  War”;  the  memo¬ 
rial  to  Junipero  Serra  (San  Francisco)  ;  and 
Senator  Stephen  M.  White  (Los  Angeles).  He 
became  a  member  of  the  National"  Sculpture 
Society.  Totally  deaf  from  the  age  of  five,  he 
originated  and  was  vice  president  of  the  first 
International  Congress  of  the  Deaf,  held  in 
Paris  in  1889. 

TILDEN,  Samuel  Jones  (1814-86).  An 
American  lawyer  and  statesman,  born  at  New 
Lebanon,  N.  Y.  He  attended  Yale  College  and 
the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York,  where 
he  graduated  in  1837;  studied  law,  and  in 
1841  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New  York  City. 
As  a  lawyer  he  rose  to  the  first  rank.  In  1846 
he  was  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature,  in 
which  he  devoted  his  attention  particularly  to 
the  subject  of  the  State  canals,  and  in  the  same 
year  served  as  member  of  the  State  Constitu¬ 
tional  Convention.  In  1867  he  once  more  sat 
as  a  delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Convention. 
Having  been  elected  again  to  a  seat  in  the 

Legislature,  he  took  the  lead  in  1872  in  im¬ 

peachment  proceedings  against  Barnard  and 
Cardozo,  two  of  Tweed’s  corrupt  and  subservient 
judges.  He  helped  expose  the  frauds  of  the 

Tweed  Ring,  having  the  leading  part  in  the 

prosecution  of  its  guilty  members.  By  1868  he 
had  become  acknowledged  leader  of  the  Demo¬ 
cratic  party  in  New  York,  and  his  activity  in 
overthrowing  the  Tweed  Ring  led  to  his  election 
in  1874  as  Governor  of  the  State.  His  admin¬ 
istration  (1875-76)  was  marked  by  economy  in 
the  management  of  the  State  canals.  In  June, 
1876,  he  was  nominated  by  the  Democratic  Na¬ 
tional  Convention  at  St.  Louis  for  President 
of  the  United  States,  and  in  the  ensuing  presi¬ 
dential  election  received  a  majority  of  the  popu¬ 
lar  vote,  and  according  to  the  final  count  came 
within  one  vote  of  receiving  a  majority  of  the 
electoral  vote.  Because  of  alleged  frauds  in  the 
elections  of  Louisiana,  South  Carolina,  and 
Florida,  the  votes  of  those  States,  which  were 
nominally  given  for  the  Democratic  party  and 
which  would  have  turned  the  election  in  Til- 
den’s  favor,  were  claimed  by  the  Republicans, 
and  the  excitement  which  followed  threatened 
to  disturb  the  peace  of  the  country.  Finally 
Congress  created  an  Electoral  Commission  (q.v.), 
consisting  of  five  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
five  Senators,  and  five  Representatives,  to  settle 
the  dispute,  and  by  a  strict  party  vote  of  8  to  7 
it  gave  its  decision  in  favor  of  Tilden’s  opponent, 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes  (q.v.).  Tilden  thereupon 
promptly  requested  his  friends  to  accept  the  de¬ 
cision,  though  many  continued  to  believe  and 
to  assert  that  he  had  rightfully  been  elected 
president.  He  lived  his  remaining  years  in 
retirement  near  Yonkers,  N.  Y.  He  bequeathed 
the  greater  portion  of  his  fortune  of  about 
$5,000,000  to  philanthropic  purposes,  chiefly  for 
the  establishment  and  endowment  of  a  public 
library  in  the  city  of  New  York.  The  will  was 
contested  and  only  about  $2,000,000  went  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Tilden  Foundation  of  the 
New  York  Public  Library  (q.v.).  Consult:  John 
Bigelow,  Life  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden  (2  vols.,  NeAv 
York,  1895)  ;  id.,  Letters  and  Literary  Memo¬ 
rials,  edited  by  John  Bigelow  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1908)  ; 
id.,  Writings  and  Speeches ,  edited  by  John  Bige¬ 
low  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1885)  ;  also  Haworth,  The  Dis¬ 
puted  Election  of  1876  (Cleveland,  1906). 


TILDEN 


TILE 


276 


TILDEN,  Sir  William  Augustus  ( 1842— 
).  An  English  chemist,  born  in  London. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Royal  College  of  Chem¬ 
istry,  and  served  successively  as  science  mas¬ 
ter/  Clifton  College  (1872-80);  professor  of 
chemistry,  Mason  College  (1880—94)  ;  and  pro¬ 
fessor  of  chemistry,  Royal  College  of  Science, 
London  (1894-1909).  He  was  president  of  the 
Institute  of  Chemistry  in  1899-1903  and  of  the 
Chemical  Society  of  London  in  1903-05,  and  in 
1908  he  received  the  Davy  medal  from  the  Royal 
Society.  In  1909  he  was  knighted.  He  pub¬ 
lished:  Introduction  to  Chemical  Philosophy 
(1876);  Practical  Chemistry  (1880);  Hints  on 
Teaching  Chemistry  (1895)  ;  A  Manual  of  Chem¬ 
istry  ( 1890 )  ;  A  Short  History  of  the  Progress 
of  Scientific  Chemistry  (1889);  The  Elements 
(1910). 

TILE  (AS.  tigol,  tigele,  from  Lat.  tegula,  tile, 
from  tegere,  to  cover).  Properly  a  piece  of  ma¬ 
terial  for  covering  a  roof,  but  limited  to  harder 
materials  than  wood.  Slate,  marble,  and  other 
stones  which  can  be  cut  into  thin  slabs  and 
resist  ordinary  breakage  have  been  used  for 
tiles.  Ordinary  roof  tiles  are  of  earthenware 
and  these  may  be  perfectly  flat  and  used  to 
shed  the  water  by  being  laid  over  one  another 
on  a  sloping  surface,  exactly  as  shingles  are 
laid.  There  is  also  a  kind  of  tile  which  has  a 
flat  and  a  raised  ridgelike  convexity  cast  or 
molded  in  the  same  piece  which  is  known  as 
the  pan,  or  Belgic  tile.  From  the  use  of  the 
term  to  cover  various  kinds  of  clay  products  it 
has  come  to  have  two  different  meanings.  First, 
any  flat  slab,  if  small  and  forming  one  of  many 
pieces  used  to  cover  a  large  surface,  is  a  tile; 
second,  the.  different  ceramic  wares  used  in  build¬ 
ing  and  in  all  kinds  of  engineering  work,  drain¬ 
age,  and  the  like  are  called  tiles. 

The  tile  floors  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  com¬ 
posed  of  earthenware  tiles,  each  of  which  ,is 
complete  and  of  one  color,  or  incised  with  a  pat¬ 
tern  in  such  a  way  that  a  different-colored  clay 
may  be  inlaid.  In  the  south  of  Europe  tiles 
were  much  used  according  to  a  fashion  preva¬ 
lent  in  the  East.  In  Spain  tiles  with  intaglio 
patterns  filled  in  with  colored  glazes  were  made 
extensively  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  These  tiles,  unfit  for  floors,  are  very 
decorative  when  used  for  the  linings  of  walls. 
They  are  known  as  Cuenca  tiles.  The  Gothic 
revival  in  England  between  1840  and  1870 
brought  with  it  a  strong  movement  to  restore 
these  appliances  of  decorative  buildings;  and 
many  tile  floors  were  designed  and  made  in 
mediaeval  taste.  In  consequence  of  this  the 
earthenware  tile  industry  became  an  extensive 
one  in  Great  Britain  and  for  many  years  the 
greater  number  of  tiles  imported  into  the  United 
States  came  from  England.  Other  tiles  have 
been  made  with  heads,  human  figures,  and  groups 
in  slight  relief,  the  ornamentation  being  ob¬ 
tained  by  sculpture  rather  than  color. 

Clay  tiles  may  be  divided  broadly  into  solid 
and  hollow,  the  former  being  thin  and,  except 
for  some  roofing  tiles,  generally  flat,  while  hollow 
tiles  have  a  great  variety  of  thickness  and  shape. 
In  the  preparation  of  the  clay  for  molding  some 
one  or  more  of  the  processes  described  under 
Clay,  Clay  Mining  and  Working,  are  employed, 
varying  with  the  class  of  clay  and  the  final 
product.  For  tile  burning,  see  Kiln;  Terra 
Cotta. 

Encaustic  Tiles,  for  floors,  walls,  and  other 
purposes,  are  decorative  tiles  in  which  the  main 


body  is  of  one  color  of  clay  and  a  pattern  is  in¬ 
laid  in  a  contrasting  color  of  clay.  The  term 
is  a  mere  trade  name,  without  special  signifi¬ 
cance.  Unglazed  floor  tiles  in  plain  colors, 
the  design  being  made  by  the  combination  of 
tiles  of  different  colors  and  shapes,  are  commonly 
called  mosaic  tiles.  Tiles  bearing  fixed  designs 
in  verifiable  colors  are  also  sometimes  called 
encaustic  tiles.  The  famous  Dutch  tiles  are 
simply  enameled  earthenware,  usually  in  blue, 
but  sometimes  in  colors,  and  generally  with 
Scriptural  subjects  for  the  design. 

Floor  Tiles  are  now  made  by  machinery  in 
metal  dies,  in  which  they  are  subjected  to  heavy 
pressure  by  what  is  kqown  as  the  Prosser  proc¬ 
ess.  The  day  is  first  prepared  as  for  ordinary 
ceramic  work  and  then  dried  again  and  ground 
to  powder.  Wall  tiles  are  made  with  the  back 
surface  broken  by  undercutting,  so  the  cement 
may  have  a  better  hold.  They  usually  have  a 
highly  glazed  surface.  Floor  tiles  are  generally 
preferred  unglazed.  The  pattern  is  produced 
by  the  use  of  brass  plates,  %  of  an  inch  thick, 
or  paper  stencils,  a  separate  one  being  used 
for  each  color.  Thus,  for  an  ornament  in  red 
and  white  on  a  blue  ground,  dne  plate  is  per¬ 
forated  so  as  to  enable  the  red  portion  of  the 
clay  powder  to  be  filled  in,  another  is  cut  for  the 
white  portion,  and  a  third  for  the  blue  ground, 
etc.  When  all  are  filled  up  the  tile  is  subjected 
to  great  pressure  in  a  screw  press  and  fired  as  in 
the  ordinary  plain  tile. 

Fireproofing,  Structural,  or  Hollow  Tiles 

are  rapidly  growing  in  use  (see  Fireproof 
Construction),  particularly  for  fitting  around 
steel  columns  and  girders  forming  partitions, 
floor  arches,  and  ceilings.  Their  lightness  is 
greatly  in  their  favor.  They  are  divided  into 
three  classes:  dense,  porous,  or  terra-cotta  lum¬ 
ber,  and  semiporous.  Dense  tiles  are  prepared 
for  molding  much  like  terra  cotta.  They  are 
given  heavy  pressure  and  a  long  burning,  and 
are  sometimes  made  from  fire  clay.  Porous 
tiles  are  made  by  mixing  one  part  by  bulk  of 
soft  wood  sawdust  or  finely  cut  straw  with  two 
parts  of  clay,  passing  the  mixture  through  a 
disintegrator  or  cutter,  and  then  between  two 
sets  of  corrugated  rolls,  one  below  the  other. 
From  the  rolls  conveyors  take  the  mixture  to  the 
tile  machines  described  below.  The  subsequent 
burning  destroys  the  sawdust  or  straw,  leaving  a 
very  porous  tile  into  which  nails  may  be  driven, 
or  which  may  be  cut  with  a  saw;  hence  the 
name  terra-cotta  lumber.  Semiporous  tiles  are 
made  of  good  fire  clay  containing  60  per  cent 
of  silica,  calcined  fire  clay,  and  coarsely  ground 
bituminous  coal.  These  materials  are  mixed, 
molded,  and  burned  much  like  porous  tiles. 

Hollow  Tile  Machines  are  of  various  forms 
according  to  the  character  of  the  clay.  The 
tempered  clay  is  forced  through  forms  and 
around  plugs.  The  forms  give  the  outer  and  the 
plugs  the  inner  shape  to  the  tiles.  The  plugs 
are  of  metal,  with  their  front  ends  just  inside 
the  form.  Plungers  force  the  clay  over  or 
around  the  plugs,  then  through  the  forms.  The 
continuous  shapes  are  separated  by  wires  or 
knives.  Some  of  the  special  forms  require  par¬ 
tial  hand  shaping. 

Roofing  Tiles,  when  of  clay,  are  something 
like  terra  cotta  (q.v.)  in  their  composition 
and  manufacture.  They  are  made  in  various 
colors  and  shapes,  the  shapes  being  governed 
largely  by  the  kind  of  vertical  joints  employed. 
In  Pennsylvania  fiat,  or  Germanic,  tiles  of  un- 


TILGNER 


TILEFISH 


277 


glazed  red  clay,  about  15  inches  in  length  with 
a  nib  at  the  back  for  hanging  on  a  rafter,  were 
made  extensively  through  most  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Bibliography.  Emile  Ame,  Les  carrelages 
emailles  clu  moyen  age  et  de  la  renaissance 
(laris,  1859)  ;  Jules  Bourgoin,  Les  arts  arabes : 
architecture  (ib.,  1868-70);  A.  C.  T.  E.  Prisse 
d  Avennes,  L’  Art  arabe  d’apres  les  monuments 
de  Kaire,  etc.  (ib.,  1877);  M.  Meurer,  Italien- 
ische  M  a  jo  likafliesen,  etc.  (Berlin,  1881)  ;  J.  E. 
Jacobstal,  Siiditalienische  Fliesenornamente  (ib., 
1886)  ;  P.  F.  Knochenhauer,  Niederldndische 
Fliesenornamente  (ib.,  1888);  Henry  Wallis, 
Italian  Ceramic  Art:  The  Maiolica  ' Pavement 
Tiles  of  the  Fifteenth  Century  (London,  1902). 
In  modern  building:  Julien  Foy,  La  ceramique 
des  constructions  (Paris,  1883);  Sparkes  and 
Gandy,  Potters,  their  Arts  and  Crafts  (New 
\ork,  1899)  ;  J.  K.  Freitag,  The  Fireproofing  of 
Steel  Buildings  (ib.,  1899)  ;  Leon  Lefevre, 

Architectural  Pottery,  English  translation  by 
Bird  and  Binns  (ib.,  1901)  ;  W.  J.  Furnival, 
Leadless  Decorative  Tiles,  Faience,  and  Mosaic 
(Stone,  Staffordshire,  1904)  ;  Bruno  Kerl,  Hand- 
buch  der  gesammten  Thonioaarenindustrie  (3d 
ed.,  Brunswick,  1907);  Frederick  Squires,  Hol¬ 
low-Tile  House  (New  York,  1913). 

TILEFISH  (name  coined  from  penultimate 
syllable  of  generic  name).  A  deep-sea  fish 
(Lopholatilus  chameleonticeps)  chiefly  remark¬ 
able  for  its  strange  history.  It  w4s  accidentally 
discovered  in  large  numbers  in  1879  by  fishermen 
trawling  for  cod  south  of  Isantucket,  and  was 


TILEFISH. 

found  again  in  1880  and  1881.  In  the  spring  of 
1S82  shipmasters  reported  that  an  immense  area 
of  ocean  surface  about  300  miles  south  ©f  Long 
Island  was  covered  with  many  millions  of  float¬ 
ing  fish,  dead  or  dying,  chiefly  tilefish,  which 
showed  no  marks  of  injury  or  disease.  Verrill 
and  other  ichthyologists,  judging  by  various 
circumstances,  explained  this  as  the  result  of  an 
incursion  of  cold  water,  forced  by  the  heavy 
northerly  gales  of  that  spring,  into  the  warm 
area  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 

This  fish  represents  a.  genus  of  the  family 
Malacanthidie,  which  includes  several  edible 
fishes  of  the  seas  of  both  sides  of  tropical  Amer¬ 
ica,  one  of  which,  the  blanquillo  or  whitefish 
( Caulolatilus  princeps) ,  is  a  well-known  food 
fish  of  southern  California.  The  tilefish  is  a 
large,  big-headed,  brilliantly  colored,  active  fish, 
sometimes  40  pounds  in  weight,  but  ordinarily 
from  10  to  20  pounds.  It  is  characterized  by  a 
big'll  adipose  protuberance  upon  the  nape  in  ad¬ 
vance  of  the  long  dorsal  fin,  and  by  a  short  bar¬ 
bel  at  the  angle  of  the  lips  on  each  side.  Its 
flesh  was  found  to  be  excellent,  and  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission  made  great  efforts  to 
learn  where  it  might  be  found,  but  the  disaster 
of  1882  seemed  to  have  wholly  exterminated  the 


species.  Some  10  years  later  an  occasional  one 
was  captured,  and  investigation  of  the  edge 
of  the  continental  plateau  was  resumed  by  the 
Fish  Commission.  It  was  finally  determined 
that  the  area  of  their  distribution  extends  along 
a  band  of  sea  bottom  from  about  39°  N.  lat 
southward  between  69°  and  73°  W.  long,  to  an 
unknown  distance,  in  water  from  60"  to  80 
fathoms  deep,  wdierever  the  water  has  a  temper¬ 
ature  not  colder  than  50°  F.  Increasing  catches 
were  made  in  1902  and  in  succeeding  years. 

Consult:  Collins,  “History  of  the  Tile  Fish,”  in 
Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries  for  1882  (Wash¬ 
ington,  1884)  ;  F.  A.  Lucas,  in  Annual  Report  of 
the  United  States  Rational  Museum  for  1889 
(ib.,  1891);  H.  C.  Bumpus,  “The  Reappearance 
of  the  Tilefish,”  in  Bulletin  of  the  United  States 
Fish  Commission  (ib.,  1899). 

TILE  KQLTJP.  See  Holzschuh. 

TILGHMAKT,  tiFman,  Matthew  (1718-90). 
An  American  patriot,  born  in  Queen  Anne  Co.' 
Md.  .  He  was  early  engaged  in  the  Indian  wars, 
and  in  1751  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  Mary¬ 
land  Assembly,  where  he  sat  continuously  until 
the  formation  of  the  State  government,  Feb.  5, 
1777,  and  was  Speaker  of  the  House  in  1773-7s! 
From  1774  until  the  establishment  of  the  State 
government  he  was  president  of  the  convention 
which  exercised  the  chief  authority.  He  was 
also  head  of  the  Committee  of  Correspondence 
of  the  Council  of  Safety,  and  of  the  delegation 
to  the  Continental  Congress.  He  was  a  strong 
advocate  of  independence,  but  was  prevented 
from  signing  the  Declaration  of  Inde¬ 
pendence  by  being  called  home  to  preside 
over  the  convention  to  frame  a  State 
constitution.  He  was  an  earnest,  en¬ 
thusiastic  patriot  and  did  much  for  the 
American  cause  in  Maryland. 

TILGHMAN,  Tench  (1744-86).  An 
American  soldier,  born  near  Easton,  Md. 
Prior  to  the  Revolution  he  was  engaged 
in  mercantile  pursuits  at  Philadelphia, 
but  early  in  1775  entered  the  American 
army  as  lieutenant  in  an  infantry  com¬ 
pany,  and  in  July  was  sent  as  a  special 
commissioner  to  treat  with  the  Iroquois. 
From  August,  1776,  until  the  close  of  the  war, 
he  was  an  aide  and  military  secretary  of  General 
Washington,  participating  in  all  the  battles  of 
the  main  army  during  this  period;  and  in  Octo¬ 
ber,  1781,  carried  to  Congress  the  news  of  Corn¬ 
wallis’  surrender,  covering  the  distance  from 
Yorktown  to  Philadelphia  in  four  days.  In  May, 
1781,  he  was  made  a  lieutenant  colonel,  to  take 
rank  from  April  1,  1777,  and  in  October,  1781, 
Congress  voted  him  “a  horse  properly  capari¬ 
soned  and  an  elegant  sword,  in  testimony  of 
their  high  opinion  of  his  merit  and  ability.” 
After  the  war  he  removed  to  Baltimore,  where 
he  died.  Consult  Memoir  of  Tench  Tilghman 
(Albany,  1876). 

TILGNEIi,  tilK/ner,  Viktor  (1844-96).  An 
Austrian  sculptor.  He  was  born  in  Pressburg, 
and  studied  under  Franz  Bauer  and  Joseph 
Gasser  at  the  Vienna  Academy.  He  was  later 
influenced  in  favor  of  the  baroque  and  rococo 
styles  by  the  French  sculptor  Deloye,  and  at  the 
Exposition  of  1873  attracted  much  attention 
with  his  bust  of  the  actress  Charlotte  Wolter. 
This  was  the  first  of  a  series  of  remarkably 
spontaneous  and  individual  portraits,  which  in¬ 
clude  the  statue  of  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  and 
the  busts  of  Crown  Prince  Rudolf,  Hans  Makart, 


TILIACEiE 


TILLO 


278 


Liszt,  and  Rubens  ( Kiinstlerhaus,  Vienna ) .  His 
strong  sense  of  the  decorative  later  found  expres¬ 
sion  in  such  vital  and  attractive  works  as  foun¬ 
tain  groups  for  the  Imperial  villas  at  Ischl  and 
in  the  Volksgarten  and  the  Tiergarten  near 
Vienna,  the  heroic-sized  figure  of  “Falstaff” 

( Burgtlieater,  Vienna),  and  a  number  of  suc¬ 
cessful  polychrome  busts  and  genre  statuettes. 
In  his  monuments,  such  as  those  to  Hummel  at 
Pressburg,  to  Werndle  at  Steyr,  and  to  Mozart 
(1896)  at  Vienna,  he  combined  baroque  ex¬ 
travagance  with  a  thoroughly  naturalistic 
treatment. 

TIL'IA'CEiE  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat. 
tiliaceus,  relating  to  the  linden,  from  tilia, 
linden  tree,  Gk.  7 rreXea,  ptelea,  Arm.  te\i,  elm). 
The  Linden  Family.  A  family  of  dicotyledon¬ 
ous  trees,  shrubs,  and  rarely  herbs,  including 
about  35  genera  and  275  species,  widely  distrib¬ 
uted  in  warm  and  tropical  regions,  a  few  occur¬ 
ring  in  the  temperate  zones.  The  representative 
of  the  family  in  the  north  temperate  zone  is 
Tilia,  with  about  20  species,  which  are  trees 
variously  known  as  linden  and  basswood.  The 
Tiliaceae  yield  valuable  light  timber  (see 
Grewia),  jute  or  corchorus  (q.v.),  and  other 
fibres. 

TILL.  The  unstratified  deposit  of  clay,  bowl¬ 
ders,  and  more  or  less  sand  that  lies  upon  bed 
rock  in  the  region  covered  by  the  Pleistocene  ice 
sheet.  It  is  also  called  bowlder  clay.  See  Gla¬ 
cial  Period. 

TILLAGE  (from  till,  AS.  tilian,  teolian, 
OHG.  zilon,  zilcn,  Ger.  zielen,  to  aim,  strive  for). 
The  process  of  stirring  and  mixing  the  soil  for 
the  purpose  of  increasing  its  productiveness. 
The  operations  of  plowing,  harrowing,  spading, 
hoeing,  etc.,  constitute  tillage.  There  are  three 
distinct  classes  of  tillage:  (1)  surface  tillage 
brought  about  by  such  implements  as  plows, 
harrows,  cultivators,  and  weeders;  (2)  sub- 
tillage,  such  as  is  secured  by  use  of  subsoil  plows 
and  other  deep-tillage  implements;  and  (3) 
intertillage,  such  as  is  carried  on  while  the  soil 
is  occupied  by  a  crop.  Pulverizing  the  soil  by 
tillage  not  only  favors  the  root  growth  of  plants 
but  improves  the  moisture  and  other  physical 
conditions  of  the  soil,  checks  evaporation,  pro¬ 
motes  weathering  and  disintegration,  which  set 
plant  food  free,  supplies  conditions  favorable  to 
the  activity  of  beneficial  organisms  in  the  soil 
(nitrification,  q.v.),  and  destroys  weeds  (and  in 
many  cases  injurious  insects).  Deep  tilth  of 
soil  is  generally  desirable,  but  should  as  a 
rule  be  brought  about  gradually.  See  Plow, 
Plowing. 

TIL'LAMOOK.  See  Salisiian  Stock. 

TILLEMONT,  tel'moN7,  Sebastten  le  Nain 
de  (1637-98).  A  French  ecclesiastical  historian, 
born  in  Paris.  He  was  educated  at  Port  Royal, 
under  the  Jansenist  influence,  and  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1676.  In  1681  Tillemont  made  a 
visit  to  Holland  and  Flanders,  for  the  purpose 
of  seeing  Arnauld  and  other  Jansenist  refugees. 
He  had  worked  meanwhile  on  his  Church  history. 
To  avoid  the  opposition  of  the  censor,  he  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  Church  history  the  history  of 
the  emperors,  which  he  was  enabled  to  print  as 
a  distinct  work,  without  referring  it  to  the 
censorship,  under  the  title  Histoire  d£S  empe- 
rcurs,  etc.  (1691-1738).  In  1693  the  first  volume 
of  the  Church  history  appeared  under  the  title 
MSmoires  pour  servir  a  Vhistoire  ecclesiastique 
cles  six  premiers  siecles,  complete  in  16  volumes 
(1693-1712).  The  Histoire  des  empercurs  com¬ 


prises  all  the  reigns  from  Augustus  to  Anasta- 
sius  (518)  ;  the  Histoire  ecclesiastique  comes 
down  to  about  the  same  period.  Both  are 
laborious  compilations  from  the  original  writ¬ 
ers.  He  was  also  author  of  Vie  de  Saint-Louis 
(new  ed.,  1847-51). 

TIL'LETT,  Ben  (jamin)  (1859-  ).  An 

English  labor  leader  and  Socialist,  born  at  Lower 
Easton,  Bristol.  As  a  boy  he  worked  in  coal 
pits  and  brickyards  until  he  was  14  years  old, 
and  then  went  to  sea,  spending  three  years  in 
the  merchant  service  and  two  in  the  navy. 
While  working  as  a  tea  cooper  he  came  in  con¬ 
tact  with  the  dock  and  wharf  work,  and  in  1887 
was  active  in  organizing  the  Tea  Coopers’  and 
General  Laborers’  Association.  Later  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  forming  the  Dock,  Wharf,  and  General 
Workers’  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
of  which  he  was  thereafter  general  secretary, 
and  with  Tom  Mann  ( q.v. )  he  led  the  Great 
Dock  Strike  of  1888.  For  many  years  he  was 
an  alderman  in  the  London  County  Council, 
and  he  contested  seats  for  Parliament  in  1892, 
1895,  1906,  and  1910.  In  1915  he  visited  the 
British  battle  front  in  France,  and  upon  his  re¬ 
turn  urged  the  working  class  to  increased  efforts 
to  supply  the  needs  of  the  soldiers.  He  wrote 
Trades  Unions  and  Socialism  (1894)  and  His¬ 
tory  of  the  London  Transport  Workers’  Strike, 
191,1  (1912). 

TILLETT,  Wilbur  Fisk  ( 1854-  ) .  An 

American  Methodist  clergyman  and  educator, 
born  at  Henderson,  N.  C.  He  graduated  from 
Randolph  Macon  College  in  1877  and  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1880.  He 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South  in  1881.  In  Vanderbilt  Univer¬ 
sity  he  was  professor  of  systematic  theology 
and  dean  of  the  theological  faculty  after  1884 
and  vice  chancellor  after  1886.  He  published 
Personal  Salvation  (1902;  Span,  trans.)  ;  A 
Statement  of  the  Faith:  World  Wide  Method¬ 
ism  (1906);  Hymns  and  Hymnwriters  of  the 
Church  (1911),  with  C.  S.  Nutter. 

TILL'MAN,  Benjamin  Ryan  (1847-1918). 
An  American  politician,  born  in  Edgefield  Co., 
S.  C.  He  was  educated  at  Bethany  Academy, 
became  a  planter,  and  interested  himself  in  the 
development  of  industrial  and  technical  educa¬ 
tion  in  South  Carolina.  He  became  the  recog¬ 
nized  leader  of  the  farming  element  in  the  Demo¬ 
cratic  party  in  South  Carolina,  received  the 
support  of  the  Farmers’  Alliance,  and  in  1890, 
as  the  Democratic  candidate,  was  elected  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  the  State.  He  was  reelected  in  1892, 
and  secured  the  passage  of  a  law  providing  for 
the  dispensary  system  of  selling  liquor  under 
State  control."  In  1894  he  was  elected  United 
States  Senator,  being  reelected  to  that  office  in 
1900,  1906,  and  1912.  His  speeches  against 
President  Cleveland  in  1895-96  in  the  Senate 
won  him  the  name  of  “Pitchfork”  Tillman.  He 
was  active  in  both  free-silver  campaigns,  in 
1896  and  1900,  as  one  of  the  most  radical  sup¬ 
porters  of  the  candidacy  of  W.  J.  Bryan.  An 
assault  which  he  made  on  his  colleague;  J.  L. 
McLaurin,  in  the  Senate,  Feb.  22,  1902,  led  to 
the  censure  of  both  by  that  body.  From  1912 
he  was  a.  member  of  the  Democratic  National 
Committee. 

TIUTiO,  Alexei  Andreyevitch  (1839-1900). 
A  Russian  general  and  scientist,  distinguished 
for  his  work  in  geodesy,  meteorology,  terrestrial 
magnetism,  livpsometry.  He  was  born  at  Kiev 
and  was  a  student,  then  an  officer,  in  Russian 


TILLODONTIA 


279 


TILTON 


military  schools.  He  studied  at  the  Astronomi¬ 
cal  Observatory  at  Pulkova,  receiving  a  thor¬ 
ough  training  in  geodesy  under  Struve  and 
Doellen,  and  it  was  chiefly  through  his  efforts 
that  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture 
organized  expeditions  to  study  the  sources  of 
the  principal  Russian  rivers.  His  elaborate  in¬ 
vestigations  and  careful  computations  of  iso- 
baric,  magnetic,  and  locational  elements  won 
him  a  European  reputation,  and  his  works  in¬ 
clude  atlases  of  isobars  of  Russia  and  Asia,  of 
distribution  of  magnetic  lines  and  catalogues 
of  latitudes  and  longitudes. 

TILLODONTIA,  til'l5-don/shi-a  ( Neo-Lat. 
nom.  pi.,  from  Gk.  rlWeiv,  tillein,  to  pluck, 
tear  +  odovs,  odous,  tooth ) .  An  extinct  sub¬ 
order  of  early  Tertiary  fossil  mammals  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  ancestral  to  the  modern  rodents. 
The  principal  genera,  Esthonyx,  Tillotherium, 
Stylinodon,  Dryptodon,  and  Anchippodus,  are 
found  in  the  Eocene  and  Miocene  beds  of  the 
western  United  States.  See  Rodextia. 

TIL'LOTSON,  John  (1630—94).  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  He  was  born  in  Sowerby,  in 
Yorkshire,  in  1630,  the  son  of  a  clothier,  who 
was  a  zealous  Independent.  He  was  educated  at 
Clare  Hall,  Cambridge.  He  was  a  preacher  in 
1661 — attached  apparently  to  the  Presbyterian 
party  in  the  Church  of  England,  for  at  the  Sa¬ 
voy  conference  (q.v. )  he  was  present  as  an  au¬ 
ditor  on  the  Presbyterian  side;  but  he  submitted 
at  once  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1662),  and  in 
1663  he  was  appointed  to  the  rectory  of  Ked- 
dington  in  Suffolk,  and  almost  immediately 
after  was  chosen  preacher  at  Lincoln’s  Inn. 
In  1666  he  published  The  Rule  of  Faith,  in  reply 
to  a  work  by  an  English  clergyman  named 
Sargeant,  who  had  gone  over  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  church.  He  was  made  a  prebendary 
of  Canterbury  in  1670  and  dean  in  1672.  With 
Burnet  he  attended  Lord  Russell  during  his 
imprisonment  for  complicity  in  the  Rye  House 
Plot,  and  on  the  accession  of  William  III  rose 
high  into  favor.  In  March,  1689,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  clerk  of  the  closet  to  the  King;  in  No¬ 
vember,  made  dean  of  St.  Paul’s;  and  in  April, 
1691,  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  vacant 
by  the  deposition  of  Sancroft  (q.v.),  after  vainly 
imploring  William  to  spare  him  an  honor  which 
he  foreboded  would  bring  him  no  peace.  Nor 
was  he  mistaken  in  his  painful  presentiment. 
The  nonjuring  party  pursued  him  to  the  end  of 
his  life;  but  he  bore  their  animosity  without 
complaint  or  attempt  at  retaliation.  A  collected 
edition  of  his  Sermons,  in  14  volumes,  was  pub¬ 
lished  after  his  death  by  his  chaplain,  Dr. 
Barker  (London,  1694),  and  has  been  frequently 
reprinted.  The  best  edition  of  his  sermons  and 
other  works  is  by  Dr.  T.  Birch,  who  also  wrote 
his  Life  (London,  1752). 

TILLY,  Johann  Tserklaes,  Count  of  (1559- 
163,2).  A  Catholic  general  in  the  Thirty  Years’ 
Y\  ar,  born  at  the  Castle  of  Tilly,  in  Brabant. 
He  received  his  military  training  in  the  Span¬ 
ish  armies,  fought  against  the  Turks  in  Hun¬ 
gary,  and  in  1610  was  selected  by  Duke  Maxi¬ 
milian  of  Bavaria  to  reorganize  his  army.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years’  War  (q.v.) 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  the  forces  of  the 
Catholic  League  and  on  Nov.  8,  1620,  won  the 
battle  of  the  White  Hill,  near  Prague,  which 
put  an  end  to  the  short  reign  of  Frederick  of  the 
Palatinate  in  Bohemia.  He  then  carried  on  the 
struggle  in  the  Palatinate,  was  defeated  by  Mans- 
feld  and  the  Margrave  of  Baden-Dur’lach  at 


W lesloch  (April  27,  1622),  but  gained  a  deci¬ 
sive  victory  over  the  latter  at  Wimpfen  (May  6), 
and  defeated  Christian  of  Brunswick  at  Hochst 
(1622)  and  Stadtlohn  (1623).  For  these  serv¬ 
ices  he  was  created  Count  of  the  Empire.  He 
defeated  Christian  IV  of  Denmark  at  Lutter 
(Aug.  27,  1626),  and  cooperated  with  Wallen¬ 
stein  in  bringing  about  the  complete  triumph 
of  the  Catholics  in  this  second  phase  of  the 
Thirty  Years’  War.  When  the  influence  of  the 
League  secured  Wallenstein’s  retirement  (1630), 
Tilly  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  Imperial 
forces,  and  took  by  storm  the  town  of  Magde¬ 
burg  (May  20,  1631).  The  atrocities  which ’the 
Croats  and  Walloons  of  his  army  perpetrated  on 
this  occasion  form  a  stain  upon  a  character 
that  was  remarkable  in  that  age  for  honesty 
and  loyalty  to  conviction.  The  capture  of 
Magdeburg  was  Tilly’s  last  triumph.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  completely  routed  him  at  Breitenfeld 
(Sept.  17,  1631).  In  April,  1632,  the  Swedish 
King  forced  the  passage  of  the  river  Lech  in 
Tilly’s  front  after  a  desperate  conflict,  in  which 
Lilly  was  mortally  wounded.  He  was  removed 
to  Ingolstadt,  where  he  died.  Consult:  Viller- 
mont,  Tilly  (Tournay,  1859);  Klopp,  Tilly  im 
Dreissig jdh/rigen  Kriege  ( Stuttgart,  1861 ) ,  both 
written  from  the  Catholic  point  of  view;  and 
Wittich,  Magdeburg,  Gustav  Adolf  und  Tilly 
(Berlin,  1874). 

TIL'SIT.  A  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  east  Prussia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Memel  or  Niemen,  61  miles  northeast  of  Konigs- 
berg  (Map:  Germany,  J  1).  It  stands  in  a 
fruitful  district,  has  broad  streets,  a  cleanly 
appearance,  and  has  paper,  sugar,  and  oil  mills, 
iron  foundries,  machine  shops,  distilleries,  chem¬ 
ical  establishments,  breweries,  and  shoddy  mills. 
It  also  gives  its  name  to  a  pungent  and  popular 
cheese.  Pop.,  1900,  34,539;  1910,  39,013. 

At  Tilsit,  on  a  raft  in  the  middle  of  the  Nie¬ 
men,  occurred,  June  25,  1807,  the  celebrated 
meeting  between  Napoleon  and  Alexander  I  of 
Russia,  following  the  defeat  of  the  Russian 
forces  at  Friedland  (q.v.).  On  July  7  peace 
was  concluded  at  Tilsit  between  France  and 
Russia  and  on  the  ninth  between  France  and 
Prussia.  The  latter  was  stripped  of  her  posses¬ 
sions  west  of  the  Elbe  and  of  the  Polish  terri¬ 
tories  acquired  in  1793-95,  out  of  which  Na¬ 
poleon  created  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw.  Danzig 
was  made  a  free  city.  Prussia  joined  the 
Continental  System  and  closed  its  ports  to  Eng¬ 
lish  vessels.  Its  army  was  reduced  to  42,000 
men,  and  until  the  payment  of  a  heavy  indem¬ 
nity  a  number  of  the  chief  strongholds  were  to 
remain  in  the  hands  of  the  French.  A  secret 
agreement  between  France  and  Russia  provided 
for  the  imposition  by  force  of  the  Continental 
System  on  Portugal,  Austria,  and  the  Scan¬ 
dinavian  countries.  Practically  at  Tilsit  the 
French  and  Russian  monarchs  divided  between 
them  the  mastery  in  Europe,  France  remaining 
the  arbiter  in  west  and  central  Europe,  while 
Russia  was  given  a  free  hand  in  Sweden  and 
Turkey.  Tilsit  was  occupied  but  later  evacuated 
by  the  Russians  in  the  Great  War  which  began 
in  1914.  See  War  in  Europe. 

TIL'TON,  James  (1745-1822).  An  American 
physician  and  army  surgeon,  born  in  Kent  Co., 
Del.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Pennsvl- 
vania  (M.D.,  1771).  He  entered*  the  Colonial 
army  in  1775  as  first  lieutenant,  becoming 
surgeon  in  1776  and  resigning  in  1782  as  senior 
hospital  physician  and  surgeon.  In  1780  Doctor 


TILTON 


TIMBY 


280 


Tilton  introduced  with  the  best  results  a  system 
of  log  hospital  huts  admitting  free  ventilation, 
and  each  accommodating  only  six  patients. 
From  1783  to  1785  he  was  a  delegate  to  the 
Continental  Congress.  As  surgeon-general  in 
the  War  of  1812,  Tilton  greatly  improved  the 
government  medical  service.  He  practiced  first 
at  Dover  and  later  at  Wilmington,  Del. 

TILTON,  Theodore  (1835-1907).  An  Amer¬ 
ican  journalist,  poet,  and  novelist,  born  in  New 
York.  He  graduated  at  the  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York  in  1855,  and  was  an  editor  of  The 
Independent  for  most  of  the  years  between  1856 
and  1871,  and  of  The  Golden  Age  (1871-74).  In 
1874  he  brought  criminal  charges  against  the 
Rev.  Henry  Ward  Beecher  (q.v.),  whom  he  ac¬ 
cused  of  improper  relations  with  his  wife.  After¬ 
ward  he  attracted  attention  as  a  platform 
speaker,  chiefly  in  behalf  of  woman’s  rights. 
After  1888  he  lived  in  Paris.  His  books  in¬ 
clude:  The  Sexton’s  Tale  and  Other  Poems 
(1867);  Sancta  Sanctorum,  or  Proof  Sheets 
from  an  Editor’s  Table  (1869)  ;  Tempest-Tossed , 
a  romance  (1873)  ;  Thou  and  I,  verses  (1880)  ; 
Swabian  Stories,  ballads  (1882);  The  Chame¬ 
leon’s  Dish  (1883)  and  Heart’s  Ease  (1894), 
volumes  of  verse;  and  The  Fading  of  the  May¬ 
flower:  A  Poem  (1906).  His  Complete  Poeti¬ 
cal  Works  appeared  in  1897. 

TIL  WOOD.  See  Oreodaphne. 

TIMiE'US  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tifiouos,  Timaios) 

( c. 352-256  b.c.).  A  Greek  historian,  son  of 
Andromachus,  tyrant  of  Tauromenium,  in  Sic¬ 
ily.  He  was  banished  from  Sicily  by  Agathocles, 
and  passed  most  of  his  life  in  Athens.  His 
chief  work,  a  History  of  Sicily  in  68,  or,  accord¬ 
ing  to  others,  38  books,  embraced  the  period  from 
the  earliest  times  to  264  b.c.  Polybius  and 
others,  notably  Diodorus  Siculus,  pronounce  him 
unfit  for  writing  history  on  account  of  his  “lack 
of  critical  acumen,  malignity,  and  tendency  to 
superstition.”  But,  although  most  of  these 
charges  are  founded  on  truth,  Timseus’s  deficien¬ 
cies  have  probably  been  exaggerated,  since  mod¬ 
ern  critics  and  most  of  the  ancients  praise  his 
general  knowledge  and  his  accuracy  in  indicating 
the  chronology  of  the  events  which  he  describes. 
He  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  practice  of 
recording  events  by  Olympiads.  Consult:  Mul¬ 
ler,  Fragmenta  Historicorum  Grcecorum  (Paris, 
1841 )  ;  F.  Susemihl,  Geschiehte  der  griechisohen 
Litteratur  in  der  Alexandrinerzeit,  vol.  i  (Mu¬ 
nich,  1891);  J.  B.  Bury,  The  Ancient  Greek 
Historians  (New  York,  1909)  ;  Christ-Schmid, 
Geschiehte  der  griechischen  Litteratur,  vol.  ii, 
part  i  (5th  ed.,  Munich,  1911). 

TIMARU,  te'ma-roo;  colloq.  tim'a-rbo.  A 
seaport  and  agricultural  port  of  entry  on  the 
main  railway  line  between  Christchurch  and 
Dunedin,  South  Island  of  New  Zealand  (Map: 
New  Zealand,  S.  I.,  C  5).  It  is  the  junction  of 
the  branch  line  by  which  tourists  proceed  to  the 
alpine  regions  around  Mount  Cook.  Flour  and 
woolen  mills  and  frozen-meat  works  are  the 
chief  industries.  A  concrete  breakwater  has 
made  an  efficient  harbor  at  Timaru.  Pop.,  1911, 
7927. 

TIMBER  (AS.  timber,  OHG.  zimbar,  timber 
work,  room,  Ger.  Zimmer,  room ) .  In  law,  such 
trees  as  are  suitable  for  building  purposes. 
Timber  trees  belong  to  the  owner  of  the  land, 
both  when  standing  and  fallen,  unless  converted 
into  lumber  in  a  convenient  form  for  trans¬ 
portation.  Therefore  timber  will  pass  with  the 
land  under  a  conveyance,  and  is  included  in  a 


mortgage  on  the  land  without  being  specifically 
mentioned.  A  sale  of  standing  timber,  the  terms 
of  which  indicate  an  intention  to  pass  title 
thereto  at  once,  is  considered  a  sale  of  realty, 
and  must  consequently  be  in  writing  to  satisfy 
the  Statute  of  Frauds;  but  if  the  title  is  not  to 
pass  until  severance,  the  transaction  is  viewed 
as  the  sale  of  a  chattel  merely.  A  tenant  is 
not  legally  entitled  to  cut  more  timber  than  is 
necessary  for  the  purposes  for  which  he  hired 
the  land,  unless  under  special  agreement.  The 
term  “timber”  is  also  applied  to  large  pieces  of 
lumber  suitable  for  the  framework  of  buildings, 
bridges,  etc.,  as  distinguished  from  shingles,  lath, 
etc.  See  Real  Estate. 

TIMBER.  See  Lumber  Industry. 

TIMBER  AND  TIMBER  SUPPLY.  See 
Lumber  Industry. 

TIMBERING.  See  Mining. 

TIMBER  PRESERVATION.  See  Forestry. 

TIMBRE,  tim'ber.  See  Clang  Tint,  Ex¬ 
planation  of. 

TIMBREL  (derivation  uncertain).  An  an¬ 
cient  .musical  instrument  like  a  tambourine 
(q.v.),  a  tabor.  In  architecture,  the  same  as 
tympanum  (q.v.),  but  this  use  of  the  term  is 
very  rare. 

TIMBUKTU,  tim-buk'too,  or  TIMBUCTOO. 

A  town  in  the  Timbuktu  District  of  the  Military 
Territory  of  the  Niger,  French  West  Africa,  9 
miles  north  of  the  Niger  (Map:  Africa,  D  3). 
The  climate  is  unhealthful.  The  town,  near  the 
southern  borders  of  the  Sahara  Desert,  lies  be¬ 
tween  a  rolling  table-land  on  the  north  and  the 
swamps  of  the  Niger.  It  has  flat,  windowless 
clay  houses.  It  was  largely  in  ruins  when  taken 
by  the  French.  They  have,  however,  introduced 
improvements,  and  new  streets  and  European' 
churches  and  schools  have  been  constructed. 
Timbuktu  is  fortified.  There  is  also  a  fortress 
at  Kabara  on  the  Niger.  There  are  two  impor¬ 
tant  and  handsome  mosques.  Timbuktu  is  not¬ 
able  for  its  commerce,  and  is  the  focus  of  the 
caravan  trade  in  West-Central  Africa.  The  an¬ 
nual  value  of  the  transit  trade  alone  is  put  at 
$4,000,000.  Gums  and  rubber  are  perhaps  the 
leading  articles.  Gold,  ivory,  wax,  salt,  hard¬ 
ware,  beads,  and  cheap  cloth  are  also  prominent 
items.  The  trade  is  chiefly  by  barter.  The  few 
local  manufactures  include  cottons,  leather  ar¬ 
ticles,  and  pottery.  French  goods  and  money 
are  replacing  those  of  other  countries.  Tim¬ 
buktu  is  a  centre  of  Mohammedan  learning  and 
has  a  large  Moslem  library.  The  population, 
which  has  greatly  diminished  in  recent  times,  is 
5107.  The  town  was  founded  in  1077  by  the 
Tuareg  tribe.  It  passed  through  different  hands, 
began  to  be  a  place  of  commercial  importance  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  and  was  seized  by  an  army 
from  Morocco  in  1591.  The  Fulahs  drove  out 
the  Moors  early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Tim¬ 
buktu  was  first  visited  by  a  European  in  1826 — 
Major  Laing,  an  Englishman.  From  1844  to 
1846  it  was  again  in  the  hands  of  the  Tuaregs. 
In  1863  Ahmed  el-Bathai  drove  out  the  Fulahs 
for  the  last  time.  The  town  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  French  in  1894.  Consult: 
Oskar  Lenz,  Timbuktu  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1892)  ; 
F6lix  Dubois,  Timbuctoo  the  Mysterious  (Lon¬ 
don,  1896)  ;  Toutee,  Du  DahomA  au  Sahara 
(Paris,  1899)  ;  Lugard,  A  Tropical  Dependency 
(London,  1905). 

TIM'BY,  Theodore  Ruggles  (1822-1909). 
An  American  inventor,  born  in  Dover,  N.  Y.  In 
1841  he  prepared  a  model  of  a  revolving  battery 


TIME 


281 


TIME 


which  he  submitted  to  thfc  military  authorities 
in  \\  ashington,  and  from  which  he  subsequently 
developed  a  metallic  revolving  fort  to  be  used 
on  land  and  water,  and  for  this  in  1862  he  ob¬ 
tained  a  patent  for  a  revolving  tower  for  defen¬ 
sive  and  offensive  warfare.  In  consequence  of 
this  patent  he  received  a  royalty  of  $5000  in 
1862  for  eacli  turret  constructed  by  the  builders 
of  the  Monitor.  His  other  inventions  include 
a  method  for  firing  heavy  guns  by  electricity 
(1861);  a  cordon  of  revolving  towers  across  a 
channel  (1862);  a  mole  and  tower  system  of 
defense  (1880);  a  subterranean  system  of  de¬ 
fense  (1881)  ;  and  a  revolving  tower  and  shield 
system  (1884),  for  all  of  which  he  obtained 
patents. 

TIME  (AS.  tlma ;  connected  with  tid,  OHG. 
zit,  Ger.  Zeit,  time,  Eng.  tide,  Skt.  a-diti,  bound¬ 
less).  In  philosophy  there  has  been  even  more 
difference  of.  opinion  as  to  the  nature  of  time 
than  of  space  (q.v. ).  In  addition  to  the  views  of 
time  which  parallel  those  of  space,  there  are 
still  others  about  time  on  the  part  of  thinkers 
who  regard  time  as  more  fundamental  than 
space  in  the  constitution  of  the  world.  This  way 
of  regarding  time  as  more  real  than  space  is  al¬ 
most  inevitable  in  idealism  ( q.v. ) ,  and  was  taken 
by  the  first  great  idealist  in  modern  philosophy, 
Bishop  Berkeley.  If  the  whole  material  world 
is  nothing  but  ideas  in  minds,  and  if  minds  are 
conceived  as  immaterial  and  as  not  having 
spatial  extension,  it  seems  to  follow  that  the 
apparent  space  in  which  the  material  world 
exists,  being  in  a  spaceless  mind,  cannot  itself 
be  what  it  seems.  Thus  Berkeley  came  to  the 
conclusion,  reenforced  by  considerations  drawn 
from  an  associational  psychology,  that  “neither 
distance  nor  things  placed  at  a  distance  are  them¬ 
selves,  or  their  ideas,  truly  perceived  by  sight 
.  .  .  what  he  (any  one)  sees  only  suggests  to 
his  understanding  that,  after  having  passed 
a  certain  distance,  to  be  measured  by  the  motion 
of  his  body,  which  is  perceivable  by  touch,  he 
shall  come  to  perceive  such  and  such  tangible 
ideas,  which  have  been  usually  connected  with 
such  and  such  visible  ideas.”  “As  we  see  distance 
so  we  see  magnitude.  And  we  see  both  in  the 
same  way  that  we  see  shame  or  anger  in  the 
looks  of  a  man.  Those  passions  are  themselves 
invisible.”  In  the  last  analysis  space  is  resolved 
into  time  with  its  suggestions.  Ideas  being  in 
the  mind  are  indeed  in  time,  but  not  in  space. 
But  this  time  is  not  an  independent  entity;  it  is 
“ nothing ,  abstracted  from  the  succession  of  ideas 
in  our  minds,”  and  it  follows  “that  the  duration 
of  any  finite  spirit  must  be  estimated  by  the  num¬ 
ber  of  ideas  or  actions  succeeding  each  other  in 
that  same  spirit  or  mind.”  When  we  say,  then, 
that  ideas  are  in  time,  we  should  not  mean  that 
they  are  contained  in  some  medium  which  has  an 
independent  existence,  but  that  they  follow  each 
other,  and  that  the  fact  of  this  sequence  is  it¬ 
self  time.  This  position  taken  by  Berkeley  was 
one  of  unstable  equilibrium,  and  subsequent 
idealists  have  endeavored  in  various  ways  to 
maintain  a  more  secure  poise.  Some,  like  T. 
H.  Green,  have  practically  denied  the  ultimate 
reality  of  time  altogether;  consciousness,  for 
which  alone  there  is  reality,  is  “an  agent  for  the 
neutralization  of  time.”  This  is  the  most  com¬ 
mon  way  of  dealing  with  the  difficulty,  and  re¬ 
sults  in  the  doctrine  of  the  timeless  Absolute. 
Another  way  out  of  the  difficulty  is  taken  by 
Josiah  Boyce,  who  makes  time  a  fundamental 
character  of  the  real  world  as  experienced  by  the 


Absolute;  the  difference  of  before  and  after  for 
the  Absolute  is  just  the  same  as  that  of  before 
and  after  for  us  within  the  small  span  of  the 
specious  present.  Just  as  we  can  hear  at  the 
same  time  several  successive  taps  and  experience 
their  successiveness  within  the  same  moment, 
so  the  Absolute  within  his  all-comprehensive 
span  experiences  immediately  all  the  past  and 
all  the  future  at  once,  without,  however,  failing 
to  experience  their  relative  priority  and  posteri¬ 
ority.  There  is  nothing  future  or  past  to  his 
experience,  but  things  are  future  or  past  to 
one  another  for  his  experience.  Time  is  thus 
ultimately  real.  Royce  claims  that  this  is  a 
justifiable  extension  to  the  Absolute  Experience 
of  what  is  an  empirical  fact  in  our  finite  ex¬ 
perience;  he  has  .been  criticized  for  failing  to 
note  that  what  makes  temporal  priority  or 
posteriority  in  our  experience  is  the  order  in 
which  events  enter  into  this  experience :  as  into 
the  Absolute  Experience  nothing  enters,  it  is 
claimed  that  nothing  can  be  experienced  therein 
as  temporal.  For  the  Absolute  the  time  order 
would  not  be  essentially  different  from  the  space 
order  or  some  other  type  of  static  order.  This 
is  a  serious  objection  to  any  attempt  to  combine 
the  reality  of  time  with  an  idealistic  absolutism. 

Apart  from  idealistic  interpretations,  recent 
discussions  of  time  have  taken  their  departure 
from  James’s  or  Bergson’s  views.  In  his  Prin¬ 
ciples  of  Psychology,  James  developed  the  thesis 
that  “the  sensible  present  has  duration.”  “In 
short,  the  practically  cognized  present  is  no  knife- 
edge,  but  a  saddleback,  with  a  certain  breadth  of 
its  own  on  which  we  sit  perched,  and  from  which 
we  look  in  two  directions  into  time.  The  unit 
of  composition  of  our  perception  of  time  is  a 
duration,  with  a  bow  and  a  stern,  as  it  were — 
a  rearward  and  a  forward  looking  end.  It  is 
only  as  parts  of  this  duration  block  that  the  re¬ 
lation  of  succession  of  one  end  to  the  other  is 
perceived.  We  do  not  first  feel  one  end  and 
then  feel  the  other  after  it,  and  from  the  per¬ 
ception  of  the  succession  infer  an  interval  of 
time  between,  but  we  seem  to  feel  the  interval 
of  time  as  a  whole,  with  its  two  ends  embedded 
in  it.  The  experience  is  from  the  outset  a  syn¬ 
thetic  datum,  not  a  simple  one;  and  to  sensible 
perception  its  elements  are  inseparable,  although 
attention  looking  back  may  easily  decompose 
the  experience,  and  distinguish  its  beginning 
from  its  end.  As  we  have  seen,  Royce  iniinitizes 
this  specious  present  and  gets  the  absolute  ex¬ 
perience,  for  which  the  whole  future  is  as  real 
as  the  whole  past.  James,  on  the  contrary,  in¬ 
sists  on  the  growth  of  time;  the  future  is  not 
yet,  not  even  for  an  absolute.  Time  “grows  by 
finite  buds  or  drops,  either  nothing  coming  at 
all,  or  certain  units  of  amount  bursting  into 
being  ‘at  a  stroke.’  ”  Real  processes  of  change 
are  not  continuous  but  take  place  “by  finite  not 
infinitesimal  steps,  like  the  successive  drops  by 
which  a  cask  of  water  is  filled,  when  whole 
drops  fall  into  it  at  once  or  nothing.”  This 
view,  like  Berkeley’s,  is  in  unstable  equilibrium. 
If  one  emphasizes  the  durational  character  of 
the  specious  present  with  past  and  future  in¬ 
cluded  in  it,  one  moves  in  one  direction;  if  one 
emphasizes  the  discontinuous  accretions  of  finite 
amounts  of  time,  one  moves  in  another.  The 
former  direction  leads  to  the  view  of  time  as  a 
continuum ;  the  latter  to  time  as  a  discrete  some¬ 
what.  This  latter  view  has  been  developed  by 
Lovejoy. 

James  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  his  belief  that 


TIME 


282 


TIME 


the  future  is  not  yet  real;  but  he  is  not  equally 
clear  about  the  past,  although  it  would  seem 
that  the  past  also  is  on  his  view  no  longer  real. 
Here  Bergson  parts  company  with  James.  The 
past  is  not  left  behind;  it  is  not  differentiated 
from  the  present  by  its  status,  but  by  its  lesser 
efficacy.  Time  is  likened  to  a  snowball  which,  as 
it  rolls  onward,  carries  the  snow  over  which  it 
has  traveled  along  with  it.  In  reality  the  past 
is  preserved  by  itself,  automatically.  In  its  en¬ 
tirety,  probably,  it  follows  us  at  every  instant; 
all  that  we  have  felt,  thought,  and  willed  from 
our  earliest  infancy  is  there,  leaning  over  the 
present  which  is  about  to  join  it,  pressing  against 
the  portals  of  consciousness  that  would  fain 
leave  it  outside. 

While  both  the  Bergsonian  and  the  Jamesian 
doctrines  of  time  claim  to  be  purely  empirical, 
and  not  based  upon  dialectical  considerations, 
it  is  also  claimed  for  them  by  their  authors  that 
they  obviate  the  dialectical  difficulties  that  have 
been  raised  against  the  reality  of  time.  These 
difficulties  are  the  Zenonian  paradoxes.  Zeno 
(q.v.)  himself  was  probably  arguing  against  the 
view  of  the  discontinuity  of  time,  but  the  recent 
philosophers  who  have  made  use  of  his  arguments 
have  turned  them  against  the  doctrine  of  the 
continuity  of  time.  It  is  urged  that  if  time 
is  continuous  in  the  sense  that  it  is  infinitely 
divisible,  as  there  must  be  an  infinity  of  points 
on  a  line  of  any  length,  it  would  take  a  cor¬ 
respondingly  infinite  number  of  moments  to 
traverse  all  these  points.  But  an  infinite  num¬ 
ber  of  moments  would  be  infinite  time;  but  if 
it  would  take  an  infinite  time  to  accomplish 
any  result,  the  result  could  never  be  accom¬ 
plished.  As  James  states  the  argument,  “That 
Achilles  should  occupy  in  succession  all  the 
points  in  a  single  continuous  inch  of  space, 
is  as  inadmissible  a  conception  as  that  he  should 
count  the  series  of  whole  numbers  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc., 
to  infinity  and  reach  an  end.”  Bergson  returns 
again  and  again  to  the  difficulties  involved  in 
such  a  view  of  time,  and  alleged  to  be  insur¬ 
mountable.  But  it  would  seem  that  the  diffi¬ 
culty  is  factitious.  One  way  of  meeting  the 
difficulty  has  been  to  say  that  if  an  inch  of 
space  be  conceived  as  containing  an  infinite 
number  of  points,  a  minute  of  time  can  by  a 
similar  treatment  be  conceived  as  containing  an 
infinite  number  of  instants;  and  whatever  in¬ 
stant  be  taken  as  correlated  with  any  point, 
a  last  instant  can  be  conceived  as  correlated 
with  the  last  point,  and  when  this  instant  is 
reached  the  line  is  traversed.  Against  this  reply 
it  is  urged  that  the  difficulty  is  not  met  by 
doubling  it.  An  infinite  number  of  instants  of 
time  cannot  elapse  any  more  than  an  infinite 
number  of  points  can  be  traversed.  Or  as  James 
puts  it,  the  puzzle  is  not  so  much  one  involved 
in  motion  as  in  the  flight  of  time  itself.  Un¬ 
less  time  is  composed  of  a  finite  number  of  in¬ 
divisible  moments,  no  smallest  length  of  time 
can  run  its  course  until  the  infinite  number  of 
its  constituent  instants  has  been  summated, 
i.e.,  it  can  never  happen. 

Argument  upon  such  a  basis  is  sophistical. 
The  continuity  of  time  does  not  mean  that  it  is 
composed  or  aggregated  out  of  an  infinity  of 
moments,  but  that  any  length  of  time  is  capable 
of  being  divided  into  any  number  you  please  of 
smaller  lengths.  Any  division  you  make  is  a 
finite  division;  to  say  that  the  divisibility  of 
time  is  infinite  is  not  to  say  that  time  is  actually 
infinitely  divided,  but  that  it  may  be  divided 


as  much  as  you  please.  But  however  much  di¬ 
vided,  the  division  actually  made  is  always 
finite;  the  parts  are  of  finite  length,  and  a 
definite  number  of  these  definite  parts  makes  up 
the  total  length  you  started  to  divide  up.  Any 
part  of  time  you  choose  is  always  some  length 
of  time,  and  time  is  not  composed  of  lengthless 
elements.  In  other  words,  if  instant  be  de¬ 
fined  as  the  temporal  correlate  of  the  spatial 
point,  which  has  no  length,  breadth,  or  thick¬ 
ness,  and  thus  is  conceived  as  having  no  dura¬ 
tional  length,  it  is  not  a  part  of  time.  It  is 
the  termination  of  a  length  of  time.  It  is  the 
boundary  between  two  adjacent  lengths,  but  is 
a  lengthless  boundary.  A  length  of  time,  then, 
say  a  minute,  is  not  made  up  of  an  infinite  num¬ 
ber  of  lengthless  instants,  but  is  divisible  into 
any  number  of  correspondingly  smaller  lengths 
of  duration,  each  terminating  at  the  lengthless 
instant  at  which  the  next  begins.  If  the  pas¬ 
sage  of  time  be  represented  by  spatial  analogies, 
it  may  be  illustrated,  not  by  a  'point  traversing 
a  line  composed  of  an  infinite  number  of  points, 
but  by  a  short  line  traversing  a  longer  line — a 
process  which  does  not  involve  the  perplexity  in 
question.  Such  an  illustration  is  more  in  keep¬ 
ing  with  James’s  own  description  of  the  “specious 
present”  previously  quoted;  but  this  description 
must  be  amended  in  one  point.  Instead  of  say¬ 
ing  that  we  “do  not  first  feel  one  end  and  then 
feel  the  other  after  it,  and  from  the  perception 
infer  an  interval  of  time  between,”  we  should 
say  that  while  both  the  prior  and  the  posterior 
parts  of  the  contents  included  in  the  span  of  the 
present  are  both  felt  together,  we  came  first  to 
feel  the  prior  and  then  the  posterior,  just  as, 
when  a  short  line  is  traversing  a  longer,  the 
part  of  the  longer  which  is  towards  the  rear 
of  the  moving  line  is  as  much  spanned  by  the 
latter  as  is  the  part  which  is  towards  its  front, 
and  yet  the  former  part  entered  into  that  span 
before  the  latter  part.  It  was  this  -failure  to 
reckon  both  with  the  entrance  of  elements  into 
the  span  of  the  present  and  with  their  inclu¬ 
sion  within  this  span,  that  has  led  both  James 
and  Royce  to  their  vagarious  treatment  of  time, 
one  in  the  case  of  the  finite  experience  and  the 
other  in  the  case  of  the  assumed  Eternal  Ex¬ 
perience. 

In  its  legal  aspect,  the  meridian  of  the  sun 
is  the  generally  recognized  standard  of  time;  but 
where  persons  enter  into  legal  relations  ex¬ 
pressly  with  reference  to  some  arbitrary  system, 
as  that  adopted  by  railroads  for  their  conven¬ 
ience,  the  courts  will  apply  the  standard  con¬ 
templated  by  the  parties  in  case  of  a  contro¬ 
versy.  In  computing  a  period  of  time  from  a 
certain  day,  the  general  rule  is  to  exclude  the 
first  day  and  include  the  last  day  of  the  count. 
This  rule  may  be  disregarded  if  it  will  best  ef¬ 
fectuate  the  intention  of  the  parties  to  an  agree¬ 
ment.  It  is  generally  held  that  a  policy  of  in¬ 
surance  includes  the  last  day  of  the  period 
named  therein.  In  many  States  Sunday,  or  other 
dies  non,  is  included  in  the  computation  of  a 
number  of  days  if  they  exceed  a  week,  i.e.,  seven 
days,  but  excluded  if  less  than  seven  days.  In 
some  States  a  dies  non  is  included  unless  it 
would  be  the  last  day  of  a  period.  See  Dies 
non  ;  Month  ;  Day. 

In  music,  time  is  the  division  of  a  measure 
into  the  fractional  parts  of  a  whole  note.  The 
sign  which  indicates  the  character  of  the  subdi¬ 
vision,  and  which  consequently  regulates  the 
rhvthm  of  the  movement,  is  called  the  time 


TIME 


TIME 


283 


signature.  This  is  generally  a  fraction  (  f,  |, 
etc.)  placed  after  the  clef  at  the  beginning 
of  a  movement.  In  the  fraction  the  lower  figures 
represent  the  kind  of  notes  to  be  used  asltime 
standards,  while  the  upper  figure  shows  how 
many  of  them  are  to  be  given  in  a  bar.  There 
are  two  general  classes  of  time,  duple  and  triple ; 
in  the  former,  the  number  of  beats  in  a  bar  is 
divisible  by  two;  in  the  latter,  by  three.  Com¬ 
mon  time,  so  called,  is  £  and  is  represented 
by  the  sign  C.  Compound  duple  time  and  com¬ 
pound  triple  time  differ  only  from  their  originals 
in  that  each  beat  (containing  a  dotted  note  or 
its  equivalent)  is  divisible  by  three.  See 
Rhythm;  Tempo. 

Consult:  Herbert  Nichols,  Psychology  of  Time 
(New  York,  1891);  J.  E.  Boodin,  Time  and 
Reality  (ib.,  1904)  ;  James  Arthur,  Time  and  its 
Measurements  (Chicago,  1909)  ;  Henri  Bergson, 
Time  and  Free  Will,  Eng.  trans.  by  F.  L.  Pogson 
(ib.,  1910);  Love  joy,  “The  Problem  of  Time  in 
Recent  French  Philosophy,”  in  The  Philosophical 
Review  (Boston,  1912);  McGilvary,  “Time  and 
the  Experience  of  Time,”  in  The  Philosophical 
Revieiv  (ib.,  1914)  ;  and  the  bibliography  in  the 
article  Space. 

TIME,  Equation  of.  See  Equation  of  Time; 
Navigation. 

TIME,  Reckoning  of.  See  Day;  Hour;  In¬ 
ternational  Date  Line;  Month;  Time,  Stand¬ 
ard;  Year. 

TIME,  Standard.  The  time  in  common  use 


of  no  consequence  for  our  present  purpose,  when 
that  celestial  body  is  on  the  meridian  of  any 
place  we  call  the  time  at  that  place  noon,  or 
12  o  clock.  (See  Equation  of  Time.)  It  fol¬ 
lows  that  when  it  is  noon  at  any  given  place 
it  is  similarly  noon  at  all  other  places  having  the 
same  meridian,  and  at  places  having  different 
meridian  it  is  either  forenoon  or  afternoon.  In 
fact,  as  the  sun  rises  in  the  east  and  sets  in  the 
vest,  it  is  evident  that  when  it  is  crossing  the 
meridian  of  any  place  it  must  have  already 
passed  that  of  neighboring  places  to  the  east¬ 
ward,  and  not  yet  have  reached  that  of  neighbor¬ 
ing  places  to  the  westward.  In  other  words, 
when  it  is  noon  in  the  given  place  it  is  already 
afternoon  in  places  to  the  eastward,  and  still 
forenoon  in  places  to  the  westward.  The  farther 
east  one  travels,  the  later  is  the  local  time;  and 
this  gives  rise  to  the  rather  perplexing  time 
differences  so  familiar  to  travelers. 

In  the  case  of  railroads  this  matter  of  time 
differences  has  caused  especially  confusing  com¬ 
plications.  It  was  formerly  customary  for  a 
road  to  use  throughout  large  sections  of  its  ter¬ 
ritory  the  local  time  of  one  of  the  principal 
cities  through  which  it  passed.  The  result  was 
that  when  two  railroads  met  in  some  smaller 
town,  it  happened  not  infrequently  that  they 
were  running  under  widely  different  time  sys¬ 
tems.  As  many  as  five  different  kinds  of  time 
have  been  thus  simultaneously  in  use  in  a  single 
town. 


TABLE  OF  THE  WORLD’S  TIME  STANDARDS 


COUNTRIES 


Central  meridian 


Fast  or  slow  on 
Greenwich 


Great  Britain,  Faroe  Islands,  France,  Belgium,  Spain,  Portugal,  Gibral¬ 
tar,  Algeria,  Morocco,  Upper  Senegal-Niger,  Ivory  Coast,  Dahomey, 

Togoland,  Sao  Thome  and  Principe  Islands . 

Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Luxemburg,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary, 
Switzerland,  Italy,  Malta,  Alontenegro,  Bosnia,  Tunis,  French  Equa¬ 
torial  Africa,  Cameroons,  Belgian  Congo,  Angola,  German  South¬ 
west  Africa . 

Rumania,  Bulgaria,  Turkey  (railways),  Egypt,  German  East  Africa, 

Mozambique,  British  South  Africa . 

Uganda,  British  East  Africa . 

Aden,  Somaliland,  Madagascar . 

Mauritius,  Seychelles,  Reunion . . 

Chagos  Archipelago,  Portuguese  India . . . .  . 

India  (Bombay,  Madras),  Qeylon,  French  India . !..!.!!!!! 

India  (Calcutta) . 

Burma . . 

Straits  Settlements,  Indo-China . .  .  .' . . 

Hongkong,  Macao,  Eastern  China,  Formosa,  Philippines,  British  Bor¬ 
neo,  Labuan,  Portuguese  Timor,  West  Australia . 

Japan,  Korea . 

Guam,  Northern  Territory,  South  Australia .’ .' .’ .’ .’ .’ .' .'  '  ’  ’ 

Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  Tasmania,  German  New 

Guinea . . . 

New  Caledonia,  New  Hebrides . 

New  Zealand . 

Iceland,  Madeira,  Senegal,  Portuguese  Guinea,  French  Guinea,  Sierra 

Leone . 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  Azores,  Fernando  da  Noronha,  Trinidad  (Bra¬ 
zilian)  . . . 

Eastern  Brazil .  ' 

Prince  Edward  Island,  Nova  Scotia,  Sainte-Pierre  and  Miquelon,  Porto 
Rico,  Lesser  Antilles,  French  Guiana,  British  Guiana,  Amazonas 
(Brazil) . 

New  Brunswick,  Quebec,  Eastern  Ontario,  Eastern  United  States,  Baha¬ 
mas,  Jamaica,  Canal  Zone,  Peru,  Acre  (Brazil),  Chile . 

Western  Ontario,  Manitoba,  Central  United  States,  Honduras,  British 

Honduras . 

Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  Mountain  United  States . . 

British  Columbia,  Pacific  United  States . 

Alaska,  Yukon . 

Tahiti . . . 

Hawaii . ' 

Samoa . 


0° 


If,0  E. 

30°  E. 
37  E. 
45°  E. 
60°  E. 
75°  E. 
82V2°  E. 

90°  E. 
97  46°  E. 
105°  E. 

120°  E. 
135°  E. 
142  y2°  E. 

150°  E. 
165°  E. 
17246°  E. 

15°  W. 

30°  W. 
45°  W. 


60°  W. 

75°  W. 

90°  W. 
105°  W. 
120°  W. 
135°  W. 
150°  W. 
157  46°  W. 
172  46°  W. 


0  h. 


1  h.  fast 

2  h.  fast 
243  h.  fast 

3  h.  fast 

4  h.  fast 

5  h.  fast 
546  h.  fast 

6  h.  fast 
6  46  h.  fast 

7  h.  fast 

8  h.  fast 

9  h.  fast 
9  y2  h.  fast 

10  h.  fast 

11  h.  fast 
11  y  h.  fast 

1  h.  slow 

2  h.  slow 

3  h.  slow 


4  h.  slow 

5  h.  slow 

6  h.  slow 

7  h.  slow 

8  h.  slow 

9  h.  slow 
10  h.  slow 

1046  h.  slow 
11 46  h.  slow 


for  regulating  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life.  It  is 
derived  from  the  sun.  Leaving  out  of  account 
small  irregularities  of  the  solar  motion  that  are 
Vol.  XXII.— 19 


The  establishment  of  an  international  standard 
of  time  appears  to  have  been  first  suggested  by 
Charles  Dowd,  of  Saratoga  Springs,  in  1870. 


TIME 


284 


TIMES 


In  1879  the  question  was  raised  anew  by  Mr. 
(afterward  Sir)  Sandford  Fleming  (q.v.),  chief 
engineer  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  and 
through  his  efforts  was  brought  to  the  attention 
of  the  leading  governments  of  the  world,  with  the 
result  that  in"  1882  the  United  States  Congress 
passed  a  joint  resolution  authorizing  the  Presi¬ 
dent  to  call  an  international  conference  to  fix 
and  recommend  for  universal  adoption  a  com¬ 
mon  prime  meridian  to  be  used  in  reckoning 
longitude,  and  in  the  regulation  of  time  through¬ 
out  the  world.  The  conference  assembled  in 
Washington,  Oct.  1,  1884.  Delegates  represent¬ 
ing  26  countries  were  present,  but  they  were  not 
able  to  agree  unanimously  upon  a  prime  me¬ 
ridian.  However,  most  of  them  favored  the 
adoption  of  Greenwich,  England,  as  the  origin 
of  longitudes.  The  French  delegates  represented 
the  only  important  nation  that  would  not  agree, 
and  it  was  not  until  March  10,  1911,  that  France 
abandoned  the  use  of  the  meridian  of  Paris  and 
adopted  that  of  Greenwich  as  its  prime  meridian. 

When  the  Prime  Meridian  Conference  met, 
the  United  States  and  Canada  had  already  se¬ 
lected  a  series  of  standard  meridians,  differing 
in  longitude  from  that  of  Greenwich,  England, 
by  exact  multiples  of  15°.  On  Oct.  18,  1883, 
a  convention  was  called  by  W.  F.  Allen,  Secre¬ 
tary  of  the  General  Railway  Time  Convention, 
which  decided  on  the  introduction  of  standard 
time  to  take  effect  at  noon  on  Nov.  18,  1883, 
and  the  change  was  made  without  difficulty. 
Now  15°  of  longitude  corresponds  exactly  to 
one  hour  of  time  difference,  and  therefore  the 
local  times  of  the  several  standard  meridians 
differ  from  Greenwich  by  an  even  number  of 
hours  without  fractional  minutes  and  seconds. 
In  the  United  States  the  standard  time  merid¬ 
ians  are  those  whose  longitudes  are  west  of 
Greenwich  G0°,  75°,  90°,  105°,  and  120°.  The 
times  of  these  meridians  are  respectively  4  hours, 
5  hours,  6  hours,  7  hours,  and  8  hours  slow  on 
Greenwich  time.  The  time  of  the  60th  meridian 
is  called  Colonial,  that  of  the  75th  meridian 
Eastern,  that  of  the  90th  Central,  that  of  the 
105th  Mountain,  and  that  of  the  120th  Pacific 
time.  The  limiting  lines  of  the  time  zones  have 
been  so  drawn  arbitrarily  that  they  never  divide 
any  town.  Where  such  a  division  is  theoretically 
unavoidable,  the  dividing  line  for  actual  use  is 
drawn  on  the  map  with  a  crook  in  it,  so  as  to 
put  the  whole  town  on  one  side  of  the  line. 

Most  of  the  countries  throughout  the  world 
now  use  standard  time  based  on  one  of  the  even 
hour  meridians  as  reckoned  from  Greenwich.  In 
a  few  cases,  however,  it  is  found  more  convenient 
to  use  the  even  half-hour  meridians.  Belgium 
and  Holland  were  the  first  continental  nations 
to  follow  the  example  of  the  United  States  in 
introducing  the  zone  system,  and  other  countries 
fell  rapidly  into  line.  (Brazil  established  four 
time  zones  in  1913.)  Of  the  countries  of  Europe, 
only  Ireland,  Holland,  Russia,  and  Greece  hold 
aloof,  and  base  their  time  systems  on  the  merid¬ 
ians  of  their  respective  capitals  (except  in  the 
case  of  Russia,  where  Pulkowa  time  is  used  on 
the  railways),  Holland  having  abandoned  the 
meridian  of  Greenwich  for  that  of  Amsterdam 
on  May  1,  1909. 

Consult:  Harold  Jacoby,  Practical  Talks  by 
an  Astronomer  (New  York,  1902)  ;  W.  F.  Allen, 
Short  History  of  Standard  Time  (Philadelphia, 
1904)  ;  H.  H.  S.  Cunvnghame,  Time  Clocks  (New 
York,  1906).  See  Clock:  Day;  Horology;  In¬ 
ternational,  DateLine;  Month;  Time  Signals. 


TIM'ELITDAS  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Timelia,  from  the  East  Indian  name).  An  as¬ 
semblage  of  passerine  birds  resembling  thrushes 
in  a  general  way,  which  has  been  formed  as  a 
sort  of  catch-all  to  contain  many  genera  difficult 
of  definite  assignment  elsewhere.  All  are  birds 
of  the  Old  World,  and  most  of  them  belong  to  the 


The  slaty-headed  babbling  thrush  ( Pomatorhinus  schis- 
ticeps )  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains. 

Oriental  and  Ethiopian  regions,  and  are  denizens 
of  woods,  jungles,  and  rough  mountains.  The 
most  distinctive  timeliines,  perhaps,  are  the  bab¬ 
bling  thrushes  of  the  genera  Timelia,  Pomato¬ 
rhinus,  Orthonyx,  and  their  allies,  and  the  hill 
robins  of  the  genus  Liothrix. 

TIME  OF  ADVENT.  See  Advent. 

TIMES,  The.  A  famous  daily  newspaper  of 
London,  England.  Its  publication  really  began 
Jan.  1,  1785,  with  the  first  number  of  the 
London  Daily  Universal  Register,  the  present 
name  being  first  applied  to  the  issue  of  Jan.  1, 
1788,  by  its  founder,  John  Walter  (1735-1812). 
The  paper  was,  up  to  1908,  managed  and  con¬ 
trolled  by  the  descendants  of  the  first  John 
Walter,  his  successors  being  John  Walter  (1776- 
1847),  John  Walter  (1818-94),  and  Arthur 
Fraser  Walter  (1846-1910).  Under  their  skill¬ 
ful  management,  with  the  assistance  of  some  of 
the  ablest  journalists  the  world  has  known,  the 
Times  has  achieved  a  reputation  for  unequaled 
journalistic  enterprise  and  unusual  political  in¬ 
fluence.  It  has  also  been  a  pioneer  in  the 
adoption  of  new  inventions  in  printing  and  pub¬ 
lishing.  Among  improvements  of  the  latter  sort, 
one  of  the  greatest  was  the  introduction  of  steam 
printing  presses,  the  use  of  which  was  begun 
with  the  issue  of  Nov.  29,  1814,  in  spite  of  strong 
opposition  from  the  employees.  Subsequently 
experiments  in  the  Times  office  led  to  the  perfec¬ 
tion  of  stereotyping,  to  the  introduction  of  the 
Walter  press,  from  which  by  the  use  of  stereo¬ 
type  plates  the  paper  was  printed  on. both  sides 
by  a  single  operation,  and  to  important  improve¬ 
ments  in  folding,  stitching,  and  typesetting 
machines.  A  farther  improvement  was  the  in¬ 
troduction  of  the  Wicks  Rotary  Type-casting 
Machine  in  1899. 

For  the  first  few  years  of  its  existence  the 
Times  was  edited  and  managed  solely  by  the  two 
Walters — father  and  son.  Its  outspoken  crit- 


TIMES 


TIME  STUDY 


285 


icism  of  the  King  and  his  Ministers  during  this 
period  drew  down  on  the  proprietors  the  wrath 
of  the  government,  and  as  a  result  they  were 
several  times  fined  and  imprisoned  in  Newgate. 
Several  attempts  were  likewise  made  to  hamper 
or  suppress  their  foreign  news  service,  but  this 
department  of  the  paper  had  been  carefully  and 
systematically  developed  with  the  result  that  the 
news  of  Trafalgar  and  Waterloo  and  other  no¬ 
table  victories  of  the  British  arms  were  published 
in  London  before  the  arrival  of  the  official 
dispatches. 

For  some  time  prior  to  1816  the  Times  was 
edited  by  Sir  John  Stoddart.  In  the  latter  year 
the  editorial  control  was  intrusted  to  Thomas 
Barnes.  He  was  assisted  as  a  leader  writer  by 
Edward  Sterling,  whose  virile  articles  earned  for 
it  the  name  of  “The  Thunderer.”  For  a  period 
of  36  years — from  1841  to  1877 — the  editor  was 
John  Thaddeus  Delane  (q.v. ),  one  of  the  greatest 
of  English  journalists.  He  was  succeeded  in 
turn  by  Thomas  Chenery,  upon  whose  death  in 
1884  George  Earle  Buckle  became  editor.  The 
influence  and  position  of  the  Times  rank  it  as 
having  been  for  nearly  a  century  unquestionably 
the  leading  paper  of  the  British  Empire.  It  has 
remained  independent  of  party  and  has  consis¬ 
tently  favored  a  strong  foreign  policy  and  a  con¬ 
stant  strengthening  of  the  ties  between  the 
mother  country  and  the  colonies.  It  supported 
in  turn  Beaconsfiekl’s  stand  on  the  Eastern  ques¬ 
tion  and  Gladstone’s  Egyptian  policy.  When, 
however,  the  latter  adopted  the  idea  of  Home 
Rule  for  Ireland,  the  Times  withdrew  its  sup¬ 
port,  was  an  active  factor  in  the  promotion  of  the 
Liberal-Unionist  party,  and  contributed  largely 
to  the  defeat  of  the  Home  Rule  bills.  It  was  in 
the  course  of  this  campaign  that  it  made  one 
of  its  few  great  blunders  in  the  publication  of 
the  famous  Pigott  forgeries,  known  as  “The 
Parnell  Letters.”  It  supported  Salisbury’s  min¬ 
istry  in  its  South  African  policy  in  1899-1902, 
although  it  vigorously  criticized  the  conduct 
of  the  war  after  it  had  begun.  In  addition  to 
its  daily  issue  the  Times  publishes  a  tri-weekly, 
known  as  the  Mail,  a  weekly  edition  (1877- 
),  a  weekly  Literary  Supplement  (1901- 
) ,  and  other  periodical  supplements  con¬ 
cerned  with  law,  commerce,  engineering,  educa¬ 
tion,  and  finance.  Supplements  on  Russia,  South 
America,  etc.,  have  been  republished  in  volumes. 
It  has  published  also  an  Atlas  (first  edition, 
1895)  and  a  Gazetteer,  and  in  1898  undertook  a 
reprint  of  the  Eneyclopcedia  Britannica,  which, 
with  the  subsequently  published  supplementary 
volumes,  constitutes  the  tenth  edition  of  that 
work. 

Two  other  notable  invasions  of  the  book  field 
were  represented  by  M.  Busch,  Bismarck:  Some 
Secret  Pages  of  His  History  (published  for  the 
Times  by  Macmillan,  London,  1898),  and  The 
Times  History  of  the  War  in  South  Africa 
(completed  in  6  vols.,  ib.,  1909).  In  1908 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  Times  was 
made  when  the  paper  passed  into  the  hands 
of  a  stock  company  financially  controlled  by 
Lord  Northcliffe  (Alfred  Charles  William 
Harmsworth).  Mr.  A.  F.  Walter  (1846-1910), 
who  had  been  chief  owner  since  1891,  then  be¬ 
came  chairman  of  the  board  of  directors  and 
Mr.  C.  Moberly  Bell  (1847-1911)  became  man¬ 
aging  director.  In  1910  Mr.  A.  F.  Walter’s  son, 
John  Walter  (1873-  ),  took  his  father’s 

place.  In  1912  Mr.  Geoffrey  Robinson  became 
editor  of  the  Times  and  director  of  the  Times 


Publishing  Company.  In  the  period  before  the 
Great  War,  the  Times  steadily  urged  a  larger 
army,  and  more  complete  preparations  for  de¬ 
fense,  and  pointed  out  the  grave  danger  of  an 
attack  on  the  British  Empire  by  Germany.  It 
criticized  the  conduct  of  the  war,  and  did  much 
to  bring  about  the  coalition  ministry,  May, 
1915.  In  common  with  other  newspapers,  the 
Times  was  unable  under  a  rigid  censorship  to 
anticipate  the  official  publication  of  war  news. 
Consult:  Progress  of  British  Newspapers  in 
the  19th  Century  (London,  1901);  S.  V.  Ma- 
kower,  Some  Notes  Upon  the  History  of  the 
Times,  1785-1904  (Edinburgh,  1904)  ;  A.  I. 
Dasent,  John  Thaddeus  Delane  (2  vols.,  ib., 
1908);  and  Sir  E.  T.  Cook,  John  Delane,  in 
“Makers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  Series” 
(New  York,  1915).  See  also  Newspaper. 

TIMES,  The  (New  York).  See  Newspaper. 

TIME  SIGNALS.  Signals  used  for  the  ac¬ 
curate  regulation  of  clocks  and  watches.  In  the 
United  States  time  signals  are  based  on  astro¬ 
nomical  observations  made  at  the  United  States 
Naval  Observatory  in  Washington.  These  ob¬ 
servations  enable  the  astronomers  there  to  keep 
their  standard  clock  regulated;  and  from  this 
clock  a  daily  noon  signal  is  sent  out  by  electric 
telegraph  to  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Com¬ 
pany.  This  company  in  turn  uses  the  observa¬ 
tory  signal  to  regulate  its  standard  clock,  from 
which  accurate  time  is  distributed  telegraphically 
to  the  public.  Various  persons,  jewelers,  and 
others,  who  are  subscribers  to  the  Western 
Union  time  service,  receive  signals  electrically, 
and  are  thus  able  to  keep  their  own  standard 
clocks  correct.  In  certain  places  a  time  ball  is 
let  fall  exactly  at  noon  by  means  of  an  automa¬ 
tic  electric  signal  from  the  telegraph  company, 
and  the  public  are  enabled  to  regulate  watches 
and  clocks.  In  England  an  analogous  time  serv¬ 
ice  is  furnished  from  the  Royal  Observatory 
at  Greenwich;  and  other  European  countries, 
such  as  France  and  Germany,  have  similar  ar¬ 
rangements  in  successful  operation.  Thus  the 
direct  determination  of  time  by  actual  astro¬ 
nomical  observation  has  been  rendered  unneces¬ 
sary  on  the  part  of  jewelers  and  nautical  instru¬ 
ment  makers.  These  latter  were  formerly  com¬ 
pelled  to  observe  time  stars  themselves  with 
small  transit  instruments  (q.v.),  in  order  to 
regulate  the  chronometers  of  vessels  about  to 
put  to  sea. 

In  the  most  recent  development  of  time  sig¬ 
naling  wireless  telegraphy  is  used.  In  1908  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes  suggested  the  advantages 
to  be  derived  from  a  series  of  hourly  wireless 
signals  from  the  Eiffel  Tower  for  the  determina¬ 
tion  of  longitudes.  The  service  was  first  put  into 
operation  in  1910.  Soon  afterward  other  sta¬ 
tions  began  to  send  out  signals  by  wireless  teleg¬ 
raphy,  and  the  possibility  of  confusion  arising 
from  the  overlapping  of  signals  from  different 
stations  led  the  French  government  to  call  an 
International  Conference  for  the  regulation  of  the 
whole  question.  The  conference  met  in  1912, 
and  formulated  a  scheme  whereby  wireless  sig¬ 
nals  would  be  sent  out  on  the  even  hours  of 
Greenwich  time,  the  entire  work  being  shared 
by  10  or  12  stations  situated  in  widely  scat¬ 
tered  parts  of  the  globe.  The  scheme  went  into 
effect  on  July  1,  1913,  but,  on  account  of  the 
European  war,  was  suspended. 

TIME  STUDY.  A  process  of  analytical  de¬ 
termination  and  record  of  manual,  mechanical, 
or  other  operations,  used  by  the  practitioners 


TIME-TABLE 


286 


TIMOLEON 


of  Scientific  Management  (q.v.)  to  fix  stand¬ 
ards  of  performance  and  remuneration.  Its  suc¬ 
cessful  prosecution  demands  specially-trained  ob¬ 
servers,  the  cooperation  of  the  workers  under 
observation,  and  the  use  of  the  stop-watch.  By 
resolving  the  operation  into  its  elements  and 
measuring  them  separately,  those  parts  of  the 
cvcle  which  are  variable  in  time  requirement 
may  be  identified  and  separated  from  those  which 
are  fixed;  delays  may  be  detected  and  measured, 
their  extent  determined,  and  their  causes  dis¬ 
covered  ;  units  may  be  isolated  for  reassembly 
in  other  combinations,  and  a  definite  and  exact 
knowledge  may  be  put  in  the  place  of  the  gen¬ 
eral  intuition  or  experience  which,  under  the 
older  fashion  of  management,  formed  the  basis 
of  an  estimate,  or  a  more  or  less  assured  guess 
at  the  total  time  in  a  lump. 

TIME-TABLE.  See  Railways. 

TIM'GAD.  The  site  of  Colonia  Marciana 
Trajana  Thamugas,  a  town  founded  by  Trajan 
100  a.d.  and  named  from  his  sister.  It  was  a 
fortified  post  on  the  road  between  Theveste  and 
Lambaesis  or  Lambaesa  (see  Lambessa).  It 
is  in  the  department  of  Constantine,  Algeria. 
It  preserves  the  military  plan  of  the  outpost 
which  it  replaced,  in  its  two  main  streets, 
Decumanus  Maximus  and  Cardo  Maximus. 
Originally  laid  out  as  a  rectangle,  357  m.  by 
324  m., ‘  with  eleven  streets  intersecting  at 

right  angles,  as  the  town  expanded  in  the  sec¬ 
ond  and  third  centuries,  the  new  streets  gave  up 
this  regularity.  Monotony  was  avoided  by  col¬ 
onnades  along  the  main  streets  and  fountains 
at  many  corners.  The  main  entrance  to  the  town 
was  from  the  northern  end  of  the  Cardo  Maxi¬ 
mus.  Inside  the  gate,  on  the  left,  was  a  bath, 
and,  one  block  from  the  Forum,  a  library  erected 
by  a  citizen  at  a  cost  of  400,000  sesterces.  The 
Forum,  which  was  entered  from  the  Cardo, 
through  a  monumental  gate,  is  a  rectangle,  50  m. 
by  43  m.,  surrounded  by  porticoes.  On  its  west¬ 
ern  side  are  the  Curia  and  a  temple.  Much  of 
the  eastern  side  is  occupied  by  the  basilica,  to 
the  north  of  which  was  the  public  toilet.  South 
of  the  Forum  is  the  theatre,  dating  from  the 
second  century.  It  accommodated  3500  people. 
While  the  simple  dwellings  recall  those  of  Pom¬ 
peii  by  their  plain  exteriors,  they  differ  from 
them  internally.  Instead  of  an  atrium  there 
is  often  a  court,  much  like  a  patio,  paved  and 
supplied  with  a  fountain.  Sometimes  one  house 
occupied  a  whole  block.  The  majority  were  sup¬ 
plied  with  water,  and,  when  more  luxurious, 
with  baths.  Except  the  public  and  private 
baths  the  buildings  were  not  heated,  which  is 
astonishing  when  one  recalls  that  in  Italy  such 
comforts  were  common.  Of  the  public  baths 
the  most  imposing,  80  m.  long  by  66  m.  wide,  was 
located  just  outside  the  northern  gate  of  the 
city:  it  contained  over  30  halls.  Besides  the 
public  or  city  baths  were  those  established  by 
individuals  or  societies,  such  as  those  called 
Filadeifes.  The  capitol,  situated  to  the  south¬ 
west  of  the  original  limits  of  Timgad,  is  almost 
entirely  destroyed;  but  its  dimensions,  53  m.  by 
23  m.,  indicate  that  the  structure  was  imposing 
in  appearance.  The  building  was  of  the  Corin¬ 
thian  order,  with  six  columns  along  the  front 
and  colonnades  along  the  side.  Around  it  was 
a  great  court  with  porticoes.  Throughout  the 
town  many  inscriptions  and  statues  have  been 
found. 

In  the  third  century  the  town  had  become 
Christianized,  and  in  the  fourth  it  was  an 


important  centre  for  the  Donatists.  From 
the  time  of  its  foundation  the  city  apparently 
prospered,  but,  as  the  Roman  Empire  declined  in 
the  fourth  century,  Timgad  too  declined.  1  he 
city  suffered  also  through  the  invasions  of  Van¬ 
dals,  Byzantines,  and  Arabs.  The  life  of  the 
city  in  fact  terminated  with  the  appearance  of 
the  Arabs.  From  then  until  the  nineteenth 
century — except  for  stray  visitors — the  town 
was  unnoticed.  In  1881  the  Service  des  Monu¬ 
ments  historiques  undertook  to  clear  the  site. 
After  some  interruption  the  work  was  resumed 
in  1892  and  then  carried  on  regularly  with  the 
result  that  Timgad  may  justly  be  called  the 
African  Pompeii.  Besides  the  structures  named 
above  there  are  two  triumphal  arches,  one 
in  honor  of  Trajan.  Consult:  Albert  Ballu, 
Guide  illustre  de  Timgad  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1911)  ; 
id.,  Les  mines  de  Timgad:  sept  annees  de  de- 
cou/aertes,  1903—10  (ib.,  1911);  and  W.  Cart, 
“Timgad,  la  Pompeii  Algerienne,’’  in  Bibliotheque 
universelle  (ib.,  Nov.  and  Dec.,  1915). 

TIM'GCLES  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  TVo/cAf/s,  Timo - 
Ides)  (4th  cent.  b.c.).  An  Athenian  comic  poet, 
belonging  to  the  Middle  Comedy,  noted  for  his 
pungent  style  and  for  his  attacks  on  Demos¬ 
thenes.  Consult  T.  Kock,  Comicomm  Atticorum 
Fragmenta,  vol.  ii  (Leipzig,  1886). 

TIMO'CREON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  TiyoKpeuv, 
Timolcreon).  A  Greek  lyric  poet  of  the  early 
fifth  century  b.c.,  born  at  Ialysus,  in  Rhodes. 
His  works  are  lost,  but  his  name  has  survived 
through  his  hatred  for  Themistocles,  whom  he 
bitterly  attacked.  The  statesman  was  defended, 
however,  by  his  friend  Simonides,  whose  sarcastic 
epigram  on  Timocreon’s  gluttony  and  bibulous 
habits  has  been  preserved  by  Athenseus.  He 
excelled  in  drinking  songs,  to  which  he  gave  a 
satiric  tone.  Fragments  are  in  Bergk,  Foetce 
Lyrici  Greed,  vol.  iii  (5th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914). 

TIMOFEYEFF,  Yermak.  See  Yermak 
Timofeyeff. 

TIMO'LEON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  hpo\4wv,  Timo¬ 
leon)  (c. 394-337  b.c.).  A  Greek  general,  the 
liberator  of  Sicily  from  the  dominion  of  Diony¬ 
sius  the  Younger.  He  was  born  at  Corinth,  of  a 
noble  and  illustrious  family.  In  battle  he  saved 
his  brother  Timoplianes’  life  at  the  risk  of  his 
own,  but,  when  Timophanes  attempted  to  over¬ 
throw  the  democratic  form  of  government  at 
Corinth  and  make  himself  sole  tyrant,  Timoleon 
brought  about  his  brother’s  death  and  the  re¬ 
establishment  of  the  old  constitution.  Just  af¬ 
ter  this  event,  and  while  the  Corinthians  were 
still  deliberating  with  regard  to  the  act,  in  344 
B.c.,  an  embassy  arrived  at  Corinth  from  Syra¬ 
cuse  in  Sicily,  a  colony  of  Corinth,  requesting 
the  aid  of  the  Corinthians  in  the  civil  dissensions 
in  the  island.  A  force  was  sent  to  assist  the 
Syracusans,  with  Timoleon  at  the  head.  In 
Sicily  at  this  time  Hicetas  and  Dionysius  the 
Younger  were  both  striving  to  obtain  the  suprem¬ 
acy  in  Syracuse  (q.v.).  The  force  commanded 
by  Timoleon  was  small,  but  in  a  short  time  he 
drove  both  of  the  would-be  tyrants  from  the 
city.  After  repeopling  the  almost  desolate  city 
by  recalling  the  exiles,  and  inviting  new  colo¬ 
nists  from  Greece,  Italy,  and  Sicily,  he  spent 
the  next  two  years  in  enacting  laws  and  or¬ 
ganizing  a  constitution,  which  he  put  on  a  com¬ 
pletely  democratic  footing.  The  Carthaginians, 
alarmed  at  the  reviving  power  of  Syracuse,  and 
the  prospect  of  union  among  the  Sicilian  Greeks, 
now  sent  an  army  of  80,000  men  under  Has- 
drubal  and  Hamilcar  to  subdue  the  whole  is- 


TIMON 


TIMOTHEUS 


287 


land.  Timoleon,  with  only  12,000  men,  encoun¬ 
tered  them  (339  b.c.  )  on  the  Crimissus,  and 
gained  one  of  the  greatest  victories  ever  won 
by  Greeks  over  barbarians.  He  now  proceeded 
to  free  the  other  Greek  cities  from  the  rule  of 
the  tyrants,  and  made  a  treaty  with  the  Cartha¬ 
ginians,  whereby  the  Halycus  River  was  fixed 
as  the  boundary  between  the  Greek  and  the 
Carthaginian  dominions  in  Sicily.  Hicetas  was 
driven  from  Leontini,  and  Mamercus  from 
Catana,  and  free  constitutions  were  conferred 
upon  all  the  Greek  cities  in  Sicily.  After  his 
great  work  was  accomplished  Timoleon  lived  as 
a  private  citizen  at  Syracuse,  respected  and 
honored,  until  his  death.  He  was  buried  in  the 
market  place  of  Syracuse,  where  a  Gymnasium, 
called  the  Timoleonteum,  was  afterward  erected 
over  his  tomb.  Consult  Plutarch’s  Life  of  Timo¬ 
leon,  the  standard  histories  of  Greece,  and  E.  A. 
Freeman,  History  of  Sicily  (Oxford,  1891-94). 

TI'MON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Ti ywv) ,  called 
The  Misanthrope.  A  native  of  Athens,  who 
lived  at  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  The 
little  that  is  known  concerning  him  is  learned 
chiefly  from  Aristophanes  and  the  other  comic 
poets  of  the  period,  and  from  Lucian,  who  made 
him  the  subject  of  one  of  his  best-known  dia¬ 
logues.  Disgusted  with  mankind,  on  account  of 
the  ingratitude  of  his  early  friends  and  com¬ 
panions,  he  lived  a  life  of  almost  total  seclusion 
from  society,  the  only  visitor  whom  he  would 
receive  being  Alcibiades.  Shakespeare’s  Timon 
of  Athens  has  as  its  ultimate  source  Lucian’s 
dialogue. 

TIMON  OF  ATHENS.  A  tragedy  produced 
in  1G07  or  1608,  printed  in  1623,  of  which  Shake¬ 
speare  wrote  only  the  chief  scenes,  and  which 
another,  possibly  Wilkins,  finished;  or  perhaps 
Shakespeare’s  remodeling  of  an  old  play.  The 
sources  are  the  story  of  Timon  told  in  the  life 
of  Antony  in  North’s  Plutarch  and  in  Painter’s 
Palace  of  Pleasure,  and  used  by  Boiardo  in  his 
corned  v  II  Tim  one. 

TIMON  OF  PHLI'US.  A  Greek  poet  and 
skeptic,  who  lived  at  Athens  about  275  b.c.  He 
wrote  numerous  works  in  both  prose  and  verse. 
The  most  celebrated  of  his  poems  were  the  three 
books  of  hlWoi,  in  which,  in  the  form  of  a  parody 
of  Homer’s  epic  poetry,  he  ridicules  the  tenets 
of  all  dogmatic  philosophers,  living  or  dead, 
from  the  skeptic’s  point  of  view.  Like  the 
classic  satire  of  Rome,  these  pieces  were  written 
in  hexameter  verse  and,  according  to  the  testi¬ 
mony  of  the  ancients  (Diog.  Laert.  ix.  12,  109- 
115;  Euseb.  Praep.  Ev.  xiv.  p.  761),  were  ex¬ 
cellent  productions  of  their  kind.  The  frag¬ 
ments  are  published  in  Wolke,  De  Grcecorum 
Syllis  (Warsaw,  1820)  ;  Paul,  Disscrtatio  de 
Sillis  (Berlin,  1821);  and  Wachsmuth,  De 
Timone  Pliliasio  Ceterisque  Sillographis  Grcecis 
(Leipzig,  1885). 

TIMOR,  te-mor'.  The  largest  and  most  south¬ 
easterly  of  the  Lesser  Sunda  Islands,  situated 
330  miles  southeast  of  Celebes  and  700  miles 
east  of  Java,  between  which  and  Timor  the 
main  chain  of  Lesser  Sunda  Islands  intervenes 
(Map:  Australasia,  E  3).  It  has  an  extreme 
length  from  northeast  to  southwest  of  about  280 
miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  55  miles,  and 
an  area  estimated  at  12,593  square  miles.  The 
coasts  are  for  the  most  part  steep,  lined  with 
coral  reefs,  and  difficult  of  approach.  The  in¬ 
terior  is  not  well  known.  It  is  traversed  by  a 
forest-covered  moimtain  range,  and  the  geologi¬ 
cal  formation  seems  to  be  a  core  of  slate,  dio- 


rite,  and  serpentine  flanked  by  beds  of  carbonifer¬ 
ous  limestone,  Triassic  sandstone,  and  some 
Tertiary  formations.  The  mineral  wealth  is 
considerable,  but  unexploited.  The  climate  is 
hot  and  unhealthful  on  the  coast,  and  the  rain¬ 
fall  is  very  slight,  especially  in  the  south.  The 
flora  and  fauna  are  less  varied  than  in  the  other 
East  Indian  islands,  and  the  island  forms  a 
transition  region  between  these  and  Australia. 
Hie  resources  of  the  island  are  not  developed; 
agriculture  is  primitive,  and  the  exports  are  few 
and  small  in  quantity,  coffee,  wax,  and  a  little 
sandalwood  being  the  chief  staples.  Politically 
the  island  is  divided  nearly  equally  between 
Holland  and  Portugal,  the  latter  possessing  the 
northeastern  half,  with  the  seat  of  government 
at  the  small  town  of  Deli  or  Dilli.  The  Dutch 
portion  forms  the  principal  member  of  the  Resi¬ 
dency  of  Timor,  which  includes  also  the  islands 
of  Rotti,  Savu,  and  Sumba,  eastern  Flores,  and 
the  Solar  and  Allor  groups.  The  capital  of  the 
Residency  is  Kupang,  a  town  of  about  8500  in¬ 
habitants  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
island.  The  inhabitants  of  the  island  are  mainly 
Papuans  with  some  intermixture  of  Malays  and 
Chinese.  The  Portuguese  estimate  the  population 
of  the  part  of  the  island  controlled  by  them  at 
300,000,  and  the  Dutch  estimate  the  population 
of  their  part  at  308,500.  The  number  of  Euro¬ 
peans  in  the  entire  Dutch  Residency  was  only 
372  in  1905.  Consult:  Wichmann,  Sammlungen 
des  Geologischen  Reichmuseum  (Leyden,  1 881— 
84);  A.  Bastian,  Indonesien  (Berlin,  1885); 
H.  O.  Forbes,  A  Naturalist’s  Wanderings  in  the 
Eastern  Archipelago  (London,  1885). 

TIMORLATJT,  te-mor'lout,  or  Tenimber.  A 
group  of  coralline  islands  in  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago  belonging  to  the  Dutch  Residency 
of  Amboina,  and  situated  between  the  Banda 
and  Arafura  seas,  240  miles  southeast  of  the 
island  of  Ceram  in  the  Moluccas  and  about 
midway  between  New  Guinea  and  the  Lesser 
Sunda  Islands  (Map:  Australasia,  F  3).  It 
consists  of  the  large  islands  of  Yamdena  (1151 
square  miles),  Larat,  a  volcanic  island,  and 
Selaru,  and  a  number  of  smaller  islands,  with 
a  total  area  of  about  2096  square  miles.  The 
large  islands  are  hilly  and  forested,  rising  to 
a  height  of  about  1000  feet,  while  the  others 
are  low  and  flat,  and  of  coral  formation.  The 
inhabitants,  a  mixture  of  Malays  and  Negritos, 
are  engaged  in  primitive  agriculture,  cattle  rais¬ 
ing,  and  trepang  fishery.  Pop.,  about  25,000. 

TIMOTE,  te-mo'ta.  A  group  of  small  tribes 
apparently  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic 
stock,  whose  modern  representatives  still  occupy 
the  mountainous  district  of  Merida,  southward 
from  Lake  Maracaibo,  in  western  Venezuela.  In 
former  times  they  usually  went  naked,  with  their 
bodies  painted  red,  and  were  agricultural,  cul¬ 
tivating  corn,  chile,  and  various  edible  roots. 
They  buried  their  dead  in  caves  or  in  under¬ 
ground  vaults,  depositing  with  the  corpse  sacred 
figurines  of  clay.  Consult:  Ernst,  in  Zeitschrift 
filr  Ethnologie  (Berlin,  1885)  ;  Jose  Ignacio 
Lares,  Resumen  de  la s  Actas  de  la  Academia 
Venezolan-a,  1886  (Caracas,  1886)  ;  D.  G.  Brin- 
ton,  The  American  Race  (New  York,  1891). 

TIMOTHEUS,  t!-mo'th£-us  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
T lyodeos) ,  OF  Miletus  (c.450-c.357  B.C.).  A 
Greek  poet  and  musician,  son  of  Thersander. 
He  was  first  of  all  a  citharodes — one  who,  while 
singing,  played  his  accompaniment  on  the 
cithara.  The  form  of  lyric  poetry  used  for  these 
performances  was  the  Nomos,  whose  name  Ter- 


TIMOTHY 


288 


TIMOTHY  AND  TITUS 


pander  was  said  to  have  established.  Originally 
this  was  a  musical  performance  of  hexameters 
from  the  epic,  but  Timotheus  gave  definite  form 
to  novelties  already  attempted,  and  greatly  in¬ 
creased  artistic  display  by  introducing  a  free 
metrical  structure,  giving  full  scope  for  elabo¬ 
rate  composition  and  vocal  execution.  He  en¬ 
larged  his  opportunities  by  increasing  the 
number  of  cithara  strings  to  11.  His  innova¬ 
tions  met  with  strong  opposition,  and  were 
distasteful  to  the  Spartans,  against  whom  he 
defends  himself  in  his  “Persians.”  His  works 
have  till  recently  been  known  only  through 
scanty  fragments  and  allusions,  but  in  1902  a 
papyrus  manuscript  of  his  nomos,  the  “Per¬ 
sians,”  was  discovered  by  the  German  Oriental 
Society  in  a  Greek  sarcophagus  at  Abusir,  near 
Memphis,  in  Egypt.  About  116  lines  of  con¬ 
siderable  length  are  preserved,  and  80  of  these 
are  practically  complete.  It  is  the  oldest  Greek 
manuscript  yet  found  and  was  copied  but  a  few 
years  after  the  death  of  the  author,  and  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  only  specimen  of  this  branch  of  the 
Greek  lyric  lends  special  value  to  the  poem. 
Tiie  subject  is  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  at  Sala- 
mis,  and  it  seems  to  belong  to  the  early  years 
of  the  fourth  century,  when  Athens  was  humbled 
and  Sparta  supreme,  for  in  the  vivid  descrip¬ 
tion  of  the  battle  there  is  no  mention  of  Athens. 
The  dialect,  however,  is  the  Attic  of  the  poets. 
Timotheus  seems  to  have  been  less  a  poet  than 
a  musician,  and  with  only  his  libretto  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  estimate  properly  his  real 
position  in  Greek  literary  art.  Consult :  U. 
von  Wilamowitz-Mollendorf,  Timotheos,  Die  Per- 
ser  (Leipzig,  1903),  text,  a  Greek  paraphrase, 
and  explanatory  essay;  Der  Timotheos  Papyrus 
(ib.,  1903),  photographic  facsimile;  Reinach 

and  Croiset,  in  Revue  des  etudes  grecques,  vol. 
xvi  (Paris,  1903),  an  essay  and  translation  into 
French;  W.  C.  Wright,  A  Short  History  of  Greelc 
Literature  (New  York,  1907)  ;  Christ-Schmid, 
Gesohichte  der  griechischen  Litteratur,  vol.  i 
(6th  ed.,  Munich,  1912).  For  the  nomos  or 
nome,  see  H.  W.  Smyth,  Greek  Melic  Poets  (New 
York,  1900). 

TIM'OTHY  (Gk.  TifioOeos,  Timotheos,  honor¬ 
ing  God).  One  of  the  assistants  of  the  Apostle 
Paul.  Our  most  reliable  information  regarding 
Timothy  is  that  contained  in  the  undoubted 
Epistles  of  Paul  and  in  Acts.  The  credibility 
of  what  is  said  or  implied  about  him  in  the 
Epistles  to  Timothy  depends  on  the  character  of 
those  Epistles  (q.v.).  He  was  a  native  of 
Lystra,  in  Lycaonia,  the  son  of  a  Gentile  father 
and  a  Jewish  mother  (Acts  xvi.  1).  The  cir¬ 
cumstances  of  his  conversion  are  unknown.  On 
Paul’s  second  visit  to  Lystra  Timothy  was  al¬ 
ready  favorably  known  in  the  neighborhood  as 
an  active  Christian.  Paul  persuaded  him  to  go 
with  him  as  an  assistant.  To  avoid  unneces¬ 
sary  offense  to  the  Jews,  he  was  circumcised 
(Acts  xvi.  2-3).  These  statements  of  Acts  may 
be  supplemented  by  those  in  2  Tim.  iii.  15,  i.  5; 
1  Tim.  i.  8,  iv,  14.  From  this  time  until  the 
close  of  Paul’s  life  Timothy  was  one  of  his  most 
faithful,  trusted,  and  intimate  disciples.  He 
was  intrusted  several  times  with  important  mis¬ 
sions  to  the  churches  founded  by  the  Apostle. 
At  Berea  (Acts  xvii.  14),  Athens,  and  Thes- 
salonica  (1  Thess.  iii.  1-6),  at  Corinth,  and  later 
at  Ephesus  (1  Cor.  iv.  17,  xvi.  10),  and  again  in 
Macedonia  (Acts  xix.  21-22)  he  rendered  im¬ 
portant  services,  and  is  joined  with  himself  by 
Paul  in  the  addresses  of  several  of  his  epistles. 


His  important  and  delicate  mission  to  Corinth, 
however,  seems  to  have  resulted  unfavorably  (see 
Corinthians,  Epistles  of  Paul  to  tiie). 
Though  he  went  to  Jerusalem  with  Paul  (Acts 
xx.  4),  he  was  probably  engaged  in  labors  else¬ 
where  when  the  Apostle  embarked  on  his  voyage 
to  Rome.  He  visited  his  master  at  Rome  (see 
the  opening  words  of  Philippians,  Colossians, 
and  Philemon),  and  was  probably  sent  by  Paul, 
shortly  before  his  release,  with  a  message  to 
Philippi  (Phil.  ii.  19).  According  to  the  usual 
interpretation  of  1  and  2  Timothy,  after  the 
Apostle’s  release  he  joined  Timothy  in  the  East, 
and  later  left  him  in  charge  at  Ephesus  in  a  posi¬ 
tion  full  of  great  responsibility.  In  his  anxiety 
Paul  wrote  him  the  letter  of  advice  and  warning 
known  as  1  Timothy.  When  Paul  was  impris¬ 
oned  the  second  time,  and  probably  not  long 
before  his  death,  he  wrote  2  Timothy,  summon¬ 
ing  his  beloved  disciple  to  come  to  him  as 
quickly  as  possible.  At  some  later  date  Timo¬ 
thy  himself  was  arrested,  but  afterward  released 
(Heb.  xiii.  23) .  According  to  tradition  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  days  as  Bishop  of  Ephesus. 

TIMOTHY  AND  TITUS,  Epistles  to. 
Three  New  Testament  letters,  often  designated 
the  Pastoral  Epistles.  These  three  epistles  form 
a  group  by  themselves,  in  that  they  are  very 
similar  to  each  other  in  general  character, 
style,  and  vocabulary,  and  seem  to  have  been 
occasioned  by  the  same  general  situation  and 
written  by  the  same  author. 

1  Timothy,  purporting  to  be  from  Paul  to  his 
younger  disciple  and  associate  Timothy,  opens 
by  Paul  reminding  Timothy  that  he  had  left 
him  in  Ephesus  to  combat  teachings  that  were 
opposed  to  the  gospel  as  Paul  taught  it  (i. 
1-17).  Specific  directions  on  various  points  of 
church  order  follow.  Timothy  is  to  see  that 
these  are  obeyed  (i.  18— iii.  16).  Reverting  to 
the  subject  of  heretical  teachers,  Timothy  is 
urged  to  exercise  the  most  careful  watch  over 
his  own  conduct  that  it  may  be  exemplary  in 
every  respect  (iv.  1-v.  2).  Special  instructions 
follow  as  to  how  to  deal  with  certain  specified 
classes  in  the  Church  (v.  3-vi.  2).  Turning 
once  more  to  the  subject  of  the  false  teachers, 
especially  those  who  are  actuated  by  the  love  of 
money,  Paul  urges  Timothy  to  courageous  and 
loyal  devotion  to  his  Master  Jesus  Christ  (vi. 
3-21).  Only  a  brief  benediction  (in  which 
“you”  is  plural),  with  no  salutations,  closes 
the  letter. 

The  Epistle  to  Titus  is  briefer  but  quite 
similar  to  1  Timothy.  After  a  rather  long  in¬ 
troduction  (i.  1-4)  the  letter  explains  that  Titus 
had  been  left  in  Crete  to  complete  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  the  Church  there  (i.  5),  in  particular, 
to  install  elders  or  bishops,  whose  qualifications 
are  stated  (i.  6-9;  cf.  1  Tim.  iii.  1-8).  The 
generally  low-minded  character  of  the  Cretans 
and  the  presence  of  false  teachers  make  this 
more  necessary  (i.  10-16).  Titus  is  next  advised 
as  to  how  he  should  conduct  himself  towards 
different  classes  (cf.  1  Tim.  v.  3-vi.  2)  as  is 
required  by  the  nature  of  the  Christian  salvation 
(ii.  1-15).  Titus  is  next  urged  to  teach  his 
people  to  practice  the  principles  of  morality 
in  all  their  relations  in  life  (iii.  1-8),  avoiding 
heretical  opinions  and  persons  (iii.  9-11).  Per¬ 
sonal  directions  to  Titus,  salutations,  and  a 
benediction  close  the  letter  (iii.  12-15). 

2  Timothy  has  more  decidedly  the  appearance 
of  a  private  letter.  The  first  section,  full  of 
exhortation  to  Timothy  to  be  faithful  to  his 


TIMOTHY  AND  TITUS 


TIMOTHY  AND  TITUS 


289 


trust,  closes  with  a  reference  to  the  Apostle’s 
own  suffering  for  the  faith,  his  treatment  by 
enemies,  and  his  gratitude  for  the  kindness 
shown  by  Onesiphorus  (i.  1-14).  Timothy  is 
urged  to  be  courageous,  earnest,  and  faithful  in 
administering  his  charge  (ii.  1-13).  Against 
all  false  teaching  and  teachers  he  is  to  take  a 
firm  stand  (ii.  14-19),  insisting  by  word  and 
example  that  the  test  of  true  doctrine  is  sound 
morality  (ii.  20-26).  The  last  times,  full  of 
hardship  and  wickedness,  are  at  .hand  (iii.  1-9)  ; 
but,  like  Paul  himself,  Timothy  must  remain 
loyal  and  manfully  endure  persecution  (iii.  10- 
iv.  5).  Paul  expecting  his  end  to  come  soon, 
and  deserted  by  many,  summons  Timothy  to 
come  to  him  (at  Rome?),  adding  certain  minor 
requests  (iv.  9-15)  and  a  reference  to  his  trial 
and  prospect  of  martyrdom  (iv.  16-18).  Salu¬ 
tations,  information,  greetings,  and  a  benedic¬ 
tion  close  the  letter. 

The  Pauline  authorship  of  the  Pastoral  Epis¬ 
tles  is  questioned  by  many  scholars,  and  for 
reasons  that  cannot  be  called  arbitrary.  It  is 
generally  admitted  that  the  problem  is  a  serious 
one,  even  by  those  who  still  hold  the  traditional 
opinion.  No  one  who  has  made  a  close  study 
of  the  remaining  10  Pauline  Epistles,  has  be¬ 
come  fairly  familiar  with  their  thought  and 
style,  and  has  gained  from  them  to  some  extent 
a  familiarity  with  the  Apostle’s  mind,  can  read 
the  Pastorals  without  being  conscious  that  here 
he  has  something  different — a  different  habit 
of  thought,  vocabulary,  point  of  view,  and  set 
of  interests,  which  even  the  presence  of  the  name 
of  Paul  in  the  letters  and  the  many  personal 
allusions  do  not  avail  to  offset.  Briefly,  these 
differences  between  the  Pastorals  and  the  Epis¬ 
tles  accepted  as  Paul’s  (and  our  knowledge  of 
Paul  derived  from  Acts)  may  be  specified  as 
follows:  {a)  the  character  of  the  church  or¬ 
ganization;  (6)  the  nature  of  the  heresies  com¬ 
bated;  (c)  the  situation  (or  situations)  in 
which  Paul  and  those  addressed  are  placed; 

( d )  the  literary  character  of  the  Pastorals,  es¬ 
pecially  their  vocabulary;  ( e )  the  general  char¬ 
acter  of  the  Christianity  of  the  Pastoral  Epis¬ 
tles.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  criticism  it  was 
on  the  first  two  of  these  points  that  the  chief 
emphasis  was  laid.  But  to-day  it  is  quite  freely 
admitted,  on  the  one  hand,  that  we  know  very 
little  about  the  details  of  the  church  organiza¬ 
tion  of  the  apostolic  age  or  of  the  nature  of 
early  heresies,  and,  on  the  other,  that  on  these 
matters  the  statements  of  the  Pastorals,  inter¬ 
preted  fairly,  do  not  necessarily  imply  a  post- 
Pauline  date.  It  is  otherwise,  however,  with 
the  last  three  points.  No  known  period  of  the 
Apostle’s  life  presents  the  situation  required 
by  these  Epistles.  Usually  it  has  been  held  that 
2  Timothy  implied  a  second  imprisonment  of 
Paul  at  Rome,  and  consequently  1  Timothy  and 
Titus  belonged  to  a  period  of  missionary  activity 
between  the  first  imprisonment  (where  the  record 
of  Acts  ends)  and  a  second  one,  known  only 
from  vague  tradition.  This  is  possible,  but 
cannot  be  proved.  But  even  on  this  supposition 
the  movements  of  Paul  and  his  companions  are 
anything  but  clearly  discerned  from  these  let¬ 
ters,  and  it  is  most  difficult  to  construct  a  con¬ 
sistent  picture  of  the  situation.  To  say  the 
least,  this  creates  a  suspicion  that  the  letters 
may  not  be  genuine  letters  of  Paul.  The  last 
two  points  ( d )  and  ( e )  are,  however,  the  ones 
that  seem  most  decisive  against  the  Pauline 
authorship.  The  vocabulary  of  the  Pastorals  is 


strikingly  un-Pauline,  containing  a  remarkably 
large  number  of  words  not  used  in  the  other 
Pauline  Epistles  and  omitting  many  character¬ 
istically  Pauline  words  or  expressions  where 
such  would  be  expected  to  occur.  This  feature 
of  an  un-Pauline  character  of  the  language  is  so 
deeply  stamped  upon  these  letters  that  the  sup¬ 
position  of  Pauline  authorship  (even  on  the 
hypothesis  of  a  different  amanuensis)  is  almost 
impossible.  The  general  character  of  the  Chris¬ 
tianity  of  these  letters  differs  considerably  from 
the  well-known  Pauline  type.  The  distinctively 
Pauline  characteristics  are  absent  or  are  appre¬ 
ciably  modified.  The  Christianity  of  the  Pas¬ 
torals  can  easily  be  explained  as  that  of  the 
next  succeeding  age  when  the  general  positions 
of  the  Christian  faith  had  become  fixed  and  the 
distinctively  Pauline  type  had  become  somewhat 
obscured  and  matters  had  settled  more  nearly  to 
the  level  we  reach  in  the  Christianity  of  the 
first  half  of  the  second  century.  For  these 
reasons  the  most  natural  date  for  the  Pastorals 
seems  to  be  somewhere  between  the  period  of 
Paul’s  own  activity  and  the  age  of  the  so-called 
Apostolic  Fathers,  or  about  90  a.d. 

The  most  serious  objections  to  the  argument 
sketched  above  are  (a)  the  large  number  of 
personal  allusions,  the  use  of  personal  names, 
etc.,  which  seem  to  make  so  strongly  for  genu¬ 
ineness  (especially  in  the  case  of  2  Timothy), 
and  (b)  the  difficulty  of  accounting  for  the 
acceptance  and  circulation  of  spurious  Pauline 
Epistles  in  a  period  so  soon  after  the  time  of 
Paul  himself  (it  is  generally  acknowledged  that 
the  Pastorals  cannot  be  dated  much  later  than 
100  a.d. ) .  In  regard  to  (a),  some  have  thought 
that  use  was  made  (especially  in  2  Timothy)  of 
fragments  of  Pauline  correspondence,  but  this 
hypothesis  is  difficult  to  work  out  successfully. 
In  regard  to  ( 5 ) ,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
literary  habits  and  standards  were  somewhat 
different  in  ancient  times  from  those  we  are 
familiar  with.  Spurious  writings  could  circu¬ 
late  more  easily  and  the  practice  of  pseudonym- 
ity  was  not  viewed  as  reprehensible,  if  done  to 
promote  the  cause  of  truth  or  sound  doctrine. 

The  general  purpose  of  the  Pastorals  may  be 
said  to  have  been  to  furnish  the  Church  with  a 
convenient  set  of  instructions  regarding  the 
administration  of  church  affairs  and  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  combating  the  insidious  and  corrupting 
forms  of  error  that  threatened  to  work  the  moral 
undoing  of  the  Church. 

Hence  though  apparently  private  letters,  in 
the  words  of  the  Muratorian  Canon  (c.175  a.d.), 
— in  honore  tamen  ecclesice  catholicce  in  ordina- 
tionern  ecclesiastical  disciplines  sanctificatce  sunt, 
which  may  be  rendered — “nevertheless  they  have 
been  sanctified  in  honor  of  the  Church  universal 
and  in  the  regulation  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.” 

Bibliography.  The  article  by  W.  Lock  in 
James  Hastings,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (new 
ed.  in  1  vol.,  New  York,  1909),  and  the  one 
by  James  Moffatt  in  the  Encyclopcedia  Biblica 
(4  vols.',  ib.,  1899-1903)  are  comprehensive  and 
present  respectively  the  traditional  and  the  more 
liberal  views.  Consult  also:  Theodor  Zahn, 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament  (Edinburgh, 

1909)  ;  James  Moffatt,  Introduction  to  the  Lit¬ 
erature  of  the  New  Testament  (New  York, 
1911);  and  the  commentaries  of  R.  F.  Horton 
in  The  Century  Bible  (ib.,  1901)  ;  N.  J.  D. 
White  in  The  Expositor’s  Creek  Testament  (ib., 

1910)  ;  M.  Dibelius  in  Leitzmann,  Handbuch 
zum  neuen  Testament  (Tubingen,  1913). 


TIMOTHY  GRASS 


290 


TIMUR 


TIMOTHY  GRASS  (so  called  from  Timothy 
Hanson,  who,  it  is  said,  introduced  its  cultiva¬ 
tion  into  the  Carolinas  about  1720),  Phleum 
pratense,  the  most  valuable  species  of  the  genus 
for  hay  and  pasturage.  It  is  the  herd’s  grass 
of  New  England  and  New  York,  and  along  with 
the  other  species  of  the  genus,  is  in  England 
often  called  cat’s-tail  grass.  It  has  a  long 
cylindrical  panicle  so  compact  as  to  resemble  a 
close  spike,  strong  culms,  becoming  4  to  5  feet 
high,  but  tender  and  nutritious,  and  much  rel¬ 
ished  by  cattle.  It  is  perennial,  but  springs  up 
rapidly,  even  in  the  year  in  which  it  is  sown. 
The  seed  is  very  small*.  The  plant  varies  in  size 
according  to  soil  and  situation.  In  the  United 
States  timothy  hay  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  valuable  hays  made  wholly  from  grass 
and  is  commonly  used  as  the  standard  with 
which  to  compare  other  hays.  (For  its  feeding 
value,  see  Grasses;  Hay.)  It  may  be  sown 
alone,  or  (more  commonly)  mixed  with  clover, 
generally  with  red  clover.  It  succeeds  best  on 
moist,  rich  soils.  Upon  dry  soils  it  is  often 
bulbous  at  base,  and  this  form,  which  is  due  to 
the  conditions  of  growth,  was  once  described 
as  a  distinct  species  ( Phleum  nodosum ).  A 
smaller  species,  Phleum  alpinum,  is  a  common 
grass  in  alpine  regions  throughout  the  Northern 
Hemisphere.  See  Plate  of  Grasses. 

TIM'PEREEY,  Charles  H.  ( 1794-C.1846) . 
An  English  printer  and  author,  born  in  Man¬ 
chester,  and  educated  at  the  free  grammar  school 
there.  He  served  in  the  Napoleonic  wars  and 
was  wounded  at  Waterloo.  Returning  to  Eng¬ 
land,  he  worked  under  an  engraver  and  copper¬ 
plate  printer,  and  in  1821  he  became  a  letter- 
press  printer.  Late  in  life  he  settled  in  Lon¬ 
don,  where  he  died.  His  valuable  publications 
connected  with  printing  comprise  The  Printer’s 
Manual  (1838);  A  Dictionary  of  Printers  and 
Printing  (1839)  ;  and  Songs  of  the  Press,  origi¬ 
nal  and  selected,  the  best  collection  of  printers’ 
songs  in  English  (1833).  The  first  two  books 
were  issued  in  1842  as  an  Encyclopcedia  of  Lit¬ 
erary  and  Typographical  Anecdotes.  Timperley 
also  published  Annals  of  Manchester  (1839). 

TIM'ROD,  Henry  (1829-67).  An  American 
poet,  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Georgia  and  studied  law 
with  the  well-known  jurist  James  Louis  Petigru, 
but  finally  became  a  private  tutor  in  families, 
which  gave  him  more  leisure  for  verse  writing. 
During  the  years  before  the  Civil  War  he  formed 
one  of  the  coterie  presided  over  by  William 
Gilmore  Simms  (q.v.),  and  contributed  poems 
to  Russell’s  Magazine  and  the  Southern  Literary 
Messenger.  In  1860  he  published  a  volume  of 
poems  which  was  favorably  noticed.  He  was 
war  correspondent  of  the  Charleston  Mercury 
and  in  1864  removed  to  Columbia,  S.  C.  His 
later  years  were  passed  in  poverty  and  physical 
pain.  His  friend  Paul  H.  Hayne  superintended 
an  edition  of  his  poems  (1873),  which  was  well 
received  by  competent  judges.  In  1899  a  memo¬ 
rial  edition  of  his  works  was  undertaken.  His 
fame  as  the  best  of  southern  lyrists,  after  Poe, 
and  probably  Sidney  Lanier,  is  now  well  estab¬ 
lished.  One  of  his  best  poems  is  an  admirable 
ode  on  the  Confederate  dead  buried  in  Magnolia 
Cemetery,  Charleston.  Consult  J.  A.  B.  Scherer, 
Holy  Grail:  Six  Addresses  (Philadelphia,  1905). 

TIMSAH,  tlm'sa,  Lake.  A  lake  traversed 
by  the  Suez  Canal  ( q.v. ) . 

TIMUCUA,  te-mob'kwa,  or  Timuquanan 
(ruler,  master).  A  group  of  tribes,  constituting 


a  distinct  linguistic  stock,  formerly  occupying 
central  and  northern  Florida  from  about  Tampa 
Bay  and  Cape  Canaveral  northward  to  St.  Mary’s 
River.  When  first  known  to  the  Spaniards  they 
had  about  40  settlements,  principally  along 
the  lower  St.  John’s  River.  Narvaez  (1527) 
and  De  Soto  (1539)  both  passed  through  their 
territory,  each  meeting  determined  resistance. 
The  Huguenots,  under  Laudonniere,  landing  on 
the  east  coast  in  1564,  were  received  with  friend¬ 
ship,  continued  during  the  brief  existence  of  the 
French  colony.  At  this  time  there  seem  to  have 
been  at  least  five  cognate  tribes,  with  differing 
dialects.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  French  the 
Timucua  came  under  the  dominion  of  the  Span¬ 
iards,  by  whom  they  were  compelled  to  work 
upon  the  fortifications  of  St.  Augustine.  In 
1687,  greatly  diminished,  they  made  an  unsuc¬ 
cessful  attempt  to  revolt.  In  1702-06  inroads 
of  the  English  of  Carolina,  with  their  hundreds 
of  Indian  allies,  wiped  out  the  mission  villages 
of  the  Timucua,  who  fled  to  the  upper  waters  of 
the  St.  John’s,  where  Tomoco  River  in  the  pres¬ 
ent  Volusia  County  preserves  their  name.  The 
Seminole  (q.v.)  took  their  abandoned  territory. 
Consult  Pareja,  Arte  de  la  lengua  timuquana 
(new  ed.  by  Adam  and  Vinson,  Paris,  1886). 

TIMUR,  te-mborr,  Timur-beg,  Tamerlane, 
or  Timur-leng  (Timur  the  Lame)  (1336-1405). 

A  Mongol  conqueror,  born  at  Kesh  or  Sebz,  about 
40  miles  south  of  Samarkand.  His  father  Tera- 
gai  was  head  of  the  clan  of  Berlas.  Among  the 
Mongol  chiefs  who  were  then  in  control  of  Turk¬ 
estan  was  Haji  Berlas,  uncle  of  Timur,  who  had 
established  himself  at  Kesh,  and  here  the  future 
conqueror  passed  his  youth  under  the  careful 
guidance  of  his  studious  father.  In  1360  the 
Kalmucks  of  Jettah,  led  by  Tughlak  Timur,  sub¬ 
jugated  Turkestan.  Declining  to  accompany 
his  uncle  in  flight,  Timur  met  Tughlak,  who 
made  him  governor  of  Kesh.  The  Kalmucks 
were  ultimately  expelled  in  1365,  and  Turkestan 
was  divided  between  its  two  liberators,  Hussain 
and  Timur.  In  1369  war  broke  out  between 
them,  Hussain  was  defeated  and  slain,  and 
Timur  became  lord  of  Turkestan.  He  then  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  take  vengeance  on  the  Kalmucks  and 
turned  westward  to  punish  the  predatory  tribes 
of  Khwarizm,  who  had  plundered  Bokhara.  He 
spent  the  interval  between  these  campaigns  in 
supporting  Toktemesh  Khan,  one  of  the  claim¬ 
ants  to  the  throne  of  Iviptchak,  whom  he  placed 
in  1376  in  undisputed  possession.  In  1383  the 
people  of  Herat,  whom  he  had  subdued  a  short 
time  before,  rebelled  and  murdered  his  envoys. 
In  punishment  for  this  2000  of  the  garrison, 
built  up  with  alternate  layers  of  brick  and 
mortar  into  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  were  left 
by  Timur  as  a  reminder  of  the  consequences  of 
rebellion.  In  the  following  year  he  invaded 
Mazanderan,  and  by  the  close  of  1387  the  whole 
of  the  country  east  of  the  Tigris,  from  Tiflis  to 
Shiraz,  was  subdued. 

Meanwhile,  Toktemesh  Khan  invaded  Timur’s 
territories  on  the  Amu.  Timur  brought  him  to 
bay  on  the  banks  of  the  Bielaya  (a  tributary  of 
the  Kama),  June  18,  1391,  where  he  almost  anni¬ 
hilated  his  forces.  In  1392  Timur  subdued  the 
warlike  principalities  to  the  east  of  the  Eu-  • 
phrates,  then  advanced  northward,  through  the 
gates  of  Derbend,  to  the  Volga;  and  after  again 
routing  Toktemesh  at  the  Terek  in  1395,  he  ex¬ 
tended  his  conquests  as  far  as  Moscow,  returning 
by  Astrakhan  and  the  Caucasus.  In  1398  Timur 
entered  India  by  the  passes  of  the  Hindu  Kush, 


TIN 


291 


TIN 


near  Kabul,  and  routed  the  opposing  armies 
till  the  number  of  prisoners  became  so  great 
that  four  days  before  the  great  battle  at  Delhi 
he  ordered  the  murder  of  all  the  males  (said  to 
be  100,000  in  number),  and  then  took  the  capi¬ 
tal.  After  advancing  to  the  Ganges,  Timur  re¬ 
turned  to  Samarkand,  where  he  expended  the 
spoils  of  the  expedition  in  the  adornment  of  his 
city.  In  the  following  year  he  attacked  the 
Egyptian  Empire  in  Syria,  and  was  as  usual 
successful.  Timur’s  aid  was  then  invoked  by 
the  Emperor  of  the  East  and  other  princes  to 
help  them  defeat  the  Turks  led  by  Bajazet  I 
(q.v. ).  The  two  hosts  met  at  Angora  on  July 
20,  1402,  and  Bajazet  was  defeated  and  captured. 
The  conquest  of  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor  speed¬ 
ily  followed.  The  Byzantine  Emperor  as  well  as 
the  Turkish  ruler  of  Thrace  did  homage  to  the 
victor.  On  his  return  Timur  conquered  Georgia, 
where  he  passed  the  winter,  and,  resuming  his 
inarch  in  the  following  year,  he  reached  Samar¬ 
kand  in  1404.  Here  he  resumed  preparations  for 
his  long  projected  invasion  of  China,  and  was 
marching  along  the  Sihun  when  he  was  attacked 
by  ague,  and  died  after  a  week’s  illness,  Feb.  17, 
1405. 

Timur  did  much  to  promote  the  arts  and  sci¬ 
ences  throughout  his  dominions,  and,  despite  his 
cruelty  in  war,  was  an  able  and  kindly  ruler 
in  time  of  peace,  although  the  speedy  dissolu¬ 
tion  of  his  Empire  deprived  his  labors  of  any 
permanent  utility.  Two  works  are  attributed 
to  him,  entitled  Malfuzat,  or  Annals,  trans¬ 
lated  by  Stewart  (London,  1830),  and  Tukiizat, 
or  Ordinances,  translated  by  Davy-White  (Ox¬ 
ford,  1783)  and  Langles  (Paris,  1878).  Their 
authenticity  is  neither  proved  nor  disproved.  In 
literature  Timur  is  best  known  through  Mar¬ 
lowe’s  (q.v.)  drama  Tamburlaine  the  Great. 
Consult:  Sharaf  ud  din  Ali  Yazdi,  Zafarnamah, 
translated  by  Petis  de  la  Croix,  Histoire  de 
Timur-Beo,  connu  sur  le  nom  du  grand  Tamer¬ 
lan  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1722)  ;  Manger,  Vita  Timuri, 
a  translation  of  the  Arabic  biography  by  Ibn 
Arabshah  (Leeuwarden,  1767—72)  ;  Stanley  Lane- 
Poole,  Mediceval  India  (London,  1003)  ;  Horn, 
“Geschichte  Irans  in  islamitischer  Zeit,”  in 
Geiger  and  Kuhn,  Grundriss  der  iranischen  Phi- 
lologie,  vol.  ii  (Strassburg,  1904)  ;  “Cour-Emir,” 
in  Les  mosquees  de  Samarcande,  part  i,  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  Commission  Imperiale  Archeolo- 
gique  (St.  Petersburg,  1905). 

TIN  ( AS.  tin,  OHG.  zin,  Ger.  Zinn,  tin ;  con¬ 
nected  with  Goth,  tains,  AS.  tan,  OHG.  zein, 
twig,  thin  leaf  of  metal).  One  of  the  elements, 
a  metal  known  since  times  of  great  antiquity. 
Relics  of  Assyrian  civilization  include  imple¬ 
ments  made  of  alloyed  copper  and  tin,  a  form 
of  what  is  now  known  as  bronze.  The  tin  used 
in  making  the  alloy  was  obtained  by  the  Phoeni-  • 
cians  from  the  Cassiterides,  islands  probably 
situated  somewhere  off  the  west  coast  of  Eu¬ 
rope.  The  location  of  this  source  of  supply  has 
given  its  name  to  the  principal  ore  of  tin — 
cassiterite.  It  is  known  that  after  the  Roman 
conquest  of  Britain,  tin  was  carried  from  the 
Cornish  mines  through  Gaul  by  way  of  Marseilles 
to  Italy.  Pliny  distinguished  tin  as  plumbum 
album  or  candidum  from  plumbum  nigrum 
(lead),  and  about  the  fourth  century  the  name 
“stannum”  was  given  to  tin.  Because  of  its 
qualities,  among  which  is  the  property  of  form¬ 
ing  brittle  alloys,  the  alchemists  '  called  it 
diabolus  metallorum ;  by  others  it  was  called 
jupiter.  It  is  sometimes  found  native  in  irregu¬ 


lar,  rounded,  crystalline  grains,  or  aggregations 
of  grains.  It  occurs  with  platinum,  iridosmine, 
gold,  copper,  cassiterite,  and  corundum  in  wash¬ 
ings  from  the  Aberfoil  and  San  rivers  (head¬ 
waters  of  the  Clarence  River)  near  Obau,  New 
South  \\  ales.  Other  occurrences  of  native  tin 
have  been  reported,  but  all  of  them  are  doubt¬ 
ful.  The  principal  tin  ore  is  cassiterite,  tin 
oxide  ( Sn02) ,  in  which  tin  forms  78.6  per  cent 
and  oxygen  21.4  per  cent.  Sometimes  a  little 
Ta203  enters  into  association  with  it.  Cassiterite 
is  often  referred  to  as  tinstone.  It  occurs  in 
crystals  and  massive,  and  has  specific  gravity 
varying  from  6.7  to  7.02,  the  ordinary  variety 
being  about  6.96.  Tin  is  also  found  as  the  sul¬ 
phide,  with  copper  and  zinc,  the  mineral  being 
known  as  stannite,  or  tin  pyrites.  Small  quantf- 
ties  of  tin  are  found  in  other  minerals,  but  not 
in  such  quantities  as  to  be  of  commercial  value 
as  tin  ores. 

Tin  (symbol,  Sn,  stannum;  atomic  weight, 
118.7)  is  a  silver-white,  lustrous  metal  that  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  about  7.3,  and  melts  at 
235°  C.  (455°  F.).  It  can  be  easily  rolled  or 
hammered  out  to  thin  foil  and  at  100°  C.  (212° 
F. )  it  may  be  drawn  into  wire,  which  has  but 
little  tenacity.  At  moderately  low  tempera¬ 
tures  (—48°  C.)  it  transforms  itself  into  a 
modification  known  as  gray  tin,  which  is  brittle 
and  useless.  This  form  is  sometimes  called  the 
tin  disease.  White  tin,  which  has  a  fibrous, 
crystalline  structure,  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  tin  plate,  which  is  so  largely  used  in  the  mak¬ 
ing  of  cans  for  preserving  foods,  and  the  articles 
usually  referred  to  as  tinware.  It  is  also  used 
for  making  tinfoil,  for  making  noncorrosible 
pipe,  and  for  alloys,  including  amalgam  for  sil¬ 
vering  mirrors,  bell  metal,  Britannia  metal, 
bronze,  gun  metal,  pewter,  type  metal,  etc.  A 
large  amount  of  tin  is  used  for  making  roofing 
plates,  but  the  tin  is  usually,  in  such  uses, 
alloyed  with  lead,  the  resulting  plates  being 
known  technically  as  terne  sheets.  Tin  does 
not  oxidize  in  the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
but  is  easily  oxidized  on  heating  in  the  air  or 
in  oxygen.  It  forms  two  oxides.  Stannous 
oxide,  or  monoxide,  is  an  olive-brown  powder 
obtained  when  stannous  oxalate  is  heated  out 
of  contact  with  air.  It  combines  with  basic 
radicals  to  form  stannates,  of  which  the  sodium 
stannate  is  used  in  calico  dyeing  and  printing. 
The  stannic  oxide,  or  dioxide,  which  is  found 
native  as  cassiterite,  is  obtained  as  a  white 
powder  when  tin  is  heated  until  it  burns  in 
air.  In  the  form  of  putty  powder  it  is  used 
for  polishing  plate  glass,  and  for  giving  a  white 
color  to  glass  and  enamels.  Stannous  chloride, 
SnCL,  and  stannic  chloride,  SnCl4,  are  both 
used  as  mordants  in  dyeing  and  calico  printing 
under  the  name  of  tin  salts  or  tin  crystals,  and 
are  readily  prepared  by  dissolving  the  metal  in 
hydrochloric  acid.  Stannic  sulphide,  which  is 
prepared  by  heating  tin  with  mercury,  sulphur, 
and  ammonium  chloride,  is  known  commercially 
as  mosaic  gold,  and  was  formerly  used  for  gild¬ 
ing,  imitating  bronze,  etc.  The  purple  colored 
precipitate  obtained  by  the  reaction  of  gold 
chloride  on  stannous  salts  has  been  described 
under  Cassius,  Purple  of.  Hot,  strong  hydro¬ 
chloric  acid  dissolves  tin  readily,  forming  stan¬ 
nous  chloride  and  evolving  hydrogen.  Warm, 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  gives  stannous  or  stannic 
sulphate,  according  as  the  tin  or  acid  is  in  excess, 
and  hydrogen  is  evolved;  but  with  hot,  concen¬ 
trated  acid  sulphur  dioxide,  sulphureted  hydro- 


TIN 


TIN 


gen  and  sulphur  are  obtained  in  place  of  hydro¬ 
gen.  The  strongest  nitric  acid  has  no  action; 
when  sufficiently  diluted  it  forms  metastannic 
acid,  H10Sn5015,  probably  owing  to  the  hydroly¬ 
sis  of  previously  formed  stannic  nitrate.  The 
dilute  acid  forms  stannous  and  ammonium  ni¬ 
trates.  Aqua  regia  forms  stannic  chloride.  Hot, 
strong,  caustic  soda  or  potash  forms  sodium  or 
potassium  stannate  with  evolution  of  hydrogen. 

Occurrence  and  Production.  i  in  ore,  or 
cassiterite,  has  been  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  but  from  a  commercial  standpoint  its 
deposits  are  limited.  Its  sources  are  veins  in 
the  older  rocks,  particularly  a  variety  of  granite 
called  greisen,  and  alluvial  deposits,  the  latter 
having  been  formed  by  the  erosion  of  rocks 
carrying  the  veins.  The  ores  obtained  from 
veins  are  known  as  lode  tin,  while  those  found 
in  stream  deposits  are  known  variously,  ac¬ 
cording  to  locality,  as  black  tin,  tin  sand,  stream 
tin,  and  barilla.  ‘  The  principal  supplies  of  ore 
are  obtained  from  the  East  Indies,  in  the  islands 
of  Banca,  Billiton,  and  Sumatra,  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  Australia,  Bolivia,  and  Cornwall, 
England.  Most  of  the  ore  from  the  East  Indies 
and  the  Malay  Peninsula  is  obtained  by  washing 
alluvial  gravels.  There  are  also  mines  in  Sax¬ 
ony,  Bohemia,  Russia,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Japan,  but  the  total  output  of  these  countries 
is  insignificant.  The  presence  of  tin  deposits 
in  California,  Texas,  South  Dakota,  and  North 
Carolina  has  been  known  for  a  long  time,  but 
up  to  this  time  there  has  been  no  mining  on  a 
commercial  scale.  A  discovery  of  tin  ore  in  the 
York  District  of  Alaska  has  induced  exploration 
in  that  region,  and  Bolivia  is  an  important 
source  of  tin  production.  The  exports  from 
Bolivia  in  1915  were  estimated  to  be  about 
42,000  tons  of  tin  concentrates,  all  of  which  was 
smelted  abroad,  since  there  were  no  facilities 
for  tin  smelting  in  Bolivia.  In  the  United 
States  the  most  promising  district  is  along  the 
border  of  North  and  South  Carolina,  extending 
from  Cherokee  County,  in  the  latter  State,  over 
into  Lincoln  Co.,  N.  C.  These  deposits  have 
been  worked  in  a  desultory  way  only,  but  they 
may  become  commercially  important  if  they 
can  be  exploited  as  a  unit  and  in  a  modern, 
systematic  way.  Some  ore  is  produced  from  the 
Alaska  deposits,  but  the  amount  is  insignificant 
as  compared  with  the  domestic  tin  requirements. 
A  smelter  for  tin  ores  and  an  electrolytic  plant 
for  the  refining  of  the  tin  bullion  was  built  at 
Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  in  1915.  This  plant  was 
expected  to  bring  South  American  ores  to  the 
United  States  for  smelting,  practically  all  the 
smelting  having  been  done  in  Europe  hereto¬ 
fore.  The  accompanying  table  from  the  En¬ 
gineering  and  Mining  Journal  shows  the  tin 
production  and  consumption  for  1915. 

In  addition  to  the  localities  already  mentioned, 
tin  is  mined  in  the  Belgian  Congo,  and  also  at 
Briseis,  Tasmania;  at  Yunnan,  China;  Siamese 
Malaya;  and  in  South  Africa. 

Metallurgy.  The  only  ore  of  tin  extensively 
used  for  the  extraction  of  the  metal  is  tinstone, 
or  cassiterite.  The  preliminary  processes  are 
essentially  concentration,  and  the  result  is  a 
high-grade  product  containing  60  per  cent  or 
more  of  tin.  See  Ore  Dressing. 

The  tin  ore  thus  provided  has  next  to  be  de¬ 
prived  of  its  sulphur  and  arsenic,  if  these  sub¬ 
stances  are  present.  This  is  usually  done  in  a 
reverberatory  furnace,  although  one  of  the  forms 
of  roasting  machines  may  be  used.  The  flues 


of  the  roasting  device,  whatever  its  type,  are 
connected  with  condensing  chambers  in  which 
the  arsenic  is  deposited  in  crystalline  form.  The 
sulphur,  present  in  the  form  of  iron  sulphide, 

TIN  PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION 


IN  LONG  TONS 


LOCALITY 

1913 

1914 

1915 

Exports,  ^traits  and  Malay  Pen. 

Exports,  Australian . 

Banca  and  Billiton  sales.  ...... 

Chinese  exports  and  production 

Bolivian  exports . . 

South  African  production . 

Nigerian  production . 

Cornwall  production . 

Total  . 

62,242 

3,253 

17,142 

8,200 

22,719 

1.900 

4.900 

61,986 

1,771 

10,975 

8,255 

24,844 

2,276 

1,962 

4,500 

66,760 

2,275 

15,093 

7,097 

18,800 

2,158 

1,899 

4,000 

120,356 

45,900 

28,736 

16,573 

21,250 

1.000 

6,500 

116,569 

42,995 

30,531 

15,810 

18,633 

1,050 

6,400 

118,082 

49,480 

39,937 

7,625 

11,550 

1,100 

6,650 

U.  S.  imports  and  consumption 
Great  Britain,  imports  and  cons. 

Holland,  imports . 

Other  Europe,  imports . 

Australian  consumption ....... 

China  and  India  consumption 

Totals  . 

119,959 

16,045 

115,419 

13,432 

116,342 

14,535 

Visible  stocks,  Dec.  1 . 

is  decomposed  by  the  heat  into  sulphurous-acid 
gas,  and  the  remaining  oxide  of  iron  is  removed 
by  subsequent  washing.  Copper  sulphide,  when 
present,  is  converted  into  copper  sulphate  by 
roasting  and  oxidation,  when  it  is  easily  removed 
by  leaching. 

After  this  final  washing  the  ore  is  ready  for 
smelting,  which  is  usually  performed  in  a  rever¬ 
beratory  furnace.  The  charge  consists  of  from 
20  to  25  cwt.  of  ore  mixed  with  about  %  its 
weight  of  powdered  anthracite  or  charcoal,  and 
a  small  quantity  of  lime  or  fluorspar  to  serve  as 
a  flux  for  the  siliceous  matter.  Before  being 
put  into  the  furnace  the  mixture  is  moistened 
with  water  to  prevent  the  finely  powdered  ore 
from  being  carried  away  by  the  draft.  When 
the  charge  is  placed  on  the  hearth  of  the  furn&ce, 
the  doors  are  closed  and  the  heat  gradually 
raised  for  about  six  hours.  The  oxide  is  then 
reduced  by  the  carbon.  Then  the  furnace  door 
is  opened  and  the  mass  worked  with  a  paddle 
to  separate  the  slag,  which  is  raked  off,  and  the 
richer  portion  of  it  smelted  over  again.  The 
reduced  tin  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  is  run  off 
into  a  cast-iron  pan,  from  which  it  is  ladled  or 
run  into  molds  to  produce  ingots  of  convenient 
size. 

The  tin  has  still  to  be  purified,  or  refined,  and 
a  process  of  liquation  is  followed.  This  con¬ 
sists  of  moderately  heating  the  tin  ingots  in  a 
reverberatory  furnace  until  the  tin,  owing  to  its 
low  melting  point,  melts  and  flows  into  the 
refining  basin,  leaving  on  the  hearth  a  residu¬ 
ary  alloy  of  tin  and  other  metals.  When  the 
refining  basin  contains  its  full  charge,  it  is 
ready  for  boiling.  In  this  operation  billets  of 
green  wood  are  plunged  into  the  melted  metal, 
the  disengagement  of  gas  from  which  gives  rise 
to  a  constant  boiling,  and  causes  a  scum,  chiefly 
tin  oxide,  to  rise  to  the  surface.  It  is  then 
removed,  while  at  the  same  time  the  impure  and 
dense  particles  fall  to  the  bottom.  When  the 
agitation  has  continued  long  enough  the  bath  is 
allowed  to  settle  and  cool.  The  tin  then  sepa¬ 
rates  into  zones — the  upper  consisting  of  the 
purest  part,  the' middle  being  more  mixed  with 
other  metals,  and  the  lower  so  impure  that  it 
has  to  go  through  the  refining  process  again. 


TINAMOU 


293 


TINDAL 


The  residuary  alloy  of  the  liquation  process 
also  has  its  tin  extracted  and  is  again  refined. 
While  the  process  described  is  one  that  is  fol¬ 
lowed  to  a  great  extent,  and  is  the  standard 
one  of  former  practice,  modern  improvements  are 
making  changes  that  are  coming  more  and  more 
into  use.  Recent  experiments  have  shown  that 
the  electric  furnace  is  probably  more  adaptable 
to  tin  smelting  than  to  most  of  the  other  metals. 
Electrolytic  refining  is  also  successful,  and  has 
already  been  incorporated  into  operating  plants. 

In  former  times  in  Cornwall  tin  was  smelted 
in  a  blast  furnace,  but  through  the  use  of  this 
process  there  is  a  great  deal  of  waste  because  of 
the  applications  of  high  temperatures  and,  be¬ 
sides,  the  conditions  of  the  blast  furnace  are 
such  that  a  great  deal  of  iron  is  also  reduced,  a 
condition  that  is  prejudicial  to  good  smelting 
practice. 

Tin  ores  that  contain  the  mineral  wolframite 
(tungstate  of  iron  and  manganese)  are  treated 
by  a  process  patented  by  Oxland,  and  known  by 
his  name.  This  mineral  cannot  be  separated 
successfully  because  its  specific  gravity  is  so 
nearly  that  of  tin  ore.  In  Oxland’s  process  the 
tin  ore  is  roasted  with  sodium  sulphate,  the  in¬ 
soluble  iron  tungstate  converted  into  soluble 
sodium  tungstate,  which  is  then  leached  out. 
Oxides  of  iron  and  manganese  are  left  finely 
divided,  and  because  of  their  lower  specific  grav¬ 
ity  they  can  be  washed  away  from  the  tin  com¬ 
pounds.  The  tungstate  of  soda  thus  obtained 
has  been  used  for  fireproofing  cotton  cloth. 

Tin  Plate.  A  great  part  of  the  tin  produced 
is  used  for  making  tin  plate,  which  is  iron  or 
steel  in  sheet  form,  covered  on  both  sides  with 
tin.  The  sheets  are  cleaned  with  acid,  after 
which  they  are  plunged  into  baths  of  molten  tal¬ 
low  and  tin.  The  tallow  prevents  oxidation  of 
the  tin  during  the  process,  which  must  be  car¬ 
ried  out  at  a  temperature  at  which  tin  would 
oxidize  if  allowed  to  come  into  contact  with  the 
air.  After  the  sheets  have  taken  on  a  plating  of 
the  required  thickness  they  are  cleaned  with 
bran. 

Bibliography.  A.  G.  Charleton,  Tin,  Chief 
Methods  of  Mining,  Dressing  and  Smelting  (Lon¬ 
don,  1884)  ;  S.  Fawns,  Tin  Deposits  of  the  World 
(ib.,  1905)  ;  F.  L.  and  E.  Hess,  Bibliography  of 
the  Geology  and  Mineralogy  of  Tin  (  Washing¬ 
ton,  1912)  ;  The  Mineral  Industry  (New  York, 
annual).  For  the  metallurgy  of  tin:  Carl 
Schnabel,  Handbook  of  Metallurgy  (Eng.  trans. 
by  Henry  Louis;  2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  London,  1905- 
07)  ;  Henry  Louis,  Metallurgy  of  Tin  (ib.,  1911). 

TINAMOU,  tin'a-moo.  The  native,  and  now 
the  popular,  name  for  birds  of  the  family 
Tinamidoe,  inhabiting  the  tropical  portions  of 
South  America,  having  many  remarkable  fea¬ 
tures  in  their  internal  organization,  and  the 
striking  external  character  that  the  tail  is  ex¬ 
ceedingly  short  or  entirely  absent.  Like  par¬ 
tridges  in  general  appearance,  and  varying  in 
size  from  that  of  a  quail  to  the  bigness  of  a 
large  grouse,  and  prevailingly  brown  in  color, 
they  are  classed  as  game  birds  in  South  Amer¬ 
ica,  and  are  frequently  called  partridges.  Their 
flight  is  strong  and  swift,  but  of  short  duration 
and  very  direct,  yet  they  haunt  the  undergrowth 
of  dense  forests  or  bushy  and  grassy  flats,  run 
with  amazing  rapidity,  and  conceal  themselves 
with  great  skill,  rather  than  take  to  flight. 
Their  food  is  miscellaneous,  like  that  of  game 
birds  generally,  and  their  voice  a  mellow  whistle. 
The  flesh  is  delicious.  They  make  very  simple 


nests  on  the  ground,  and  lay  eggs  varying  from 
reddish  chocolate,  wine  purple  or  liver  color,  to 
dark  blue  or  green,  and  burnished  to  a  metallic 
sheen.  See  Plate  of  Cassowaries,  etc. 

The  tinamous  have  been  regarded  by  many 
systematists  as  within  the  Ratitse,  but  more  re¬ 
cently  are  considered  as  a  separate  group  of 
ordinal  rank  at  the  foot  of  the  Carinata?,  just 
preceding  the  Galliformes.  Consult:  Hans 
Gadow,  “Aves,”  in  Bronn’s  Klassen  und  Ord- 
nungcn  des  Thier-Reichs  (Leipzig,  1893)  ;  Al¬ 
fred  Newton,  Dictionary  of  Birds  (New  York, 
189G);  Sclater  and  Hudson,  Argentine  Orni¬ 
thology  (London,  1889);  A.  H.  Evans,  “Birds,” 
in  Cambridge  Natural  History,  vol.  ix  (New 
\ork,  1900)  ;  F.  H.  Knowlton,  Birds  of  the 
World  (ib.,  1909). 

TINAVELLY.  See  Tinnevelli. 

TINAYRE,  te'nar',  Marcelle  {nee  Ciias- 
teau)  (1877-  ).  A  French  novelist,  born 

at  Tulle  and  married  in  1889  to  Julien  Tinayre, 
an  engraver.  Her  first  novels  attracted  little 
attention,  but  the  third,  Hall6,  was  crowned  by 
the  French  Academy  in  1896.  Later  notable 
fiction  comprises:  L’Oiseau  d’Orafe  (1901);  La 
maison  du  peche  (1902);  La  rebelle  (1906); 
L’ Amour  qui  pleure  (1908)  ;  L’Ombre  de  V amour 
(1910;  Eng.  trans.,  The  Shadow  of  Love,  1911)  ; 
La  douceur  de  vivre  (1911);  Madeleine  au 
miroir  (1912;  Eng.  trans.,  Madeleine  at  her 
Mirror ,  1913);  Le  depart  (1915).  Consult 

Winifred  Stephens,  French  Novelists  of  To-day, 
(2d  series,  New  York,  1915 )*  Her  novels  are 
didactic,  the  enfranchisement  of  woman  consti¬ 
tuting  an  important  theme;  they  are  marked 
by  rare  delicacy  and  a  graceful  wit  and  are 
strikingly  objective  and  intellectual. 

TINCTURA  GIOBERTINA.  See  Giober- 
tine  Tincture. 

TINCTURE  (from  Lat.  tinctura,  a  dyeing, 
from  tingere,  to  dye,  Gk.  reyyeit/,  tengein,  to 
moisten,  dye).  A  medicinal  preparation  of  a 
drug  by  maceration  or  by  dissolving  nonvolatile 
principles  in  strong  or  dilute  alcohol.  In  almost 
all  cases  the  resulting  liquid  is  of  a  decided 
color ;  hence  the  name.  Obviously  tinctures 
must  be  kept  in  tightly  closed  bottles  to  pre¬ 
vent  evaporation.  There  are  over  70  official 
tinctures  in  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia. 
Among  these  are  the  tincture  of  aconite,  the 
once  popular  tincture  of  arnica,  used  for  bruises 
and  sprains;  the  bitter  tincture;  compounol  tinc¬ 
ture  of  cinchona;  tincture  of  the  chloride  of 
iron;  tincture  of  digitalis;  tincture  of  iodine; 
tincture  of  ipecac  and  opium ;  compound  tinc¬ 
ture  of  lavender;  tincture  of  myrrh,  largely  em¬ 
ployed  in  mouth  washes  and  dentifrices;  tinc¬ 
ture  of  opium,  or  laudanum;  camphorated  tinc¬ 
ture  of  opium,  or  paregoric;  tincture  of  rhubarb; 
tincture  of  squill;  tincture  of  valerian;  and 
tincture  of  ginger,  frequently  known  as  essence 
of  ginger. 

TINCTURE.  The  general  designation  for 
colors,  metals,  and  furs  in  heraldry  (q.v.). 

TINCTURE  OF  OPIUM.  See  Laudanum. 

TIN'DAL,  Matthew  (c.1653-1733) .  An 
English  deistical  writer.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
clergyman  at  Beer-Ferris,  in  Devonshire,  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  elected  fellow  of  All 
Souls  College  in  1678.  After  a  brief  lapse 
into  Romanism  during  the  reign  of  James  II 
he  reverted  to  Protestantism,  or  rather,  as 
events  showed,  into  rationalism.  It  was  not 
till  1706  that  he  attracted  particular  notice, 
when  the  publication  of  his  treatise  on  The 


TINDER 


294 


TINGUIAN 


Rights  of  the  Christian  Church  Asserted  Against 
the  Romish  and  All  Other  Priests  Who  Claim 
an  Independent  Power  Over  It  raised  a  storm 
of  opposition  in  England,  but  in  Protestant 
circles  on  the  Continent  was  highly  praised. 
In  1730  he  published  his  most  celebrated  trea¬ 
tise,  entitled  Christianity  as  Old  as  the  Creation, 
or  The  Gospel  a  Republication  of  the  Religion 
of  Nature.  The  design  of  the  work  is  to  strip 
religion  of  the  miraculous  element,  and  to  prove 
that  its  morality  i3  its  true  and  only  claim  to 
the  reverence  of  mankind.  Tindal’s  book  is  in  ex¬ 
cellent  English  and  commanded  much  attention. 
Bishop  Butler’s  Analogy  was  largely  written  as 
an  answer  to  it.  Consult  Leslie  Stephen,  His¬ 
tory  of  English  Thought  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen¬ 
tury  (3d  ed.,  2  vols.,  New  York,  1902).  See 
Deism. 

TINDER.  An  inflammable  material,  usually 
made  of  half-burned  linen.  It  was  formerly  one 
of  the  chief  means  of  procuring  fire  before  the 
introduction  of  friction  matches.  The  tinder 
was  made  to  catch  the  sparks  caused  by  striking 
a  piece  of  steel  with  a  flint;  and  the  ignited 
tinder  enabled  the  operator  to  light  a  match 
dipped  in  sulphur,  Jhis  was  necessary,  as  tinder 
will  not  flame.  Decaying  wood — of  willows  and 
similar  trees — also  affords  tinder;  certain  fungi 
furnish  the  German  tinder,  or  amadou  (q.v. ). 

TIN'EA  ( Lat.,  gnawing  worm ) .  A  name 
given  to  several  varieties  of  vegetable  parasitic 
skin  diseases.  For  tinea  favosa,  see  Favus. 
Tinea  trichophytina  or  ringworm  may  appear 
as  an  eruption  on  several  parts  of  the  body, 
receiving  a  modification  of  the  name  in  each 
case,  as  corporis,  cruris,  capitis,  barbae,  etc.  It 
is  common  among  the  poorer  classes,  and  spreads 
rapidly  in  schools  and  asylums.  Tinea  of  the 
scalp  "often  comes  from  indiscriminate  use  of 
towels,  combs,  and  brushes.  A  red  spot  appears, 
marking  the  beginning  of  the  eruption,  which 
soon  becomes  scaly  and  enlarges,  forming  a 
ring  possibly  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  leaving 
a  clear  centre.  The  margin  of  the  circle  is 
well  defined,  elevated,  red,  and  covered  with 
fine  scales  easily  detachable.  Mycelium  and 
spores  are  seen  in  microscopical  examination. 
There  is  seldom  much  irritation,  except  in 
cases  where  the  crural  fold  or  axilla  is  invaded. 
The  tinea  trichophytina  cruris  or  eczema  mar¬ 
ginatum  is  not  infrequent  in  the  United  States. 
In  warm  climates  it  is  common  and  severe,  and 
is  known  as  Indian,  Chinese,  or  Burmese  ring¬ 
worm,  also  as  Dhobie’s  itch.  Hyposulphite  of 
soda,  bichloride  of  mercury,  acetate  of  copper, 
and  tincture  of  iodine  are  frequently  efficacious 
in  the  tinea  corporis  and  cruris.  Bulkley  recom¬ 
mended  sulphurous  acid  for  the  latter.  Tinea 
capitis,  also  called  tinea  tonsurans,  is  very  in¬ 
tractable,  and  the  application  of  carbolic  acid, 
green  soap,  mercury,  oil  of  cade,  etc.,  must  be 
kept  up,  always  in  the  form  of  an  ointment. 
The  X-ray  is  now  extensively  and  successfully 
used  to  kill  the  mycelium.  Tinea  versicolor,  or 
Pityriasis  versicolor,  is  very  common  in  warm 
countries,  though  also  frequent  in  the  United 
States.  The  front  of  the  chest  is  most  often 
attacked,  the  back  next.  The  parasite  Micro- 
sporon  furfur  is  probably  the  cause  of  tinea 
versicolor.  The  treatment  consists  of  frequent 
bathing  with  soap,  hyposulphite  of  soda  applica¬ 
tions,  or  the  use  of  mercurial  preparations, 
salicvlic  acid,  sulphur,  and  glycerin. 

TINEID^E,  tl-ne'i-de.  See  Leaf  Miner. 

TINEL,  te'nel',  Edgar  (1854-1912).  A  Bel¬ 


gian  pianist  and  composer,  born  at  Sinay.  In 
1863  he  studied  at  the  Brussels  Conservatory, 
and  (1873)  received  first  prize  for  pianoforte 
and  published  four  nocturnes  for  solo  voice 
with  piano.  In  1877  his  cantata  Klokke  Roeland 
won  the  Grand  Prix.  He  succeeded  Lemmens 
as  director  of  the  Institute  for  Sacred  Music 
at  Mechlin,  in  1882,  and  in  1888  produced  the 
oratorio  Franciscus,  which  gave  him  fame.  In 
1889  he  became  inspector  of  the  state  music 
schools  of  Belgium,  and  in  1896  professor  of 
counterpoint  and  fugue  at  Brussels  Conserva¬ 
tory.  He  produced  a  Grand  Mass  of  the  Holy 
Virgin  of  Lourdes  for  five  parts;  Te  Deum  for 
four-part  mixed  choir  with  organ;  Alleluia  for 
four  equal  voices  with  the  organ ;  the  music 
drama  Godoleva  (1897);  the  sacred  opera 
Katharina  (1909);  motets  and  sacred  songs. 
He  also  published  Le  chant  gregorien,  theorie 
sommaire  de  son  execution  (1895).  Consult  Van 
der  Elst,  Edgar  Tinel  (Ghent,  1901). 

TINGHAI,  tlng'hi'.  Chief  town  of  the  island 
of  Chusan  (q.v.),  Chekiang  Province,  China. 

TINGITID.ZE,  tin-jit'i-de.  See  Lace  Bug. 

TINGLEY,  ting'll,  Katherine  {nee  West- 
cott)  (1852-  ).  An  American  theosophist, 

born  at  Newburyport,  Mass.  In  1889  she  was 
married  to  P.  B.  Tingley.  After  1898,  as  leader 
and  official  head  of  the  Universal  Brotherhood, 
a  theosophical  organization  which  she  had 
founded,  she  gained  recognition  as  the  successor 
of  W.  Q.  Judge  and  Madame  Blavatskv  (qq.v.). 
She  conducted  theosophical  crusades  around  the 
world  in  1896-97  and  1904.  The  headquarters 
of  the  society  were  removed  from  New  York 
to  Point  Loma,  Cal.,  where  Mrs.  Tingley  founded 
a  colony  that  became  noted.  Here  she  estab¬ 
lished  her  School  of  Antiquity,  a  Raja  Yoga 
Academy,  and  also  an  orphanage.  During  the 
Spanish-American  War  she  was  active  in  re¬ 
lief  work.  She  became  editor  of  a  theosophical 
journal,  the  Century  Path,  and  published:  The 
Mysteries  of  the  Heart  Doctrine  (1902);  A 
Nosegay  of  Everlastings  (1914);  Theosophy 
and  Some  of  the  Vital  Problems  of  the  Day 
(1915).  See  Theosophical  Society. 

TINGUAITE,  tin'gwa-it  (named  from  Sierra 
de  Tingua,  Brazil).  An  igneous  rock  of  gran¬ 
ular  or  porpliyritic  texture,  characterized  by 
the  mineral  combination  alkali  feldspar,  nephe- 
line,  and  aegerine,  or  tegerine  augite.  It  is  a 
rock  of  very  limited  distribution,  but  generally 
occurs  in  dikes  associated  with  nepheline  syenite, 
to  which  it  is  genetically  and  chemically  related. 

TINGUIAN,  tin'gi-iin',  or  Itneg,  it-neg/.  A 
pagan  mountain  people  of  northwestern  Luzon. 
Their  stronghold  is  in  the  subprovince  of  Abra, 
but  their  settlements  extend  into  the  Ilocos 
provinces.  They  have  domestic  animals,  ex¬ 
tensive  rice  fields,  and  compact  villages.  Until 
recently  the  custom  of  head-hunting  made  loose 
federations  among  groups  of  villages  necessary, 
and  thus  a  number  of  dialect  groups  have  sprung 
up. 

The  government  is  an  oligarchy,  the  old  men 
of  each  village  constituting  its  ruling  class. 
A  peculiar  but  highly  developed  form  of  spirit¬ 
ualism,  combined  with  an  elaborate  ceremonial, 
is  found  among  them.  An  unorganized  priest¬ 
hood  forms  the  medium  through  which  the  su- 
perior  beings  make  known  their  wishes.  Along 
the  northern  and  western  borders  the  people  are 
skilled  ironworkers,  and  their  spears  and  head 
axes  have  a  wide  distribution  throughout  north¬ 
western  Luzon.  Consult  F.  C.  Cole,  “The  Tin- 


TINKER  BIRD 


TINTORETTO 


295 


guian,”  in  Philippine  Journal  of  Science  (Man¬ 
ila,  1909).  See  Philippine  Islands. 

TINKER  BIRD,  or  Tinker  Barbet.  See 
Coppersmith. 

TINKER’S  ROOT.  See  Feverwort. 

TINNE,  te'na'  (Athapascan,  people).  A  col¬ 
lective  term  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with 
Athapascan  stock  (q.v. ),  but  more  usually  em¬ 
ployed  to  designate  the  tribes  of  that  stock  re¬ 
siding-  in  the  Canadian  northwest.  See  Atha¬ 
pascan  Stock. 

TINNE,  tin'na,  Alexandrine  (or  Alexine) 
(1839-69).  A  Dutch  explorer  in  Africa,  born 
at  The  Hague.  In  1856  she  visited  Palestine, 
Syria,  and  Egypt.  She  started  for  the  Upper 
Nile  in  January,  1862,  and  reached  Gondokoro 
in  September,  but  was  compelled  by  sickness  to 
return  to  Khartum.  In  February,  1863,  she  set 
out  with  an  enormous  train  on  a  second  expedi¬ 
tion,  with  Bahr-el-Ghazal  for  its  goal,  in  which 
Ileuglin  and  Steudner  participated  and  which 
advanced  as  far  as  Dembo  in  the  Bongo  country. 
Steudner  and  Miss  Tinne’s  mother  having  suc¬ 
cumbed  to  the  climate,  the  expedition  returned 
to  Khartum  in  March,  1864.  Its  results  were 
described  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Historical 
Society  of  Lancashire ,  etc.,  vol.  xvi  (Liverpool, 
1864).  In  1865  Alexine  Tinne  visited  Crete, 
Greece,  and  Italy,  went  to  Algiers  in  1866, 
traveled  through  the  French  Sahara  in  1868, 
and  in  January,  1869,  started  with  a  strong 
retinue  for  the  interior,  intending  to  penetrate 
to  the  Nile  via  Bornu.  Detained  by  sickness 
at  Murzuk,  she  then  proceeded  towards  Ghat 
by  invitation  of  the  Tuareg  chief  Ikhenukhen, 
but  was  assassinated  by  the  Tuaregs  escorting 
her,  on  August  1.  Consult  Heuglin,  Die  Tinn- 
esche  Expedition  im  westlichen  Nilgebiet,  1863- 
6^  (Gotha,  1865),  and  id.,  Reise  in  das  Gebiet 
des  Weissen  Nil,  etc.  (Leipzig,  1869). 

TINNEVELLI,  tm'6-vel'i,  or  TIN  A- 
VELLY.  The  capital  of  a  district  of  Madras, 
British  India,  99  miles  southwest  of  Madura, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tambraparni  River 
( Map :  India,  C  8 ) .  It  is  connected  with  Palam- 
cotta  on  the  opposite  bank  by  a  handsome  bridge. 
The  most  striking  edifice  is  the  Siva  temple. 
There  are  two  colleges,  and  the  town  has  long 
been  an  important  centre  for  Protestant  mis¬ 
sions.  Cotton  goods  are  extensively  manufac¬ 
tured.  Tinnevelli  became  a  British  possession 
in  1801.  Pop.,  1901,  40,469;  1911,  43,741. 

TINNI'TUS  ATTRIUM  (Lat.,  ringing  of 
the  ears).  Ringing  in  the  ears.  In  most  cases 
it  is  an  unimportant  symptom,  depending  on 
some  local  temporary  affection  of  the  ear,  or  on 
some  disturbance  of  the  digestive  system;  but 
as  it  is  also  a  common  symptom  of  organic 
disease  of  the  auditory  nerve,  it  may  indicate 
a  dangerous  condition,  or  may  be  a  prelude  to 
complete  deafness.  It  may  be  a  symptom  of 
neurasthenia  (q.v.),  and  may  occur  in  a  number 
of  diseases.  Hence  it  is  a  symptom  that,  espe¬ 
cially  if  permanent,  must  be  carefully  watched. 
It  may  be  induced  for  a  few  hours  by  a  large 
dose  of  quinine  or  of  the  salicylates. 

TINOC'ERAS.  A  huge  proboscidean,  allied 
to  Coryphodon,  Dinoceras,  and  Uintatherium, 
found  fossil  in  the  Middle  Eocene  (Bridges) 
formations  of  Wyoming.  Its  most  prominent 
characteristic  was  the  long,  narrow,  somewhat 
quadrangular  skull,  bearing  six  great  protuber¬ 
ances,  one  pair  on  the  nasal  bones  pointing 
forward,  a  second  outward-bending  pair  on  the 
upper  jawbones  (maxillaries) ,  and  a  third  over 


the  eyes  (on  the  parietals),  where  there  was  a 
semicircular  upright  crest  of  bone.  These  pro¬ 
tuberances  seem  not  to  have  been  covered  with 
ordinary  horn.  The  typical  species  is  Tinoceras 
ingens,  described  by  O.  C.  Marsh,  Dinocerata : 
A  Monograph  of  an  Extinct  Order  of  Gigantic 
Mammals  (Washington,  1884). 

TINOS,  te'nds.  One  of  the  Cyclades.  See 
Tenos. 

TIN  PYRITES.  See  Stannite. 

TINSEAU,  t&N'so',  Leon,  Count  de  (1842- 
).  A  French  novelist,  born  at  Autun.  He 
wrote  many  popular  and  ably  written  novels 
which  show  especial  skill  in  development  of  plot. 
Among  them  are:  Robert  d’Epirien  (1882)  ;  La 
meilleure  part  (1884),  crowned  by  the  French 
Academy;  Bouche  close  (1889);  Plus  fort  que 
la  haine  (1891);  Mensonge  blanc  (1900);  La 
princesse  errante  (1903);  Les  ttourderies  de  la 
chanoinesse  (1906);  La  deuxieme  page  (1914). 

TINSTONE.  See  Cassiterite. 

TINT'ERN  ABBEY.  A  beautiful  monastic 
ruin  in  England,  in  a  meadow  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  River  Wye,  9  miles  below  Mon¬ 
mouth.  Theodoric,  British  King  of  Glamorgan, 
was  said  to  have  fallen  in  battle  against  the 
heathen  Saxons  here,  600  a.d.  The  abbey  was 
founded  in  1131  for  Cistercian  monks  by  Walter 
de  Clare;  the  church  was  begun  a  century  later 
through  the  munificence  of  Roger  de  Bigod,  Earl 
Marshal,  and  dedicated  in  1268.  The  tower 
and  roof  are  gone;  but  the  church  remains 
a  fine  example  of  the  Decorated  style — the  Eng¬ 
lish  High  Gothic — beautiful  in  composition  and 
delicate  in  execution.  The  nave  is  228  feet 
long,  the  transept  150,  and  the  width  of  nave 
and  choir  37  feet.  The  ruins  of  the  convent 
buildings  also  remain.  Tintern  Abbey  is  well 
known  through  Wordsworth’s  poem. 

TIN'TORET'TO,  II  (1518—94).  The  name 
usually  applied  to  Jacopo  Robusti,  one  of  the 
chief  masters  of  the  High  Renaissance  in  Venice. 
He  was  born  at  Venice,  the  son  of  a  dyer 
{tintore) ,  whence  his  name,  and  at  an  early  age 
was  placed  with  Titian.  According  to  the  tra¬ 
ditional  account,  Titian’s  jealousy  soon  forced 
him  to  leave;  but  their  separation  was  probably 
due  to  Tintoretto’s  point  of  view,  which  saw  in 
the  plastic  rendition  of  the  human  body  in 
action,  rather  than  in  color,  the  chief  problem 
of  art.  Taking  an  independent  atelier,  he  sub¬ 
jected  himself  to  a  severe  course  of  training. 
Following  his  great  aim,  as  announced  in  the 
motto  upon  the  wall  of  his  studio,  to  unite 
Michelangelo’s  design  with  Titian’s  color,  he 
drew  constantly  from  casts  of  the  former’s 
sculptures.  He  dissected  bodies  to  learn  anat¬ 
omy,  studied  foreshortening  and  movement  from 
suspended  figures,  worked  by  day  and  lamplight 
for  chiaroscuro,  and  even  learned  from  house 
painters  the  secrets  of  their  craft.  Besides  the 
color  of  Titian  he  studied  the  work  of  his 
friend  Schiavone,  from  whom  he  acquired  the 
technique  of  fresco,  and  also  with  Bonifazio 
Veronese,  Berenson  believes. 

After  such  preparation  his  eagerness  for  Ac¬ 
tivity  led  him  to  solicit  work  at  low  prices.  v/lis 
earliest  paintings,  which  are  rare,  show  also  the 
influence  of  Giorgione  in  color  and  landscape. 
The  first  to  attract  attention  was  a  lost  por¬ 
trait  of  his  brother  and  himself  with  night  ef¬ 
fect,  but  the  most  important  surviving  example 
is  a  “Circumcision”  in  Santa  Maria  del  Carmine. 
Later  he  painted  five  subjects  from  Genesis  for 
Santa  Trinita,  two  of  which,  the  “Fall”  and 


TINTORETTO 


TINTORETTO 


296 


the  “Murder  of  Abel,”  are  preserved  in  the 
Venetian  Academy,  the  former  especially  being 
idyllic  in  sentiment,  and  almost  equal  to  Titian 
in  color.  After  a  number  of  facades,  none  of 
which  survive,  his  next  work  of  importance  was 
the  decorations  of  the  choir  of  the  Madonna 
del  Orto,  50  feet  in  height,  with  a  “Last  Judg¬ 
ment”  and  other  subjects.  To  the  same  period 
belong  the  startlingly  original  “Crucifixion”  in 
San  Cassiano,  Venice.  Finally,  Tintoretto’s 
reputation  was  definitely  established  by  the 
series  of  pictures  in  the  Scuola  di  San  Marco 
describing  abduction  of  the  body  of  the  patron 
saint  of  Venice  from  Alexandria  to  Venice.  The 
episodes  represented  the  “Finding  of  the  Body” 
(Brera,  Milan),  its  “Abduction  from  Alex¬ 
andria,”  “St.  Mark  Saving  a  Saracen  from 
Shipwreck”  (both  in  the  Royal  Palace,  Venice), 
and^Miracle  of  St.  Mark”  (Academy,  Venice). 
All  show  Tintoretto  at  bis  best,  especially  the 
last,  which  so  good  a  critic  as  Taine  esteemed 
the  greatest  painting  in  Italy.  It  is  remarkable 
for  intense  dramatic  action  and  for  the  treat¬ 
ment  of  the  light  which  issues  from  the  saint’s 
head  and  shoulders,  lending  rich  color  to  the 
well  modeled  groups. 

Tintoretto  seldom  dated  his  works,  and  there 
is  no  record  of  his  activity  between  1550  and 
1560.  It  is  probable  that  during  this  period 
he  painted  a  large  number  of  his  easel  pieces, 
and  perhaps  the  three  grand  compositions  in 
the  Ducal  Palace,  which  were  burnt  in  1577. 
In  1560  began  his  remarkable  activity  for  the 
guild  of  San  Rocco,  whose  scuola  (guild  house) 
forms  a  perfect  museum  of  his  works,  of  which 
it  and  the  adjoining  church  contain  56  in  all, 
painted  at  different  periods  of  his  life.  In  1565 
he  finished  the  “Crucifixion,”  a  splendid  piece 
of  naturalism,  and  one  of  his  very  best  works; 
in  1577  the  two  panels  of  the  ceiling  of  the 
great  hall:  the  “Paschal  Feast”  and  “Moses 
Striking  the  Rock.”  Meanwhile  he  had  become 
a  member  of  the  guild,  and  in  1577  he  was 
employed  at  a  salary  of  100  ducats  to  furnish 
three  pictures*  a  year — fulfilling  this  until  his 
death.  Among  the  best  are  a  series  from  the 
life  of  Christ,  including  a  strikingly  original 
“Visitation,”  “Annunciation,”  “Christ  Before 
Pilate,”  “Christ  Bearing  His  Cross,”  “Ecce 
Homo,”  and  a  “Resurrection.” 

In  the  decorations  of  the  Ducal  Palace,  begun 
about  the  same  time  (1560),  he  was  extensively 
aided  by  pupils,  especially  by  his  son  Domenico. 
In  the  Sala  del  Scrutinio  he  painted  the  “Cap¬ 
ture  of  Zara”;  in  the  Antecollegio,  four  charm¬ 
ing  mythological  representations :  “Bacchus, 
Ariadne,  and  Venus,”  “Mercury  and  the  Graces,” 
“Minerva  Expelling  Mars,”  and  the  “Forge  of 
Vulcan”;  in  the  Sala  del  Collegio,  four  votive 
pictures  of  doges,  the  finest  of  which  represents 
the  “Marriage  of  St.  Catharine”;  and  in  the 
Hall  of  the  Senate,  “Venice,  Queen  of  the  Seas.” 
In  the  Hall  of  the  Grand  Council  the  Doge  and 
Senate  offer  the  spoils  of  the  conquered  cities  to 
“Venice  in  Glory,”  and  the  four  battle  pieces 
of  the  ceiling  show  keenest  effects  of  foreshorten¬ 
ing,.  There,  too,  a  whole  wall  is  occupied  by 
his  flast  great  work,  the  “Paradise,”  74  by  30 
feet,  the  largest  oil  painting  in  the  world,  but 
which  has  suffered  much  from  the  ravages  of 
time  and  restoration. 

/  His  altarpieces  and  easel  pictures  are  legion, 
(  and  may  be  found  in  the  churches  of  Venice 
and  principal  galleries  of  Europe.  We  can 
mention  only  the  three  fine  examples  in  San 


Giorgio  Maggiore;  “Susanna’s  Bath.”  in  Vienna, 
Paris,  and  Madrid;  “Vulcan,  Cupid,  and  Venus” 
(Pitti,  Florence)  ;  “Abraham’s  Sacrifice”  (Uf- 
fizi)  ;  “Origin  of  the  Milky  Way”  and  “St. 
George  and  the  Dragon”  (National  Gallery, 
London)  ;  “Luna  and  the  Hours”  (Berlin)  ;  and 
“Christ  Visiting  Mary  and  Martha”  (Augs¬ 
burg),  one  of  his  loveliest  works.  The  Metro¬ 
politan  Museum,  New  York,  possesses  “Doge  in 
Prayer  before  the  Redeemer”  and  the  large 
“Miracle  of  the  Loaves  and  Fishes.”  During  the 
same  period  he  also  designed  for  St.  Mark's 
Church  a  series  of  mosaics  of  subjects  from  the 
life  of  Christ. 

Tintoretto  shared  with  Titian  the  reputation 
of  being  the  greatest  portraitist  of  his  day. 
His  early  portraits,  indeed,  are  often  confounded 
with  Titian’s,  but  he  soon  developed  a  highly 
individual  style,  characterized  by  naturalism 
and  simplicity.  Eliminating  all  incident,  even 
gesture,  the  great  painter  of  movement  produced 
likenesses  in  the  highest  sense  typical.  With 
incredible  rapidity  he  painted  the  doges  and 
the  nobility  who  were  his  sitters.  Of  these 
portraits  over  100  survive;  there  are  important 
examples  which  we  knew  were  lost,  but  many 
of  which  were  probably  executed  bv  his  son, 
Domenico.  Among  the  best  are  his  own  like¬ 
ness  in  the  Louvre  and  in  the  Lffizi;  \  incenzo 
Morosini,  Paolo  Paruto,  Tomaso  Contarini,  and 
Niccolo  Priuli,  in  the  Ducal  Palace;  the  doges 
Trevisan  and  Priuli,  Jacopo  Soranzo,  Andrea 
Dandolo,  and  Antonio  Capello,  in  the  Academy 
.of  Vienna;  the  Doge  Niccolo  da  Ponte  Sebastiano 
Venier,  the  hero  of  Lepanto,  a  “Young  General”; 
a  number  of  admirable  unknown  portraits,  in 
the  Vienna  Gallery;  “Two  Brothers,”  a  fine 
psychological  study  of  two  boys;  and  a  “Sena¬ 
tor,”  Gardner  collection,  Boston. 

The  adverse  opinion  of  some  critics  upon  Tin¬ 
toretto’s  works  is  due  to  the  effect  of  time  upon 
them.  He  used  a  dark  ground  and  applied  the 
colors  but  lightly,  with  the  result  that  they 
have  greatly  darkened.  His  rapidity  of  execu¬ 
tion  often  impelled  him  to  do  work  which  was 
sketchy,  sometimes  even  negligent;  but  in  his 
best  work  he  shows  himself  one  of  the  greatest 
painters  of  all  times.  He  was,  in  a  way, 
the  culmination  of  Renaissance  painting,  and 
united  in  himself  more  than  did  any  other  man 
all  its  different  tendencies.  Tintoretto  extended 
the  plastic  character  to  the  entire  composition, 
and  Titian’s  color  harmony  of  flat  surfaces 
became  with  him  a  light  symphony  of  the 
whole  painting.  By  his  mastery  of  light  and 
shadow  he  was  enabled  to  put  a  world  of  poetry 
and  sentiment  in  his  pictures,  without  de¬ 
generating  into  illustration.  He  had  a  wonder¬ 
ful  fertility  of  imagination.  His  most  startling 
innovations,  however,  were  in  composition :  for 
the  problem  is  far  more  difficult  in  Tintoretto’s 
plastic  work  than  in  the  relief-like  productions 
of  others.  Sometimes  he  separated  foreground 
and  background,  using  the  action  in  the  latter 
to  concentrate  attention  on  the  principal  action 
in  the  foreground.  In  dramatic  power  he  is 
the  worthy  compeer  of  Michelangelo,  and  like 
him  he  indicated  emotion  by  the  action  of  the 
body. 

Excepting  a  year’s  stay  at  Mantua,  Tintoretto 
passed  all  of  his  life  at  Venice.  Before  1560 
he  married  Faustina  dei  Vescovi,  who  seemed 
to  have  her  share  of  worry  in  taking  care 
of  her  spouse,  who  was  impracticable  in  money 
matters.  Of  his  eight  children,  Marietta,  the 


TINTYPE 


297 


TIPPU  SAHIB 


eldest,  a  gifted  artist  and  his  favorite  child, 
met  with  an  early  death  in  1590,  whence  the 
beautiful  tradition  of  the  old  painter  painting 
his  dead  daughter.  lie  did  not  long  survive 
her,  and  died  at  Venice,  May  31,  1594.  His  son 
and  assistant  Domenico  painted  many  works  in 
superficial  imitation  of  his  father. 

Bibliography.  The  chief  literary  source  for 
Tintorettos  life  is  Ridolfi,  Meraviglie  dell’  arte 
(Venice,  1048).  The  first  among  modern  writ¬ 
ers  to  establish  his  fame  was  Ruskin  in  Stones 
of  Venice  and  other  works.  Consult  also : 
Giorgio  Vasari,  Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent 
Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects,  Eng.  trails, 
by  Blashfield  and  Hopkins,  vol.  iii  (New  York, 
1890)  ;  F.  P.  Stearns,  Four  G  reat  Venetians 
(ib.,  1901);  Henry  Thode,  “Tintoretto,”  in 

Kiinstler  Monographien,  No.  49  (Bielefeld, 
1901)  ;  Masters  in  Art,  vol.  iii  (Boston,  1902), 
containing  an  exhaustive  bibliography;  J.  B. 
Stoughton  Holborn,  Jacopo  Rohusti  called  Tin¬ 
toretto,  in  “Great  Masters  in  Painting  and 
Sculpture”  (London,  1903)  ;  S.  L.  Bensusan, 
Tintoretto  (ib.,  1907);  E.  M.  Philipps,  Tin 
toretto  (New  York,  1911);  F.  P.  B.  Osmaston, 
Art  and  Genius \  of  Tintoret  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1915). 

TINTYPE.  See  Ferrotype. 

TIN  WEDDING.  See  Wedding  Anniver¬ 
saries. 

TINY  TIM.  In  Dickens’s  Christmas  Carol, 
a  cripple,  the  little  son  of  Bob  Cratchit. 

TIORBA,  tS-orTia,  Della.  See  Ferrari, 
Benedetto. 

TIPPECANOE,  tip'pe-ka-noo'.  A  popular 
nickname  of  Gen.  William  Henry  Harrison,  due 
to  his  victory  over  the  Indians  at  the  Tippecanoe 
River  in  1811. 

TIPPECANOE,  Battle  of.  An  engagement 
fought  on  Nov.  7,  1811,  near  the  site  of  the 
present  village  of  Battle  Ground,  on  the  Tippe¬ 
canoe  River,  in  Tippecanoe  Co.,  Ind.,  between 
an  American  force  of  about  800,  including  500 
Indiana  and  Kentucky  militiamen,  under  Wil¬ 
liam  Henry  Harrison,  then  Governor  of  In¬ 
diana  Territory,  and  an  Indian  force,  estimated 
by  Harrison  at  about  6000,  but  probably  much 
smaller,  under  the  actual  command  of  White 
Loon,  Stone  Eater,  and  Winnemac.  On  Oct.  11, 
1811,  while  Harrison  was  building  a  stockade  on 
the  site  of  Terre  Haute,  one  of  his  sentinels 
was  killed  from  ambush,  and  Harrison,  consider¬ 
ing  this  the  beginning  of  hostilities,  soon  after¬ 
ward  marched  against  the  town  on  the  Tippe¬ 
canoe,  where  the  Prophet,  a  brother  of  Tecumseh 
(q.v. ),  was  supposed  to  be  inciting  the  Indians 
to  attack  the  whites  because  of  the  alienation 
of  Indian  lands.  On  the  night  of  November  6 
he  encamped  within  about  a  mile  of  the  town, 
and  posted  his  troops  in  the  form  of  a  triangle, 
having  previously  arranged  with  the  Prophet 
for  a  conference  on  the  following  day.  Before 
dawn  on  the  7th  the  Indians  attacked  the  camp 
with  great  ferocity  and  bravery,  but  after  more 
than  two  hours  of  stubborn  fighting  were  driven 
from  the  field.  On  the  following  day  Harrison 
advanced  to  the  town,  found  it  deserted,  and 
almost  completely  destroyed  it.  He  then  re¬ 
turned  to  Vincennes.  The  loss  of  the  whites  in 
the  battle  in  killed  and  wounded  was  about 
190,  of  whom  34  were  officers;  that  of  the  In¬ 
dians,  though  undoubtedly  large,  is  not  defi¬ 
nitely  knoAvn.  The  battle  rendered  virtually  im¬ 
possible  the  realization  of  Tecumseh’s  plans, 
weakened  and  almost  destroyed  the  prestige  of 
the  Prophet,  hastened  the  general  outbreak  of 


hostilities  by  the  Indians  against  the  Americans 
in  the  NorthAvest,  and  greatly  enhanced  the 
reputation  of  General  Harrison,  avIio  later, 
partly  on  the  strengtli  of  this  success,  Avas  placed 
in  command  of  the  American  troops  in  the 
V  est.  A  full  account  of  the  Tippecanoe  ex¬ 
pedition  is  given  in  Harrison’s  report  to  the 
Secretary  of  War,  November,  1811. 

TIP'PERA'RY.  An  inland  county  of  the 
Province  of  Munster,  Ireland,  lving  north  of 
Waterford  (Map:  Ireland,  D  6).  "Area,  1659 
square  miles.  The  county  for  the  most  part  is 
in  the  basin  of  the  river  Suir.  Other  riArers 
are  the  Shannon,  the  Nore,  the  Nenagh,  and 
the  Brosna;  lakes  are  numerous,  but  of  small 
size.  The  surface  is  generally  level.  The  Galtees 
Mountains  which  diversify  it  are  rather  groups 
than  portions  of  any  connected  range;  these 
mountains  rise  to  3000  feet.  The  soil  of  the 
plain  is  fertile;  there  is  a  considerable  amount 
of  bog  in  the  central  and  eastern  districts.  The 
mineral  productions  are  coal  (anthracite),  cop¬ 
per,  and  lead,  also  zinc  and  good  fire  clay; 
slates  of  an  excellent  quality  are  quarried  near 
Killaloe.  Wheat  was  formerly  grown  in  large 
quantities,  but  of  late  years  its  cultivation 
has  been  superseded  by  dairy  farming  and  the 
raising  of  cattle.  Pop.,  19*01,  160,232;  1911, 
151,951. 

TIPPERARY.  The  capital  of  Tipperary 
County,  Ireland,  on  the  Arra,  111  miles  south¬ 
west  of  Dublin  (Map:  Ireland,  C  7).  It  oc¬ 
cupies  a  central  position  in  a  fine  country,  and 
carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in  butter  and 
condensed  milk.  The  town,  of  ancient  origin, 
is  well  built,  and  contains  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  churches,  national  schools,  and  a 
school  of  the  Erasmus  Smith  endowment.  In 
1890  the  foundation  of  a  New  Tipperary,  hoav  in 
ruins,  Avas  an  attempt,  under  the  Irish  League’s 
plan  of  campaign,  to  boycott  the  land  proprietor 
of  the  old  town.  It  proved  abortive  within  a 
year.  Pop.,  1901,  6281;  1911,  5974. 

TIPPLE,  tlp'p’l,  Ezra  Squier  (1861-  ). 

An  American  Methodist  Episcopal  clergyman  and 
educator,  born  at  Camden,  N.  Y.  He  gradu¬ 
ated  from  Syracuse  University  in  1884  and  from 
Drew  Theological  Seminary  in  1887,  taking  his 
Ph.D.  at  Syracuse  the  same  year.  After Avard  he 
held  various  pastorates  in  New  York  City.  In 
1905  he  was  elected  professor  of  practical  theol¬ 
ogy  and  in  1912  president  of  Drew  Theological 
Seminary.  Besides  several  series  of  Drew  Ser¬ 
mons,  he  published :  The  Heart  of  Asbury’s  Jour¬ 
nal  (1905)  ;  The  Minister  of  God  (1906)  ;  The 
Life  of  Freeborn  Garrettson  (1910);  Some  Fa¬ 
mous  Country  Parishes  (1911)  ;  Francis  Asbury 
(1916). 

TIPPU  SAHIB,  te-poo'  saffiib  (1751-99). 
Sultan  of  Mysore,  in  India.  He  Avas  a  son  of 
Hyder  Ali  ( q.v. ) .  He  was  actively  engaged  in 
the  Avars  of  his  father,  and  routed  the  British 
at  Perimbakum  (Sept.  10,  1780),  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  Kolerun  in  Tanjore  (Feb.  18, 
1782).  On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1782  he 
was  croAvned  Sultan.  On  April  28,  1783,  he 
captured  and  put  to  death  the  garrison  of 
Bednore.  The  peace  between  England  and 
France  deprived  him  of  his  French  allies  and 
he  made  a  treaty  in  1784  on  the  basis  of  the 
status  quo.  He  then  gaAre  his  attention  to  the 
internal  affairs  of  Mysore,  establishing  a  splen¬ 
did  court  at  Seringapatam.  He  sought,  in  1787, 
to  bring  on  a  reneAval  of  the  Avar  between  France 
and  England,  and  failing,  invaded  in  1790  the 


TIPTON 


TIROL 


298 


protected  state  of  Travancore.  In  the  ensuing 
war  (1790-92)  the  British,  under  Colonel  Stuart 
and  Lord  Cornwallis,  were  aided  by  the  Maha- 
rattas  and  the  Nizam,  who  joined  in  the  struggle 
against  their  powerful  neighbor  both  out  of 
fear  and  religious  hatred,  Tippu  being  a  fanatical 
Mohammedan.  The  Sultan  laid  waste  the  Car¬ 
natic  and  advanced  almost  to  the  gates  of 
Madras,  but  was  defeated  near  Seringapatam  in 
March,  1792,  and  compelled  to  cede  one-half 
of  his  dominions.  Hostilities  began  again  in 
March,  1799,  and  two  months  afterward  Tippu 
was  driven  from  the  open  field  and  attacked  in 
his  capital  of  Seringapatam,  which  was  stormed 
on  May  4,  the  Sultan  himself  being  slain  after 
an  heroic  resistance.  His  dominions  and  prop¬ 
erty  were  confiscated,  a  portion  of  Mysore,  how¬ 
ever,  being  assigned  to  the  Nizam.  Consult 
L.  B.  Bowring,  Haidar  All  and  Tipu  Sultan 
(London,  1893). 

TIP'TON.  A  town  in  South  Staffordshire, 
England,  4 y2  miles  southeast  of  Wolverhamp¬ 
ton,  with  collieries,  blast  furnaces,  and  iron 
manufactures.  Pop.,  1901,  30,543;  1911,  31,756. 

TIPTON.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Tipton  Co.,  Ind.,  40*  miles  north  by  east  of  In¬ 
dianapolis,  on  the  Lake  Erie  and  Western  Rail¬ 
road  (Map:  Indiana,  E  4).  It  is  the  trade  centre 
of  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising  district. 
The  manufactures  are  canned  vegetables,  catsup, 
brooms,  cutlery,  and  shoes.  It  was  settled  in 
1844  and  incorporated  10  vears  later.  Pop., 
1900,  3764;  1910,  4075. 

TIPU'LID^E.  See  Crane  Fly. 

TIPWORM.  The  larva  of  one  of  the  gall 
midges  ( Gecidomyia  oxycoccana) ,  which  occurs 
in  the  terminal  buds  of  the  cranberry  plant  and 
causes  them  to  become  unusually  prominent  and 
to  stop  the  development  of  the  leaves.  After 
attack  the  tip  usually  dies.  The  adult  fly  has  a 
red  abdomen  and  a  grayish  thorax,  and  is  about 
one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  female 
has  a  long,  extensible  ovipositor  by  means  of 
which  she  thrusts  her  eggs  into  the  heart  of 
the  voung  shoot.  See  also  Hop  Insects. 

TIRABOSCHI,  te'ra-bds'ke,  Girolamo  ( 1731- 
94 ) .  An  erudite  Italian,  born  at  Bergamo, 
author  of  a  monumental  and  still  useful  Storia 
della  letteratura  italiana  (1772-81,  in  14  vols.), 
of  which  translations  have  appeared  in  French 
and  German.  Other  works:  Vetera  Humilia- 
torum  monumenta  (1766),  Biblioteca  modenese 
(1781-86),  and  Memorie  storiche  modenesi 
(1793). 

TIRARD,  t£'rar',  Pierre  Emmanuel  (1827- 
93 ) .  A  French  statesman,  born  at  Geneva.  He 
went  to  Paris  about  1846,  and  in  1870  became 
mayor  of  the  Second  Arrondissement.  In  1876 
he  "entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  as  a  radical 
Republican  and  he  was  successively  Minister  of 
Agriculture  and  Commerce  (1879-81  and  in 
1882),  Minister  of  Finance  (1882-85),  and 
Premier  (1887-88  and  1889-90).  Subsequently 
he  resumed  the  seat  in  the  Senate  to  which  he 
had  been  elected  in  1883.  From  December,  1892, 
to  April,  1893,  he  was  Minister  of  Finance. 

TIRASPOL,  te-ras'pol.  A  town  in  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  Kherson,  South  Russia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Dniester,  73  miles  by  rail  northwest 
of  Odessa  (Map:  Russia,  C  5).  It  manufactures 
flour,  brick,  pottery,  and  ironware,  and  has  a 
large  trade.  Pop.,  1900,  29,323;  1910,  35,242. 

TIREE,  ti-re',  or  TYREE.  A  Scottish  island, 
one  of  the  Inner  Hebrides  (q.v.),  included  in 
Argyllshire,  20  miles  northwest  of  Iona  (Map: 


Scotland,  A3).  It  is  13  miles  long  and  over  6 
miles  in  extreme  breadth.  There  are  interesting 
antiquities.  The  inhabitants  support  themselves 
bv  rearing  cattle,  fishing,  and  exporting  poultry 
and  eggs.  Pop.,  1901,  2195;  1911,  2306. 

TIREH,  te're.  A  town  of  the  Turkish  Vilayet 
of  Smyrna,  Asia  Minor,  25  miles  southeast  of 
the  city  of  Smyrna,  with  which  it  has  railway 
connection  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  B  3).  It  is 
the  ancient  Tyrrha  of  the  Kingdom  of  Lydia. 
Tapestry  and  cotton  manufacturing  constitute 
the  chief  industries.  Pop.,  estimated  at  from 
13,000  to  20,000. 

TIRE'SIAS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Teipealas,  Teire- 
sias) .  In  Greek  legend,  a  famous  Theban  seer. 
He  is  called  son  of  Eueres  and  Chariclo,  and  was 
blind  from  early  youth,  because  he  had  seen 
Athena  bathing.  To  recompense  him  for  his 
loss  of  sight,  the  goddess  gave  him  power  to 
understand  the  voices  of  birds.  Another  legend 
represents  Hera  as  depriving  him  of  his  sight 
because,  being  made  arbiter  in  a  dispute  be¬ 
tween  her  and  Zeus,  he  had  decided  in  favor 
of  the  latter;  Zeus  as  a  compensation  gave  him 
unerring  power  in  interpreting  omens,  and  pro¬ 
longed  life.  He  appears  prominently  in  the 
Theban  cycle  of  legends.  In  the  Odyssey  (book 
xi)  it  is"  recorded  that  Odysseus  went  to  the 
lower  world  to  consult  him. 

TIRHAKAH,  ter-ha'ka.  A  king  of  ancient 
Ethiopia.  See  Taiiarka. 

TIRLEMONT,  terl'moN'  (Flem.  Tienen  or 
Thienen) .  A  town  in  the  Province  of  Brabant, 
Belgium,  29  miles  east  by  south  of  Brussels,  on 
the  Geete  River  (Map:  Belgium,  C  4).  Its 
walls,  which  had  a  circumference  of  about  6 
miles,  were  dismantled  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  chief  objects  of  interest  are  the 
restored  churches  of  St.  Germain  and  Notre 
Dame  du  Lac.  The  former  is  a  composite  of 
the  Romanesque  and  early  Gothic,  and  was  be¬ 
gun  in  the  ninth  century.  Its  most  striking  fea¬ 
ture  is  the  altarpiece  by  Wappers.  The  church 
of  Notre  Dame  du  Lac  dates  partly  from  the 
thirteenth  and  partly  from  the  fifteenth  century. 
There  are  manufactures  of  engines,  leather, 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  etc.  The  town  was 
occupied  by  the  Germans  in  1914.  See  War  in 
Europe.  Pop.,  1900,  17,855;  1910,  17,581. 

TIRNATJ.  See  Tyrnau. 

TIRNOVA,  ter'no-va  (Bulgarian  Trnova) . 
A  district  town  in  Bulgaria,  124  miles  northeast 
of  Sofia  (Map:  Balkan  Peninsula,  E  3).  It 
contains  a  number  of  mediaeval  churches.  The 
chief  industries  are  dyeing  and  the  manufacture 
of  copper  ware.  Tirnova  was  the  capital  of 
Bulgaria  for  about  two  centuries  until  1393, 
when  it  was  taken  by  the  Turks.  It  was  in 
Tirnova  on  Oct.  5,  1908,  that  Prince  Ferdinand 
of  Bulgaria  solemnly  proclaimed  the  complete 
independence  of  his  county  and  assumed  the 
title  of  King.  Pop.,  1905,  12,171. 

TI'RO,  Marcus  Tullius.  Slave,  pupil,  and 
subsequently  amanuensis  of  Cicero,  whose  life  he 
wrote  and  whose  letters  he  collected.  He  is 
known  chiefly  as  the  inventor  of  the  ancient 
stenography  (see  Shorthand),  called  after 
him  Notre  Tironoanre. 

TIR'OL,  or  TYR'OL,  Ger.  pron.  te-rol'.  A 
Crownland  of  Austria,  united  with  Vorarlberg 
under  one  administration  (Map:  Austria,  B  3). 
Area  about  10,305  square  miles.  Tirol  like 
Switzerland  is  almost  entirely  covered  by  the 
Alps.  It  lacks  lakes,  however,  the  Lago  di 
Garda  on  the  south  frontier  being  the  only 


TIROL 


TIRTJRAY 


important  one.  Through  the  north  extends  the 
valley  of  the  Inn,  with  the  Lech  Alps  on  the 
northwest.  The  Inn  is  the  most  important  river 
in  the  crownland.  It  becomes  navigable  at  Hall, 
just  below  Innsbruck.  The  watershed  in  Tirol 
between  the  Danube  and  the  Po,  separating 
northern  from  southern  Tirol,  is  formed  by  the 
Oetzthal  Alps  on  the  west  (reaching  about  12,- 
500  feet)  and  by  the  Zillertlial  Alps  towards  the 
east.  The  Brenner  Pass  connecting  Innsbruck 
with  Verona,  Italy,  by  an  elevation  of  only 
4500  feet  lies  between  and  marks  the  chief  de¬ 
pression  of  the  divide.  In  the  Zillertlial  group 
rises  the  Drave.  It  flows  through  the  Puster- 
thal,  and  leaves  Tirol  on  the  extreme  eastern 
boundary.  The  south  end  of  Tirol  is  mainly 
occupied  by  the  valley  of  the  Adige,  with  the 
remarkable  Dolomite  Alps  on  the  east.  The 
Adige  flows  south  and  enters  Italy  west  of  the 
Lessinian  Alps,  which  line  the  Italian  frontier. 
The  Sarnthal  Alps  lie  in  the  centre  of  Tirol, 
at  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Oetzthal  Alps.  The 
Holie  Tauern  (with  the  Gross  Glockner  peak, 
about  12,500  feet)  forms  the  northeastern  bound- 
ary,  the  Kitzhtihl  Alps  lie  on  the  Salzburg 
border,  and  the  Ortler  group  enters  from  the 
southwest  and  forms  the  loftiest  elevation  in 
Tirol — 12,790  feet.  The  mountains  of  Tirol  are 
famous  for  their  picturesque  valleys.  The  cli¬ 
mate  is  of  great  variety.  The  north  slopes,  as 
the  Inn  valley,  are  raw  and  cold,  but  the  south¬ 
ern  slopes,  especially  the  Adige  valley,  are 
warm  in  summer. 

Tirol  is  in  general  little  adapted  to  tillage, 
the  better  portions  being  devoted  mainly  to 
meadows.  About  two-thirds  of  the  surface  is 
covered  with  forests.  The  agricultural  sections 
are  in  the  valleys  in  the  northern  and  southern 
districts.  Southern  Tirol  is  noted  for  its  wine, 
and  it  grows  much  fruit.  Zinc  and  sulphur 
are  mined;  also  some  coal,  iron,  and  copper. 
The  industries  are  not  extensive.  Cotton  goods 
are  produced  in  the  Inn  Valley  and  silk  goods  in 
the  Adige  district.  Spinning  and  weaving  as 
house  industries  are  conspicuous.  The  wood 
carving  is  famous.  Carpets,  iron  wares,  and 
marble  are  shipped,  as  well  as  cattle,  lumber, 
and  cheese. 

There  is  a  university  at  the  capital,  Inns¬ 
bruck  (1340  students  in  1912).  Tirol  has  a 
Diet  of  68  members — 34  representing  the  rural 
communities,  13  the  towns,  and  10  the  landed 
aristocracy,  the  principal  ecclesiastical  digni¬ 
taries  having  seats  in  the  body.  The  Statthalter 
in  Innsbruck  is  at  the  head  of  the  administra¬ 
tion  for  Tirol  and  Vorarlberg,  but  Vorarlberg 
has  its  own  Constitution  and  Diet.  Tirol  sends 
25  members  to  the  Lower  House  of  the  Aus¬ 
trian  Reichsrat.  The  population  in  1910  was 
946,613,  of  whom  the  vernacular  of  57.3  per  cent 
was  German  and  of  42  per  cent  Italian  or 
Ladin.  Over  99  per  cent  are  Roman  Catholic. 

History.  In  Roman  times  Tirol  formed  part 
of  Rhsetia,  which  was  conquered  by  the  Romans, 
14  H.c.  At  the  time  of  the  great  migration  of 
nations  it  was  overrun  by  various  German 
tribes,  including  the  Ostrogoths.  The  southern 
portion  later  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Lombards, 
and  the  northern  became  subject  to  the  Bava¬ 
rians,  who  were  subdued  by  the  Franks.  Ulti¬ 
mately  the  country  was  divided  into  a  number 
of  petty  lordships,  some  under  the  suzerainty  of 
the  dukes  of  Bavaria,  some  under  that  of  the 
bishops  of  Trent,  and  others  under  that  of 
the  bishops  of  Brixen.  The  whole  of  German 

Vol.  XXII.— 20 


299 

Tirol  finally  came  into  possession  of  one  family, 
the  counts  of  the  Adige  or  of  Tirol  (the  latter 
being  the  name  of  their  castle,  so  called  from 
the  Roman  Teriolis,  near  the  site  of  which  it 
stood).  The  last  count,  who  died  in  1335, 
left  one  daughter,  Margaret  Maultasch.  She 
bequeathed  her  rights  to  her  cousins,  the  dukes 
of  Austria,  who  thus  acquired  possession  of 
Tirol  in  1363.  The  Italian  slope  remained  in 
possession  of  the  bishops  of  Trent,  who  were 
dispossessed  in  1803.  By  the  Treaty  of  Press- 
burg  in  1805  Tirol  was  ceded  to  Bavaria,  much 
to  the  discontent  of  the  people,  who  were  warmly 
attached  to  the  house  of  Austria.  They  made 
a  gallant  resistance  to  the  French  in  1809, 
under  Andreas  Hofer  (q.v.),  but  were  defeated. 
Tirol  was  restored  to  Austria  by  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  in  1814.  The  acquisition  of  Italian  Tirol 
forms  part  of  the  programme  of  the  Italian  ir¬ 
redentists.  Tirol  was  invaded  by  the  Italians 
in  the  great  war  which  began  in  1914.  See  War 
in  Europe;  Irredentism. 

Bibliography.  General  description:  Schnel- 
ler,  Landeskunde  von  Tirol  (Innsbruck,  1872)  ; 
R.  H.  Busk,  The  Talleys  of  Tirol  (London, 
1874)  ;  W.  A.  Baillie-Graham,  Tirol  and  the 
Tirolese  (ib.,  1876)  ;  Purtscheller  and  Hess,  Der 
Hochtourist  in  den  Ostalpen  (Leipzig,  1899)  ; 
Achleitner  and  Uhl,  Tirol  und  Vorarlberg  (ib., 
1902)  ;  M.  Haushofer,  Tirol  und  Vorarlberg  (2d 
ed.,  Bielefeld,  1903)  ;  W.  A.  Baillie-Graham, 
Land  in  the  Mountains  (Philadelphia,  1907)  ; 
id.,  Tyrol  (New  York,  1908).  History:  Huber, 
Geschichte  der  V ereinigung  Tirols  mit  Oester- 
reich  (Innsbruck,  1864)  ;  Josef  Egger,  Ge¬ 
schichte  Tirols  von  der  altesten  Zeiten  bis  in 
die  Neuzeit  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1872-80);  id.,  Die 
bsterreichische-ungarische  Monarchic  in  Wort 
und  Bild,  vol.  xiii  (Vienna,  1893). 

TIRPITZ,  Alfred  von  (1849-  ).  A  Ger¬ 

man  naval  officer,  born  at  Kiistrin.  He  became 
a  cadet  in  the  Prussian  navy  in  1865,  attended 
the  Marineakademie  in  1874-76,  and  rose 
through  the  grades  to  be  admiral  ( 1903 ) .  He 
commanded  a  cruiser  division  on  the  East  Asia 
station  in  1896-97,  became  Secretary  of  State 
of  the  Imperial  navy,  and  plenipotentiary  to 
the  Bundesrat  in  1897,  and  from  the  following 
year  served  also  as  Prussian  Minister  of  State. 
Tirpitz  was  ennobled  in  1900,  and  received  the 
following  orders:  Black  Eagle  (1907),  House 
of  ILohenzollern,  and  Pour  le  Merite  (1915). 
In  1911  he  was  created  Lord  High  Admiral  of 
the  Imperial  navy.  During  the  great  war  which 
broke  out  in  1914,  he  was  prominent  because, 
in  his  official  capacity,  he  declared  a  war  zone 
about  the  British  Isles,  within  which  vessels, 
neutral  as  well  as  belligerent,  would  sail  at 
their  own  risk.  To  mark  the  zone  he  instituted 
a  submarine  blockade,  a  novelty  in  naval  war¬ 
fare.  As  the  outcome  of  this  policy,  many  bel¬ 
ligerent  and  neutral  vessels  were  destroyed  by 
submarines,  one  of  the  most  spectacular  catas¬ 
trophes  being  the  sinking  of  the  Lusitania 
(q.v.).  The  loss  of  American  lives  on  such 
vessels  severely  strained  the  relations  between 
Germany  and  the  United  States.  Von  Tirpitz 
retired  in  March,  1916,  ill  health  being  the  rea¬ 
son  given.  See  War  in  Europe. 

TIRSO  DE  MOLINA,  ter's6  da  md-le'na. 
See  Tellez,  Gabriel. 

TIRURAY,  te'roo-rl'.  A  Malay  people  found 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Cottabato  River  in  south¬ 
western  Mindanao.  At  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
conquest  this  tribe  was  very  powerful,  but  later 


TIRYNS 


300 


TI3CHEND0RF 


suffered  so  greatly  from  the  slave  raids  of 
the  Moro  that  they  are  now  only  a  miserable 
remnant  of  the  original  population.  See  Philip¬ 
pine  Islands. 

TFRYNS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tlpws).  An  an¬ 
cient  city  of  Argolis,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  south¬ 
east  of  Argos,  near  the  head  of  the  Argolic  gulf, 
not  far  from  Nauplia  (Map:  Greece,  Ancient, 
C  3).  According  to  tradition  it  was  founded 
by  Prcetus,  a  mythic  king  of  Argolis;  and  its 
massive  walls,  like  other  rude  massive  struc¬ 
tures  in  Greece  of  unknown  antiquity,  were 
reputed  to  be  the  work  of  the  Cyclopes  (see 
Cyclopean  Architecture).  Later,  Perseus  was 
said  to  have  ruled  here,  and  Hercules  resided 
there  while  in  servitude  to  Eurystheus.  At  the 
time  of  the  Dorian  conquest  Argos  seems  to 
have  secured  the  supremacy  over  the  plain, 
though  during  the  Persian  wars  Tirvns  was  in¬ 
dependent  and  sent  troops  to  Plattea.  Some 
time  later,  probably  about  468  b.c.,  the  city 
was  taken  by  the  Argives;  after  this  period 
Tiryns  remained  uninhabited,  the  walls  of  the 
citadel  only  being  left  standing,  the  wonder  and 
admiration  of  later  ages.  The  acropolis  or 
citadel  of  Tiryns  was  built  on  the  summit  of 
a  low,  flat,  rocky  hill,  about  980  by  330  feet 
in  extent,  which  rises  abruptly  out  of  the  dead 
level  of  the  plain  of  Argos  to  a  height  of  from 
30  to  60  feet.  It  consists  of  three  terraces,  of 
which  the  highest  was  occupied  by  a  prehistoric 
palace,  the  middle  by  lesser  buildings,  while  the 
lowest  has  been  scarcely  explored,  but  seems 
to  have  contained  only  small  structures.  This 
hill  was  surrounded  by  a  massive  wall  of  huge 
blocks  of  limestone  of  irregular  shape  laid  in  a 
clay  mortar.  The  original  height  is  uncertain; 
in  some  places  the  wall  is  still  nearly  25  feet 
high.  The  thickness  around  the  lower  terrace 
is  not  quite  uniform,  but  does  not  exceed  26 
feet;  around  the  upper  terrace  it  varies  from 
16  to  the  prodigious  figure  of  57  feet.  A  part 
of  this  wall  was  occupied  by  galleries  and  cham¬ 
bers,  probably  meant  for  the  storing  of  provi¬ 
sions.  The  main  entrance  was  on  the  east,  and 
was  reached  by  a  ramp;  on  the  west  was  a  pos¬ 
tern  gate  with  a  stairway  in  the  rock.  The 
palace  on  the  summit  was  excavated  by  Schlie- 
mann  and  Dorpfeld  in  1884-85,  and  until  the 
recent  discoveries  in  Crete  was  the  most  com¬ 
plete  example  of  the  home  of  a  Mycenaean  king. 
After  passing  the  entrance  gate  the  way  leads 
to  a  large  propylaea,  which  opens  into  a  great 
open  court;  from  this  a  second  gateway  leads 
to  another  paved  court  ( avXrj ,  aule) ,  sur¬ 
rounded  by  colonnades.  On  one  side  low  steps 
and  a  door  lead  to  a  vestibule,  which  again 
opens  into  the  great  hall  ( yeyapov ,  megaron) , 
with  a  circular  hearth  in  the  centre.  Around 
this  central  structure  is  a  complex  of  passages 
and  lesser  rooms,  including  a  bath  and  a 
smaller  court  with  its  own  megaron,  probably 
the  women’s  apartments.  The  essential  identity 
of  this  palace  with  that  described  in  the  Homeric 
poems  lends  peculiar  interest  to  the  discovery. 
Decent  excavations  have  shown  another  palace 
beneath  the  one  described  above. 

Bibliography.  Schliemann,  Tiryns,  Eng. 
trans.  (London,  1886)  ;  Schuchhardt,  Schlie- 
mann’s  Excavations,  Eng.  trans.  by  Eugenie 
Sellers  (ib.,  1891);  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  His- 
toire  de  Vart  dans  Vantiquite,  vol.  vi  (Paris, 
1894)  ;  Tsountas  and  Manatt,  Tfve  Mycencean 
Age  (London,  1897)  ;  K.  Baedeker,  Greece  (4th 
Eng.  ed.,  Leipzig,  1909)  ;  and  the  article 


“Archaeology,”  in  the  New  International  Year 
Book  for  1913,  p.  52  (New  York,  1914). 

TISCHBEIN,  tishfijin.  A  German  family  of 
artists  who  lived  in  Hesse  during  the  eighteenth 
century.  Johann  Heinrich,  the  Elder  ( 1733— 
89),  a  painter,  born  at  ITaina,  studied  first  in 
Cassel,  then  under  Van  Loo,  Boucher,  and  Wat¬ 
teau  in  Paris,  and  finally  under  Piazzetta  in 
Venice.  Returning  to  Cassel  in  1754  he  became 
court  painter  to  the  Landgrave  and  director  of 
the  New  Academy  (1776).  His  historical  pic¬ 
tures  and  portraits  in  the  style  of  the  French 
eighteenth-century  masters  are  well  drawn, 
though  affected,  and  rank  among  the  best  works 
of  the  time  in  Germany.  Examples  are:  “Les¬ 
sing”  (Berlin)  and  Landgrave  Frederick  II 
(Cassel). — Johann  Friedrich  August  (1750- 
1812),  also  a  painter,  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Maestricht.  He  studied  with  his 
uncle  and  in  Paris  and  Italy.  Afterward 
he  became  court  painter  in  Waldeck  and  then 
director  of  the  Leipzig  Academy  (1800).  He 
was  one  of  the  finest  colorists  of  his  day.  His 
canvases  include  nine  pastel  portraits  of  princes 
and  princesses  of  Orange-Nassau  (Amsterdam), 
and  portraits  of  Schiller  (1804;  Leipzig),  Wie- 
land,  and  Mozart. — Johann  Heinrich  Wil¬ 
helm,  the  Elder  (1751-1829),  a  painter  and 
etcher,  also  known  as  the  Neapolitan,  cousin  of 
the  preceding,  was  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
family,  though  artistically  the  least  gifted.  He 
was  born  at  Haina  and  studied  with  his  uncle, 
Johann  Heinrich,  and  in  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and 
Holland.  In  1779  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
became  intimate  with  Goethe,  whom  he  accom¬ 
panied  to  Naples.  From  1789  to  1799  he 
was  director  of  the  Naples  Academy.  In  1809 
he  was  made  court  painter  to  the  Duke  of 
Oldenburg.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  representa¬ 
tives  in  Germany  of  the  school  of  David.  Among 
his  paintings  are  a  portrait  of  Goethe  in  the 
Campagna  (Frankfurt)  and  43  “Idyls”  (Olden¬ 
burg).  He  issued  about  150  etchings  and  en¬ 
gravings  in  connection  with  various  publica¬ 
tions.  Consult:  Michel,  Etude  biographique  sur 
les  Tischbeins  (Lyons,  1881)  ;  Franz  Landberger, 
Wilhelm  Tischbein  (Leipzig,  1908)  ;  Wolfgang 
Soerrensen,  Johann  Heinrich  Wilhelm  Tisch¬ 
bein:  sein  Leben  und  seine  Kunst  (Berlin, 
1910)  ;  Hermann  Bahlmann,  J.  H.  Tischbein 
( Strassburg,  1911). 

TISCHENDORF,  tish'en-d6rf,  Konstantin 
von  (1815-74).  One  of  the  most  eminent  tex¬ 
tual  critics  and  paleographers  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  born  at  Lengenfeld,  Saxony.  In  1840, 
as  a  privatdocent  at  Leipzig,  he  published  his 
first  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament  (dated 
1841),  and  then  went  to  Paris,  where  for  over 
two  years  he  labored  incessantly  among  the 
manuscript  treasures  of  the  National  Library. 
In  1842  the  decipherment  and  publication  of  the 
Greek  text  of  the  important  palimpsest  Codex 
Ephraemi,  followed  soon  after  by  his  edition  of 
the  Codex  Claromontanus,  marked  him  as  a 
textual  scholar  of  the  first  rank.  Though  he 
became  a  professor  of  theology  at  Leipzig,  the 
greater  part  of  his  time  was  spent  in  journeys 
in  search  of  biblical  manuscripts,  and  in  editing 
and  publishing  the  same,  or  in  work  on  succes¬ 
sive  editions  of  the  Greek  New  Testament.  He 
discovered  in  1844,  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Cath¬ 
arine  at  Mount  Sinai,  a  few  leaves  of  a  manu¬ 
script  of  the  Greek  Old  Testament.  Fifteen  years 
later,  on  a  third  visit,  he  discovered  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  the  manuscript,  the  famous  Codex 


TISHRI 


TISZA 


301 


Sinaiticus,  containing  both  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  one  of  the  two  oldest-known  manu¬ 
scripts  of  the  Greek  Bible.  The  crowning  work 
of  rI  ischendorf's  life  was  his  eighth  edition 

(1865-72)  of  the  Greek  Testament  with  its 
large  critical  apparatus,  the  indispensable  vade 
mecum  of  every  student  of  the  text  of  the  New 
Testament.  A  list  of  Tischendorf’s  numerous 
publications  may  be  found,  with  a  sketch  of 
his  career,  in  the  Prolego7nena  to  the  eighth 
edition  by  Ur.  C.  R.  Gregory  (Leipzig,  1884-94). 

TISHRI,  tish'rS.  A  month  in  the  Babylo¬ 
nian,  Persian,  and  Jewish  calendars  correspond¬ 
ing  to  the  Seleucid  Hyperboretaios,  September— 
October.  The  Babylonian  name  tish-ri-tum  is 
regarded  as  derived  from  shurru,  to  begin,  to 
dedicate,  the  civil  year  having  begun  in  the  au¬ 
tumn  with  this  month,  while  the  ecclesiastical 
year  seems  to  have  begun  in  the  spring  with 
the  month  of  Nisan.  Tishri  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  Bible,  but  the  name  is  found  in  the 
Mishna  treatise  Shekalim,  iii,  1,  and  probably 
in  Josephus,  Antiquities,  viii,  4,  1.  The  Jewish 
civil  year  begins  with  the  month  of  Tishri. 
See  I.  Benzinger,  Hebraische  Archdologie  (2d 
ed.,  Tubingen,  1907). 

TISHAS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  T eicrias,  Teisias) .  A 
Greek  rhetorician  of  Syracuse,  teacher  at  Athens, 
of  Gorgias  (q.v. ),  Lysias  (q.v. ),  and  Isocrates 
( q.v. ) ,  and  author  of  a  manual  on  rhetoric. 
Consult :  F.  W.  Blass,  Die  attische  Beredsamkeit, 
vol.  i  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1887);  R.  C.  Jebb,  The 
Attic  Orators  from  Antiphon  to  Isceos  (2  vols., 
London,  1876)  ;  Christ-Schmid,  Geschichte  der 
griechischen  Litteratur,  vol.  i,  part  i  (6th  ed., 
Munich,  1912). 

TISIO,  te'zg-6,  Benvenuto.  See  Garofalo. 

TISSAPHERNES,  tis'sa-fer'nez  (Lat.,  from 
Gk.  T LaocMpepi/ys,  from  OPers.  *Cithrafarnd,  pos¬ 
sessed  of  manifold  glory)  (  ?-395  b.c.).  A  Per¬ 
sian,  appointed  satrap  of  the  coast  lands  of 
Asia  Minor  by  Darius  II  in  414  b.c.  He  played 
a  part  by  intrigue  and  arms  in  the  Pelopon¬ 
nesian  War.  He  became  the  jealous  rival  of 
Cyrus  the  Younger  on  the  latter’s  arrival  in 
Asia  Minor  in  407  b.c.,  and  when  it  became 
manifest  that  Cyrus  was  plotting  against  his 
brother,  King  Artaxerxes  II,  and  aiming  at  the 
throne,  Tissaphernes  was  the  first  to  inform 
the  King  of  the  impending  danger.  He  held  a 
command  in  the  Persian  army  and  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Cunaxa  (q.v.).  After 
the  death  of  Cyrus  he  entrapped  the  generals 
of  the  Greek  mercenaries  of  Cyrus.  He  then 
succeeded  to  the  provinces  that  had  been  held 
by  Cyrus,  but  was  unsuccessful  in  an  attempt 
to  establish  his  authority  over  Ionia.  Finally, 
through  the  influence  of  Parysatis,  the  King’s 
mother,  Tissaphernes  was  put  to  death  at 
Colossae,  in  Phrygia,  in  395  b.c. 

TISSERAND,  tis'raNr,  Francois  Felix 
(1845-96).  A  French  astronomer,  born  at 
Nuits-Saint-Georges,  Cote-d’Or.  In  1863  he 
entered  the  Ecole  Normale  Superieure.  In  1866 
he  became  professor  in  the  lvcee  at  Metz,  where 
he  only  remained  one  month,  being  called  by 
Leverrier  to  the  Paris  Observatory  as  adjunct 
astronomer.  He  received  his  doctor’s  degree  in 
1868,  presenting  a  very  remarkable  thesis  on  the 
method  of  Delaunay,  which  he  showed  to  be 
applicable  to  the  calculation  of  the  inequalities 
of  all  the  planets  and  thus  of  a  wider  applica¬ 
tion  than  had  been  supposed  by  the  inventor. 
In  1873  he  became  director  of  the  observatory 
at  Toulouse  and  professor  of  astronomy  in  the 


Faculty  of  Sciences  in  the  university.  In  1878 
he  succeeded  Leverrier  as  member  of  the  Acad¬ 
emy  of  Sciences  and  became  member  of  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  rational  mechanics 
at  the  Sorbonne,  and  in  1883  was  transferred 
to  the  chair  of  celestial  mechanics.  He  took 
part  in  the  French  expeditions  to  Japan  and 
Santo  Domingo  which  observed  the  transit  of 
Venus  in  1874  and  1882  respectively.  In  1892 
he  succeeded  Moucliez  as  director  of  the.  Paris 
Observatory. 

Besides  the  generalization  of  the  method  of 
Delaunay,  which  he  continued  till  his  death,  he 
made  observations  for  the  determination  of 
planetary  orbits,  on  the  ring  of  Saturn,  on  the 
perturbations  of  Pallas,  the  origin  of  comets 
and  their  capture  by  the  larger  planets,  and 
gave  also  a  valuable  criterion  for  identifying  a 
periodic  comet.  He  also  observed  the  shifting 
of  the  orbital  plane  of  Neptune’s  satellite  as  a 
result  of  Neptune’s  ellipsoidal  shape.  In  con¬ 
sequence  of  this  shifting  of  orbit  the  retrograde 
motion  of  the  pole  of  the  satellite  completes  a 
cycle  in  500  years.  His  principal  work,  Traite 
de  mecanique  celeste  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1888-96), 
gives  a  complete  account  of  the  state  of  knowl¬ 
edge  of  that  branch  of  astronomy  up  to  the 
time  of  his  death.  Since  1884  he  edited  the 
Bulletin  astronomique.  He  made  many  astro¬ 
nomical  contributions  to  the  Bulletin  and  to  the 
Comptes  Rendus,  and  also  wrote  Reoueil  com- 
pUmentaire  d’exercises  sur  le  calcul  infinitesi¬ 
mal  (Paris,  1876;  2d  ed.,  1896).  Consult  Poin¬ 
care,  “La  vie  et  les  travaux  de  F.  Tisserand,” 
in  Revue  generate  des  sciences  (Paris,  1896). 

TISSOT,  tis'sd',  James  Joseph  Jacques 
(1836-1902).  A  French  painter.  He  was  born 
at  Nantes,  studied  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts 
under  Lamothe  and  Flandrin,  and  first  exhibited 
in  1859.  After  the  Commune,  in  which  he  was 
accused  of  having  taken  part,  he  lived  in  Eng¬ 
land  for  12  years,  gaining  recognition  as  an 
etcher  and  a  painter  of  portrait  and  genre  sub¬ 
jects.  Until  he  was  50  years  old  Tissot’s  work 
dealt  principally  with  the  worldly  aspects  of 
Parisian  life.*  The  drawing  in  these  works  is 
always  careful,  and  the  coloring  exact  and  fin- 
ished.  Examples  of  this  style  are  “Faust  and 
Marguerite”  (Luxembourg)  and  “La  Femme  a 
Paris,”  the  latter  a  series  of  demimondaines. 
Experiencing  a  change  in  his  religious  views 
about  1886,  he  left  Paris  and  passed  10  years  in 
Palestine  engaged  upon  a  series  of  350  studies 
for  his  “Life  of  Christ.”  The  series,  which  was 
purchased  by  a  French  firm  for  1,100,000  francs, 
is  now  in  large  part  in  the  possession  of  the 
Brooklyn  Institute  Museum.  It  is  an  attempt 
to  portray  the  real  environment  of  Christ,  the 
cities,  buildings,  and  habits  of  the  country,  as 
they  were  in  his  time,  based  upon  the  supposition 
that  Oriental  life  has  not  changed  materially 
since  then.  The  details  are  painted  with  minia¬ 
ture  faithfulness.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
Tissot  had  begun  a  similar  set  of  illustrations 
relating  to  the  Old  Testament. 

TISSUE,  Animal  and  Plant.  See  Histology. 

TISSUE,  Muscular.  See  Muscle  and  Mus¬ 
cular  Tissue. 

TISZA,  tis'so,  KalmAn  (Koloman)  (1830- 
1902).  An  Hungarian  statesman,  born  at  Geszt, 
County  of  Bihar.  He  studied  law  and  entered 
the  government  service.  In  1855  he  accepted 
a  semiecclesiastical  position  in  the  Reformed 
church,  and  in  1859  he  vigorously  combated  the 


TISZA 


302 


TITAN  OTHEEIUM 


attempt  of  the  Austrian  Minister  of  Public  Wor¬ 
ship,  Count  Leo  Thun,  to  curtail  the  autonomy 
of  the  Protestant  church  in  Hungary.  In  1861 
he  was  elected  to  the  Diet  and  soon  became  the 
recognized  leader  of  the  opposition.  Long  op¬ 
posed  to  the  Ausgleich,  Tisza  finally,  in  1875, 
united  his  followers  with  the  Deak  party  and 
organized  the  new  Liberal  party.  In  the  Wenck- 
heim  cabinet  he  assumed  the  portfolio  of  the 
Interior  (March,  1875),  becoming  Premier  in 
October.  He  retired  from  the  ministry  in  1890, 
but  was  regularly  returned  as  a  deputy  from 
the  city  of  Grosswardein  until  1901.  Consult 
his  biography  by  Visi  (Budapest,  1886). 

TISZA,  Stephan  (Hung.  Istvan),  Count 
(1861-1918).  A  Hungarian  statesman,  son  of 
Kalman  Tisza  ( q.v. ) .  He  was  born  at  Budapest, 
and  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Berlin, 
Heidelberg,  and  Budapest.  He  entered  the  Hun¬ 
garian  Ministry  of  the  Interior  in  1882  and  in 
1886  became  a  member  of  the  Hungarian  Parlia¬ 
ment.  In  politics  Tisza  became  one  of  the 
strongest  supporters  of  the  agreement  and  eco¬ 
nomic  union  with  Austria.  In  1898  he  was  in¬ 
strumental  in  obtaining  the  passage  of  the  Tisza 
law  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  up  the  policy 
of  obstruction  against  the  Banffv  cabinet.  (See 
Banffy,  D. )  As  the  leader  of  the  Liberal  party 
Tisza  became  Premier  and  Minister  of  the  In¬ 
terior  in  1903,  but  was  dismissed  in  1906.  At 
the  same  time  he  lost  his  seat  in  Parliament. 
He  returned  to  power  as  Premier  on  June  9, 
1913,  holding  office  during  crucial  months  of  the 
European  War.  He  opposed  the  proposed  Ger¬ 
man  plan  of  establishing  a  customs  union  and 
economic  federation  between  the  Central  Powers 
and  their  allies.  See  Hungary. 

TITAN.  See  Titans. 

TITA'NIA.  1.  An  epithet  of  Latona,  as 
the  daughter  of  the  Titan  Coeus.  Ovid  uses  the 
name  for  Diana  and  for  Pyrrha,  daughter  of 
Epimetheus.  2.  In  Shakespeare’s  Midsummer 
Night’s  Dream,  the  fairy  queen,  wife  of  Oberon. 

TITANIA.  See  Uranus. 

TITANIC  DISASTER.  The  Royal  Mail 
steamship  Titanic  of  the  White  Star  Line,  sail¬ 
ing  on  her  maiden  voyage  from  Southampton  to 
New  York  with  2223  passengers  and  crew,  was 
lost  at  sea  by  collision  with  an  iceberg  on  the 
night  of  Sunday,  April  14,  1912,  and  832  pas¬ 
sengers  and  685  of  the  crew  perished.  Among 
those  lost  were  John  Jacob  Astor,  Archibald  W. 
Butt,  F.  D.  Millet,  William  T.  Stead,  and  Isidor 
Straus  ( qq.v. ) .  The  Titanic  was  the  largest 
ship  in  the  world  at  the  time,  with  dimensions: 
length,  852.5  feet;  beam,  92.5  feet;  depth,  73 
feet  3  inches;  draft,  34  feet  7  inches;  gross  ton¬ 
nage,  46,328;  net  registered  tons,  21,831;  speed, 
21  knots  per  hour.  See  Safety  at  Sea. 

TITAN'IC  IRON  ORE.  See  Ilmenite. 

TI'TANITE  ( from  titanium ) .  A  calcium 
titano-silicate  which  crystallizes  in  the  mono¬ 
clinic  system.  It  has  a  resinous  lustre,  and  is 
brown  or  black  in  color.  It  usually  occurs  in 
crystals  embedded  in  granite,  gneiss,  mica 
schists,  granular  limestone,  or  in  beds  of  iron 
ore  and  volcanic  rocks.  It  is  found  in  the 
St.  Gotthard  region,  in  Switzerland,  Finland, 
and  Ireland.  In  the  United  States  it  occurs  in 
numerous  localities  along  the  Appalachian  Moun¬ 
tains  from  Maine  to  North  Carolina.  The  brown 
or  black  varieties  are  often  called  lederite  in 
distinction  from  the  lighter  colored  titanite 
called  sphene.  The  latter  transparent  and  color¬ 
less  varieties  are  frequently  cut  as  gem  stones. 


TITA'NIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  Titan, 
from  Gk.  Tircb,  Titan).  A  metallic  element  dis¬ 
covered  by  Gregor  in  1789.  It  is  not  found 
native,  but  as  the  oxide  in  the  minerals  anatase, 
brookite,  and  rutile;  in  combination  with  iron 
as  ilmenite,  and  as  the  silicate  with  calcium  in 
titanite.  In  smaller  quantities  it  also  occurs  in 
other  minerals.  It  may  be  prepared  by  heating 
the  potassium  titanofiuoride  (obtained  from 
rutile)  with  potassium  or  sodium  out  of  contact 
with  air.  In  1910  Hunter  obtained  titanium 
in  a  state  of  high  purity  by  heating  titanium 
tetrachloride  with  sodium. 

Titanium  (symbol,  Ti;  atomic  weight,  48.1) 
is  a  steel-like  metal  that  melts  at  about  1825°  C. 
(above  3300°  F.).  Its  specific  gravity  is  4.5. 
When  heated  to  redness  in  the  air  it  burns  with 
an  intensely  brilliant  white  light.  It  can  be 
dissolved  in  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  or  nitric 
acid.  Metallic  titanium ‘  readily  unites  with 
nitrogen  at  high  temperatures.  Titanium  gives 
hardness  and  toughness  to  steel  and  a  fine  lustre 
to  silver,  while  added  to  carbon  used  for  arc 
lamps,  it  increases  the  brilliancy  of  the  light. 
Titanium  is  also  used  for  making  filaments 
for  incandescent  lamps;  its  compounds  have 
been  recommended  as  excellent  ingredients  of 
paint  for  the  protection  of  iron  from  the  air; 
and,  finally,  titanium  salts  are  at  present 
used  to  a  "considerable  extent  in  dyeing.  The 
element  combines  with  oxygen  to  form  a  mon¬ 
oxide,  TiO,  a  dioxide,  Ti02,  a  trioxide,  Ti03, 
and  a  sesquioxide  Ti203.  Of  these,  the  dioxide 
is  found  native  and  combines  with  bases  to  form 
titanates. 

TI'TANOSAU'RUS,  or  Atlantosaurus.  A 
genus  of  extinct,  sauropodous,  herbivorous  dino¬ 
saurs  (q.v.),  found  fossil  in  the  Jurassic  rocks 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  and  Dakota, 
whose  species  were  among  the  most  gigantic 
land  animals  that  ever  existed,  one  specimen, 
exhumed  in  Colorado  by  O.  C.  Marsh,  measuring 
about  60  feet  long  and  standing  about  30  feet 
high.  The  characteristics  of  the  genus  were 
similar  to  those  of  its  near  relatives  Bronto¬ 
saurus  and  Diplodocus  (qq.v.). 

TI'T AN OTHE'RIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
Ttrd?',  Titan  -+-  dgpLov,  therion,  dimin.  of  6pp, 
ther,  wild  beast).  The  type  genus  of  a  family, 
Titanotherida,  of  ungulates,  occurring  in  the 
Olijxocene  formations  of  North  America,  and 
comprising  a  number  of  species  of  gigantic  ani¬ 
mals  somewhat  resembling  the  rhinoceros  in 
general  form.  Though  .belonging  to  the  perisso- 
dactyls,  they  approximate  the  artiodactyls  or 
even-toed  ungulates  in  certain  structural  points, 
especially  of  the  vertebrae  and  limb  bones.  The 
most  striking  feature  of  the  titanotheres  is  a 
pair  of  bony  processes  resembling  horn  cores, 
which  grow  upward  and  outward  from  the 
maxillary  bones  above  the  snout.  These  promi¬ 
nences  are  variable  in  development  according  to 
asre  and  sex,  and  also  differ  in  size  and  form  in 
different  species  to  such  an  extent  that  many 
generic  names,  such  as  Menodus,  Brontotherium, 
Brontops,  and  Titanops,  have  been  bestowed  upon 
forms  which  later  study  has  shown  to  be  only 
different  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  same 
genus.  Careful  comparative  study  of  the  re¬ 
mains  from  the  White  River  beds  of  Canada, 
South  Dakota,  Colorado,  and  Nebraska  shows 
that  during  the  Oligocene  period  the  genus  in¬ 
creased  in  size,  and  the  horns,  which  are  mere 
knobs  in  the  (presumably)  earlier  types,  such 
as  Titanotherium  heloceras,  increased  greatly  in 


TITANS 


TITHES 


303 


length,  and  became  flattened  and  wide  spreading  A.  B.  Cook,  “Zeus,  God  of  the  Bright  Sky,”  in 
m  the  later  species,  culminating  in  the  highly  Zeus,  a  Study  in  Greek  Religion,  vol.  i  (Cam- 
specialized  Titanotherium  ramosum  and  Ti-  bridge,  1914) 


tanotherium  platyceras — the  last  survivors  of 
their  race.  Of  some  40  specific  names  which 


TITCHENER,  tich'e-ner,  Edward  Bradford 
(1867-  ).  An  American  psychologist,  born 


various  writers  have  proposed,  often  on  the  at  Chichester,  England.  He  was  educated  at 

Malvern  College  and  at 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  B.A.,  in 
1890;  in  1906  he  received 
the  degree  of  D.Sc.  from 
Oxford.  After  taking  his 
Ph.D.  at  Leipzig,  he  became 
assistant  professor  of  psy¬ 
chology  (1892)  at  Cornell 
University  and  subsequently 
professor  (1895)  and  re¬ 
search  professor  (1910). 
At  Cornell  he  brought  the 
laboratory  of  experimental 
psychology  to  a  point  of 
great  efficiency.  He  made 
numerous  original  investi¬ 
gations  in  the  fields  of  sen¬ 
sation,  affective  process,  at¬ 
tention,  and  action.  Har¬ 
vard,  Clark,  and  Wisconsin 
universities  gave  him  hon¬ 
orary  degrees.  He  wrote: 
An  Outline  of  Psychology 
(1896;  new  ed.,  1902);  A 
Primer  of  Psychology  (1898;  rev.  ed.,  1903); 
Experimental  Psychology  (4  vols.,  1901-05); 
Elementary  Psychology  of  Feeling  and  Atten¬ 
tion  (1908);  Experimental  Psychology  of  the 
Thought  Processes  (1909);  A  Textbook  of  Psy¬ 
chology  (2  vols.,  1909-10)  ;  A  Beginner’s  Psy¬ 
chology  (1915).  He  translated  Kiilpe’s  Outlines 
of  Psychology  and  other  works,  became  the 
American  editor  of  Mind  in  1894,  and  associate 
editor  of  the  American  Journal  of  Psychology  in 
1895,  and  contributed  to  the  New  Interna¬ 
tional  Encyclopaedia. 

TIT'COMB,  Timothy.  A  nom  de  plume  used 
by  J.  G.  Holland  ( q.v. ) . 

'  TITE,  Sir  William  (1798-1873).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  architect.  He  was  born  in  London,  where 
he  was  educated,  and  studied  architecture  under 
David  Laing.  His  first  work,  assisting  in  re¬ 
building  the  church  of  St.  Dunstan-in-the-East 
in  the  Gothic  style  (1817-20),  established  his 


basis  of  a  single  fragmentary  skull,  only  a  few 
designate  sharply  marked  species.  One"  of  the 
best-known  titanotheres  is  Titanotherium  ro- 
bustum,  a  form  with  moderately  developed 
horns,  which  measured  nearly  14  feet  in  total 
length,  and  8  feet  in  height  at  the  shoulder. 

TI'TANS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  T ltclv,  Titan,  and 
T iTcivls,  Titanis) .  The  offspring  in  Greek  my¬ 
thology  of  Uranus  (Heaven)  and  Gaea  (Earth). 
Their  names  as  given  by  Hesiod  were:  Oceanus, 
Coeus,  Crius,  Hyperion,  Iapetus,  Cronos,  Theia, 
Rhea,  Themis,  Mnemosyne,  Phoebe,  and  Tethys. 
Dione,  Phorcys,  and  Demeter  are  added  by  some 
writers.  As  Uranus  imprisoned  in  the  earth 
the  Cyclopes  and  Hekatoncheires  (100-handed 
monsters),  Gaea  in  anger  instigated  the  Titans 
to  revenge.  Cronos  alone  ventured  to  act.  He 
surprised  and  mutilated  his  father  and  reigned 
in  his  stead.  As  Uranus  had  called  down  a 
like  fate  on  the  Titans,  Cronos  swallowed  his 
children  by  Rhea  as  soon  as  they  were  born. 
Only  Zeus  escaped,  his  mother  giving  Cronos  a 
stone  wrapped  in  swaddling  clothes.  Later, 
Zeus  forced  Cronos  to  disgorge  his  offspring,  and 
then  began  a  war,  in  which  he  was  aided  by 
Themis,  Mnemosyne,  Styx,  Prometheus,  the 
Cyclopes  and  Hekatoncheires,  as  well  as  by  his 
brothers  and  sisters.  Iapetus  and  Cronos  are 
the  representative  Titans.  After  a  long  strug¬ 
gle  the  conquered  Titans  were  cast  into  Tartarus 
and  guarded  by  the  Hekatoncheires.  In  the 
Prometheus  Unbound,  ZEschylus  represented  the 
Titans  as  released  and  reconciled  to  Zeus,  now 
firmly  established  as  King  of  Heaven.  The 
name  Titan  is  given  also  to  the  descendants  of 
the  Titans,  Prometheus,  Hecate,  Helios,  Selene, 
etc.  Consult:  Maximilian  Mayer,  Die  Gigan- 
ten  und  Titanen  in  der  antiken  Sage  und 
Kunst  (Berlin,  1887)  ;  Otto  Gruppe,  Griechische 
Mythologie  und  Religionsgeschichte  f  2  vols. 
(Munich,  1906)  ;  J.  E.  Harrison,  Prolegomena  to 
Greek  Religion  (2d  ed.,  Cambridge,  1908)  ; 
C.  M.  Gayley,  The  Classic  Myths  in  English 
Literature  and  in  Art  (2d  ed.,  Boston,  1911); 


fame.  Among  his  best  designs  was  that  of 
Edward  Irving’s  church  in  Regent  Square,  Lon¬ 
don  (1827-28),  and  he  was  the  architect  of 
the  Royal  Exchange  (1841-44),  and  of  several 
palatial  railway  stations  in  France  and  Eng¬ 
land.  From  1855  until  his  death  he  sat  in 
Parliament  for  Bath.  He  was  knighted  in 
1869.  He  was  a  man  of  varied  attainments, 
a  member  of  several  learned  societies,  and  pub¬ 
lished  A  Catalogue  and  Description  of  the  An¬ 
tiquities  Found  in  the  Excavations  for  the  Royal 
Exchange  (1848),  and  several  essays  and  lec¬ 
tures. 

TITHES  (AS.  teopa,  a  tenth  part,  from  tcon, 
tien,  tyn,  ten,  Goth,  talhun,  OHG.  zehan,  Ger. 
zehn,  ten ) .  A  tenth  part  of  the  produce  of  the 
land,  which  has  from  earlv  times  been  a  com- 
mon  rate  in  systems  of  taxation  for  civil  and 
religious  purposes.  Tithing  is  still  the  prevail¬ 
ing  method  of  taxation  in  Mohammedan  coun¬ 
tries.  It  was  established  and  definitely  regu¬ 
lated  for  the  support  of  religion  among  the 
Hebrews.  For  the  details  of  th£  Hebraic  insti¬ 
tution  of  tithes  see  Lev.  xxvii,  Num.  xviii,  and 


TITHING 


TITIAN 


304 

Dent,  xiv,  where  it  is  provided  that  the  tribe 


of  Levi,  not  having  lands  assigned  to  them  as 
was  the  case  with  the  other  tribes,  should  draw 
their  support  from  this  system  of  taxation. 

In  the  usage  of  the  Christian  churches  tithes 
have  been  one  of  the  methods  employed  in 
providing  for  the  support  of  the  clergy.  (See 
Stipends,  Clerical.)  The  system  was  urged 
as  of  moral  obligation  by  the  Apostolic  canons, 
the  Apostolic  constitutions,  and  the  writings  of 
the  Fathers,  on  the  ground  that  the  Christian 
priesthood  continued  that  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Many  Church  councils  in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  centuries  confirmed  the  system;  and  at 
length  the  Emperor  Charlemagne,  by  his  capi¬ 
tularies  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century, 
formally  established  the  tax  within  that  portion 
of  the  ancient  Roman  Empire  to  which  his  legis¬ 
lation  extended. 

The  introduction  of  tithes  into  England  is 
ascribed  to  Offa,  King  of  Mercia,  at  the  end 
of  the  eighth  century;  and  the  practice  was 
made  general  for  all  England  by  Ethelwulf, 
about  the  year  850.  It  would  seem  that  at 
first,  although  all  were  required  to  pay  tithes, 
it  was  optional  with  each  to  select  the  church 
to  which  payment  should  be  made;  but  by  a 
decretal  of  Pope  Innocent  III,  addressed  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  the  year  1200, 
all  were  required  to  pay  tithes  for  the  support 
of  the  clergy  of  their  respective  parishes,  and 
this  parochial  distribution  of  tithes  has  ever 
since  obtained  in  England.  Consult:  B.  White- 
head,  Church  Law:  Dictionary  of  the  Statutes 
(London,  1892)  ;  W.  Easterby,  The  History  of 
the  Law  of  Tithes  in  England  (Cambridge, 
1888);  R.  Palmer  (Lord  Selborne),  Ancient 
Facts  and '  Fictions  Concerning  Churches  and 
Tithes  (2d  ed.,  London,  1892);  H.  W.  Clark,  A 
History  of  Tithes  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1894)  ;  H.  Lans- 
dell,  The  Sacred  Tenth,  Ancient  and  Modern  (ib., 
1906).  See  Church  Rates. 

TITHING.  A  territorial  or  personal  division 
in  early  English  history.  The  territorial  tithing, 
a  tenth  part  of  the  hundred  ( q.v. ) ,  dates  from 
early  Anglo-Saxon  times.  The  personal  tithing 
probably  came  in  with  the  Normans,  though 
many  give  it  a  place  in  Anglo-Saxon  polity.  It 
consisted  of  10  men  mutually  responsible  for  one 
another,  with  a  head  pledge  or  tithing  man  to 
represent  the  whole.  ( See  Frankpledge.  )  This 
officer  survived  as  a  petty  parish  official  long 
after  the  system  to  which  he  owed  his  origin 
had  decayed. 

TITHO'NUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Titfowis).  In 
Greek  legend,  a  son  of  Laomedon  and  brother  of 
Priam,  who  was  carried  off  by  Eos  (the  Dawn). 
(See  Aurora.)  She  bore  him  Memnon,  and  ob¬ 
tained  from  the  gods  for  him  the  gift  of  immor¬ 
tality.  The  Homeric  hymn  to  Aphrodite  adds 
that,'  since  Eos  forgot  to  ask  for  eternal  youth, 
Tithonus  withered  into  helpless  old  age,  remain¬ 
ing  behind  closed  doors,  only  his  piping  voice 
heard.  A  late  account  told  of  his  final  trans¬ 
formation  into  a  cicada. 

TITIAN,  tish'an  (It.,  Tiziano  Vecelli  or 
Vecellio)  (1477-1576).  The  most  celebrated 
and  important  painter  of  the  Renaissance  in 
Venice,  and  one  of  the  greatest  painters  of  all 
times.  He  was  born  at  Pieve  di  Cadore,  a 
small  town  in  the  Alps  of  Friuli.  The  year  of 
his  birth  has  been  variously  given,  the  most 
probable  assumption  (1477)  being  based  upon 
his  own  statement  in  a  letter  to  Philip  II  of 
Spain.  His  family,  the  Vecelli,  belonged  to 


the  petty  nobility,  and  had  long  been  identified 
with  the  public  service  in  Pieve,  Titian's  father, 
Gregorio,  being  honorably  known  as  a  magis¬ 
trate  and  military  commander.  At  nine  the  lad 
was  sent  to  Venice  in  care  of  an  uncle  who 
lived  there.  He  was  first  apprenticed  to  the 
mosaicist  Sebastiano  Zuccato,  then  to  Gentile 
and  Giovanni  Bellini,  having  Giorgione  and 
Palma  Vecchio  as  fellow  pupils.  His  develop¬ 
ment  was  slow  and  while  Giorgione  lived,  lie 
was  content  to  follow  in  his  footsteps.  His 
work  also  had  much  in  common  with  that  of 
Palma  Vecchio,  but  in  this  case  Titian  was 
probably  the  controlling  influence. 

During  the  first  part  of  Titian’s  early  period, 
lasting  till  1512,  his  style  resembles  that  of 
Giorgione,  except  that  it  is  more  rugged  and 
the  lines  and  colors  are  not  so  soft  and  melting. 
To  this  early  period  belong  a  “Madonna  with 
Saints”  (Liechtenstein  collection,  Vienna)  ;  a 
“Holy  Family”  (National  Gallery,  London)  ; 
and  the  so-called  “Gypsy  Madonna”  (Imperial 
Gallery,  Vienna).  They  show  uncertainty  of 
drawing,  but  much  charm  of  color.  The  first 
of  his  pictures  that  can  with  surety  be  dated 
is  “Pope  Alexander  VI  Commending  Jacopo 
Pesaro  to  the  Madonna”  (1502-03,  Antwerp). 
A  higher  phase  of  technical  development  is 
shown  by  the  “Madonna  with  the  Cherries  ’ 
(Imperial  Gallery,  Vienna),  and  the  Madonnas 
with  Saints  at  Dresden,  Paris,  Florence  (Uffizi), 
and  London  (National  Gallery) .  The  “Concert,” 
in  the  Pitti  Palace,  Florence  (see  Giorgione), 
has  been  attributed  to  him  and  the  “Tribute 
Money”  (Dresden),  representing  the  incident  be¬ 
tween  Christ  and  the  Pharisee,  is  the  most  care¬ 
fully  finished  of  his  pictures.  Only  Leonardo  has 
created  a  Christ  type  that  can  vie  with  this  in 
gentleness,  intellectuality,  and  majesty,  and  the 
contrast  between  it  and  the  cunning  coarseness 
of  the  Pharisee  is  especially  striking.  The 
Uffizi  also  possesses  his  “Daughter  of  Herodias,” 
for  whom  Titian’s  daughter  sat  as  model.  Other 
celebrated  works  are  the  beautiful  allegory  of 
the  “Three  Ages”  (Bridgewater  Gallery,  Lon¬ 
don),  and  at  the  end  of  the  period,  summing 
up  its  best  qualities,  is  “Sacred  and  Profane 
Love,”  more  properly  called  “Medea  and  Venus,” 
a  remarkable  contrast  of  the  nude  and  vested 
figure  in  a  beautiful  sunny  landscape. 

The  facade  frescoes  of  the  Fondaco  dei 
Tedeschi  (1507-08),  which  Titian  executed  as 
an  assistant  of  Giorgione,  have  perished,  but  of 
those  in  Padua  several  survive,  though  not  well 
preserved.  One  is  in  the  Scuola  del  Carmine, 
and  in  the  Scuola  del  Santo  he  depicted  three 
miracles  from  the  life  of  St.  Anthony  (1511). 
It  was  probably  after  his  return  to  Venice  in 
1512  that  he  painted  the  well-known  altarpiece 
of  Santa  Maria  della  Salute,  representing  “St. 
Mark  Enthroned”  with  four  other  saints. 

In  1513  Titian  was  summoned  to  Rome  by 
Pope  Leo  X,  but,  preferring  to  remain  at  Venice, 
he  petitioned  the  Senate  to  grant  him  a  posi¬ 
tion  like  that  of  Giovanni  Bellini,  who  was 
official  painter  to  the  state,  and  a  commission 
to  paint  a  large  battle  piece  in  the  Hall  of 
the  Grand  Council.  This  petition  was  granted, 
but  when,  upon  the  death  of  Bellini,  Titian  was 
named  his  successor,  with  a  yearly  pension  of 
300  crowns,  he  neglected  the  promised  battle 
piece.  He  did,  however,  complete  Bellini’s  pic¬ 
ture,  the  “Submission  of  Barbarossa,”  in  1522, 
and  executed  a  series  of  frescoes  in  the  chapel 
of  the  Ducal  Palace — both  of  which  were  de- 


II 


TITIAN 

THE  TRIBUTE  MONEY,”  FROM  THE  PAINTING  IN  THE  ROYAL  GALLERY,  DRESDEN 


the  UBSABy 
OF  Tr’E 

UNIVERSITY  Of  Hums 


TITIAN 


TITIAN 


305 


stroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1577,  but  his  fresco 
of  “St.  Christopher”  (1523)  still  survives. 

The  work  executed  between  1513  and  1530 
may  be  classed  as  belonging  to  a  second  part  of 
litian  s  early  period.  It  still  shows  reminis¬ 
cences  of  Giorgione,  but  also  an  increasing 
realism,  breadth  of  treatment,  and  mastery  of 
color.  To  this  period  belong  most  of  his  great 
altarpieces,  beginning  with  the  “Assumption  of 
the  Virgin”  (1518),  formerly  the  high  altarpiece 
of  the  church  of  the  Frari.  Its  position  called 
for  an  over  life-size  figure  and  great  breadth 
of  treatment,  the  effects  of  which  are  lost  in 
the  present  position  of  the  picture  in  the  Vene¬ 
tian  Academy.  The  lower  part  is  a  scene  of 
great  exaltation  among  a  group  of  the  Apostles, 
the  figures  of  Peter  and  John  being  particularly 
strong.  Above  the  Virgin  rises  to  the  heavens 
in  an  effulgence  of  golden  light,  surrounded  by 
hosts  of  the  most  beautiful  angels  imaginable. 
Another  fine  example  is  the  Madonna  painted 
for  San  Niccold  dei  Frari  ( 1523,  Vatican  Gal¬ 
lery  ) ,  but  the  most  perfect  and  important  of 
his  madonnas  is  probably  the  “Pesaro  Madonna” 
(1526),,  still  in  the  Frari.  This  very  original 
composition  represents  the  Madonna  seated  on 
the  side  of  the  picture  at  the  base  of  a  mighty 
column,  where  several  saints  commend  to  her 
the  members  of  the  Pesaro  family.  The  cele¬ 
brated  “Death  of  Peter  Martyr”  (1530),  de¬ 
stroyed  by  fire  in  1867,  survives  only  in  an  en¬ 
graving.  To  the  same  period,  probably,  belong 
the  “Noli  me  tangere”  (Christ  appearing  to 
Magdalen ) ,  with  marvelous  balance  of  senti¬ 
ment  in  figure  and  landscape,  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  the  delightful  “Madonna  with 
the  Rabbit,”  “Holy  Family,”  and  the  grandly 
dramatic  “Entombment” — all  in  the  Louvre. 

Among  Titian’s  mythological  pictures  of  this 
period,  chiefly  painted  for  Alfonso,  Duke  of 
Ferrara,  are  the  “Worship  of  Venus,”  in  which 
numberless  little  Cupids  disport  themselves  be¬ 
fore  a  statue  of  Venus,  a  “Bacchanal”  (both 
at  Madrid),  and  “Bacchus  and  Ariadne”  (Na¬ 
tional  Gallery,  London),  a  highly  dramatic 
representation  of  fine  coloristic  quality.  As 
state  painter  he  had  the  monopoly  of  portraying 
the  Doge.  His  official  portraits  perished  in 
the  fire  of  1577,  but  many  replicas  survive, 
like  that  of  the  Doge  Gritti  (Czernin  collection, 
Vienna).  He  found  also  a  generous  patron  in 
Alfonso  d’Este,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  whose  reputed 
portrait,  lately  declared  to  be  that  of  his  son, 
Ercole  II,  is  at  Madrid.  At  Ferrara  is  a  fine 
likeness  of  the  poet  Ariosto  (National  Gallery), 
now,  however,  properly  attributed  to  Palma 
Vecchio,  and  there  also  is  the  idealized  por¬ 
trait  widely  known  as  “Alfonso  d’Este  and 
Laura  Dianti”  (Louvre),  erroneously  called 
“Titian’s  Mistress.”  The  same  model  is  por¬ 
trayed  in  the  “Flora”  (Uffizi)  with  wonderful 
effect  of  light  draperies.  Other  celebrated 
portraits  belonging  to  this  period  are  the 
“Young  Man  with  a  Glove”  (Louvre),  the  por¬ 
trait  of  an  unknown  man  ( Munich ) ,  and  the 
so-called  “Alessandro  de’  Medici”  (Hampton 
Court ) . 

The  death  of  his  wife,  Cecilia,  in  1530  was 
the  cause  of  change  in  Titian’s  mode  of  life. 
In  the  quiet  northeastern  quarter  of  Venice  he 
purchased  a  house  which  he  furnished  with  great 
magnificence,  and  which  speedily  became  the 
centre  of  a  famous  literary  and  artistic  circle, 
which  even  kings  joined  when  visiting  Venice. 
In  painting,  his  treatment  grew  broader  and  his 


work  more  powerful,  and  while  his  ideals  grew 
more  sensuous  and  realistic,  it  was  a  gracious 
and  dignified  sensuality.  In  1531  he  painted 
in  the  Ducal  Palace  the  celebrated  picture  of 
the  “Doge  Andrea  Gritti  Presented  to  the  Virgin 
by  St.  Mark,  and  in  1537  he  at  length  finished 
the  great  battle  piece  of  Cadore,  both  destroved 
in  the  fire  of  1577.  The  celebrated  “La  fede” 
(1555),  a  votive  offering  of  Doge  Andrea  Gri- 
mani,  had  a  better  fate.  Other  decorative  works 
are  the  ceiling  of  the  choir  and  sacristy  of 
Santa  Maria  della  Salute,  and  the  wonderful 
figure  of  “Wisdom,”  on  the  ceiling  of  the  li¬ 
brary  of  St.  Mark  (now  the  Royal  Palace). 
Splendid  decorative  canvases  of  unusual  size 
are  the  “Presentation  of  the  Virgin  in  the 
Temple”  (Venetian  Academy)  and  the  realistic 
“Ecce  Homo”  (Vienna). 

In  1532  he  was  summoned  to  Bologna  to  por¬ 
tray  Charles  V  and  performed  his  task  with 
such  success  that  he  was  named  court  painter,, 
Knight  of  the  Golden  Spur,  and  Count  Palatine, 
with  the  privileges  of  the  Spanish  court,  and  his 
children  were  made  nobles  of  the  Empire.  One 
of  these  portraits  of  the  Emperor  (1533)  is  at 
Madrid.  Other  celebrated  portraits  of  this 
period  are  those  of  Ippolito  de’  Medici  (Pitti 
Palace,  Florence),  the  “Maltese  Knight”  (Ma¬ 
drid),  and  the  so-called  “Young  Englishman” 
(Uffizi).  Very  fruitful  for  Titian’s  art  were 
his  relations  (1532-38)  with  the  Duke  of 
Urbino,  whose  portrait  in  full  armor,  as  well 
as  that  of  his  wife,  Eleanora  Gonzaga,  is  in 
the  Uffizi.  With  subtle  flattery  he  portrayed 
the  lady’s  rejuvenated  features  in  the  celebrated 
“La  bella  di  Tiziano,”  perhaps  his  finest  fe¬ 
male  portrait,  in  the  “Girl  with  a  Fur  Cloak” 
(Vienna),  and  in  the  “Venus  of  Urbino” 
(Uffizi),  a  rival  of  Giorgione’s  Venus,  and  the 
most  beautiful  representation  of  refined  volup¬ 
tuousness  in  modern  painting.  In  1545,  after 
invitations  from  the  Pope,  Titian  visited  Rome, 
where  he  was  received  with  highest  honors. 
Of  his  portraits  of  Paul  III  an  original  is  at 
St.  Petersburg  and  an  excellent  copy  in  the 
Naples  Museum,  which  also  possesses  the  splen¬ 
did  psychological  study  of  the  Pope  and  his  two 
nephews.  At  Rome  he  met  Michelangelo,  whose 
influence  may  perhaps  be  seen  in  the  “Danae” 
(Madrid)  painted  there.  Other  famous  works 
executed  about  this  time  are  the  realistic 
“Venus,”  with  the  features  of  his  daughter 
Lavinia  (Uffizi),  and  a  similar  figure  listening 
to  music,  at  Madrid. 

In  1548  Titian  was  summoned  by  Emperor 
Charles  V  to  Augsburg,  and  there  he  painted 
that  ruler’s  equestrian  portrait  in  full  armor 
(Madrid) — a  wonderful  characterization  of  the 
irresistible  but  disappointed  master  of  Europe 
and  the  New  World.  Another  portrait  of 
Charles  V  (1548),  in  black  costume  seated  in  a 
loggia,  is  at  Munich.  At  the  same  time  Titian 
portrayed  the  captive  John  Frederick,  Duke  of 
Saxony  (Vienna),  and  Cardinal  Granvella 
(Besangon).  He  enjoyed  the  intimate  friend¬ 
ship  of  the  world-weary  Charles  V,  and  together 
they  designed  the  “Trinity,”  the  Emperor’s 
last  commission.  After  Charles’s  death  Titian 
continued  to  serve  his  son  Philip  II,  whom  he 
portrayed  repeatedly,  as  in  the  excellent  example 
in  possession  of  Mrs.  T.  J.  Emery,  Cincinnati. 

It  is  impossible  to  mention  even  the  important 
works  of  Titian  during  the  last  period  of  his 
long  career  (1530-76).  Among  religious  pic¬ 
tures  some  of  the  most  celebrated  are  a  “Magda- 


TITIAN 


TITI  MONKEY 


306 


len”  (Pitti  Palace)  ;  a  “Madonna  with  St.  John 
and  Catharine”  (National  Gallery),  celebrated 
for  the  landscape;  “Christ  at  Emmaus” 
(Louvre);  “St.  Margaret”;  and  several  others 
at  Madrid.  His  mythological  subjects  include 
the  celebrated  “Venus  and  Cupid”  (Borghese 
Gallery,  Rome) ,  “Jupiter  and  Antiope”  (Louvre) , 
and  “Rape  of  Europa”  (Gardner  collection, 
Boston).  Of  his  innumerable  portraits  we 
mention  only  those  of  his  beloved  daughter 
Lavinia,  with  a  dish  of  fruit  (Berlin),  and  as 
a  bride  and  a  matron  (both  at  Dresden);  of 
himself  at  Berlin,  Vienna,  Florence,  and  Madrid; 
his  friend  Aretino  (1545,  Pitti)  ;  Doctor  Parma 
and  the  antiquarian  Strada,  in  Vienna;  and  the 
splendid  Cornaro  family  (Duke  of  Northumber¬ 
land)  . 

Titian’s  last  pictures  were  chiefly  religious, 
like  the  “Saviour  of  the  World”  (St.  Peters¬ 
burg)  and  the  grand  “Pieta”  (Academy,  Ven¬ 
ice),  finished  after  his  death  by  Palma  Giovane. 
In  his  hundredth  year  he  was  stricken  by  the 
plague,  Aug.  17,  1576.  He  was  buried  in  the 
Frari  Church,  where  a  fine  modern  monument 
marks  his  resting  place.  His  son  Orazio,  an 
able  painter  and  his  faithful  assistant,  soon  fol¬ 
lowed  him.  For  Titian’s  important  pupils,  see 
Painting;  Tintoretto. 

If,  as  is  the  modern  custom,  painting  be 
judged  by  the  pictorial  qualities  only,  then  surely 
Titian  is  the  greatest  painter  of  Italy,  if  not 
of  all  times.  All  Venetian  art  centred  in  him. 
Certain  painters  of  Venice  and  of  other  schools 
have  equaled  Titian  in  single  pictorial  elements, 
but  no  one  united  all  these  qualities  with  the 
same  degree  of  excellence.  His  color  is  bright, 
but  deep  and  transparent;  a  splendid  golden 
tone  suffuses  his  pictures,  which  only  in  his 
later  work  tends  towards  a  more  sombre  brown. 
Light  and  shade,  atmosphere  and  perspective 
are  all  perfectly  rendered,  and  his  rapid,  sweep¬ 
ing  handling,  in  place  of  the  former  detailed 
finish,  revolutionized  painting,  preparing  the 
way  for  Rembrandt  and  Velasquez.  Being  a 
Venetian,  he  was  not  as  scientific  a  draftsman 
as  the  Florentines,  though  at  best  his  draw¬ 
ing  is  good.  His  composition  is  always  good, 
and  at  best  it  is  excellent.  He  did  not  attempt, 
like  the  Tuscans,  to  make  art  the  vehicle  of 
intellectual  ideas,  but  his  grasp  upon  life  was 
firmer  than  theirs,  and  his  art  was  wider  in 
scope.  He  preferred  an  art  that  was  tranquil 
and  serene,  though  at  times — witness  the  “As- 
sunta”  and  the  “Peter  Martyr” — he  could  be 
profoundly  dramatic. 

If  Giorgione  was  the  founder  of  the  modern 
landscape,  Titian  did  more  for  its  development, 
achieving  the  highest  perfection  before  Poussin 
and  Claude.  Eliminating  the  detail  of  former 
painters,  he  rendered  the  typical  in  a  landscape 
with  high  poetic  charm.  Though  he  used  land¬ 
scape  as  only  a  setting  for  his  figures,  this  set¬ 
ting  was  in  itself  perfect  and  complete.  His 
favorite  subjects  were  the  Alps  of  his  native 
Cadore  and  the  lagoons  of  Venice.  No  one 
ever  excelled  him  in  the  combination  of  power¬ 
ful,  sometimes  merciless,  realism,  combined  with 
noble  and  striking  characterization.  He  was 
the  greater  painter  of  kings  and  nobles. 

Bibliography.  The  most  complete  monograph 
on  Titian  is  still  Crowe  and  Cavaleaselle,  Titian: 
Eis  Life  and  Times  (2  vols.,  London,  1879—81), 
which  should,  however,  be  supplemented  by  the 
more  modern  criticism  of  G.  Morelli,  Italian 
Painters  at  Munich  and  Dresden,  Eng.  trans. 


by  C.  J.  Ffoulkes  (London,  1893)  ;  Bernhard 
Berenson,  Venetian  Painters  of  the  Renaissance 
(New  York,  1894)  ;  and  G.  B.  Rose,  Renaissance 
Masters  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1908).  Also:  Max  Jordan, 
“Tizian,”  in  Dohme,  Kunst  und  Kiinstler  des 
Mittelalters,  No.  72  (Leipzig,  1878)  ;  G.  E. 
Lafenestre,  La  vie  et  Veeuvre  de  Titien  (new 
ed.,  Paris,  1886)  ;  Giorgio  Vasari,  Lives  of  the 
Most  Eminent  Painters,  Sculptors,  and .  Archi¬ 
tects,  Eng.  trans.  by  Blashfield  and  Hopkins,  vol. 
iv  (New  York,  1896);  C.  Phillips,  The  Earlier 
Work  of  Titian,  and  The  Later  Work  of  Titian, 
in  “Portfolio  Monographs,”  Nos.  34,  37  (London, 
1897-98)  ;  H.  Knackfus,  Tizian  (Bielefeld, 
1897)  ;  Masters  in  Art,  vol.  i  (Boston,  1900)  ; 
Osker  Fischel,  Tizian  (Stuttgart,  1904);  Georg 
Gronau,  Titian  and  his  School  (New  York, 
1904);  S.  L.  Bensusan,  Titian  (London,  1909)  ; 
Charles  Ricketts,  Titian  (ib.,  1910).  An  ex¬ 
haustive  and  really  satisfactory  life  of  Titian 
has  not  yet  been  written. 

TITIAN,  The  Spanish.  See  Navarrete, 
J.  F.  DE. 

TITICACA,  te'te-ka/ka,  Lake.  The  largest 
lake  in  South  America  ( Map :  America,  South, 
C  4 ) ,  situated  on  the  boundary  of  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  being  about  equally  divided  between 
the  two  countries.  It  lies  in  a  large  and  lofty 
lacustrine  basin  inclosed  between  the  main 
Andean  range  and  the  Cordillera  Real,  with 
cross  ranges  on  the  north  and  south.  This  basin 
has  an  average  elevation  of  13,000  feet,  and 
the  surface  of  the  lake  itself  lies  about  12,500 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  lake  has  a  length  of 
130  miles  with  an  average  breadth  of  30  miles. 
It  is  divided  by  promontories  into  three  unequal 
parts,  and  contains  several  islands.  The  depth 
in  some  places  reaches  700  feet,  but  large  por¬ 
tions  of  it  are  shallow,  and  the  shores,  especially 
in  the  south,  are  lined  with  marshy  tracts  cov¬ 
ered  with  reeds.  The  vegetation  along  the  shores 
is  otherwise  scanty,  and  the  surrounding  coun¬ 
try  is  bleak  and  treeless.  The  lake  receives  a 
number  of  streams  from  the  surrounding  moun¬ 
tains,  and  discharges  through  the  Desaguadero 
into  Lake  Aullagas,  whose  waters  finally  evapo¬ 
rate  in  the  great  salt  marshes  in  the  south¬ 
ern  part  of  the  closed  basin.  In  former  ages 
the  lake  occcupied  the  whole  of  the  basin.  Its 
surface  stood  then  much  higher,  and  it  dis¬ 
charged  eastward  into  the  Amazon.  The  region 
around  Lake  Titicaca  was  one  of  the  seats 
of  early  Indian  civilization,  and  contains  many 
interesting  architectural  remains,  some  of  which 
antedate  the  Incan  periods.  The  most  imposing 
of  the  ruins  are  those  of  Tiahuanaco  (q.v.). 
(See  Peruvian  Archeology.)  The  lake  was 
formerly  navigated  only  by  crude  Indian  rafts, 
but  since  the  opening  of  a  railroad  to  Arequipa 
and  the  Pacific  coast  steamboats  have  plied  on 
it  between  the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  ports. 
Consult  A.  F.  A.  Bandelier,  The  Islands  of  I  'iti- 
caca  and  Koati,  published  by  the  Hispanic  So¬ 
ciety  of  America  (New  York,  1910),  and  A.  A. 
Adams,  The  Plateau  Peoples  of  South  America 
(London,  1915). 

TITIENS,  tet'yens,  Teresa.  See  Tietjens. 

TITIES.  One"  of  the  three  patrician  tribes 
of  ancient  Rome,  the  others  being  the  Luceres 
and  Ramnes. 

TITI  (te-te')  MONKEY,  or  Teetee.  A  small 
South  American  squirrel  monkey  (q.v.)  of  the 
genus  formerly  called  Chrysothrix  or  Callithrix, 
now  more  correctly  given  as  Saimiri,  but  the 
word  is  often  used  for  a  marmoset.  They  are 


TITLARK 


TITLE  INSURANCE 


307 


gentle,  beautiful,  playful  little  creatures,  in  great 
repute  as  pets  in  their  own  country  but  too 
delicate  to  survive  in  cold  climates. 

TIT'LARK  (from  tit,  from  Icel.  tittr,  little 
bird,  probably  connected  with  Eng.  tit,  small 
thing  lark).  A  small,  brown,  terrestrial 
bird  ( Anthus  pennsylvanicus  or  rubescens )  of 
the  wagtail  or  pipit  family  (Motacillidoe) ,  allied 
to  the  larks,  and  familiar  throughout  North 
America  during  its  migrations.  It  breeds,  nest¬ 
ing  on  the  ground,  in  the  far  north,  and  winters 
in  the  tropics,  and  in  spring  gives  a  pleasing 
song.  A  near  relative  is  the  Missouri  skylark 
(Neocorys,  or  Anthus,  spraguei) ,  of  the  Western 
plains,  whose  habits  and  song,  uttered  while 
soaring  in  the  air,  closely  resemble  those  of 
the  skylark.  In  this  group  come  the  numerous 
European  wagtails  (Motacilla) ,  which  keep  near 
streams  and  flirt  their  long  tails  incessantly, 
and  the  pipits  (Anthus) ,  several  species  of 
which  are  among  the  most  pleasing  of  European 
summer  birds,  frequenting  fields,  open  spaces, 
and  rocky  slopes,  and  singing  much  like  finches. 
Consult  Elliott  Coues,  Birds  of  the  Northwest 
(Washington,  1874).  See  Wagtail. 

TI'TLE  (OF.  title,  litre,  tiltre,  Fr.  titre,  title, 
from  Lat.  titulus,  title,  superscription,  token). 
The  union  of  all  the  elements  which  constitute 
legal  ownership  of  property,  or  the  means  by 
which  a  person  holds  property.  The  common- 
law  authorities  are  to  the  effect  that  there  are 
three  essential  elements  to  a  complete  title: 
possession,  the  right  of  possession,  and  right  of 
property.  This  is  technically  true,  but  'the 
latter  two  requisites  are  practically  interchange¬ 
able,  and  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  title  as 
consisting  of  possession  with  right  of  possession. 
(See  Possession.)  Title  to  property  may  be 
vested  in  one  or  a  number  of  persons.  All  titles 
to  real  estate  are  acquired  by  descent  or  pur¬ 
chase.  A  title  by  descent  is  one  which  is  acquired 
by  an  heir  of  a  deceased  person  by  virtue  of 
the  laws  of  intestacy  and  succession.  Any  other 
source  of  title  is  said  to  be  by  purchase.  The 
latter  term  is  used  technically,  as  it  includes 
other  means  than  a  bargain  and  sale,  as,  e.g.,  a 
devise  of  property  in  a  will  and  a  conveyance 
by  way  of  gift.  By  virtue  of  the  statute  of 
limitations,  20  years’  adverse  possession  of  real 
estate  will  give  the  occupant  a  good  title  in 
most  States.  Title  to  personal  property  is 
generally  transferred  by  delivery,  although  a 
writing  such  as  a  bill  of  sale  is  effective,  and  a 
contractual  meeting  of  the  minds  of  the  parties, 
by  which  an  intention  to  pass  title  is  evidenced, 
will  also  suffice.  Generally  six  years’  adverse 
possession  of  a  chattel  will  operate  as  a  transfer 
of  title  thereto  by  operation  of  law.  Title  to 
patentable  inventions  is  said  to  vest  in  the  in¬ 
ventor  by  virtue  of  original  acquisition,  but  the 
real  source  of  ownership  is  really  derived  from 
the  protection  secured  by  the  patent  laws.  A 
title  may  be  capable  of  being  established  in  a 
court  of  law  and  yet  have  such  apparent  defects 
as  not  to  be  readily  salable.  A  court  of  equity 
will  not  compel  a  purchaser  to  accept  a  title 
which  is  not  marketable.  Consult  the  authori¬ 
ties  referred  to  under  Accession;  Possession; 
Property;  Real  Property;  etc.;  and  also  see 
Occupancy;  Tenure;  Title,  Registration  of; 
Torrens  System;  etc. 

TITLE,  Abstract  of.  See  Abstract  of 
Title. 

TITLE.  Registration  of.  A  system  of  regis¬ 
tration  of  titles  to  land  prevailing  in  England 


and  many  of  the  United  States.  The  question 
of  how  to  avoid  the  litigation  and  expense  so 
often  attendant  upon  transactions  relating  to 
real  estate  and  the  transfer  of  title  to  real 
estate  has  always  been  most  perplexing.  Many 
methods  have  been  tried,  varying  from  the  earlv 
custom  in  most  counties  of  England  by  which 
transfers  were  effected  without  any  recording 
or  registration,  to  the  system  of  registration  in¬ 
troduced  into  South  Australia  by  Sir  Robert 
Richard  Torrens  in  1857,  by  which  titles  were 
to  be  registered  and  in  effect  guaranteed  by  the 
government.  (See  Torrens  System  and  consult 
authorities  there  referred  to.)  Until  compara¬ 
tively  recent  times  the  method  prevailing  in  the 
United  States  consisted  in  the  recording  system 
by  which  title  papers  were  transcribed  at  length 
on  the  public  records  of  the  county  in  which 
the  land  was  situated.  This  form  of  recording 
was  extended  to  deeds,  mortgages,  liens,  foreign 
wills, .  and  similar  documents,  and  was  chiefly 
effective  in  giving  constructive  notice  to  all  the 
world  of  the  existence  of  such  instrument  and 
the  claim  of  the  person  recording  it.  This  sys¬ 
tem  is  still  in  force  and  is  being  extended  and 
made  more  effective  in  some  States,  notably  New 
lork,  by  the  adoption  by  the  registrar  of  uni¬ 
form  forms  of  deeds,  mortgage  and  other  papers 
customarily  recorded,  in  this  way  greatly  simpli¬ 
fying  the  search  of  titles.  See  Real  Property; 
Recording  of  Deeds;  Title  Deeds. 

TITLE,  Search  of.  See  Search  of  Title. 

title  DEEDS.  The  instruments  in  writing 
which  constitute  the  evidences  of  the  title  of  the 
owner  of  real  property.  In  England  the  title 
deeds  are  of  great  importance,  and  the  purchaser, 
heir,  or  devisee  of  the  land  is  entitled  to  the 
possession  of  the  title  deeds  establishing  the 
chain  of  title  to  his  predecessor  in  title.  Thus 
in  England  the  deposit  of  the  title  deeds  as 
security  for  a  loan  creates  a  lien  on  the  land 
in  the  nature  of  a  mortgage.  Such  is  not  the 
law  generally  in  the  United  States,  however, 
where  the  recording  acts  have  dispensed  with 
the  necessity  of  having  custody  of  the  original 
documents  of  title.  See  Abstract  of  Title; 
Conveyance;  Deed. 

TITLE  INSURANCE.  An  agreement  or 
undertaking  by  which  the  insurer,  for  a  valua¬ 
ble  consideration,  contracts  to  indemnify  the 
insured  in  a  specified  amount  against  loss  or 
damage  suffered  because  of  defects  of  title  to 
real  estate  in  which  he  has  some  insurable  in¬ 
terest.  The  business  of  title  insurance  is  of 
comparatively  recent  growth.  The  first  title 
insurance  company  was  organized  in  Philadel¬ 
phia  in  1876,  but  the  development  of  the  busi¬ 
ness  has  been  most  rapid  since  about  1885. 
Contracts  of  title  insurance  are  subject  to  the 
same  rules  as  govern  other  classes  of  insurance 
contracts.  The  policy  is  usually  granted  upon 
written  application,  which  is  made  a  part  of 
the  policy  and  which  contains  statements  or 
promises  which  are  deemed  to  be  warranties  or 
conditions  of  the  policy. 

Generally  the  liability  of  the  insurer  is  not 
limited  in  point  of  time,  and  the  undertaking 
is  to  indemnify  the  insured  against  all  loss  or 
damage  resulting  from  any  defect  in  the  title 
not  known  or  specified  in  the  policy,  including 
defects  in  the  chain  of  title  and  incumbrances 
of  every  description  existing  at  the  time  the 
insurance  is  effected.  When  the  undertaking  of 
the  policy  is  to  indemnify  against  loss  or 
damage  only,  the  obligation  incurred  by  the 


TITLES  OF  HONOR 


TITMOUSE 


308 


insurer  is  substantially  like  that  of  a  grantor 
whose  deed  contains  the  usual  covenants  of  war¬ 
ranty.  (See  Covenant.)  It  is  not  unusual  for 
the  policy  of  title  insurance  to  provide  that  the 
insurer  shall  take  the  property  at  an  appraised 
valuation  in  the  event  that  any  defect  of  title 
is  discovered  rendering  the  title  unmarketable. 

There  are  also  usually  provisions  contained 
in  the  policy  that  the  insured  shall  notify  the 
insurer  of  any  claim  or  demand  against  the 
property  founded  on  any  defect  of  title  insured 
against,  and  that  the  insurer  shall  be  permitted 
to  bring  or  defend  actions  in  the  name  of  the 
insured,  but  at  its  own  expense,  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  that  the  title  is  free  from  such 
defect.  When  the  insured  is  a  mortgagor,  pro¬ 
vision  may  be  made  in  the  policy  for  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  a  mortgagee  of  the  property  by  a 
mortgagee’s  clause  making  the  loss  payable  to 
the  mortgagee,  or  the  same  result  may  be  ac¬ 
complished  by  issuing  an  independent  policy  in 
favor  of  the  mortgagee. 

There  is  no  fixed  method  of  ascertaining  the 
amount  of  premiums  in  title  insurance  as  is  the 
case  in  life  insurance.  Experience  has  shown 
that  the  losses  under  title-insurance  contracts 
have  been  comparatively  small,  and  that  in 
fact  an  important  benefit  to  be  derived  from 
the  policy  of  title  insurance  in  addition  to  the 
insurance  features  is  the  painstaking  and  ex¬ 
haustive  examination  of  the  title  made  by  the 
insurer.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  insurance 
feature  is  of  great  importance,  since  there  may 
always  be  defects  of  title  which  an  examination 
of  the  record  title  may  not  disclose.  Many 
title-insurance  companies  possess  complete  rec¬ 
ords  and  title  maps  of  all  real  estate  within 
the  territory  where  they  do  business  and  have 
other  special  facilities  for  the  expert  examina¬ 
tion  of  titles.  The  prospective  purchaser  of 
real  estate  within  such  territory,  by  applying 
for  title  insurance,  may  thus  procure  a  com¬ 
plete  examination  of  the  title  before  the  con¬ 
veyance  is  made.  The  policy  issued  may,  with 
the  consent  of  the  insured,  be  transferred  to 
a  subsequent  purchaser  of  the  property.  This, 
however,  is  not  customary  except  upon  the  pay¬ 
ment  of  an  additional  premium.  See  Convey¬ 
ance;  Covenant;  Deed;  Insurance;  Record¬ 
ing  of  Deeds.  Consult  T.  G.  Frost,  Treatise 
on  Guaranty  Insurance  and  Compensated  Surety¬ 
ship  (2d  ed.,  Boston,  1909). 

TITLES  OF  HONOR.  Designations  to  which 
certain  persons  are  legally  entitled  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  possessing  particular  dignities  or  of¬ 
fices.  Titles  of  honor  may  be  divided  into 
those  of  sovereignty,  superior  and  inferior,  no¬ 
bility,  greater  and  lesser,  and  titles  of  peculiarly 
official  significance.  Superior  sovereign  titles 
are  emperor  and  king  (qq.v.)  and,  in  Tur¬ 
key  and  Persia,  sultan  (q.v.)  and  shah.  Czar 
and  kaiser  (qq.v.),  from  Caesar,  correspond 
to  emperor.  Inferior  sovereign  titles  include 
grand  duke  (ranking  next  to  king),  duke,  and 
prince  (qq.v.)  in  some  of  the  German  states. 
The  ruler  of  Monaco  is  also  called  prince. 
Eastern  equivalents  of  the  inferior  titles  are 
bey,  khan  (both  post-positive),  khedive,  rajah 
(qq.v.).  Greater  nobility  titles  include,  in  de¬ 
scending  scale,  prince,  duke,  marquis,  count 
(earl  in  Great  Britain),  viscount,  and  baron 
(qq.v.).  In  Great  Britain  there  is  no  title 
prince  outside  of  the  royal  family.  In  Austria 
there  is  no  duke,  except  archduke  (q.v.)  (of 
the  Imperial  family),  and  in  a  few  princely 


houses,  where  the  term  remains  as  a  sub¬ 
title,  but  is  not  used;  in  Germany,  no  vis¬ 
count;  in  Russia,  no  viscount,  marquis,  or  duke, 
except  grand  duke  (of  the  Imperial  family). 
Lesser  nobility  titles  include  baronet  and  es¬ 
quire  (qq.v.),  peculiar  to  Great  Britain,  and 
knight  (q.v.),  chevalier,  and  ritter,  the  last 
three  being  practically  equivalent  terms.  There 
are  also  lesser  nobility  titles  for  the  chiefs 
of  Scottish  and  Irish  clans,  and  such  Eastern 
titles  as  bey,  effendi,  and  pasha  (qq.v.),  all 
three  post-positive.  The  titles  of  honor  having 
peculiarly  official  significance  are  largely  such 
ecclesiastical,  military,  and  governmental  terms 
as  archbishop,  general,  governor,  etc.  Courtesy 
titles,  distinct  from  true  titles  of  honor,  since 
their  validity  rests  in  custom  rather  than  law, 
are  given  to  the  sons  of  the  British  nobility.  A 
noble  takes  his  highest  title  and  is  permitted 
to  set  aside  an  inferior  title,  usually  his  sec¬ 
ond,  to  be  assumed  by  his  eldest  son.  The 
younger  sons  of  dukes  and  marquises  have  the 
courtesy  title  lord  (q.v.)  prefixed  to  their  given 
name  or  surname,  and  the  daughters  of  dukes, 
marquises,  and  earls  prefix  lady.  The  younger 
sons  of  earls  and  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
viscounts  and  barons  are  called  honorable.  In 
Great  Britain  the  titles  duke,  marquis,  earl, 
viscount,  baron,  and  baronet  are  inheritable  and 
are  in  English  law  considered  a  species  of  prop¬ 
erty  and  classed  as  incorporeal  hereditaments. 
Among  lesser  dignities  are  the  various  orders  of 
knighthood  and  the  knights  bachelors,  but  these 
are  personal  and  not  hereditary,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  the  spiritual  peers  and  the  law  lords 
of  Parliament,  who  are  created  for  life  only. 

Certain  forms  of  reference  are  used  in  re¬ 
spect  to  various  titles.  Majesty  is  attributed  to 
emperor  and  king,  and  to  the  former  often 
Imperial  Majesty;  Imperial  Highness  to  title  of 
child  of  an  emperor;  Royal  Highness  to  title  of 
child  of  a  king  (in  Great  Britain  also  grand¬ 
child  of  the  sovereign)  and  to  grand  duke  and 
prince  reigning;  Highness  alone  or  variously 
qualified  to  prince;  in  Great  Britain,  Grace  to 
duke,  Lordship  to  any  other  peer  (q.v.).  See 
Dignity;  Forms  of  Address;  Nobility;  Peer; 
Precedence. 

TIT'MARSH,  Michael  Angelo.  The  nom  de 
plume  under  which  Thackeray  published  the 
Yelloicplush  Papers  and  other  works. 

TIT'MOUSE'  (from  tit,  from  Icel.  tittr,  little 
bird  -f-  ME.  mose,  AS.  muse,  OHG.  meisa,  Ger. 
Meise,  sort  of  song 
bird).  One  of  a 
family  (Paridae) 
of  small  active 
birds  allied  to  the 
nuthatches,  and 
familiar  in  the 
United  States  as 
chickadees.  The 
family  is  widely 
distributed  and  ex¬ 
hibits  much  vari¬ 
ety  in  appearance 
and  habits.  Typi¬ 
cal  colors  seem  to 
be  black,  gray,  and 
white,  but  many 
Old  World  species 
are  distinctlv  marked,  or  suffused,  with  tints  of 
blue,  red,  brown,  or  yellow,  or  several  of  these; 
and  the  Western  American  genus  Auriparus 
(see  Goldtit)  is  thus  gayly  colored.  The  fe- 


TITMOUSE. 

Head  of  an  Arizona  crested  tit¬ 
mouse  ( Bceolophus  wollweberi). 


TITTONI 


TITUS 


309 


males  and  young  are  closely  like  the  males. 
Fhese  cheerful  little  birds  are  everywhere  famil¬ 
iar,  coming  about  gardens  and  roads,  and  nesting 
year  after  year  in  orchard  trees,  or  some  in 
garden  bird  boxes,  as  well  as  in  the  forest. 
Their  food  consists  mainly  of  insects,  and  they 
are  everywhere  of  great  service  by  their  con¬ 
sumption  of  these,  and,  especially  in  winter,  of 
the  eggs  and  hibernating  larvae  of  aphids  and 
other  minute  pests.  Most  of  them  make  nests 
of  soft  materials  in  holes  and  crannies,  but 
some,  like  the  European  penduline  tit  (see 
Plate  of  Pensile  Nests  of  Birds  in  article 
Nidification  ) ,  the  long-tailed  tits  of  the  genus 
Acredula,  and  the  Western  American  bush  tits 
(Psaltriparus) ,  weave  bag-shaped  pouches  of 
hempen  materials,  or  of  moss  or  grass,  sus¬ 
pended  beneath  a  tree  branch.  The  breeding 
habits  of  the  whole  group  are  interesting.  Their 
notes  are  sharp,  quickly  repeated  exclamations, 
varied  by  a  few  sweeter  calls,  and  are  well 
illustrated  by  the  familiar  chickadees  (Parus,  or 
Pentliestes,  atricapillus,  hudsonicus,  and  others), 
which  are  among  the  most  characteristic  of  North 
American  resident  birds.  Consult  A.  H.  Evans, 
“Birds,”  in  Cambridge  Natural  History,  vol.  ix 
(New  York,  1900),  and  American  ornithologies. 

TITTONI,  tet-to'ne,  Tommaso  (1854-  ). 

An  Italian  statesman  and  diplomat.  He  was 
born  in  Rome,  and  was  educated  at  the  uni¬ 
versity  there  and  at  Oxford.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1886, 
was  appointed  prefect  of  Perugia  in  1897  and 
of  Naples  in  1900,  and  in  1901  became  Senator. 
In  1903—06  he  was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
which  portfolio,  after  a  short  interval,  he  again 
held  until  1910.  He  then  became  Ambassador 
to  France.  A  volume  of  his  speeches,  Sei 
anni  di  politica  estera,  1903-09,  discorsi 
(1912),  was  translated  into  English  as  Italy’s 
Foreign  and  Colonial  Policy  (1914). 

TIT'ULAR  BISHOPS  (from  Lat.  titulus, 
title,  superscription,  token).  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  bishops  other  than  diocesan, 
who  take  their  titles  from  some  formerly  exist¬ 
ing  but  now  extinct  see.  The  practice  of  so 
designating  them  is  due  to  the  ancient  principle 
of  not  consecrating  bishops  without  a  definitely 
assigned  sphere  of  labor.  With  the  multiplica¬ 
tion  of  suffragan  and  missionary  bishops  some 
such  system  of  nomenclature  was  naturally, 
therefore,  adopted.  When  the  territory  occu¬ 
pied  by  the  Crusaders  fell  once  more  into  Mo¬ 
hammedan  hands  the  expelled  bishops  were 
utilized  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  retaining 
their  former  titles;  and  these  titles,  with  those 
of  sees  which  broke  away  from  communion  with 
Rome  in  the  great  Eastern  schism,  are  still 
employed  to  designate  coadjutor  or  missionary 
bishops.  In  England  until  1850,  and  in  Scot¬ 
land  until  1878,  the  Roman  Catholic  bishops 
bore  such  titles,  owing  to  legal  and  other  diffi¬ 
culties  in  the  way  of  assuming  territorial  titles. 
Titular  bishops  were  formerly  often  known  as 
bishops  in  partibus  infidelium;  but  in  1881 
Leo  XIII  abolished  the  use  of  this  name,  on 
the  ground  that  many  of  these  sees  had  come 
into  the  hands  of  states  which,  if  not  Catholic, 
were  Christian,  and  that  the  designation  was 
inappropriate.  See  Suffragan. 

TI'TTJS.  One  of  the  most  trusted  and  de¬ 
voted  of  the  disciples  and  fellow  workers  of 
the  Apostle  Paul.  Nothing  is  said  of  Titus  in 
the  Acts,  and  all  we  know  of  him  is  contained 
in  scattered  notices  in  Paul’s  Epistles,  especially 


Galatians  and  2  Corinthians.  He  was  of  Gentik 
origin  (Gal.  ii.  3),  converted  to  Christianitv 
through  Paul  (Tit.  i.  4),  and  was  one  of  the 
brethren  taken  along  by  Paul  and  Barnabas  on 
their  mission  from  the  church  of  Antioch  to 
the  mother  church  of  Jerusalem  at  the  time 
of  the  Apostolic  Council  (c.49  a.d.;  cf.  Gal.  ii.  1 
and  Acts  xv.  2).  At  Jerusalem,  though  he  was 
uncircumcised,  he  appears  to  have  been  allowed 
to  mingle  freely  with  members  of  the  mother 
church.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  he  re¬ 
turned  to  Antioch  with  Paul  and  accompanied 
him  thence  on  his  third  missionary  journey. 
From  the  notices  in  2  Corinthians  we  learn  that 
he  was  sent  by  Paul  from  Ephesus  on  two,  per¬ 
haps  three,  missions  to  Corinth,  bearing  let¬ 
ters  and  intrusted  with  the  management  of 
delicate  and  important  business.  In  all  re¬ 
spects  he  was  completely  successful.  The  Co¬ 
rinthians  contributed  liberally  towards  the  great 
collection  Paul  was  raising  for  the  Jerusalem 
church,  willingly  obeyed  Paul’s  injunctions  in 
regard  to  cases  of  discipline,  and  evidenced  most 
sincere  love  and  loyalty  to  the  Apostle.  These 
results  were  supremely  satisfactory  to  Titus, 
and  his  report  to  Paul,  who  had  left  Ephesus 
(spring  of  55  a.d.)  expecting  to  meet  Titus  at 
Troas,  but,  disappointed  in  this,  had  pressed 
on  anxiously  into  Macedonia,  so  cheered  the 
Apostle  that  he  at  once  sent  back  the  warm¬ 
hearted  message  contained  in  2  Cor.  i— iv.  We 
know  no  more  of  Titus’s  movements  until  the 
time  of  the  letter  written  to  him  by  Paul. 
The  date  of  this  Epistle,  presupposing  its  gen¬ 
uineness,  must  be  placed  between  Paul’s  first 
and  second  imprisonments.  (See  New  Testa¬ 
ment  Chronology.  )  Titus  had  accompanied 
Paul  to  Crete,  where  he  had  been  left  by  the 
Apostle  to  organize  further  the  churches  there 
planted.  Fie  was  summoned  thence  to  join  Paul 
at  Nicopolis,  where  Paul  planned  to  winter.  We 
do  not  know  whether  this  plan  was  carried  out. 
Titus  is  next  mentioned  in  2  Timothy  (iv.  10), 
the  last  of  Paul’s  letters,  as  having  departed, 
presumably  from  Rome,  for  Dalmatia.  Nothing 
more  is  said  of  Titus  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  impression  made  by  the  references  given  is 
that  he  was  a  true  and  capable  assistant  to  the 
great  Apostle,  one  of  the  foremost  of  that  circle 
of  loyal  disciples  through  whom  Paul  accom¬ 
plished  his  great  work.  Tradition  makes  him 
Bishop  of  Crete,  but  of  this  there  is  no  early 
evidence.  See  Timothy  and  Titus,  Epistles  to. 

TITUS  (Titus  Flavius  Sabinus  Vespa- 
sianus  )  ( c. 40-81  a.d.  ) ,  Roman  Emperor  (79-81 
a.d.  ) .  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  Emperor 
Vespasian  and  Flavia  Domitilla,  and  was  born 
at  Rome.  Brought  up  at  the  court  of  Nero, 
he  received  an  excellent  training,  and  subse¬ 
quently,  as  tribunus  militum  in  Germany  and 
Britain,  and  commander  of  a  legion  in  Judaea 
under  his  father,  proved  his  qualities  as  a 
soldier  and  a  general.  On  his  father’s  elevation 
to  the  Imperial  throne  Titus  was  left  to  prose¬ 
cute  the  Jewish  War,  which  he  brought  to  a 
close  by  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (Sept.  8,  70 
a.d.)  after  a  long  siege.  The  news  of  the 
success  was  received  with  the  utmost  joy.  On 
his  return  to  Rome  he  obtained  the  honor  of 
a  joint  triumph  with  Vespasian  (71  a.d.). 

About  thi3  time  Titus  became  his  father’s  col¬ 
league  in  the  Empire.  He  gave  himself  up  to 
the  pursuit  of  pleasure  in  all  its  forms,  put 
to  death  various  suspected  persons  very  sum¬ 
marily,  and  even  caused  one  of  his  gaiests,  whom 


TITUS 


TIVOLI 


310 


he  justly  suspected  of  conspiracy,  to  be  assas¬ 
sinated  as  he  left  the  palace.  V  hen,  on  the 
death  of  his  father  (79  a.d.),  he  became  Em¬ 
peror,  his  first  act  was  to  put  a  stop  to  all 
prosecutions  for  lsesa  majestas,  which  had 
abounded  since  the  time  of  Tiberius  (q.v.). 
The  ancient  and  venerated  buildings  of  Rome 
were  repaired;  new  structures,  such  as  the 
Baths  of  Titus  (see  Titus,  Baths  of),  were 
erected;  and  the  tastes  of  the  populace  were 
gratified  by  games  on  the  most  stupendous  scale, 
which  lasted  for  100  days.  Titus’s  beneficence 
was  unbounded,  and  it  so  happened  that  during 
his  brief  reign  there  was  the  most  urgent  need  of 
its  exercise.  In  79  a.d.  occurred  the  eruption 
of  Vesuvius,  which  overwhelmed  Herculaneum 
and  Pompeii  and  ruined  numerous  other  towns 
and  villages;  in  80  a.d.  a  fire  broke  out  in 
Rome,  which  raged  for  three  days,  destroying 
the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  which  had 
just  been  rebuilt,  and  other  public  edifices,  be¬ 
sides  numerous  houses ;  and  in  the  tracks  of 
these  calamities  followed  a  dreadful  pestilence. 
Titus  dealt  out  gifts  with  lavish  hand  to  the 
houseless  and  ruined  sufferers;  he  even  despoiled 
his  palaces  of  their  valuable  ornaments  to  ob¬ 
tain  money  for  distribution,  and  schemed  and 
planned  to  furnish  occupation  for  the  afflicted. 
He  was  now  the  idol  of  his  subjects,  the  “love 
and  delight  of  the  human  race”;  but,  unfortu¬ 
nately,  in  the  commencement  of  the  third  year 
of  his  reign  he  became  suddenly  ill,  and  died  at 
Reate,  in  the  Sabine  country.  The  reign  of 
Titus  saw  the  extension  of  the  Roman  power  in 
Britain.  Consult  the  article  “Flavius,  49,”  in 
Friedrich  Liibker,  Reallexikon  des  klassischen 
A Itertums,  vol.  i  (8th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914). 

TITUS,  Arch  of.  A  triumphal  arch  in  Rome 
at  the  highest  point  of  the  Sacred  Way,  facing 
the  Forum,  and  situated  between  the  Temple  of 
Venus  and  Rome  and  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 
Stator.  It  was  erected  by  Domitian  in  81  a.d. 
in  commemoration  of  the  taking  of  Jerusalem 
by  Titus  (70‘  a.d.)  and  is  adorned  with  fine 
reliefs  on  the  inner  sides  of  the  archway,  repre¬ 
senting  the  triumph  of  Titus,  and  the  spoils  of 
the  temple,  including  the  seven-branched  candle¬ 
stick  and  the  table  with  showbread.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  the  arch  was  built  into  the 
fortifications  of  the  Frangipani;  and  when  these 
were  demolished  the  arch  was  taken  down  in 
1822  and  rebuilt  to  insure  its  safety,  the  miss¬ 
ing  portions  being  supplied  by  travertine  instead 
of  the  original  Pentelic  marble. 

TITUS,  Baths  of.  Extensive  baths  north¬ 
east  of  the  Coliseum  at  Rome,  built  by  Titus 
(Thermae  Titianae)  on  the  ruins  of  the  Golden 
House  of  Nero  and  supplied  by  the  Aqua  Marcia. 
Their  exact  situation  was  long  a  matter  of 
dispute,  and  they  were  generally  conceived  to 
be  identical  with  the  Baths  of  Trajan  and  to 
have  been  called  by  the  latter  name  because 
restored  by  him.  Excavations  in  1895  finally 
determined"  their  topography  and  showed  them  to 
be  distinct  from  the  adjoining  Baths  of  Trajan. 
Consult  S.  B.  Platner,  The  Topography  and  Monu¬ 
ments  of  Ancient  Rome  (2d  ed.,  Boston,  1911). 

TITUS,  Epistle  to.  A  letter  in  the  New 
Testament,  attributed  to  the  Apostle  Paul.  See 
Timothy  and  Titus,  Epistles  to. 

TITUS  AN'DRONI'CUS.  The  name  of  a 
tragedy  usually  included  among  Shakespeare’s 
works,  though  it  is  now  generally  considered  to 
have  been  only  retouched  by  Shakespeare  in 
1589-90,  on  the  foundation  of  an  earlier  play. 


It  is  alluded  to  by  Meres  in  1598  among  Shake¬ 
speare’s  tragedies;  but,  though  a  quarto  edi¬ 
tion  is  said  to  have  been  printed  in  1594,  no 
extant  copy  is  earlier  than  the  quarto  of  1600. 
Crude  as  it  is,  it  belongs  to  the  same  type 
of  play  as  Hamlet;  both  are  dramas  of  revenge, 
after  the  fashion  of  Kvd. 

TI'TUSVILLE.  A  city  in  Crawford  Co.,  Pa., 
38  miles  southeast  of  Erie,  on  Oil  Creek,  and 
on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the  New  Tork  Central 
railroads  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  B  2).  It  has  a 
public  librarv  and  a  hospital.  In  August,  1859, 
the  first  oil  well  in  the  United  States  was 
sunk  here,  and  the  city  is  still  largely  interested 
in  the  oil  industry.  It  has  oil  refineries,  large 
iron  and  steel  works,  radiator  works,  a  tannery, 
cutlery  works,  silk  mills,  saw  and  planing 
mills,  engine  works,  etc.  Titusville  has  adopted 
the  commission  form  of  government.  The  water 
works  and  the  electric-light  plant  are  owned  and 
operated  by  the  municipality.  Titusville  was 
settled  in  1796.  On  June  5,  1892,  Oil  Creek, 
swollen  by  a  cloudburst,  flooded  the  lower  part 
of  the  city.  Soon  afterward  several  oil  tanks 
gave  way.  The  liberated  oil,  covering  nearly 
the  whole  surface  of  the  flood,  became  ignited, 
and  the  fire  and  flood  together  destroyed  about 
60  lives  and  fully  one-third  of  the  city.  Pop., 
1900,  8244;  1910/8533;  1915  (U.  S.  est.),  8684. 

TIUMEN,  or  TYUMEN,'  tybo-man'y’.  A 
town  in  the  Government  of  Tobolsk,  west  Si¬ 
beria,  on  the  Tura,  at  the  east  end  of  the 
Perm-Tiumen  Railway  line  (Map:  Asia,  H  3). 
It  is  an  important  centre  in  the  transit  trade 
of  Siberia  and  has  shipbuilding  yards,  woolen 
mills,  and  tanneries.  Pop.,  1908,  33,791. 

TIV'ERTON.  A  municipal  and  Parliamen- 
tarv  borough  and  market  town  in  Devonshire, 
England,  14  miles  north  of  Exeter  (Map:  Eng¬ 
land,  C  6).  There  are  important  weekly  mar¬ 
kets,  and  great  animal  markets  for  cattle.  There 
is  a  large  lace  factory,  in  which  nearly  2000  hands 
are  employed ;  there  are  also  breweries  and  flour 
mills.  Blundell’s  School,  just  outside  the  town, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  schools  in  the  west 
of  England.  Pop.,  1901,  10,382;  1911,  10,205. 

TIVERTON.  A  town  in  Newport  Co.,  R.  I., 
adjoining  Fall  River,  Mass.,  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map: 
Rhode  Island,  D  3).  Cotton  manufactures  and 
fishing  are  the  chief  industries.  Pop.,  1900, 
2977;  1910,  4032. 

TIV'OLI  (Lat.  Tibur) .  An  old  town  of  Cen¬ 
tral  Italy,  Province  of  Rome,  19  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Rome  (Map:  Italy,  D  4).  It 
stands  on  the  slope  of  Monte  Ripoli,  one  of 
the  Apennines.  Tivoli  is  walled  and  has.  a 
fortress.  The  surrounding  hills  are  covered  with 
olive  trees.  The  vines  of  Tivoli  are  famed  for 
a  peculiar  sort  of  grape,  in  great  request  for 
its  firmness  and  luscious  flavor,  noticed  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Pliny  the  Elder.  The  stone 
called  travertine,  of  which  a  great  part  of 
Rome  is  built,  comes  from  quarries  just  below 
Tivoli.  On  the  western  slope  of  the  town  lies 
the  famous  Villa  cl’Este,  of  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  Within  and  without  the  city  there  are 
many  monuments  of  antiquity.  In  a  command¬ 
ing  position  above  the  falls  of  the  Anio  stand 
the  remains  of  two  temples,  one  circular  (so- 
called  Temple  of  the  Sibyl)  and  one  rectangular 
(so-called  Temple  of  Tiburtus),  the  former  of 
which  antedates  the  Christian  era.  In  the 
neighborhood  there  are  extensive  remains  of 
the°  Emperor  Hadrian’s  magnificent  villa,  the 


TIVOLI 


TLINKIT 


villa  of  Maecenas,  remains  of  mausoleums,  aque¬ 
ducts,  baths,  etc.  The  place  is  much  visited  by 
tourists  for  its  waterfalls,  which  are  lofty  and 
very  picturesque.  The  Anio  furnishes  excellent 
water  power,  which  since  1892  has  been  utilized 
for  electric  lighting  both  at  Tivoli  and  at  Rome, 
and  for  ironworks  at  the  former  town.  Tibur 
existed  as  a  town  (according  to  ancient  tradi¬ 
tion)  long  before  the  building  of  Rome,  under 
whose  dominion  it  fell  about  335  b.c.  It  was  a 
favorite  place  of  sojourn  with  Horace,  who  men¬ 
tions  it  repeatedly.  Consult  K.  Baedeker,  Central 
Italy  and  Rome  (15th  Eng.  ed.,  Leipzig,  1909). 

TIVOLI,  Plato  of.  See  Plato  of  Tivoli. 

TIXTLA,  tes'tla,  or  Tixtla  de  Guerrero. 
A  town  formerly  the  capital  of  the  State  of 
Guerrero,  Mexico,  5  miles  east  of  the  capital, 
Chilpancingo  (Map:  Mexico,  J  9).  The  town 
is  in  a  fertile,  well-watered  valley,  with  silver 
mines  in  the  vicinity.  An  earthquake  on  April 
14,  1907,  destroyed  Tixtla  and  two  other  towns 
in  Guerrero.  Pop.,  1900,  6316;  1910,  6448. 

TLACOLULA,  tla'kO-loo'la.  A  town  of  the 
state  of  Oaxaca,  Mexico,  18  miles  southeast  of 
the  city  of  Oaxaca  (Map:  Mexico,  L  9).  Pop., 
1900,  5675;  1910,  4934. 

TLACOTALPAN,  tlii'ko-tal'pan.  A  Gulf 
seaport  of  Mexico,  50  miles  southeast  of  Vera 
Cruz,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Papaloapan  (Map: 
Mexico,  L  8).  Pop.,  6300. 

TLALPAM,  tlal'pam.  A  town  of  the  Federal 
District,  Mexico,  10  miles  south  of  the  capital 
(Map:  Mexico,  C,  D  10).  It  is  a  noted  summer 
resort  and  each  spring  at  Whitsuntide  its  church 
of  San  Antonio  de  las  Cuevas  is  visited  by 
thousands  of  pilgrims.  Pop.,  1910,  15,448. 

TL ATLAU QUITEPEC,  tla-tlou  'ke-ta-pek'.  A 
town  of  the  State  of  Puebla,  Mexico,  42  miles 
northwest  of  Jalapa.  Pop.,  1900,  9829. 

TLAXCALA,  or  TLASCALA,  tlas-ka'la 
(Mex.,  land  of  maize).  The  smallest  state  of 
Mexico.  Area  1534  square  miles  (Map:  Mexico, 
K  8 ) .  It  lies  within  the  central  plateau  of 
•  Mexico  at  an  elevation  of  about  7000  feet  above 
the  sea.  Several  mountain  peaks  rise  on  the 
west  and  the  south  frontiers.  The  Sierra  Ma- 
linche  has  an  altitude  of  13,475  feet.  The  rivers 
are  short  and  unnavigable.  The  chief  industry 
is  agriculture,  and  the  principal  products  are 
cereals,  especially  maize.  The  state  has  good 
transportation  facilities.  Pop.,  1910,  184,171. 
Capital,  Tlaxcala. 

The  natives  of  Tlaxcala  were  of  Nahuan 
stock  (q.v.)  and  spoke  the  same  language  as  the 
Aztecs,  the  dominant  people  of  the  Mexican 
Empire,  but  maintained  their  independence  in 
spite  of  repeated  attempts  of  the  Aztec  em¬ 
perors  to  subjugate  them.  On  the  arrival  of 
Cortes  in  1519  he  was  at  first  fiercely  resisted 
by  the  people  of  Tlaxcala,  but  they  were  de¬ 
feated,  and,  submitting,  furnished  a  large  con¬ 
tingent  to  assist  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico. 
In  recognition  of  their  services  they  were  ac¬ 
corded  special  privileges  under  the  Spanish  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  on  account  of  their  loyalty  and 
fighting  qualities  numbers  of  them  were  after¬ 
ward  colonized  at  Saltillo,  in  Coahuila,  and  at 
Izalco,  in  Salvador,  as  a  check  upon  the  hostile 
inroads  of  the  native  tribes.  The  present  popu¬ 
lation  of  Tlaxcala  is  chiefly  of  the  aboriginal 
stock  and  language.  They  maintain  many  of 
their  ancient  beliefs  and  customs. 

TLAXCALA,  or  TLASCALA.  A  Mexican 
town,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  the  same  name, 
58  miles  east  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  on  a  branch 


ii 

of  the  Mexican  Railway,  running  between 
Puebla  and  Apizaco,  in  the  valley  of  the  river 
Atoyac  ( Map :  Mexico,  K  8).  The  modern  town, 
near  the  site  of  the  Indian  capital,  has  lost 
much  of  its  former  greatness.  It  contains  the 
state  house,  and  the  ancient  bishop’s  palace, 
probably  the  oldest  Franciscan  building  in 
America,  while  near  it  are  many  remains  of  for¬ 
mer  Indian  structures.  The  magnificent  sanc¬ 
tuary  of  Ocotlan  is  one  of  the  landmarks  of 
the  surrounding  country.  The  principal  ex¬ 
ports  are  grain,  hides,  and  cloth.  Pop.,  1900, 
2715;  1910,  2812. 

TLAXIACO,  tla-syiPko.  A  town  of  the  State 
of  Oaxaca,  Mexico,  63  miles  northwest  of  the 
city  of  that  name,  on  the  headwaters  of  the 
Atoyac  ( Map :  Mexico,  K  9 ) .  It  is  an  impor¬ 
tant  commercial  centre.  Pop.,  1910,  7847. 

TLEMCEN,  tlem-sen'.  The  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  Department  of  Oran,  Al¬ 
geria,  near  the  Moroccan  frontier.  It  is  81 
miles  southwest  of  the  city  of  Oran,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  rail,  and  stands  in  an  undulat¬ 
ing  country,  everywhere  irrigated  and  highly 
cultivated  ( Map :  Africa,  El).  It  is  also 
connected  by  rail  with  its  port,  Rashgun,  37 
miles  distant.  The  town  is  accessible  only  from 
the  southwest,  the  other  sides  presenting  steeply 
escarped  fronts.  It  is  protected  from  the  south 
wind  by  a  range  of  mountains,  4200  feet  in 
height,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  ruins  of  its 
ancient  battlemented  wall.  It  contains  Roman 
Catholic  and  Protestant  churches,  magnificent 
mosques,  synagogues,  and  a  museum  of  interest¬ 
ing  antiquities.  The  town  is  well  supplied  with 
spring  water,  and  a  basin  under  the  walls  720 
feet  long  by  490  feet  wide  and  10  feet  deep, 
used  for  naval  exhibitions  by  the  ancient  Tlern- 
cen  rulers,  is  now  a  reservoir.  The  district  is 
covered  with  fruit  trees  of  all  kinds,  of  which 
the  olive  is  one  of  the  most  valuable;  cereals, 
tobacco,  etc.,  are  extensively  produced.  Besides 
the  special  markets,  a  daily  market  is  held,  at 
which  cattle,  wool,  grain,  and  oils  are  sold. 
Ostrich  feathers  and  cork  are  exported;  and 
woolen  goods,  leather,  saddles,  slippers,  and  arms 
are  manufactured.  Pop.,  1911,  39,874,  more  than 
two-thirds  of  whom  were  of  native  origin.  Dat¬ 
ing  from  1002,  Tlemcen  has  an  interesting  his¬ 
tory  under  Berber,  Arab,  Spanish,  and  Turkish 
rule.  It  had  about  100,000  inhabitants  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  It  has  been  on  the  decline 
since  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  French  ultimately  occupied  it  in  1842. 

TLIN'KIT,  or  Tlingit  ( people ) ,  or  Kolosh 
(Russ.,  from  Aleut  kolosh,  kaluga,  little  trough, 
in  allusion  to  the  enormous  and  peculiarly  shaped 
labrets  worn  among  them,  especially  by  the  Sitka) . 
A  group  of  tribes,  of  which  the  Auk,  Chilkat, 
Henya,  Huna,  Hutsnuwu,  Kake,  Kuyu,  Sitka, 
Stikine,  Taku,  Tongas,  and  Yakutat  are  still 
recognized.  They  constitute  a  distinct  lin¬ 
guistic  stock  known  as  the  Kolushan,  occupying 
the  coast  and  islands  of  southern  Alaska  from 
Mount  St.  Elias  southward  to  the  entrance  of 
the  Nass  River.  They  are  a  seafaring  people 
with  strongly  marked  characteristics.  Before 
the  demoralization  wrought  by  the  advent  of 
the  white  man  they  lived  in  permanent  villages 
of  solidly  constructed  houses  of  massive  beams 
and  great  planks  of  cedar,  each  with  its  tall 
totem  pole,  and  with  corner  posts  also  carved 
in  totemic  designs.  Their  canoes  were  hewn 
from  cedar  trunks,  and  their  mats  and  cordage 
were  woven  from  cedar  bark  fibre.  They  were 


TMESIS 


312 


TOAD 


expert  stone  carvers  and  copper  workers.  They 
were  enterprising  traders  and  controlled  the 
trade  from  the  coast  to  the  interior  tribes,  us¬ 
ing  dentalium  shells  as  a  currency  medium  and 
setting  great  store  upon  the  acquisition  of  prop¬ 
erty.  They  had  two  phratries,  the  Raven  and 
Wolf,  with  descent  in  the  female  line,  but  the 
chieftainship  was  elective,  being  usually  ac¬ 
corded  to  the  most  generous  distributor  at  the 
ceremony  of  the  potlatch  (q.v.).  Slavery  was 
an  established  custom,  slaves  from  other  tribes 
being  a  staple  article  of  trade  and  treated  by 
their  masters  with  great  cruelty.  The  dead 
were  cremated,  excepting  priests,  whose  bodies 
were  wrapped  in  mats  and  deposited  with  their 
sacred  belongings  in  grave  houses  on  commanding 
cliffs.  Their  principal  mythologic  hero  was  the 
Raven,  who  brought  fire  to  the  people  and  set 
the  sun  and  moon  in  their  courses.  They  did 
not  flatten  the  head,  as  did  the  more  southern 
tribes,  but  wore  labrets  as  marks  of  distinction 
and  honor,  the  insertion  of  each  successive 
larger  labret  being  the  occasion  of  a  potlatch 
distribution.  They  were  a  warlike  race,  strong 
and  well  built,  and  regarded  by  the  Russians  as 
of  superior  intellect,  but  have  deteriorated  by 
contact  with  civilization.  They  numbered  4426 
in  1910,  and  derive  a  large  part  of  their  sub¬ 
sistence  by  labor  in  the  salmon  canneries.  Con¬ 
sult  Krause,  Die  Tlinkit  Inclianer  (Jena,  1885). 
See  also  Sitka;  Yakut  at. 

TMESIS,  t’me'sis  or  me'sis.  See  Etymology, 
Figures  of. 

T.N.T.  See  Trinitrotoluenes. 

TOA,  or  AITOA.  See  Casuarina. 

TOAD  (AS.  tadige,  tadie,  toad;  of  unknown 
etymology ) .  The  common  name  applied  to  any 
one  of  the  numerous  species  of  tailless  Amphibia 
belonging  to  the  family  Bufonidae  and  a  few 
kindred  families.  More  than  120  species  belong 
to  the  typical  genus  Bufo,  which  is  nearly  cosmo¬ 
politan,  but  most  numerously  represented  in 
tropical  America,  and  absent  from  Madagascar, 
Papuasia,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Toads  differ  from  typical  frogs  (Raninse)  in  the 
absence  of  teeth,  in  having  the  sacral  diapo¬ 
physes  dilated,  and  the  sternum  wholly  carti¬ 
laginous.  Most  have  a  short-limbed,  thickset 
figure  and  warty  skin,  and  the  majority  are 
quite  terrestrial  or  burrowing,  but  some  are 
aquatic  and  others  arboreal  or  aberrantly  modi¬ 
fied.  There  are  eight  genera  in  the  family, 
besides  Bufo.  Noticeable  among  these  are 
the  common  Australian  toad  ( Myobatraclms 
gouldi ) ,  smooth-skinned;  the  repulsive  egg- 
shaped,  long-tongued,  termite-eating  Mexican 
species  ( Rhinophrynus  dorsalis)  ;  and  the  large, 
warty,  swimming  toads  of  the  East  Indian  genus 
V ectopliryne. 

The  common  toad  of  eastern  North  America 
( Bufo  lentiginosus)  is  a  fair  type  of  the  group. 
It  reaches  a  length  of  about  3Yo  inches,  is 
brownish  olive,  with  a  yellowish  vertebral  line 
and  some  brownish  spots,  but  is  exceedingly  vari¬ 
able.  The  skin  of  young  toads  is  nearly  smooth, 
that  of  adults  very  warty.  It  contains  many 
poison  glands  from  which  a  milky  somewhat  acrid 
fluid  exudes  when  the  animal  is  roughly  handled. 
This  and  the  urine  are  harmless  to  man,  but 
have  a  protective  value  against  predatory 
animals. 

The  food  of  the  toad  consists  of  worms,  in¬ 
sects,  and  snails,  which  must  be  alive  and  mov¬ 
ing  in  order  to  attract  its  notice.  These  are 
seized  by  the  rapid  darting  out  of  the  tongue. 


(See  Frog.)  This  fare  is  captured  mainly  dur¬ 
ing  twilight  and  at  night.  The  list  of  known 
foods  embraces  almost  every  sort  of  insect 
and  larva,  including  many  injurious  to  horticul¬ 
ture;  there  is  no  doubt  that  toads  keep  down 
pests.  They  molt  the  outer  skin  several  times 
a  year,  struggling  out  of  it,  and  then  swallowing 
it.  When  cold  weather  comes  they  dig  a  hole 
in  the  ground,  or  find  some  warm,  dry  crevice 
among  rocks,  in  a  cellar,  etc.,  and  become  dor¬ 
mant.  This  power  of  hibernation,  and  their 
ability  to  endure  deprivation  of  food  and  water, 
tend  to  great  longevity;  toads  under  favorable 
conditions  will  live  perhaps  30  years.  .  The 
stories  of  buried  toads  surviving  for  long  inter¬ 
vals  in  solid  clay  or  rock,  are  usually  unworthy 
of  belief.  Experiment  has  shown  that  no  toad 
can  long  endure  deprivation  of  air,  water,  and 
food,  though  in  porous  stone  or  moist  soil  they 
might  remain  alive  for  long  periods.  As  soon 
as  toads  emerge  in  the  spring  their  piping 
is  heard,  and  they  make  their  way  to  water, 
where  fighting  between  males  and  mating  begin. 
After  a  few  days  long  gelatinous  ropes  of  black 
holoblastic  eggs,  each  about  one-fifteenth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  are  to  be  found  coiled  or 
matted  in  warm  ponds  and  roadside  pools. 
Each  female  begins  to  breed  when  about  four 
years  old,  and  lays  six  to  ten  thousand  eggs 
annually.  These  eggs  rapidly  develop  into  em¬ 
bryos,  and  hatch  in  four  weeks  or  less,  accord¬ 
ing  to  weather.  The  larvse  are  considerably 
advanced  when  freed  from  the  egg,  and  are  pro¬ 
vided  with  a  peculiar  temporary  organ  in  place 
of  the  yet  undeveloped  mouth,  by  which  they 
cling  to  weeds  and  similar  supports;  and  with 
bushy  external  gills  as  breathing  organs.  There 
is  no  trace  of  limbs,  but  a  swimming  organ 
is  present  in  the  form  of  a  large  fin-bordered 
tail.  Development  proceeds  rapidly.  The  true 
mouth  is  soon  formed,  and  the  tadpoles  begin  to 
feed  upon  the  minute  algse  coating  the  bottom 
and  floating  on  the  surface,  and  later  eat  ani¬ 
mal  substances.  They  are  good  scavengers  for 
an  aquarium.  They  keep  in  shallow  water  near 
shore,  but  are  preyed  upon  by  newts,  turtles, 
fishes,  and  predaceous  aquatic  insects.  Gradu¬ 
ally  growth  advances,  the  fore  legs  appear,  and 
later  the  hind  legs  are  developed  and  the  tail 
and  gill  tufts  are  gradually  absorbed.  (For  ex¬ 
periments  in  rearing  tadpoles  under  various 
food  conditions,  see  Evolution,  Polymorphism.) 
By  midsummer  the  limbs  are  perfected,  lungs 
have  been  formed,  the  tail  is  reduced  to  a 
stump,  and  the  tadpoles  emerge  as  small  toads. 
Here  they  encounter  enemies — birds,  snakes,  tur¬ 
tles,  etc. — so  that  a  very  small  proportion  de¬ 
velop  into  adulthood,  when  they  have  few 
enemies  except  snakes. 

The  common  toad  of  the  Old  World  ( Bufo 
vulgaris)  is  very  similar  to  the  American  toad. 
It  inhabits  almost  the  whole  Palsearctie  region, 
eastward  to  China  and  Japan.  India  and  the 
Malay  Archipelago  have  a  widely  prevalent  and 
very  rough-skinned  species  (Bufo  meh  tvs), 

with  the  power  of  changing  color.  green 

toad  of  the  Mediterranean  region  (B  ridis) 

is  highly  variable  in  color;  and  th  •  erjack 
and  panther  toads  (qq.v.)  of  we?  Turope 
resemble  it.  The  largest  member  o  .  enus  is 
the  huge  agua  toad  of  tropical  A'  (See 

Agua.)  Various  more  distantly  rel  -  amphib¬ 
ians  are  called  toads,  e.g.,  tree  toa^  e  Hyla; 
Tree  Frog);  the  South  Americai  '  id  frogs 
(q.v.)  of  the  cystignathine  genu  e  tophrys; 


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TOAD  BUG  313  TOBACCO 


the  Surinam  toad  (see  Pipa),  and  others.  Cf. 
Frog  ;  Spadefoot. 

Fossil  toads  are  quite  rare,  but  are  found 
scattered  through  the  Tertiary  formations  from 
the  Eocene  upward,  especially  in  Europe.  Some 
very  fine  skeletons  of  toads,  and  even  remains 
of  tadpoles,  have  been  found  in  the  fresh  water 
Miocene  deposits  of  Germany. 

Consult:  E.  D.  Cope,  “Batrachia  of  North 
America,  ’  in  United  States  National  Museum, 
Bulletin  No.  34  (Washington,  1889);  G.  A. 
Boulenger,  Tailless  Batrachians  of  Europe,  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  Ray  Society  (London,  1896)  ;  Kirk¬ 
land,  “Habits,  Food,  and  Economic  Value  of  the 
American  Toad,”  in  Hatch  Experiment  Station, 
Bulletin  No.  6  (Amherst,  Mass.,  1897);  Hans 
Gadow,  ‘Amphibia  and  Reptiles,”  in  Cambridge 
Natural  History,  vol.  viii  (London,  1901)  ;  M.  C. 
Dickerson,  The  Frog  Booh  (new  ed.,  New  York, 
1914);  and  E.  G.  Boulanger,  Reptiles  and 
Batrachians  (ib.,  1914).  See  accompanying  Col¬ 
ored  Plate. 

TOAD  BUG.  Any  of  the  curious  lieterop- 
terous  insects  of  the  family  Galgulidae.  They 
have  a  short,  broad  body,  projecting  eyes,  and 
dull,  mottled  colors,  suggesting  a  miniature  toad. 
They  live  in  moist  places  along  the  banks  of 
streams  and  ponds.  About  20  species  are  known, 
of  which  three  inhabit  the  United  States,  where 
the  commonest  species  is  Galgulus  oculatus. 

TOADFISH,  or  Sapo.  One  of  a  family 
( Batraclioididse )  of  fishes  allied  to  the  gobies, 
the  young  of  which  fasten  themselves  to  rocks 


by  a  central  disk  which  is  soon  lost.  They  are 
small  carnivorous  and  scavenging  coast  fishes  of 
all  warm  seas,  abundant  about  weedy  rocks  and 
coral  reefs.  They  have  a  robust  form,  are  inac¬ 
tive,  and  resemble  toads  in  the  mingled  browns 
and  yellows  of  their  coloration.  The  species  il¬ 
lustrated  ( Opsansus  pardus)  inhabits  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico. 

TOADFLAX,  Ramsted  or  Butter-and-Eggs 
(Linaria).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family 
Scrophulariaceie,  distinguished  chiefly  by  the 
spur  at  the  base  of  the  corolla  and  the  capsule 
opening  by  valves  or  teeth.  The  species  are 
herbaceous,  natives  chiefly  of  the  colder  and  tem¬ 
perate  parts  of  the  Old  World.  Common  toad¬ 
flax  ( Linaria  vulgaris)  has  an  erect  stem  one 
to  three  feet  high,  with  glaucous,  linear-lanceo¬ 
late  leaves  which  thickly  cover  the  stem,  and 
terminal  spikes  of  yellow  flowers.  It  grows  in 
fields  along  roadsides,  etc.,  in  Europe  and  Amer¬ 
ica,  where  it  has  been  introduced  and  where  it 
is  usually  considered  a  troublesome  weed.  A 
monstrosity  called  peloria  is  sometimes  seen 
in  this  plant,  the  flower  presenting  five  spurs  and 
five  usually  imperfect  stamens. 

TOADSTOOL.  A  fungus  of  the  group  Basidio- 
mvcetes  (q.v.),  whose  spore-bearing  body  is 
Ulv  a  stalk  bearing  a  cap.  The  name  is  often 
used  •  ular  way  as  applying  to  poisonous 

fo.nis  1  inction  from  the  edible  mushrooms, 

’  .  U-  inction  is  not  one  of  classification. 

See  I  v  a  .  Odible  and  Poisonous;  Mushroom. 


TOAST  (OF.  toste,  from  ML.  tosta,  toast, 
Lat.  fern.  sing,  of  p.p.  of  torrere,  to  dry).  Origi¬ 
nally  the  name  given  to  bread  dried  or  scorched 
before  the  fire.  As  early  as  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury  toast  formed  a  favorite  addition  to  English 
drinks,  especially  sack  and  punch.  The  appli¬ 
cation  of  the  word  to  a  lady  whose  health  is 
drunk,  and  thence  to  any  sentiment  mentioned 
with  honor  before  drinking,  is  said  to  have 
originated  from  an  incident  described  in  The 
Tatler  (No.  24,  June  4,  1709),  as  having  hap¬ 
pened  at  Bath  in  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
it  was  the  fashion  for  ladies  to  bathe  publicly, 
in  elegant  dresses  made  for  the  purpose.  It 
happened  that  on  a  public  day  a  celebrated 
beauty  of  these  times  was  in  the  Cross  Bath,  and 
one  of  the  crowd  of  her  admirers  took  a  glass 
of  the  water  in  which  the  fair  one  stood,  and 
drank  her  health  to  the  company.  There  was 
in  the  place  a  gay  fellow,  half  fuddled,  who  of¬ 
fered  to  jump  in,  and  swore,  though  he  liked 
not  the  liquor,  he  would  have  the  toast  (meaning 
the  lady).  In  the  later  sense,  the  word  has 
been  adopted  both  in  French  and  German.  Con¬ 
sult  Edmund  and  Williams,  compilers,  Toaster’ s 
Handbook  (White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  1914). 

TOBA,  tefba  (opposite,  so  called  by  the 
Guarani,  as  living  on  the  opposite  or  western 
bank  of  the  Paraguay).  A  powerful  and  savage 
people  of  Guaicuruan  stock,  the  most  important 
tribe  of  the  Chaco  region  of  northern  Argentina. 
They  rove  along  the  Pilcomayo  and  Vermejo 
rivers.  Their  language  is  a  dialect  of  that  for¬ 
merly  spoken  by  the  Abipone  (q.v.),  whom  they 
exterminated  about  a  century  ago.  They  hunt 
and  fight  on  horseback  with  the  lance  and  bow, 
and  are  warlike  and  untamably  hostile  to  all 
whites  who  attempt  to  enter  the  region.  See 
Guaicuruan. 


toadflax  ( Linaria  vulgaris). 


TOBACCO  (Sp.  tabacco,  tabaco,  from  the 
Carib  name,  of  uncertain  meaning;  perhaps  the 
name  of  the  pipe  smoked  by  the  Indians,  or 
of  the  tubes  into  which  the  leaves  are  rolled  for 


TOBACCO 


TOBACCO 


314 


smoking,  or  the  Haitian  name  of  the  plant,  or 
the  old  name  of  the  island  now  called  Tobago, 
near  Trinidad,  or  the  name  of  a  province  To- 
baco,  said  to  be  in  Yucatan),  Nicotiana  tabacum. 
A  plant  of  the  family  Solanacese,  cultivated 
for  its  leaves,  which  when  cured  are  used  for 
smoking,  chewing  and  as  snuff.  It  has  broad 
leaves,  terminal  panicles  of  flowers,  and  two- 
celled,  five-valved  fruits  (manv-seeded  capsules). 
It  is  a  native  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  where 
the  aborigines  cultivated  and  used  it  from  re¬ 
mote  times.  Its  generic  name  is  in  honor  of 
Jean  Nicot,  who  introduced  it  into  France  in 
1559  from  Spain,  where  it  had  been  introduced 
from  Santo  Domingo  in  the  same  year.  In  1585 


tobacco  ( Nicotiana  tabacum). 


it  was  taken  to  England  by  Sir  Francis  Drake, 
and  the  practice  of  pipe  smoking  introduced 
among  the  Elizabethan  courtiers  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh.  Its  use  rapidly  extended  throughout 
Europe,  and  soon  became  extensively  prevalent 
among  Oriental  nations.  Tobacco  was  at  first 
recommended  for  medicinal  virtues,  but  soon 
became  an  article  of  luxury. 

In  America  the  culture  of  tobacco  began  in 
Virginia  with  the  earliest  settlement  of  the 
colony.  It  is  recorded  that  in  1615  the  gardens, 
fields,  and  even  the  streets  of  Jamestown  were 
planted  with  tobacco,  which  immediately  be¬ 
came,  not  only  the  staple  crop,  but  the  principal 
currency  of  the  colony.  The  culture  of  tobacco 
was  introduced  into  the  Dutch  colony  of  New 
York  in  1646,  though  it  never  gained  the  same 
prominence  there  as  farther  south.  Maryland, 
the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  and  later  Kentucky, 
made  it  the  leading  crop  almost  from  their 
first  settlement.  It  "long  constituted  the  most 
valuable  export  of  the  colonies.  From  1744  to 
1776  the  exports  of  the  crop  averaged  40,000,000 
pounds  a  year.  Its  culture  without  the  use  of 
manure  or  fertilizer  led  to  the  injury  of  much 
land,  and  was  condemned  by  thoughtful  farmers 
like  Washington. 

As  a  commercial  crop  tobacco  is  now  con¬ 
fined  to  rather  limited  areas  in  a  few  States. 
In  the  production  of  wrapper  leaf  for  cigars 
Florida  and  Connecticut  take  the  lead.  Penn¬ 
sylvania.  Ohio,  and  Wisconsin  produce  a  great 
deal  of  filler  leaf  for  cigars.  Chewing,  smoking, 
snuff,  and  export  types  of  tobacco  are  grow 


extensively  in  Kentucky,  North  Carolina,  Vir¬ 
ginia,  Tennessee,  South  Carolina,  and  Mary¬ 
land,  in  the  order  named. 

The  United  States  produces  more  tobacco  than 
any  other  country  in  the  world,  about  35  per 
cent  of  the  world’Vcrop,  and  exports  about  one- 
third  of  the  product,  chiefly  to  the  United  King¬ 
dom,  Germanv,  France,  Italy,  Holland,  and  Spain. 
The  tobacco  crop  of  the  United  States  in  1915 
amounted  to  1,060,587,000  pounds,  grown  on  1,- 
368,400  acres,  the  average  yield  being  775  pounds 
per  acre.  The  crop  represented  a  value  on  the 
farm  of  $96,041,000.  In  1913  the  United  States 
exported  to  foreign  countries  444,371,661  pounds 
of  unmanufactured  tobacco,  and  imported  for  its 
use  66,899,275  pounds  of  leaf. 

In  addition  to  being  the  leading  tobacco  pro¬ 
ducer  in  the  world,  the  United  States  is  also  the 
greatest  exporter,  the  greatest  importer,  and  the 
greatest  consumer  of  tobacco.  India  is  the 
second  largest  producer  and  likewise  the  second 
largest  consumer,  consuming  most  of  its  own 
tobacco.  Russia  is  the  third  producing  country, 
exporting  and  importing  but  little,  and  Austria- 
Hungary  the  fourth  producing  country,  import¬ 
ing  about  a  fourth  as  much  as  it  raises  and  ex¬ 
porting  about  an  eighth  of  its  crop.  rlhe  Dutch 
East  Indies  produce  great  quantities  of  leaf  for 
export,  and  Japan  nearly  supplies  its  own  needs. 
Germany  raises  an  important  crop  but  imports 
about  two  and  a  half  times  as  much  more.  Tur¬ 
key,  France,  Belgium,  Italy,  Greece,  and  Rumania 
produce  considerable  quantities,  as  do  also  Cuba, 
Porto  Rico,  Santo  Domingo,  the  Philippines,  and 
Mexico.  Brazil  leads  among  the  South  American 
countries. 

Cultivation.  The  variety  of  tobacco  planted 
depends  upon  soil,  climate,  and  market  demands. 
The  plant  is  unusually  susceptible  to  the  effects 
of  soil,  fertilizers  and  climate,  which  affect  the 
quality  of  the  leaf.  In  the  more  northern  re¬ 
gions  the  seed  is  sown  in  a  hotbed  and  trans¬ 
planted  to  the  field  in  five  or  six  weeks.  Culti¬ 
vation  should  be  frequent  and  shallow  and  should 
cease  when  the  plants  begin  to  button.  Where 
the  production  of  seed  is  not  desired  the  plants 
are  topped  to  prevent  flowering,  that  their  whole 
strength  may  be  directed  to  the  leaves  except  in 
the  case  of  that  grown  for  cigar  wrappers  when 
a  thin  leaf  is  the  more  valued.  Fertilizers  af¬ 
fect  the  quality  of  tobacco  more  than  the  yield. 
Barnyard  manure  produces  a  rank  growth  but 
poor  'quality.  Potash  is  the  most  important  ele¬ 
ment  to  be  supplied  in  growing  tobacco,  and  the 
best  forms  are  the  carbonate  and  the  sulphate. 
Nitrogen  is  best  supplied  in  cottonseed  meal, 
bone  meal,  and  dried  blood.  Some  types  of 
cigar-wrapper  tobacco,  notably  Sumatra,  are 
grown  under  cheesecloth  shade  to  improve  the 
texture  and  quality  of  the  leaf. 

The  crop  is  harvested  by  cutting  down  the 
stalk  near" the  ground,  or  picking  off  the  leaves. 
The  method  of  curing  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
tobacco  and  the  use  it  is  to  be  put  to.  In  some 
cases  heat  is  employed.  After  curing  tobacco 
goes  through  the  process  of  fermentation  or  age- 
ing  in  which  enzymes  take  part.  This  results 
in°a  reduction  in  the  per  cent  of  nicotine  and 
the  development  of  aroma. 

Tobacco,  owing  to  the  high  rate  of  duty  when 
in  any  manufactured  form,  is  mostly  imported 
in  the  leaf;  but  small  quantities  are  brought  in, 
chiefly  for  reexport,  in  various  states  of  manu¬ 
facture.  The  cultivation  and  manufacture  of 
tobacco  in  foreign  countries  are  frequently  made 


TOBACCO 


TOBACCO 


315 


government  monopolies,  and  in  some  its  cultiva¬ 
tion  is  prohibited. 

Classes  of  Tobacco.  Variations  in  soil  and 
climatic  conditions,  combined  with  the  methods 
of  culture  and  handling,  give  rise  to  certain  well- 
defined  types,  and  on  these  are  based  market  re¬ 
quirements,  as  follows:  cigar  types — wrappers 
and  binder  leaf,  and  filler  leaf;  export  types — 
dark  fire-cured,  and  air-cured;  and  manufactur¬ 
ing  types — burley,  dark  manufacturing  leaf  (in¬ 
cluding  so-called  onesucker  variety  and  Virginia 
sun-cured),  bright  flue-cured  (yellow  tobacco), 
and  Perique  produced  in  Louisiana  on  a  small 
scale.  The  requirements  for  cigar  tobacco  are 
very  exacting,  differing  essentially  from  those 
for  other  types  of  leaf. 

Tobacco  Diseases.  Among  the  various  dis¬ 
eases  of  tobacco  perhaps  the  best  known  is  calico 
or  mottled  top,  a  Connecticut  name  for  the 
mosaic  disease  of  Holland  and  elsewhere.  The 
mosaic  disease  is  characterized  by  mottled  light 
and  dark  green  leaves  a  few  weeks  after  the 
plants  are  set.  As  the  disease  progresses  some 
of  the  thin  areas'  dry  out,  giving  a  decidedly 
mottled  appearance  to  the  leaf.  The  diseased 
plants  are  usually  irregularly  distributed 
throughout  the  field.  The  cause  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  controversy,  many  observers 
claiming  it  is  of  bacterial  origin,  while  others 
claim  it  to  be  due  to  certain  enzymes  which  dis¬ 
turb  the  balance  between  the  normal  functions  of 
certain  cells.  The  spot  disease  is  characterized 
by  white  or  brown  spots  of  various  size  and 
shape  upon  the  leaves.  In  some  cases  the  leaves 
resemble  the  spotted  condition  which  is  consid¬ 
ered  so  desirable  in  some  tobaccos,  as  the 
Sumatra  wrapper  leaf.  The  cause  of  the  spot 
is  not  definitely  known.  In  the  seed  bed  tobacco 
plants  are  subject  to  several  diseases  that  may 
be  controlled  by  sterilizing  the  soil  with  steam. 
In  the  curing  of  tobacco  two  diseases,  poleburn 
and  stem  rot,  are  common.  Poleburn  is  likely 
to  develop  if  long  continued  damp,  sultry  weather 
occurs  while  the  plants  are  being  cured.  Cer¬ 
tain  fungi  seem  always  present  in  this  disease, 
as  well  as  many  bacteria.  It  may  be  prevented 
by  artificial  heat  and  ventilation.  The  stem  rot 
is  due  to  the  fungus  Botrytis  longibrachiata.  It 
attacks  the  stems  and  veins,  producing  patches 
of  velvety  white  fungus  and  causing  more  or  less 
decay.  To  prevent  stem  rot  the  tobacco  barn 
should  be  thoroughly  fumigated  with  sulphur 
fumes  before  and  after  curing  a  crop. 

Tobacco  Manufactures.  The  principal  manu¬ 
factured  products  are  cigars  and  cheroots,  ciga¬ 
rettes,  smoking  tobacco  ( for  pipes  and  cigarettes) , 
snuff  and  chewing  tobacco — plug,  twist  and  fine 
cut.  Both  the  cigar  and  cigarette  manufacture 
have  been  revolutionized  by  machinery.  Al¬ 
though  in  cigar  making  there  is  still  much  hand 
work,  cigarette  making  is  more  largely  con¬ 
centrated  in  factories.  The  manufacture  and 
consumption  of  cigarettes  in  the  United  States 
has  grown  with  marvelous  rapidity,  the  increase 
in  the  decade  ending  1913  amounting  to  over 
450  per  cent.  The  manufacture  of  smoking  to¬ 
bacco,  formerly  conducted  by  crude,  hand  meth¬ 
ods,  has  also  been  modified  by  machinery  and  a 
great  variety  of  forms,  blends  and  flavors  pro¬ 
duced.  The  cost  has  been  greatly  lessened  by 
machinery  for  packing.  Fine-cut  chewing  to¬ 
bacco  is  made  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
smoking  tobacco,  and  the  making  of  plug  chew¬ 
ing  tobacco  is  a  comparatively  simple  process. 
Snuff  making  is  the  most  complicated  of  all 
Vol.  XXII— 21 


pioducts.  It  is  divided  into  two  classes,  drv 
and  moist,  each  varying  greatly  in  quality. 

The  internal  revenue  receipts  from  tobacco 
and  the  tobacco  industry  in  the  United  States 
approximate  $100,000,000  a  year. 

.  Indian  tobacco  ( Lobelia  inflata)  has  nothing 
in  common  with  this  subject.  See  Lobelia. 

Tobacco  has  been  used  as  a  sedative  or  nar¬ 
cotic  over  a  larger  area  and  among  a  greater 
number  of  people  than  any  similar  substance, 
opium  ranking  next,  and  hemp  third.  Tobacco 
leaves,  when  submitted  to  chemical  analysis, 
yield  nicotine,  which  is  its  most  characteristic 
constituent,  albumin,  a  gluten-like  substance, 
gum,  resin,  malic  and  citric  acids,  and  a  large 
amount  of  inorganic  constituents,  100  parts  of 
the  dry  leaf  yielding  from  about  19  to  27  per 
cent  of  ash,  in  which  potash,  lime,  and  silica 
preponderate.  Nicotine  ( q.v. ) ,  the  alkaloid  con¬ 
tained  in  tobacco  and  considered  a  violent  poison, 
does  not  appear  in  tobacco  smoke.  It  is  split 
into  pyridine  and  collodine.  Of  these  the  latter 
is  said  to  be  the  less  active  and  to  preponderate 
in  cigar  smoke,  while  the  smoke  from  pipes  con¬ 
tains  a  larger  amount  of  pyridine.  The  ques¬ 
tion  of  the  effect  of  tobacco  on  the  human  body 
is  an  old  one,  often  discussed  with  a  diversity  of 
opinion  and  without  definite  conclusions.  Stud¬ 
ies  made  on  man  and  the  lower  animals  have 
helped  to  demonstrate  important  facts. 

If  tobacco  possesses,  like  alcohol,  opium,  tea. 
coffee,  etc.,  the  power  of  arresting  oxidation  of 
the  living  tissues,  and  thus  checking  their  dis¬ 
integration,  and  if  it  also  produces  a  nervous 
excitement  which  an  immature  body  is  unable 
to  control,  it  follows  that  the  habit  of  smoking 
must  be  most  deleterious  to  the  young,  causing 
in  them  impairment  of  growth,  premature  man¬ 
hood,  and  physical  degradation.  Smoked  just 
after  a  meal  tobacco  is  said  to  act  as  a  digestive 
stimulant,  and  as  a  food  when  other  forms  of 
nourishment  are  not  procurable.  In  some  per¬ 
sons  smoking  increases,  in  others  diminishes 
mental  activity.  Of  special  interest  has  been 
the  action  of  tobacco  upon  the  heart.  And  here 
nicotine  seems  to  be  the  chief  factor  to  be 
considered.  It  has  been  proved  that  this  alka¬ 
loid  affects  the  ganglion  cells,  interposed  be¬ 
tween  the  centre  of  the  nervous  system  and  the 
nerve  endings  in  the  heart,  through  the  vagus 
and  the  sympathetic,  ^thus  effecting  depression 
or  acceleration  of  the  action  of  the  heart  (to¬ 
bacco  heart),  and  constriction  or  dilation  of  the 
blood  vessels.  These  changes,  when  becoming 
permanent,  can  be  dangerous  in  their  final  re¬ 
sults,  upon  circulation,  respiration,  and  diges¬ 
tion.  In  affections,  therefore,  of  these  systems, 
as  well  as  in  nervousness,  and  in  diseases  of 
the  nose,  mouth,  and  throat,  and  of  the  eye 
(through  the  smoke)  tobacco  should  be  avoided. 
Otherwise,  moderate  use  of  tobacco  by  a  healthy, 
mature  person  seems  to  be  harmless,  if  not 
beneficial. 

The  different  kinds  of  tobacco  exert  a  differ¬ 
ent  influence  on  the  smoker  according  to  the 
amount  of  noxious  ingredients  which  they  con¬ 
tain.  Those  which  yield  a  small  proportion  are 
termed  mild  tobaccos.  The  use  of  tobacco  in 
medicine  has  been  entirely  discontinued. 

Bibliography.  C.  G.  W.  Lock,  ed.,  Tobacco 
Growing ,  Curing,  and  Manufacture  (London, 
1886)  ;  A.  M.  and  J.  Ferguson,  All  About  To¬ 
bacco,  Including  Practical  Instruction  in  Plant¬ 
ing,  Cultivation,  and  Curing  (Colombo,  Ceylon, 
1889);  Killebrew  and  Mvrick,  Tobacco  Leaf: 


TOBACCO-BOX  SKATE 


TOBACCO  PESTS 


316 


Its  Culture,  Cure,  Marketing,  and  Manufacture 
(New  York,  1897)  ;  B.  W.  Arnold,  History  of  the 
Tobacco  Industry  in  Virginia  (Baltimore,  1897)  ; 
J.  B.  Killebrew,  How  to  Cultivate,  Cure,  and 
Prepare  for  Market  (Nashville,  Tenn.,  1900); 
A.  E.  Tanner,  Tobacco  from  the  Grower  to  the 
Smoker  (New  York,  1912);  E.  H.  Matthewson, 
“The  Export  ancl  Manufacturing  Tobaccos  of 
the  United  States,  with  Brief  Reference  to  the 
Cigar  Types,”  in  United  States  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  Bulletin  No.  2U  (Washington,  1912)  ; 
Carl  Werner,  Textbook  on  Tobacco  (4th  ed.,  New 
York,  1914). 

TOBACCO-BOX  SKATE.  The  common 

small  American  skate  {Raja  erinacea) .  See 
Plate  of  Rays  and  Skates. 

TOBACCO  HEART.  An  irritable  condition 
of  the  heart  occurring  in  many  persons  who  use 
toLacco  to  excess.  Irregularity  of  cardiac  action 
and  debility  are  the  chief  symptoms,  which  clear 
up  promptly  on  discontinuing  the  habit.  See 
Tobacco. 

TOBACCO  PESTS.  The  tobacco  flea  beetle 
( Epitrix  par  vula )  is  generally  distributed 
throughout  the  United  States.  It  is  a  minute, 
oval,  reddish-brown  species  occurring  upon  many 
solanaceous  plants,  which  appears  in  July,  at¬ 
tacking  the  tobacco  leaves,  which  soon  become 
spotted.  The  spots  become  holes  and  the  leaf 
is  practically  destroyed.  In  the  larval  state  the 
insect  feeds  upon  the  roots.  The  small  holes 
eaten  by  the  beetles  become  entrance  points  for 
bacteria,  which  start  a  leaf  disease  often  more 
injurious  to  the  plant  than  the  actual  work  of 
the  beetles.  The  so-called  horn  worms,  or  horn 
blowers,  of  tobacco  are  the  larvae  of  two  sphingid 
moths  ( Protoparce  Carolina  and  Phlegethontius 
celeus) ,  large  green  caterpillars  with  oblique 
white  stripes  on  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  the 
anal  end  of  the  body  armed  with  a  horn.  These 
larvae  live  upon  tobacco  leaves,  transform  to 
pupae  under  ground,  and  the  moths  issue  in 
May  or  June.  The  eggs  are  laid  singly  on  the 
under  side  of  the  tobacco  leaf  just  at  nightfall. 
There  are  two  generations  each  summer  in  a 


TOBACCO  BEETLES. 

a,  tobacco  flea  beetle  ( Epitrix  parvula),  greatly  enlarged; 
b,  leaves,  as  damaged  by  this  flea  beetle;  c,  green  bug  ( Eu - 
schistus  variolarius ) . 

large  part  of  the  tobacco-growing  region.  Two 
insects,  both  larvae  of  noctuid  moths,  are  known 
as  bud  worms  in  tobacco  fields.  They  are  Helio- 
this  armiger  (also  known  as  bollworm  (q.v.), 
corn-ear  worm,  and  tomato-fruit  worm),  which 
preferably  lives  in  the  ears  of  corn  until  the 
grain  becomes  hard,  and  therefore  works  in  to¬ 
bacco  usually  towards  the  end  of  the  season, 
and  Heliothis  rhexice.  The  latter  is  the  true 


bud  worm.  (See  Colored  Plate  of  American 
Moths.)  The  adult  is  a  small  greenish  moth, 
and  the  larva  is  found  in  the  bud  of  the  plant 
about  the  time  it  is  ready  to  top.  They  trans¬ 
form  to  pupae  under  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


TOBACCO  BUD  WORMS. 

a,  moth  of  the  true  bud  worm  ( Heliothis  rhexia) ;  b,  cater¬ 
pillar  of  same;  c,  buds  injured  by  false  bud  worm  ( Heliothis 

armiger) . 

A  true  bug  ( Dicyphus  minimus )  damages  the 
second  crop  in  late  tobacco  by  puncturing  the 
leaves  and  sucking  the  cell  sap.  Infested  leaves 
become  yellowish,  somewhat  wilted,  and  the 
older  ones  eventually  split  in  places,  becoming 
ragged.  The  bug,  when  immature,  lives  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves,  but  the  adults  live  both 
above  and  below.  The  eggs  are  deposited  singly 
in  the  tissues  of  the  leaf  and  hatch  after  four 
days.  One  entire  generation  is  produced  in  15 
days.  Several  other  sucking  bugs  puncture  to¬ 
bacco  leaves,  but  are  not  serious  enemies  of  the 
crop,  except,  perhaps,  the  green  bug  ( Euschistus 
variolarius ) . 

The  tobacco  leaf  miner  or  split  worm  ( Phtho - 
rimcea  operculella)  hatches  from  eggs  laid  upon 
the  leaves  by  a  minute  grayish  moth,  and  bores 
between  the  surfaces  of  the  leaf,  making  a  flat 
mine  often  of  considerable  size.  This  insect  is 
a  cosmopolitan  species  and  works  upon  potatoes 
as  well  as  upon  tobacco,  boring  into  tubers  as 
well  as  leaves.  Several  species  of  cutworms 
(q.v.)  damage  the  tobacco  plant  early  in  the 
season.  A  mealywing  (q.v.)  ( Aleyrodes  tabaci) 
damages  the  leaves  of  tobacco  in  Europe  and  in 
the  southern  United  States.  The  common  mealy 
bug  {Dactylopius  citri)  affects  the  plant,  as 
also  do  several  species  of  plant  lice.  Tobacco 
thrips  ( Thrips  tabaci )  is  an  enemy  of  tobacco 
in  Bessarabia.  It  occurs  upon  plants  in  the 
United  States,  especially  upon  onions,  but  has 
not  been  found  upon  tobacco. 

Most  of  the  insects  mentioned  may  be  de¬ 
stroyed  by  spraying  the  plants  with  an  arsenical 
mixture.  Nearly  all  of  them  feed  upon  solana¬ 
ceous  plants,  and  a  good  plan  is  to  allow  a  few 
weeds  of  this  family — Solanum  nigrum  or  Datura 
stramonium — to  grow  near  the  field  which  is  to 
be  planted  to  tobacco.  These  weeds  act  as  traps 
for  nearly  all  early  tobacco  insects,  and  they 
can  be  treated  with  heavy  doses  of  Paris  green 
for  the  leaf-feeding  species,  and  with  a  spray 
of  kerosene  emulsion  and  water  for  the  sucking 
bugs.  Large  numbers  can  thus  be  killed,  greatly 
to  the  protection  of  the  young  tobacco  plants. 

Dried  tobacco  is  attacked  and  frequently 
ruined,  even  after  having  been  made  up  into 
cigars  and  cigarettes,  by  the  so-called  cigarette 
beetle  ( Lasioderma  serricorne) ,  an  insect  which 
works  not  only  in  tobacco,  but  in  many  other 
dried  herbs  as  well  as  certain  dried  foods.  It  is 
a  cosmopolitan  species,  and  multiplies  rapidly 


TOBIT 


TOBACCO  PIPE 


317 


throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  feeding 
both  as  laivflB  and  as  adults.  The  drug-store 
beetle  ( Sitodrepa  panicea)  and  the  common  rice 
weevil  ( Calandra  oryza)  also  feed  upon  dried 
tobacco.  These  insects  are  destroyed  by  fumi¬ 
gating  the  rooms  or  the  establishments  in  which 
they  occur  with  bisulphid  of  carbon  or  hydro¬ 
cyanic  acid  gas. 

411  of  (tlie  species  above  mentioned  occur  in  the 
United  States,  although  several  of  them  are  cos- 
mopolitan.  In  Europe  144  species  are  recorded 
as  occurring  in  tobacco  fields.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  of  these,  among  the  species  which  do  not 
occur  in  America,  is  a  tenebrionid  beetle  ( Opa - 
trum  intermedium) ,  which  injures  the  plant  by 
attacking  the  stems  under  ground.  Consult  L. 
0.  Howard,  The  Principal  Insects  Affecting  the 
Tobacco  Plant  (Washington,  1900). 

TOBACCO  PIPE.  An  implement  for  the 
smoking  of  tobacco.  The  use  of  a  pipe  for  smok¬ 
ing  herbs  of  various  sorts  dates  from  a  period 
when  these  plants  were  burned  in  a  container 
and  the  smoke  employed  for  sacrifices  or  for 
healing.  Aside  from  the  specimens  discovered 
in  ancient  sites  in  Europe,  the  greatest  prehis- 
toi  ic  distribution  of  the  pipe  is  in  America.  Here 
the  widespread  primitive  form  is  a  drilled  tube 
of  stone,  wood,  bone,  or  pottery,  in  the  form  of  a 
laige  cigar  holder,  evidently  taking  its  shape 
from  that  of  a  tube  of  cane.  This  type  is  found 
almost  exclusively  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
its  early  use  was  for  blowing  out  smoke  and  not 
for  drawing  it  into  the  mouth.  This  form,  when 
put  into  clay,  shows  a  later  transition  towards 
the  modern  pipes  by  bending  the  stem.  In  the 
eastern  United  States  the  prehistoric  pipe  shows 
considerable  modification  of  the  original  tube,  and 
some  of  the  varieties  are  the  monitor  pipe  with 
the  bowl  set  on  a  flat  base  perforated  as  a  stem, 
hour-glass  pipes,  biconical  pipes,  etc.  The  peace 
pipe  or  calumet  (q.v. )  descends  from  the  moni¬ 
tor  form.  The  red  stone  called  catlinite,  com¬ 
monly.  used  for  calumets,  came  into  use  in 
historic  times.  The  Alaskan  Eskimo  pipe  is  of 
Asiatic  form,  with  a  very  small  cavity  in  a  mush¬ 
room  bowl  attached  to  a  stem,  while  the  Labra¬ 
dor.  Indian  pipe  is  of  a  well-marked  type,  con¬ 
sisting  of  a  separate  bowl  of  stone  beautifully 
worked  and  a  short  stem.  Numerous  examples 
of  sculptured  pipes  have  been  found  in  Ohio  and 
Illinois,  and  have  been  attributed  to  the  so- 
called  mound  builders.  The  tomahawk  pipe  was 
introduced  through  trade  by  the  French,  English, 
and  Spanish,  and  certain  tribes  affected  a  certain 
style  of  this  pipe. 

The  ethnographic  study  of  the  pipe  or  its  mod¬ 
ification  and  adaptation  to  their  uses  by  different 
peoples  shows  not  only  that  the  spread  of  the 
pipe  into  different  environments  has  given  rise 
to  a  great  number  of  inventions  connected  with 
this  utensil,  but  that  their  forms,  materials,  and 
artistic  conceptions  have  taken  upon  themselves 
racial  or  tribal  individuality,  as,  e.g.,  Turkish 
and  Chinese  pipes.  Most  of  the  inventions  have 
grown  out  of  the  desire  to  cool  the  smoke  and 
relieve  it  of  acrid  principles,  giving  rise  to  the 
great  class  of  water  pipes  widespread  in  Asia 
and  Africa,  as  the  hookah  or  narghile,  and  the 
ornate  Chinese  water  pipe,  and  in  other  countries 
resulting  in  absorbing  bowls,  as  the  meerschaum, 
clay,  brier  root,  or  other  substances,  as  well  as 
devices  for  condensing  the  nicotine  in  a  recep¬ 
tacle  below  the  bowl,  as  in  the  German  lange 
Pfeife.  1  he  same  result  is  attained  by  the  long 
stem  of  the  pipe  and  by  the  long  coiled  tube  of 


the  narghile.  The  opium  pipe  of  China  is  a 
special  development  with  a  large  bowl  having  a 
small  aperture,  and  a  large  flute-shaped  stem  de¬ 
signed  for  the  inhalation  of  a  small  quantity  of 
fumes  from  a  pellet  of  burning  opium.  The  hemp 
pipe  of  India  is  a  form  of  water  pipe  in  which 
tobacco  or  a  mixture  of  tobacco  and  hemp  may 
be  smoked.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  prefer  a 
pipe  with  a  very  small  bowl  in  which  a  pellet  of 
finely  shredded  tobacco  is  smoked.  The  Koreans 
use  a  larger  bowl  with  an  extremely  long  stem. 
In  Africa  the  water  pipe  is  rudely  made  of  a 
cow’s  horn  perforated  for  stem  and  bowl  holder. 
It  is  said  that  a  Kaffir  lacking  a  pipe  will  often 
dig  a  small  hole  in  the  ground  in  which  he  puts 
tobacco,  fit  a  stem  in  position  below  it,  and, 

Vylri*-i?n  b*s  belbb  enj0y  a  smoke.  Consult: 
Aadaillac,  Les  pipes  et  le  tabac  (Paris,  1885); 
McGuire,  Pipes  and  Smoking  Customs  of  the 
American  Aborigines  (Washington,  1897). 

TOBACCO  WORM.  See  Tobacco  Pests. 

_  49?^  or  TAB  A  GO.  An  island  of  the 
British  West  Indies,  belonging  to  the  Colony  of 
Irmidad,  and  situated  22  miles  northeast  of  the 
island  of  that  name  (Map:  West  Indies,  G  5). 
Area,.  114  square  miles.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin 
and  is  mountainous,  with  peaks  rising  about 
2000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  climate  is  warm, 
and  the  lainfall  on  the  windward  side  amounts 
to  66  inches.  The  chief  products  are  cotton, 
sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  rubber,  and  cacao,  the 
bulk  of  which  are  exported.  Pop.,  1901,  18,750; 
1911,  20,/ 49,  chiefly  negroes.  The  chief  town, 
Scarborough,  had,  in  1911,  729  inhabitants.  The 
island  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498.  It 
was  successively  held  by  the  British,  Dutch,  and 
French,  and  was  finally  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
m  1814. 

T9BERENTZ,  to'be-rents,  Robert  (1849-95). 
A  German  sculptor.  He  was  born  in  Berlin,  and 
studied  at  the  Academy  there  and  then  under 
Schilling  in  Dresden.  From  1872  to  1875  he 
was  in  Rome.  After  his  return  to  Berlin  he 
became  a  follower  of  Begas,  in  whose  manner 
he  executed,  among  other  works,  the  bronze  fig¬ 
ure  of  a  “Shepherd  Resting”  (1878,  National 
Gallery).  In  1879  he  was  appointed  director 
of  a  master  studio  connected  with  the  Breslau 
Museum,  and  after  living  in  America  in  1885- 
89  returned  to  Berlin  in  1890  and  became  pro¬ 
fessor  in  1895.  He  completed  the  “Luther  Mon¬ 
ument”  of  Paul  Otto,  in  Berlin,  modeled  the 
equestrian  statue  of  Frederick  Barbarossa  for 
the  Kaiserhaus  at  Goslar,  and  made  the  statue 
of  Frederick  the  Great  for  the  Royal  Palace  in 
Berlin. 

TOBIN  BRONZE.  See  Alloy,  Bronze. 
TO'BIT,  Book  of  (Gk.  Tw/3err,  Tobeit,  Tu(3eid, 
Tobeith,  from  Heb.  Tobiydh,  Yahwe  is  good). 
One  of  the  deuterocanonical  books  (q.v.)  of  the 
Old  Testament.  The  personage  around  whqm  the 
story  of  the  book  centres  is  Tobit  of  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali,  who  was  carried  away  to  Assyria 
by  Shalmaneser.  Here  he  obtains  "an  official  po¬ 
sition  with  the  King,  but  loses  it  under  Sen¬ 
nacherib,  and  because  he  has  buried  certain 
Jews  killed  by  order  of  the  King,  he  flees  from 
Nineveh.  Ilis  nephew,  Achiacharus  (see  Acrn- 
kar),  pleads  with  the  successor  of  Sennacherib, 
and  under  Esarhaddon  Tobit  returns  to  Nine¬ 
veh.  Again  he  buries  the  dead,  and  while  in  an 
“unclean”  condition  he  sleeps  outside  the  wall  of 
his  courtyard  and  loses  his  eyesight.  In  his  mis¬ 
fortune  he  is  supported  by"  his  nephew  Achia¬ 
charus,  but,  taunted  by  his  wife,  Anna,  he  sends 


TOBOLSK 


TOBLER 


318 


his  son  Tobias  to  collect  an  outstanding  debt 
in  Ragse  in  Media.  Tobias  takes  with  him  as 
guide  one  Azarias  (in  reality  Raphael,  the 
angel).  On  the  way  Tobias  is  attacked  by  a 
fish,  whose  heart,  liver,  and  gall  he  takes  at 
the  command  of  Raphael.  They,  come  to  the 
house  of  Raguel,  a  kinsman  of  his,  and  Tobias 
marries  Sarah,  the  only  daughter  of  Raguel. 
By  burning  the  heart  and  liver  01  the  fish  m 
the  bridal'  chamber  the  evil  spirit,  Asmodeus 
( q.v. ) ,  who  has  already  killed  seven  husbands  of 
Sarah,  is  driven  away.  The  debt  collected,  the 
three  return  to  Nineveh,  and  Tobias  applies  the 
gall  of  the  fish  to  his  father’s  eyes  and  their 
sight  is  restored.  Tobit  dies  at  Nineveh  and  is 
buried  there;  Tobias  dies  at  Ecbatana,  yet  not 
before  he  has  heard  of  the  destruction  of  Nineveh 
by  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  book  was  probably 
written  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  century 
b.c.  It  is  very  generally  held  that  it  was  com¬ 
posed  in  Egypt,  on  account  of  the  flight  of  the 
demon  to  Egypt,  and  the  dependence  upon  the 
Achikar  story  which  was  known  to  Egyptian 
Jews  in  the  fifth  century  b.c.,  and  possibly  the 
stories  of  Khons  and  of  the  Grateful  Dead.  But 
it  is  not  certain  that,  in  the  original  text,  the 
demon  fled  to  Egypt,  and  the  matter  does  not 
seem  to  have  any  real  bearing  on  the  place  of 
composition ;  the  story  of  Achikar  is  likely  to  have 
reached  the  Jews  in  Yeb  from  Syria  or  Meso¬ 
potamia  in  its  earlier  Aramaic  form  (see 
Achikar;  Elephantine  Papyri).  The  similar¬ 
ity  to  the  story  of  Khons  is  very  slight,  and 
that  of  the  Grateful  Dead  has  not  been  found 
at  all  in  Egypt.  Tobit  appears  to  have  been 
written  originally  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic,  and 
such  terms  as  Ather  and  Atliuria  speak  in  f ai  01 
of  the  Aramaic.  In  the  Ptolemaic  period,  how¬ 
ever,  the  Jews  in  Egypt  wrote  in  Greek;  an 
Aramaic  book  is  more  likely  to  have  been  wiit- 
ten  in  Palestine.  The  geographical  error  of 
placing  the  Tigris  between  Nineveh  and  Ec¬ 
batana  seems  to  exclude  an  origin  in  Adiabene, 
Media,  or  Mesopotamia.  The  emphasis  upon 
the  wickedness  of  exposing  the  dead,  and  the 
virtue  of  burying  those  that  are  exposed  in 
public  places,  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the 
example  of  the  patriarchs  in  Genesis;  it  is  mani¬ 
festly  a  protest  against  the  Mazdayasnian  cus¬ 
tom  of  exposing  the  dead  and  the  prohibition 
against  burying  them.  The  Greek  manuscripts 
present  three  divergent  types :  Codex  T  aticanus 
and  Codex  Alexandrinus  probably  represent  the 
earliest,  Codex  Sinaiticus  a  somewhat  later,  and 
some  minuscules  as  well  as  the  Oxyrhvncus  papy¬ 
rus  1076  a  mixed  test.  The  Aramaic  versions 
are  made  from  the  Greek,  as  are  also  the 
Latin,  Hebrew,  Syriac,  and  Ethiopic  transla¬ 
tions.  Consult:  A.  Neubauer,  The  Book  of 
Tobit  (Oxford,  1878)  ;  Theodor  Noldeke,  in 
Monatsberichte  dev  Berliner  A k a  demi e  (Berlin, 
1879)  ;  J.  Rendel  Harris,  in  American  Journal 
of  Theology,  vol.  iii  (Chicago,  1899);  Max 
Lohr,  in  E.  Kautzsch,  Die  Apokryphen  und 
P  seudepigraphen  des  Alten  Testaments  (Tu¬ 
bingen,  1900)  ;  D.  G.  Simpson,  in  R.  H.  Charles, 
Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment  (Oxford,  1913).  See  Apocrypha;  Deu- 
terocanonical  Books. 

TOBLER,  tf/bler,  Adolf  (1835-1910).  A 
Swiss  Romance  philologist,  born  at  Hirzel,  Can¬ 
ton  of  Zurich,  and  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Bonn  and  Paris.  In  1867  he  became  professor 
at  the  University  of  Berlin,  and  in  1881  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences.  His 


monographs  on  philological  subjects  are  many, 
and  his  researches  have  contributed  greatly  to 
the  knowledge  of  Old  French  syntax.  In  1895 
a  Festgabe  was  presented  to  him  by  his  pupils 
and  friends.  His  publications  include:  Ge- 
dichte  von  Jehan  de  Condet  (1860)  ;  Mitteilungen 
aus  alt  franzosischen  Handschriften  (1870);  Li 
dis  dou  vrai  aniel  (1871;  2d  ed.,  1884);  Tom 
franzosischen  Yersbau  alter  und  neuer  Zeit 
(1880;  4th  ed.,  1903;  French  trans.,  1885); 
TJguQon  des  Laodho  (1884)  ;  Girard  Pat  eg 
(1886);  Vermischte  Beitrdge  zur  franzosischen 
Grammatik  (five  series,  1886—1912;  French 
trans.,  1905);  an  edition  of  Li  proverbe  an 
vilain  (1895).  The  first  Lieferung  of  his  monu¬ 
mental  Altfranzbsisches  Worterbuch  appeared 
in  1915  (Berlin)  under  the  editorship  of  E. 
Lommatzsch. 

TOBLER,  Titus  (1806-77).  A  Swiss  Orien¬ 
tal  scholar.  He  was  born  at  Stein,  Canton  of 
Appenzell,  studied  and  practiced  medicine, 
traveled  in  Palestine,  and,  after  taking  part  in 
the  political  affairs  of  Switzerland,  settled  in 
1871  at  Munich.  His  principal  work  is  Topo- 
graphie  von  Jerusalem  und  seinen  Umgebungen 
(1853-54),  which  was  supplemented  by  Beitrag 
zur  medizinischen  Topographie  von  Jerusalem 
(1855);  Planographie  von  Jerusalem  (1858); 
Dritte  Wanderung  nach  Paldstina  (1859);  Bib- 
liographia  Geographica  Palestine e  (1867).  Con¬ 
sult  H.  J.  Heim,  Titus  Tober:  Paldstinafahrer 
(Zurich,  1879). 

TOBOGGANING  (from  North  American 

Indian  otobanask,  odabagan,  sled).  Coasting 
upon  smooth  slopes  of  snow  or  ice  upon  a 
special  sled  with  no  runners  beneath  its  flat 
surface.  It  seems  to  have  been  improvised  by 
the  Indian  hunters,  who  used  it  to  bring  in 
their  game  over  the  snow.  With  them  it  was 
simply  a  strip  of  bark  turned  up  at  the  front 
and  braced  by  strips  or  pieces  of  wood  running 
both  crosswise  and  along  the  edges.  Among  the 
Eskimos  it  was  made  from  strips  of  whalebone. 
It  is  of  the  same  primitive  pattern  to-day,  ex¬ 
cept  that  in  some  cases  a  light  rail  runs  along 
its  sides.  For  recreation  purposes  it  is  usually 
made  of  thin  strips  of  ash,  maple,  or  hickory, 
slightly  oval  on  the  bearing  surface,  placed  side 
by  side  and  fastened  at  the  ends,  the  undei  sui  - 
face  being  highly  polished.  The  ordinary  to¬ 
boggan  is  about  18  inches  wide  and  6  to  8  feet 
long.  The  steersman  sits  crouching,  one  leg 
bent,  the  other  stretched  behind  him  to  be  used 
as  a  rudder,  for  which  purpose  his  moccasin 
has  a  hard  leather  steering  tip.  In  some  cities, 
especially  Montreal,  chutes  are  constructed  for 
this  sport.  See  Coasting. 

TOBOLSK',  Russ.  pron.  to-bol'y’sk.  A  gov¬ 
ernment  of  west  Siberia  (Map:  Asia,  J  2). 
Area,  estimated  at  539,659  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  flat  with,  the  exception  of  the  noith- 
western  part,  which  is  covered  with  offshoots 
of  the  Ural  Mountains,  attaining  an  altitude 
of  over  4000  feet.  The  larger  part  of  the  north 
belongs  to  the  region  of  tundras  and  is  practi¬ 
cally  "uninhabited.  The  southern  part  is  some¬ 
what  undulating  and  consists  to  a  large  extent 
of  forest  land  and  vast  steppes,  well  watered 
and  with  a  rich  black  soil  which  makes  that  part 
of  the  government  one  of  the  richest  agricul¬ 
tural  regions  in  the  Empire.  The  chief  water¬ 
way  is  the  Obi  (q.v.),  which,  with  its  great 
tributary,  the  Irtysh  (q.v.),  drains  almost  the 
entire  region.  Lakes  are  very  numerous  and 
some  of  them  are  salty.  The  climate  is  con- 


TOBOLSK 


319 


TOCQUEVILLE 


tinental  and  severe,  the  average  annual  tempera¬ 
ture  varying  from  24°  F.  at  Berezov  (q.v.)  in 
the  north  to  about  32°  F.  at  Tobolsk  in  the 
south.  Considerable  quantities  of  grain  are  ex¬ 
ported.  Wheat  and  rye  are  the  principal  prod¬ 
ucts.  Dairying  is  a  growing  industry  and  the 
export  of  butter  exceeds  $1,500,000  per  annum. 
The  manufactures  are  chiefly  paper,  cloth, 
spirits,  leather,  and  glassware.  Of  the  popula¬ 
tion,  estimated  at  2,005,500  in  1914,  the  non- 
Russian  element  numbered  only  about  100,000, 
composed  chiefly  of  Tatars,  Ostiaks,  Samoyeds, 
and  Voguls. 

TOBOLSK.  The  capital  of  the  government 
of  the  same  name  in  west  Siberia,  situated  on 
the  Irtysh,  172  miles  north  of  Tiumen,  the  ter¬ 
minal  of  the  North  Siberian  Railway  (Map: 
Asia,  H  3 ) .  It  is  well  built  and  has  a  pictur¬ 
esque  appearance  with  its  Kremlin  and  numer¬ 
ous  churches.  The  proximity  of  marshes  makes 
the  town  unhealth  ful.  Its  importance  has 
greatly  diminished  since  the  construction  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  Railway,  but  it  retains  commer¬ 
cial  importance,  owing  to  its  position  at  the 
junction  of  the  Irtysh  and  the  Tobol.  Its  chief 
industries  are  fishing  and  fur  making.  Tobolsk 
was  founded  in  1587  and  is  the  ancient  capital 
of  Siberia.  Pop.,  1910,  21,405. 

TOBY,  M.  P.  See  Lucy,  Sir  Henry. 

TOBY,  Uncle.  A  leading  character  in 
Sterne’s  Tristram  Shandy.  He  is  a  retired  sea 
captain,  simple,  kindly,  and  gallant,  said  to 
have  been  modeled  on  Sterne’s  father. 

TOCANTINS,  to'kan-tens',  Portug.  pron.  tor- 
kaN-teNsh',  Rio.  A  large  river  of  Brazil  (Map: 
Brazil,  H  3).  It  rises  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  State  of  Goyaz,  and  flows  northward,  empty¬ 
ing  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  through  the  large 
estuary  known  as  the  Rio  Para  (q.v.),  which 
communicates  with  the  estuary  of  the  Ama¬ 
zon.  The  total  length  of  the  Tocantins  is  about 
1700  miles.  About  600  miles  from  its  mouth 
it  receives  the  Araguaya  (q.v.),  which  flows 
nearly  parallel  with,  and  exceeds  in  length,  the 
main  river  from  the  point  of  confluence.  The 
Tocantins  is  obstructed  in  several  places  by 
rocky  reefs  formed  by  spurs  of  the  cordillera 
which  it  skirts.  The  last  of  these,  the  Falls 
of  Itaboca,  are  situated  below  the  confluence 
of  the  Araguayfl,  only  130  miles  above  the  es¬ 
tuary,  and  completely  obstruct  navigation. 
Small  steamers,  however,  ply  on  the  upper 
reaches,  though  the  country  along  the  banks  is 
very  sparsely  populated  and  its  resources  almost 
undeveloped. 

TOCCATA,  tok-ka'ta  (It.,  touched).  In 
music,  a  term  originally  applied  to  compositions 
written  for  keyed  instruments,  thus  having  a 
somewhat  more  restricted  meaning  than  sonata, 
a  composition  for  any  instrument.  The  oldest 
toccatas  preserved  are  some  written  for  the 
organ  by  Claudio  Merulo  (published  1598). 
They  generally  begin  with  full  chords  which 
gradually  give  way  to  passage  work  among 
which  small  fugato  sections  are  interspersed. 
The  modern  toccato  does  not  materially  differ 
from  that  of  Merulo. 

TOCCOA,  tok'6-a.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Stephens  County,  Ga.,  93  miles  northeast  of 
Atlanta,  on  the  Southern  Railway  (Map: 
Georgia,  C  1).  Toccoa  is  both  a  summer  and 
winter  resort,  being  noted  for  its  springs  of 
chalybeate  and  sulphur  waters,  and  for  the 
famous  Toccoa  Falls,  with  a  perpendicular  de¬ 
scent  of  186  feet.  There  are  manufactories  of 


cotton  goods  and  yarns,  furniture,  and  cotton¬ 
seed  oil.  Pop.,  1900,  2176;  1910,  3120. 

TOCHER,  td'Ger  (Ir.  tochar,  Gael,  tochradh, 
dowry,  portion ) .  In  the  Scotch  law,  an  ancient 
name  for  money  or  property  given  or  settled  by 
a  father  on  his  daughter  at  her  marriage. 

TOCHIGI,  to'che-gg.  A  town  in  the  Prefec¬ 
ture  of  Tochigi  in  central  Hondo,  Japan,  55 
miles  by  rail  north  of  Tokyo  (Map:  Japan,  F  5). 
It  is  of  some  industrial  importance  and  had  in 
1908  a  population  of  26,301. 

TO'CORO'RO.  A  Cuban  trogon  ( Priotelus 
temnurus) ,  named  from  its  cry.  It  breeds  in 
holes  abandoned  by  woodpeckers,  and  is  re¬ 
markable  for  the  concave  outline  of  the  end 
of  its  short  tail. 

TOCQUEVILLE,  tok'veF,  Alexis  Charles 
Henri  Clerel  de  (1805-59).  A  French  states¬ 
man  and  political  philosopher,  born  at  Verneuil, 
in  the  Department  of  Seine-et-Oise.  At  the 
Restoration  his  father  was  made  a  peer  of 
France.  Hiis  mother  was  a  granddaughter  of 
Malesherbes,  the  academician,  political  writer, 
and  magistrate,  who  defended  Louis  XVI  at 
the  bar  of  the  Convention.  Alexis  de  Tocque- 
ville  studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1825,  traveled  in  Italy,  and  on  his  return  be¬ 
came  an  assistant  magistrate  at  Versailles.  In 
1831  he  gave  up  his  appointment  at  Versailles, 
and  with  his  colleague  there,  Gustave  de  Beau¬ 
mont,  accepted  a  government  mission  to  Amer¬ 
ica,  to  study  the  working  of  the  penitentiary 
system.  The  commissioners,  after  their  return 
to  Europe,  published  their  report  ( Du  systeme 
penitentiaire  aux  Etats-Unis,  1832;  Eng.  trans., 
Philadelphia,  1833),  an  admirable  work,  which 
modified  all  the  ideas  previously  entertained  in 
France  regarding  prison  discipline.  An  impor¬ 
tant  result  of  his  travels  was  his  great  work 
De  la  democratie  en  Am6rique,  published  in 
1835.  In  his  introduction  he  sought  to  show 
that  a  great  democratic  revolution  had  for  cen¬ 
turies  been  going  on  in  Europe.  There  is  a 
general  progress  towards  social  equality.  In 
France  it  has  always  been  borne  on  by  chance, 
the  intelligent  and  moral  classes  of  the  nation 
never  having  sought  to  guide  it.  In  America 
he  found  that  the  same  revolution  had  been 
going  on  more  rapidly  than  in  Europe,  and  had 
indeed  nearly  reached  its  limit  in  the  absolute 
equality  of  conditions.  There,  accordingly,  he 
thinks  we  may  see  what  may  sometime  happen 
in  Europe.  The  work  made  a  profound  impres¬ 
sion.  Its  author  was  elected  to  the  Academy 
of  Moral  Science  in  1836  and  to  the  French 
Academy  in  1841. 

In  1835  De  Tocqueville  visited  England,  where 
he  received  an  enthusiastic  welcome  from  the 
leaders  of  the  Whig  party.  In  1837  he  was 
defeated  as  a  candidate  for  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  frpm  Valognes,  but  two  years  after 
he  was  elected  bv  an  overwhelming  majority, 
and  ranged  himself  with  the  Moderate  Opposi¬ 
tion  party.  After  the  February  Revolution  he 
was  a  formidable  opponent  of  the  Socialists  and 
extreme  Republicans,  as  well  as  of  the  parti¬ 
sans  of  Louis  Napoleon.  He  became,  in  1849, 
vice  president  of  the  Legislative  Assembly,  and 
from  June  to  October  in  the  same  year  was 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  During  that  time 
he  defended  the  policy  of  the  expedition  to 
Rome,  on  the  ground  that  it  would  secure  lib¬ 
eral  institutions  to  the  states  of  the  Church. 
After  the  coup  d’etat  of  December,  1851,  he  re¬ 
tired  to  Tocqueville,  where  he  devoted  himself 


TOCUYO 


320 


TODD 


to  agricultural  pursuits.  In  1856  appeared  his 
second  great  work,  L’Ancien  regime  et  la  revo¬ 
lution.  In  June,  1858,  he  took  up  his  abode 
at  Cannes,  where  he  died.  De  Tocqueville’s 
Oeuvres  et  correspondance  inedites  were  pub¬ 
lished  (1860)  by  his  friend  De  Beaumont,  who 
prefixed  a  biographical  notice.  His  Memoir es 
are  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  history  of 
the  revolution  of  1848  and  the  coup  d’6tat.  An 
English  translation,  The  Recollections  of  Alexis 
de  Tocqueville,  was  published  in  New  York  in 
1896.  Consult:  H.  Jacques,  Alexis  de  Tocque¬ 
ville  (Vienna,  1876)  ;  Bryce,  “The  Predictions 
of  Hamilton  and  de  Tocqueville,”  and  H.  B. 
Adams,  “Jared  Sparks  and  Alexis  de  Tocque¬ 
ville,”  in  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies  in 
History  and  Political  Sciences,  series  5,  vol.  ix, 
and  series  16,  vol.  xii  (Baltimore,  1887  and 
1904);'  Henry  Sidgwick,  “Alexis  de  Tocque¬ 
ville,”  in  Miscellaneous  Essays  and  Addresses 
(New  York,  1904)  ;  also  Correspondance  entre 
A.  de  Tocqueville  et  Arthur  de  Gobineau  (Paris, 
1908). 

TOCUYO,  t6-kooryo.  A  town  of  the  State  of 
Lara,  Venezuela,  180  miles  southwest  of  Cara¬ 
cas,  on  the  Tocuyo  River.  The  valley  of  this 
river  is  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  and 
grazing  districts  of  the  Republic,  producing  in 
abundance  sugar  cane,  wheat,  coffee,  and  cacao. 
Besides  exporting  these  products  Tocuyo  has 
wool  and  leather  manufactures,  salt  works,  and 
household  weaving.  Tocuyo  was  founded  in 
1535.  Pop.  (est.),4775. 

TODAS,  to'daz.  A  people  of  the  Nilgiri  Hills 
in  southern  Hindustan,  considered  to  be  of 
Dravidian  stock.  They  are  tall,  well-built, 
dolichocephalic,  with  prominent  nose,  features 
approaching  the  Caucasian,  full  beard,  black 
hair,  and  rather  light-brown  skin.  They  live 
a  simple  pastoral  life  and  are  concerned  almost 
solely  with  the  care  of  the  dairy.  They  form 
a  typical  polyandrous  community  in  which  when 
a  woman  marries  it  is  understood  that  she  be¬ 
comes  the  wife  of  her  husband’s  brothers.  Con¬ 
sult  Marshall,  A  Phrenologist  Among  the  Todas 
(London,  1873),  and  W.  LI.  R.  Rivers,  The  Todas 
(ib.,  1906). 

TODD,  Alpheus  (1821-84).  A  Canadian 
author  and  librarian.  He  was  born  in  London, 
England,  and  went  with  his  parents  to  Canada 
in  1833.  In  1856  he  became  principal  librarian 
and  constitutional  adviser  to  both  Houses  at 
Ottawa,  and  he  expended  £10,000  abroad  in  pur¬ 
chasing  books  for  the  parliamentary  library. 
Upon  confederation  in  1867,  he  was  appointed 
librarian  to  the  Dominion  Parliament.  His 
writings  on  constitutional  law  and  parliamentary 
government,  which  take  high  rank,  include:  The 
Practice  and  Privileges  of  the  Two  Houses  of 
Parliament  (1839);  Brief  Suggestions  in  Re¬ 
gard  to  the  Formation  of  Local  Governments 
for  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  in  Connection 
xoith  a  Federal  Union  of  the  British  North 
American  Provinces  (1866);  On  Parliamentary 
Government  in  England  (1867)  ;  On  Parliamen¬ 
tary  Government  in  the  British  Colonies  (1880). 

TODD,  Charles  Burr  (1849-  ).  An 

American  historian,  born  at  Redding,  Conn.  In 
1895  he  was  secretary  of  the  committee  ap¬ 
pointed  by  Mayor  Strong  for  the  printing  of 
early  records  of  New  York  City.  He  wrote: 
A  General  History  of  the  Burr  Family  (1879; 
4th  ed.,  1902)  ;  History  of  Redding,  Conn. 

(1880;  2d  ed.,  1907)  ;  The  Story  of  Washington, 
the  National  Capital  (1897)  ;  The  Real  Benedict 


Arnold  (1903);  In  Olde  Massachusetts  (1907); 
The  Washington’s  Crossing  Sketch  Book  (1914). 

TODD,  David  (Peck)  (1855-  ).  An 

American  astronomer,  born  at  Lake  Ridge, 
N.  Y.,  and  educated  at  Amherst  College.  He  was 
assistant  to  the  United  States  Transit  of  Venus 
Commission  in  1875-78,  and  his  reductions  of 
the  observations  were  the  first  derived  from  the 
American  photographs.  He  took  charge  of  the 
Lick  Observatory  observations  of  the  transit 
of  Venus  in  1882.  He  led  eclipse  expedi¬ 
tions  to  Japan  in  1887  and  1896,  to  West  Africa 
in  1889-90,  to  the  Dutch  East  Indies  in  1901,  to 
Tripoli  in  1900  and  1905,  the  Mars  expedition 
to  the  Andes  in  1907,  and  an  expedition  to  Rus¬ 
sia  in  1914.  His  publications  include:  A  Con¬ 
tinuation  of  De  Damoiseau’s  Tables  of  the  Sat¬ 
ellites  of  Jupiter  to  the  Year  1900  (1876;  also 
extended  back  to  1665),  used  by  American  and 
foreign  nautical  almanacs;  A  New  Astronomy 
(1897;  new  ed.,  1906);  Stars  and  Telescopes 
(1899);  Lessons  in  Astronomy  (1902). 

His  wife,  Mabel  Loomis  Todd,  daughter  of 
Eben  Jenks  Loomis  (q.v.),  wrote  on  astronomy, 
travel,  anthropology,  etc.,  and  edited  the  Poems 
and  Letters  of  Emily  Dickinson. 

TODD,  Henry  Alfred  (1854-  ).  An 

American  Romance  philologist,  born  at  Wood- 
stock,  Ill.  He  was  educated  at  Princeton  (A.B., 
1876),  at  Paris,  Berlin,  and  Madrid  (1880-83), 
and  at  Johns  Hopkins  (Ph.D.,  1885),  where  he 
taught  for  several  years.  After  holding  the 
chair  of  Romance  languages  at  Stanford  in 
1891-93,  he  became  professor  of  Romance  philol¬ 
ogy  at  Columbia.  In  1910,  with  Raymond 
Weeks  (q.v.)  and  other  scholars,  he  founded  the 
Romanic  Review,  the  first  learned  review  in 
English  devoted  entirely  to  the  Romance  lan¬ 
guages.  As  a  member  of  the  advisory  council 
of  the  Simplified  Spelling  Board,  Todd  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  reform  of  English  ortho¬ 
graphy.  In  1906  he  was  president  of  the  Mod¬ 
ern  Language  Association  of  America.  Among 
his  publications  are  La  panthere  d’amour,  an 
allegorical  poem  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
first  text  to  be  edited  by  a  foreigner  in  the  series 
of  the  Societe  des  Anciens  Textes  Frangais 
(1883)  ;  Guillaume  de  Dole,  in  which  he  showed 
that  the  so-called  Roman  de  la  rose  of  the  Vati¬ 
can  is  the  unique  text  of  an  important  poem  an¬ 
tedating  by  about  40  years  the  first  part  of  the 
celebrated  Roman  de  la  rose  (1887);  La  nais- 
sance  du  Chevalier  au  Cygne,  an  important 
French  poem  of  the  twelfth  century,  embodying 
the  earliest  form  of  the  Lohengrin  legend 
(1889). 

TODD,  John  (1800-73).  An  American  Con¬ 
gregational  minister.  He  was  born  at  Rutland, 
Vt.,  and  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1822, 
and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1826. 
He  was  pastor  successively  at  Groton  and 
Northampton,  Mass.,  at  Philadelphia,  and  at 
Pittsfield,  Mass.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  Mount  Holyoke  Female  Seminary  (later 
College).  He  had  a  vigorous  and  original  mind, 
much  practical  shrewdness  and  wit,  and  fine 
descriptive  power.  Some  of  his  works  had  a 
large  circulation,  especially  The  Student’s 
Manual  (1835;  20th  ed.,  1853).  Dr.  Todd  wrote 
many  books  for  children  and  young  people.  His 
complete  works  appeared  in  London  (new  ed., 
1882,  6  parts). 

TODD,  Robert  Bentley  (1809-60).  A  Brit¬ 
ish  physician,  born  in  Dublin,  and  educated 
there  at  Trinity  College.  The  first  part  of  .his 


TODDY  CAT 


321 


TOGA 


C  yclopcedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  was 
published  in  1835  and  the  entire  work  was  com¬ 
pleted  in  1859.  Todd  was  professor  of  physi¬ 
ology  and  general  and  morbid  anatomy  at  King’s 
College,  London,  from  1836  to  1853.  '  Todd  was 
known  for  his  pioneer  work  in  the  treatment 
of  fevers  and  inflammations.  He  published  sev¬ 
eral  medical  works. 

TODDY  CAT.  See  Palm  Civet. 

TOD'HUN'TER,  Isaac  (1820-84).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  mathematician.  He  was  educated  at  Uni¬ 
versity  College,  London,  and  at  St.  John’s  Col¬ 
lege,  Cambridge.  He  was  elected  fellow  of 
St.  John’s  in  1845,  and  the  rest  of  his  life 
was  devoted  to  mathematical  writing  and  teach- 
ing,  and  to  the  study  of  philosophy  and  of  lan¬ 
guages.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
(1862).  Todhunter’s  textbooks  were  the  most 
popular  ones  ever  published  in  England.  They 
include,  besides  a  number  of  elementary  text¬ 
books:  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus 

(1852);  Analytical  Statics  (1853);  Analytical 
Geometry  of  Three  Dimensions  (1858)  ;  History 
of  the  Progress  of  the  Calculus  of  Variations 
During  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1861)  ;  History 
of  Probability  (1865);  History  of  the  Mathe¬ 
matical  Theories  of  Attraction  (1873);  Re¬ 
searches  on  the  Calculus  of  Variations  (1871); 
Treatise  of  Laplace’s,  Lamp’s,  and  Bessel’s  Func¬ 
tions  (1875)  ;  History  of  the  Theory  of  Elastic¬ 
ity  (posthumous,  1886).  Consult:  Proceedings 
of  the  London  Mathematical  Society  (London, 
1884),  with  list  of  writings;  Proceedings  of 
the  Royal  Society,  vol.  xxvii  (ib.,  1884). 

TODHUNTEIt,  John  (1839-  ).  An 

Irish  author  and  scholar,  born  in  Dublin,  Ire¬ 
land.  He  graduated  in  medicine  at  Trinity  Col¬ 
lege,  Dublin,  in  1866,  and  continued  his  medi¬ 
cal  studies  in  Vienna  and  Paris.  After  practic¬ 
ing  his  profession  for  a  time  in  Dublin,  he 
became  professor  of  English  literature  in  Alex¬ 
andra  College,  Dublin  (1870-74).  After  trav¬ 
eling  on  the  Continent  and  in  Egypt,  he  finally 
settled  in  London.  His  work  includes:  Laurella 
and  Other  Poems  (1876)  ;  Forest  Songs  (1881)  ; 
The  Banshee  and  Other  Poems  (1888);  Three 
Irish  Bardic  Tales  (1896);  Heine’s  Book  of 
Songs  (1907),  a  translation.  His  dramas  in¬ 
clude:  Alcestis  (1879);  Rienzi  (1881);  Helena 
in  Troas  (1885)  ;  A  Sicilian  Idyll  (1890)  ;  The 
Poison  Flower  (1891);  The  Black  Cat  (per¬ 
formed  in  1893).  His  prose  comprises:  The 
Theory  of  the  Beautiful  (1872);  A  Study  of 
Shelley  (1880)  ;  and  A  Life  of  Patrick  Sarsfield 
(1895). 

TODI,  to'de.  A  town  in  the  Province  of 
Perugia,  Italy,  situated  on  an  abrupt  hill  near 
the  Tiber,  23  miles  south  of  Perugia  (Map: 
Italy,  D  3 ) .  Its  Etruscan  origin  is  shown  in  its 
dilapidated  walls  and  numerous  tombs.  Its  fine 
remains  of  the  Roman  period  include  a  temple 
or  basilica,  a  theatre,  and  amphitheatre.  The 
Romanesque  cathedral  has  a  huge  tower  and 
frescoes  by  Lo  Spagna.  The  Renaissance 
Church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Consolazione,  a 
massive  structure  surmounted  by  a  slender, 
soaring  dome,  is  simple  but  wonderfully  im¬ 
pressive.  The  splendid  Gothic  Palazzo  Comun- 
ale  contains  a  small  picture  gallery.  Todi,  the 
Umbrian  Tuder,  was  the  scene  of"  the  decisive 
victory  of  Narses  over  the  Goths  in  552.  Pop. 
(commune),  1901,  16,561;  1911,  17,032. 

TODLEBEN,  Franz  Eduard  Ivanovitch. 
See  Totleben,  F.  E.  I. 

TOD'MORDEN,  locally  ta'mor-den.  A  mar¬ 


ket-town  in  Lancashire,  England,  on  the  border 
of  Yorkshire,  6  miles  north-northeast  of  Roch¬ 
dale.  Cotton  manufactures  form  the  staple  in¬ 
dustry;  coal  abounds  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
there  are  foundries  and  machine  works.  Pop  , 
1911,  25,404.  1 

TODY  (from  Lat.  todus,  sort  of  small  bird). 
Any  of  several  species  of  small  West  Indian 
birds  forming  the  family  Todidae,  and  related  to 
the  kingfishers,  bee  eaters,  and  motmots  (qq.v. ). 
They  are  less  than  three  inches  long  with  a  short 
tail  and  long  bill.  The  plumage  is  brilliant, 
grass-green,  carmine-red,  and  white.  They 
breed  in  holes  in  banks  and  lay  white  eggs.  The 
best-known  species  is  the  common  green  tody 
( Todus  viridis )  of  Jamaica,  a  familiar  and  use¬ 
ful  little  bird,  often  called  robin  redbreast  by 
English  residents.  The  name  tody  is  incor¬ 
rectly  applied  to  rollers,  barbets,  and  other 
highly  colored  tropical  birds,  even  in  the  East 
Indies.  See  Plate  of  Wrens,  Warblers,  etc. 

TOE,  Wry.  See  Hallux  Valgus. 

TOFT,  Albert  (1862-  ).  An  English 

sculptor.  He  was  born  in  Birmingham,  and  at 
first  worked  as  a  modeler  with  Wedgwood  and 
.Sons.  He  studied  at  the  Newcastle-under-Lyme 
School  of  Art,  and  at  the  Royal  College  of  Art, 
London,  and  first  attracted  favorable  attention 
with  his  ££Fate-Led”  (1892;  Walker  Art  Gal¬ 
lery,  Liverpool).  This  was  followed  by  ££The 
Sere  and  Yellow  Leaf”  (1892);  ££The  Oracle” 
(1894)  ;  “The  Goblet  of  Life”  (1894)  ;  “Spring” 
(Birmingham  Museum)  ;  “Hagar”  (1899)  ;  “Vic¬ 
tory”  (1900);  and  the  “Spirit  of  Contempla¬ 
tion”  (1901),  perhaps  his  best  effort.  His  ideal 
statues,  although  realistic  in  conception,  show 
considerable  imaginative  quality,  and  the  model¬ 
ing  is  vigorous  and  sure.  In  another  field  are 
memorials  to  Robert  Owen,  Queen  Victoria 
(Nottingham),  and  King  Edward  (Birming¬ 
ham),  the  Welsh  National  War  Memorial,  and 
busts  of  several  noted  men.  Toft  also  did  good 
work  as  a  medalist  and  decorative  sculptor,  and 
published  Modeling  and  Sculpture  (1911). 

TOGA  (Lat.,  mantle).  The  principal  outer 
garment  of  the  Roman  citizen,  worn  over  a  shirt 
[tunica).  For  ordinary  citizens  the  toga  was 
pure  white  in  color  ( toga  virilis,  toga  pura )  : 
boys,  and  most  of  the  magistrates,  wore  togas 
with  a  border  of  crimson  ( toga  prcetexta) .  At 
a  triumph  (q.v.),  the  victorious  generals  ap¬ 
peared  in  a  toga  entirely  of  crimson  embroidered 
with  gold  ( toga  picta) ,  worn  over  a  tunica  of 
similar  character  ( tunica  pal mat  a) .  Candi¬ 
dates  for  public  office  presented  themselves  in 
togas  freshly  cleansed  and  artificially  whitened 
( Candida ,  shining).  On  the  other  hand,  per¬ 
sons  in  mourning  for  any  reason  wore  carelessly 
arranged  and  soiled  togas  [sordida),  or  even 
those  artificially  darkened  [pulla) .  Its  ma¬ 
terial  was  wool,  closely  woven,  and  fulled,  with 
a  combed  nap,  making  it  (at  least  in  late  Re¬ 
publican  and  early  Imperial  days)  cumbrous, 
expensive,  and  (except  in  winter)  too  heavy. 
The  shape  of  the  toga,  like  its  size,  the  elabora¬ 
tion  of  its  folds,  and  the  way  it  was  worn,  varied 
at  different  times.  It  was  less  voluminous  in 
earlier  days.  By  the  beginning  of  the  Empire  it 
must  have  been  fully  twice  as  long  as  the  wearer 
was  tall,  of  elliptical  shape,  folded  lengthwise, 
hanging  over  the  left  shoulder  (with  the  fold 
towards  the  neck)  so  that  the  end  rested  a  few 
inches  upon  the  floor  in  front.  The  rest  of  the 
garment  was  passed  around  the  back,  under  the 
right  arm,  and  thrown  backward  over  the  left 


TOGASASTI 


TOGO 


322 


shoulder,  so  that  the  end  hung  down  behind,  but 
cleared  the  ground.  The  folds  were  most  care¬ 
fully  and  systematically  arranged  (later,  pins  or 
clasps  were  used),  the  end  depending  in  front  was 
raised  to  clear  the  floor,  and  the  slack  (nodus, 
umbo)  allowed  to  hang  down  over  the  mass  of 
folds  (sinus)  that  crossed  the  front  of  the  body 
towards  the  left  shoulder.  It  gave  place  under 
the  Empire,  except  on  formal  occasions,  to 
lighter  and  more  convenient  garments,  chiefly 
of  foreign  origin.  Consult  the  article  “Toga” 
in  William  Smith,  A  Dictionary  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Antiquities,  vol.  ii  (3d  ed.,  London, 
1891)  ;  H.  W.  Johnston,  The  Private  Life  of  the 
Romans  (Chicago,  1903).  See  Costume. 

TOGASASTI.  See  Tagosati. 

TOGGLE  JOINT  (probably  connected  with 
ME.  tog  gen,  tug  gen,  to  tug).  A  mechanical 
appliance  acting  on  the  principle  of  the  inclined 
plane.  Let  ad  and  ag  represent  the  arms  of 
the  toggle  joint,  with  the  joint  at  a.  Then,  if 
the  arms  are  brought  to  a  perpendicular,  the 
end  d  being  stationary,  the  point  a  will  move 
through  the  arc  ab  to  b,  and  at  each  point  in  the 
arc  in  the  direction  of  a  tangent  at  that  point. 
As  the  point  a  approaches  b  the  tangent  will. 

become  more  and  more  hori¬ 
zontal,  and  at  last  perpendic¬ 
ular  to  the  arms  ad  and  ag. 
When  they  form  one  and  the 
same  straight  line  the  weight 
w  will  have  been  raised  to 
twice  the  height  be.  The 
form  in  the  figure  here  pre¬ 
sented  is  given  to  show 
more  clearly  the  action  of  the 
knee  and  elbow  joints  in  man, 
but  that  which  is  more  fre¬ 
quently  used,  particularly  in 
mechanical  presses  (to  which 
the  appliance  is  peculiarly 
adapted),  makes  the  ends  d 
and  g  of  the  arms  approach 
each  other,  applying  the  power  at  a  making  ac 
the  perpendicular.  It  will  be  seen  that  on  the 
application  of  power  the  motion  of  the  point  a 
will  at  first  be  quite  rapid  (when  the  material 
to  be  pressed,  such  as  hay  or  cotton,  is  loose), 
becoming  slower  and  slower  as  the  points  d  and 
g  approach  each  other,  so  that  when  both  arms 
become  very  nearly  perpendicular  the  weight 
or  resistance  will  move  very  slowly;  but  the 
power  will  be  extremely  great,  and  adapted  to 
the  resistance  offered  by  the  greatly  compressed 
bale.  See  Inclined  Plane. 

TOGHRA,  to'Gra.  A  term  in  Turkey  for  the 
cipher  or  signature  of  the  Sultan  reigning  over 
the  Ottoman  Empire.  This  cipher,  changing 
with  every  reign  and  with  the  name  of  the 
ruler,  displays  the  Arabic  characters  which  make 
up  his  name  and  title  in  a  whorl-like  form, 
which  reads  from  right  to  left.  It  appears  on 
the  coinage  of  the  realm,  on  postage  stamps, 
the  Imperial  buildings,  and  in  any  place  where 
a  coat  of  arms  would  be  displayed  in  a  European 
monarchy. 

The  word  Toghra  is  derived  from  the  Turkish 
verb  toghramak,  to  cleave,  to  cut,  to  mark, 
having  in  this  respect  a  derivation  not  unlike 
that  of  the  English  phrase  “to  make  his  mark,” 
used  of  signatures. 

A  legend,  often  quoted,  represents  the  Toghra, 
whose  convolutions  are  not  unlike  those  on  the 
thumb,  as  having  been  made  by  a  sultan  dip¬ 
ping  his  thumb  in  ink,  which  some  ingenious 


calligrapher  modified  into  a  cipher  of  the  royal 
name.  But  the  date  of  this  legend,  which  is  as¬ 
sociated  with  the  illiterate  Othman  who  founded 
the  Ottoman  dynasty,  falls  some  two  centuries 
later  than  the  use  of  the  word  for  the  royal 
sign  manual.  Under  a  Seljuk  sultan,  Malik 
Shah,  better  known  as  Jalal  din  (1072-1104), 
a  Persian  poet,  Abou  Esmail  Hosein  (1063- 
1121),  bore  the  title  of  Toghrayi.  A  contem¬ 
porary  speaks  of  him  as  the  officer  whose  duty 
it  was  to  write  upon  firmans  and  other  instru¬ 
ments  the  Sultan’s  signature,  which  was  ac¬ 
cepted  as  written  by  the  Sultan  himself. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  an  Oriental  ruler 
to  affect  an  inability  to  write.  The  Emperor 
of  China  simply  made  his  mark  with  a  ver¬ 
milion  pencil.  The  Sultan  of  Morocco — often 
in  cases  where  he,  as  with  Mulai  Hassen,  was 
one  of  the  best-educated  men  in  the  Empire — 
placed  a  scroll  at  the  end  of  the  documents  he 
signed. 

The  Toghra  was  selected  anew  by  each  ruler 
and  has  analogies  to  the  French  paraph.  It 
seems  to  be  the  case  that  the  Turkish  sultans 
originally  made  their  mark.  This  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  an  intricate  calligraphic  cipher,  giv¬ 
ing  the  name  and  title.  In  time  this  came  to  be 
accepted  as  signifying  a  ruler’s  assent,  and,  as 
the  English  Chancellor  affixes  the  royal  seal,  so 
the  Toghrayi  performed  the  same  office. 

TOGO,  to'go,  or  TOGOLANE.  A  territory  in 
West  Africa,  bounded  by  Dahomey  on  the  east, 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea  on  the  south,  the  Gold  Coast 
Colony  on  the  west,  and  the  colony  of  Upper 
Senegal  and  Niger  on  the  north  (Map:  Africa, 
E  4).  Area,  estimated  at  about  33,700  square 
miles.  The  low  sandy  coast  rises  towards  the 
interior,  which  is  mostly  undulating  and  trav¬ 
ersed  by  the  Aposso  Mountains,  entering  from 
northern  Dahomey.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Mono,  the  Dako,  the  Sio,  and  the  Haho.  There 
are  many  coast  lagoons.  The  climate  is  moist 
and  unhealthful.  Togo  possesses  abundant  nat¬ 
ural  resources.  Extensive  coconut  plantations 
have  been  established  along  the  coast,  and  good 
crops  of  corn  and  rice  are  raised.  Tobacco  and 
coffee  are  also  cultivated.  The  chief  products 
for  export  are  palm  kernels,  palm  oil,  rubber, 
ivory,  and  copra.  The  imports  and  exports 
amounted  in  1913  to  10,631,000  and  9,138,000 
marks  respectively.  The  chief  ports  are  Lome, 
which  is  also  the  seat  of  administration,  and 
Little  Popo.  There  are  327  kilometers  of  rail¬ 
way:  Lome-Anecho  (Little  Popo) ,  44  kilometers; 
Lome-Palime,  119  kilometers;  Lome-Atakpame, 
164  kilometers.  The  native  population  is  esti¬ 
mated  at  1,032,000;  white  population,  Jan.  1, 
1913,  368,  of  whom  320  were  German.  Togo- 
land  was  declared  a  German  protectorate  in 
1884.  On  Aug.  7,  1914,  it  was  seized  by  British 
and  French  forces.  See  War  in  Europe. 

TOGO,  Heihachiro,  Count  (1847-  ).  A 

Japanese  admiral,  born  in  Kagoshima,  of  a 
Samurai  family.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1863, 
fought  in  the  Civil  War  of  1868,  and  after¬ 
ward  received  training  on  the  British  ship 
Worcester,  and  at  the  Naval  College,  Greenwich. 
As  captain  of  the  cruiser  Nanhca  in  1894  he 
precipitated  the  war  with  China  by  firing  upon 
and  sinking  the  Chinese  transport  Kowshing. 
At  the  end  of  the  war  he  was  made  rear  ad¬ 
miral,  and  in  1900  became  vice  admiral  with  his 
station  at  Maizuru.  As  commander  in  chief 
of  the  combined  Japanese  fleet  he  delivered  the 
first  great  blow  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  by 


TOGUE 


323 


TOKYO 


his  torpedo  attack  on  the  enemy’s  fleet  at  Port 
Arthur  on  the  night  of  Feb.  8-9,  1904.  For 
his  career  in  the  war,  see  Russo-Japanese  War. 
In  19] 2  lie  was  admiral  of  the  fleet,  and  he  also 
held  the  post  of  chief  of  the  naval  general  staff. 
Togo  was  honored  with  the  British  Order  of 
Merit. 

TOGUE,  tog.  See  Namaycush. 

TOILERS  OF  THE  SEA.  See  Travailleurs 

DE  LA  MER. 

TOKAIDO,  to-kl'dd.  An  ancient  division  of 
Hondo,  the  principal  island  of  Japan,  occupying 
the  eastern  part  of  the  island.  It  developed 
later  than  the  western  and  southern  parts  of 
the  island,  but  since  the  triumph  of  Yoritomo 
( q/v . )  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  it  has 
been  dominant,  ruling  Japan  from  Kamakura 
and  \edo  (Tokyo).  It  is  now  the  most  populous 
and  richest  part  of  Japan. 

TOKAIDO.  A  name  applied  to  the  great 
highway  which  connects  Tokyo  with  Kyoto.  It 
is  323  miles  long.  Starting  from  Nihombashi 
(Jap.,  Bridge  of  Japan)  in  Tokyo,  it  skirts  the 
Bay  of  Tokyo  and  the  Pacific,  climbs  the  Ha- 
kone  Mountains  across  the  peninsula  of  Idzu, 
again  follows  the  coast  line  through  many  lar^e 
towns  to  Kuwana,  247%  miles  from  Nihom¬ 
bashi,  where  it  turns  inland  to  Lake  Biwa  and 
Kyoto.  Here  in  the  days  of  the  Tokugawa 
regime  the  daimyos  from  the  centre  and  west  of 
Japan  traveled  with  their  trains  of  armed  men 
to  and  from  their  enforced  residence  in  Yedo. 
The  sides  of  the  road  were  planted  with  lines  of 
gieat  cedars.  .  By  the  completion  of  the  railway 
between  the  cities  its  importance  has  diminished. 

TO'KAJ  (Ger.  pron.  to'koi),  TOKAY,  tb'kL 
A  tow  11  in  the  County  of  Zemplin,  Hungary,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Bodrog  and  Theiss,  41 
miles  north  of  Debreczin  (Map:  Hungary,  G  2). 
In  the  vicinity  are  sapphire  and  carnelian  de¬ 
posits.  and  salt  works.  Tokaj  is  celebrated  for 
its  wines  from  vineyards  138  square  miles  in 
extent,  producing  over  five  million  gallons 
annually.  Pop.  (town),  1910,  5321,  mostly 
Magyars. 

.  TOKAT,  to-kat'  (Arm.  Evtoghia) .  The  cap¬ 
ital  of  a  sanjak  in  the  Vilayet  of  Sivas,  Turkey 
in  Asia,  125  miles  northeast  of  Kaisarieh  (Map*: 
Turkey  in  Asia,  C  2).  It  is  in  a  hilly  region, 
abounding  in  fine  scenery,  and  is  well  laid  out. 
The  chief  features  of  interest  are  the  Byzantine 
castle  and  the  old  Roman  tombs.  The  town  is 
the  commercial  centre  for  a  section  producing 
fruit,  hemp,  corn,  and  tobacco,  and  has  manu¬ 
factures  of  cotton  cloth,  dyestuffs,  copper  wares, 
and  leather.  A  number  of  copper  smelters  are 
operated  in  the  suburbs  of  the  town.  Pop., 
about  30,000,  the  majority  being  Mohammedans. 
Dui  ing  the  Middle  Ages  Tokat,  the  ancient 
Daznnon,  was  an  important  trading  centre.  It 

was_  the  scene  of  an  Armenian  massacre  in 
1 895. 

TOKEN  MONEY.  See  Money. 

TOKIO.  See  Tokyo. 

TOKOL'OGY.  See  Obstetrics. 

TOKOLYI,  te'kel-yi,  or  TOKOLI,  Imre 
( E meric  11 ) ,  Count  (1656-1705).  An  Hungarian 
patriot.  He  belonged  to  a  Lutheran  family  and 
was  born  at  the  Castle  of  K6smfirk,  in  the 
County  of  Zips.  .  His  father,  Count  Stephen, 
was  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  Zrinyi, 
Rakoczy,  and  Frangipani  against  Leopold  I  'of 
Austria;  and  after  his  death,  and  the  execu¬ 
tion  of  Zrinyi  and  others,  young  Tokolyi  sought 
an  asylum  in  Poland,  where  he  had  large  pos¬ 


sessions.  After  vain  endeavors  to  recover  from 
the  Emperor  his  patrimonial  estates  he  obtained 
the  support  of  Apafi,  Prince  of  Transvlvania, 
and  in  16/8  he  took  the  lead  in  the  insurrec¬ 
tion  in  Hungary.  He  captured  a  number  of 
towns,  and  even  penetrated  into  the  heart  of 
Moravia.  The  Turkish  Sultan,  Mohammed  IV, 
espoused  his  cause,  and  in  1682  declared  him 
™.f.0.f  .Hungary  under  Turkish  suzerainty, 
lokolyi  joined  Kara  Mustapha  in  the  great  on¬ 
slaught  on  Austria  in  1683,  but  after  the  dis¬ 
aster  to  the  Turks  at  Vienna  many  of  his  fol¬ 
lowers  fell  off  from  him,  and  in  1685  he  was 
imprisoned  by  the  Turks.  He  was  soon  released 
and  unsuccessfully  resumed  operations.  In  1689 
he  was  made  Prince  of  Transylvania  by  the 
pultan,  and  invaded  that  country  with  a  Turk¬ 
ish  army,  but  was  forced  back  into  Wallachia. 
He  .  took  part  in  the  subsequent  campaigns 
against  Austria,  and  after  the  Peace  of  Karlo- 
witz  lie  was  made  by  the  Sultan  Prince  of 
V  iddin  and  resided  as  his  pensioner  at  Con¬ 
stantinople,  where  he  died. 

to'koo-ga'wa.  The  name  of  the 
great  family  which  ruled  Japan  for  more  than 
two  centuries  and  a  half  (1600-1868).  Its 
founder  was  Ieyasu,  one  of  the  five  generals 
from  the  east  of  Japan  who  restored  peace  after 
centuries  of  feudal  strife  and  anarchy.  He 
claimed  descent  from  an  early  Emperor  through 
the  Minamoto  family,  and  took  their  hereditary 
tit!®  “shogun”  (generai )  (q.v.).  He  made  Yedo, 
or  Tokyo,  then  an  obscure  village,  the  capital  of 
Japan,  reformed  the  laws,  and  established  the 
system  which  was  characteristic  of  Japan  and 
made  it  unique  in  the  eyes  of  foreigners.  Ieyasu 
letiied  in  1604  to  Shidzuoka,  but  continued  to 
rule  through  his  son  until  his  death  in  1616. 
His  descendants  were  shoguns  to  the  number  of 
fourteen.  The  greatest  of  them  was  Iemitsu, 
his  grandson,  who  ruled  from  1623  to  1649. 
Most  of  the  Tokugawa  shoguns  were  weaklings 
and  debauchees.  The  fifteenth  shogun  resigned 
his  powers  to  the  Emperor  in  1868  and  retired 
to  Shidzuoka.  Since  that  time  the  family  has 
exerted  no  political  power. 

TOKUSHIMA,  to'koo-she'ma.  The  capital  of 
the  Prefecture  of  Tokushima,  in  Japan,  near  the 
coast  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  island  of 
Shikoku  (Map:  Japan,  D  6).  It  is  the  largest 
city  on  the  island,  and  is  beautifully  situated. 
Pop.,  1908,  65,561. 

TOKYO,  to'ke-o,  or  TOKIO  (formerly  Yedo) 
(Jap.,  Eastern  Capital).  The  capital  of  Japan, 
situated  on  the  southeast  side  of  the  main  island, 
ITonshiu,  or  Hondo,  on  the  Bay  of  Tokyo  (Map:’ 
Japan,  F  6).  Tokyo  is  the  largest  city  of  Japan 
and  succeeded  Kyoto  as  the  capital  upon  the 
Imperial  restoration  in  1868.  The  city  covers 
about  30  square  miles,  and  is  exceedingly  ir¬ 
regular  in  outline,  being,  indeed,  a  number  of 
towns  grown  together  rather  than  a  single  city 
laid  out  according  to  design.  It  is  divided  into 
two  unequal  parts  by  the  river  Sumida.  The 
eastern  portions  along  the  river  and  fronting  the 
bay  are  level  and  low,  the  western  rise  into  con¬ 
siderable  hills  with  a  dense  population  in  the 
valleys  which  separate  them.  The  chief  feature 
is  the  palace  inclosure  within  the  grounds  of 
the  ancient  castle.  These  grounds  under  the  old 
regime  were  very  extensive  and  were  surrounded 
by  an  outer  wall  and  moat  more  than  two  and  a 
half  miles  in  length.  This  wall  has  been  leveled 
in  part  and  the  moat  filled  up.  Within  was  a 
second  moat  and  wall,  and  even  a  third  in 


TOKYO 


324 


TOLAND 


parts.  The  old  residence  of  the  shogun  within 
the  third  wall  was  burned  in  1872  and  has  been 
replaced  by  the  palace  of  the  Emperor,  in  a  mixed 
Japanese-European  style  of  architecture.  It 
stands  in  the  ancient  and  beautiful  park  called 
Fukiage.  The  palace  was  first  occupied  by  the 
Emperor  in  1889.  Much  of  the  area  inclosed  by 
the  outer  wall  and  moat  was  occupied  in  the 
past  by  the  mansions  of  the  feudal  barons,  but 
these  are  now  destroyed  and  in  their  place  are 
the  various  buildings  devoted  to  the  use  of  the 
government,  in  European  style  and  devoid  of 
especial  interest.  To  the  east  of  the  castle  is 
the  distinctively  commercial  portion  of  the  city, 
with  banks,  warehouses,  shops,  hotels,  restau¬ 
rants,  newspaper  offices,  and  dwellings.  A  long 
main  street,  variously  named  in  different  parts 
and  without  any  general  designation,  passes 
through  this  part  of  the  city  from  northeast  to 
southwest.  It  is  broad,  with  rows  of  trees,  a 
tramway,  electric  lights,  and  rows  of  low  build¬ 
ings  of  stone  and  brick  in  a  semi-European  style. 
From  it  lanes  and  streets  diverge  in  all  direc¬ 
tions,  for  the  greater  part  lined  with  small 
wooden  buildings,  inexpensive  and  without  pre¬ 
tension.  Mingled  with  them  are  storehouses 
made  of  mud  or  clay,  and  incongruous  modern 
buildings.  Of  late  years  some  of  the  streets 
have  been  straightened  and  widened,  wooden 
bridges  have  been  replaced  by  iron  ones,  and 
many  improvements  have  been  introduced. 
Nevertheless  the  old  styles  of  shops  and  dwellings 
are  in  so  vast  a  majority  that  this  part  of 
Tokyo  is  still  essentially  as  in  the  centuries 
past. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  city  is  the  arsenal, 
with  the  beautiful  garden  attached  which  for¬ 
merly  belonged  to  the  mansion  of  the  barons  of 
Mito.  Not  far  away  is  the  ancient  building 
used  as  a  library  which  was  once  the  great 
Confucian  College.  Farther  to  the  north  on 
the  site  of  the  town  mansion  of  the  Baron  of 
Kaga  is  the  Imperial  University.  (See  Tokyo, 
University  of.)  Farther  to  the  east  is  the 
great  park,  Ueno,  with  the  mortuary  shrines 
of  eight  of  the  shoguns  of  the  Tokugawa  fam¬ 
ily,  and  the  Imperial  Museum  filled  with  ob¬ 
jects  of  great  interest.  Still  farther  to  the 
east  is  the  great  temple  of  the  goddess  of  mercy, 
Kwannon  Sama,  with  a  park,  many  shrines,  a 
pagoda,  rows  of  shops,  and  innumerable  places 
of  amusement.  Across  the  river  Sumida  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  city  embraces  the  two 
districts  called  Honjo  and  Fukiage,  a  quiet  re¬ 
gion  known  to  visitors  chiefly  for  its  displays 
of  flowers,  the  cherry  blossoms  at  Mukojima,  the 
wistaria  at  Kameido,  and  the  iris  at  Horikiri, 
and  for  the  great  wrestling  matches  at  the 
temple  E-ko-in.  On  the  west  bank  of  the  Sumida 
was  the  Foreign  Concession,  but  since  the  aboli¬ 
tion  of  extraterritoriality  foreigners  are  per¬ 
mitted  to  live  in  all  parts  of  the  city.  In  the 
same  district,  on  the  shore  of  the  bay,  is  the 
Imperial  park  known  as  Enryo-kwan.  In  the 
southern  part  of  the  city  is  the  park  called 
Shiba,  with  the  magnificent  mortuary  shrine  of 
the  second  shogun,  and  the  almost  equally  fine 
shrines  of  six  others.  Beyond  the  park,  still 
following  the  line  of  the  bay,  is  the  Temple  of 
Sankakuji,  famous  for  the  little  cemetery  con¬ 
taining  the  tombs  of  the  47  Ronins.  To  the 
west  of  the  palace  are  many  large  residences 
surrounded  by  gardens  and  high  walls.  In  the 
suburbs  there  are  many  delightful  resorts,  es¬ 
pecially  Meguro,  Oji,  Futago,  and  Ikegami.  The 


city  is  protected  against  fire  by  a  well-organized 
fire  department.  It  has  also  an  excellent  police 
system.  The  affairs  of  the  city  are  administered 
by  a  mayor,  a  municipal  council,  and  a  munic¬ 
ipal  assembly.  Tokyo  has  few  industrial  in¬ 
terests,  although  there  are  numerous  factories 
in  the  neighborhood.  It  is  unfavorably  situ¬ 
ated  for  commerce.  Trade  is  carried  on  by  way 
of  Yokohama.  Pop.,  1898,  1,440,121 ;  1908  (city), 
2,186,079;  1912,  2,099,000;  1920,  2,173,162. 

Originally  an  obscure  hamlet  called  T  edo 
( gate  of  the  inlet)  stood  on  the  seashore  in 
the  district  of  the  city  now  called  Asakusa, 
while  most  of  the  busiest  parts  of  the  present 
city  were  covered  with  the  waters  of  the  bay 
and  of  lagoons.  Near  Yedo  a  rude  castle  was 
built  in  the  fifteenth  century,  but  the  place 
continued  without  importance  until  towards  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Tokugawa  Ieyasu 
took  possession  of  it,  and  in  1603  made  it  the 
seat  of  his  government  of  the  Empire.  He  re¬ 
tained  the  ancient  name  Yedo,  but  made  it 
speedily  the  most  important  city  in  Japan. 

The  records  of  the  city  contain  accounts  of 
many  terrible  catastrophes.  It  was  repeatedly 
destroyed  in  conflagrations,  until  in  recent  times 
the  building  of  rows  of  brick  and  stone  houses 
has  furnished  efficient  barriers.  It  has  also 
suffered  greatly  from  earthquakes  and  from  epi¬ 
demics,  while  terrible  storms  have  destroyed 
thousands  of  dwellings.  After  the  weakening 
of  the  house  of  Tokugawa,  in  1863,  the  require¬ 
ment  of  residence  for  the  barons  was  relaxed, 
and  the  population  fell  off  greatly.  But  after 
the  fall  of  the  shogunate  on  Sept.  13,  1868,  it 
was  made  the  eastern  capital,  and  its  name  was 
changed  accordingly  to  Tokyo.  It  was  opened 
to  the  residence  of  foreigners  in  1869.  Though 
nominally  only  the  eastern  capital,  yet,  as  the 
residence  of  the  Emperor,  the  meeting  place 
of  the  Diet,  and  the  seat  of  the  government  in 
all  departments,  it  is  in  reality  the  only  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  Empire,  Kyoto  retaining  an  empty 
title  merely. 

TOKYO,  University  of.  A  Japanese  uni¬ 
versity  founded  in  1868  by  the  union  of  two 
older  schools,  as  one  of  the  results  of  the  great 
political  and  social  revolution  of  that  year.  It 
has  grown  with  the  growth  of  modern  Japan. 
At  first  officered  largely  by  foreigners,  these 
have  been  gradually  superseded  by  Japanese,  for 
the  most  part  trained  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  The  university  is  a  government  insti¬ 
tution.  Its  administration  is  vested  in  a  presi¬ 
dent  and  a  board  of  councilors,  two  from  each 
college,  named  by  the  Minister  of  Education,  for 
a  term  of  five  years.  The  colleges  comprise  law, 
medicine,  engineering,  literature,  science,  and 
agriculture.  Two  degrees  are  given,  one  for 
work  in  course,  the  other  for  special  distinc¬ 
tion.  The  university  includes  an  observatory 
and  a  library.  There  were  5354  students  in 
1912-13,  nearly  half  the  number  being  in  the 
college  of  law.  The  library  in  1912  contained 
491,082  volumes,  of  which  '267.718  are  in  Jap¬ 
anese  and  Chinese,  and  223,364  in  foreign  lan¬ 
guages,  and  some  100,000  pamphlets.  Consult 
C.  F.  Thwing,  Universities  of  the  World  (New 
York,  1911).° 

TOLA,  toffa.  See  Kermes. 

TOLA.  See  India,  Weights  and  Measures. 

TO 'LAND,  John  (1670-1722).  A  deistical 
writer.  He  was  born  near  the  village  of  Red- 
castle,  in  the  County  of  Londonderry,  Ireland. 
He  was  brought  up  as  a  Roman  Catholic,  but  in 


TOLBOOTH 


325 


his  sixteenth  year  was  a  Protestant.  He  en¬ 
tered  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1G87,  but  re¬ 
moved  to  that  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  master  of  arts  in  1690.  Thence  he 
passed  to  Leyden,  where  he  entered  upon  theo¬ 
logical  studies.  On  his  return  to  England  he 
resided  for  some  time  at  Oxford,  where  he  was 
already  looked  upon  as  a  free-thinker.  Chris¬ 
tianity  not  Mysterious,  which  he  published  in 
London  in  1696,  and  in  which  he  fully  avowed 
his  principles,  created  a  sensation  in  the  theolog¬ 
ical  world.  In  the  following  year  Toland  re¬ 
turned  to  Ireland,  but  his  book  was  burned  pub- 
hely  by  order  of  the  Irish  Parliament.  Finding 
it  necessary  to  flee  from  Ireland,  Toland  re¬ 
turned  to  London,  where  he  published  a  defense 
against  this  judgment  of  the  Irish  Parliament; 
but  he  soon  afterward  turned  his  pen  from 
theological  to  political  and  literary  subjects. 
His  Life  of  Milton  (1698)  was  attacked  as 
containing  heresy,  and  he  defended  himself  in 
Amyntor  jl699).  A  pamphlet  entitled  Anglia 
Libera  (1701),  on  the  succession  of  the  house 
of  Brunswick,  led  to  his  being  received  with 
favor  by  the  Princess  Sophia  at  the  court  of 
Hanover,  and  to  his  being  sent  on  a  kind  of 
political  mission  to  some  of  the  German  courts. 
In  L05  he  openly  avowed  himself  a  pantheist. 
In  tins  course  he  was  emboldened  by  the  pa¬ 
tronage  of  Harley,  by  whom  he  was  sent  abroad 
to  Holland  and  Germany  in  1707.  He  returned 
to  England  in  1710;  and  having  forfeited  the 
fa\  01  of  his  patron,  or  at  least  having  separated 
from  him  (1714),  lie  engaged  as  a  partisan  pam¬ 
phleteer  on  the  side  of  Harley’s  adversaries. 
Duiing  this  period  he  published  Nazarenus 
(1/18)  and  Pantlieisticon  (1720).  His  later 
life  was  spent  in  obscurity  and  poverty.  Con¬ 
sult  Leslie  Stephen,  History  of  English  : Thought 
m  the  Eighteenth  Century  (3d  ed.,  2  vols.  New 
York,  1902). 

TOLBOOTH,  tol/booTH'  or  -boothh  A  massive 
structure,  dating  from  various  periods,  on  Castle 
Hill,  Edinburgh,  removed  in  1817.  It  served 
as  a  Parliament  House,  a  court,  and  a  prison. 

It  figures  in  Scott’s  Heart  of  Midlothian. 

TOLDY,  toEdi,  Ferencz  ( 1805-75 ) .  An  Hun- 
gaiian  literary  historian.  His  real  name  was 
Schedel.  He  was  born  in  Ofen,  and  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  Budapest  as  a  physician.  In  1830  he 
founded  with  Paul  Bugat,  at  Budapest,  the 
Orvosi  Tar,  the  first  Hungarian  medical  jour¬ 
nal,  and  from  1833  to  1844  he  was  assistant 
professor  of  dietetics  at  the  university.  From 
1835  to  1861  he  was  secretary  of  the  Hungarian 
Academy,  and  in  1836  he  founded  the  great 
Kisfaludy  literary  society,  of  which  he  became 
president  in  1841.  After  1849  he  devoted  him¬ 
self  entirely  to  the  history  of  Hungarian  litera¬ 
ture,  and  in  1861  was  appointed  professor  of 
that  subject  in  the  university.  His  works  in 
German  and  Hungarian  include:  Handbuch  der 
ungarischen  Poesie  (2  vols.,  1828);  Kultur- 
zustande  der  T  ngarn  vor  der  Annahme  des 
Christentums  (1S50)  ;  A  magyar  nemzeti  iroda- 
lom  tortenete  (History  of  the  Hungarian  Na¬ 
tional  Literature,  3  vols.,  Budapest,  1851-53); 

A  magyar  kolUszet  tortenete  (History  of  Hun¬ 
garian  Poetry,  1855;  3d  ed.,  1875);  Marci 
chronica  de  gcstis  Hungarorum  (1867);  and  A 
magyar  IcolUszet  ktziJcdnyve  ('Handbook  of  Hun¬ 
garian  Poetry,  2  vols.,  1857;  2d  ed.,  5  vols., 
1872).  Consult  the  eulogies  of  Toldv  by  Gre- 
guss  and  Szasz  in  the  Annals  of  the  ’Kisfaludy 
Society  (new  series,  xi),  as  well  as  the  notice 


TOLEDO 


U87G)  GjUlai  in  the  Annals  of  the  Academy 

See  Mozarabic  Liturgy. 

IOLEDO,  to-le'do;  Sp.  pron.,  to-la'THO.  The 
capital  of  the  Province  of  Toledo,  Spain,  42 
miles  south-southwest  of  Madrid,  on  the  Tagus 
(.  aP:  Spain,  C  3).  The  hundred-towered  city, 
situated  on  a  bold  promontory,  bordered  on 
three  sides  by  a  bend  of  the  Tagus  and  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  lofty  wall,  preserves  almost  un¬ 
changed  its  mediaeval  appearance.  The  Ta«ris 
is  spanned  by  the  bridge  of  San  Martin,  a 
well-constructed  specimen  of  the  military  archi¬ 
tecture  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  thirteenth- 
century  bridge  of  Alcantara;  the  walls  are 
pierced  by  a  number  of  gates,  of  which  the  most 
beautiful  is  the  Arabic  Puerta  del  Sol.  The 
houses  of  the  city  cluster  in  the  form  of  a 
semicircle  around  the  Alc&zar.  The  streets  are 
winding,  narrow,  and  steep.  Among  the  many 
interesting  churches  are  the  Gothic  cathedral 
dating  from  1227,  with  its  forty  chapels  and 
library  of  ancient  manuscripts;  the  cloister 
of  San  Juan  de  los  Reyes,  a  gift  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  sovereigns;  Santa  Maria  la  Blanca, 
first  a  mosque,  then  a  Jewish  synagogue  of  the 
tv  elfth  century,  and  now  after  many  vicissi¬ 
tudes  a  church;  and  El  Tr&nsito,  another  svna- 
gogue  dating  from  1366,  and  given  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  sovereigns  to  the  Knights  of 
Calatrava.  Many  former  convents  are  devoted 
to  the  services  of  the  state  as  prisons  and  hos¬ 
pitals.  The  city  hall  with  two  towers  and 
classic  fagade  dates  from  the  fifteenth  century. 
Theie  are  a  beautiful  theatre,  and  a  provincial 
library  containing  70,000  volumes,  housed  in  the 
archbishop’s  palace.  Toledo  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishop  who  bears  the  title  of  primate  of 
all  the  Spains — one  of  the  few  survivals  of  the 
period  when  the  city  was  the  centre  of  Spanish 
national  life.  It  is  largely  untouched  by  mod¬ 
ern  industrial  life  and  exists  as  a  survival  of 
the  golden  age  of  Spanish  chivalry.  The  cli¬ 
mate  is  rather  unhealthful  and  the  surrounding 
region  largely  barren  and  cheerless.  The  city 
has  manufactures  of  spirits,  beer,  chocolate, 
varnish,  church  ornaments,  cloth,  silk  goods, 
pottery,  brick,  and  fans.  But  the  most  famous 
establishments  of  Toledo  are  those  devoted  to 
the  manufacture  of  arms,  for  even  before  the 
time  of  Roman  domination  Toledo  blades  were 
famous.  The  present  government  factory  dates 
from  1777;  within  recent  years  establishments 
for  the  manufacture  of  cartridges  have  been 
added.  There  are  also  several  private  establish¬ 
ments  for  the  manufacture  of  arms  and  am¬ 
munition.  Pop.,  1900,  20,201;  1910,  22,274. 

Nothing  certain  is  known  of  the  origin  of 
Toledo.  Under  the  name  of  Toletum  it  is  men¬ 
tioned  by  Livy  in  connection  with  the  date  192 
b.c.  After  the  period  of  Roman  sway  it  fell 
first  into  the  power  of  the  Alani,  and  a  little 
later  came  under  the  control  of  the  Visigoths, 
of  whose  kingdom  it  became  the  capital.  From 
400  to  701  a.d.  it  was  the  meeting  place  of 
eighteen  Church  councils  which  exercised  a  great 
political  as  well  as  religious  influence  on  Spain. 
Under  the  Arabs  it  was  a  city  of  great  im¬ 
portance.  After  the  dissolution  of  the  Caliphate 
of  Cordova  it  was  the  seat  of  a  short-lived 
Mohammedan  kingdom.  Alfonso  the  Valiant 
of  Leon  and  Castile  conquered  this  state  in 
1085  and  gave  the  name  of  New  Castile  to  the 
region.  The  town  became  an  important  place 
of  residence  for  the  Castilian  monarchs.  In 


TOLEDO 


TOLEDO  WAR 


326 


the  War  of  the  Communes  (1520-21)  Toledo 
espoused  the  popular  cause.  In  1808  it  took 
part  in  the  national  uprising  against  the  French, 
and  in  1810  and  1813  suffered  much  from  the 
vandalism  of  their  armies.  Consult  Hannah 
Lynch,  Toledo,  in  the  “Mediaeval  Towns  Series” 
(New  York,  1899);  A.  F.  Calvert,  Toledo: 
An  Historical  and  Descriptive  Account  (ib., 
1907). 

TOLEDO.  A  town  of  Cebu,  Philippines,  sit¬ 
uated  on  the  central  part  of  the  west  coast, 

39  miles  from  Cebu.  Petroleum  and  natural 
gas  are  found  in  the  region.  Pop.,  1903,  12,929. 

TOLEDO,  to-le'dO.  The  county  seat  of  Lucas 
County,  the  fourth  largest  city  in  Ohio,  on 
the  Maumee  River  at  its  entrance  into  Maumee 
Bay,  9  miles  from  Lake  Erie  (Map:  Ohio,  D 
2 ) .  The  city  covers  30  square  miles ;  its  north¬ 
ern  boundary  extends  to  within  2  miles  of  the 
Michigan  State  line.  It  is  the  terminus  of  a 
number  of  railroads,  among  which  are  the  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  the  Hocking  Valley,  the  Clover  Leaf, 
the  Pere  Marquette,  and  the  Grand  Trunk,  in 
all  there  are  17  railroads  operating  22  divi¬ 
sions,  12  electric  interurban,  and  five  passenger 
steamship  lines  connecting  with  Detroit,  Macki¬ 
naw,  Duluth,  and  Chicago. 

Situated  at  the  west  end  of  Lake  Erie  and 
at  the  foot  of  the  upper  chain  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  Toledo  is  the  natural  receiving  point 
of  the  ore  traffic  from  the  Lake  Superior  re¬ 
gion,  and  of  grain  and  lumber  from  the  North- 
west.  Likewise  it  is  the  natural  distributing 
point  for  Ohio  and  Virginia  coal  to  the  north 
and  northwest.  Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  finest 
on  the  Great  Lakes.  The  government  channel 
is  400  feet  wide  and  21  feet  deep  through  the 
bay,  and  from  700  to  1400  feet  wide  to  the 
dock  farthest  up  the  river.  Of  the  35  miles  of 
river  front,  15  are  lined  with  docks.  In  1915, 
4500  freighters  loaded  and  unloaded  in  the 
harbor.  Federal  statistics  for  1915  show  that 
7,114,483  bushels  of  grain  and  46,318,804  tons 
of  ore  were  received  in  Toledo.  The  city’s 
export  of  soft  coal  in  1915  exceeded  4,000,000  7 
tons. 

Industrially  Toledo  is  second  to  Cleveland 
among  Ohio’ cities.  In  1915  there  were  2000 
establishments  employing  about  40,000  people. 
The  most  important  industry  is  the  manufacture 
of  automobiles,  one  plant  alone  employing  15,- 
000  persons.  There  is  also  a  large  bottle  manu¬ 
factory  with  an  annual  output  of  1,300,000,000 
bottles.  Other  important  products  include  plate 
glass,  wagons,  malleable  castings,  elevators, 
springs,  baby  carriages,  scales,  atomizers,  wheel¬ 
barrows,  electrical  apparatus,  linseed  and  castor 
oils,  pig  iron,  coffee,  flour,  sugar,  and  women’s 
clothing.  The  city  has  420  miles  of  streets, 
230  of  which  are  paved,  116  miles  of  electric 
street  railway,  312  miles  of  water  mains,  and 
262  miles  of  sewers.  There  are  12  large  parks 
and  41  triangular  parks,  covering  1024  acres.  A 
25-mile  boulevard  connects  the  parks  and  sur¬ 
rounds  the  city. 

Toledo’s  prominent  buildings  include  an  art 
museum  of  white  marble,  Scott  and  Wait  high 
schools,  a  new  post  office,  a  courthouse,  Second 
National  Bank,  Newsboys’  Building,  the  Toledo 
Club,  St.  Francis  de  Sales  School  and  Chapel, 
State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  and  the  Cherry 
Street  Bridge.  The  public-school  system  in¬ 
cludes  two  high  schools  and  43  elementary 
schools.  The  teaching  corps  numbers  900.  To¬ 
ledo  is  one  of  the  five  cities  maintaining  a  munic¬ 


ipal  university.  The  university  had,  Jn  1915, 

36  instructors,  and  150  full-time  and  700  part- 
time  students.  There  are  16  parochial  schools, 
the  Ursuline  and  Notre  Dame  academies,  and 
St.  John’s  College,  maintained  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  church.  The  public  library  contains 
100,000  volumes.  There  are  110  Protestant  and 
23  Roman  Catholic  churches. 

A  charter  which  went  into  effect  on  Jan.  1, 
1916,  makes  the  mayor,  vice  mayor,  and  council 
the  only  officers  elected  by  the  people  and  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  recall.  The  heads  of  all  departments 
and  all  boards  are  appointed  by  the  mayor,  to 
whom  they  are  directly  responsible.  They  in¬ 
clude  a  director  of  law,  finance,  public  service, 
public  safety,  public  welfare,  and  public  utilities. 
The  mayor  also  appoints  the  university  trustees, 
and  the  civil  service,  city  plan,  and  public  ef¬ 
ficiency  commissions.  The  city’s  annual  expendi¬ 
ture  for  maintenance  approximates  $2,000,000, 
the  bonded  debt  interest  about  $397,000.  The 
water  works  are  municipally  owned.  The  water 
is  taken  from  the  Maumee  River,  and  passes 
through  several  filtrations. 

Toledo  is  the  outgrowth  of  two  sparsely  set¬ 
tled  townships,  Port  Lawrence  in  1817,  and  Vis¬ 
tula  in  1832.  Originally  it  was  the  hunting 
grounds  of  the  Indians,  and  later  the  theatre  of 
important  historical  incidents  in  connection 
with  the  Indian  War,  conducted  in  the  region 
of  northwestern  Ohio  by  Mad  Anthony  W  ayne. 
Near  the  original  site  was  fought  the  battle  of 
Fallen  Timbers  which  ended  all  savage  warfare 
in  the  Northwest.  The  city  was  named  in  1835 
after  the  old  Moorish  capital  in  Spain.  The 
village  was  incorporated  in  1836.  With  the 
opening  of  the  Wabasli  and  Erie  canal  in  1843 
and  the  Miami  and  Erie  canal  in  1845,  the  town 
developed  rapidly.  Pop.,  1900,  131,822;  1910, 
168,497;  1915,  205,000;  1920,  243,109  (exclusive 
of  West  Toledo,  Rossford,  and  other  outlying 
districts).  Consult  Harvey  Scribner,  ed.,  Mem¬ 
oirs  of  Lucas  County  and  the  City  of  Toledo, 
from  the  Earliest  Historical  Times  down  to  the 
Present  (2  vols.,  Madison,  Wis.,  1910). 

TOLEDO  WAR:  A  boundary  controversy 
which  arose  in  1835  between  the  State  of  Ohio 
and  the  Territory  of  Michigan.  Congress  in 
the  Ordinance  of  1787  had  reserved  the  right 
to  form  new  States  out  of  that  part  of  the 
territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio  River  lying 
north  of  an  east  and  west  line  drawn  through 
the  southerly  bend  or  extreme  of  Lake  Michigan. 
At  this  time  the  southern  extreme  of  Lake 
Michigan  was  unknown,  and  was  supposed  to  be 
much  farther  north  than  it  actually  was.  Ohio 
was  admitted  as  a  State  in  1803;  the  above 
line  being  described  in  the  act  as  its  northern 
boundary,  though  the  State  constitution  claimed 
more  territory.  When  in  1805  Michigan  Terri¬ 
tory  was  organized,  and,  later,  Indiana  and  Il¬ 
linois  became  States,  the  most  confused  ideas 
existed  on  the  boundary  question.  A  survey 
was  made  by  order  of  Congress  in  1817  which 
established  the  present  line.  The  old  line  had 
included  in  Michigan  the  city  of  Toledo,  and 
this  was  the  main  point  in  dispute.  In  1835 
Ohio  laid  claim  to  all  within  the  new  line, 
known  as  the  Harris  line,  and  proceeded  to 
organize  townships  therein.  Michigan  declared 
the  intention  of  resisting  such  invasion,  and  the 
militia  of  both  sides  were  called  upon  to  main¬ 
tain  the  alleged  rights  of  their  respective  gov¬ 
ernments.  An  opinion  of  the  United  States 
Attorney-General  B.  F.  Butler  (q.v.)  (1795-1858), 


TOLENTINO 


TOLSTOY 


327 


favored  Michigan;  President  Jackson  sent  out 
a  peace  commission  with  no  result,  and  serious 
conflict  seemed  imminent.  J11  September,  1835, 
the  Michigan  troops  occupied  Toledo  to  prevent 
the  formal  organization  of  Wood  County  by 
Ohio  officers.  The  latter,  however,  accomplished 
their  purpose  secretly  and  withdrew.  The 
trouble  was  finally  settled  by  the  admission  of 
Michigan  into  the  Union  on  condition  that  she 
accept  the  Harris  line,  while  as  a  makeweight 
that  State  was  given  the  upper  Wisconsin  Penin¬ 
sula,  which  afterward  proved  from  its  mineral 
wealth  to  be  far  more  valuable  than  the  disputed 
territory. 

TOLENTINO,  toTen-te'no.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Macerata,  Italy,  on  the  Chienti,  30 
miles  south-southwest  of  Ancona  (Map:  Italy, 
D  3).  The  cathedral  has  a  good  portal  by 
Rosso.  The  churches  of  San  Catervo  and  San 
Francesco  possess  noteworthy  frescoes  and  re¬ 
liefs.  There  are  manufactures  of  machinery, 
silks,  woolens,  wine,  and  olive  oil,  and  stone 
quarries.  Tolentino  was  the  scene  of  Murat’s 
defeat  by  the  Austrians  on  May  2-3,  1815.  Pop. 
(commune),  1901,  12,872;  1911,  14,254. 

TOL'ERA'TION  (Lat.  toleratio,  from  tol- 
erare,  to  endure,  tolerate;  connected  with  Gk. 
TXijvcu,  tlenai,  to  bear,  endure,  Skt.  tul,  to  lift  up, 
weigh).  The  recognition  of  the  right  of  private 
judgment;  specifically,  such  recognition,  on  the 
part  of  the  government,  in  matters  of  faith  and 
worship.  By  governmental  toleration  is  granted 
not  only  the  liberty  of  holding  and  putting 
into  practice  varied  religious  opinions,  but  ol 
teaching  and  defending  them  publicly.  But 
thereby  no  permission  is  given  to  violate  the 
rights  of  others,  or  to  infringe  laws  designed 
for  the  security  of  the  governing  power  or  for 
the  protection  of  decency,  morality,  or  good 
order.  See  Liberty,  Religious. 

TOLIMA,  to-le'ma.  A  department  of  south 
Colombia,  South  America  (Map:  Colombia,  B 
3).  Area,  about  10,080  square  miles.  It  lies 
between  the  Central  Cordillera  and  the  Magda¬ 
lena  River.  Agriculture  is  carried  on  chiefly 
in  the  central  part,  where  coffee,  sugar,  cacao, 
rice,  and  tobacco  form  the  chief  products.  Stock 
raising  is  important.  The  mineral  deposits  in¬ 
clude  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  sulphur. 
The  climate  along  the  river  is  tropical,  but  it 
is  cold  in  the  upper  mountain  regions.  There 
are  no  good  means  of  communication.  Pop., 
282,426.  Capital,  Ibague  (q.v. ). 

TOLIMA.  A  quiescent  volcano  in  Colombia 
rising  from  the  Central  Cordillera  of  the  Andes, 
75  miles  west  of  Bogota.  It  is  the  highest  peak 
in  the  country,  having  an  altitude  of  18,325  feet. 

TOLL  (AS.  toll,  tol,  OHG.  zol,  Ger.  Zoll,  toll, 
tax;  probably  from  Lat.  telonium,  from  Gk. 
reXuinov,  customhouse).  In  law,  a  charge  or 
duty  paid  for  some  service,  or  the  license  to 
use  something,  generally  in  the  nature  of  a 
public  franchise.  The  right  to  exact  toll  is  al¬ 
most  entirely  created  by  statute,  and  generally 
is  only  granted  to  persons  who  maintain  some 
public  convenience,  as  a  ferry,  bridge,  or  turn¬ 
pike.  The  setting  forth  of  facts  which  establish 
a  bar  to  the  maintenance  of  an  action  by  reason 
of  lapse  of  time  is  sometimes  described  as  a  toll 
of  the  Statute  of  Limitations.  See  Ferry; 
Franchise;  Highway. 

TOLL,  til,  Eduard,  Baron  von  (c.1850-1902) . 

A  Russian  scientist  and  explorer.  He  began 
arctic  research  with  Bunge  (1885-87),  investi¬ 
gating  the  Post-Tertiary  fauna  of  the  Jana  and 


adjacent  regions.  In  an  expedition  to  the  New 
Siberian  Islands  (1893)  he  found  the  body  of 
a  mammoth  in  the  Jana  delta.  He  commanded 
the  Sarja  expedition,  which  wintered  (1901-02) 
on  the  west  coast  of  Kotelnoi  Island.  The  ex¬ 
plorations  of  F.  G.  Seeberg  and  Von  Toll  dis¬ 
closed  extensive  Post-Tertiary  fauna  on  this  is¬ 
land.  Many  specimens,  mammoths,  reindeer, 
etc.,  were  superimposed  on  enormous  ice  cliffs, 
70  feet  thick  in  places,  remnants  of  the  Ice  age. 
The  two  explorers  started  south  in  November^ 
1902,  and  perished  en  route.  Their  records  wrere 
found  the  next  year  by  Kolchek  on  Bennett  Is¬ 
land.  Consult  Emma  Toll,  Die  Russische  Polar- 
fahrt  der  Sarja  (Berlin,  1909). 

TOLL,  tol,  Johan  Christopher,  Count  ( 1743- 
1817).  A  Swedish  statesman  and  soldier,  born 
at  Mollerod  in  Skane.  He  participated  in  the 
coup  d’etat  of  Gustavus  III  in  1772,  after  which 
he  played  an  important  part  in  the  government, 
especially  as  the  efficient  head  of  the  War  De¬ 
partment.  In  the  war  with  Russia  (1788), 
begun  against  his  advice,  he  was  unjustly  ac¬ 
cused  of  neglect  of  the  country’s  defense.  Under 
Gustavus  IV  also  he  was  active  as  a  public 
officer  and  diplomat  and  for  many  years  was 
Governor-General  of  Skane. 

TOLLENDAL,  Baron  de.  See  Lally,  T.  A. 

TOLLENS,  toFens,  Bernhard  (1841-  ). 

A  German  agricultural  chemist.  Born  at  Ham¬ 
burg,  he  received  his  doctorate  in  philosophy  at 
Gottingen  in  1864,  became  an  assistant  at 
Heidelberg  in  1865,  and  studied  at  Paris  (1868) 
and  at  Coimbra  (1869).  Returning  to  Gottin¬ 
gen  in  1870,  he  was  professor  and  director  of  the 
university  agricultural-chemical  laboratory  from 
1873  until  his  retirement  in  1911.  He  w'as  editor 
of  the  Journal  filr  Landwirtschaft  and  author  of 
Kurzes  Handbuch  der  Kohlenhydrates  (1888; 
3d  ed.,  rev.,  1914) . 

TOLLENS,  tcl'lens,  Hendrik  Caroluszoon 
(1780-1856).  A  Dutch  poet,  born  in  Rotter¬ 
dam.  He  was  the  son  of  a  merchant  and  him¬ 
self  was  engaged  in  commerce  till  1846.  His 
early  work  followed  French  models  and  ideas. 
His  first  original  works  were  poems  (1802),  fol¬ 
lowed  by  Lucretia  (1805)  and  other  historical 
tragedies  and  works  of  much  strength.  His 
subsequent  productions  were  mainly  lyric  and 
more  distinctively  national  and  simple.  These 
poems,  gathered  under  various  titles  (1808-53), 
show  powers  undiminished  to  the  last.  He  won 
wide  popularity  through  the  national  song  Wien 
Neerlandsch  bloed.  His  best  work  is  Tafereel 
van  de  overtvintering  op  Nowa  Zembla  (Picture 
of  the  Wintering  on  Nova  Zembla,  1819).  A 
complete  edition  of  his  works  appeared  in  12 
volumes  (Leeuwarden,  1855-57).  Consult  Scho- 
tel,  Tollens  en  zijn  tijd  (Tiel,  1860). 

TOLL  ROADS.  See  Highway;  Road. 

TOLOSA,  tO-lo'sa.  The  former  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Guipuzcoa,  Spain,  16  miles  south¬ 
west  of  San  Sebastian,  in  the  valley  of  the  Oria 
and  on  the  Irun-Burgos  line  of  the  Northern 
Railway  (Map:  Spain,  El).  It  contains  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria,  the  Palacio  Idiaquez, 
and  two  handsome  paseos.  During  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century  it  was  an  important  Carlist 
centre.  Its  principal  manufactures  are  paper, 
woolens,  steel,  brassware,  and  malt  liquors.  Pop  , 
1900,  8100:  1910,  9747. 

TOLSTOY,  Alexander  Ivanovitcii  Oster- 
mann.  See  Ostermann-Tolstoy,  A.  I. 

TOLS'TOY,  Russ.  pron.  tdl-stoi',  Alexei  Kon- 
stantinovitch,  Count  (1817-75).  A  Russian 


TOLSTOY 


TOLSTOY 


328 


author.  He  was  born  in  St.  Petersburg  and 
studied  at  Moscow.  After  seeing  diplomatic 
service  and  traveling  extensively,  he  took  part 
in  the  Crimean  War  and  subsequently  held  a 
high  position  at  the  court.  He  wrote  lyric  and 
epic  poetry  and  one  novel,  Prince  Serebriany 
(trans.  by  J.  Curtin,  1893),  after  the  manner 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott.  His  chief  literary  achieve¬ 
ment,  however,  was  his  dramatic  trilogy,  The 
Death  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  (1866;  Eng.  trans. 
by  F.  Harrison,  London,  1869),  Czar  Fiodor 
Ivanovitch  (1868),  and  Czar  Boris  (1870). 

TOLSTOY,  Dmitri,  Count  (1823-89).  A 
Russian  statesman.  After  serving  in  the  min¬ 
istry  of  the  navy,  he  became  procurator  of  the 
Holy  Synod  in  1865  and  Minister  of  Public  In¬ 
struction  in  1866.  His  preference  for  the  clas¬ 
sical  languages  in  the  intermediate  schools  and 
his  petty  tutelage  over  the  universities  brought 
him  such  widespread  enmity  that  lie  was 
obliged  to  resign  his  education  post  in  1880. 
He  was  appointed  president  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1882  and  served  as  Minister  of  the 
Interior  in  1883—85.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
history  of  the  finances  of  Russia  to  the  reign 
of  Catharine  II  (1847)  and  of  Le  catholicisme 
remain  en  Russie  (1863-64). 

TOLSTOY,  Liov,  (Leo)  Nikolaievitch, 
Count  (1828-1910).  A  famous  Russian  author 
and  one  of  the  world’s  greatest  novelists.  Lie 
was  born  on  his  father’s  estate  at  Yasnaya 
Polyana  in  the  Government  of  Tula,  Aug.  28, 
1828.  In  1843  he  studied  Oriental  languages  at 
the  University  of  Kazan,  but  soon  found  lin¬ 
guistic  study  uncongenial  and  took  up  law.  He 
received  his  diploma  in  1848,  “knowing  literally 
nothing,”  as  he  declared  later.  He  lived  on  his 
estate  until  1851,  when  his  brother,  an  artillery 
officer,  induced  him  to  visit  Caucasia.  Charmed 
by  the  life  there,  he  joined  an  artillery  regiment 
and  in  1853  was  attached  to  the  army  of  the 
Danube  during  the  Crimean  campaign.  During 
this  period  he  published  Childhood  (his  maiden 
work),  The  Incursion,  Boyhood,  The  Morning 
of  a  Landed  Proprietor,  and  The  Cossacks.  He 
took  part  in  the  defense  of  Sebastopol,  embody¬ 
ing  his  experiences  in  Sebastopol  in  December  of 
1854,  Sebastopol  in  May  of  1855,  and  Sebastopot 
in  August  of  1855.  These  sketches  immediately 
placed  Tolstoy  among  the  great  writers  of  the 
day.  They  painted  the  horrors  of  war,  with  its 
false  and  real  heroes,  in  the  spirit  of  that  cruel, 
cold-blooded  realism  which  is  the  chief  trait  of 
Tolstoy’s  unique  art.  At  the  end  of  that  war 
Tolstoy  resigned  and  went  to  the  capital.  A 
visit  abroad  in  1857  shattered  his  faith  in  mod¬ 
ern  civilization,  and  From  the  Memoirs  of 
Prince  Nekhlyudov  was  an  indignant  protest 
against  the  poverty  and  ignorance  in  modern 
society.  He  settled  on  his  estate  at  Yasnaya 
Polyana  and  devoted  himself  to  teaching  peasant 
children.  Finding  himself  deficient  in  educa¬ 
tional  knowledge,  he  went  abroad  (for  the  sec¬ 
ond  time)  to  study  German  methods  of  educa¬ 
tion,  which,  however,  served  only  to  intensify  his 
doubts  and  disappointment.  He  questioned  the 
right  and  wisdom  of  all  compulsory  education 
and  maintained  that  the  pupil's  interest  must 
alone  determine  the  curriculum.  About  this  time 
work  on  The  Decembrists,  a  long  novel,  of  which 
only  three  chapters  appeared,  led  Tolstoy  to  the 
study  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  I,  and  his  in¬ 
terest  gradually  centred  on  the  great  Napoleonic 
campaign.  Thus  he  came  to  write  his  War  and 
Peace  (1864-69),  a  colossal  prose  epic,  reflecting 


the  whole  range  of  Russian  life  at  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Again  the  elemental  forces  of  the  common 
people  in  contrast  to  the  artificiality  of  the  up¬ 
per  classes  are  lovingly  dwelt  upon.  With  the 
artistic  exposition  is  intertwined  a  new  philos¬ 
ophy  of  history,  which  in  the  last  analysis  is 
but  old  fatalism  in  a  new  guise.  After  this  the 
above-mentioned  pedagogical  pursuits  absorbed 
Tolstoy’s  energies  until  in  1875-76  Anna  Ka¬ 
renina  appeared  in  the  Russian  Herald.  This 
great  work  deals  with  the  unlawful  relations 
of  the  social  lion,  Vronsky,  and  Anna,  wife  of 
Karenin,  the  bureaucratic  official.  The  great 
questions  of  human  life  which  centre  about  mar¬ 
riage  are  here  treated  with  inimitable  mastery, 
force,  and  naturalness.  The  novel  has  a  second 
plot — the  life  of  the  rationalist  landed  pro¬ 
prietor,  Konstantin  Levin,  and  his  wife,  Kitty. 
Amid  perfect  home  surroundings  Levin  is  discon¬ 
tented  and  even  contemplates  suicide,  until  he 
is  “regenerated”  through  contact  with  the  com¬ 
mon  people  and  finds  new  strength  in  manual 
labor.  According  to  Tolstoy’s  own  statements 
this  work  contained  much  autobiographical  ma¬ 
terial. 

After  this  philosophical  and  social  questions 
took  complete  possession  of  Tolstoy,  and  for 
more  than  a  decade  he  gave  to  the  world  a 
series  of  religious,  social,  and  philosophical 
treatises,  such  as  Commentary  on  the  Gospel ; 
Letter  on  the  Census  (1883);  Confession:  My 
Religion;  What  Shall  we  then  Do?  a  few  short 
stories  written  for  the  people;  The  Death  of  Ivan 
Ilyitch  (1885);  and  the  dramas  The  Power  of 
Darkness  and  Fruits  of  Culture.  Works  of  liter¬ 
ary  art  were  also  produced  at  this  period. 
The  Kreutzer  Sonata  (q.v.),  its  intent  mis¬ 
understood,  raised  a  storm  of  indignation  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  What  is  Art? 
(1898),  a  great  philippic  against  art  as  com¬ 
monly  understood,  was  a  brilliant  contribution 
to  the  literature  of  the  subject,  although  its 
author  left  the  question  raised  by  the  title  un¬ 
answered  for  many  of  his  readers.  It  contains 
ideas  of  great  depth  and  breadth,  interspersed 
with  paradoxes,  and  affords  an  interesting  illus¬ 
tration  of  the  thoroughness  with  which  Tolstoy 
entered  upon  his  work.  It  involved  a  minute 
study  of  every  writer  of  any  consequence  on  the 
subject.  In  1899  Resurrection,  a  new  work  of 
fiction,  appeared.  Its  central  figure,  Nekhlyu¬ 
dov,  while  acting  as  a  juror,  recognizes  in  the 
culprit  the  woman  whom  he  had  betrayed  in 
his  youth.  Torn  by  remorse,  he  finally  comes 
to  the  conclusion  that  he  is  the  real  cause  of  the 
woman’s  guilt  and  downfall  and  wishes  to 

expiate  his  former  wrongdoing  by  accompanying 
her  to  Siberia  and  sharing  with  her  all  the 
hardships  of  exile.  All  the  bitterness  that 

had  welled  up  in  the  heart  of  the  author  seems 
to  have  found  free  utterance  in  this  work, 

which  is  a  powerful  arraignment  of  all  existing 
institutions.  In  1900  his  drama,  The  Living 
Corpse,  appeared.  In  March,  1901,  the  Holy 
Synod  issued  the  excommunication  which  had 
been  hanging  over  his  head  for  30  years. 

In  1862  Tolstoy  married  Sophie  Andreevna 
Behrs,  of  Moscow.  One  of  his  sons,  Liov 

Lioviteh,  who  inherited  literary  inclinations,  at¬ 
tracted  attention  by  his  sketches  in  periodical 
publications.  Another  son,  Ilya,  wrote  Reminis¬ 
cences  of  his  father.  In  1910,  in  pursuance  of 
a  long-delayed  plan  to  end  his  days  in  solitude, 
Tolstoy  suddenly  fled  his  estate,  but  contracted 


TOLSTOY 

pneumonia  on  his  journey  and  died,  Nov.  20, 
1910,  at  a  small  railroad  station  (Astapovo). 

Tolstoy  has  the  same  power  of  psychological 
analysis  that  characterizes  Dostoyevsky  ( cpv. ) , 
whom  he  greatly  excels,  however,  in  range  and 
variety.  .  Dostoyevsky  never  gets  beyond  the 
narrow  circle  of  the  middle  classes,  while  Tol¬ 
stoy  is  equally  at  home  in  all  walks  of  life. 
He  draws,  with  the  same  firm  and  unerring 
hand,  the  rulers  of  men’s  fates,  courtiers,  gen- 
eials,  petty  officers,  common  soldiers,  great 
noblemen,  peasants,  prisoners  in  the  dungeons 
and  on  their  weary  march  to  Siberia,  '"men, 
women,  children,  and  everywhere  he  fathoms  the 
depths  of  human  character.  There  is  in  Tolstoy 
none  of  Dostoyevsky’s  nerve  harassing  for  the 
sake  of  satisfying  the  author's  abnormal  bent, 
the  great  reformer  is  actuated  by  nothing  but 
the  desire  to  get  at  truth,  and  "his  conscience 
can  never  rest  until  he  succeeds.  Hence  Tol- 
stoy  s  woiks,  although  depicting  the  genesis  and 
growth  of  controlling  passions  in  a  masterly 
manner  and  containing  scenes  that  are  fasci¬ 
nating,  possess  none  of  those  elements  of 
piquancy  that  attract  many  to  the  works  of 
the  realistic  school. 

Coming  to  know  his  peasants  through  his 
pedagogical  work  among  them,  he  became  a 
gieat  belie\er  in  the  salutary  influence  of  labor. 
His  community  work  during  the  famines  of 
1873  and  1891  gave  him  an  impulse  for  the 
simplification  of  life,  and  soon  the  foreign 
pei  iodicals  were  filled  with  sensational  pictures 
and  descriptions  of  lolstoy  in  a  cheap  blouse 
or  smock,  girded  with  a  rope,  with  his  hands 
on  a  plow,  tilling  his  estate  at  Yasnaya  Polyana. 
Gradually  he  dispensed  with  all  unnecessary 
comforts  of  life  and  did  cobbling  and  other 
manual  labor  for  himself,  preaching  Earma 
( q.v. )  and  the  doctrines  of  Lao-tse.  ( See  Taoism.  ) 
The  principle  of  simplification  was  carried  into 
nis  religious  beliefs:  all  teaching  not  coming 
f i  om  Christ  himself  was  ruthlessly  discarded, 
and  his  gospel  was  newly  constructed.  The  doc¬ 
trine  of  Christian  humility  was  carried  to  an 
extreme  in  his  famous  championship  of  non- 
resistance,  especially  remarkable  side  by  side 
with  individualism  of  an  extreme  kind.  All 
human  institutions — kingly  power,  state,  church, 
judiciary,  jury,  army,  even  marriage — were 
ruthlessly  criticized  as  standing  in  the  way  of 
the  natural  development  of  the  powers  of  the 
individual.  Always  allowing  his  logic  to  lead 
him  as  it  would,  Tolstoy  had  to  denounce  his 
own  literary  achievements  along  with  all 
pi  o ducts  of  civilization,  as  begotten  of  idle  fancy 
and  human  craving  for  the  plaudits  of  the 
world.  In  1905  and  1906  he  addressed  to  the 
Czar  notable  letters  advocating  universal  suf¬ 
frage,  representative  assemblies,  and  other  re¬ 
forms. 

Bibliography.  Tolstoy’s  works  have  been  re¬ 
peatedly  collected  and  published  in  translations 
as  well  as  in  the  original.  Biryukov’s  (24  vols., 
Moscow,  1913)  is  the  most  authoritative  com¬ 
plete  Russian  edition.  Collected  translations  in 
English  have  been  made  by  N.  H.  Dole,  I.  Hap- 
good,  and  others  (22  vols.,  New  York,  1902) 
and  Leo  Wiener  (24  vols.,  Boston,  1904-05). 

A  complete  translation  of  Tolstoy’s  plays,  in¬ 
cluding  the  posthumous  works,  has  been  made 
by  L.  and  A.  Maude  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1914). 

A  vast  literature  has  grown  up  about  Tolstoy. 
Among  the  best  lives  and  studies  in  English  are: 

C.  E.  Dupuy,  Great  Masters  of  Russian  Litera- 


329 


TOLU 


ture  (New  York,  1886);  G.  H.  Perris,  Leo 
lolstoy,  the  Grand  Mujik:  A  Study  in  Personal 
Evolution  (London,  1898)  ;  D.  S.  Merezhkovsky, 
lolstoy  as  Man  and  Artist  (New  York,  1902)  ; 
E.  A.  Steiner,  Tolstoy  tlve  Man  (ib,  1904); 
Aylmer  Maude,  The  Life  of  Tolstoy  (2  vols 
ib,  1910;  4th  ed,  1911);  J.  A.  T.  Lloyd,  Two 
Russian  Reformers :  Ivan  Turgenev  and  Leo 
Tolstoy  (ib,  1911);  Romain  Rolland,  Tolstoy 
(ib,  1911);  I.  L.  Tolstoy  (his  son),  Reminis¬ 
cences  of  Tolstoy  (ib,  1914)  ;  Constance  Garnett, 
lolstoy:  His  Life  and  Writings  (London,  1914) 
Interesting  briefer  studies  of  Tolstoy  will  be 
found  in  Matthew  Arnold,  Essays  in  Criticism 
(2d  series,  London,  1889)  ;  Ivan  Panin,  Lectures 
on  Russian  Literature  (New  York,  1889)  ;  W.  D. 
Howells,  My  Literary  Passion#  (ib,  1895)  ; 
E.  W.  Gosse,  Critical  Kit-kats  (London,  1896)  ; 
G.  K.  Chestertop,  Varied  Types  (New  York’, 
1903)  ;  P.  E.  More,  Shelburne  Essays  (1st 
series,  ib,  1904)  ;  Maurice  Baring,  Landmarks 
of  Russian  Literature  (London,  1910)  ;  W.  L. 
Phelps,  Essays  on  Russian  Novelists  (New  York, 
1912)  ;  M.  de  Vogue,  The  Russian  Novel  (Lon¬ 
don,  1913)  ;  E.  A.  Steiner,  Tolstoy:  The  Man  and 
Ins  Message  (New  York,  1914). 

TOL'TEC,  or  TOLTECA,  tol-ta'ka  (people  of 
lollan,  the  modern  Tula).  An  early  cultured 
people  of  Mexico,  the  subject  of  considerable 
historical  controversy.  According  to  the  general 
Mexican  tradition  they  were  the  most  ancient 
civilized  race  of  Mexico,  preceding  the  arrival 
of  the  ruder  Aztec,  who  derived  their  own  best 
culture  by  absorption  from  the  Toltec.  Their 
capital  was  at  the  now  ruined  city  of  Tollan 
or  Tula,  whence  their  dominion  extended  over 
all  the  central  plateau,  eastward  to  the  Gulf 
and  southward  to  the  Maya  border.  After  some 
centuries  of  flourishing  existence  their  Empire 
fell  to  pieces  through  internal  dissensions  and 
the  invasion  of  barbarous  northern  tribes  about 
the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  the  survivors 
from  war  and  famine  being  either  incorporated 
by  the  conquering  Aztec  or  driven  southward  to 
become  the  culture  pioneers  among  the  southern 
tribes  as  far  as  Guatemala.  The  entire  subject 
of  Toltec  history  is  so  interwoven  with  myth 
and  disfigured  by  exaggeration  and  uncertainty 
of  dates  that  it  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  any 
conclusion,  but  enough  remains  to  indicate  that 
the  Toltec  had  an  important  historic  existence, 
either  as  a  distinct  race  finally  absorbed  by 
conquering  invaders  from  the  north,  or,  which 
is  more  probable,  as  the  advance  guard  of  the 
Nahuan  stock  (q.v.),  preceding  the  arrival 
of  the  Aztec  by  several  centuries. 

Archaeological  research  has  lifted  ancient 
Mexican  history  out  of  the  obscurity  of  its 
confused  traditions.  Three  great  layers  are 
recognized.  The  lowest  is  called  the  ’  Archaic, 
the  middle  one  is  called  the  Toltec,  and  the 
top  one  the  Aztec.  According  to  such  a  clas¬ 
sification  the  Toltec  is  given  a  broader  significa¬ 
tion  than  in  tradition.  The  Archaic"  epoch 
seems  to  have  been  brought  to  a  close  by  the 
rise  of  the  Maya.  The  Toltec  shows  a  close 
connection  with  the  Maya  and  flourished  ap¬ 
parently  from  the  fourth  to  the  twelfth  cen¬ 
tury  of  the  Christian  era.  Among  the  great 
cities  of  the  Toltec  period  were  Tula,  San  Juan 
Teotihuacan,  and  Xochicalco  in  the  valley  of 
Mexico,  and  possibly  La  Quemada,  Chalchihuites, 
etc,  in  Zacatecas  and  Durango. 

TOLU,  tO-loo',  Balsam  of.  See  Chewing 
Gum. 


TOLUCA 


TOMB 


TOLUCA,  to-loo'ka.  The  capital  of  the  State 
of  Mexico,  Mexico,  34  miles  southwest  of  the 
city  of  that  name,  on  the  National  Railways  of 
Mexico  (Map:  Mexico,  J  8).  It  is  a  clean, 
well-built  city,  with  an  altitude  of  8761  feet 
and  a  cool  and  healthful  climate.  Its  Institute 
and  state  buildings  are  interesting.  It  is  a 
busy  commercial  and  manufacturing  centre,  with 
breweries,  cotton  mills,  and  oil  and  flour  mills. 
It  is  well  known  for  its  drawn  work.  In  the 
vicinity  is  the  extinct  volcano  Nevado  de  Toluca, 
a  snow-capped  peak  15,155  feet  high.  Tradition 
assigns  the  city  a  Toltec  origin ;  it  was  an  im¬ 
portant  Aztec  pueblo  called  Tollan  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest.  Pop.,  1900,  25,940;  1910, 

31,023. 

TOM,  Mount.  A  mountain  peak  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Connecticut  River,  in  Hampshire 
Co.,  Mass.,  about  4%  miles  northwest  of 
Holyoke  ( Map :  Massachusetts,  B  3 ) .  It  is 
1214  feet  high  and  affords  a  wide  view  of  the 
Connecticut  valley.  It  is  a  finely  kept  park, 
the  summit  reached  by  a  mountain  railway. 

TO'MAH.  A  city  in  Monroe  Co.,  Wis.,  42 
miles  by  rail  east  by  north  of  La  Crosse,  on  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  Railroad 
(Map:  Wisconsin,  C  5).  The  chief  industrial 
establishments  are  a  large  saw  mill  and  bridge 
works  of  the  railroad.  A  government  Indian 
industrial  school  is  situated  here.  Pop.,  1900, 
2840;  1910,  3419. 

TOM' AH  A  WK  (Algonquian  tomehagan,  Mo¬ 
ll  egan  tumnahegan,  Delaware  tamoihecan,  toma¬ 
hawk  ) .  In  general,  the  hatchet,  axe,  or  spiked 
club  made  and  used  by  the  American  natives. 
The  club  form  usually  ended  in  a  ball  bearing 
a  celt  or  spike  of  bone.  The  early  white  traders 
adapted  the  European  hatchet  to  these  forms 
from  which  developed  the  type  now  seen  in  col¬ 
lections.  Practically  all  of  these  metal  toma¬ 
hawks  are  of  white  manufacture  and  design.  In 
early  colonial  literature  the  tomahawk  became 
a  symbol  of  war;  hence  the  phrase  “bury  the 
hatchet.”  For  bibliography,  consult  Handbook 
of  American  Indians  (Washington,  1907). 

TOMAHAWK.  A  city  in  Lincoln  Co.,  Wis., 
23  miles  north  of  Merrill,  on  the  Wisconsin 
River,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St. 
Paul,  and  the  Marinette,  Tomahawk,  and  West¬ 
ern  railroads  (Map:  Wisconsin,  D  3).  There 
are  pulp,  paper,  and  saw  mills,  woodworking 
factories,  and  a  tannery.  Bradley  Park  is  of 
interest.  Pop.,  1900,  2291;  1910,  2907. 

TOMASZOW,  tom'a  -shov.  An  important 
manufacturing  town  in  the  Government  of 
Piotrkov,  Russian  Poland,  41  miles  northeast 
of  Piotrkov.  It  has  extensive  textile  mills,  with 
an  annual  output  valued  at  over  $3,000,000. 
Pop.,  1912,  30,000,  including  many  Germans 
and  Jews.  Tomaszow  was  occupied  by  the  Ger¬ 
mans  in  the  Great  War  which  began  in  1914. 
See  War  in  Europe. 

TOMATO  (Sp.,  Port,  tomate,  from  Mexican 
tomatl ,  tomato),  Ly  coper  sicum  esculentum.  A 
semivinelike  annual  herb  of  the  family  Sola- 
nacese,  native  to  South  America  in  the  region 
of  the  Andes.  It  was  formerly  called  love  apple 
and  was  considered  poisonous.  It  is  now  widely 
cultivated  in  all  temperate  regions  and  con¬ 
sidered  one  of  the  most  wholesome  and  impor¬ 
tant  garden  vegetables.  The  numerous  varieties 
vary  much  in  form  from  the  red  currant  forms 
to  the  small  yellow  pear-shaped  varieties  and 
the  larger  red  sorts.  The  red  sorts  with  smooth 
round  fruits  somewhat  flattened  at  the  ends 


330 

and  varying  from  2  to  4  inches  in  diameter  are 
most  in  cultivation.  The  tomato  is  propagated 
from  seed  and  in  greenhouses  often  by  cuttings. 
In  the  temperate  regions  these  are  usually 
started  in  the  greenhouse,  hotbed,  or  cold  frame, 
and  the  plants  transferred  to  the  field  when  the 
weather  is  warm  and  all  danger  from  frost  is 
past.  The  plants  thrive  best  in  a  sandy  soil, 
well  fertilized.  They  are  set  in  the  field  about 
5  feet  apart  each  way  and  in  garden  culture 
are  often  trained  to  stakes  to  keep  the  fruit 
off  the  ground.  In  the  United  States  the  large 
markets  are  supplied  with  tomatoes  practically 
all  the  year  round,  the  winter  crop  being  grown 
in  Florida  and  Texas.  Also,  more  tomatoes  are 
grown  for  canning  than  any  other  vegetable.  Over 
10,000,000  cases,  of  24  cans  each,  are  packed  an¬ 
nually.  Maryland,  New  Jersey,  Indiana,  Dela¬ 
ware,  and  Florida  are  the  leading  States  in  pro¬ 
duction.  Italy  has  recently  developed  a  new  in¬ 
dustry  in  the  production  of  tomato-seed  oil  which 
is  used  for  making  soap.  Tomato  rot  is  caused 
by  various  fungi,  e.g.,  Phytoph'thora  infestans, 
Macrosporium  tomato,  attacks  the  green  fruits 
of  the  tomato  usually  at  the  blossom  end  and 
first  shows  as  a  smalf black  spot,  which  increases 
rapidly  until  half  the  fruit  is  a  soft,  black, 
sunken  mass.  Fusarium  lycopersici  attacks  the 
ripe  fruit,  covering  it  with  a  thick,  white  mold, 
which  later  becomes  reddish.  It  also  causes  a 
wilting  of  the  plants.  This  disease  is  less  com¬ 
mon  than  the  others.  Repeated  sprayings  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  or  other  fungicide  have  been 
recommended  as  checks.  Diseased  fruits  should 
be  removed  and  burned.  A  stem-end  rot  of 
the  fruit,  that  is  attributed  to  over  watering 
and  excessive  use  of  certain  nitrogenous  fer¬ 
tilizers,  has  been  reported  as  of  wide  occur¬ 
rence.  The  bacterial  blight  ( Bacillus  solana- 
cearum)  attacks  also  the  egg-plant  and  po¬ 
tato.  The  leaves  become  yellow,  and  the 
stems  wilt  and  later  become  brown  or  black, 
the  plant  being  destroyed.  Spraying  for  the 
disease  itself  appears  to  have  little  effect,  but 
preventing  insect  attack  is  thought  to  act  as 
a  check.  The  leaf  blight  (Cladosporium  ful- 
vum) ,  often  a  more  serious  pest,  appears  as 
brownish  spots  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves 
and  yellow  on  the  upper.  As  the  disease  pro¬ 
gresses  the  leaves  curl  up  and  finally  drop  from 
the  stem.  A  leaf-spot  disease  ( Septoria  lyco- 
persici) ,  sometimes  troublesome,  causes  nu¬ 
merous  spots  to  appear  on  the  leaves  and  young 
stems,  ultimately  destroying  them.  Consult: 
W.  W.  Tracy,  Tomato  Culture  (New  York, 
1907)  ;  L.  H.  Bailey,  The  Forcing  Book  (8th  ed., 
ib.,  1909);  “Tomato  Growing  in  the  South,” 
in  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers’  Bulletin  No.  6^2  (Washington,  1915). 
See  Vegetables. 

TOMATO  INSECTS.  Many  of  the  insects 
that  attack  the  tomato  also  live  upon  other 
members  of  the  family  Solanaceae.  Among  the 
most  common  are  biister  beetles,  plant  lice, 
flea  beetles,  and  cutworms,  descriptions  of  which 
will  be  found  under  their  respective  titles. 
Others  are  discussed  under  Potato  Insects; 
Tobacco  Pests;  Stalk  Borer.  The  bollworm 
(q.v.)  is  sometimes  seriously  troublesome.  See 
illustration  under  Cotton  Insects. 

TOMB  (OF.  tombe,  tumbe,  Fr.  tombe,  from 
Lat.  tumba,  from  Gk.  tv/jl^os,  tymbos,  sepulchral 
mound,  grave,  tomb;  connected  with  OIr.  tomm, 
little  hill,  Skt.  tunga,  vaulted).  A  chamber  or 
structure  for  the  burial  of  the  dead.  In  all 


TOMB 


331  TOMBIGBEE  RIVER 


ages  the  belief  in  immortality  and  the  desire 
to  honor  the  dead  have  led  to  the  bestowal  of 
the  highest  efforts  of  art  upon  their  burial 
places.  The  ancient  belief  in  the  intermediate 
shadowy  existence  in  the  tomb  of  the  ka  or 
double  of  the  deceased  led  also  to  the  decora¬ 
tion  of  the  tomb  interior  with  pictured  or  carved 
doubles  of  the  appurtenances  of  mundane  life 
for  the  delectation  of  this  imprisoned  shade,  as 
in  the  tombs  of  Egypt  and  Etruria. 

Tombs  may  be  either  excavated  or  structural. 

1  hose  cut  in  the  rock  are  called  hvpogaea.  Of 
these  the  most  noted  are  those  which  honey¬ 
comb  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile  in  Egypt,  some 
having  roomy  chambers  with  open  porches  in 
front;  others,  more  numerous,  penetrating  deep 
into  the  cliffs  (that  of  Seti  I  extending  800 
feet)  with  a  complex  of  descending  passages, 
chambers,  and  pits.  Other  rock-cut  sepulchres 
are  in  the  Valley  of  the  Kings,  near  Jerusalem  ; 
at  Petra  in  Syria,  where  are  Roman  hvpogsea 
with  elaborately  carved  facades;  the  tomb  of 
Darius  at  Naksh-i-Rustam  in  Persia;  and  many 
Etruscan  tombs  with  less  elaborate  fagades  at 
Caere,  Vulci,  Corneto,  etc.  In  Lycia,  besides 
hypogaea  with  carved  fronts,  there  are  many 
tombs  above  ground  hewn  each  from  a  single  block 
into  the  semblance  of  a  timber-framed  structure. 
The  splendid  Sidon  sarcophagi  in  the  Constanti¬ 
nople  Museum,  shaped  like  small  shrines  or 
temples,  almost  deserve  to  be  called  tombs  on 
account  of  their  size  and  architecture.  Inter¬ 
mediate  between  the  rock-cut  and  structural 
tombs  are  such  subterranean  or  buried  struc¬ 
tures  as  the  hive-shaped  Pelasgic  tombs  of 
Mvcense,  e.g.,  the  so-called  Treasury  of  Atreus. 

Structural  tombs  in  the  open  air  follow  usu¬ 
ally  the  type  of  a  tumulus,  shrine,  temple,  tower, 
or  of  a  canopy  over  a  solid  podium  or  pedestal. 
The  Pyramids  of  Egypt  are  the  grandest  ex¬ 
amples  of  the  first  type.  (See  Pyramid. )  The 
Romans  sometimes  built  circular  tombs  sur¬ 
mounted  by  a  cone  or  tumulus  of  earth  or 
masonry — tombs  of  Caecilia  Metella,  of  Augustus, 
and  of  Hadrian;  the  last  named,  on  the  Vatican 
side  of  the  Tiber,  over  200  feet  in  diameter, 
but  like  the  others  destitute  of  its  mound,  is 
now  known  as  Castle  Sant’  Angelo.  The  Greeks 
attempted  little  in  sepulchral  architecture  ex¬ 
cept  in  Asia  Minor,  where  the  magnificent  tomb 
of  Mausolus  (whence  mausoleum,  q.v.)  in  Caria 
was  accounted  one  of  the  Seven  Wonders.  The 
Romans,  whose  tombs  were  impressive,  perfected 
the  canopy  or  tower  type,  as  in  good  examples 
at  Saint-Remy  and  Vienne  in  France,  Igel,  near 
Treves,  Mylassa  in  Asia  Minor,  and  many  other 
places.  They  lined  the  highways  beyond  their 
city  gates  with  tombs  of  various  types  and  often 
of  great  beauty,  and  in  the  fourth  century 
developed,  in  examples  like  the  tomb  of  St. 
Helena,  the  circular  tomb  with  a  dome,  which 
was  in  the  Middle  Ages  adopted  by  the  Moslems 
and  perfected,  first  on  a  small  scale,  but  with 
great  richness  of  detail,  in  the  hundreds  of 
domed  and  minareted  tombs  at  Cairo  known  as 
tombs  of  the  Khalifs,  and  later  in  such  ma¬ 
jestic  structures  as  the  tombs  of  Soliman,  Shah 
Zadeh,  and  Khurrem  at  Constantinople,  of 
Humayun  at  Delhi,  and  of  Mahmud  at  Bijapur, 
and  in  the  incomparable  Taj  Mahal  (q.v.)  at 
Agra.  Syria  abounds  in  tombs  of  all  types, 
mostly  dating  from  the  early  Christian  cen¬ 
turies,  though  not  a  few  belong  to  the  Roman 
dominion,  e.g.,  the  Tomb  of  Absalom  at  Jeru¬ 
salem,  the  tombs  at  Palmyra,  etc. 

Vol.  XXII.— 22 


In  early  Christian  times  and  the  Middle  Ages 
the  practice  of  interment  within  the  church 
edifice  became  common,  springing  from  that  of 
erecting  the  altar  over  the  tomb  or  sarcophagus 
of  a  martyr  (altar  tomb).  Throughout  the 
Middle  Ages  the  decoration  of  indoor  tombs  as¬ 
sumed  a  great  variety  of  shapes,  the  most  com¬ 
mon  type  being  that  of  a  sarcophagus  bearing 
on  the  cover  a  recumbent  figure  of  the  de¬ 
ceased,  under  a  richly  wrought  canopy  borne  by 
twisted  shafts  or  clustered  columns  and  pointed 
arches  and  embellished  with  sculpture  and  often 
with  mosaic.  These  tombs  were  sometimes  free¬ 
standing,  sometimes  set  against  a  wall,  or  even 
set  high  up  upon  the  wall,  especially  in  Italy. 
Both  kinds  are  to  be  seen  imitated  in  the  cele¬ 
brated  open-air  tombs  of  the  Scaligers  at  Ve¬ 
rona,  and  there  are  beautiful  variants  of  them 
in  the  English  cathedrals  of  York,  Salisbury, 
and  Exeter.  The  bronze  shrine  of  St.  Sebaldus 
at  Nuremberg  is  a  late  Gothic  example  of  the 
canopy  tomb.  The  Renaissance  adopted  these 
types,  but  altered  their  details  and  filled  the 
churches  of  Italy,  France,  England,  Germany, 
and  Spain  with  splendid  monuments,  some  of 
great  refinement  and  beauty,  others  marvelously 
rich  and  even  ostentatious,  to  the  memory  of  the 
great  dead.  The  fifteenth-century  wall  tombs 
of  Italy  are  especially  beautiful,  and  such 
churches  as  Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  Santi 
Giovanni  e  Paolo  at  Venice,  Santa  Maria  del 
Popolo  at  Rome,  and  Westminster  Abbey  be¬ 
came  great  repositories  of  sepulchral  art.  Sculp¬ 
ture  played  an  increasing  part  in  these  works, 
and  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
was  employed  in  allegorical  groups,  often  theat¬ 
rical  and  vulgar. 

In  modern  cemeteries,  besides  the  ordinary 
graves  with  stones  or  obelisks,  are  to  be  seen 
tombs  shaped  like  classic  shrines,  and  occasion¬ 
ally  more  elaborate  structures  fronted  or  sur¬ 
mounted  by  well-wrought  groups  of  allegorical 
sculpture.  Among  important  mausolea  may  be 
mentioned  the  impressive  dome  of  the  Invalides 
at  Paris,  serving  as  the  tomb  of  Napoleon, 
and  the  massive  Grant  mausoleum  in  New  York. 
Neither  of  these  compares  in  splendor,  however, 
with  some  of  the  Oriental  tombs  mentioned 
above.  Modern  sepulchral  art  is  inferior  to 
mediteval,  Renaissance,  or  Oriental  art.  The 
modern  preference  is  to  erect  imposing  monu¬ 
ments  to  the  dead  in  the  frequented  squares  of 
populous  cities,  rather  than  over  their  quiet 
graves  in  remote  cemeteries.  Consult:  Tosi  and 
Becchio,  Altars ,  Tabernacles,  and  Tombs  (Lagny, 
1843)  ;  E.  W.  Trendall,  Designs  for  Monuments, 
Cenotaphs,  Tombs,  and  Tablets  (London,  1856)  ; 
Brindley  and  Weatherly,  Ancient  Sepulchral 
Monuments  (ib.,  1887)  ;  Lawrence  Weaver,  Me¬ 
morials  and  Monuments,  Old  and  New  (New 
York,  1915)  ;  and  for  Greek  and  Roman  tombs, 
0.  M.  Stackelberg,  Die  Grdber  der  Griechen  in 
Bildwerken  und  Yasengemdlden  (Berlin,  1837)  ; 
Rossi,  Roma  sotteranea  cristiana  (Rome,  1887- 
88)  ;  M.  de  G.  Davies,  Five  Theban  Tombs 
(Oxford,  1913).  See  Burial;  Campo  Santo; 
Cemetery;  Cenotaph;  Necropolis;  Pyramid; 
Sepulchral  Mound. 

TOMBIGPBEE  RIVER.  One  of  the  chief 
rivers  of  Alabama  (Map:  Alabama,  A,  B  4).  It 
rises  in  the  northeast  corner  of  Mississippi  and 
flows  in  a  south-southeasterly  direction  with 
numerous  abrupt  windings.  After  a  course  of 
450  miles  it  joins  the  Alabama  River  to  form 
the  network  of  channels  composing  the  Mobile 


TOMB  OF  THE  SCIPIOS 


TOMMASEO 


332 


and  Tensas  rivers,  which  empty  through  several 
arms  into  Mobile  Bay.  The  largest  tributary 
is  the  Black  Warrior,  which  drains  the  north 
central  part  of  Alabama.  The  Tombigbee  is 
navigable  to  Aberdeen,  Miss.,  410  miles  from 
Mobile  Bay. 

TOMB  OF  THE  SCIPIOS.  See  Scipios, 
Tomb  of  the. 

TOM  BROWN’S  SCHOOL  DAYS.  A  noted 
story  of  life  at  the  famous  Rugby  School  under 
the  rule  of  Thomas  Arnold,  by  Thomas  Hughes 
(1856),  and  continued  in  Tom  Brown  at  Ox¬ 
ford  (1861). 

TOMBS,  Sir  Henry  (1824-74).  An  English 
soldier,  born  at  sea  and  educated  at  the  India 
Company’s  Military  College  at  Addiscomb.  In 
1841  he  entered  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company  as  second  lieutenant  and  soon  distin¬ 
guished  himself.  In  the  Sepov  Mutiny  he  won 
the  Victoria  Cross  by  his  gallant  conduct  at 
the  siege  of  Delhi  in  1857.  Afterward  he  took 
part  in  the  capture  of  Lucknow,  the  relief  of 
Shahjahanpur,  and  in  an  expedition  to  Shakabad. 
In  1863  he  was  made  brigadier  general  and 
in  1867  major  general.  During  his  later  years 
he  was  in  command  of  several  important  expedi¬ 
tions  in  India,  but  in  1872  resigned  his  com¬ 
mand  and  returned  to  England,  where  he  died. 
Consult:  F.  W.  Stubbs,  History  of  the  Bengal 
Artillery  (2  vols.,  London,  1877)  ;  G.  B.  Mal- 
leson,  History  of  the  Indian  Mutiny  (ib.,  1878- 
80)  ;  and  Field  Marshal  Earl  Roberts,  Forty-one 
Years  in  India  (ib.,  1898). 

TOMBS,  The.  The  city  prison  of  New  York, 
erected  in  1838,  and  so  named  from  its  massive 
and  gloomy  appearance.  It  was  torn  down  in 
1898  and  replaced  by  a  larger  building. 

TOMBS  OF  THE  MEDICI.  See  Medici, 
Tombs  of  the. 

TOMCOD.  One  of  the  small  codfish  of  the 
genus  Microgadus,  as  Micro gadws  tomcodus  of 
the  Atlantic  coast,  or  Microgadus  proximus  of 
the  Pacific.  They  are  very  abundant  and  of  con¬ 
siderable  importance  as  food.  See  Plate  of  Cod¬ 
fish  and  Allies. 

TOM  CRINGLE’S  LOG.  A  sea  yarn  by 
Michael  Scott,  which  first  appeared  in  Black¬ 
wood’s  Magazine. 

TOME,  to-maL  A  seaport  of  Chile,  12  miles 
north  of  Concepcion,  and  a  shipping  point  for 
grain.  Municipal  pop.,  1903,  6358. 

TOME.  An  old  settlement  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
Valencia  Co.,  N.  M.  It  was  settled  early  in 
the  sixteenth  century  by  70  Spanish  families. 
For  a  century  it  was  the  most  important  place 
in  the  Rio  Grande  valley,  and  for  a  time  was 
the  seat  of  government  of  the  colony.  Sept. 
7,  1708,  the  town  was  sacked  by  the  Comanche 
Indians,  who  killed  half  of  the  inhabitants  and 
carried  many  others  into  captivity.  Pop.,  1910, 
512. 

TOME  (tom)  INSTITUTE.  See  Jacob  Tome 
Institute. 

TOMELLOSO,  to'mel-yo'so.  A  town  in  the 
Province  of  Ciudad  Real  (La  Mancha),  Spain, 
in  the  District  of  Alcazar  de  San  Juan.  The 
town  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century  and  is 
well  built.  The  chief  industry  is  the  cultiva¬ 
tion  of  the  vine  and  of  cereals,  and  there  are 
manufactures  of  spirits,  leather  goods,  and 
cloths.  Pop.,  1900,  13,917;  1910,  17,733. 

TOM  JONES.  A  well-known  novel  by  Henry 
Fielding  (1749). 

TOMLINE,  tom'lin,  Sir  George  Pretyman 
(1750-1827).  An  English  divine,  Pretyman  by 


name,  who  assumed  the  cognomen  of  Tomline  on 
falling  heir  to  an  estate  in  1803.  He  was  born 
at  Bury  St.  Edmunds  and  was  educated  in  that 
town  and  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  where 
he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  the  younger  Pitt 
— as  his  tutor  in  1773 — which  was  the  making 
of  his  own  career.  In  1783  he  became  private 
secretary  to  Pitt,  when  that  statesman  was 
made  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  and  his 
mathematical  ability  was  serviceable  to  his 
patron.  Tomline  was  made  dean  of  St.  Paul's 
and  Bishop  of  Lincoln  in  1787,  and  received  the 
see  of  Winchester  in  1820.  In  1821  appeared 
his  memoir  of  Pitt.  This  work  was  disappoint¬ 
ing  in  that  it  took  no  notice  of  Pitt’s  career 
after  1793  and  made  scant  use  of  opportunities 
the  writer  had  to  depict  the  inner  history  of 
the  time. 

TOM'LINSON,  Charles  ( 1808-97 )..  An 
English  scientist,  born  in  London,  studied  at 
Wadham  College,  Oxford,  and  under  George 
Birkbeck,  the  founder  of  the  London  Mechanics’ 
Institute.  For  a  while  he  had  a  school  with 
his  brother  Lewis,  at  Salisbury.  Becoming 
known  for  original  investigation,  he  was  called 
to  London,  where  he  was  appointed  lecturer  on 
experimental  science  at  King’s  College  School. 
In  1872  he  was  elected  to  the  Roval  Societv,  and 
in  1874  he  took  a  leading  part  in  founding 
the  Physical  Society.  As  a  scientist  Tomlinson 
made  valuable  contributions  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  surface  tension  of  liquids.  His  last  years 
were  devoted  to  literature,  and  in  1878-80  he 
held  the  Dante  lectureship  at  University  College, 
London.  Besides  several  works  on  mechanics 
and  the  useful  arts,  he  published:  The  Bonnet, 
Its  Origin,  Structure,  and  Place  in  Poetry 
(1874);  a  translation  of  Dante’s  Inferno 
(1877);  The  Literary  History  of  the  Divine 
Comedy  (1879);  Dante,  Beatrice,  and  the  Di¬ 
vine  Comedy.  (1894)  ;  and  a  volume  of  original 
Bonnets  (1881). 

TOMLINSON,  Everett  Titswortli  (1859- 
) .  An  American  author,  born  at  Shiloh, 
N.  J.  He  was  educated  at  Williams  College,  and 
served  as  principal  of  the  high  school  at  Au¬ 
burn,  N.  Y.,  in  1881-83,  and  as  head  master  of 
the  preparatory  department  of  Rutgers  Col¬ 
lege  in  1883-88.  After  1894  he  wrote  many 
popular  stories  for  boys,  usually  with  historical 
setting. 

TOMMASEO,  tom'ma-za'o,  Niccol6  (1802- 
74).  An  Italian  poet,  critic,  philosopher,  and 
lexicographer,  born  at  Sebenico,  in  Dalmatia. 
He  went  to  Padua  to  study  law,  but  turned  to 
literature.  In  Florence  he  collaborated  on  Vies- 
sieux’s  Antologia,  which  the  government  sup¬ 
pressed  in  1832.  Tommaseo,  having  to  leave 
Florence,  went  to  Paris,  where  he  endeavored 
to  make  the  French  better  acquainted  with  his 
countrymen,  through  various  writings,  e.g.,  Dell ’ 
Italia  (1835).  In  1838  he  took  up  his  abode 
in  Corsica,  and  there  made  a  collection  of  popu¬ 
lar  songs,  Canti  populari  cor  si,  toscani,  greci  e 
illirici  (1841).  He  returned  to  Venice,  where 
he  was  permitted  to  stay  from  1839  to  1848. 
In  January,  1848,  he  was  arrested  because  of  his 
liberal  opinions,  but  the  Manin  (q.v. )  insurrec¬ 
tion  freed  him.  After  the  fall  of  Venice  in  1849 
he  went  to  Corfu,  going  thence  in  1854  to 
Turin,  where  he  began  the  publishing  of  his 
great  Dizionamo  della  lingua  italiana.  He 
passed  his  last  days  in  Florence,  refusing  the 
honors  and  positions  offered  him  as  a  venerable 
patriot  of  arisen  Italy. 


TOMMASI 


333 


TOMSK 


As  a  philologist  he  possessed  vast  and  ac¬ 
curate  erudition.  His  aim  in  all  his  writings, 
religious,  moral,  and  pedagogical  treatises,  po¬ 
litical  essays,  philological,  literary,  and  critical 
works,  poems,  and  ballads  is  constantly  educa¬ 
tional.  These  reveal  vigor  and  acuteness.  As 
a  critic  of  literature  he  is  hampered  by  classic 
prejudices  and  an  inborn  polemical  spirit. 
Among  his  other  most  valuable  contributions 
are:  II  dizionario  estetico  (1840),  Bellezza  e 
dvilta  (1857),  Ispirazione  e  arte  (1858),  and 
Storia  civile  nella  letteraria  (1872),  besides  a 
noteworthy  Commento  alia  commedia.  Consult 
1\  Prunas,  La  critica,  Varte,  e  Videa  sociale  di 

iccold  Tommaseo  (Florence,  1901),  and  B. 
Croce,  “X.  Tommaseo,”  in  La  Critica,  vol.  x 
(Naples,  1912). 

TOMMASI,  tom-ma'ze,  Donato  (1848-1907). 
An  Italian  chemist  and  electrician,  born  in 
Naples  and  educated  at  Paris  and  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Brussels.  He  took  as  his  specialty 
electrochemistry,  a  branch  of  science  in  which 
he  made  valuable  investigations.  His  discoveries 
include  various  methods  for  separating  and  ex¬ 
tracting  metals  by  electricity  (1892)  and  an 
accumulator  which  has  ,  been  much  used  on 
railways.  His  publications  include:  Traite 
theorique  et  pratique  d’electrochimie  (1889); 
Traite  des  piles  electriques  et  des  accumulateurs 
(1890)  ;  and  Manuel  pratique  de  galvanoplastie 
(1890). 

TOMMY  ATKINS.  The  popular  name  for 
a  private  soldier  in  the  British  army.  It  had 
its  origin  in  the  government  usage  of  the  ficti¬ 
tious  name  of  Thomas  Atkins  to  designate  the 
place  of  the  soldier’s  signature  in  such  docu¬ 
ments  and  army  forms  as  were  to  be  signed  by 
him. 

TOMOCHICHI,  to'mo-che'che  (one  who  makes 
a  bird  fly  upward)  (c.1642-1739) .  A  noted 
chief  of  the  Yamacraw,  a  detached  band  of  the 
Creek  confederacy,  in  the  early  period  of  Georgia 
colonization.  He  was  a  native  of  the  lower 
Creek  town  of  Apalachukla  near  the  site  of 
present  Columbus,-  Ga!  He  had  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  confederacy  and  withdrew 
with  his  immediate  followers  and  established 
himself  on  the  Savannah  River  at  Yamacraw 
Bluff,  now  a  part  of  Savannah.  Here  he  con¬ 
cluded  a  treaty  of  friendship  with  Governor 
Oglethorpe,  and  through  his  influence  a  treaty 
was  made  in  1733,  at  Savannah,  with  the  lower 
Creeks,  by  which  the  latter  ceded  all  their 
claims  from  the  Savannah  to  the  Altamaha. 
In  1734,  with  a  retinue,  he  accompanied  Ogle¬ 
thorpe  to  England.  A  monument  to  him  was 
erected  in  Savannah. 

TOMPA,  Mihaly  (1817-69).  A  Hungarian 
poet,  born  at  Rimaszombat  and  educated  at 
Saros-Patak.  He  served  in  the  Honved  army  in 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  in  1852  he  became 
a  minister  at  Hanva,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death.  In  1847  he  was  elected  to  the  Kis- 
faludy  Society  and  in  1858  to  the  Hungarian 
Academy.  His  first  work  was  Nepregek,  Nep- 
mondak  (Pest,  1846),  a  collection  of  popular 
tales.  His  Szuhay  Matyas  (1847),  a  comic 
story  in  verse,  was  crowned  by  the  Hungarian 
Academy.  His  complete  works  were  published 
in  1884  (5  vols.).  Consult  Ferenczy,  Mihaly 
Tompa  (Kaschau,  1878),  and  Kont,  Geschichte 
der  ungarischen  Litteratur  (Leipzig,  1906). 

TOMP'KINS,  Daniel  D.  (1774-1825).  An 
American  political  leader  and  Vice  President 
of  the  United  States.  He  was  born  in  Fox 


Meadows  (Scarsdale),  Westchester  Co.,  X.  Y., 
graduated  at  Columbia  in  1795,  and  in  1797 
was  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1804  he  was  elected 
to  Congress,  but  before  taking  his  seat  was 
appointed  by  Gov.  Morgan  Lewis  to  the  vacancy 
on  the  State  Supreme  bench  caused  by  the  pro¬ 
motion  of  -fudge  Kent  to  the  chief  justiceship. 
In  1807  he  became  the  candidate  of  the  Clin¬ 
tonian  Republicans  for  Governor  to  succeed 
Morgan  Lewis,  who  had  been  renominated  by 
the  Livingston  party  with  strong  Federalist  sup¬ 
port.  He  was  elected  over  Lewis  by  4085  ma¬ 
jority  and  was  reelected  four  times,  serving 
10  years.  During  his  third  term  an  attempt 
to  secure  a  charter  from  New  York  State  for 
the  Bank  of  America  was  accompanied  by  a 
wholesale  bribing  of  the  State  Legislature. 
After  the  lower  house  had  sanctioned  the  char¬ 
ter,  on  March  27,  1812,  Governor  Tompkins  pro¬ 
rogued  both  houses — a  power  then  granted  by 
the  constitution,  but  never  before  exercised. 
The  charter  was  granted  at  the  next  session  of 
the  Legislature,  but  Tompkins’  action  had  in¬ 
creased  his  popularity.  During  the  War  of  1812 
Governor  Tompkins  recruited  and  equipped  40,- 
000  militia  in  New  York  State,  providing  funds 
for  this  raised  partly  on  his  personal  security. 
On  a  recommendation  made  in  his  last  message 
to  the  Legislature  in  January,  1817,  the  New 
York  Legislature  passed  a  ‘  law  setting  all 
slaves  free  on  and  after  July  4,  1827.  From 
1817  to  1825  he  was  Vice  President  of  the 
United  States.  Consult  De  A.  S.  Alexander, 
Political  History  of  the  State  of  New  York 
(3  vols.,  New  York,  1906-09). 

TOMP'SON,  Benjamin  (1642-1714).  An 
American  poet,  born  at  Braintree,  Mass.  He 
was  educated  at  Harvard  College  and  became  a 
school  teacher  in  Cambridge.  He  is  known  by 
his  poem  on  King  Philip’s  War,  New  England’s 
Crisis  (1675). 

TOM’S.  A  former  London  coffeehouse  in 
Covent  Garden,  a  fashionable  resort,  and  the 
headquarters  of  a  club  founded  in  1764,  which 
among  its  700  members  included  many  noted 
names  of  the  day.  Tom’s  was  taken  down  in 
1865. 

TOMSK,  tOmsk.  A  government  of  West  Si¬ 
beria  (Map:  Asia,  K  3).  Area,  about  331,159 
square  miles.  The  southern  and  southeastern 
parts  belong  to  the  region  of  the  Altai  Moun¬ 
tains  and  contain  many  snow-clad  peaks,  some 
of  them  11,000  feet  high.  rfhe  Kuznetzky 
Alatau,  along  the  eastern  frontier,  is  densely 
wooded  and  rises  to  about  6000  feet.  The  re¬ 
mainder  of  the  region  is  mostly  low  and  con¬ 
sists  of  vast  densely  wooded  marshes  and  open 
steppes.  The  region  is  watered  mainly  by  the 
Obi  (q.v. )  and  its  tributaries,  including  the 
Irtysh  ( q.v. ) .  The  climate  is  severe  and  un¬ 
healthful  in  the  lowlands.  The  mineral  de¬ 
posits  of  the  Altai  Mountains  are  being  gradu¬ 
ally  opened  up  and  give  promise  of  great  abun¬ 
dance.  Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation, 
and  the  output  of  cereals  is  far  above  the  local 
demand.  Stock  raising  is  also  an  extensive 
industry.  Manufactures  are  undeveloped,  but 
the  trade  with  Mongolia  is  on  the  increase  and 
there  is  considerable  navigation  on  the  Obi. 
The  trade  with  European  Russia  also  shows  an 
increase  since  the  construction  of  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway.  Pop.,  1914  (est.),  3,919.800, 
of  whom  the  natives  (Tatars,  Samoyeds,  Osti- 
aks,  etc.)  numbered  only  about  75,000,  the  re¬ 
mainder  being  Russians. 


TOMSK 


TONE 


334 


TOMSK.  The  capital  of  the  Siberian  govern¬ 
ment  of  Tomsk  and  the  intellectual  centre  of 
Siberia,  situated  on  the  Tom,  a  tributary  of  the 
Obi,  and  connected  by  a  short  line  of  54  miles 
with  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  (Map:  Asia, 
K  3 ) .  It  is  one  of  the  finest  cities  of  Siberia, 
with  electric  lighting  and  street  railways,  but 
without  an  adequate  water  supply  and  unsatis¬ 
factory  in  its  sanitary  arrangements.  Its  im¬ 
portance  dates  from  the  year  1824,  when  gold 
was  discovered  in  its  vicinity.  The  university, 
established  in  1888,  has  two  faculties  of  medi¬ 
cine  and  law,  987  students,  and  a  library  of 
226,000  volumes.  The  commerce  is  very  exten¬ 
sive,  Tomsk  being  one  of  the  chief  distributing 
centres  of  Siberia.  Pop.,  1911,  112,083. 

TOMS  RIVER.  The  county  seat  of  Ocean 
Co.,  1ST.  J.,  35  miles  southeast  of  Trenton,  at 
the  head  of  Toms  River  and  Bay,  and  on  the 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Central  of  New  Jersey 
railroads  (Map:  New  Jersey,  D  4).  It  is  a 
summer  resort.  Farming,  especially  cultivation 
of  cranberries,  fishing  and  oyster  planting, 
lumbering  and  yacht  building,  are  leading  in¬ 
dustries.  Pop.,  1915,  about  2000.  Early  in  the 
Revolutionary  War  a  small  blockhouse  was 
erected  to  protect  the  salt  works  here.  On  March 
24,  1782,  this  blockhouse,  occupied  by  Capt. 
Joshua  Huddy  and  25  men,  was  attacked  by 
a  larger  force  of  Loyalists  under  Capt.  Evan 
Thomas  and  Lieut.  Owen  Roberts  and  was  cap¬ 
tured.  Immediately  afterward  the  village  it¬ 
self  was  almost  totally  destroyed.  Consult  a 
pamphlet  by  Striker,  The  Capture  of  the  Old 
Blockhouse  at  Toms  River f  'New  Jersey  (Tren¬ 
ton,  1883). 

TOM  THUMB.  See  Stratton,  Charles 
Sherwood. 

TOM-TOM.  See  Tam-Tam. 

TON.  See  Weights  and  Measures. 

TON.  See  Measurement  of  Ships  for 
Tonnage. 

TONAL'ITY  (from  tonal,  from  tone,  OF.  ton , 
from  Lat.  tonus,  from  Gk.  tovos,  tone,  sound). 
In  music,  the  grouping  of  certain  chords  around 
a  central  tonic  chord.  The  principle  rests  upon 
the  relationship  which  various  chords  bear  to 
one  another.  Briefly  stated,  a  tone  is  related 
in  the  first  degree  to  all  tones  forming  conso¬ 
nant  intervals  with  it;  in  the  second  degree  to 
all  tones  forming  dissonant  intervals  with  it. 
Thus  we  can  establish  the  relationship  of  D  to 
C  by  means  of  Ihe  chord  of  the  dominant  seventh 
d-fj-a-c,  which  is  the  dominant  of  G  major, 
which,  in  turn,  is  the  dominant  of  C  major. 

The  relationship  of  single  tones  becomes  in¬ 
telligible  only  through  the  agency  of  chords. 
It  is  sufficient  to  recognize  only  two  degrees. 
Since,  when  considering  the  relationship  of 
chords,  each  chord  is  considered  a  tonic  chord, 
it  will  perhaps  be  best  to  speak  of  triads.  A 
sharp  distinction  must  be  made  between  similar 
and  dissimilar  triads.  If  a  major  triad  is  fol¬ 
lowed  by  another  major,  or  a  minor  triad  by 
another  minor,  the  two  major  triads  are  similar, 
as  are  also  the  two  minor  triads.  But  if  a 
major  triad  is  followed  by  a  minor,  or  vice 
versa,  the  two  triads  are  dissimilar.  It  must 
also  be  borne  in  mind  that  when  speaking  of 
major  triads  all  intervals  are  reckoned  upward; 
when  speaking  of  minor  triads  all  intervals  are 
reckoned  downward.  A  triad  is  related  in  the 
first  degree  to  all  similar  triads  whose  funda¬ 
mental  tone  is  related  in  the  first  degree  to  the 
fundamental  tone  of  the  original  triad.  Thus, 


the  triad  of  C  major  is  related  in  the  first  degree 
to  the  similar  major  triads  of  G,  F,  E,  Afc, 
Eb,  A.  It  is  also  related  in  the  first  degree 
to  the  dissimilar  minor  triads  whose  funda¬ 
mental  lies  a  fifth  below  any  of  the  tones  of 
this  C  major  triad.  These  are  F,  A,  C,  a  fifth 
below  C,  E,  G,  respectively.  To  these  must 
also  be  added  the  triad  built  upon  the  mediant, 
which  in  a  major  key  is  always  a  minor  triad, 
and  vice  versa.  Hence  every  triad  is  related 
to  10  other  triads  in  the  first  degree.  In  the 
case  of  a  minor  triad  similar  relations  exist. 

All  triads  other  than  the  10  just  mentioned 
are  related  to  the  original  triad  in  the  second 
degree.  Here  the  degree  of  affinity  may  be  more 
or  less  remote.  Consult:  H.  Riemann,  Musi- 
lcalische  Syntaxes  (Leipzig,  1877)  ;  id.,  Skizze 
einer  neuen  Methode  der  Harmonielehre  (ib., 
1880);  id.,  Systematische  Modulationslehre  (ib., 
1887).  See  Comma;  Consonance;  Dissonance; 
Harmony,  Chords;  Key. 

TON'AWAN'DA.  A  city  in  Erie  Co.,  N.  Y., 
9  miles  by  rail  north  of  Buffalo,  on  the  Niagara 
River  and  the  Erie  Canal  and  on  the  New 
York  Central  and  the  International  railroads 
(Map:  New  York,  B  4).  It  is  connected  with 
North  Tonawanda  by  two  bridges.  The  promi¬ 
nent  features  of  the  city  include  the  armory, 
the  high  school,  the  public  library,  and  a  park. 
Tonawanda  is  an  important  lumber  market  and 
is  also  interested  in  manufacturing,  the  chief 
products  being  steel,  lumber,  roofing,  and  paper 
boards.  Pop.,  1900,  7421;  1910,  8290;  1915 
( State  census) ,  9147  ;  1920,  10,068. 

TON'BRIDGE,  pronounced  Tunbridge.  A 
market  town  in  Kent,  England,  on  the  Medway, 
29  miles  southeast  of  London  (Map:  England, 
G  5 ) .  The  manufacture  of  toys,  boxes,  and 
articles  of  wood  in  Tonbridge  ware,  a  mosaic 
veneer  of  beech,  holly,  etc.,  is  a  specialty.  A 
notable  feature  is  the  remains  of  a  mediaeval 
castle  which  stands  on  the  Medway,  near  the 
entrance  of  the  town.  Among  other  structures 
are  the  parish  church  and  the  grammar  school, 
founded  in  1553.  Pop.,  1901,  12,736;  1911, 

17,247. 

TONE.  In  music,  the  name  given  to  the 
larger  intervals  in  the  diatonic  scale,  so  called 
in  contradistinction  to  the  semitones  (q.v.),  or 
smaller  intervals.  Theoretically  some  of  the 
intervals  called  tones  are  larger  than  others, 
and  none  of  them  are  equal  to  two  semitones; 
thus,  in  the  scale  of  C,  the  intervals  CD,  FG, 
and  AB  are  all  equal;  but  DE  and  GA,  which 
are  also  called  tones,  are  smaller;  and  the  semi¬ 
tones,  EF  and  BC,  are  larger  than  half  even  of 
the  larger  tones.  In  instruments,  however, 
which  are  tuned  according  to  the  equal  tempera¬ 
ment  (q.v.),  all  the  tones  are  made  equal,  and 
each  equivalent  to  two  semitones. 

TONE,  Theobald  Wolfe  (1763-98).  An 
Irish  revolutionist.  He  was  born  in  Dublin, 
where  he  was  educated,  graduating  at  Trinity 
College.  He  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1789. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  first  club 
of  United  Irishmen  at  Belfast  and  similar  or¬ 
ganizations  in  other  parts  of  Ireland  and  agent 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  committee  (1792);  was 
implicated  in  Jackson’s  treasonable  designs  with 
the  French  government  in  1794,  but  was  allowed 
to  go  to  Philadelphia,  U.  S.  A.,  in  1795.  In  the 
following  year,  however,  he  went  to  France 
for  assistance  and  returned  suddenly  to  Ireland, 
recalled  by  rumors  of  a  revolt.  In  the  expedi¬ 
tion  to  Bantry  Bay  he  was  adjutant  general  to 


TONE  COLOR 


TONGALAND 


335 


the  commander  Hoche,  but  the  fleet  was  driven 
oil  the  coast  and  scattered.  In  1798  he  again 
set  sail  for  Ireland  with  a  small  French  expedi¬ 
tion  and  was  captured  by  an  English  fleet  off 
Lough  Swilly.  Having  been  sentenced  to  be 
hanged,  he  cut  his  throat,  dying  a  few  days 
later.  Consult  The  Life  of  Theobald  Wolfe  Tone, 
etc.,  tenth  his  Political  Writings,  edited  by  his 
son,  W.  T.  W.  Tone  (2  vols.,  Washington,  1826), 
and  Harry  Graham,  Splendid  Failures  (London, 
1913). 

TONE  COLOR.  In  music,  the  quality  of  the 
tone  of  musical  instruments  or  of  the  human 
voice.  See  Clang  Tint,  Explanation  of. 

TO'NER,  Joseph  Meredith  (1825-96).  An 
American  physician,  born  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  He 
graduated  at  Jefferson  Medical  College  in  1853 
and  two  years  afterward  settled  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  where  he  founded  the  Providence  Hospital 
and  became  identified  with  several  other  similar 
institutions.  In  1871  he  gave  the  fund  which 
established  the  well-known  Toner  lectures.  He 
was  president  of  the  American  Medical  Associa¬ 
tion  and  of  the  American  Health  Association 
in  1874  and  was  vice  president  of  the  Interna¬ 
tional  Medical  Congress  of  1887.  Toner  was  one 
of  the  very  few  American  physicians  who  took 
an  interest  in  the  history  of  medicine,  and  his 
A  Century  of  American  Medicine  (1876)  still 
remains  a  standard  work.  His  publications  in¬ 
clude,  besides:  Compulsory  Vaccination  (1865); 
Annals  of  Medical  Progress  and  Medical  Edu¬ 
cation  in  the  United  States  (1874);  Medical 
Men  of  the  Revolution  (1876). 

TON'GA  ISLANDS,  or  Friendly  Islands. 
A  group  of  Polynesian  islands  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  about  350  miles  southeast  of  Samoa,  ex¬ 
tending  from  lat.  15°  to  23%°  S.  and  from 
long.  173°  to  177°  W.,  the  Fiji  Islands  being 
to  the  northwest  (Map:  Australasia,  L  4). 
The  Tonga  Islands  form  a  native  kingdom, 
but  are  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain. 
They  number  about  100,  but  only  Tongatabu, 
Eua,  and  Vavau  are  of  any  importance,  the 
first  being  low,  the  others  of  moderate  height. 
Area,  about  390  square  miles.  The  islands  lie 
generally  in  a  long  north  and  south  chain  and 
form  the  subgroups  of  Tonga,  Nomuka,  Haapai, 
and  Vavau,  but  the  outlying  islands  Niua- 
tobatabu  or  Keppel  Island,  Tafahi  or  Bos- 
cawen,  and  Niuafoou  are  included  in  the  King¬ 
dom  of  Tonga.  The  residence  of  the  native 
King  and  seat  of  government  is  at  Nukualofa  in 
Tongatabu  (Holy  Tonga).  The  eastern  islands 
are  of  coral  limestone  formation,  low  and  com¬ 
paratively  level.  In  the  Tonga  subgroup  is  the 
largest  and  most  fertile  island  of  all,  Tongatabu. 
It  is  in  the  south  and  contains  about  140  square 
miles.  It  has  about  half  the  population  of  all 
the  Tonga  Islands.  The  western  row  of  islands 
are  volcanic,  high,  and  steep.  Of  these  Late 
and  Tofoa  are  active,  and  Kao  (about  2850 
feet  high)  is  extinct.  The  climate  of  the  Tonga 
Islands  is  oppressive  and  humid.  The  annual 
rainfall  is  heavy,  over  75  inches.  Serious  earth¬ 
quakes  are  not  infrequent,  and  small  islands  rise 
suddenly  at  times  and  as  suddenly  disappear. 
A  hurricane  wrought  havoc  in  Vavau  in  1900. 
The  flora  is  rich,  especially  in  palms.  The  na¬ 
tive  fauna  is  comparatively  insignificant;  there 
needs  to  be  mentioned  onlv  the  lanje  fruit-eatino- 
bat  ( Pteropus  tonganus) . 

The  main  islands  are  covered  with  luxuriant 
vegetation.  The  soil  is  rich.  The  land  is  leased, 
not  sold ;  and  as  its  tenure  is  not  assured,  im¬ 


provements  are  both  meagre  and  poor.  Copra 
and  fungus  are  .  exported,  and  tapa  and  mats 
are  made.  The  imports,  mostly  from  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  amounted  to‘f81,044  in  1913— 
14  and  include  draperies  and  foods;  the  exports 
amounted  to  £82,321,  consisting  mainly  of  copra 
and  green  fruit.  There  is  regular  steam  com¬ 
munication  with  the  neighboring  British  posses¬ 
sions.  There  are  many  good  harbors.  The 
revenue  in  1913  amounted  to  £32,489  and  the 
expenditures  to  £39,103.  There  is  no  debt.  The 
population  was  given  in  1911  as  23,900,  nearly 
all  natives,  and  among  the  most  civilized  of  the 
Polynesians.  They  are  agriculturists  and  adept 
seafarers.  While  eager  to  learn  and  imitate, 
they  lack  qualities  necessary  to  success. 

rlhe  Tonga  Islands  were  discovered  in  1643 
by  Tasman.  He  gave  to  Tongatabu  the  name 
of  Amsterdam  and  called  Eua  and  Nomuka 
respectively  Middleburgh  and  Rotterdam.  In 
1781  the  Spanish  navigator  Maurelle  discovered 
Vavau  and  several  of  the  neighboring  islands. 
In  1789  Lieutenant  Bligh,  of  the  Bounty,  visited 
Nomuka.  In  1791  Captain  Edwards,  in  the  Pan¬ 
dora,  made  two  visits  tp  the  group.  In  1796 
a  mission  was  established  at  Tongatabu.  This 
was  the  first  missionary  enterprise  on  the  island, 
but  was  abandoned  a  few  months  later  owing  to 
the  violence  of  the  islanders.  In  1822  the  first 
Wesleyan  missionary  landed  on  the  island.  The 
mission  was,  however,  not  fully  established  until 
1826.  All  the  natives  are  now  Christians — many 
Methodists,  some  Roman  Catholics.  In  1773 
and  in  1777  they  were  visited  by  Cook,  who 
explored  them,  and  gave  them  the  name  of 
Friendly  Islands  on  account  of  the  attitude  of 
the  natives.  Before  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  wars  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the 
islands  were  under  the  rule  of  two  reigning 
families.  During  this  political  upheaval  the 
local  hereditary  chiefs  declared  their  independ¬ 
ence,  but  were  united  under  the  wise  rule  of 
George  I,  who  in  1875  introduced  a  sort  of 
constitutional  government,  allowing  the  chiefs 
a  share  in  the  administration.  Treaties  were 
concluded  with  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and 
also,  in  1888,  with  the  United  States.  The  privi¬ 
lege  of  building  a  naval  station  was  abandoned 
by  Germany  in  1899  in  favor  of  Great  Britain, 
which  country  declared  its  protectorate  over  the 
group  in  that  year.  The  present  ruler,  King 
George  II,  is  assisted  by  a  Legislative  Assembly, 
meeting  every  three  years,  composed  partly  of 
hereditary  nobles  and  partly  of  members  elected 
on  a  property  qualification.  There  are  a  cabinet, 
a  Privy  Council,  and  judiciary. 

Bibliography.  William  Ellis,  Polynesian  Re¬ 
searches  (2  vols.,  London,  1853)  ;  H.  S.  Cooper, 
The  Coral  Islands  of  the  Pacific  (new  ed.,  ib., 
1882-83)  ;  W.  Coote,  The  Western  Pacific  (ib., 
1883)  ;  Elis6e  Reclus,  Nouvelle  geographic  uni- 
verselle,  voi.  xiv  (Paris,  1889)  ;  P.  A.  Monfat, 
Les  Tonga  ou  Archipel  des  Amis  (Lyon,  1893)  ; 
A.  R.  Wallace,  “Australasia,”  in  Stanford, 
Compendium  of  Geography  (London,  1894)  ;  E. 
Reeves.  Brouyn  Men  and  Women  in  the  South 
Sea  Islands  (ib.,  1898)  ;  M.  M.  Shoemaker,  Is¬ 
lands  of  the  Southern  Seas  (2d  ed.,  New  York, 
1898)  ;  W.  T.  Brigham,  “An  Index  to  the  Islands 
of  the  Pacific,”  in  Bishop  Museum,  Memoir,  vol. 
i,  no.  2  (Honolulu.  1900)  ;  R.  L.  Stevenson,  In 
the  South  Seas  (Biographical  ed.,  New  York, 
1910). 

TON'GALAND,  or  AMATONGALAND.  A 

district  of  Zululand  and  accordingly  of  Natal 


TONGAS 


TONGUE 


336 


in  southeast  Africa  ( Map :  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
L  6).  It  forms  the  northern  neck  of  Zululand. 
Area,  1280  square  miles.  The  Lebombo  Moun¬ 
tains  border  it  on  the  west.  The  country  is 
generally  level  and  low.  The  climate  is  very  un¬ 
healthful.  The  inhabitants  are  Zulu-Kafirs,  the 
Amatonga.  The  possession  of  Tongaland  was 
strongly  desired  by  the  Boers,  since  it  would 
have  "furnished  them  an  outlet  to  the  sea  and  a 
haven.  Great  Britain  was  eager  to  frustrate 
their  plans,  however,  and  declared  Tongaland 
under  British  protection,  June,  11,  1895.  It  was 
annexed  to  Zululand  (q.v. ),  Dec.  27,  1897.  This 
action  embraced  also  the  small  possessions  of 
the  Sambana  and  Umtegiza  chiefs,  which  formed 
the  narrow  portion  of  Tongaland  west  of  the 
Pongola  River.  Zululand,  including  Tongaland, 
was  annexed  to  Natal,  December,  1897. 

TONGAS.  See  Tlinkit. 

TONG-KAK,  tong-hiik'  ( Sinico-Korean,  Ori¬ 
ental  culture ) .  The  watchword  of  a  revolution¬ 
ary  party  in  Korea  (Chosen),  founded  in  1859 
by  a  native  Korean  scholar  named  Choi.  They 
were  prominent  in  a  rebellion  preceding  the 
Chino- Japanese  War  of  1894-95.  See  Korea. 

TONGKAH.  See  Salang. 

TONGKING',  TONKIN',  or  TONQUIN, 
ton'ken',  Fr.  pron.  toN'kaN'.  A  French  protec¬ 
torate  in  French  Indo-China  (q.v.),  situated 
just  south  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  bordering  the 
Gulf  of  Tonglcing  (Map:  French  Indo-China, 
D,  E  2).  Area,  estimated  at  46,000  square 
miles.  Tonglcing  has  a  heavily  forested  plateau 
in  the  north.  The  eastern  part  is  tilled  and 
contains  slate  and  limestone.  The  protectorate 
is  traversed  in  a  southeasterly  direction  by  the 
navigable  Red  River  (q.v.),  or  Song-ka,  its  delta 
district  covering  some  5000  square  miles.  This 
district,  traversed  by  many  streams,  is  especially 
fertile  and  well  tilled.  The  climate  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  is  hot  and  humid.  Storms  are 
frequent  in  summer.  The  flora  in  the  south¬ 
west  resembles  that  of  India;  that  of  the  north¬ 
east  is  akin  to  that  of  southern  China.  Nuts 
and  tropical  fruits  abound. 

Copper,  iron,  and  coal  are  mined.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  and  the  cattle  industry  is  promi¬ 
nent.  Opium,  cacao,  sugar,  tea,  cotton,  corn, 
coffee,  and  tobacco  •  are  cultivated.  Rice,  the 
staple  crop,  equals  the  best  in  the  world.  Furni¬ 
ture,  glass,  silk,  cottons,  indigo,  paper,  oil,  and 
sugar  are  manufactured.  The  commerce  has 
rapidly  increased.  The  imports  consist  largely 
of  machinery,  metals,  and  textiles.  The  main 
exports  are  rice  and  animal  products.  The 
leading  commercial  points  are  Haiphong  (the 
chief  port,  possessing  a  fine  harbor),  Kwang- 
yen,  and  Nam-Dinh.  A  railway  extends  from 
Haiphong  to  Hanoi.  From  Hanoi  a  line  runs 
to  Lungehow,  another  to  Yiinnanfu,  and  a  third 
southward  along  the  coast  to  a  point  a  little 
beyond  Vinh.  The  Yunnan  line  carries  a  large 
transit  trade.  There  are  ocean  cables  to  Hue 
and  Hongkong.  The  largest  city  is  Hanoi,  the 
seat  of  the  resident  superior  of  Tongking,  as 
well  as  of  the  Governor-General  of  French  Indo- 
China.  There  are  21  provinces  and  four  mili¬ 
tary  territories.  The  local  budget  for  1914 
balanced  at  8,994,000  piasters  (piaster  =  0.469). 

Estimates  of  population  vary  widely;  an  of¬ 
ficially  published  estimate  relating  to  1911  is 
6,118,000.  Europeans,  exclusive  of  the  military, 
number  upward  of  6000.  The  race  is  Annamese. 
Besides  these,  who  dwell  largely  in  the  delta 
reeion  and  who  are  taller  and  darker  than  their 

o 


kindred  in  Cochin-China  and  Annam,  the  in¬ 
terior  contains  a  number  of  more  or  less  primi¬ 
tive  peoples,  such  as  the  Thos  (q.v.)  of  the 
Claire  River  basin,  the  Muongs  (q.v.)  of  the 
Black  River  valley,  and  others  who  belong  to 
the  Thai  ( q.v. ) .  The  Chinese  number  upward 
of  35,000.  Several  hundred  thousand  of  the  in¬ 
habitants  profess  Roman  Catholicism.  Tong¬ 
king  was  an  independent  state  before  it  came 
under  the  control  of  Annam  in  1802.  In  1873 
the  first  military  expedition  of  the  French  was 
sent  into  the  territory,  but  by  agreement  the 
next  year  they  retired.  In  1882  the  French  gov¬ 
ernment,  having  conceived  the  design  of  secur¬ 
ing  the  delta  of  the  Red  River  for  French 
commerce,  sent  an  expedition  against  the  preda¬ 
tory  Black  Flags,  a  Chinese  soldiery,  represent¬ 
ing'  a  remnant  of  the  Taiping  rebels.  The  French 
sailed  up  the  Red  River  and  occupied  the 
citadel  of  Hanoi.  Annam  lent  her  support  to 
the  Black  Flags,  whereupon  in  August,  1883, 
the  French  fleet  under  Courbet  bombarded  Hue 
and  compelled  Annam  to  accept  a  French  pro¬ 
tectorate  and  to  allow  France  to  prosecute  her 
designs  with  regard  to  Tongking.  The  French 
pushed  their  operations  with  success,  but  soon 
had  to  face  a  war  with  China,  to  whose  suzer¬ 
ainty  Annam  was  still  nominally  subject.  This 
conflict,  which  lasted  a  year  (1884-85),  left 
France  in  virtual  possession  of  Tongking.  In 
1887  Tongking  was  made  a  part  of  French  Indo- 
China. 

Bibliography.  Pinabel,  Sur  quelques  peuples 
sauvages  dependants  du  Tonkin  (Paris,  1884)  ; 
Calixte  Imbert,  Le  Tonkin  industriel  et  commer¬ 
cial  (ib.,  1885)  ;  E.  Miliot,  Le  Tonkin  (ib., 
1888)  ;  Edouard  Hocquard,  Une  campagne  au 
Tonkin  (ib.,  1892)  ;  Paul  Marabail,  Etude  eco- 
nomique  et  administrative  sur  le  Haut  Tonkin 
(ib.,  1908),  containing  a  bibliography;  Russier 
and  Bremier,  L’Indochine  francaise  (ib.,  1910)  ; 
H.  Baudesson,  Indo-China  and  its  Primitive 
Peoples  (London,  1914). 

TONGKING,  Gulf  of.  An  arm  of  the  South 
China  Sea  extending  northward  between  French 
Indo-China  on  the  west  and  the  Chinese  island 
of  Hainan  together  with  the  Lei-chau  peninsula 
on  the  east  (Map:  French  Indo-China,  E  2,  3). 
It  is  150  miles  wide  and  300  miles  long  and 
receives  the  Red  River.  Its  depth  is  everywhere 
less  than  300  feet. 

TONGUE  (AS.  tunge,  Goth,  tug  go,  OHG. 
zunga,  Ger.  Zunge,  tongue;  connected  with 
OLat.  dingua,  Lat.  lingua,  tongue).  A  sym¬ 
metrical  muscular  organ,  extending  from  the 
hyoid  bone  forward  and  downward  to  the  lips 
in  front  and  occupying  the  buccal  cavity.  The 
superior  surface,  borders,  and  anterior  third  of 
the  inferior  surface  are  free,  while  the  remaining 
parts  are  attached  to  adjacent  parts  by  the  in¬ 
vesting  mucous  membrane  and  subjacent  struc¬ 
tures.  At  certain  points  this  membrane,  on  leav¬ 
ing  the  tongue,  forms  distinct  folds,  containing 
fibrous  or  muscular  tissue,  which  act  to  a  cer¬ 
tain  extent  as  ligaments  of  the  tongue.  The 
most  considerable  of  these  folds  is  termed  the 
framum  (or  bridle)  of  the  tongue  and  connects 
its  anterior  free  extremity  with  the  lower  jaw. 
It  acts  as  a  strong  ligament  and  limits  the  back¬ 
ward  movement  of  the  tip  of  the  tongue.  In 
rare  cases  this  ligament  extends  aonormallv  to 
the  tip,  so  as  to  interfere  with  speech  and  masti¬ 
cation,  and  the  child  is  said  to  be  tongue-tied; 
recourse  must  be  then  had  to  division  of  the 
framum,  popularly  known  as  cutting  the  tongue. 


TONGUE 


337  TONGUE 


Other  folds  of  mucous  membrane  (the  glosso- 
epiglottid  folds)  pass  from  the  base  of  the 
tongue  to  the  epiglottis,  while  from  the  sides  of 
the  base,  passing  to  the  soft  palate,  are  seen  two 


folds  on  either  side,  known  as  the  pillars  of  the 
fauces.  (See  Palate.)  The  superior  surface 
of  the  tongue  is  divided  into  two  symmetrical 
lateral  parts  by  a  median  longitudinal  furrow 
beginning  at  the  tip  and  extending  back  about 
two-thirds  of  the  tongue’s  length.  The  various 
kinds  of  papillae  which  are  seen  on  their  surface 
are  described  under  Taste.  At  the  back  of  the 
surface,  just  behind  the  circumvallate  papillae 
(papillae  vallatae),  are  large  mucous  glands,  ex¬ 
tending  into  long  and  capacious  canals  and  help¬ 
ing  to  secrete  the  fluid  that  moistens  the  tongue. 
On  the  inferior  surface,  the  longitudinal  fur¬ 
row,  which  extends  from  the  tip  to  the  fraenum, 
is  deeper  than  on  the  upper  surface;  on  each 
side  of  it  veins  are  seen  running  forward;  and 
immediately  beneath  the  tip  is  a  cluster  of 
mucous  glands,  known  as  the  glands  of  Nuck 
(Dutch  anatomist,  1650-92).  The  posterior  ex¬ 
tremity,  or  base,  is  flattened  and  extended  lat¬ 
erally  before  it  is  inserted  into  the  hyoid  bone. 


Serous  Glands 


SECTION  THROUGH  A  PAPILLA  VALLATA. 

The  muscles  of  the  tongue  are  usually  divided 
into  two  groups,  viz.,  the  extrinsic  muscles,  which 
attach  the  tongue  to  certain  fixed  points  external 
to  it  and  move  it  on  them,  and  the  intrinsic 
muscles,  which  pass  from  one  part  of  the  tongue 
to  another,  constitute  its  chief  bulk,  and  move  it 


on  itself.  These  intrinsic  muscular  fibres  run 
vertically,  transversely,  and  longitudinally  and 
are  so  interlaced  as  mutually  to  support  one 
another  and  to  act  with  the  greatest  advantage. 
By  the  action  of  the  various  muscles  the  upper 
surface  of  the  tongue  may  be  made  concave  or 
convex  or  may  be  pressed  against  the  roof  of 
the  mouth;  the  tip  may  be  protruded  straight 


SECTION  SHOWING  STRUCTURE  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF 

PAPILLAE. 


out  or  laterally,  upward  and  downward,  and  to 
any  recess  (as  e.g.,  a  hollow  tooth)  within  the 
mouth  where  food  might  lodge;  and  the  whole 
organ  may  be  drawn  back.  The  nerve  supply  to 
the  tongue  is  motor  and  sensory.  The  motor 
nerve  is  the  hypoglossal.  The  sensory  nerves  are 
the  lingual  (or  gustatory)  branch  of  the  fifth, 
which  confers  sensibility  on  the  mucous  mem¬ 
brane  of  the  anterior  two- thirds  of  the  tongue; 
the  lingual  branch  of  the  glossopharyngeal,  which 
confers  ordinary  sensibility  and  the  sense  of 
taste  on  the  posterior  third  of  the  tongue;  the 
chorda  tympani,  which  is  the  special  nerve  of 
taste  for  the  anterior  two-thirds,  of  the  tongue. 

The  functions  of  the  tongue  are  gustation,  pre¬ 
hension  (in  man  and  monkeys  this  function  is 
supplied  by  the  hand),  mastication,  insalivation, 
deglutition,  and  speech;  and  in  the  case  of  the 
Gasteropoda,  trituration  of  the  food. 

The  tongue  is  subject  to  several  diseases, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  glossitis,  or  in¬ 
flammation  of  the  tongue,  tuberculosis,  and 
syphilis;  new  growths,  usually  malignant  in  na¬ 
ture;  certain  affections  which  the  mucous  mem¬ 
brane  of  the  tongue  shares  with  the  skin,  such 


VERTICAL  SECTION  THROUGH  A  TASTE  BUD. 

as  herpes,  lichen,  and  leucopacia.  It  is  also 
subject  to  excoriations,  ulcers,  and  fissures. 
Macroglossia  is  a  term  applied  to  certain  chroni¬ 
cally  enlarged  conditions  of  the  tongue.  It  is  a 
condition  often  found  in  cretins  and  is  probably 
due  in  this  case  to  lymphangioma.  Hypertrophy 
and  also  cancer  may  attack  the  tongue. 

Tongue  in  Diagnosis.  The  tongue  furnishes 
a  valuable  index  in  the  diagnosis  of  disease  and 
presents  certain  characteristic  appearances  in 
many  morbid  conditions.  An  inspection  of  this 


TONIC 


TONKA  BEAN 


338 

organ  is  an  important  part  of  any  clinical  ex¬ 
amination,  and  its  condition  should  be  noted  with 
reference  to  color,  size,  muscular  tone,  mobility, 
dryness,  and  special  sensation.  The  tongue  is 
pallid  in  anaemia  and  bluish  in  cyanosis.  It  is 
large  and  tender  in  glossitis,  bright  red  and 
studded  with  brilliant  points  in  scarlet  fever 
(the  strawberry  tongue).  It  is  apt  to  be  flabby, 
indented  by  the  teeth,  and  coated  in  diseases 
of  the  gastrointestinal  tract.  It  is  ulcerated  in 
aphthous  fever,  thrush,  stomatitis,  the  secondary 
stages  of  syphilis,  mercurial  poisoning,  etc.  It 
is  coated  with  brown  fur  ( sordes )  and  tremulous 
in  profound  septic  conditions,  such  as  typhoid 
fever  and  pyaemia.  The  elongated  and  pointed 
tongue  is  supposed  to  indicate  irritation  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels,  whereas  the  broad  flabby 
tongue  indicates  atony  and  sluggish  action  on 
the  part  of  the  same  organs.  In  acute  diseases 
with  dryness  of  the  tongue,  improvement  .sets 
in  when  the  tongue  becomes  moist,  and  this  is 
nearly  always  considered  a  favorable  symptom. 
Spasm,  tremor,  and  one-sided  paralysis  of  the 
tongue  are  seen  in  various  nervous  diseases. 
Tremor  is  a  frequent  symptom  of  acute  and 
chronic  alcoholic  poisoning.  See  Alimentary 
System. 

TONIC  (from  Gk.  tovlk6s,  tonikos,  relating  to 
tone,  from  tovos,  tonos,  tone,  sound,  tension, 
strength,  cord ) .  An  agent  or  medicine  that 
promotes  nutrition  and,  in  common  parlance, 
gives  tone  to  the  system.  It  is  a  rather  vague 
term,  since  any  medicine  which  corrects  a  path¬ 
ological  condition  in  the  body  will  make  the 
patient  feel  better  and  stronger,  e.g.,  a  chola- 
gogue,  by  stimulating  the  flow  of  bile  and  clear¬ 
ing  out  the  intestines,  may  act  as  a  tonic. 
Tonics  are  to  a  certain  degree  stimulant,  but 
their  effect  is  supposed  to  be  more  permanent 
without  producing  obvious  stimulation.  Most 
tonics  act  primarily  through  the  nervous  system; 
their  effect  upon  the  muscular  system  becomes 
secondary.  They  are  of  especial  value  during 
convalescence  from  wasting  fevers.  Typical 
medicines  of  this  class  are  iron,  quinine,  strych¬ 
nine,  and  the  vegetable  bitters.  Those  acting  es¬ 
pecially  on  the  heart  are  digitalis,  squill,  and 
convallarin;  those  given  for  anaemia  are  iron, 
manganese,  arsenic,  and  cod  liver  oil;  those 
acting  especially  on  the  stomach  are  cinchona, 
nux  vomica,  and  other  simple  bitters.  Strych¬ 
nine  is  of  peculiar  value  as  a  tonic,  acting  both 
on  the  spinal  cord  and  general  circulation.  For 
the  general  nervous  system,  in  addition  to  these 
drugs,  phosphorus,  small  doses  of  quinine,  and 
the  valerianates  are  supposed  to  be  peculiarly 
efficacious.  Most  of  these  drugs  are  described 
at  length  under  their  own  titles.  More  impor¬ 
tant  than  drugs,  however,  as  tonic  agents,  are 
baths,  massage,  and  exercise  in  the  open  air. 
Sea  bathing,  shower  baths,  sponge  baths,  spinal 
douches,  and  various  medicated  baths  are  most 
powerful  tonics  in  suitable  cases.  See  Bath; 
Exercise;  Hydrotherapy. 

TONIC,  or  Keynote.  In  music,  the  note 
which  forms  the  basis  of  any  scale  or  key  and  on 
which  a  piece  of  music  written  in  that  key  natu¬ 
rally  closes.  The  tendency  of  modern  harmony  is 
to  conceive  the  tonic  not  as  a  single  tone,  but  as 
a  triad  built  upon  that  tone.  See  Key;  Tonal¬ 
ity. 

TONICA,  to-ne'ka,  or  TUNICA.  A  peculiar 
tribe,  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic  stock,  who 
lived,  when  first  known  to  the  French  (about 
1700),  on  the  lower  Yazoo  River  in  Mississippi, 


near  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi,  where  a 
mission  was  established.  Probably  at  an  earlier 
period  they  had  lived  at  the  Tunica  Old  Fields 
in  the  county  bearing  their  name  in  the  north¬ 
western  corner  of  the  same  State.  They  made 
an  alliance  with  the  French,  but  were  hostile  to 
most  of  their  Indian  neighbors,  particularly  the 
Chickasaw,  and  in  1706  nearly  exterminated  the 
Huma  in  a  massacre  near  New  Orleans.  Subse¬ 
quently  they  removed  to  the  east  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  about  opposite  Pointe  Coupee,  be¬ 
low  Red  River,  where  they  still  lived  in  1802, 
numbering  then  120.  In  1817  they  were  settled 
about  90  miles  up  Red  River,  where  about  25 
persons  were  found  near  Marksville,  La.,  in 
1886  by  Gatschet,  who  obtained  the  first  vocabu¬ 
lary  of  their  language.  In  1910  they  numbered 
43.  Consult  J.  R.  Swanton,  Indian  Tribes  of 
the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley  and  Adjacent  Coast 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  (Washington,  1911). 

TONIC  SOL-FA.  Various  attempts  have 
been  made  at  different  times  to  introduce  a  musi¬ 
cal  notation  which  dispenses  with  the  staff  and 
its  lines  and  spaces.  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau 
suggested,  but  afterward  discarded,  a  notation 
where  the  notes  of  the  scale  were  indicated  by 
the  Arabic  numerals.  A  system  similar  to 
Rousseau’s  in  its  leading  features,  called  the 
tonic  sol-fa,  has,  through  the  influence  of  its 
principal  promoter,  the  Rev.  John  Curwen  (who 
obtained  his  main  principles  from  the  writings 
and  practice  of  Miss  Glover  of  Norwich),  been 
brought  into  use  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
singing  schools  in  England.  It  proceeds  on  the 
principle  of  giving  the  chief  prominence  to  the 
fact  that  there  is  in  reality  but  one  scale  in 
music,  which  is  raised  or  lowered  according  to 
the  pitch  of  the  key.  This  method  is  a  revival 
of  the  old  sormization  system  invented  by  Guido 
d’  Arezzo,  but  it  admits  the  interval  of  the 
seventh,  excluded  by  Guido.  For  the  complicated 
music  of  modern  masters  the  tonic  sol-fa  is  as 
inadequate  as  Guido’s  solmization  had  been 
found.  It  also  favors  the  system  of  unequal 
temperament,  directly  opposed  to  the  fundamen¬ 
tal  principle  of  equal  temperament,  without 
which  the  achievements  of  modern  music  would 
have  been  impossible.  It  is  of  value  as  an  edu¬ 
cational  system,  since  it  can  be  taught  quickly 
and  produces  better  immediate  results  than  the 
usual  notation. 

TONITE.  See  Explosives. 

TONK.  A  native  Rajputana  state  in  central 
India.  Area,  2553  square  miles.  Pop.,  1911, 
303,181.  Capital,  Tonk. 

TONK.  The  capital  of  the  native  Rajputana 
State  of  Tonk,  central  India,  near  the  river 
Banas,  55  miles  south  of  Jaipur  (Map:  India, 
C  3).  It  is  defended  by  a  mud  fort  and  a  wall. 
Pop.,  1901,  38,641;  1911,  53,764. 

TONKA,  ton'ka.  The  Chinese  name  of 
Puket  ( q.v. ) . 

TONKA  BEAN;  also  called  Tonga  and  Ton¬ 
kin  Bean.  The  seed  of  a  tall  leguminous  tree, 
Dipteryx  odorata,  found  in  Venezuela,  Guiana, 
and  neighboring  regions.  The  seeds  are  about 
the  size  of  almonds,  though  somewhat  longer, 
and  are  covered  with  a  shining  black  skin. 
They  are  very  fragrant  from  the  presence  of 
cumarin  and  are  used  in  perfumery,  ground  as 
sachet  powder,  and  extracted  with  alcohol  as  a 
flavor  in  cookery,  in  tobacco  manufacture,  soap 
making,  etc.  The  fluid  extract  has  been  used 
as  an  adulterant  or  cheap  substitute  for  vanilla; 
but  the  former  contains  cumarin,  while  true 


TONKAWA 


TONNAGE 


339 


vanilla  contains  vanillin.  The  native  name  of 
the  tree  is  cumara. 

TONKAWA,  tdng-ka'wa  (from  Hueco  In¬ 
dian  tonkaweya,  many  staying  together ) .  A 
peculiar  tribe,  apparently  constituting  a  distinct 
linguistic  stock,  originally  occupying  the  coun¬ 
try  about  the  lower  Colorado  and  Guadalupe 
rivers  in  southeastern  Texas.  They  were  noted 
for  cannibalism.  The  Tonkawa  roved  about, 
built  circular  thatched  houses,  lived  by  hunting 
and  wild  fruits,  and  were  at  war  with  almost 
all  their  neighbors,  by  whom  they  were  despised 
as  man-eaters.  According  to  their  tradition 
they  came  from  the  south.  In  1760  some  of  them 
were  attached  to  the  San  Antonio  missions.  In 
1849  they  were  reported  to  number  600  or  700, 
who  had  been  driven  to  "the  upper  Brazos  on 
account  of  depredations  among  the  American 
settlements  near  the  coast.  In  the  fall  of  1855, 
with  other  small  Texas  tribes,  a  part  of  them,  to 
the  number  of  170,  were  gathered  upon  a  reserva¬ 
tion  on  the  Brazos,  a  few  miles  below  Fort  Bel¬ 
knap,  but  they  were  removed  in  1895  to  a  new 
reservation  on  the  Washita,  near  the  present 
Anadarko,  Okla.  Here  they  remained  until  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  when,  thinking  that 
they  were  about  to  enter  the  Confederate  service, 
other  tribes  took  the  opportunity  to  wipe  out 
old  scores.  A  force  of  about  200  Shawnee,  Dela¬ 
ware,  Caddo,  and  other  Indians  attacked  the 
agency  and  the  neighboring  Tonkawa  village  near 
Anadarko  in  October,  1862,  and  killed  one  or 
two  of  the  agency  employees  and  137  out  of 
about  320  Tonkawa  men,  women,  and  children. 
The  Tonkawa  made  a  stout  resistance  and  in¬ 
flicted  severe  loss  upon  the  enemy.  The  surviv¬ 
ors  led  a  vagrant  existence  in  northern  Texas, 
most  of  the  men  enlisting  as  scouts  against  the 
Comanche,  Kiowa,  and  other  wild  tribes.  In 
1875  they  were  reported  to  number  but  119  and 
were  in  poor  condition.  In  1882  they  were  put 
in  charge  of  a  special  agent,  who  reported  them 
as  numbering  then  only  98.  Two  years  afterward 
they  were  removed  to  a  reservation  in  northern 
Oklahoma.  In  1910  they  were  reduced  to  42 
and  derived  their  principal  income  from  the 
leasing  of  their  surplus  lands. 

TONKS,  Oliver  Samuel  (1874-  ).  An 

American  professor  of  art,  born  at  Malden,  Mass. 
He  was  educated  at  Harvard  (A.B.,  1898;  A.M., 
1899;  Ph.D.,  1903)  and  was  a  fellow  of  the 
American  Classical  School  at  Athens  in  1901- 
02.  In  1902-03  he  served  as  assistant  curator 
of  the  department  of  classical  art  at  the  Mu¬ 
seum  of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston.  He  was  instruc¬ 
tor  in  Greek  at  the  University  of  Vermont  in 
1903-04,  lecturer  at  Columbia  in  1904-05,  and 
preceptor  in  art  and  archaeology  at  Princeton  in 
1905-11.  In  the  latter  year  he  became  profes¬ 
sor  of  art  at  Vassar.  Besides  contributing  to 
the  New  International  Encyclopaedia,  he  col¬ 
laborated  in  writing  The  Art  Museum  and  the 
Public  School  (1912  ). 

TONKUNSTLER-SOCIETAT.  One  of  the 

oldest  musical  societies  of  Vienna.  Founded 
in  1771,  reorganized  in  1797,  in  1865  it  was 
once  more  reorganized  and,  in  recognition  of  the 
generous  gifts  of  the  composer,  renamed  Haydn- 
Societiit. 

TONLE  SAP,  ton'la  sap',  or  Tale  Sap.  A 
lake  of  central  Cambodia,  connected  with  the 
Mekong  by  an  arm  of  that  river  known  also  as 
the  Me-Sap  (Map:  French  Indo-China,  D  4). 
The  lake  acts  as  a  great  reservoir.  During  the 
summer  monsoon  the  waters  of  the  Mekong  back 


up  through  the  Me-Sap,  bringing  the  length  of 
the  lake  to  about  120  miles;  during  the  dry  sea¬ 
son  the  lake  is  drained  by  the  same  arm  to 
about  80  miles  in  length.  During  high  water 
navigation  is  maintained  from  Saigon  to  Bat- 
tambang  in  western  Cambodia.  Approaching 
shores  divide  the  lake  into  sections,  the  Caman 
Dai  in  the  northwest  and  the  Caman  Tieu  in 
the  southeast. 

TON  MILE.  See  Railways. 

TON'NA,  Charlotte  Elizabeth  (Browne) 
(1790—1846).  An  English  author,  born  at  Nor¬ 
wich.  She  was  twice  married,  first  to  a  Captain 
Phelan  and  after  his  death  to  Lewis  H.  J. 
Tonna,  an  English  writer.  She  began  her  liter¬ 
ary  career  in  Ireland,  writing  under  the  pseu- 
donym  of  Charlotte  Elizabeth.  Her  works  were 
largely  of  a  religious  nature  and  evinced  con¬ 
siderable  hostility  towards  the  Catholic  church. 
She  was  connected  with  various  magazines  and 
wrote  numerous  religious  tracts,  novels,  poems, 
and  short  stories  for  children.  Consult  Works 
of  Charlotte  Elizabeth ,  with  an  introduction  by 
H.  B.  Stowe  (3  vols.,  New  York,  1844-45). 

TONNAGE  (formerly  also  tunnage,  from 
tun,  ton,  from  OF.  tonne,  pipe,  tun,  ML.  tunna , 
OHG.  tunna,  Ger.  T onne,  tun ) .  The  carrying 
capacity  or  weight  of  a  ship  expressed  in  tons. 
There  are  four  ways  of  expressing  it:  gross  ton¬ 
nage,  net  tonnage,  dead-weight  tonnage  ( or  dead¬ 
weight  carrying  capacity),  and  displacement 
(q.v.)  tonnage.  The  gross  tonnage  of  a  ship  is 
ascertained  by  dividing  by  100  the  whole  in¬ 
terior  capacity  (expressed  in  cubic  feet)  of  the 
hull  of  a  ship  and  her  inclosed  deckhouses;  this 
method  presumes  that  an  average  cargo  of  light¬ 
weight  freight  will  require  not  far  from  100 
cubic  feet  for  each  ton  of  actual  weight.  Net 
tonnage  is  derived  from  the  gross  tonnage  by 
deducting  the  capacity  of  all  spaces  not  used,  or 
capable  of  being  used,  for  cargo  or  passengers. 
The  dead-weight  tonnage  is  the  actual  weight  of 
cargo  a  vessel  can  carry  without  immersing  her 
too  deeply  for  safety.  Displacement  tonnage  is 
the  weight  of  ship  and  cargo  or  contents  when 
immersed  to  some  fixed  depth.  For  war  vessels 
the  displacement  tonnage  is  usually  given  for 
an  arbitrary  condition  called  “at  normal  draft,” 
which  is  assumed  to  be  the  average  seagoing  con¬ 
dition,  with  about  two-thirds  of  all  fuel  and 
stores.  Full-load  displacement  is  the  condition 
when  all  fuel  and  stores  are  on  board.  For  mer¬ 
chant  vessels  the  displacement  is  usually  given 
for  the  full-load  condition,  i.e.,  when  the  ship 
is  immersed  to  her  Plimsoll  mark.  (See  Load- 
Line  Marks  of  Vessels.)  In  freighting  ships 
40  cubic  feet  of  merchandise  is  considered  a 
ton;  but  if  that  bulk  exceeds  2240  pounds  (or, 
in  the  United  States,  frequently  2000  pounds) 
the  charge  is  made  by  weight.  For  merchant 
vessels  of  ordinary  type  the  displacement  is 
greatest,  gross  tonnage  next,  then  net  tonnage. 
Dead-weight  carrying  capacity  is  always  greater 
than  the  net  tonnage  and  is  usually  greater  than 
the  gross  tonnage;  but  it  is  less  than  the  full¬ 
load  displacement  by  the  weight  of  the  ship  and 
contents  exclusive  of  the  cargo. 

Each  of  the  great  ship  canals  of  the  world  has 
a  tonnage  measurement  of  its  own  upon  which 
the  laying  of  the  tolls  is  based.  The  result  so 
obtained  is  approximately  the  same  as  the  net 
register  tonnage  determined  by  American  and 
British  rules,  but  there  are  some  additions.  By 
the  rules  of  measurement  that  have  been  adopted 
for  the  Panama  Canal  all  vessels  except  war- 


TONNAGE  AND  POUNDAGE 


340 


TONTINE 


ships  are  required  to  present  a  certificate  show¬ 
ing  gross  and  net  tonnages  as  determined  by  the 
rules  under  which  they  were  measured  and  reg¬ 
istered.  Warships  are  required  to  furnish  a 
curve  or  table  of  displacement  from  which  may 
be  derived  the  displacement  corresponding  to  any 
mean  draft.  The  measurement  of  the  underdeck 
space  is  the  same  as  is  provided  by  the  British 
and  Suez  Canal  rules  for  vessels  having  double 
bottoms  with  the  inner  bottom  horizontal ;  but 
by  the  American  rules  the  double-bottom  spaces 
intended  for  carriage  of  oil  fuel  and  feed  water 
are  added.  The  space  for  feed  water  is,  how¬ 
ever,  deducted  from  the  gross  tonnage  inde¬ 
pendently  of  the  allowances  for  engine  and  fire 
rooms.  See  Displacement;  Measurement  of 
Ships  for  Tonnage;  Panama  Canal;  Ship¬ 
building. 

TONNAGE  AND  POUNDAGE.  Certain 
duties  on  wine  and  other  merchandise,  wrhich  be¬ 
gan  to  be  levied  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Ed¬ 
ward  III.  They  were  at  first  granted  to  the 
crown  by  the  vote  of  Parliament  for  a  limited 
number  of  years  and  renewed  on  their  expira¬ 
tion.  Originally  fluctuating  in  amount,  tonnage 
and  poundage  came  to  be  fixed  at  3s.  on  every 
tun  of  wine  and  5  per  cent  on  all  goods  imported. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  V  they  were  first  con¬ 
ferred  on  the  King  for  life;  and,  the  same 
course  being  followed  with  his  successors,  the 
sovereign  began  gradually  to  consider  them  as 
his  proper  right  and  inheritance,  and  the  vote 
of  Parliament  as  but  a  formality  expressive  of 
the  popular  recognition  of  his  prerogative.  It 
was  usual  to  levy  these  duties  during  the  period 
intervening  between  a  sovereign’s  accession  and 
his  first  Parliament,  and  this  was  done  by 
Charles  I  as  by  his  predecessors.  The  Commons, 
however,  in  Charles’s  first  Parliament  accorded 
these  imposts  not  for  life,  but  for  a  year  only; 
and  the  House  of  Lords  objecting  to  this  de¬ 
parture  from  previous  usages  and  rejecting  the 
bill,  an  attempt  was  made  to  levy  tonnage  and 
poundage  by  the  royal  authority  alone,  a  proceed¬ 
ing  which  aroused  the  opposition  of  the  Com¬ 
mons.  Charles  was,  in  1629,  induced  to  pass 
an  act  renouncing  the  power  of  levying  these  or 
any  other  imposts  without  parliamentary  sanc¬ 
tion.  On  the  restoration  Charles  II  obtained  a 
grant  of  tonnage  and  poundage  for  life,  but  by 
three  several  statutes  of  Anne  and  George  I 
these  imposts  were  made  perpetual  and  mort¬ 
gaged  for  the  public  debt.  The  duties  were 
abolished  in  1787. 

TONQM'ETER  (from  Gk.  toms,  fonos,  tone, 
sound,  tension,  strength,  -f-  fjLerpov,  metron, 
measure).  An  instrument  for  measuring  ten¬ 
sion,  as  of  the  eyeball  or  of  the  blood  pressure  as 
transmitted  by  the  ventricles  of  the  heart.  Ha¬ 
mer’s  tonometer  consists  of  a  tube  of  metal,  with 
a  peg  or  small  rod  projecting  and  so  arranged 
that  a  coiled  watchspring  matches  its  tension 
against  the  tension  of  the  body  to  which  the  peg 
is  pressed.  Roy’s  tonometer  consists  of  a  tube 
containing  oil  in  which  a  cylinder  plays,  carry¬ 
ing  a  registering  index. 

TONQUIN,  ton-ken'.  A  division  of  French 
Indo-China.  See  Tongking. 

TONSBERG,  tens'berg.  One  of  the  oldest 
towns  of  Norway,  in  the  Amt  of  Jarlsberg  and 
Larvik,  on  a  fjord  of  the  same  name,  45  miles 
south  of  Christiania  (Map:  Norway,  D  7).  The 
seal  and  whale  fisheries  employ  a  large  pro¬ 
portion  of  its  male  population.  Pop.,  1900, 
8620;  1910,  9719. 


TON'SIL.  One  of  a  pair  of  small  ovoid  bodies 
situated  between  the  pillars  of  the  soft  palate, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  throat,  corresponding  in 
position  with  the  angles  of  the  lower  jaw.  The 
tonsil  has  about  12  spaces  within  its  substance, 
from  which  smaller  follicular  depressions  ex¬ 
tend  into  its  structure,  and  is  classed  with  the 
ductless  glands.  It  is  frequently  inflamed  after 
infection  by  entrance  of  germs  into  the  crypts 
and  follicles  described.  Severe  suppurative  dis¬ 
ease  about  the  tonsil  causing  swelling  and  dis¬ 
placement  of  it  is  termed  quinsy  (q.v.).  See 
Palate. 

TONSIL,  Nasopharyngeal,  or  Lusciika’s. 
See  Adenoid. 

TON'SILLI'TIS.  See  Pharyngitis  ;  Quinsy. 

TON'SON,  Jacob  (c.1656-1736) .  A  famous 
London  publisher.  He  opened  his  shop  at  the 
Judge’s  Head  in  Chancery  Lane,  near  Fleet 
Street,  in  1677.  Towards  the  close  of  the  cen¬ 
tury  he  moved  to  Gray’s  Inn  Gate,  taking  into 
company  with  him  his  nephew,  Jacob  Tonson, 
and  in  1710  to  the  Shakespeare’s  Head  in  the 
Strand.  For  Dryden  Tonson  published  several 
plays,  the  translation  of  Vergil  (1697),  and  The 
Fables  (1699).  He  was  also  helped  by  Dryden 
to  start  the  famous  Miscellanies,  of  which  the 
first  appeared  in  1684.  With  this  prestige  he 
became  the  popular  publisher  among  the  next 
generation  of  authors.  He  bought  out  the  rights 
in  Milton’s  Paradise  Lost  and  from  his  press 
issued  Rowe’s  edition  of  Shakespeare  (1709) 
and  Pope’s  in  1725.  About  1700  he  joined  in 
forming  the  famous  Kit-Cat  Club,  of  which  he 
was  made  secretary.  About  1703  he  bought  a 
house  at  Barn  Elms  on  the  Thames  and  built  a 
room  for  the  club. 

TONSTALL,  Cuthbert.  See  Tunstall, 
Cuthbert. 

TON'SURE  (Lat.  tonsura,  a  shearing,  from 
tondere,  to  shear).  A  religious  observance  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Oriental  churches,  which 
consists  in  shaving  or  cutting  the  hair  as  a  sign 
of  the  dedication  of  the  person  to  the  special 
service  of  God  and  commonly  to  the  public  min¬ 
istry  of  religion.  Probably  it  first  arose  in 
reference  to  the  monastic  rather  than  the  cleri¬ 
cal  life.  Jerome  disapproved  of  the  tonsure  for 
clerics.  Paulinus  of  Nola,  in  the  end  of  the 
fourth  or  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  alludes 
to  it  as  then  in  use  among  the  Western  monks, 
and  it  speedily  passed  from  them  to  the  clergy. 
The  form  of  the  tonsure  was  different  in  dif¬ 
ferent  churches.  That  of  the  Roman  church, 
called  the  tonsure  of  Peter,  consisted  in  shaving 
the  crown  as  well  as  the  back  of  the  head,  so 
that  there  remained  a  circular  ring  or  crown 
of  hair.  In  the  Scottish  (or  Irish)  tonsure  the 
entire  front  of  the  head  was  shaved,  leaving  the 
front  bare  as  far  back  as  the  line  from  ear  to 
ear.  This  tonsure  was  called  the  tonsure  of 
John  and  sometimes  of  Simon  Magus.  The 
Greeks  and  other  Orientals  shaved  the  entire 
head.  Originally  the  tonsure  was  merely  the 
symbol  of  admission  to  the  clerical  state  ( see 
Clerk),  but  about  the  seventh  century  it  came 
to  be  used  as  a  distinct  and  independent  cere¬ 
monial.  Consult  E.  L.  Taunton,  The  Laic  of  the 
Church  (London,  1906). 

TONTI,  Henri  de.  See  Tonty,  Henri  de. 

TONTINE,  ton'ten  (Fr.,  from  It.  tontina, 
from  Tonti).  A  tontine  exists  whenever  sev¬ 
eral  persons  are  united  in  a  group  on  such 
terms  that  on  the  death  of  any  member  of 
the  group  certain  specified  advantages  previously 


TONTINE 


TONTY 


enjoyed  by  him  are  distributed  among  the  sur¬ 
viving  members.  The  principle  has  been  em¬ 
ployed  in  many  kinds  of  transactions,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  government  loans  and 
life  insurance.  The  application  of  the  tontine 
principle  to  government  loans  began  in  the  later 
Middle  Ages.  The  idea  was  introduced  into 
France  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen¬ 
tury  by  an  Italian  named  Lorenzo  Tonti,  but  it 
had  already  long  been  known  in  Italy  and  Ger¬ 
many.  It  was  one  of  numerous  devices  adopted 
by  various  states  to  induce  the  public  to  sub¬ 
scribe  to  government  loans.  The  first  French 
loan  on  this  principle  was  made  in  1689  and 
the  last  one  in  1759.  Existing  tontines  were 
wound  up  in  1770  and  life  annuities  substituted 
for  their  privileges.  The  English  government 
made  less  use  of  tontines  than  the  French.  The 
earliest  one  was  organized  in  1692  and  the  third 
and  last  in  1789.  There  were  a  few  Irish  ton¬ 
tines  in  the  eighteenth  century.  In  England 
none  of  the  loans  was  fully  subscribed,  though 
offered  on  favorable  terms. 

A  subscriber  to  a  tontine  loan  was  the  buyer  of 
a  life  annuity,  which  increased  in  amount  with 
the  death  of  any  member  of  the  class  to  which 
the  subscriber  belonged.  On  the  death  of  the 
last  survivor  the  obligation  of  the  government 
terminated.  In  most  cases  the  subscribers  were 
divided  into  classes  according  to  age,  the  right 
of  survivorship  prevailing  only  among  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  same  age  class.  Sometimes  the 
amount  of  the  annuity  at  the  beginning  varied 
for  the  different  classes.  Thus,  in  the  first  Eng¬ 
lish  loan  the  annuity  increased  from  class  to 
class,  being  slightly  over  4  per  cent  for  those 
under  20  years  of  age  and  more  than  5*4  per 
cent  for  those  over  60.  Occasionally  there  were 
other  limitations :  the  first  English  loan,  which 
did  not  classify  subscribers  according  to  age, 
provided  that  when  the  number  of  survivors  was 
reduced  to  seven  the  right  of  survivorship  should 
cease.  On  the  third  loan  it  was  stipulated  that 
no  single  annuity  should  exceed  £1000.  Usually 
the  subscriber  to  a  loan  had  the  privilege  of 
naming  any  other  person  as  the  recipient  of  the 
life  annuity,  with  the  natural  result  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  annuitants  were  young.  The 
feature  of  a  tontine  loan  which  was  relied  on  to 
attract  subscribers  was  the  great  return  secured 
by  those  investors  who  lived  longest. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  tontine  loan  is  an  unwise 
fiscal  measure.  As  to  ordinary  life  annuities, 
it  is  fairly  safe  for  the  government  to  assume 
that  premature  deaths  will  largelv  offset  ex¬ 
ceptionally  long  lives,  but  in  the  case  of  a  ton¬ 
tine  there  is  no  such  balancing.  It  is  not  the 
average  duration  of  life  of  the  group  which 
determines  the  amount  of  interest  which  the 
government  will  have  to  pay,  but  a  much  more 
uncertain  thing,  the  duration  of  the  longest 
life. 

The  application  of  the  tontine  principle  to  life 
insurance  has  taken  two  forms.  Under  the  old 
or  full  tontine  plan,  in  use  before  the  days  of 
surrender  values,  an  insured  person  who  al¬ 
lowed  his  policy  to  lapse  recovered  nothing  from 
the  company.  The  gain  which  the  company  had 
made  on  his  policy  was  put  to  the  credit  of 
the  other  insured  of  the  same  class.  At  the  end 
of  the  tontine  period  all  such  profits  were  dis¬ 
tributed  among  the  members  of  the  group  still 
holding  policies.  After  the  introduction  of  sur¬ 
render  values,  partly  under  legal  compulsion 
and  partly  by  the  voluntary  action  of  the  in¬ 


surance  companies,  the  so-called  s^mitontine 
plan  was  adopted.  Under  this  there  is  a  simi¬ 
lar  division  of  surplus  among  those  members 
of  the  group  whose  policies  are  in  force  at 
the  end  of  the  tontine  period,  but  the  surplus  to 
be  divided  is  comparatively  small.  It  arises 
chiefly  from  two  sources — an  expense  rate  so 
low  that  some  part  of  the  loading  of  the  pre¬ 
mium  is  saved,  and  an  interest  rate  on  invest¬ 
ments  higher  than  that  assumed  in  calculating 
reserve  values.  A  person  taking  out  a  semi¬ 
tontine  policy  enters  into  an  agreement  with 
the  company  that  the  profit  thus  arising  on  his 
policy  shall  be  put  into  a  pool  along  with  the 
corresponding  profit  on  other  policies  of  the  same 
class,  and  that  at  the  end  of  the  tontine  period — 
usually  10,  15,  or  20  years— the  pool  shall  be 
divided  among  those  members  of  the  class  whose 
policies  are  still  in  force. 

The  question  of  the  desirability  of  applying 
the  tontine  principle  to  life  insurance  lias  been 
the  occasion  of  much  discussion.  That  the  full 
tontine  plan  was  a  bad  one  cannot  be  questioned, 
but  the  evils  arose  more  from  the  absence  of 
surrender  values  than  from  the  tontine  method 
of  distributing  the  surplus.  For  the  semiton¬ 
tine  plan  the  purely  financial  argument  would 
seem,  on  the  whole,  favorable.  In  all  forms  of 
life  insurance  the  indemnities  paid  on  the  poli¬ 
cies  of  those  dying  early  are  partly  at  the  ex¬ 
pense  of  those  whose  policies  run  a  longer  time. 
The  distribution  of  the  surplus  on  the  tontine 
principle  is  at  least  a  partial  reparation.  It 
ought  always  to  be  clearly  understood  that 
the  larger  return  to  those  whose  policies  are 
kept  in  force  to  the  end  of  the  tontine  period 
necessarily  means  a  smaller  return  to  those  who 
die  or  whose  policies  terminate  before  that  time. 
The  weightiest  objection  to  tontine  insurance  is 
a  moral  one.  It  is  introducing  additional  un¬ 
certainty  into  the  transaction  of  life  insurance, 
where  the  speculative  element  is  already  large. 

Private  tontines  were  by  no  means  uncommon 
down  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  They 
were  frequently  taken  up  to  raise  money  for 
purposes  requiring  large  investments  of  capital. 
Large  buildings  in  many  cities  of  the  United 
States  were  erected  in  that  way.  At  the  present 
time  they  are  almost  unknown,  partly  because 
the  abundance  of  capital  has  made  it  unneces¬ 
sary  to  resort  to  them,  partly  because  the  large 
element  of  uncertainty  involved  in  them  is  in¬ 
consistent  with  the  spirit  of  modern  business. 

TONTY,  or  TONTI,  toN'te',  Hexri  de 
(c.1650-c.1704)  .  A  companion  of  La  Salle  (q.v.) 
in  the  exploration  of  the  Mississippi  valley.  He 
was  a  native  of  Gaeta  in  Italy  and  at  an  early 
age  entered  the  military  service  of  France.  In 
July,  1678,  he  went  with  La  Salle  to  Quebec. 
In  the  autumn  of  1679  Tonty  sailed  up  along 
the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  and  met 
his  chief  at  the  St.  Joseph  River.  In  March, 
1680,  he  was  left  bj''  La  Salle  in  command  of 
Fort  Crevecoeur  in  the  Illinois  country.  Forced 
to  flee  by  a  mutiny  among  his  soldiers,  he  made 
his  way  to  Green  Bay,  where  he  passed  the 
winter  of  1680-81  and  in  May  met  La  Salle  at 
Michilimackinac.  In  1682  he  was  with  La 
Salle  in  the  memorable  voyage  down  the  Missis¬ 
sippi.  and  in  May  of  that  year  he  was  dispatched 
to  Mackinac  for  supplies.  In  December  Fort 
St.  Louis  was  erected  at  Starved  Rock  on  the 
Illinois,  and  Tonty  was  left  in  charge.  In  1685 
he  took  part  in  an  expedition  of  the  Illinois 
Indians  against  the  Senecas,  and  in  1687  he  was 


TOOELE 


342 


TOOLE 


with  Denonville  in  the  expedition  against  the 
English  colonies.  In  February  of  the  preceding 
year  he  had  descended  the  Mississippi  in  search 
of  La  Salle.  He  continued  to  live  among  the 
Illinois  Indians  till  1702,  when  he  joined  Iber¬ 
ville  in  Louisiana.  Spurious  memoirs  were  pub¬ 
lished  under  his  name  at  Paris  in  1697  under  the 
title  Derniere  decouverte  de  la  Salle  dans 
VAmerique  septentrionale.  His  real  memoirs 
were  published  by  Margry  in  Origines  frangaises 
des  pays  d’outre-mer  (Eng.  ed.,  New  \ork,  1906). 
Consult  J.  C.  Parish,  The  Man  with  the  Iron 
Hand  (Boston,  1913),  and  C.  B.  Reed,  Masters 
of  the  Wilderness  (Chicago,  1913). 

TOOELE,  tbd-el'e.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Tooele  Co.,  Utah,  35  miles  southwest  of  Salt 
Lake  City,  on  the  San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles,  and 
Salt  Lake  and  the  Tooele  Valley  railroads 
(Map:  Utah,  B  2).  There  are  large  smelting 
and  refining  works,  saw  mills,  a  creamery,  and 
a  flour  mill.  Tooele  has  a  Carnegie  library. 
Pop.,  1900,  1200;  1910,  2753. 

TOOKE,  took,  John  Horne  (1736-1812).  An 
English  etymologist  and  politician.  He  was 
born  in  London,  his  father  being  John  Horne,  a 
poulterer.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster 
and  Eton  and  at  St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge. 
He  entered  the  Church  strongly  against  his  own 
wish  and  in  1760  became  curate  at  New  Brent¬ 
ford.  In  1763  he  traveled  in  France  for  a  year 
as  the  tutor  of  the  son  of  John  Elwes,  and  two 
years  later,  while  acting  again  as  a  tutor,  he 
met  John  Wilkes  (q.v.)  and  visited  Voltaire 
(q.v. )  at  Ferney.  When  Wilkes  stood  as  a  can¬ 
didate  for  the  County  of  Middlesex  in  1768, 
Tooke  zealously  aided  him,  but  the  pair  after¬ 
ward  quarreled.  Tooke  still,  however,  continued 
to  meddle  in  political  affairs  and  ventured  to 
encounter  Junius,  with  whom  some  have  even 
sought  to  identify  him.  In  1773  he  resigned 
his  living  at  New  Brentford  and,  besides  con¬ 
tinuing  his  legal  studies,  commenced  the  study 
of  philology.  About  this  time  he  rendered  some 
important  private  service  to  William  Tooke  of 
Purley  in  Surrey,  who  intended  to  make  him 
his  heir.  In  consequence  he  adopted  in  1782 
the  surname  of  Tooke,  by  which  he  is  now  known. 
In  1777  he  was  fined  and  imprisoned  for  having 
published  in  1775  an  advertisement  in  which 
he  accused  the  King’s  troops  of  barbarously 
murdering  the  Americans  at  Lexington.  While 
in  prison  he  penned  his  celebrated  Letter  to 
Mr.  Dunning  (dated  April  21,  1778),  in  which 
are  to  be  found  the  germs  of  his  Diversions  of 
Purley.  On  his  release  Tooke  made  repeated 
attempts  to  gain  admission  to  the  bar,  but  was 
refused  on  the  ground  of  his  clerical  orders. 
Afterward  he  returned  to  political  writing,  and 
in  a  Letter  on  Parliamentary  Reform  advocated 
universal  suffrage.  In  the  struggle  between  Pitt 
and  Fox  he  wrote  pamphlets  on  the  side  of  the 
former,  but  soon  got  to  hate  Pitt,  as  he  had 
learned  to  hate  many  other  public  men.  In 
1786  appeared  the  first  volume  of  his  famous 
Epea  Pteroenta,  or  the  Diversions  of  Purley, 
vol.  ii  (1805),  a  work  on  the  analysis  and  ety¬ 
mology  of  English  words.  As  a  philologist 
Tooke  was  among  the  first  to  realize  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  studying  Gothic  and  Anglo-Saxon.  But 
his  passion  for  politics  soon  drew  him  from 
literature  into  public  life,  and  in  1801  he  en¬ 
tered  Parliament  for  the  borough  of  Old  Sarum ; 
but  he  made  no  figure  there.  The  best  edition 
of  the  Diversions  of  Purley  is  that  of  Taylor 

(London,  1840).  Consult  Alexander  Stephens, 


Memoirs  of  John  Horne  Tooke  (2  vols.,  London, 
1813),  and  J.  A.  Graham,  Memoir  of  John  Horne 
Tooke  (New  York,  1898). 

TOOKE,  Thomas  (1774-1858).  A  British 
economist.  He  was  born  in  St.  Petersburg. 
In  1804  he  became  partner  in  a  prominent  Rus¬ 
sian  house  in  London;  later  he  became  director 
of  the  Royal  Exchange  Assurance  Corporation, 
president  of  the  Calhamie  Dock  Company,  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  managing  board  of  the  London  and 
Birmingham  Railway.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
first  great  factory  commission  and  president  of 
the  commission  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
evils  of  child  labor  in  factories.  From  his  prac¬ 
tical  experience  in  the  Russian  trade  Tooke  de¬ 
veloped  a  strong  antipathy  to  governmental  in¬ 
terference  in  foreign  commerce.  He  was  author 
of  the  Merchants’  Petition  in  Favour  of  Free 
Trade,  presented  to  Parliament  in  1820.  He  was 
chiefly  interested,  however,  in  questions  relating 
to  money  and  banking.  In  these  subjects  he  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  best  authorities  of  the 
times.  He  was  the  leading  opponent  of  the 
quantity  theory  of  money  and  was  a  harsh 
critic  of  Paul’s  Banking  Act  of  1844.  He  was 
author  of  several  works  on  currency  problems, 
of  which  the  most  important  are  his  On  the  Cur¬ 
rency  in  Connection  ivith  the  Corn  Trade,  and 
on  the  Corn  Laws  (1820)  ;  Considerations  on  the 
State  of  the  Currency  (1826)  ;  An  Inquiry  into 
the  Currency  Principles  and  the  Connection  of 
the  Currency  with  Price  (1844);  A  History  of 
Prices,  1793-1856  (1838-57),  six.  volumes,  the 
last  two  written  in  collaboration  with  W. 
Newmarch. 

TOOKE,  William  (1744-1820).  An  English 
historian,  born  at  Islington,  London,  and  edu¬ 
cated  there  at  an  academy.  Taking  holy  orders 
in  1771,  he  became  chaplain  to  the  English 
church  at  Kronstadt  in  Russia  and  three  years 
later  chaplain  to  the  English  merchants  at  St. 
Petersburg.  Coming  into  possession  of  a  for¬ 
tune,  he  resigned  in  1792  and  returned  to  Lon¬ 
don,  where  he  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  to 
literature.  His  most  valuable  work  was  in 
Russian  history,  based  upon  research  in  the 
Imperial  Library  at  St.  Petersburg.  It  embraces 
mainly  The  Life  of  Catharine  II,  partly  a  trans¬ 
lation  from  the  French  (1798)  ;  A  View  of  the 
Russian  Empire  during  the  Reign  of  Catharine  II 
and  to  the  Close  of  the  Present  Century  (1799)  ; 
A  History  of  Russia  from  the ■  Foundation  of 
the  Monarchy  hy  Rurik  to  the  Accession  of 
Catharine  II  (1800).  He  published  numerous 
miscellaneous  books,  as  The  Loves  of  Othniel  and 
Achsah  (1769),  a  Chaldee  romance;  Varieties 
of  Literature  (1795)  ;  Lucian  of  Samosata,  from 
the  Greek,  with  the  comments  of  Wieland  and 
others  (1820).  His  son,  William  Tooke  ( 1777— 
1863),  took  a  prominent  part  in  founding  Uni¬ 
versity  College,  London,  and  also  the  Society  for 
the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge.  He  was  also 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Society  and  president 
of  the  Society  of  Arts.  He  edited  the  poems  of 
Churchill,  compiled  The  Monarchy  of  France 
(1855),  and  published  a  volume  of  verse. 

TOOLE,  John  Lawrence  (1830-1906).  An 
English  comedian,  born  in  London.  He  made 
his  debut  in  London  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre 
in  1852.  Upon  the  opening  of  the  new  Adelphi 
Theatre  by  Benjamin  Webster  in  1858,  Toole 
became  the  leading  comedian,  and  there,  in 
1862,  he  appeared  in  his  great  part  of  Caleb 
Plummer,  in  Boucicault’s  dramatization  of  The 
Cricket  on  the  Hearth.  In  1868  he  played  the 


TOOMBS 


TOPAZ 


343 


Artful  Dodger  at  the  Queen’s  Theatre,  with 
Henry  Irving  as  Bill  Sykes.  He  visited  Amer¬ 
ica  in  1875  and  in  1890  made  a  successful  trip 
to  Australia.  He  opened  Toole’s  Theatre  (the 
Folly  Theatre  reconstructed)  in  February,  1882, 
and  managed  it  as  a  home  of  comedy  for  a  num¬ 
ber  of  years.  Consult:  Toole’s  Reminiscences , 
chronicled  by  Joseph  Hatton  (London,  1888)  ; 
Matthews  and  Hutton,  Actors  and  Actresses 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  (New 
\ork,  188G);  Scott,  The  Drama  of  Yesterday 
and  To-Day  (London,  1899). 

TOOMBS,  Robert  (1810—85).  An  American 
statesman,  born  at  Washington,  Ga.  He  studied 
at  the  State  University  at  Athens  and  graduated 
(1828)  at  Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 
He  studied  law  at  the  University  of  Virginia 
and  began  practice  in  Wilkes  Co.,  Ga.  After 
service  against  the  Creeks  in  1836  and  several 
years  in  the  Georgia  Legislature  as  a  States’ 
Rights  Whig,  he  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1844 
and  held  his  seat  for  four  terms,  until  1853, 
when  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate 
and  in  1859  reelected.  He  opposed  the  Mexican 
War  and  the  annexation  of  territory  by  force, 
aided  in  the  adoption  of  the  Compromise  of  1850, 
opposed  the  Nashville  Convention,  and  helped 
secure  the  famous  Georgia  Platform.  As  an 
impassioned  political  speaker  he  had  few  equals. 
The  movement  of  secession  had  his  full  ap¬ 
proval;  and  it  was  chiefly  his  influence,  in 
opposition  to  the  more  conservative  views  of  his 
lifelong  friend,  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  that  led 
his  State  to  pass  its  ordinance  of  secession,  to 
which  there  was  a  strong  opposition,  especially 
among  the  old  line  Whigs.  On  the  election  of 
Davis  Toombs  was  offered  the  office  of  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State  and  with  reluctance  accepted  it 
for  a  short  time,  on  his  resignation  receiving  a 
commission  as  brigadier  general.  He  served  in 
the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run  and  at  Antietam 
and  later  was  made  brigadier  general  of  the 
Georgia  militia.  After  the  war  he  lived  for 
some  time  abroad;  then  from  1867  he  carried 
on  a  successful  law  practice  at  his  old  home, 
being  especially  serviceable  to  Georgia  by  win¬ 
ning  his  contention  that  railroads  should  pay 
taxes  like  other  property.  He  was  noted  for 
his  brilliant  wit,  his  legal  sagacity,  and  his 
benevolence.  He  opposed  the  Reconstruction 
measures  and  never  took  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
He  is  mainly  remembered  as  an  unrelenting 
Southern  partisan.  Consult:  W.  P.  Trent, 
Southern  Statesmen  of  the  Old  Regime  (New 
York,  1897)  ;  U.  B.  Phillips,  The  Life  of  Robert 
Toombs  (ib.,  1913)  ;  W.  W.  Hicks,  Tributes  and 
Memories  (Boston,  1914). 

TOON  (Hind,  tun ,  tun,  from  Skt.  tunna , 
toon),  or  Toona  .  ( Cedrela  toona) .  A  tree  of 
the  family  Meliaceae,  one  of  the  largest  timber 
trees  of  India,  occurring  also  in  Australia,  where 
it  attains  a  height  of  150  to  180  feet  and  a 
diameter  of  5  to  7  feet.  Hooker  mentions  one 
which  he  measured  in  India  which  was  30  feet 
in  girth  at  5  feet  above  the  ground.  The  flowers 
are  used  in  India  for  dyeing.  The  tree,  some¬ 
times  called  bastard  cedar,  occurs  at  4000  feet 
on  the  Himalaya  and  is  found  in  the  farthest 
south  of  the  East  Indies.  The  bark  contains 
considerable  tannin  and  is  used  to  produce  a 
kind  of  purplish  leather.  The  wood  is  soft, 
durable,  easily  worked,  and  extensively  used  in 
housebuilding  and  for  furniture.  The  timber 
called  in  English  markets  Maulmain  cedar  is 
exported  from  India  in  considerable  quantities. 


TOOROP,  to'rop,  Jan  ( 1860-  ) .  A  Dutch 

East  Indian  painter,  of  Norwegian,  Dutch,  and 
Javanese  ancestry.  He  was  born  at  Porworedjo 
(Java),  was  educated  at  Batavia  and  in  Delft, 
Holland,  and  after  1881  studied  art  at  the  acad¬ 
emies  of  Amsterdam  and  Brussels  and  also  in 
London  and  Paris.  In  the  latter  city  he  joined 
the  post-impressionist  movement  and  after  his 
return  to  Brussels  helped  to  found  the  radical 
Societe  des  Vingt.  Later  he  introduced  the 
new  phase  of  art  into  Holland.  The  brutal 
realism,  power,  and  strength  of  his  earlv  work 
are  well  illustrated  in  his  “Broeck-in-Water- 
land,”  “The  Wave,”  and  “Melancholy.”  After¬ 
ward  his  ideas  became  more  intricate  and  mysti¬ 
cally  symbolical.  His  treatment  of  line,  though 
archaic,  is  masterly,  and  he  often  displays  great 
decorative  skill  and  delicacy  of  handling.  Char¬ 
acteristic  examples  of  his  later  manner  are: 
“The  Sphinx”;  “The  Three  Brides”;  “Our 
Time”;  “With  the  Sower”;  “Nirvana”;  “Rustic 
Trinity.”  He  also  painted  many  dainty  por¬ 
traits  of  children  and  produced  lithographs  and 
etchings. 

TOOTH.  See  Teeth. 

TOOTHACHE  TREE.  See  Arabia ;  Zan- 

THOXYLUM. 

TOOTH-BILLED  PIGEON.  An  extraordi¬ 
nary  member  of  the  pigeon  tribe  ( Didunculus 
strigirostris) ,  native  to  Samoa  and  alone  repre¬ 
senting  a  separate  family  (Didunculidse) .  This 
species,  known  to  the  Samoans  as  manu-mea,  or 
redbird,  is  about  1  foot  long  and  glossy  green¬ 
ish  black,  with  a  chestnut  tinge  on  the  upper 
parts  and  brown  on  the  wing  quills  and  abdo¬ 
men.  Its  most  striking  characteristic  is  a 
great  orange-colored,  hawklike,  toothed  bill, 
suitable  for  gathering  the  bananas  and  other 
large  fruits  upon  which  it  lives.  It  was  origi¬ 
nally  wholly  terrestrial  in  its  habits,  spending 
its  time  on  the  wooded  mountain  sides,  where  it 
roosted  on  rocks  and  stumps  and  nested  on  the 
ground,  rarely  gathering  into  parties.  It  was 
hunted  for  food.  This  circumstance,  the  fact 
that  it  laid  but  a  single  egg,  and  the  introduc¬ 
tion  by  white  settlers  of  cats,  rats,  and  guns 
led  not  only  to  its  speedier  destruction,  but  to 
an  interesting  change  in  habits,  since  it  soon 
resorted  much  more  to  tall  trees  than  previously 
and  placed  its  nest  on  high  branches.  See  Plate 
of  Pigeons. 

TOOTH  FUNGI.  See  Basidiomycetes. 

TOOTH  SHELL.  See  Tusk  Shell. 

TOPALIAS,  Lake.  See  Bceotia. 

TO'PAZ  (Lat.  topazion,  topazus,  from  Gk. 
Toira^iov,  Tora^os,  topaz;  possibly  connected  with 
Skt.  tapas,  heat).  A  mineral  aluminium  fluo- 
silicate,  crystallized  in  the  orthorhombic  system. 
It  has  a  vitreous  lustre  and  may  be  colorless, 
yellow,  green,  blue,  or  red.  Topaz  occurs  in 
gneiss  or  granite  associated  with  beryl,  mica, 
tourmaline,  etc.,  and  occasionally  with  apatite, 
cassiterite,  and  fluorite,  and  also  in  certain 
talcose  rocks,  mica  slate,  rhyolite,  and  in  allu¬ 
vial  deposits  and  drift.  The  crystallized  varie¬ 
ties,  owing  to  their  hardness,  are  valued  as 
gems,  and  the  best  of  these  come  from  Ceylon 
and  other  parts  of  India,  the  Urals,  Minas 
Geraes,  Brazil,  and  in  the  United  States  from 
various  localities  in  Maine,  Colorado,  and  Utah. 
The  most  popular  color  for  topaz  gem  stones  is 
a  rich  orange  yellow  somewhat  resembling  the 
color  of  sherry  wine.  Rose  topaz  is  a  delicate 
rose  pink  in  color.  The  name  “topaz”  was  ap¬ 
plied  by  Pliny  and  others  to  yellow  crystals, 


TOPE 


344 


TOPEKA 


probably  chrysolite.  Among  the  ancients  it  was 
regarded  as  symbolical  of  friendship ;  when  worn 
as  an  amulet  it  was  said  to  drive  away  sadness, 
strengthen  the  intellect,  and  bestow  courage ; 
mounted  in  gold  and  hung  around  the  neck,  it 
dispelled  enchantment.  It  is  the  birthstone  of 
November.  The  true  Oriental  topaz  is  the  yel¬ 
low  sapphire,  and  the  Saxon,  Scottish,  Spanish, 
smoky,  and  false  topaz  are  yellow  varieties  of 
quartz.  See  Gems. 

TOPE,  top  (Hind,  top,  from  Pali,  Prak.  thiipa, 
from  Skt.  stupa,  mound,  accumulation ) .  The 
vernacular  name  of  Buddhistic  monuments,  in 
the  form  of  tumuli,  intended  for  the  preservation 
of  relics  or  as  memorial  mounds  commemorating 
some  religious  event.  In  Ceylon  they  are  called 
dagabas;  the  designation  more  generally  em¬ 
ployed  by  Indian  archaeologists  is  stupa,  from 
the  Sanskrit,  of  which  tope  is  merely  a  dialectic 
corruption.  Not  only  the  Buddhists  erected 
these  monuments,  but  the  Jains,  their  rival  sect, 
did  likewise.  No  Jain  specimen  appears  to  have 
been  preserved.  The  oldest  topes  are  in  the 
form  of  a  hemisphere  or  sometimes  an  ellipse, 
solidly  constructed  of  brick,  stone,  and  masonry, 
resting  on  a  base  similarly  constructed  and  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  stone  railing,  which  was  modeled 
after  a  prototype  of  mud  and  served  to  mark  off 
the  processional  path  for  the  worshipers  to  fol¬ 
low  in  circumambulating  the  mound.  The 
domical  •  stupa  has  been  thought  to  owe  its 
shape  to  an  original  earthen  tumulus,  but  it  may 
have  been  derived  from  the  curved  roof  of  bam¬ 
boos  built  over  a  primitive  circular  hut  shrine 
constructed  of  perishable  materials.  (Cf.  V.  A. 
Smith,  History  of  Fine  Art  in  India.)  The  ele¬ 
vation  of  the  dome  tended  in  course  of  time  to 
rise  higher  and  higher  until  gradually  it  as¬ 
sumed  a  tower-like  form  and  was  even  further 
developed  in  the  Chinese  pagoda.  In  the  case 
of  the  tope  the  cupola  is  crowned  by  a  small 
structure  generally  quadrangular,  but  sometimes 
in  the  shape  of  a  reversed  stepped  pyramid,  over 
which  is  a  roof  shaped  like  an  extended  parasol. 
Sometimes  there  are  several  parasols,  and  their 
multiplication  and  varied  arrangement  led  to 
variations  of  form  in  the  tope  itself.  This  was 
in  many  cases  made  of  pyramidal  form,  espe¬ 
cially  in  China,  where  the  superposed  stories 
took  the  form  of  a  tower  and  the  cupola  type 
wholly  disappeared;  while  the  topes  of  the  Mon¬ 
gols,  the  ssuvurghans,  are  pyramids  erected  on 
a  low  quadrangular  base.  The  top  of  the  py¬ 
ramidal  topes  always  carries  some  metal  orna¬ 
ment,  frequently  gilt,  resembling  a  parasol,  a 
needle,  a  trident,  or  a  rising  flame.  The  height 
of  these  buildings  varies  from  a  few  feet  to  300; 
while  the  circular  Abayagiri  tope  in  Ceylon  is 
360  feet  in  diameter.  If  erected  in  a  cave 
temple,  the  tope  generally  stands  at  the  end  of 
a  long  hall  especially  cut  out  for  it,  but  some¬ 
times  also  in  the  sanctuary  of  the  cave  temple 
itself;  if  erected  overground,  it  stands  always 
in  the  vicinity  of  a  temple  or  convent. 

In  the  interior  of  the  tope  is  the  cell  or 
chamber  ( dhdtugarbha )  containing  the  box  of 
relics  with  their  accompanying  “seven  precious 
things” — gems,  gold,  silver,  coral,  etc.  The  box 
itself  generally  consists  of  an  outer  case  of 
stone,  clay,  or  bronze,  which  incloses  a  silver 
cylinder,  and  within  this  a  golden  cylinder  con¬ 
taining  the  relics,  both  bearing  commemorative 
inscriptions.  In  some  cases  the  relics  were 
placed  not  within  but  under  the  tope.  The 
cupola  form  represents  the  water  bubble,  the 


Buddhistic  symbol  of  the  hollowness  of  mun¬ 
dane  existence,  while  the  parasol  is  the  emblem 
of  the  royal  dignity  possessed  by  a  Buddhistic 
saint.  The  number  of  stories  in  topes  of  pyram¬ 
idal  or  tower-like  form  had  likewise  a  symboli¬ 
cal  import.  Thus,  only  the  topes  of  the  most 
accomplished  Buddhas  had  13  terraces,  to  show 
that  these  Buddhas  had  passed  beyond  the  12 
causes  of  existence;  three  terraces  imply  the 
three  worlds  of  desire,  of  form,  and  of  absence 
of  form;  five,  the  steps  of  Mount  Meru;  and 
so  on. 

The  topes  generally  occur  in  groups,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  the  Bhilsa  group  in  Cen¬ 
tral  India,  to  which  belongs  the  famous  Sanchi 
tope,  and  near  it  are  two  minor  groups,  at 
Sonari  and  Satdhara.  In  Bengal  is  that  of 
Sarnath,  128  feet  high.  The  great  tope  at 
Amravati  is  the  most  interesting  for  the  wealth 
and  beauty  of  its  sculptures.  Others  are  at 
Gandhara,  Telelabad,  and  Menikalya,  and  in 
Ceylon  at  Tuparamaya,  Ruanwalli,  Abayagiri, 
Anuradhapura,  etc.  In  1909  near  Peshawar  was 
discovered  the  ruins  of  a  famous  stupa  erected 
by  King  Kanishka  (c.l  a.d.)  containing  in 
a  reliquary  casket  a  part  of  Buddha’s  remains, 
which  have  since  been  ceremoniously  transferred 
to  Burma.  The  sculptured  rails  are  described 
under  Indian  Art.  Consult:  Koeppen,  Die 
Religion  des  Buddha  (Berlin,  1857)  ;  James  Fer- 
gusson,  History  of  Indian  and  Eastern  Archi¬ 
tecture  (London,  1876)  ;  A.  Foucher,  L’Origine 
grecque  de  V image  des  Buddha  (Paris,  1913). 

TOPE.  A  small  European  shark  ( Galeorhinus 
galeus) .  It  is  represented  on  the  Western  Amer¬ 
ican  coast  by  the  so-called  oil  or  soup-fin  shark 
( Galeorhinus  zyopterus) ,  about  6  feet  long  and 
gray  with  black-edged  dorsals.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  the  related  small  dog  shark  ( Mus - 
telus  eanis )  of  the  North  Atlantic.  See  Plate 
of  Lampreys  and  Dogfish. 

TOPE'KA.  The  capital  of  Kansas  and  the 
county  seat  of  Shawnee  County,  65  miles  west 
of  Kansas  City,  on  the  Kansas  River  and  on 
the  Missouri  Pacific,  the  Union  Pacific,  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Leaven¬ 
worth  and  Topeka,  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island, 
and  Pacific  railroads  (Map:  Kansas,  G  4).  It 
is  situated  on  rolling  prairie  land,  at  an  eleva¬ 
tion  of  over  800  feet,  and  covers  an  area  of 
about  16  square  miles.  Beautiful  shade  trees 
and  handsome  residences  add  to  the  city’s  at¬ 
tractiveness.  The  most  notable  structures  are 
the  State  Capitol  and  the  Kansas  Memorial 
Building,  both  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  Other 
noteworthy  edifices  are  the  public  library  (con¬ 
taining  32,000  volumes),  the  United  States 
government  building,  the  State  printing  plant, 
State  museum,  the  county  courthouse,  and  the 
city  hall  and  auditorium.  The  Melan  Arch 
Bridge  possesses  considerable  architectural  merit. 
Topeka  is  the  seat  of  Washburn  College  (Con¬ 
gregational) ,  opened  in  1865,  and  of  the  College 
of  the  Sisters  of  Bethany  (Protestant  Episco¬ 
pal),  opened  in  1861.  The  State  Insane  Asylum 
and  the  State  Reform  School  are  also  here.  The 
prominent  local  charitable  institutions  include 
the  Provident  Association,  the  Santa  Fe  Railway 
Hospital,  the  St.  Francis  Hospital,  the  Jane  C. 
Stormont  Hospital  and  Training  School  for 
Nurses,  Christ  Hospital,  Detention  Hospital,  the 
Methodist  Old  Peoples’  Home,  and  Ingleside,  a 
[jhome  for  aged  women. 

'(✓'The  industrial  interests  are  centred  chiefly  in 
me  extensive  shops  of  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad 


TOPELIUS 


TOPINARD 


345 


and  in  the  manufacture  of  flour  and  butter.  Of 
the  smaller  establishments  the  most  important 
afle  foundries  and  machine  shops,  lumber  mills, 
and  manufactories  of  boilers,  trusses,  woolen 
goods,  etc.  The  1914  census  showed  the  total 
capital  invested  in  all  industries  to  be  $14,186,- 
000;  the  value  of  their  output  amounted  to  $19,- 
742,000.  Considerable  wholesale  and  jobbing 
business  is  carried  on  in  Topeka.  The  commis¬ 
sion  form  of  government  was  adopted  in  1910. 
The  electric-light  plant  and  the  water  works 
are  owned  by  the  municipality.  The  city  spent 
in  1913  for  maintenance  and  operation  $581,- 
000,  the  chief  items  being:  schools,  $251,000: 
interest  of  debt,  $114,000;  streets,  $35,000;  fire 
department,  $63,000;  and  police  department, 
$31,000.  Pop.,  1900.  33.608;  1910,  43,684;  1915 
(State  census),  46,747;  1920,  50,022. 

^gss'^Topeka,  laid  out  in  1854,  was  one  of  the  Free 
State  towns  founded  by  Eastern  antislavery 
men  immediately  after  the  passage  of  the  Kan- 
sas-Nebraska  Bill.  In  1856  an  antislavery  con¬ 
vention  adopted  here  the  Topeka  Constitution, 
in  pursuance  of  which  the  Topeka  government 
was  established,  to  be  soon  broken  up  by  the 
United  States  troops.  During  this  year  Topeka 
became  notorious  for  the  raids  made  by  its  citi¬ 
zens  on  proslavery  settlements.  In  1857  Topeka 
was  chartered  as  a  city,  becoming  a  city  of  the 
first  class  in  1881.  It  was  made  the  capital  of 
the  State  in  1861.  Consult:  Giles,  Thirty  Years 
in  Topelca:  A  Historical  Sketch  (Topeka/  1886)  ; 
Z.  L.  Potter,  Industrial  Conditions  in  Topeka 
(New  York,  1915),  and  D.  O.  Decker,  Municipal 
Administration  in  Topeka  (ib.,  1915),  both  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 

TOPELIUS,  to-pa'ls-us,  Zaciiarias  ( 1818— 
98).  A  Swedish-Finnish  poet  and  novelist,  born 
at  Kuddnas,  near  Ny  Karleby.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Helsingfors,  where,  after 
gaining  the  doctorate  (1847),  he  was  professor 
of  the  history  of  Finland  and  the  North  from 
1853  to  1878.  As  a  lyric  poet  he  was  second 
only  to  Runeberg,  and  his  children’s  stories  have 
been  translated  into  many  languages.  His  pub¬ 
lications  include:  Ljungblommor  (Flowers  of 
the  Heath,  3  parts,  1845-54)  ;  Efter  f emtio  dr 
(After  Fifty  Years,  1851),  a  play;  Fdltskams 
Berdttelser  (Tales  of  an  Army  Surgeon,  5  vols., 
1853-67)  ;  Ldsning  for  Barn  (Children’s  Storied, 

8  parts,  1865-96);  Boken  om  vdrt  land  (1875; 
9th  ed.,  1899)  ;  En  resa  i  Finland  (A  Journey 
in  Finland,  2d  ed.,  1885)  ;  Blad  ur  min  tdnke- 
bok  (1898;  3d  ed.,  1900).  His  collected  works 
were  published  at  Stockholm,  30  vols.  (1899- 
1910). 

TOPETE  Y  CARBALLO,  t6-pa'ta  e  kar-ba'- 
lyo,  Juan  Bautista  (1821-85).  A  Spanish  ad¬ 
miral  and  politician,  born  at  San  Andres  de 
Tuztla,  Mexico,  son  and  grandson  of  Spanish 
admirals.  He  entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of  17 
and  became  midshipman  in  1843  and  lieutenant 
two  years  later.  From  1846  to  1849  he  served 
in  Cuban  waters  and  subsequently  was  on  duty 
in  the  Mediterranean.  He  was  promoted  to 
the  captaincy  of  a  frigate  in  1857  and  during  the 
war  with  Morocco  in  1859  was  chief  of  staff  to 
the  fleet.  About  this  time  he  formed  political 
affiliations  with  the  Union  Liberal  party  under 
O  Donnell  and  in  1862  was  elected  to  the  Cortes 
from  Cadiz.  He  was  on  the  Pacific  station  dur¬ 
ing  the  conflict  with  Peru  and  Chile  in  1865-66 
and  was  severely  wounded  in  the  bombardment 
of  Callao  in  May  of  the  latter  year.  Made 
brigadier  on  his  return  and  placed  in  command 


of  the  port  of  Cadiz,  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  political  conspiracies  of  the  times  and  by  his 
pronunciamiento  of  Sept.  17,  1868,  gave  the  sig¬ 
nal  for  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  which 
drove  Isabella  II  from  the  throne.  He  sent  a 
ship  to  bring  back  the  generals  who  had  been 
deported  to  the  Canaries  (see  Spain)  and  after 
he  had  been  joined  by  Prim  and  Sagasta  won 
over  the  city  of  Cadiz  to  the  revolution.  In  the 
provisional  government  Topete  assumed  the  port¬ 
folio  of  Marine.  He  favored  the  election  of  the 
Duke  of  Montpensier  to  the  throne  and  laid 
down  his  post  when  the  choice  fell  upon  Ama¬ 
deus  of  Savoy.  In  1872,  however,  he  resumed 
office  under  Serrano  and  during  the  latter’s  ab¬ 
sence  from  the  capital  presided  over  the  Minis¬ 
terial  Council.  In  the  revolution  of  1873  he  was 
imprisoned  for  a  short  time,  but  regained  influ¬ 
ence  under  the  presidency  of  Serrano,  who  placed 
him  once  more  at  the  head  of  the  navy.  With 
Serrano  he  fought  against  the  Carlists  in  the 
north.  On  the  accession  of  Alfonso  XII  Topete 
retired  from  active  participation  in  politics.  In 
1879  he  was  made  a  life  Senator  and  in  1881 
became  vice  admiral.  His  services  were  re¬ 
warded  with  grand  crosses  in  many  orders.  He 
died  at  Madrid,  Oct.  29,  1885. 

TOPFFER,  tepf'er,  Rodolphe  (1799-1846). 
A  Swiss  novelist  and  draftsman,  born  in  Geneva, 
son  of  the  landscape  and  genre  painter  Adam 
Topffer  (1766-1847),  under  whose  instruction  he 
devoted  himself  to  art.  His  eyesight  failing,  he 
took  up  teaching  in  1825,  established  a  boarding 
school,  and  in  1832  became  professor  of  aesthetics 
at  the  Academy  of  Geneva.  His  novel  Le  pres- 
bytere  (1839)  attracted  universal  attention. 
The  Nouvelles  genevoises  (1838),  Nouvelles  et 
melanges  (1840),  La  bibliotheque  de  mon  oncle 
(1843  ),  and  Rose  et  Gertrude  (1845)  are  hardlv 
less  delightful  than  the  humorous  sketches  of 
travel,  Voyages  en  zigzag  (1848)  and  Nouveaux 
voyages  en  zigzag  (1853),  illustrated  by  himself. 
A  little  archaic  in  style,  his  work  is  simple, 
artistic,  sound,  and  witty,  with  a  childlike  fancy 
and  sentiment.  Among  his  best  productions  are 
the  seven  little  novels  in  pictures:  Mr.  Jabot, 
M.  Crdpin,  M.  Pencil,  Le  docteur  Festus,  His- 
toire  d’ Albert,  Les  amours  de  M.  Vieux-Bois, 
and  M.  Cryptogame,  published  together  in  Col¬ 
lections  des  histoires  en  estampes  (Geneva,  1846— 
47).  Consult  Georg  Glockner,  Rodolphe  Topffer: 
sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke  (Zerbst,  1891),  and 
Hermann  Wolterstoff,  Essai  sur  la  vie  et  les 
oeuvres  de  Rodolphe  Topffer  (Magdeburg,  1894). 

TQPHET,  to'fet  (Heb.  topheth) .  A  place  in 
the  valley  of  Hinnom,  south  of  Jerusalem,  asso¬ 
ciated  with  the  worship  of  Molech  (2  Kings 
xxiii.  10;  Isa.  xxx.  33;  Jer.  vii.  31-32,  xix.  6, 
12-14).  It  is  probably  a  loan  word  of  Aramaic 
origin,  tephath,  meaning  “fireplace,”  given  a 
pronunciation  topheth,  to  suggest  bosheth 
(shame).  See  Hinnom,  Valley  of;  Molech. 

TOPHI.  See  Concretion. 

TOPI,  Tantia.  See  Tantia  Topi. 

TOPINARD,  td'pe'naU,  Paul  (1830-1911). 
A  French  anthropologist,  born  at  Isle-Adam 
(Seine-et-Oise) .  Fie  spent  10  years  in  the  United 
States,  returned  to  study  medicine  in  Paris,  and 
established  himself  there  in  1869,  but  after  1871 
gave  up  his  practice  in  order  to  study  anthro¬ 
pology  under  Broca.  He  became  curator  for  the 
Societe  d’Anthropologie  in  1872,  assistant  di¬ 
rector  of  the  anthropological  laboratory  in  the 
Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  professor  in  the  school 
of  anthropology  (1876),  and  secretary  general 


TOPINISH 


OUCH  DANCE 


346 


of  the  SociSte  d’Anthropologie  after  Broca's 
death  in  1880.  He  also  succeeded  Broca  as  ed¬ 
itor  of  the  Revue  Anthropologique,  was  com¬ 
missioner  for  the  section  of  anthropology  at  the 
Exhibition  of  1889,  and  in  that  year  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  Legion  of  Honor.  His  publica¬ 
tions  include:  Etude  sur  la  taille  consid4ree 
suivant  Vdge,  le  sexe,  Vindividu,  les  milieux  et 
les  races  (1865)  ;  Etude  sur  les  races  indigenes 
dy Australia  ( 1872 )  ;  L’Antliropologie  ( 1876 )  ; 
Des  anomalies  de  nombre  de  la  colonne  verte- 
brale  chez  Vhomme  (1877);  Elements  d’an- 
thropologie  generate  (1885);  Science  et  foi — 
I’anthropologie  et  la  science  sociale  (1900). 

TOP'INISH.  See  Shaiiaptian  Stock. 

TOP'LADY,  Augustus  Montague  (1740- 
78).  A  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England. 
He  was  born  at  Farnham,  Surrey,  and  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  Westminster  School  and  Trinity  Col¬ 
lege,  Dublin  ( B.A.,  1760).  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  1764  and  became  rector  of  Broad  Hem- 
bury  in  1768.  In  1775  failing  health  necessi¬ 
tated  his  removal  to  London,  where  he  died  of 
consumption,  Aug.  14,  1778.  He  was  the  great 
champion  of  Calvinism  in  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  and  wrote  much  against  the  Methodists, 
with  vigor  of  language  and  argument,  but  often 
with  undue  asperity  of  style.  He  is  best  known 
as  the  author  of  the  popular  hymn  ‘"Rock  of 
Ages,  Cleft  for  Me”  (1775).  He  edited  for 
several  years  the  Gospel  Magazine.  His  con¬ 
troversial  works,  mostly  in  reply  to  Wesley,  are 
numerous.  The  best  was  The  Historic  Proof  of 
the  Doctrinal  Calvinism  of  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  (1774).  His  works  were  published  with 
memoir  (6  vols.,  1794;  2d  ed.,  1825);  the  best 
edition  of  his  poetry  is  by  D.  Sedgwick  (London, 
1860).  Consult  Thomas  Wright,  “Augustus 
Topladv  and  Contemporary  Hymn- Writers,”  in 
Lives  of  British  Hymn-Writers,  vol.  ii  (ib., 
1911),  containing  a  bibliography. 

TOPLER,  tep'ler,  August  (1836-1912).  A 
German  physicist.  He  was  born  in  Briihl  on 
the  Rhine,  was  educated  in  Berlin,  and  after 
various  minor  appointments  became  professor 
at  the  Polytechnic  School  in  Riga  in  1864  and 
in  1868  professor  of  physics  in  Graz,  where  he 
built  the  Physical  Institute.  In  1876  he  was 
called  to  the  professorship  of  physics  in  the 
Polytechnic  Institute  in  Dresden,  a  position 
which  he  filled  until  1900.  He  devised  numerous 
forms  of  apparatus,  especially  in  connection 
with  optical  and  electrical  phenomena.  The 
electrical  machine  and  the  vacuum  pump  that 
bear  his  name  are  perhaps  the  best  known  of 
his  inventions.  Besides  numerous  papers  he 
wrote  Optische  Studien  nach  der  Methode  der 
Schlierenbeobachtung  ( 1865 ) . 

TOPLITZ,  tep'lits.  A  town  of  Austria.  See 
Teplitz. 

TOP  MINNOW.  One  of  the  minnows  of 
the  extensive  genus  Gambusia.  They  are  small 
viviparous  fishes  inhabiting  still  waters  in  the 
Southern  States,  Mexico,  and  Cuba  and  keeping 
near  the  surface  of  the  water.  See  Minnow, 
and  Plate  of  Killifishes  and  Top  Minnows. 

TOP  SHELL.  A  mollusk  of  the  scutibran- 
chiate  family  Trochidte,  so  called  because  the 
shell,  when  reversed,  often  presents  a  striking 
similarity  in  shape  to  a  boy’s  top.  When  ground 
and  polished  they  are  extremely  beautiful  and 
are  largely  used  as  ornaments.  The  operculum 
is  horny,  circular,  multispiral,  and  has  a  cen¬ 
tral  nucleus;  and  these  operculae  were  formerly 


top  shell  ( Trochus  nilo- 
ticus ) . 


highly  valued  in  the  East  to  serve  the  purpose 
of  an  artificial  eye.  These  mollusks  dwell  in 
great  numbers  and  variety  along  all  weedy 
coasts  and  feed  upon 

marine  herbage. 

TOPSY.  A  young 

slave  girl  in  Uncle 

Tom’s  Cabin. 

TORAH,  or  THO- 

R AH,  to'ra  ( Heb.  ha- 
tordh,  law,  direction, 

Babylon,  tertu,  oracle,  di¬ 
vine  revelation ) .  The 
Hebrew  term  technically 
applied  to  the  Penta¬ 
teuch.  Besides  the  term 
Torah  there  is  also  used  Torath  Moshe,  i.e.,  Law 
of  Moses,  on  the  basis  of  the  tradition  which 
ascribes  the  whole  Pentateuch  (the  historical 
as  well  as  the  legal  portions)  to  Moses.  Traces 
of  the  original  sense  of  Torah  as  oracle  are  to 
be  found  in  various  passages  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment.  Consult  Haupt,  “Babylonian  Influence  in 
the  Levitic  Ritual,”  in  the  Journal  of  Biblical 
Literature,  vol.  xix  (Boston,  1900),  and  Zim- 
mern,  Beitrdge  zur  Kenntnis  der  babylonischen 
Religion  (Leipzig,  1896-1900). 

TORBANEHILL  (tor'ban-hiP)  MINERAL. 
See  Torbanite. 

TORBANITE,  torfioan-It,  Torbanehill  Min¬ 
eral,  or  Boghead  Coal.  A  dark-brown  variety 
of  cannel  coal  found  at  Torbanehill,  near  Bath¬ 
gate,  Scotland.  It  contains  over  60  per  cent  of 
volatile  matter  and  is  extensively  used  for  the 
extraction  of  burning  and  lubricating  oils, 
paraffin,  and  illuminating  gas. 

TOR'BERT,  Alfred  Thomas  Archimedes 
(1833-80).  An  American  soldier,  born  at 
Georgetown,  Del.  He  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1855.  He  took  part  in  the  Peninsular  cam¬ 
paign,  and  in  August,  1862,  became  commander 
of  a  brigade  of  the  Sixth  Corps,  which  he  led 
during  the  campaigns  of  northern  Virginia  and 
Maryland,  participating  in  the  second  battle 
of  Bull  Run  and  in  the  battles  of  South  Moun¬ 
tain  and  Antietam.  He  was  commissioned 
brigadier  general  of  volunteers  in  1862  and  by 
his  gallantry  at  Gettysburg  earned  the  brevet  of 
major  in  the  regular  army.  In  April,  1864,  he 
Was  transferred  to  the  cavalry  and  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  First  Division  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac.  He  commanded  at  Hanovertown, 
Winchester,  Kearnysville,  Milford,  Luray,  Mount 
Crawford,  Gordonsville,  and  elsewhere.  He  was 
brevetted  major  general  of  volunteers  in  1864 
and  in  the  regular  army  in  1865.  He  was  mus¬ 
tered  out  of  the  volunteer  service  in  1866  and 
resigned  his  commission  in  the  regular  army.  In 
1869  he  became  United  States  Minister  to  the 
Central  American  States,  in  1871  went  as  Con¬ 
sul  General  to  Havana,  Cuba,  and  in  1873  was 
transferred  as  Consul  General  to  Paris.  ,  This 
last  office  he  held  until  1878.  He  was  drowned 
in  a  wreck  off  Cape  Canaveral,  Fla. 

TORCELLO,  tor-chel'16.  A  small  town  and 
island  in  the  lagoon  of  Venice,  Italy,  6  miles 
northeast  of  Venice.  The  seventh-century  By¬ 
zantine  cathedral,  Santa  Maria,  has  a  gorgeous 
twelfth-century  mosaic  representing  biblical 
scenes.  The  Santa  Fosca  Church  is  also  archi¬ 
tecturally  interesting.  There  are  two  small  mu¬ 
seums  of  antiquities.  Pop.,  1911,  147. 

TORCH  DANCE.  Specifically  a  ceremony 
held  at  certain  European  courts,  especially  that 
of  Prussia,  upon  the  marriage  of  any  member 


TORCHON 


, 


* 

( 

t 

' 

i 

' 


347  TORLONIA 


of  the  ruling  house.  Ministers  of  state  and 
privy  councilors  take  part  as  well  as  members 
of  the  royal  family.  A  striking  feature  is  a 
march  or  procession  by  the  bride  and  bridegroom 
accompanied  by  their  relatives  and  led  by  the 
ministers  and  councilors,  in  pairs,  all  carrying 
lighted  wax  candles.  The  rite  is  probably  a  sur¬ 
vival  from  the  early  fire-worship  ceremonials, 
which  appeared  in  Europe  during  the  Middle 
Ages. 

TORCHON.  See  Lace. 

TORCH  RACE.  See  Lampadephoria. 

TORDENSK  JOLD,  tor'den-shdld,  Peter 
(1691-1720).  A  Norwegian-Danish  naval  officer 
and  national  hero.  He  was  born  at  Trondhjem, 
his  family  name  being  Wessel.  Appointed  a 
lieutenant  in  the  royal  navy  in  1711,  he  proved 
to  be  a  most  successful  scout  and  harrier  of 
the  Swedish  coast.  Later,  in  command  of  a 
sloop  of  war  of  20  guns,  he  was  equally  success¬ 
ful,  never  hesitating  to  attack,  and  either  cap¬ 
turing  the  enemy  or  escaping  by  excellent  sea¬ 
manship.  In  1716  he  was  given  noble  rank 
under  the  title  of  Tordenskjold  (thunder  shield). 
Later  in  the  year,  with  only  seven  ships,  he 
captured  and  destroyed  the  Swedish  fleet  of  44 
ships  in  the  Dynekil,  thus  compelling  Charles 
XII  to  raise  the  siege  of  Fredrikshald.  He  was 
then  only  25  years  old.  After  becoming  rear 
admiral  in  1718,  he  captured  Marstrand  and 
partially  destroyed  the  principal  Swedish  squad¬ 
ron  and  was  then  made  vice  admiral  (1719). 
In  1720  he  was  killed  at  Hanover  in  a  duel  with 
Col.  J.  A.  Stael  von  Holstein,  who  had  been  in 
Swedish  service.  For  nearly  200  years  principal 
vessels  of  the  Danish  and  Norwegian  navies  have 
borne  his  name. 

TORDESILLAS,  tor'da-seFyas,  Convention 
of.  See  Demarcation,  Line  of. 

TORELL,  t6-reF,  Otto  Martin  (1828-1900). 
A  Swedish  naturalist,  born  at  Varberg.  He 
studied  medicine  and  the  natural  sciences  at 
Lund,  where  he  gained  the  doctorate  (1853), 
and  then  traveled  through  Scandinavia,  Switzer¬ 
land,  and  Iceland  engaged  in  scientific  investi¬ 
gation.  In  1858  and  in  1861  he  accompanied 
Nordenskiold  to  Spitzbergen.  In  1866  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  zoology  and  geology  at 
Lund.  From  1870  to  1897  he  was  chief  of  the 
Swedish  Geological  Survey.  His  map  of  Sweden 
ranks  with  the  best  that  have  been  made.  Be¬ 
sides  many  papers  on  the  Ice  age  and  upon 
animal  life  in  northern  Europe  and  North  Amer¬ 
ica,  he  wrote  an  account  of  the  Swedish  expedi¬ 
tions  to  Spitzbergen  of  1861,  1864,  and  1868. 
He  traveled  through  most  of  the  European  coun¬ 
tries  and  in  North  America. 

TORELLI,  to-rel'lS,  Achille  (1844-  ). 

An  Italian  dramatist,  born  at  Naples.  Of  his 
numerous  works,  many  of  Goldonian  imitation 
in  the  Neapolitan  dialect,  the  best  is  I  mariti 
(1867).  In  1878  he  was  made  director  of  the 
San  Carlo  Theatre  at  Naples,  and  later  libra¬ 
rian  of  the  library  of  San  Giacomo. 

TORELLI,  Giuseppe  (c. 1660-1708) .  An 
Italian  violinist  and  composer,  one  of  the  earliest 
masters  of  the  Concerto  grosso  ( q.v. ) .  He  was 
born  in  Verona.  This  form  of  music  remained 
in  favor  until  the  time  of  Handel  and  prepared 
the  way  for  the  modern  symphony.  With  Cor¬ 
elli,  Torelli  was  the  principal  musician  of  his 
time.  He  became  connected  with  the  church  of 
San  Petronio  at  Bologna  (1685),  joined  the  Ac- 
cademia  Filarmonica  of  that  city,  and  in  1698 
was  concert  master  to  the  Margrave  of  Branden- 

Vol.  XXII.— 23 


burg.  In  1701  he  returned  to  Bologna,  where 
he  died. 

TORELLI-TORRIANI,  -tor'rS-a'n^,  Maria 
Cl  846-  ).  An  Italian  novelist,  born  at 

Novara.  Under  her  pseudonym,  Marchesa  Co- 
lombi,  she  published  many  tales  of  “veristic” 
sentimentalism,  of  which  La  gente  per  bene 
(1877)  and  In  Risaia  (1877)  are  typical. 

TO  REMAIN  BIBLE.  See  Bible,  Curious 
Editions  of. 

TORENO,  to-ra'nd,  Francesco  de  Borja 
Queipo  de  Llano  y  Gayoso,  Count  of  ( 1840-90) . 
A  Spanish  statesman.  He  held  various  portfolios^ 
was  twice  President  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
effected  many  important  reforms  in  matters 
concerning  scholarship,  the  historical  archives, 
and  public  works,  and  was  frequently  consulted 
by  the  three  sovereigns  under  whom  he  served. 

TORENO,  Jose  Maria  Queipo  de  Llano 
Ruiz  de  Saravia,  Count  of  (1786-1843).  A 
Spanish  statesman  and  historian,  father  of  the 
above-mentioned  Count  of  Toreno.  He  had  much 
to  do  with  framing  the  constitution  of  1812, 
held  various  portfolios  during  the  minority  of 
Isabella  II,  and  was  for  a  while  Prime  Minister. 
His  principal  work  is  the  Levantamiento,  guerra, 
y  revolucion  de  Espana  (1836-38),  which  ap¬ 
pears  in  vol.  lxi  of  Biblioteca  de  autores  es- 
panoles,  where  it  is  preceded  by  a  life  of  the  au¬ 
thor  by  Antonio  de  Cueto. 

TORFiEUS,  tor-fe'us,  Thormodus,  or  Thor- 
modr  Torfason  (1636—1719).  An  Icelandic  an¬ 
tiquary.  He  was  born  at  Engo,  Iceland,  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen,  and 
in  1662  returned  to  Iceland  by  command  of 
Frederick  III  to  collect  saga  manuscripts.  In 
1667  he  was  appointed  royal  antiquary  and  in 
1682  royal  historiographer  for  Norway.  He 
translated  several  Icelandic  works  into  the  Dan¬ 
ish  language  and  was  the  author  of  Historia 
Vinlandice  Antiques  (1705),  Grcenlandia  Antiqua 
(1706),  and  Historia  Rerum  Norvegicarum  (4 
vols.,  1711 ) . 

TORGAU,  tor'gou.  A  fortified  town  of  the 
Province  of  Saxony,  Prussia,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Elbe,  31  miles  east-northeast  of  Leipzig 
(Map  :  Germany,  E  3) .  The  castle  of  Hartenfels 
(1481-1544),  one  of  the  largest  Renaissance  edi¬ 
fices  in  Germany,  was  once  the  residence  of  the 
electors  of  Saxony.  It  is  now  used  as  barracks. 
There  is  a  museum  of  Saxon  antiquities.  Gloves, 
glass,  druggists’  sundries,  cigars,  and  biscuits  are 
manufactured.  Frederick  the  Great  here  de¬ 
feated  the  Austrians  in  1760.  Pop.,  1900, 
11,807;  1910,  13,493. 

TORIES.  See  Loyalists;  Whig  and  Tory. 
TORII,  to're-e  (Jap.,  bird  rest,  or,  less  prob¬ 
ably,  gateway ) .  An  archway  formed  by  two 
upright  posts  and  two  horizontal  beams,  placed 
before  the  Shinto  shrines  in  Japan.  It  is  sup¬ 
posed  that  the  Torii  was  originally  a  perch  for 
sacred  fowl  who  were  to  herald  the  approach 
of  day. 

TORLO'NIA.  A  princely  Roman  family. 
Its  founder,  Giovanni  Torlonia  (1754-1829), 
was  a  poor  cicerone  of  Rome,  who  grew  enor¬ 
mously  rich  in  manipulating  assignats  during 
the  French  Revolution  and  as  banker  for  many 
kings  and  princes.  He  was  made  a  grandee  of 
Spain,  and  Duke  of  Bracciano  by  the  Pope.  His 
three  sons  married  into  the  highest  families,  the 
eldest  succeeding  to  the  dukedom,  the  youngest, 
Alessandro,  becoming  Prince  of  Civitella-Cesi 
and  Duke  of  Ceri,  and  acquiring  immense  wealth, 
of  which  he  made  charitable  use.  He  acquired 


TORMENTIL 


TORONTO 


348 


fame  by  successfully  draining  Lake  Celano 
(Fucino),  thereby  restoring  to  cultivation  36,000 
acres  of  land. 

TOR'MENTIL  (Fr.  tormentille ,  from  ML. 
tormentilla,  tormentella,  tormentil,  from  Lat. 
tormentum,  torment).  A  popular  name  for  Po- 
tentilla  tormentilla,  formerly  called  Tormentilla 
officinalis,  common  on  European  moors  and 
heaths.  Its  large  woody  roots  have  been  used  as 
an  astringent  and  for  staining  leather.  It  also 
supplies  material  for  a  red  dye  sometimes  used 
in  Lapland.  The  leaves  are  ternate,  the  leaflets 
lanceolate  and  inciso-serrate,  the  stems  ascend¬ 
ing  and  forking,  the  flower  stalks  axillary  and 
terminal,  and  the  flowers  yellow. 

TORNA'DO.  See  Wind. 

TORNEA,  tor'ne-6.  A  town  in  the  Govern¬ 
ment  of  Uleaborg,  Finland,  Russia,  situated  on 
the  Tornea,  near  the  north  end  of  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  (Map:  Russia,  B  1).  Pop.,  1910,  1716. 
About  33  miles  north  is  the  mountain  of  Avas- 
akra  (1573  feet),  which  is  visited  by  many  tour¬ 
ists  at  the  summer  solstice,  when  the  sun  is 
visible  continuously  for  almost  two  days. 

TORNEA.  A  river,  forming  the  boundary 
between  Russia  and  Sweden.  It  rises  in  the 
Tornea  Lake  near  the  Norwegian  boundary  and 
flows  southeast  through  Sweden,  then  south  on 
the  Russian  boundary,  entering  the  Gulf  of  Both¬ 
nia  after  a  course  of  250  miles  (Map:  Sweden, 
G  3).  Near  its  mouth  is  the  town  of  Tornea 
(q.v.).  Its  chief  tributary,  the  Muonio,  forms 
the  northern  part  of  the  boundary. 

TORO,  to'ro.  An  ancient  town  of  Spain,  in 
the  modern  Province  of  Zamora  in  Leon,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Duero,  38  miles  southwest  of 
Valladolid,  on  the  Medina  del  Campo-Zamora 
Railroad  (Map:  Spain,  C  2).  It  contains  numer¬ 
ous  religious  houses  and  palaces,  most  of  which 
have  been  allowed  to  fall  into  a  state  of  decay, 
and  the  collegiate  church  of  Santa  Marla  la 
Mayor,  dating  from  the  reign  of  Alfonso  VII. 
There  are  brandy  distilleries,  vineyards,  tan¬ 
neries,  and  woolen  manufactories.  Pop.,  1900, 
8187;  1910,  8288. 

TOROK-SZENT-MIKLOS,  te'rek-sent-me'- 
klosli.  A  commune  of  the  County  of  Jasz-Nagy- 
Kun-Szolnok,  Hungary,  66  miles  southeast  of 
Budapest  (Map:  Hungary,  G  3).  The  exten¬ 
sive  plain  in  which  it  is  situated  is  noted  for  its 
production  of  cereals  and  live  stock,  and  in  the 
commune  itself  there  is  some  manufacture  of 
brick  and  of  agricultural  implements.  Pop., 
1900,  21,881;  1910,  23,074. 

TORONE,  Count  of.  See  Basile,  G.  B. 

TORON'TO.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Ontario,  Canada,  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake 
Ontario,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara 
River  and  333  miles  southwest  of  Montreal 
(Map:  Ontario,  F  6).  It  is  situated  on  the 
north  side  of  a  spacious  inlet  called  Bay  of 
Toronto,  has  a  water  frontage  of  about  10  miles 
from  east  to  west,  and  extends  inland  from  south 
to  north  about  6  miles,  extreme  width.  The 
harbor  or  bay,  about  5  miles  long  and  1  mile 
in  width,  is  protected  by  a  sandy  islet,  which 
extends  into  the  lake  in  a  south  and  west  di¬ 
rection  to  a  distance  of  5  miles.  The  port  ac¬ 
commodates  the  largest  vessels  that  pass  through 
the  Welland  Canal,  and  the  passenger  traffic 
employs  a  fleet  of  fast  steamers.  Canada’s  three 
transcontinental  railways  pass  through  the  city, 
and  one  of  them,  the  Canadian  Northern,  has  its 
head  offices  located  here. 

The  site  of  the  city  rises  gently  north  from 


the  lake  shore  for  about  3  miles,  where  it  as¬ 
cends  abruptly.  The  limits  of  the  city  have 
been  extended  on  the  hill,  which  has  become 
a  beautiful  residential  section.  Toronto  is 
brick-built.  In  general  characteristics  it  is 
American,  but  the  spirit  and  ideals  of  the  people 
are  thoroughly  British.  The  city  possesses  many 
beautiful  edifices,  comprising  chiefly  office  and 
educational  buildings,  churches,  and  public 
buildings.  It  has  numerous  attractive  private 
homes.  A  group  of  four  office  buildings,  rang¬ 
ing  from  12  to  20  stories  in  height,  form  the 
hub  of  the  business  section,  on  the  corners  of 
King  and  Young  streets.  The  most  conspicuous 
group  of  buildings,  for  their  beauty,  is- located 
in  Queen’s  Park,  about  a  mile  from  the  water 
front,  and  comprises  the  Provincial  Legislative 
Building  and  the  University  of  Toronto.  The 
former  occupies  a  commanding  position  at  the 
head  of  the  broad  University  Avenue.  To  the 
west  and  north  are  situated  the  various  edifices 
of  the  university,  arranged  in  a  wide  circle. 
This  is  the  premier  seat  of  learning  of  the  Do¬ 
minion.  Chief  among  these  edifices  is  the  main 
Arts  building,  a  Norman  structure.  In  the  cir¬ 
cle  stands  the  new  Knox  College  ( Presbyterian ) , 
collegiate  Gothic  in  architecture,  while  Victoria 
College  (Methodist)  and  Wvcliffe  College  (An¬ 
glican)  are  located  in  the  vicinity.  Other  fine 
educational  buildings  are  McMaster  University 
(Baptist),  Trinity  College  (Anglican),  Upper 
Canada  College,  and  St.  Andrews  College.  The 
new  $2,000,000  Technical  School,  a  massive  im¬ 
posing  structure,  is  one  of  the  best-equipped 
schools  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  Other  notable 
buildings  are  the  City  Hall,  with  its  stupendous 
300-foot  clock  tower;  Casa  Loma,  the  residence 
of  Sir  Henry  Pellatt,  situated  on  the  brow  of 
the  hill  north  of  the  city,  a  castle  of  old-English 
type ;  and  the  Government  House,  the  home  of 
the  Lieutenant  Governor  of  the  Province,  situ¬ 
ated  in  Rosedale. 

Toronto  is  distinguished  for  its  churches,  of 
which  it  has  263.  The  principal  are  St.  James 
Cathedral  (Anglican),  a  fine  building  in  early 
English,  erected  in  1852;  St.  Michael’s  Cathe¬ 
dral  (Roman  Catholic)  ;  St.  James  and  St.  An¬ 
drews  (Presbyterian)  ;  the  Metropolitan  Meth¬ 
odist  Church,  noted  for  its  huge  organ;  Jarvis 
Street  Baptist ;  Bond  Street  Congregational ; 
St.  Paul’s  and  church  of  the  Ascension  (Angli¬ 
can).  Toronto  maintains  an  excellent  free-li- 
brary  system,  including  a  reference  library,  a 
handsome  structure  situated  on  College  Street, 
and  19  branches,  with  231,000  volumes.  It  has 
three  colleges  of  music,  the  Hambourg  Conserva¬ 
tory,  the  Toronto  Conservatory,  and  the  Toronto 
College  of  Music,  and  possesses  creditable  art 
galleries,  the  John  Ross  Robertson  historical 
collection  at  the  College  Street  branch  of  the 
Public  Librarv,  and  the  Art  Museum  of  Toronto 
collection  at  the  Grange.  The  new  Royal  On¬ 
tario  Museum  on  Bloor  Street  contains  an  im¬ 
portant  collection  of  historical  and  geological 
relics.  The  city  is  the  hospital  centre  of  On¬ 
tario,  and  in  addition  to  the  new  $2,000,000 
General  Hospital  there  are  the  Western,  Sick 
Children’s,  Wellesley,  St.  Michael’s,  Orthopaedic, 
and  Victoria,  all  imposing  and  well-equipped 
buildings.  Six  daily  newspapers  are  published, 
the  oldest  of  which,  the  Globe  (Liberal),  was 
founded  in  1846.  The  others  are  the  Daily  Star 
(Liberal),  the  Daily  News,  the  Mail  and  Empire, 
the  World,  and  Telegram,  the  four  latter  being 
Conservative. 


TORONTO 


TORP 


The  city  possesses  55  parks,  several  of  them 
large  and  beautiful,  having  a  total  area  of  1879 
acres.  Chief  of  these  are  High  Park  (335 
acres),  Exhibition  Park  (235  acres),  and  Hum¬ 
ber  Boulevard  (129  acres),  all  within  the  city 
limits  and  equipped  with  splendid  driveways. 
Exhibition  Park  is  the  home  of  the  Annual 
Canadian  National  Exhibition,  continuing  two 
weeks  each  year,  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  its 
kind  in  the  world.  The  yearly  attendance  ag¬ 
gregates  1,000,000  people/  It  is  famous  for  its 
agricultural,  industrial,  and  art  exhibits.  On¬ 
tario  s  noted  breeds  of  live  stock  are  shown 
there.  Riverdale  Park  possesses  a  zoological 
garden,  with  a  valuable  collection  of  animals. 
There  are  two  amusement  parks — Hanlan’s 
Point,  on  the  Island,  and  Scarborough  Beach,  at 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  city.  The  Island 
provides  Toronto  with  another  extensive,  well- 
wooded  park.  It  is  the  lungs  of  the  city  and 
lends  itself  to  aquatic  sports,  for  which  Toronto 
is  noted.  Toronto  has  commodious  armories, 
which  are  the  headquarters  of  the  city’s  three 
volunteer  regiments. 

The  city  possesses  water,  gas,  electric-light 
plants,  and  street-railway  systems.  It  draws  its 
light  and  much  of  its  heat  and  power  from 
Niagara  Falls,  at  an  exceptionally  low  rate  of 
cost,  through  the  medium  of  a  private  company 
and  the  Ontario  Hydro-Electric  Commission,  a 
public  institution.  The  phenomenal  growth  of 
the  city  hap  necessitated  the  erection  of  a  new 
Union  Station.  Being  the  second  financial  and 
commercial  centre  of  the  Dominion,  Toronto  has 
an  active  shipping  trade.  Freighters  come  east 
with -grain  and  return  to  the  head  of  the  lakes 
with  Toronto  manufactures  for  delivery  in  north¬ 
west  Canada.  In  1914,  2961  vessels  with  a 
tonnage  of  3,040,000  tons  arrived  at  the  port. 
In  1916  the  city  was  engaged  in  an  elaborate 
programme  for  public  improvements,  involving 
an  expenditure  estimated  at  $350,000,000.  Its 
per  capita  debt  is  the  lowest  of  all  large  cities 
in  Canada.  A  thousand  acres  of  marsh  on  To¬ 
ronto  Bay  has  been  reclaimed  and  is  available 
for  manufacturing  plants. 

Toronto  is  the  chief  distributing  centre  of  the 
most  productive  province  in  the  Dominion,  es¬ 
pecially  in  grain,  fruits,  and  live  stock,  the  lat¬ 
ter  involving  a  turnover  of  $50,000,000  a  year. 
Manufacturing  is  important  and  widely  diversi¬ 
fied,  the  farm-implement  industry  and  publishing 
business  being  the  most  notable.  In  normal 
times  all  industries  employ  75,000  men.  It  is 
famous  for  its  departmental  stores,  which  do  a 
Dominion-wide  trade.  It  is  a  large  wholesale 
centre,  including  dry  goods,  leather,  footwear, 
and  fruit.  Its  five  packing  establishments  make 
it  the  Chicago  of  Canada.  A  new  civic  abattoir 
is  a  successful  municipal  enterprise.  Manu¬ 
facturing  establishments  number  1620,  employ¬ 
ing  capital  amounting  to  $215,000,000  and  pro¬ 
ducing  yearly  manufactures  worth  $230,000,000, 
which  represent  one-eighth  of  Canada’s  total  in¬ 
dustrial  output.  Its  iron  and  steel  foundries  are 
important,  and  its  chief  products  are  machinery, 
lumber,  wall  paper,  stationery,  clothing,  ships, 
cabinet  ware,  iron  rails,  stoves,  pianos,  bicycles, 
carpets,  brewery  and  distillery  products,  and 
drugs.  It  is  an  important  insurance  and  bank¬ 
ing  centre.  Clearings  for  1915  aggregated  $1,- 
886,000,000.  The  city  has  an  active  mining- 
stock  exchange  as  well  as  a  large  industrial- 
stock  exchange. 

The  name  Toronto  is  of  Indian  origin,  meaning 


“a  place  of  meeting,”  and  was  probably  given  by 
the  Indians  in  1749,  when  the  French,  who 
possessed  the  country  at  that  time,  built  a 
fort  and  traded  with  them.  British  traders 
soon  appeared  from  the  New  England  colonies, 
and  in  the  war  between  France  and  Britain,  in 
1759,  which  gave  the  country  to  Britain,  the 
fort  was  destroyed  in  order  to  prevent  English 
occupation.  Governor  Simcoe  founded  the  pres¬ 
ent  city  in  1794,  naming  it  York  and  making  it 
the  capital  of  Upper  Canada.  It  was  occupied 
and  burned  in  1813  by  the  United  States  forces. 
It  was  created  a  city  in  1834,  when  its  popula¬ 
tion  had  grown  to  9000,  and  then  became  known 
once  more  as  Toronto.  It  suffered  severely  dur¬ 
ing  the  rebellion  of  1837  and  also  from  fire 
in  1849  and  1904,  the  loss  in  property  in  the 
latter  disaster  being  $8,000,000.  Pop.,  1871 
59,000:  1881,  96,196;  1891,  181,215;  1901,  208,- 
040;  1911,  376,538.  Consult  C.  B.  Robinson, 
History  of  Toronto  and  County  of  York  (2  vols., 
Toronto,  1885),  and  S.  M.  Wickett,  “Municipal 
Government  of  Toronto,”  in  University  of  To¬ 
ronto  Studies:  History  and  Economics  vol.  ii 
(ib.,  1902). 

TORONTO.  A  village  in  Jefferson  Co.,  Ohio. 

9  miles  north  of  Steubenville,  on  the  Ohio  River, 
and  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  (Map:  Ohio’ 

J  5 ) .  Sewer  pipe,  brick,  pottery,  and  glass  are 
manufactured.  The  place  was  first  settled  in 
1790  and  was  incorporated  in  1878.  Pop.,  1900, 
3526;  1910,  4271. 

TORONTO,  University  of.  An  institution  of 
higher  education  at  Toronto,  Canada,  established 
in  182,'  as  King’s  College.  The  opening  of  the 
college  was  delayed  for  14  years,  and  "not  till 
1842  were  the  faculties  of  arts,  medicine,  law, 
and  divinity  established.  In  1849  the  institu¬ 
tion  assumed  its  present  title,  and  in  1853  the 
faculties  of  medicine  and  law  were  abolished  and 
the  functions  of  the  institution  were  divided  be¬ 
tween  the  two  newly  organized  corporations  of 
the  University  of  Toronto  and  University  Col¬ 
lege.  By  the  Federation  Act  of  1887  the  faculty 
of  University  College  consists  of  professors  in 
classical  languages  and  literature,  ancient  his¬ 
tory,  Oriental  languages,  English,  French,  Ger¬ 
man,  and  moral  philosophy.  All  other  portions 
of  the  arts  course  were  assigned  to  the  faculty 
of  the  University  of  Toronto,  the  lectures  of 
which  are  open  to  the  students  of  University 
College  and  of  all  federating  institutions.  A 
faculty  of  medicine  was  established  in  1887; 
in  1888  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  was 
affiliated,  and  subsequently  the  Royal  College 
of  Dental  Surgeons,  the  College  of*  Pharmacy, 
the  Toronto  College  of  Music,  the  School  of 
Practical  Science,  and  the  Ontario  Veterinary 
College  became  parts  of  the  university.  Fed¬ 
erated  with  the  university  are  Victoria  Univer¬ 
sity,  St.  Michael’s  College,  Trinity  College,  Knox 
College,  and  Wycliflc  College.  The  attendance 
in  1914—15  was  4428,  and  the  whole  number  of 
instructors  in  the  university  and  University 
College  was  401.  The  library  contained  about 
135,000  volumes  and  50,000  pamphlets.  The 
total  assets  of  the  institution  on  June  30,  1915, 
were  valued  at  $6,696,219,  of  which  $5,521,899 
represented  the  lands,  buildings,  and  equipment. 
The  income  for  the  year  1914-15  was  $916,895. 

TORP,  torp,  Alf  (1853-  ).  A  Norwegian 

philologist,  born  in  Stryn.  He  studied  at  Chris¬ 
tiania  University  under  Sophus  Bugge  (q.v.) 
and  at  Leipzig  under  Georg  Curtius  (q.v.).  In 
1S94  he  became  professor  of  comparative  phi- 


TORPEDO 


350 


TORPEDO 


lology  and  Sanskrit  at  Christiania.  Among  his 
works  are:  Beitrage  zur  Lehre  von  den  gesch- 
leohtlosen  Pronomen  in  den  indogermanischen 
Sprachen  (1888);  Den  grceske  N ominalftexion 
(1890);  with  H.  S.  Falk:  Dansk-N orskens  Lyd- 
historie  (1898);  Dansk-N  orskens  Syntax  i 
historisk  Fremstilling  (1900);  Etymologisk 
Ordbog  over  det  Norske  og  det  Danske  Sprog 
(2  vols.,  1901-06;  Ger.  trans.,  2  vols.,  1910- 
11)  ;  Gamalnorsk  Ordbok  med  Nynorsk  Tydning 
(1909),  with  K.  M.  Hsegstad.  He  also  wrote  on 
the  ancient  languages  of  Asia  Minor  and  Etruria 
and  on  Greek  inscriptions. 

TORPE'DO  (Lat.  torpedo,  numbness,  cramp- 
fish,  torpedo,  from  torpere,  to  be  numb,  stupid). 

A  naval  torpedo  is  an  explosive  device  designed 
to  destroy  or  injure  a  ship  by  blowing  a  hole  in 
her  hull  at  or  below  the  water  line.  It  consists 
essentially  of  the  explosive  charge,  the  fuse 
(which  ignites  the  charge),  and  the  case  con¬ 
taining  these.  .  , 

Torpedoes  have  hitherto  been  divided  into  two 
classes,  fixed  and  moving.  The  uncontrolled 
drifting  torpedo  was  a  forbidden  weapon  on 
account  of  the  danger  to  noncombatant  and 
neutral  shipping.  But  its  manifest  na^  al  ad 
vantages  under  certain  circumstances  caused  im¬ 
provement  in  its  design,  and  a  com  ention  of 
the  Second  Hague  Conference  of  1907  permits 
the  laying  of  drifting  torpedoes  under  the  desig¬ 
nation  of  “unanchored  contact  mines,”  pro¬ 
vided  they  automatically  become  inoperative  one 
hour  after  the  person  who  lays  them  ceases  to 
control  them.  Unanchored  contact  mines  were 
much  employed  during  the  Great  War.  In  some 
cases,  notably  in  the  Dardanelles,  the  one-liour 
provision  was  not  followed,  though  the  mines 
may  have  been  adjusted  to  become  harmless  after 
a  longer  interval  had  expired. 

The  classification  of  the  drifting  torpedo  as 
a  mine  calls  for  a  slight  change  in  nomencla¬ 
ture.  Instead  of  fixed  and  moving,  we  should 
be  more  accurate  if  we  adopted  the  terms  non- 
propelled  and  propelled.  Nonpropelled  torpe¬ 
does  are  fully  described  under  the  head  of 
Mine,  Submarine,  the  designation  “torpedo 
now  being  confined  to  some  form  of  the  pro¬ 
pelled  type. 

Propelled  torpedoes  are  ( 1 )  controlled  or  ( 2 ) 
uncontrolled.  The  controlled  type  are  (a) 
spar,  (b)  towing,  and  (c)  dirigible— the  last- 
named  class  being  either  (1)  locomotive  or  (2) 
self-propelled.  The  uncontrolled  type  includes 
(1)  automobile,  (2)  projectile,  (3)  rocket. 

Controlled  torpedoes  have  long  since  passed 
out  of  favor,  though  attempts  to  develop  a 
self-propelled  torpedo  steered  by  wireless  ap¬ 
paratus  have  been  made  and  some  degree  of 
success  was  obtained.  The  other  types  are  all 
obsolete,  and,  so  far  as  known,  no  attempt  was 
made  to  use  them  in  the  Great  War. 

The  spar  torpedo  was  secured  at  the  end 
of  a  spar  rigged  out  from  the  bow  or  side  of  a 
boat  or  ship. '  Torpedoes  of  this  kind  were  used 
with  considerable  success  in  the  Civil  War 
against  vessels  at  anchor  or  operating  in  narrow 
vTaters.  The  searchlight  and  the  rapid-fire 
oun  rendered  them  obsolete.  The  Harvey  tow¬ 
ing  torpedo  and  its  modifications  were  towed 
by  a  boat  or  ship,  its  shape  and  steering  vanes 
keeping  it  well  out  on  the  quarter  of  the  ship 
usin"  It.  Its  defects  were  apparent  from  the 
start,  and  it  was  never  much  used.  The  locomo¬ 
tive  torpedo  carried  its  own  machinery,  but 
received  power  from  an  external  source.  Nearly 


all  were  electrically  driven  through  wires  lead¬ 
ing  to  the  source  of  power  and  unreeling  as  the 
torpedo  advanced;  but  the  Brennan  was  pro¬ 
pelled  by  two  ordinary  steel  wires  reeled  up 
on  drums  within  the  shell.  By  hauling  on 
these  wires  the  screws  were  made  to  rotate 
and  develop  considerable  speed.  The  self-pro¬ 
pelled  controllable  torpedoes  carried  their  own 
source  of  power — usually  compressed  air  or 
carbonic-acid  gas — and  were  all  electrically 
steered  through  a  small  cable. 

The  projectile  type  of  uncontrolled  torpe¬ 
does  was  fired  from  a  submarine  gun.  It  re¬ 
ceived  its  most  successful  development  in  the 
hands  of  Ericsson,  but  he  was  unable  to  give 
it  a  reliable  range  of  more  than  150  yards,  and 
this  prevented  its  use.  Rocket  torpedoes  are 
propelled  by  the  reaction  of  gas  escaping  from 
the  rear  end  of  the  torpedo.  The  surface  type 
could  be  used  only  on  very  smooth  water;  the 
submerged  type  lacked  speed;  both  carried  very 
small  explosive  charges,  were  erratic,  unreli¬ 
able,  and  never  had  much  vogue. 

The  class  of  propelled  torpedoes  most  m  use 
is  the  automobile  or  fish  type.  There  are  many 
varieties  in  service,  each  nation  having  devel¬ 
oped  its  own  or  purchased  its  supply  from  the 
Whitehead  Company.  The  Howell  torpedo  needs 
a  passing  notice.  Its  propelling  power  con¬ 
sisted  of  a  heavy  bronze  flywheel  driven  at  high 
speed  up  to  the  instant  of  discharge.  The  en¬ 
ergy  thus  stored  was  utilized  to  drive  the  pro¬ 
pellers  and  the  gyroscopic  force  employed .  to 
keep  the  torpedo  on  its  course.  A  fairly  high 
speed  was  attained,  but  more  important  than 
this  was  its  inherent  strong  directive  -force 
which  made  it  much  more  accurate  than  the 
Whitehead.  It  continued  to  be  used  until  a 
small  gyroscope  was  added  to  the  Whitehead 
type  for  steering  purposes,  and  then  the  greater 
speed  of  the  latter  caused  the  Howell  to  be 
dropped. 

The  Whitehead  was  the  first  successful  au¬ 
tomobile  torpedo  and  the  most  widely  used. 
The  details  of  the  latest  type  are  secret,  but 
they  differ  but  slightly  from  those  shown  in 
the  accompanying  plans.  The  torpedo  shell  is 
in  three  sections,  consisting  of  the  war  head, 
the  air  flask,  and  the  afterbody.  In  Fig.  1  A  is 
the  war  nose,  which  is  screwed  into  the  head 
over  the  primer  seat  and  carries  a  firing  pin 
and  releasing  screw;  B  is  the  war  head  (an  ex¬ 
ercise  head  without  explosive  charge  or  war 
nose  is  used  in  ordinary  torpedo  target  prac¬ 
tice)  ;  C  is  the  air  flask,  a  forged  steel  cylinder 
which  is  much  thicker  than  the  other  parts  of 
the  shell;  P  is  the  guide  stud  for  holding  the 
torpedo  in  position  in  the  tube;  Q  is  a  strength¬ 
ening  band  to  support  the  guide  stud;  V  is  the 
balance  chamber;  F  is  the  engine  compartment; 
G  is  the  afterbody;  H  is  the  tail  frame  which 
carries  the  rudders;  1  is  the  firing  pin;  2  is  one 
blade  of  the  releasing  screw;  B,  the  war  head, 
containing  the  explosive  charge  3  of  wet  gun¬ 
cotton,  and  4  the  priming  charge  of  dry  gun¬ 
cotton  in  a  hermetically  sealed  case  which  is 
inserted  in  the  front  end  of  the  war  head  be¬ 
fore  screwing  in  the  war  nose.  The  releasing 
screw  is  then  in  the  locked  position.  As  the 
torpedo  moves  ahead  the  blades  of  the  releasing 
screw  cause  it  to  revolve  and  unscrew  until 
the  firing  pin  is  unlocked.  If  the  torpedo  then 
strikes  any  object,  such  as  a  ship,  the  firing  pin 
is  driven  in  and  explodes  the  charge.  In  Fig.  2, 
6  and  8  are  the  charging  and  stop  valves  for 


TORPEDO 


35i 


TORPEDO 


charging  the  air  flask  with  compressed  air  at 
about  2500  pounds  per  square  inch ;  T  is  the 
depth  regulator  which  connects  by  the  bell- 
crank  lever  M  to  the  regulator  spring,  which 
presses  against  the  hydraulic  piston  (16);  the 
hydraulic  piston  receives  the  water  pressure  on 
its  after  side,  as  the  engine  room  ( F )  is  opened 
to  the  sea,  and  operates  small  levers  pressing 
against  a  lever  that  is  pivoted  on  a  pendulum 
(17),  and  the  motion  is  transmitted  through 
the  rod  N  to  a  crank  and  thence  to  the  steering 
engine  (18),  which  moves  horizontal  rudders 
(not  shown)  by  means  of  the  rod  24;  D  is  the 
operating  valve  group  which  controls  the  sup¬ 
ply  of  air  to  the  engine  (W)  ;  10  is  the  start¬ 
ing  lever;  E  is  the  releasing  mechanism;  K  is 


expanded  in  the  engine  it  caused  intense  cold 
and  congealed  the  lubricating  oil  to  an  extent 
that  almost  destroyed  its  usefulness.  The  alco¬ 
hol  heater  obviated  this  difficulty  and  added 
25  to  50  per  cent  to  the  available  speed  or 
range.  It  also  facilitated  the  use  of  higher  air 
pressures  in  the  flask  and  in  this  way  again 
improved  the  general  efficiency.  The  "turbine 
engine  was  not  at  first  very  satisfactory,  but 
by  carefully  balancing  the  'effort  in  both  di¬ 
rections  the  tendency  to  rotate  the  torpedo  was 
avoided  and  the  new  machinery  was  found  to 
be  much  superior  to  the  reciprocating  Brother¬ 
hood  engine  of  the  Whitehead.  Both  the  White- 
head  and  the  Bliss-Leavitt  torpedoes  are  used 
in  the  United  States  naval  service. 


Fig.  1.  WHITEHEAD  TORPEDO. 


tlie  gyroscope  for  steering  in  a  horizontal  plane, 
and  20  is  the  gyroscope  wheel;  13  and  14  are 
the  propellers;  i5  is  the  bevel  gear  which  per¬ 
mits  the  two- propellers  to  be  driven  in  opposite 
directions;  and  22  are  the  rudders  actuated  by 
the  gyroscope,  which  serves  to  keep  the  torpedo 
on  the  desired  course.  It  is  able  to  do  this 
through  the  property  of  the  gyroscope  to  re¬ 
tain  its  position  in  the  plane  of  rotation.  See 
Gyroscope. 

The  recent  types  of  the  Whitehead  torpedo 
are  larger  than  the  one  shown  (which  is  the 
18-incli).  The  most  powerful  are  21  inches  in 
diameter,  about  22  feet  long,  have  larger  war 
heads  than  the  one  shown  and  more  engine 
power;  also  alcohol  reservoirs  and  heaters  which 
are  located  in  the  afterbody  close  to  the  air 
flask.  These  torpedoes  have  long  range  and 
small  explosive  charges  or  short  range  and  large 
charges.  The  maximum  effective  range  of  tor¬ 
pedoes  is  now  about  8000  yards,  though  torpe¬ 
does  of  10,000  yards’  range  have  been  made. 
The  average  speed  for  long  range  is  25  knots 


History.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  attempts 
to  employ  torpedoes  or  mines  were  made  in  the 
early  days  of  gunpowder,  but  the  first  occasion 
on  record  in  which  they  were  used  was  in  1585, 
when  an  Italian  engineer  by  the  name  of  Giani- 
belli  (q.v. )  partially  destroyed  a  bridge  across 
the  Scheldt  at  Antwerp  by  means  of  small  ves¬ 
sels  each  carrying  a  considerable  quantity  of 
gunpowder  which  was  exploded  by  clockwork 
mechanism.  Nothing  more  is  heard  of  torpe¬ 
does  until  1730,  when  the  French  scientist 
Desaguliers  made  some  experiments  with  some 
of  the  rocket  type  which  were  fired  under  water 
and  with  which  he  is  said  to  have  destroyed 
several  boats.  The  first  torpedoes  to  be  used 
in  war  against  ships  were  designed  by  an  Ameri¬ 
can,  Capt.  David  Bushnell,  who  also  built  the 
first  submarine  torpedo  boat,  though  not  the 
first  submarine  boat.  After  making  numerous 
successful  experiments  Captain  Bushnell  made 
three  attempts  to  destroy  British  men-of-war. 
In  the  first  Sergeant  Lee  used  Bushnell’s  sub¬ 
marine  boat  (see  Torpedo  Boat,  Submarine,  for 


Fig.  2.  propelling  and  steering  mechanism  op  whitehead  torpedo. 


or  less.  For  short  ranges  (up  to  2500  yards) 
speeds  exceeding  50  knots  have  been  attained. 
The  short-range  torpedo  for  submarine  use  has 
a  large  explosive  charge,  the  Germans  employing 
a  type  which  carries  428  pounds  or  more  of 
trinitrotoluol. 

The  Bliss-Leavitt  torpedo  was  devised  by  F. 
M.  Leavitt  of  the  Bliss  Company  of  Brooklyn. 
While  in  many  respects  similar  to  the  White- 
head,  it  contained  two  very  important  improve¬ 
ments.  First,  alcohol  was  used  to  heat  the 
compressed  air,  and.  second,  the  engine  was  of 
the  turbine  type.  The  use  of  compressed  air 
had  always  given  much  trouble.  As  the  air 


description  and  illustration)  and  actually  got 
under  H.M.S.  Eagle,  but  failed  to  attach  and 
explode  his  torpedo,  owing  to  inexperience  in 
handling  his  novel  craft  and  the  bluntness  of  the 
screw  he  tried  to  use.  The  second  attack  was 
made  on  H.M.S.  Cerberus  by  drifting  torpedoes; 
this  failed,  but  one  of  the  torpedoes  was  picked 
up  by  the  crew  of  the  i  prize  schooner  astern 
of  the  Cerberus  and,  exploding  on  board,  killed 
three  men,  destroyed  a  boat,  and  injured  the 
schooner.  The  third  attempt,  in  the  Delaware 
River,  was  the  celebrated  Battle  of  the  Kegs, 
and  it  failed  because  the  British  ships  had 
hauled  in  to  the  wharves  to  avoid  the  ice;  but 


TORPEDO 


352 


TORPEDO 


it  created  much  confusion  and  alarm  among 
their  crews.  The  next  man  to  take  up  torpe¬ 
does  seriously  was  Robert  Fulton,  who  began 
his  experiments  on  the  Seine  in  1797.  His  first 
attempts  were  chiefly  failures,  but  in  1801,  at 
Brest,  he  destroyed  a  small  vessel  with  a  sub¬ 
marine  mine  containing  20  pounds  of  gunpow¬ 
der.  This  is  believed  to  be  the  first  vessel  sunk 
by  a  torpedo,  but  he  afterward  succeeded  in 
several  instances,  and  where  the  attack  failed 
it  was  owing  to  the  movement  of  the  vessel 
from  above  the  torpedo  and  not  to  defects  in 
the  torpedo.  In  one  instance  a  British  brig 
was  destroyed  by  two  torpedoes  made  by  him 
containing  180-pound  charges  of  gunpowder  fired 
by  clockwork.  In  1812  and  1813  another  Ameri¬ 
can,  Mr.  Mix,  made  unsuccessful  attempts  to 
blow  up  British  ships.  In  1820  Captain  John¬ 
son,  an  Englishman,  with  a  submarine  boat  at¬ 
tached  a  torpedo  to  the  bottom  of  a  vessel  and 
exploded  it.  In  1829  Col.  Samuel  Colt  began 
his  torpedo  investigations,  developed  the  electric 
firing  of  mines  in  1842,  using  in  one  instance 
wires  40  miles  long  with  complete  success. 

In  the  Civil  War  in  America  the  torpedo  came 
quickly  to  the  front  as  a  serious  weapon.  The 
few  ships  of  the  Confederates  offered  little  op¬ 
portunity  for  the  use  of  torpedoes  by  the  Fed- 
erals,  but  the  great  fleet  of  the  latter  and  the 
necessity  which  often  compelled  the  vessels  to 
operate  in  narrow  waters  gave  a  multitude  of 
chances  which  their  enterprising  antagonists 
were  quick  to  seize.  The  unsuccessful  attempts 
were  hundreds  in  number,  but  during  the  course 
of  the  struggle  7  Federal  armor-clads,  9  gun¬ 
boats,  6  transports,  and  1  cruiser  were  sunk  or 
destroyed,  and  2  armor-clads,  3  gunboats,  1 
transport,  and  1  large  cruiser  were  seriously 
injured.  Of  the  latter,  1  cruiser  and  1  armor- 
clad  were  attacked  by  boats  using  spar  tor¬ 
pedoes.  The  only  important  Federal  success 
was  the  destruction  of  the  armor-clad  Albemarle 
by  Lieutenant  Cushing,  who  also  used  a  spar 
topedo. 

While  all  this  was  going  on  Captain  Lupuis 
of  the  Austrian  navy  and  Mr.  Whitehead  began 
the  development  of  the  self-propelled  torpedo. 
The  idea  of  a  small,  self-propelled  boat  carrying 
an  explosive  charge  and  directed  from  a  dis¬ 
tance  had  occurred  to  Captain  Lupuis  in  1860, 
but  it  was  not  until  1864  upon  his  association 
with  Mr.  Whitehead  that  any  craft  of  the  sort 
were  built.  Mr.  Whitehead,  who  was  an  Eng¬ 
lish  engineer  acting  as  superintendent  of  engi¬ 
neering  works  at  Fiume,  took  hold  of  the  proj¬ 
ect  with  great  interest.  He  soon  gave  up  the 
plan  of  using  directing  wires  and  bent  his  en¬ 
ergies  to  the  development  of  a  completely  au¬ 
tomatic  device.  In  1868  the  first  official  trial 
was  held  before  a  board  of  Austrian  officers,  and 
its  report  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the  weapon 
in  the  Austrian  service,  although  the  speed  at¬ 
tained  was  only  about  seven  knots.  From  this 
time  to  the  present  the  improvement  has  been 
continuous,  the  speed  rising  to  50  knots  and  the 
directive  force  becoming  almost  absolutelv  cer¬ 
tain  when  the  conditions  are  favorable.  All  na¬ 
val  powers  now  use  the  Whitehead  or  some 
modification  of  it,  and  many  (including  the 
United  States)  have  purchased  the  right  to 
manufacture  them. 

Shortly  after  Whitehead’s  successful  experi¬ 
ments  Captain  Harvey,  R.N.,  brought  out  his 
towing  torpedo,  which  had  a  vogue  wholly  un¬ 
warranted  by  its  performance,  but  it  was  pleas¬ 


ing  from  its  simplicity.  About  1870  Com¬ 
mander  (later  Rear  Admiral)  Howell,  U.S.N., 
conceived  the  idea  of  applying  the  principle  of 
the  gyroscope  to  automobile  torpedoes  for  the 
purpose  not  only  of  steering  them  but  to  afford 
motive  power  as  well.  His  torpedo  was  grad¬ 
ually  improved  until  in  1898  it  attained  a  speed 
of  about  28  knots  with  almost  perfect  direc¬ 
tive  force.  As  already  stated,  the  application 
of  the  Obry  gyroscopic  gear  to  the  otherwise 
perfected  Whitehead,  drove  the  Howell  out  of 
the  field. 

In  1873,  while  the  success  of  the  Whitehead 
remained  uncertain  in  many  minds,  J.  L.  Lay 
brought  out  his  first  controllable  torpedo,  pro¬ 
pelled  by  carbonic-acid  gas  and  directed  by 
electricity  through  wires  paid  out  from  a  reel 
in  the  torpedo  as  it  advanced.  The  Lay  was  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  host  of  similar  inventions,  the 
Lay-Haight,  Patrick,  Nordenfelt,  Brennan,  Sims- 
Edison,  and  others;  but  all  are  now  discarded. 
Controlled  torpedoes  of  the  dirigible, .  self-pro¬ 
pelled  type  and  steered  by  wireless  induction 
currents  have  been  under  experiment  for  many 
years.  All  the  earlier  designs  apparently  failed, 
but  an  American  design,  brought  out  in  1915, 
by  J.  H.  Hammond,  Jr.,  is  very  promising. 

‘  The  first  automobile  torpedo  fired  with  hos¬ 
tile  intent  was  directed  at  the  Peruvian  moni¬ 
tor  Huascar  by  the  British  cruiser  Shah,  but  the 
shot  failed  through  being  fired  at  too  long  a 
range.  In  subsequent  wars  it  has  been  used 
with  increasing  frequency  and  with  moderate 
success.  But  it  was  not  until  the  advent  of 
the  submarine  that  the  full  measure  of  its 
importance  was  reached.  The  ability  of  the 
submarine  to  approach  its  target  closely  with¬ 
out  being  discovered  brought  out  a  new  type 
of  torpedo  in  which  the  explosive  charge  was 
greatlv  increased  at  the  expense  of  range.  In 
the  Great  War  almost  every  vessel  struck  by 
one  of  these  torpedoes  was  destroyed;  and,  ow¬ 
ing  to  the  short  ranges  at  which  the  shots 
were  made,  few  of  them  missed. 

The  enormous  gun  power  of  modern  battle¬ 
ships  and  battle  cruisers,  whereby  the  fight¬ 
ing  range  has  greatly  increased,  seems  to  pre¬ 
clude  the  use  of  torpedoes  by  such  vessels  ex¬ 
cept  under  unusual  circumstances  and  it  .  is 
nossible  that  very  few  if  any  will  be  carried 
in  future  vessels  of  this  sort.  Nor  ha^  sur¬ 
face  torpedo  boats  achieved  much  success,  though 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  great  battle 
fleets  had  not  up  to  May  1,  1916,  exposed  them¬ 
selves  to  any  form  of  torpedo  attack.  See  Tor¬ 
pedo  Boat;  Torpedo  Boat,  Submarine;  Torpedo 
Director;  etc. 

Bibliography.  C.  Sleeman,  Torpedoes  and 
Torpedo  Warfare  (2d  ed.,  Portsmouth.  England. 
1889);  H.  Buchard,  Torpilles  et  torpilleurs  des 
nations  ctrangeres  (Paris,  1889)  ;  M.  F.  Sueter, 
Evolution  of  the  Submarine  Boat,  Mine,  and 
Torpedo  (London,  1907);  Charles  Noalhat,  Tor¬ 
pilles  et  projectiles  automobiles  (Paris,  1908): 
Armstrong,  Torpedoes  and  Torpedo  Vessels  (3d 
ed.,  London.  1910)  :  also  Annual  of  the  Office  of 
TV aval  Intelligence  (Washington)  ;  Brassey,  Na¬ 
val  Annual  (Portsmouth)  ;  Proceedings  of 
United  States  Naval  Institute  (Annapolis,  quar- 
terlv) . 

TORPEDO,  or  Electric  Ray.  A  .rav  (q.v.) 
of  the  family  hTarcobatidse,  which  inhabits 
warm  seas  and  often  is  of  large  size.  These 
rays  have  a  broad 'flat  body  with  a  comparatively 
slender  tail  and  are  of  interest  because  of  the 


TORPEDO  BOAT  353  TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE 


electrical  powers  which  they  possess.  (See 
Electric  Iish.)  There  are  about  15  species,  of 
which  the  best  known  is  Torpedo  marmoratus  of 
southern  Europe.  A  similar  species,  the  cramp- 
fish,  or  numbfish  ( Torpedo  occidental  is) ,  occurs 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  and 
is  said  to  attain  a  weight  of  200  pounds.  The 
same  or  a  very  similar  species  is  found  on  the 
coast  of  California.  See  Plate  of  Electric 
Fish. 

TORPEDO  BOAT.  A  small  war  vessel  fitted 
to  use  the  torpedo  as  its  primary  weapon  of 
attack.  The  principal  requirements  of  torpedo 
boats  are  high  speed,  efficient  means  of  launch¬ 
ing  their  torpedoes,  and,  in  proportion  to  size, 
relative  handiness  and  seaworthiness.  They  are 
of  two  principal  types — surface  boats  and  sub¬ 
marines.  (See  Torpedo  Boat,  Submarine.) 
Surface  boats  are  of  three  classes:  (a)  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers;  (b)  seagoing  boats;  (c) 
harbor  boats.  Small  torpedo  boats  of  5  to  15 
tons  were  formerty  carried  by  large  ships,  but 
these  are  now  obsolete  and  few  harbor  boats 
have  been  built  in  recent  years. 

The  destroyer,  originally  planned  to  destroy 
torpedo  boats,  has  nearly  supplanted  them  and 
in  its  development  has  extended  over  such  a 
wide  range  of  size  and  characteristics  as  to  de¬ 
mand  further  subdivision.  For  instance,  the 
Sunft,  of  the  British  navy,  is  officially  classed 
as  a  destroyer,  though  she  has  a  displacement 
of  2170  tons.  Moreover,  there  are  compara¬ 
tively  few  torpedo  boats  except  submarines  to 
destroy.  As  a  defense  against  these,  the  des¬ 
troyer  type  of  vessel  is  quite  efficient.  When 
they  are  placed  as  a  screen  about  a  ship  or 
fleet,  whether  steaming  or  at  anchor,  subma¬ 
rines  have  found  it  nearly  impossible  to  get 
home  an  attack. 

In  order  to  be  efficient  as  protectors  to  battle¬ 
ships  and  cruisers  great  seaworthiness  is  de¬ 
manded,  and  this  requires  large  dimensions. 
The  average  size  of  the  modern  destroyer  which 
is  designed  to  accompany  the  fleet  is  900  to 
1200  tons.  Larger  boats  have  been  built,  but 
the  necessity  for  them  is  not  yet  fully  proved. 
The  armament  of  a  first-class  destroyer  is  four 
4-inch  guns  and  four  to  eight  torpedo  tubes. 
The  speed  is  from  29  to  35  knots.  In  size  de¬ 
stroyers  range  from  300  to  2170  tons,  but  the 
larger  ones  should  be  styled  torpedo  vessels  and 
those  below  400  tons  called  torpedo  boats. 

The  modern  torpedo  boat  is  usually  designed 
to  form  a  part  of  the  defense  mobile  of  a  coast. 
The  displacement  varies  from  200  to  400  tons; 
the  armament  consists  of  one  or  more  3-inch 
guns  and  smaller  pieces  or  of  smaller  pieces 
only;  the  speed  is  from  25  to  30  knots;  usually 
2  or  3  torpedo  tubes  are  carried. 

Surface  torpedo  boats  can  hope  to  be  success¬ 
ful  only  when  attacking  under  cover  of  night 
or  of  thick  fog,  and  several  should  attack  a 
ship  simultaneously — from  different  directions 
if  possible.  If  the  vessel  is  under  way  and 
steaming  at  good  speed,  an  attack  from  abaft 
the  beam  gives  little  promise  of  success,  as  the 
approach  must  necessarily  be  slow  and  the 
chances  of  discovery  increase,  while  the  torpedo 
may  be  deflected  bv  the  ship’s  wake  and  can 
onlv  overtake  the  ship  at  a  rate  equal  to  the 
difference  in  speeds  of  ship  and  torpedo.  The 
boat  must,  therefore,  be  nearer  her  target  when 
she  fires  than  if  attacking  an  approaching  ship. 
In  the  Great  War  torpedo  boats  were  used 
chiefly  as  scouts  against  submarines. 


In  its  earliest  form  the  torpedo  boat  contained 
ruereiv  a  large  quantity  of  powder  and  was  it¬ 
self  destroyed  by  the  explosion.  Craft  of  this 
type  were  used  by  Gianabelli  at  Antwerp  in  1585. 
(.See  1  orpedo. )  The  first  evolutionary  step  de¬ 
veloped  boats  which  carried  torpedoes  that  were 
designed  to  be  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the 
enemy  s  ship.  All  of  this  type  were  submarine. 
(See  Torpedo  Boat,  Submarine.)  The  first 
surface  boats  appeared  during  the  American 
(  ivil  W  ar,  and  the  first  partial  success  was 
achieved  (October,  1863)  in  an  attack  by  a  Con¬ 
federate  boat  on  the  Federal  armor-clad  New 
Ironsides,  in  which  the  latter  was  slightly  in¬ 
jured.  Practically  all  of  the  torpedo  boats  of 
the  war  used  spar  torpedoes,  which  were  carried 
at  the  end  of  a  long  spar  or  boom  rigged  out  be¬ 
yond  the  bow,  and  nearly  all  were  ordinary 
steam  launches  or  pulling  boats,  though  the  boat 
which  attacked  the  New  Ironsides  and  one  or 
two  others  were  specially  built  craft  with  nearly 
submerged  hulls.  In  1873  the  first  fast  (speed, 
15  knots)  specially  designed  torpedo  boat  was 
built  by  Thornycroft,  of  Chiswick,  England,  for 
the  Norwegian  government  and  was  fitted  for 
using  the  Harvey  towing  torpedo,  then  in  much 
favor.  In  the  next  year  both  Thornycroft  and 
\ arrow  (of  Poplar,  near  London)  constructed 
boats  for  various  foreign  governments,  and  they 
built  several  in  the  ensuing  year,  but  none  for 
Great  Britain.  About  the  same  time  Herreshoff 
completed  a  very  fast  boat  for  the  United  States 
navy.  In  1877  Herreshoff  brought  out  the  first 
boat  fitted  to  use  Whitehead  torpedoes,  and  al¬ 
though  many  subsequent  boats  were  designed  to 
carry  spar  torpedoes,  the  Whitehead  rapidly 
made  its  way,  so  that  by  1880  it  had  practically 
displaced  all  rivals  except  the  Howell  and 
Schwartzkopf,  which  were  of  somewhat  similar 
type.  Consult  J.  T.  Scharf,  History  of  the  Con¬ 
federate  Navy  (New  York,  1887),  and  Johnson, 
Defense  of  Charleston  Harbor  (Charleston, 
1890).  See  Torpedo;  Torpedo  Boat,  Subma¬ 
rine;  Torpedo  Net,  and  references  there  given. 

TORPEDO-BOAT  DESTROYER.  See  Tor¬ 
pedo  Boat. 

TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE.  Except 
for  purposes  of  naval  war  the  submarine  boat 
had,  up  to  1916,  a  very  narrow  field  of  use¬ 
fulness.  Lake’s  first  boat  was  designed  for  ex¬ 
ploration  of  the  ocean  bottom  by  furnishing  a 
base  from  which  divers  could  readily  operate 
undisturbed  by  rough  water,  but  it  was  not 
often  employed.  As  torpedo  boats,  submarines 
are  built  of  three  types:  (a)  coast-defense,  (b) 
cruising,  and  ( c )  fleet. 

Coast-defense  boats  are  small,  have  a  very 
moderate  radius  of  action,  and  possess  infe¬ 
rior  habitability.  They  are  designed  to  operate 
from  a  base  which  is  near  at  hand,  so  that  the 
cruising  radius  and  habitability  can  be  sacri¬ 
ficed  without  loss  of  efficiency.  The  early  sub¬ 
marines  were  all  of  this  type,  being  small,  slow, 
and  defective  in  many  ways.  More  recent  boats, 
embodying  later  improvements,  were  specially 
designed  to  operate  from  a  base  near  at  hand, 
and  sacrificed  size,  habitability,  and  cruising 
radius  without  loss  of  efficiency  in  other  di¬ 
rections.  They  vary  in  displacement  ( sub¬ 
merged)  from  250  to  600  tons,  the  surface 
tonnage  being  20  to  40  per  cent  less.  The 
length  is  150  to  200  feet:  beam,  15  to  20  feet; 
speed,  10  to  16  knots  on  the  surface  and  8  to 
ii  knots  when  submerged.  Greater  speed  is 
desirable,  but  is  difficult  tc  obtain  in  boats  of 


TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE  354  TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE 


small  size.  The  cruising  radius  is  1000  to  2000 
miles;  the  number  of  torpedo  tubes,  4  to  8; 
one  gun  of  3-inch  or  2.25-inch  calibre  is  usu¬ 
ally  carried,  supplemented  by  an  antiaeroplane 
gun  and  perhaps  a  machine  gun  of  musket  cal¬ 
ibre.  The  latter  is  almost  invariably  kept  be¬ 
low  until  the  boat  has  reached  the  surface, 
when  it  is  passed  up  the  hatch  and  placed  on 
its  mount.  There  are  no  quarters  for  officers 
or  crew  (20  to  30  in  number),  all  possible 
space  and  weight  being  devoted  to  machinery 
and  torpedoes.  Small  transoms  or  seats  are 
provided  for  the  officers  and  men  not  actually 
on  watch  or  engaged  in  work.  The  propelling 
machinery  consists  of  electric  motors  for  sub¬ 
merged  navigation  and  Diesel  or  gasoline  en¬ 
gines  for  surface  cruising.  The  current  for  the 
motors  is  supplied  by  storage  batteries  which 
are  charged  at  the  base,  but  the  charge  may 
be  renewed  by  connecting  up  the  charging  ap¬ 
paratus  to  the  oil  engines  when  on  the  sur¬ 
face. 

Cruising  submarines  are  designed  for  long¬ 
distance,  independent  work.  They  must  pos¬ 
sess  good  habitability,  large  cruising  radius, 
space  for  a  number  of  torpedoes,  and  as  much 
surface  speed  as  it  is  possible  to  give  them 
after  satisfying  these  requirements.  They  have 
a  submerged  displacement  of  800  to  1200  tons 
and  a  surface  displacement  of  650  to  1000  tons. 
The  length  is  from  225  to  275  feet;  beam,  18 
to  25  feet;  maximum  surface  speed,  16  to  20 
knots;  maximum  submerged  speed,  10  to  14 
knots;  cruising  radius,  4000  to  8000  miles  (us¬ 
ing  part  of  the  submerging  tanks  for  oil  fuel 
when  leaving  the  base)j_  submerged  radius  of 
operation  on  a  single  charge  of  the  batteries, 
50  to  100  miles;  number  of  torpedo  tubes,  4  to 
8;  battery,  one  or  more  3-inch  guns,  one  or 
more  antiaeroplane  guns,  one  or  more  machine 
guns  (kept  below  when  the  boat  is  submerged)  ; 
officers  and  crew,  40  to  50.  The  machinery  is 
similar  to  that  of  coastal  submarines,  though 
man}^  of  the  larger  boats  are  fitted  with  steam 
engines  for  surface  cruising,  as  the  Diesel  en¬ 
gines  have  given  much  trouble.  The  principal 
difficulty  with  steam  machinery  is  the  heat  radi¬ 
ated.  This  has  been  largely  overcome  by  non¬ 
conducting  and  water-cooled  jackets  and  the 
cooling  effect  of  the  expanding  compressed  air 
which  has  been  water-cooled  during  compres¬ 
sion  or  afterward.  The  engines  of  new  boats 
are  either  Diesel,  geared  steam  turbines,  or  fitted 
for  electric  driveV  (see  Shipbuilding,  Marine 
Machinery )  ;  the  latter,  when  perfected,  may  be 
adopted,  as  it  offers  many  advantages  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  storage  batteries  and  electric  propul¬ 
sion  when  the  boat  is  submerged. 

Fleet  submarines  were  a  new  type  which  in 
1916  had  not  yet  been  tested  by  actual  service. 
They  were  expected  to  be  able  to  accompany 
the  battle  fleet.  They  must,  therefore,  possess 
seaworthy  qualities  of  a  fairly  high  order,  have 
good  habitability,  excellent  surface  speed,  and 
a  large  radius  of  action,  though  fuel  supplies 
could  be  obtained  from  the  surface  vessels, 
preferably  from  auxiliaries  or  “mother”  ships. 
They  must  be  efficiently  armed  to  destroy  the 
submarines  and  torpedo  vessels  of  the  enemy 
and  to  stand  some  punishment  from  guns  of 
small  craft.  Owing  to  the  novelty  of  their  role, 
the  details  are  not  well  settled  and  cannot  be 
until  experience  has  furnished  its  lessons.  So 
far  as  known,  the  designs  of  boats  building  in 
<1916  called  for  displacements  of  1500  to  2000 


tons  when  submerged  and  1200  to  1600  tons 
on  the  surface;  the  maximum  surface  speeds, 
20  to  26  knots,  submerged  speeds,  12  to  15 
knots;  cruising  radius,  3000  to  6000  miles; 
submerged  radius  on  a  single  charge  of  batter¬ 
ies,  75  to  150  miles;  number  of  torpedo  tubes, 
4  to  10;  battery,  two  to  four  4-inch  guns;  one 
or  more  antiaeroplane  guns,  several  machine 
guns;  officers  and  crew,  50  to  100.  The  pro¬ 
pelling  machinery  is  similar  to  that  of  cruising 
submarines,  but  of  greater  relative  power  in 
order  to  secure  higher  speed. 

Still  larger  submarines,  called  submersible 
battleships,  have  been  proposed.  The  designs 
provide  for  one  or  more  armored  turrets  car¬ 
rying  heavy  guns.  In  some  of  the  proposals  the 
whole  vessel  may  be  submerged;  in  other  plans 
the  turrets  are  always  above  water.  No  ves¬ 
sels  of  this  sort  were  building  so  far  as  known 
in  1916. 

The  earlier  submarines  had  very  little  re¬ 
serve  buoyancy  and  could  run  on  the  surface, 
with  open  conning  towers  or  ventilating  pipes, 
only  when  the  sea  was  smooth.  Their  habita¬ 
bility  was  therefore  poor,  and  their  radius  of 
action  was  more  circumscribed  by  this  fact  than 
from  all  other  causes.  About  1900  the  French 
brought  out  a  type  which  they  styled  submers- 
ibles.  They  differed  radically  from  previous 
boats,  having  two  hulls,  one  inside  the  other. 
The  outer  hull  resembled  that  of  an  ordinary 
torpedo  boat,  but  with  few  projections  from 
or  irregularities  in  the  general  outline  in  order 
to  present  a  smooth  surface  when  submerge^ 
Inside  this  there  was  a  second  hull  of  nearly 
circular  cross  section  and  as  large  as  the  shape 
of  the  outer  boat  permitted.  To  effect  sub¬ 
mergence  water  was  admitted  into  the  space 
between  the  hulls.  This  brought  the  boat  to  the 
awash  condition;  further  submergence  was  ef¬ 
fected  by  permitting  the  ballast  tanks  to  filL_ 
As  compared  with  the  submersible,  the  relative 
advantages  of  the  former  submarine  type  were: 
greater  submerged  speed  and  strength  and  more 
tubes  in  the  bow  (made  possible  by  the  blunt 
form)  ;  the  disadvantages  were  less  habitability, 
due  to  reduced  buoyancy  and  sea-keeping  qual¬ 
ities,  and  lower  surface  speed,  due  to  poor 
form  of  hull.  The  relative  advantages  of  the 
submersible  were  greater  surface  speed,  supe¬ 
rior  habitability,  and  better  sea-keeping  quali¬ 
ties;  the  disadvantages  were  less  strength  of 
hull,  reduced  speed  when  submerged,  and  fewer 
torpedo  tubes  In  the  bow  on  account  of  fineness 
of  form. 

In  the  course  of  time  the  two  types  have 
approached  each  other  in  design.  The  *  sub¬ 
marine  has  been  given  a  finer  model  and  a 
superstructure  whose  top  forms  the  deck.  The 
present  submersibles  have  only  partial  double 
hulls.  It  is  therefore  difficult  to  classify  many 
recent  boats.  In  the  first  submersibles  the 
light  cruising  displacement  was  only  half  of 
tha't  in  the  submerged  condition.  In  recent 
French  types  the  surplus  buoyancy  is  about 
35  per  cent,  in  British  boats  about  20.  Good 
habitability  is  obtained  in  the  latter  by  raising 
the  superstructure,  but  its  width  is  reduced  to 
keep  the  submerged  displacement  as  moderate 
as  practicable  in  order  to  prevent  unnecessary 
reduction  of  the  submerged  speed.  The  high, 
roomy  conning  tower  introduced  by  Lake  is 
very  generally  adopted  and  affords  support  for 
a  deck  steering  station  high  above  the  Avater, 
where  it  can  be  protected  against  spray  by  a 


TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE  355  TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE 


removable  canvas  screen  similar  to  that  of 
ordinary  surface  vessels. 

Like  other  types  of  war  craft,  the  submarine 
has  steadily  increased  in  size,  for  it  was  only 
by  augmenting1  the  dimensions  that  its  present 
powers  could  be  attained.  The  first  American 
boats  displaced  120  tons  when  submerged;  the 
fleet  submarines  designed  in  1915  were  to  have 
a  tonnage  of  more  than  1500.  The  same  sort 
of  development  has  taken  place  in  other  navies. 
1  he  British  and  German  boats  which  made  long 
cruises  in  the  Great  War  (see  War  in  Europe) 
were  of  800  to  900  tons.  By  using  part  of  their 
submerging  tanks  for  fuel,  these  boats  have  a 
cruising  radius  of  3000  to  5000  miles.  As 
submarines  have  increased  in  size  and  speed, 
they  have  become  more  and  more  expensive  to 
build.  The  cost  of  large  fleet  submarines,  fully 
equipped,  is  about  $1000  per  ton,  or  more  than 
twice  that  of  surface  battleships  or  cruisers. 

One  of  the  most  notable  changes  in  the  equip¬ 
ment  of  recent  submarines  is  the  battery. 
About  1912  a  short  3-inch  gun  was  mounted 
on  a  few  of  the  larger  boats.  The  next  step 
was  to  fit  antiaeroplane  guns,  for  the  aeroplane 
is  a  deadly  enemy.  Later  machine  guns  were 
supplied,  and  the  larger  boats  were  to  be  fitted 
with  4-inch  guns  in  place  of  3-inch.  As  a  de¬ 
fense  against  the  guns  of  similar  craft  and  of 
surface  boats,  it  is  proposed  to  fit  a  protec¬ 
tion  deck  in  submarines.  This  will  be  just 
below  the  surface  when  the  submarine  is  in 
ordinary  cruising  condition,  and  the  space  above 
it  is  to  be  closely  subdivided.  Another  impor¬ 
tant  addition  to  submarine  equipment  is  the 
gyroscope  compass.  (See  Compass.)  Mag¬ 
netic  compasses  are  very  unreliable  when  wholly 
surrounded  by  the  hull  of  a  vessel,  and  accu¬ 
rate  steering  by  means  of  them  was  found  to  be 
impossible  when  the  boat  was  submerged.  The 
gyro  compass  has  changed  all  this  and  made 
submerged  navigation  much  more  accurate  and 
safe.  The  gyro  principle  may  also  be  used 
to  keep  the  boat  on  an  even  keel,  laterally  and 
transversely — now  a  difficult  matter  and  re¬ 
quiring  constant  care  and  watchfulness. 

Submarines  are  kept  on  an  even  keel  by  bal¬ 
last  tanks  and  horizontal  rudders.  The  water 
is  moved  by  compressed  air  acting  on  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  water  in  the  tanks  and  by  pumps. 
The  horizontal  rudders  are  operated  by  hand 
or  by  motors.  If  gyro  stabilizers  are  used  they 
will  automatically  operate  the  machinery  and 
control  this  work. 

Submerging  is  effected  by  admitting  water 
to  the  submerging  tanks,  and  the  boat  is  brought 
to  the  surface  by  expelling  this  water  with 
compressed  air  and  pumps.  The  time  required 
to  submerge  and  emerge  depends  on  the  size 
of  the  boat,  the  reserve  displacement,  and  the 
capacity  of  the  ejecting  and  pumping  equipment. 
When  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy  boats  do 
not  run  in  cruising  trim,  but  in  a  condition 
called  awash,  with  only  the  conning  tower  and 
a  small  portion  of  the  hull  above  water.  When 
so  close  that  they  may  be  observed  (or  at¬ 
tacked),  they  are  submerged  until  only  the 
periscope  (q.v. )  is  visible.  From  the  awash  con¬ 
dition  this  takes  but  a  few  seconds.  Under  favor¬ 
able  circumstances  it  takes  two  or  three  minutes 
for  a  boat  to  emerge  sufficiently  to  use  her  guns, 
and  this  is  a  dangerous  time  for  her  if  discovered 
by  a  surface  vessel  or  another  submarine.  Con¬ 
sequently  every  effort  is  made  to  shorten  the 
interval  as  much  as  possible  by  carrying  large 


tanks  of  compressed  air  and  very  efficient 
pumps  and  by  forcing  her  to  the  surface  with 
the  horizontal  rudders.  In  the  earlier  boats 
submerging  and  emerging  were  almost  entirely 
effected  by  the  horizontal  rudders,  the  hull  be¬ 
ing  inclined  at  a  considerable  angle  during  the 
operation ;  this  of  course  facilitated  the  filling 
or  emptying  of  the  tanks.  Some  recent  boats 
submerge  and  emerge  on  a  level  keel  without 
using  the  rudders;  others  use  them,  as  already 
noted,  to  expedite  the  operations. 

The  chief  difficulties  in  the  way  of  submarine 
navigation  are :  (a)  securing  safety ;  ( b )  ob¬ 

taining  high  speed  on  the  surface  and  fair  speed 
below;  ( c )  steering  a  straight  course  and  avoid¬ 
ing  obstacles;  ( d )  securing  adequate  habitabil¬ 
ity;  (e)  insuring  stability.  For  submarine  tor¬ 
pedo  boats  there  are  other  difficulties,  such  as 
directing  and  discharging  the  torpedo  and  the 
slow  submerging  and  emerging  which  add  to  the 
dangers  of  operation. 

Perfect  safety  can  never  be  obtained,  and  the 
frequent  accidents  to  submarines  show  we  are 
yet  far  from  such  a  goal.  The  greatest  source 
of  trouble  seems  to  be  the  storage  batteries. 
No  solution  is  in  sight  except  to  improve  the 
batteries  and  inclose  them  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  gases  from  them  cannot  escape  into 
the  hull  nor  collect  in  such  a  way  as  to  per¬ 
mit  a  dangerous  explosion. 

High  speed  in  surface  torpedo  boats  is  ob¬ 
tained  through  lightness  of  hull  construction. 
This  is  not  possible  in  submarines  which  must 
have  heavy  framing  and  thick  plating  to  re¬ 
sist  strong  water  pressure.  Except  by  the  sacri¬ 
fice  of  every  other  attribute,  high  speed  is  im¬ 
possible  in  the  smaller  boats;  adequate  size 
is  necessary.  The  earlier  submarines  used  gas¬ 
oline  engines  for  surface  propulsion.  For  vari¬ 
ous  reasons  heavy  oil  engines  replaced  them. 
But  these  in  turn  have  proved  unsatisfactory, 
and,  as  already  stated,  steam  machinery  is 
being  fitted  in  large  boats. 

The  navigation  of  submerged  vessels  is  ex¬ 
ceedingly  difficult.  The  periscope  (q.v*)  is 
nearly  useless  at  night,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
see  clearly  under  water,  even  for  a  few  feet, 
unless  the  vessel  is  absolutely  at  rest.  The 
gyro  compass  and  gyro  stability  gear  are  do¬ 
ing  much  to  facilitate  operations,  but  subma¬ 
rine  navigation  is  still  very  uncertain  and 
dangerous.  The  habitability  of  boats  naturally 
increases  with  their  size  as  well  as  through 

O 

improved  appliances.  Large  vessels  can  have 
separate  compartments  for  sleeping  and  cook¬ 
ing  and  for  the  machinery,  and  ventilation  is 
easier.  The  cooking  and  heating  are  done  with 
electric  stoves  or  waste  heat  from  the  boilers 
or  engines.  This  waste  heat  is  often  a  serious 
source  of  trouble,  especially  in  small  craft. 

The  conditions  affecting  the  stability  of  an 
entirely  submerged  vessel  differ  considerably 
from  those  which  control  that  of  one  floating 
on  the  surface.  (See  Shipbuilding.)  Since 
the  sectional  area  of  the  immersed  body  re¬ 
mains  unchanged  at  all  angles  of  heel  and  pitch, 
the  position  of  the  centre  of  buoyancy  remains 
constant ;  the  righting  moment  therefore  grows 
very  slowly  as  the  boat  heels  or  pitches.  Bv  suit¬ 
able  ballasting  or  arrangement  of  weights  ade¬ 
quate  transverse  stability  is  not  very  difficult 
to  obtain.  But  longitudinal  stability  is  quite 
another  matter.  The  shifting  of  weights  ( mov¬ 
ing  of  men,  torpedoes,  and  liquids  in  partly 
filled  tanks)  is  a  very  serious  matter,  partic- 


356  TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE 


TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE 

ularly  in  small  boats.  It  is  counteracted  by 
horizontal  rudders  or  quickly  shifting  water 
ballast.  To  do  this  effectively  requires  expe¬ 
rience  and  constant  attention.  If  the  gyro  sta¬ 
bility  gear  can  perform  the  duty  automati¬ 
cally,  it  will  add  much  to  •comfort  and  safety. 

The  difficulties  experienced  in  discharging 
torpedoes  are  closely  connected  with  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  stability.  In  addition  to  the  trouble 
of  handling  the  torpedoes  in  a  very  contracted 
space  and  of  giving  them  the  correct  direction 
at  the  moment  of  firing,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  boat  should  be  nearly  horizontal  when  the 
torpedo  leaves  the  tube,  else  it  will  take  too 
deep  a  dive  or  rise  to  the  surface  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  its  run.  The  shock  of  firing  and  the 
sudden  release  of  weight  at  the  bow  as  the 
torpedo  leaves  the  tube  cause  much  longitudinal 
disturbance  in  the  boat  and  may  bring  it  to 
the  surface  if  not  carefully  counteracted,  while 
the  change  in  trim  adds  to  the  difficulty  of 
maintaining  a  constant  depth. 

The  torpedoes  used  in  submarines  are  usu¬ 
ally  the  same  as  those  for  surface  boats,  but 
the  Germans  (and  other  navies  are  following 
their  lead)  are  supplying  a  short-range  tor¬ 
pedo  with  a  very  large  bursting  charge — more 


f? 


go  to  war  we  shall  have  to  lock  our  dread¬ 
noughts  up  in  some  safe  harbor,  if  we  can  find 
one.  (6)  If  by  means  of  submarines  we  stop 
egress  from  the  North  Sea  and  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  our  commerce 
can  be  much  interfered  with.  (7)  Not  only 
is  the  open  sea  unsafe,  but  in  narrow  waters 
and  harbors  surface  ships  are  at  the  mercy 
of  submarines.  (8)  What  we  require  is  an 
enormous  fleet  of  submarines,  airships,  and 
aeroplanes,  and  a  few  fast  cruisers,  provided 
we  can  find  a  place  to  keep  them  in  safety  dur¬ 
ing  war  time. 

Admiral  Scott’s  letter  created  a  great  sen¬ 
sation,  both  in  the  naval  world  and  in  the 
world  at  large,  chiefly  because  he  was  the 
greatest  living  naval  artillerist.  The  enormous 
improvement  in  naval  target  practice  and  the 
accuracy  of  gun  fire  in  recent  years  had  been 
due  to  him  more  than  to  any  other  man. 
Moreover,  he  was  regarded  as  an  ardent  ad¬ 
vocate  of  the  dreadnought  battleship  and  a 
firm  believer  in  the  superiority  of  the  gun 
over  all  other  naval  weapons. 

The  War  in  Europe  of  1914-16  witnessed 
the  first  test  of  the  submarine  on  an  extensive 
scale.  Opinions  of  naval  experts  differ  consid- 


LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  SUBMARINE  TORPEDO  BOAT. 


than  double  that  of  the  ordinary  long-range 
type — the  reduction  of  weight  in  the  air  flask 
being  utilized  to  increase  the  explosive  charge. 
As  ordinary  submarines  must  approach  the  en¬ 
emy  quite  closely  (except  in  very  smooth  water) 
in  order  to  see  clearly,  it  is  thought  by  some 
that  long-range  torpedoes  are  not  so  necessary 
for  them.  See  Torpedo. 

For  several  years  the  relative  importance  of 
the  submarine  as  a  weapon  of  war  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  speculation  and  discussion.  A 
few  weeks  before  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war, 
on  June  5,  1914,  Rear  Admiral  Sir  Percy  Scott 
of  the  British  navy  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Lon¬ 
don  Times  on  the  subject  of  the  “Submarine 
Menace,”  in  which  he  expressed  himself  sub¬ 
stantially  as  follows:  (1)  Submarines  have  done 
away  with  the  utility  of  surface  ships.  (2)  As 
no  man-of-war  will  dare  to  come  within  sight 
of  a  coast  that  is  adequately  protected  by 
submarines,  battleships  in  future  will  not  be 
able  to  (a)  attack  ships  that  come  to  bombard 
our  ports,  (&)  attack  ships  that  come  to  block¬ 
ade  us,  ( c )  attack  ships  convoying  a  landing 
party.  (3)  Nor  will  battleships  be  able  to 
( d )  bombard  an  enemy’s  ports,  (e)  blockade  an 
enemy’s  ports,  (/)  blockade  an  enemy’s  fleet,  (g) 
convoy  a  landing  force.  (4)  As  there  will  be 
no  enemy’s  fleet  to  attack,  when  it  is  unsafe 
for  any  fleet  to  put  to  sea,  this  function  of 
the  battleship  will  cease  to  exist.  (5)  If  we 


erably  as  to  how  far  this  war  demonstrated  the 
effectiveness  of  the  submarine  for  offensive  pur¬ 
poses.  During  the  early  stages  of  the  war  the 
success  of  the  German  submarines  in  sinking  a 
number  of  British  and  French  warships  led  many 
persons  to  believe  that  the  predictions  of  Ad¬ 
miral  Scott  were  warranted.  As  the  war  pro-, 
gressed,  however,  the  British  authorities  appear 
to  have  adopted  some  effective  means  of  pro¬ 
tecting  their  battleships,  at  least  in  the  re¬ 
stricted  area  about  the  British  Isles,  from  sub¬ 
marine  attack.  As  commerce  destroyers  the 
submarines  scored  heavily,  but  their  use  in  this 
connection  involved  serious  questions  of  inter¬ 
national  law.  The  frail  construction  of  the  sub¬ 
marines  made  them  vulnerable  to  attack  even 
by  armed  merchantmen,  if  they  were  discovered 
before  attacking.  It  was  difficult,  therefore,  for 
the  commanders  of  submarines  to  observe  the 
accepted  rules  of  international  law,  which  re¬ 
quired  that  noncombatants  on  merchant  vessels 
should  not  be  jeopardized,  without  exposing 
their  vessels  to  destruction.  Under  these  condi¬ 
tions  German  submarines  sank  a  considerable 
number  of  belligerent  and  neutral  merchant¬ 
men  without  warning,  which  involved  Germany 
in  serious  difficulties  with  neutral  nations,  espe¬ 
cially  the  United  States.  (See  War  in  Europe.) 
While  the  operation  of  submarines  in  accordance 
with  the  principles  of  warfare  laid  down  for 
above-surface  warships  materially  reduces  their 


TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE  357  TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE 


effectiveness  for  offensive  purposes,  nevertheless, 
they  are  weapons  of  vast  naval  usefulness  and,  if 
properly  handled,  can  greatly  change  the  charac¬ 
ter  of  naval  war.  Indeed  they  have  done  this 
much  already.  If  fitted  with  long-range  torpe¬ 
does  and  handled  in  groups  against  an  active  fleet 
of  battleships  properly  protected  by  destroyers 
and  aircraft,  we  shall  be  able  to  form  a  more 
definite  opinion  of  their  capabilities.  Up  to 
191G  they  seem  to  have  operated  independently 
except  in  the  vicinity  of  their  own  coast,  though 
the  British  boats  in  the  Baltic  may  be  an  ex¬ 
ception. 

The  great  dread  that  submarines  first  inspired 
was  largely  due  to  lack  of  knowledge  as  to 
means  of  defense  against  them.  In  the  great 
war  a  screen  of  destroyers  surrounding  ships 
or  fleets  proved  very  effective.  In  the  nar¬ 
row  waters  of  the  English  Channel  heavy  wire 
nets  kept  this  area  nearly  free  from  submarine 
activity  and  permitted  the  British  to  trans¬ 
port  troops  and  munitions  of  war  with  com¬ 
parative  safety.  In  connection  with  the  nets 
the  British  employed  small,  fast  motor  boats 
armed  with  light  guns,  and  these  destroyed 
many  submarines  of  the  enemy  which  were 
caught  in  the  nets  and  rose  to  the  surface. 


losing  his  life  in  the  second  submergence  trial. 
In  the  following  year  David  Bushnell  built  his 
first  boat,  with  which  Sergeant  Lee  attacked 
H.M.S.  Eagle  in  New  York  harbor.  Lee  actu- 
ally  got  under  the  ship,  and  the  attack  failed 
only  because  the  screw  by  which  the  torpedo 
was  to  be  attached  to  the  Eagle’s  bottom  was 
not  sharp  enough.  Robert  Fulton’s  experiments 
in  France  and  America  (1795-1812)  demon¬ 
strated  that  a  vessel  could  be  built  which  could 
descend  to  any  given  depth  and  reascend  at  will. 
Plunging  mechanism  was  devised  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  Fuiton 
developed  the  vertical  and  horizontal  rudders 
and  provided  for  the  artificial  supply  of  air.  A 
form  of  periscope  existed  in  1692  and  an  im¬ 
proved  kind  was  patented  in  1774;  in  1854  Davy 
still  further  developed  it.  Germany’s  first  sub¬ 
marine,  Bauer’s  Plongeur -Marin  (Fig.  1  on  Plate) 
was  built  at  Kiel,  1850—51,  but  it  was  crushed  by 
the  vrnter  pressure  and  remained  at  the  bottom 
for  many  years.  In  1863  McClintock  and  How- 
gate  built  a  semisubmarine  hand-propelled  boat 
for  the  attack  on  the  Federal  fleet,  but  it  sank 
four  times,  each  time  drowming  the  entire  crew 
of  eight  men.  In  the  same  year  several  larger 
boats  propelled  by  engines  were  commenced  in 


TORPEDO. 

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LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  SUBMARINE  TORPEDO  BOAT, 


PERISCOPE 


Destroyers  and  patrol  boats  of  various  kinds 
Were  also  successfully  used,  while  the  aeroplane 
proved  to  be  an  excellent  detector  even  when 
the  boats  were  some  distance  below  the  sur¬ 
face.  In  addition  to  signaling  the  enemy’s 
position  and  course  they  assisted  in  the  at¬ 
tack,  and  at  least  two  sub¬ 
marines  were  destroyed  by 
aeroplane  bombs.  In  the 
protection  of  fleets  against 
submarine  operations  they 
may  prove  a  most  decisive 
factor. 

History.  When  or  by 
whom  was  built  the  first 
submarine  boat  will  prob¬ 
ably  never  be  known.  It 
is  said  that  Alexander  the 
Great  was  interested  in 
submarine  navigation, 

.  wThile  subaqueous  attack 
of  vessels  was  studied  at 
least  as  early  as  the  thir¬ 
teenth  or  fourteenth  century.  M.  Delpeuch  states 
that  some  English  ships  were  destroyed  in  1372 
by  fire  carried  under  water.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  submarine  boats  were 
numerous,  and  in  1624  Cornelius  Dreblxfi  exhib¬ 
ited  to  King  James  I  on  the  Thames  a  submarine 
boat  of  his  own  design.  By  1727  no  less  than 
14  types  of  submarines  had  been  patented  in 
England  alone.  In  1774  Day  began  experiments 
with  a  submarine  boat  at  Plymouth,  England, 


CROSS  SECTION  OF  SUB¬ 
MARINE  TORPEDO  BOAT. 


Europe,  and  these  at  intervals  were  followed 
by  others  designed  by  Hovgaard,  Goubet,  Zede, 
Nordenfeldt,  Tuck,  Holland,  etc.  The  French 
navy  began  experimenting  with  submarine  boats 
about  1885.  The  Gymnote  was  built  in  1888 


TORPEDO  SCREW. 
VENTILATORS- 


VERTICAL 

PROPELLER 


DEPTH  GAUGE 
X  PROPELLER 


BALLAST  TANK 
BALLAST. 


detachable  ballast 

AND  ANCHC 


7FL00DING  VALVE 
.PUMP 

BALLAST  TANK 


bushnell’s  boat  (1775). 


and  the  Gustave  Zede  in  1893.  The  Morse  was 
commenced  in  1894,  but  remained  uncompleted 
until  1899,  pending  additional  experiments  with 
the  Gymnote  and  the  Zede.  In  that  year  the 


TORPEDO  NET 


TORPEDO  BOAT,  SUBMARINE 


358 


key,  but  little  was  ever  clone  with  them  after 
they  passed  into  Turkish  hands.  In  1889  Spain 
built  the  Peral,  Portugal  following  with  the 
Plongeur  in  1892.  Itaiy  built  the  Delfino  in 
1895.  The  United  States  had  the  submarine 
boat  under  consideration  for  several  years.  The 


construction  of  submarines  was  actively  com-  Fife  and  others,  Submarines  of  the  World’s 
menced,  10  being  launched  in  1901.  In  1886  Navies  (ib.,  1911);  Robert  Fulton,  “Torpedo 
Norden’feldt  built  two  large  submarines  for  Tur-  War  and  Submarine  Explosions,5'  in  Magazine  of 

History,  extra  No.  35  (Tarrytown, 
N.  Y.,  1914)  ;  Farnham  Bishop,  The 
Story  of  the  Submarine  (New  York, 
1916)  ;  also  Proceedings  of  the  United 
States  Naval  Institute  (Annapolis, 
current)  and  various  numbers  of  the 
Scientific  American  (New  York, 
weekly ) . 

TORPEDO  DIRECTOR.  An  instru¬ 
ment  designed  to  indicate  the  proper 
moment  at  which  to  fire  a  torpedo  from 
a  ship  or  torpedo  boat.  It  is  placed  on 
deck,  or  in  a  port  or  airport  giving  a 
clear  view  of  the  enemy.  The  type 
shown  in  the  sketch  is  for  a  bow  tor¬ 
pedo  tube  on  a  torpedo  boat;  a  broad¬ 
side  director  differs  chiefly  in  having  a 
greater  arc  of  train  for  the  arm  B. 
The  instrument  consists  of  a  metal 
sector,  A,  graduated  along  the  limb  E 
into  degrees  of  arc.  On  this  are  three 
movable  arms,  B,  C,  and  D.  B  and  D 
are  pivoted  on  A  at  the  centre  of  the 
arc  E,  while  C  pivots  on  the  sliding 
block  G.  B  and  G  are  graduated  into 
similar  and  equal  divisions,  representing  the 
speed  of  the  torpedo  and  the  enemy  respectively. 
The  arm  B  is  first  set  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  torpedo  tube,  and  the  block  G  is  set  at 
the  division  of  the  scale  K,  corresponding  to 
the  speed  of  the  torpedo.  The  block  H  is  set 
at  the  division  of  the  scale  L  which  corre¬ 
sponds  to  the  estimated  speed  of  the  enemy, 
and  the  arm  G  is  swung  around  until  parallel 
to  his  supposed  course.  Then  the  clamp  screws 
M  and  N  are  screwed  down.  The  direction 
MN  (or  IJ)  is  therefore  the  direction  in  which 
the  enemy  must  be  in  order  to  be  hit  by 
the  torpedo  moving  in  the  direction  MF,  if 
the  estimated  speeds  of  enemy  and  torpedo  are 
correct.  The  moment  that  the  enemy  is  on  the 
proper  bearing  is  ascertained  by  looking  over 
the  sights  I  and  J.  Other  means  of  ascer¬ 
taining  the  direction  in  which  to  fire  the  tor¬ 
pedo  have  superseded  the  torpedo  director  to 
a  considerable  extent,  but  it  is  still  largely 
used  in  most  navies. 

TORPEDO  NET.  A  net  made  of  heavy  wire 
rings  connected  with  one  another  by  small  steel 
rings  and  surrounding  a  vessel  of  war  below 
water  as  a  defense  against  torpedoes.  The  net 
is  made  up  in  sections  about  15  by  20  feet  in  size, 
and  these  sections  join  to  make  the  total  pro¬ 
tection,  which  is  divided  into  three  parts,  called 
the  main  defense,  bow  defense,  and  stern  de¬ 
fense.  All  except  the  main  defense  are  fre¬ 
quently  omitted,  and  it  can  be  carried  only  if 
the  vessel  is  moving  slowly,  while  no  nets  are 
of  any  use  if  the  ship  is  moving  at  fair  speed. 
The  type  of  net  most  in  favor  is  that  devised  by 
Mr.  Bullivant,  an  Englishman  in  the  employ 
of  the  Admiralty.  The  Bullivant  net  is  made 
of  wire  rings  or  grommets  (see  Knotting  and 
Splicing),  6  inches  in  diameter,  connected  to 
each  other  by  galvanized  steel  rings.  Each  sec¬ 
tion  weighs  about  400  pounds  and  has  a  heavy 
piece  of  chain  at  the  foot  to  keep  it  as  nearly 
vertical  as  possible  when  the  ship  is  under  way 
or  anchored  in  a  current;  the  sections  are  joined 
to  each  other  by  stout  wire  lashings.  The  up¬ 
per  edge  of  the  net  has  small  rings  sliding  on 
a  wire  rope,  called  a  jackstay,  which  is  shackled 


first  boat  ordered  (about  1895)  was  never  com¬ 
pleted,  but  seven  of  the  Holland  type  were  or¬ 
dered  in  1900  and  one  was  purchased  when 
nearly  complete  early  in  that  year. 

Bibliography.  Delpeuch,  La  navigation  sous 
marine  d  travers  les  siecles  (Paris,  1902)  ;  A.  H. 
Burgoyne,  Submarine  Navigation ,  Past  and  Pres¬ 
ent  (2*  vols.,  London,  1903)  ;  H.  C.  Fyfe,  Subma¬ 
rine  Warfare,  Past  and  Present  (2d  ed.,  New 
York,  1907);  Cyril  Field,  Story  of  the  Sub¬ 
marine  (Philadelphia,  1909)  ;  C.  W.  Domville- 


SUBMARINE  TORPEDO  BOATS 


tt 


PLONGEUR-MARIN  ” —  GERMAN  —  1  851 


ENTRANCS 

HATCH 


CONNING  TOWER 


tower_ 


_C0%NINQ  rows* 


ENG 

ME 

i 

TORPEOO  TUB £3 


SCREW  VERTICAL  SCREW  FOR 
TRIMMING  &  DIVING 


VERTICAL  SCREW  TOR 
TRIMMING  &  BIVINS 


NORDENFELDT  No.  4  ENGLISH  —  1887 


GOUBET”—  FRENCH  — 1889 


HOLLAND  “  FULTON  " — UNITED  STATES  — 1901 


Photos  Copyright  by  International  Film  Service,  Inc. 


1.  “U-53”  off  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  U.  S.  A. 

2,  "Deutschland”  off  New  London,  Conn.,  U.  S.  A.  The  first  submarine  to  make  a  commercial  trans-atlantic  trip. 

GERMAN  SUBMARINES 


TORPEDO  SCHOOL 


TORQUES 


359 


to  the  outer  ends  of  the  booms.  Each  of  the 
booms  is  of  hollow  steel  tubing  and  is  about 
30  feet  long.  The  inner  end  is  fitted  with  a 
ring  which  passes  through  another  ring  at  the 
upper  end  of  a  pivot  bolt  which  works  in  a 
lug  secured  to  the  ship’s  side.  The  outer  end 
is  fitted  with  two  topping  lifts  and  two  guys. 
The  booms  are  placed  about  45  feet  apart. 
W  hen  not  in  use  the  booms  are  swung  in  along¬ 
side  and  with  the  net  landed  on  a  sort  of  shelf, 
or  if  there  is  no  shelf  the  net  is  drawn  up 
snugly  and  the  whole  lashed  to  eyebolts  on  the 
ship’s  side.  Torpedo  nets  are  not  regarded  with 
favor  by  many  naval  officers,  as  they  cannot 
be  used  except  when  the  ship  is  at  anchor, 
and  many  torpedoes  are  now  fitted  with  net 
cutters  which  enable  them  to  get  through.  Nets 
have  never  been  carried  by  United  States  naval 
vessels,  and  experience  with  them  in  the  great 
war  and  in  recent  experiments  have  confirmed 
the  wisdom  of  this  practice. 

TORPEDO  SCHOOL.  See  Naval  Schools 
of  Instruction. 

TORPEDO  STATION.  A  torpedo  supply 
station  and  headquarters  for  torpedo  boats. 
The  L  nited  States  naval  torpedo  station  is  on 
Goat  Island,  Newport  harbor.  It  consists  of  a 
torpedo  factory,  repair  shops,  buildings  for  the 
storage  and  care  of  reserve  torpedoes,  and  a 
school  for  enlisted  men  in  the  construction,  care, 
and  operation  of  torpedoes,  submarine  mines, 
etc.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  torpedoes  used 
in  the  United  States  navy  are  made  in  the  fac¬ 
tory,  the  others  being  built  by  contract  in  pri¬ 
vate  works.  All  torpedoes  delivered  under  con¬ 
tract  are  sent  there  from  the  makers  and  are 
inspected,  tested,  and  put  into  adjustment  for 
service;  also,  all  torpedoes  which  have  been 
injured  in  service  or  need  serious  repairs.  In 
addition,  all  necessary  supplies  for  working 
torpedoes  are  made  there,  together  with  tor¬ 
pedo  mines,  guncotton,  primers  for  heavy 
guns,  and  certain  other  ordnance  supplies  and 
fittings. 

TORQUATO  TASSO,  tor-kwa'tO  tas'sd.  A 
tragedy  by  Goethe  (1790)  suggested  by  a  visit 
to  Sorrento  and  Sicily. 

TORQUAY,  tor-ke'.  A  fashionable  health 
resort  and  watering  place  on  the  south  coast 
of  Devon,  England,  occupying  a  cove  on  the 
north  side  of  Tor  Bay,  23  miles  south  of  Ex¬ 
eter  ( Map :  England,  C  6).  Marble  works  and 
terra-cotta  manufactures  are  its  industrial  spe¬ 
cialties,  and  it  is  an  important  yachting  station. 
It  has  a  large  harbor.  Till  about  1800  Tor¬ 
quay  was  an  assemblage  of  fishermen’s  huts. 
Then  its  climate  and  freedom  from  fogs  caused 
it  to  be  resorted  to  by  tuberculous  patients;  it 
soon  attained  European  celebrity.  St.  John’s, 
a  fine  church  of  modern  Gothic  architecture, 
the  town  hall,  a  museum,  a  theatre,  and  an 
opera  house  are  the  chief  structures.  Torquay 
was  incorporated  in  1892.  Kent’s  Cavern,  dis¬ 
covered  in  1824,  and  the  Brixham  Cave,  dis¬ 
covered  in  1858,  are  rich  in  fossils  and  have  sup¬ 
plied  the  earliest  English  evidences  of  prehis¬ 
toric  man.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish 
Armada  Don  Pedro’s  galley  was  brought  into 
Tor  Bay,  and  an  old  thirteenth-century  building, 
where  the  survivors  were  housed,  is  known  as 
the  Spanish  barn.  Torquay  was  the  landing 
place  of  William  of  Orange  in  1688.  Pop., 
1901,  33,625;  1911,  38,772. 

TORQUEMADA,  tor'kft-ma'Da,  Juan  de, 
also  known  by  the  Latinized  form  Turrecre- 


mata  (1388  1468).  A  Spanish  theologian  and 
Cardinal,  born  at  Valladolid.  He  entered  the 
Dominican  Order  in  1403  and  completed  his 
studies  at  the  University  of  Paris  in  1423.  Af¬ 
ter  presiding  over  houses  of  his  order  at  Val¬ 
ladolid  and  Toledo,  he  was  made  master  of 
the  sacred  palace  by  Eugenius  IV  in  1431  and 
employed  in  various  important  negotiations, 
lie  was  made  Cardinal  priest  in  1439,  later 
Cardinal  Bishop  of  Albano,  and  in  1464  Car¬ 
dinal  Bishop  of  Sabina.  The  large  revenues 
of  various  preferments  he  devoted  to  church 
building  and  works  of  charity,  but  attained 
greater  renown  by  his  numerous  theological 
writings,  many  of  which  dealt  with  the  con¬ 
troversies  of  the  day.  He  took  part  in  the 
councils  of  Constance,  Basel,  and  Florence  and 
drew  up  the  plan  for  the  union  between  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches  at  the  last  named. 
Consult  S.  Lederer,  Der  spanische  Cardinal 
Johannes  von  Torquemada  (Freiburg,  1879), 
and  H.  C.  Lea,  History  of  the  Inquisition  of 
Spain  (4  vols.,  New  York,  1906-07). 

TORQUEMADA,  Tomas  de  (1420-98).  A 
Spanish  Inquisitor  General.  He  was  born  at 
Valladolid,  of  the  same  family  as  that  to  which 
belonged  the  famous  theologian,  Juan  de  Tor¬ 
quemada  (q.v. ).  He  entered  the  Dominican 
Order  and  became  prior  of  the  monastery  at 
Segovia,  a  post  which  he  held  for  22  years. 
In  1478  the  Inquisition  (q.v.)  was  reestablished 
m  Spain  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and  four 
years  later  some  assistants  were  given  to  the 
first  inquisitors.  Torquemada  was  among  these 
and  so  distinguished  himself  bv  his  zeal  that 
in  ,1483  he  was  named  by  Sixtus  IV  Grand 
Inquisitor  for  Castile  and  Aragon.  He  erected 
four  tribunals,  at  Seville,  Cordova,  Jaen,  and 
Villa  Real,  the  last  of  which  was  afterward 
transferred  to  Toledo.  The  Grand  Inquisitor 
was  assisted  by  a  council  of  theologians  and 
jurists  named  by  the  King,  but  deriving  their 
jurisdiction  from  the  Inquisitor  General  in 
virtue  of  the  latter’s  papal  authority.  In  politi¬ 
cal  and  legal  questions  he  was  obliged  to  act 
only  in  concert  with  .them,  but  in  theological 
matters  merely  asked  their  advice.  Torquemada 
drew  up  the  code  of  procedure,  which  was  con¬ 
firmed  by  the  Pope,  though  the  Holy  See  steadily 
impressed  upon  the  inquisitors  the  necessity  of 
exercising  charity  towards  those  who  were"  ac¬ 
cused  of  heresy  and  frequently  mitigated  the 
rigor  of  their  sentences.  Torquemada  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews 
from  Spain.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  re¬ 
tired  into  the  Dominican  monastery  of  Avila, 
where  lie  died.  Consult  De  Molenes,  Documents 
inedits :  Torquemada  et  VInquisition  (Paris, 
1897),  and  H.  Gaultier  de  Saint- Amand,  Tor¬ 
quemada:  Essai  sur  VInquisition  d’Espagne  en 
11/83  (Saint-Denis,  1910).  As  a  typical  repre¬ 
sentative  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  Torquemada 
stands  convicted  of  wanton  cruelty  on  the  evi¬ 
dence  of  his  own  code  of  procedure  and  on  the 
evidence  of  the  Jesuit  historian  Juan  de  Mariana 
(q.v.)  and  of  the  later  historian  Juan  Antonio 
Llorente  (q.v.),  who  was  general  secretary  of 
the  Inquisition  and  made  a  careful  study  of 
its  archives. 

TORQUES,  torks  (Lat.  torques,  torquis, 
twisted  neck  ring,  necklace,  collar,  from  torquere, 
to  rack,  twist,  torment ) .  A  species  of  gold 
ornament,  meant  to  be  worn  round  the  neck, 
which  was  much  in  use  in  ancient  times  among 
Asiatic  and  North  European  nations.  It  com 


TORRE 


TORRENS  SYSTEM 


360 


sisted  of  a  spirally  twisted  bar  of  gold,  bent 
nearly  into  a  circle,  with  the  ends  free  and 
terminating  in  hooks  or  sometimes  in  serpents. 
Numerous  examples  have  been  dug  up  in  Great 
Britain  and  France. 

TORRE,  tor'ra,  Duke  de  La.  See  Serrano  y 
Dominguez. 

TORRE  DEL  GRECO,  tor'ra  del  gra'ko.  A 
seaport  and  bathing  resort  in  the  Province  of 
Naples,  Italy,  situated  at  the  base  of  Vesuvius, 

7  miles  southeast  of  Naples  (Map:  Italy,  E  4). 
The  town  has  been  largely  rebuilt  since  the 
great  eruption  of  Vesuvius  in  1861.  It  manu¬ 
factures  wine,  coral  ware,  lava  ware,  and  rope. 
There  are  shipbuilding  yards.  The  inhabitants 
are  largely  engaged  in  the  coral,  tunny,  oyster, 
and  sardine  fisheries.  Torre  del  Greco  suffered 
severely  from  lava  streams  in  1631,  1737,  1794, 
and  1906.  Pop.  (commune),  1901,33,299;  1911, 
35,320. 

TORRE  DELL’  ANNUNZIATA,  -an-noon'- 
tse-a'ta.  A  seaport  in  the  Province  of  Naples, 
Italy,  situated  at  the  base  of  Vesuvius,  12  miles 
southeast  of  Naples  (Map:  Italy,  E  4).  It 
makes  a  specialty  of  macaroni.  There  are  fine 
thermal  baths.  It  has  a  government  arms  fac¬ 
tory,  extensive  fisheries,  and  a  trade  in  wine 
and  lava  products.  Pop.  (commune),  1901, 
28,143;  1911,  25,070. 

TORREDONJIMENO,  -don-He-ma'n6.  A 
town  in  the  Province  of  Jaen,  Spain,  8  miles 
west  of  the  city  of  Jaen,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Salado  de  Porcuna  (Map:  Spain,  D  4). 
It  is  a  well-constructed  town  with  regular  plazas 
and  wide  streets.  There  are  gypsum  quarries 
in  the  vicinity.  Spirits  and  soap  are  the  chief 
manufactures.  Pop.,  1900,  10,044;  1910,  12,328. 

TORRENCE,  (Frederic)  Kidgely  (1875- 
) .  An  American  poet,  born  at  Xenia,  Ohio, 
and  educated  at  Miami  University  and  at  Prince¬ 
ton.  He  was  successively  a  librarian  in  the 
Astor  and  Lenox  libraries,  New  York,  assistant 
editor  of  the  Critic,  and  associate  editor  of  the 
Cosmopolitan  Magazine  (1906-07).  He  was 
honored  with  membership  in  the  National  In¬ 
stitute  of  Arts  and  Letters.  Flis  work  includes: 
The  House  of  a  Hundred  Lights  (1900);  El 
Dorado:  A  Tragedy  (1903)  ;  Abelard  and  Eloise 
(1907),  a  poetic  drama;  Rituals  for  the  Events 
of  Life  (1910)  ;  Three  Plays  for  Women  (1910). 

TOR'RENS,  Henry  Wiiitelock  (1806-52). 
An  English  writer,  born  at  Canterbury  and 
educated  at  Charterhouse  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  He  held  various  positions  in  the  civil 
service  and  in  1837  became  one  of  Lord  Auck¬ 
land’s  secretaries,  but  his  reputation  rests  upon 
bis  translation  of  the  Arabian  Nights.  The 
first  volume  appeared  in  1838.  The  work  was 
never  completed,  but  the  existing  fragment  is 
considered  superior  to  any  later  version.  His 
collected  works  were  published  by  J.  Hume  in 
1854  (Calcutta  and  London). 

TOR'RENS,  Lake.  A  large  lake  depression 
in  South  Australia,  situated  about  35  miles 
north  of  the  north  extremity  of  Spencer’s  Gulf 
(Map:  South  Australia,  D  2).  It  is  about  130 
miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  20  miles, 
but  is  very  shallow.  In  the  wet  season  it  re¬ 
ceives  a  number  of  streams  from  the  Flinders 
Range,  but  for  a  large  part  of  the  year  it  is 
only  a  salt  marsh. 

TORRENS,  Robert  (1780-1864).  An  Irish 
economist.  He  is  best  known  as  an  economist 
and  as  one  of  the  first  to  state  the  law  of 
diminishing  returns,  the  modern  theories  of 


wealth,  and  theory  of  international  trade,  and 
is  credited  with  having  proposed  the  separation 
of  the  Bank  of  England  into  banking  and  issue 
departments.  His  publications  include:  An  Es¬ 
say  on  Money  and  Paper  Currency  (1812); 
An  Essay  on  the  Production  of  Wealth  (1821)  ; 
Letters  on  Commercial  Policy  (1833);  On 
Wages  and  Combinations  (1834);  Tracts  on 
Finance  and  Trade  (1852). 

TORRENS,  Sir  Robert  Richard  (1814-84). 
A  British  colonial  statesman,  born  at  Cork, 
and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  In 
1840  he  went  to  South  Australia,  of  which  he 
became  Treasurer  in  1852  and,  after  responsible 
government  was  established,  Premier  and  Treas¬ 
urer  in  1857.  In  the  following  year  were  passed 
the  land  laws  which  bear  his  name,  whereby 
public  registration  was  substituted  for  convey¬ 
ancing.  (See  Torrens  System.)  In  1863  Tor¬ 
rens  retired  from  Australian  public  life,  re¬ 
turned  to  England,  and  in  1868  entered  Parlia¬ 
ment,  where  he  sat  for  Cambridge  until  1874, 
but  failed  to  introduce  his.  reform  in  the  land 
laws.  Flis  publications  include  The  South  Aus¬ 
tralian  System  of  Conveyancing  (1859)  and 
Transfer  of  Land  by  “ Registration  of  Title”  as 
now  in  Operation  in  Australia  under  the  “ Tor¬ 
rens  System ”  ( 1863 ) . 

TORRENS,  William  Torrens  McCullagh 
(1813-94).  An  Irish  politician  and  author,  who 
in  middle  life  (1863)  assumed  his  mother’s 
name  of  Torrens.  He  was  born  at  Greenfield, 
near  Dublin,  was  educated  at  Trinity' College, 
Dublin,  and  was  admitted  to  the  Irish  bar 
in  1836  and  the  English  in  1855.  In  1842  he 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Mechanics’  Insti¬ 
tute  of  Dublin.  Elected  to  Parliament  in  1847, 
he  sat  for  Dundalk  until  1852,  was  returned  in 
1857  for  Yarmouth,  but  was  unseated  on  peti¬ 
tion,  and  then  sat  for  Finsbury  from  1865  to 
1884.  He  was  known  for  his  interest  in  social 
questions.  He  introduced  the  Artisans’  Dwell¬ 
ings  Act  and  that  by  which  the  School  Board 
of  London  was  established.  His  publications  in¬ 
clude:  The  Industrial  History  of  Free  Nations 
(2  vols.,  1846)  ;  The  Lancashire  Lesson  (1864)  ; 
Our  Empire  in  Asia:  How  ice  Came  by  it 
(1872)  ;  Memoirs  of  Viscount  Melbourne  (2  vols., 
1878);  Twenty  Years  in  Parliament  (1893); 
History  of  Cabinets  (2  vols.,  1894). 

TORRENS  SYSTEM.  A  system  of  registra¬ 
tion  of  titles  to  real  estate  introduced  into 
South  Australia  by  Sir  Robert  Richard  Torrens 
in  1857  in  the  Real  Property  Act.  This  system 
of  official  examination  and  registration  of  titles 
has  been  adopted  in  England,  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  British  Columbia,  parts  of  Canada, 
and  in  somewhat  modified  form  in  some  of  the 
United  States  and  Territories  including  New 
York,  Massachusetts,  Illinois,  California,  Colo¬ 
rado,  Oregon,  Minnesota,  Ohio,  Washington, 
Hawaii,  and  the  Philippines.  The  chief  charac¬ 
teristics  of  the  system  are  ( 1 )  the  creation  of 
truly  indefeasible  titles  warranted  and  guaran¬ 
teed  by  the  state;  (2)  provisions  for  special 
proceedings  by  which  the  validity  of  the  title 
is  established  and  a  governmental  certificate 
issued  attesting  that  fact;  (3)  the  transfer  of 
title  to  registered  land  by  entry  on  the  register 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  methods;  (4)  the 
creation  of  an  indemnity  fund  to  compensate 
those  injured  by  the  operation  of  the  system. 

England.  The  present  English  system  is  the 
result  of  agitation  and  experimental  legislation 
of  upward  of  50  years.  As  now  in  force,  the 


TORREY 


TORRES  NAHARRO 


361 


English  Act  provides  for  three  forms  of  regis¬ 
tered  titles,  absolute,  qualified,  and  possessory. 
The  extended  examination  necessary  to  justify 
a  certificate  of  absolute  title  and  the  expense 
attendant  thereto  have  tended  to  discourage  ap¬ 
plication  for  such  titles;  and  the  fact  that  a 
certificate  of  qualified  title  tended  onlv  to 
emphasize  the  existing  defect  in  title  had  a 
similar  effect  upon  applications  for  qualified 
certificates.  The  system  has  operated  with  con¬ 
siderable  success  in  reference  to  possessory  titles, 
however,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  certificate 
issued  in  such  applications  does  not  affect  rights 
existing  before  the  time  of  the  possession  certi¬ 
fied  to  and  does  not  cut  off  rights  to  the  title 
not  yet  possessory  in  character.  In  other  words, 
such  a  certificate  merely  vests  in  the  applicant 
"such  title  as  he  may  have”  at  the  time  of  the 
application. 

United  States.  Because  of  the  due-process 
clause  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
the  pioneer  Illinois  Act  of  1895  was  declared  un¬ 
constitutional,  since  it  appointed  a  registrar  of 
titles  whose  functions  in  effect  amounted  to 
the  exercise  of  a  judicial  power.  Accordingly 
all  the  registration  acts  now  in  force  provide 
for  a  regular  proceeding  in  court,  brought  by 
the  person  seeking  to  have  his  title  registered, 
and  eflective  only  against  persons  interested 
upon  the  giving  of  notice  as  prescribed  in  the 
statute.  Under  the  Massachusetts  Act  a  court 
of  land  registration  is  established  for  the  whole 
State,  its  sessions  being  held  in  Boston.  After 
the  completion  of  such  a  proceeding,  provided 
the  case  has  been  properly  conducted  and  all 
necessary  parties  served,  a  period,  generally  two 
years,  as  in  the  Illinois  Act,  must  elapse  before 
the  title  of  the  applicant  becomes  indefeasible. 
It  has  become  customary  to  protect  the  parties 
during  this  period  by  the  issuance  of  a  bond. 
In  the  United  States  only  estates  in  fee  simple 
may  be  registered.  See  Conveyance;  Deed; 
Real  Property;  Recording  of  Deeds;  Title, 
Registration  of;  Title  Deeds. 

Bibliography.  Jacques  Dumas,  Registration 
of  Title  under  Torrens  System  (Chicago,  1900)  ; 
William  Niblack,  The  Torrens  System  (ib., 
1900);  id.,  The  Torrens  System:  Its  Cost  and 
Complexity  (ib.,  1903)  ;  J.  E.  Ilogg,  Australian 
Torrens  System  (London,  1905);  R.  B.  Morris, 
Law  of  Land  and  Mortgage  Registration  (ib., 
1905);  J.  P.  Kennedy  (comp.),  List  of  Refer¬ 
ences  in  the  Torrens  System  of  Land  Registration 
(Richmond,  Va.,  1906)  ;  William  Niblack,  Analy¬ 
sis  of  the  Torrens  System  of  Conveyancing  Land 
(Chicago,  1912)  ;  A.  G.  Cameron,  The  Torrens 
System:  Its  Simplicity,  Serviceability,  and  Suc¬ 
cess  (Boston,  1915). 

TORRES  NAHARRO,  tor'ras  na-hiir'rb, 
Bartolome  de.  A  Spanish  poet  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Torre  de  Miguel  Sexmero,  near  Badajoz, 
towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He 
lived  at  Rome  and  subsequently  at  Naples, 
where  he  published  his  collected  works  under 
the  title  Propaladia  (1517)  and  dedicated  them 
to  Ferdinand  d’ Avalos,  the  husband  of  Vit- 
toria  Colonna.  His  plays  have  action,  char¬ 
acter,  and  plot  and  are  of  historic  value. 
Torres  Naharro  is  called  the  creator  of  Span¬ 
ish  comedy,  but  this  title  belongs  rather  to 
Juan  del  Encina.  Torres  Naharro  can,  how¬ 
ever,  be  considered  the  first  real  master  of 
the  Romanesque  drama,  and  he  was  the  first 
Spanish  writer  who  developed  his  plots  and 
examined  their  effect  on  the  public.  He  also 


wrote  ballads,  sonnets,  and  epistles.  It  was 
some  time  before  his  plays  became  known  in 
Spain,  and  the  first  Spanish  edition  of  them  did 
not  appear  until  1520.  But  during  the  follow¬ 
ing  century  his  works  were  very  popular,  al¬ 
though,  owing  to  his  manner  of  describing  the 
clergy,  the  later  editions  were  expurgated. 
(  onsult  lorres  Naharro,  La  Propaladia,  edition 
by  Manuel  Canete  and  Marcelino  Menendez  v 
Pelayo  (with  an  excellent  study  by  the  latter), 
in  Libros  de  Antano,  vols.  ix  and  x  (Madrid 
1880,  1900). 

TORRES  NOVAS,  tor'ras  no'vas.  A  town  of 
the  District  of  Santarem,  Portugal,  56  miles 
northeast  of  Lisbon  (Map:  Portugal,  A3).  It 
is  in  an  olive-producing  region  and  lias  im¬ 
portant  oil  mills  and  cotton  and  linen  manu¬ 
factories.  Pop.,  1900,  10,738. 

TORRES  (tor'res)  STRAIT.  The  channel 
which  separates  New  Guinea  from  the  Aus¬ 
tralian  continent  (Map:  Australia,  G  4).  It  is 
about  80  miles  in  width.  Its  navigation  is 
rendered  difficult  by  coral  reefs,  sand  banks,  and 
islands.  It  was  discovered  by  Torres  in  1606. 

TORRES  VEDRAS,  va/dras.  A  town  in  the 
District  of  Lisbon,  Estremadura,  Portugal,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Sizandro,  24  miles  northwest 
of  Lisbon,  on  the  Lisbon-Figueira  Railroad. 
Pop.,  1900,  6891.  It  carries  on  some  trade  in 
wine.  The  Lines  of  Torres  Vedras  consist  of 
three  lines  of  fortifications,  begun  by  Welling¬ 
ton  in  1809  and  behind  which  he  retired  in 
October,  1810,  before  the  invading  army  of 
Massena.  He  held  the  lines  against  all  the  at¬ 
tempts  on  the  part  of  the  French  and  in  August, 
1811,  forced  Massena  to  retreat.  The  first  of 
these  lines,  extending  from  Alhandra  on  the 
Tagus  to  the  mouth  of  the  Sizandro  on  the  sea- 
coast,  was  29  miles  long;  the  second  lay  from 
6  to  10  miles  behind  the  first  and  had  a'  length 
of  24  miles;  the  third,  situated  to  the  southwest 
of  Lisbon,  at  the  very  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  was 
very  short,  being  intended  to  cover  a  forced  em¬ 
barkation  if  that  became  necessary.  The  entire 
ground  thus  fortified  was  equal  to  500  square 
miles. 

TOR'REY,  Bradford  (1843-1912).  An 
American  ornithologist  and  author,  born  at 
Weymouth,  Norfolk  Co.,  Mass.  He  entered  busi¬ 
ness  in  Boston,  and  from  1886  to  1901  was  a 
member  of  the  staff  of  the  Youth’s  Companion 
of  that  city.  Among  his  books,  marked  by  ac¬ 
curate  and  discriminating  observation  and  a 
happy  style,  are  Birds  in  the  Bush  (1885;  8th 
ed.,  1895);  A  Rambler’s  Lease  (1889);  Spring 
Notes  from  Tennessee  (1896);  A  World  of 
Green  Hills  (1898);  Every-Day  Birds  (1901); 
The  Clerk  of  the  Woods  (1903);  Nature’s  In¬ 
vitation  (1904);  Friends  on  the  Shelf  (1906); 
Field  Days  in  California  (1913). 

TORREY,  Charles  Cutler  (1863-  ). 

An  American  Semitic  scholar,  born  at  East 
Hardwick,  Vt.  He  graduated  from  Bowdoin 
College  in  1884,  from  Andover  Theological  Semi¬ 
nary  in  1889,  and  from  the  University  of  Strass- 
burg  (Ph.D.)  in  1892.  He  was  afterward  in¬ 
structor  and  professor  of  Semitic  languages  at 
Andover  until  1900,  when  he  accepted  a  like 
chair  at  Yale.  In  1900—01  he  was  director  of 
the  American  School  of  Archaeology  in  Jeru¬ 
salem,  and  in  1906  he  became  chairman  of  the 
managing  committee  of  this  school.  He  served 
as  coeditor  of  the  Journal  of  the  American 
Oriental  Society.  Ilis  publications  include:  The 
Commercial-Theological  Terms  in  the  Koran 


TORREY 


TORRIGI  AN  0 


362 


( 1 892 )  :  The  Composition  and  Historical  Value 
of  Ezra-N  ehemiah  (1896);  The  Mohammedan 
Conquest  of  Egypt  and  North  Africa  (1901); 
Selections  from  Bokhari  (1906);  Ezra  Studies 
(1910). 

TORREY,  Charles  Turner  (1813-46).  An 
American  reformer,  born  at  Scituate,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1830,  studied  theology,  and 
became  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  in 
Princeton,  N.  J.  Later  he  had  charge  of  a 
church  at  Salem,  Mass.,  but  finally  gave  up  his 
pastoral  duties  to  devote  himself  to  the  aboli¬ 
tionist  movement.  He  removed  to  Maryland, 
and  in  1843,  for  writing  an  account  of  a  slave¬ 
holders’  convention  held  at  Baltimore,  he  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned.  He  aided  fugitives 
by  the  underground  railroad  and  in  1844  was 
convicted  of  having  attempted  to  help  slaves 
to  escape  and  was  sentenced  to  a  long  term  in 
the  State  penitentiary.  Two  years  later  he 
died  in  prison  of  consumption.  His  body  was 
taken  to  Boston,  where  it  was  given  a  public 
funeral.  He  was  hailed  as  a  martyr  in  the 
antislavery  cause. 

TORREY,  John  (1796-1873).  An  American 
botanist.  He  was  born  in  New  York  State; 
graduated  at  the  New  York  College  of  Physi¬ 
cians  and  Surgeons  (1818);  was  professor  at 
West  Point  ( 1824-27 )  ;  in  the  College  of  Phy¬ 
sicians  and  Surgeons  (1827-55);  at  Princeton 
(1830-54);  chief  assayer  in  the  United  States 
Assay  Office,  New  York  (1853-73).  In  1855  he 
was  president  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science.  His  best-known 
publications  are:  Catalogue  of  Plants  Grouting 
Spontaneously  within  Thirty  Miles  of  New  York 
(1819);  Flora  of  the  Northern  and  Middle 
States  (1824)  ;  Flora  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
With  Prof.  Asa  Gray  he  began  the  publication  of 
Flora  of  North  America  (1838-43).  His- valu¬ 
able  herbarium  and  botanical  library  he  pre¬ 
sented  in  1860  to  Columbia  College,  in  which 
institution  he  held  a  professorship  of  chemistry 
at  the  time  of  his  death.  A  noted  botanical 
club  has  been  named  for  him. 

TORREY,  Joseph  William  (1828-84).  An 
American  newspaper  man  and  merchant,  born 
at  Bath,  Me.  He  was  for  a  time  connected  with 
the  Boston  Times  and  the  Carpet  Bag.  In  1853 
he  went  to  Australia,  where  he  entered  a  com¬ 
mercial  house,  and  in  1859  to  China,  where  he 
became  editor  of  the  Hongkong  Times  and  the 
China  Mail.  He  engaged  in  commerce,  organ¬ 
ized  the  American  Trading  Company  of  Borneo, 
and  in  1865  was  recognized  by  the  Sultan  as 
Rajah  of  the  Marudu  and  Ambong  districts. 
He  retained  the  position  until  1879,  when  he 
became  Secretary  of  the  American  Legation  at 
Bangkok.  He  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1883. 

TORREY,  Reuben  Archer  (1856-  ). 

An  American  evangelist,  born  at  Hoboken,  N.  J. 
He  was  educated  at  Yale  (A.  B.,  1875;  B.D., 
1878)  and  at  Leipzig  and  Erlangen  (1882-83). 
Ordained  to  the  Congregational  ministry  in 
1878,  he  was  city  missionary  in  Minneapolis, 
Minn.,  for  some  years  and  then  became  asso¬ 
ciated  with  the  work  of  Dwight  L.  Moody,  serv¬ 
ing  as  superintendent  of  the  Moody  Bible 
Institute  from  1889  to  1908.  Besides  preaching 
in  many  American  cities  he  made  a  world 
evangelistic  tour  in  1902-03  and  held  meetings 
in  Great  Britain  in  1903-05  and  1911.  His 
writings  include:  What  the  Bible  Teaches 
(1898);  Eow  to  Work  for  Christ  (1901);  Re¬ 


vival  Addresses  (1903);  How  to  Promote  and 
Conduct  a  Successful  Revival  (1901;  new  ed., 
1906);  Anecdotes  and  Illustrations  (1907); 
Studies  in  the  Life  and  Teachings  of  Our  Lord 
(1909);  The  Person  and  Work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  (1910);  The  Return  of  the  Lord  Jesus 
(1913). 

TOR'REYA  (Neo-Lat.,  named  in  honor  of 
John  Torrey).  A  genus  of  conifers  belonging 
to  the  Taxineae,  or  yew  tribe,  and  comprising 
four  species  of  remarkable  distribution.  All 
of  the  species  are  very  local,  but  very  widely 
separated,  occurring  in  restricted  localities  in 
Florida,  California,  Japan,  and  China.  The 
California  species  known  as  Californian  nutmeg 
is  the  largest,  reaching  a  height  of  70  feet  and 
occasionally  100  feet. 

TORREY  BOTANICAL  CLUB,  The.  A  sci¬ 
entific  society  in  New  York  City,  incorporated 
in  1871  and  now  one  of  the  six  associated  so¬ 
cieties  forming  the  Scientific  Alliance  (q.v. ). 
It  has  a  valuable  herbarium  of  several  thousand 
specimens,  illustrating  the  flora  within  100 
miles  of  New  York,  exhibited  at  the  museum 
of  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden,  which  is  the 
home  of  the  club.  The  membership  in  1916  was 
about  400,  of  whom  300  were  active  members. 
The  club  publishes  the  Bulletin,  Torrey  a,  and 

^  0  X  T'S  • 

TORRIANI,  Maria  Torelli-.  See  Torelli- 
Torriani,  Maria. 

TORRICELLI,  tor're-chel'16,  Evangelista 
(1608-47).  An  Italian  mathematician  and 
physicist,  born  at  Piancaldoli  or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  at  Modigliana  in  the  Romagna. 
From  about  1628  he  studied  mathematics  in 
Rome,  under  Benedetto  Castelli  (1577-1644), 
the  favorite  disciple  of  Galileo.  Galileo’s  theo¬ 
ries  on  force  and  motion  especially  engaged  his 
attention  and  led  to  his  publishing  a  Trattato 
del  moto  (1641),  a  meritorious  work,  but  con¬ 
taining  few  new  discoveries  of  consequence.  He 
was  then  invited  by  Galileo  to  visit  him  at 
Florence,  and  aided  the  old  philosopher,  now 
blind,  in  the  preparation  of  his  Discorsi.  On 
Galileo’s  death  he  was  appointed  his  successor 
in  the  chair  of  philosophy  and  mathematics  at 
Florence.  Torricelli  was  the  first  to  use  a  column 
of  mercury  in  a  tube  closed  at  one  end  to 
balance  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
found  that  a  much  shorter  column  could  be  used 
than  in  the  case  of  water,  as  in  Galileo’s  experi¬ 
ment.  This  feat,  actually  performed  in  1643 
by  his  assistant,  Viviani,  furnished  him  with 
the  idea  of  the  barometer  (q.v.)  in  which  the 
space  above  the  mercury  in  the  closed  tube 
has  since  been  known  as  a  Torricellian  vacuum. 
Torricelli  also  effected  the  quadrature  of  the 
cycloid,  but  in  this  he  was  anticipated  by  Rober- 
val.  He  was  also  the  first  to  construct  a  simple 
microscope  and  improved  the  telescope.  In  1908 
was  celebrated  in  Italy  the  third  centenary  of 
Torricelli’s  birth,  and  interesting  memorials 
were  published  reproducing  his  original  work. 

TORRIGI  ANO,  tor're-ja'nd,  Pietro  (also 
Torrigiani  and  Torregiani)  (c.1472-1528) .  A 
Florentine  sculptor  of  the  late  Renaissance.  He 
was  born  in  Florence  and  studied  under  Bertoldo 
in  the  Giardino  Medici,  where  in  a  jealous  rage 
he  broke  the  nose  of  his  fellow  pupil,  Michel¬ 
angelo,  thereby  permanently  disfiguring  him.  He 
was  afterward  taken  by  Florentine  merchants 
to  London,  where  he  worked  for  King  Henry 
VIII,  executing  the  stately  tomb  of  Henry  VII 
and  his  Queen  (1518)  in  Westminster  Abbey. 


TORRINGTON 


363  TORSTENSON 


TTe  also  designed  there  a  bronze  monument  for 
the  Duchess  of  Richmond,  and  the  tomb  of  Dr. 
\  oung  in  the  Rolls  Chapel,  Chancery  Lane. 
Later  he  went  to  Spain,  where  he  executed  com¬ 
missions  for  the  cathedral  of  Seville  and  modeled 
the  fine  statue  of  St.  Jerome  (now  in  the  Mu¬ 
seum,  Seville).  Imprisoned  by  the  Inquisition 
for  destroying  a  statue  of  the  Virgin  for  which 
he  considered  himself  underpaid,  Torrigiano 
starved  to  death  in  confinement.  His  work  is  in 
the  light  decorative  style  of  the  late  Quattro¬ 
cento,  but  shows  greater  emphasis  on  the  archi¬ 
tectonic  structure. 

TOR'RINGTON.  A  town  in  Litchfield  Co., 
Conn.,  35  miles  by  rail  west  of  Hartford,  on 
the  Naugatuck  River,  and  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Con¬ 
necticut,  C  2).  It  has  a  public  library,  the 
Hungerford  Hospital,  and  a  fine  municipal 
building.  Torrington  is  extensively  interested 
in  manufacturing.  The  leading  products  are 
brass  articles,  hardware,  needles,  skates,  novel¬ 
ties,  woolen  goods,  gasoline  engines,  and  ma¬ 
chine  tools.  Pop.  (town),  1900,  12,453;  1910, 
16,840;  1915  (U.  S.  est.),  19,153;  1920,  22,055. 
Torrington  was  settled  in  1737  and  was  incorpo¬ 
rated  in  1/40  as  a  town  and  in  1887  as  a  borough. 
(Population  1920,  20,623.)  Consult  Samuel  Or- 
cutt,  History  of  Torrington  (Albany,  1878). 

TORRINGTON,  Frederick  Herbert  (1837- 
1917).  A  Canadian  musician,  born  at  Dudley, 
Worcestershire,  England.  In  1853  he  became 
organist  at  St.  Anne's,  Bewdley,  and  in  1857- 
69  was  organist  at  Great  St.  James’s  Street 
Methodist  Church  in  Montreal,  Canada.  He 
was  organist  and  musical  director  at  King’s 
Chapel,  Boston,  in  1869-73,  and  also  professor 
in  the  New  England  Conservatory  of  Music; 
in  1873-1907  he  was  organist  and  choirmaster 
at  the  Metropolitan  Church  at  Toronto,  Canada, 
and  conducted  the  Philharmonic  Society  there. 
He  founded  in  1886  the  first  Toronto  musical 
festival  and  in  1888  instituted  the  Toronto  Col¬ 
lege  of  Music.  He  also  conducted  Toronto  musi¬ 
cal  festivals  in  1895  and  1896.  In  1903  he 
was  associate  conductor,  with  Sir  Alexander 
Campbell  Mackenzie  ( q.v. ) ,  of  the  cycle  of  musi¬ 
cal  festivals  in  that  city.  He  was  elected  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Canadian  Society  of  Musicians  in 
1892.  Among  his  works  are  organ  music, 
choruses,  hymn  tunes,  and  services. 

TORRINGTON,  Viscount.  See  Byng, 
George. 

*  TOR'SION  BALANCE.  An  instrument  orig¬ 
inally  designed  by  the  Rev.  John  Mitchell  and 
after  his  death  improved  by  Henry  Cavendish, 
who  used  it  in  performing  the  well-known  Cav¬ 
endish  experiment  of  determining  the  mass  of 
the  earth.  The  apparatus  was  reinvented  by 
Coulomb  and  is  often  known  by  his  name,  hav¬ 
ing  been  used  by  him  to  study  electrical  and 
magnetic  attractions.  It  consists  of  a  horizontal 
rod  suspended  by  a  fine  wire  or,  in  the  most 
recent  experiments,  a  fibre  of  quartz  and  carry¬ 
ing  at  either  end  two  small  spheres  having  a 
mass  equivalent  to  one  gram.  Adjacent  to  but 
on  opposite  sides  of  these  small  masses  are 
two  large  spheres  of  lead  which  attract  the  two 
smaller  masses  and  cause  the  horizontal  rod  to 
deflect,  the  movement  being  observed  by  a  mir¬ 
ror  and  telescope  and  scale  as  in  the  case  of  the 
reflecting  galvanometer.  The  force  of  attraction 
between  two  different  masses  can  thus  be  ascer¬ 
tained,  and,  as  the  attraction  of  the  earth  for 
a  unit  mass  as  well  as  its  radius  is  known, 

Vol.  XXII. — 24 


we  can  thus  determine  the  mass  of  the  earth. 
In  electricity  charged  conductors  were  substi¬ 
tuted  for  the  masses,  and  to  study  the  strength 
and  action  of  magnetic  poles  a  long  thin  magnet 
was  suspended  and  a  similar  magnet  placed  in  a 
vertical  position  near  one  of  its  poles.  The 


amount  of  force  exerted  was  ascertained  by 
finding  the  angle  through  which  it  was  necessary 
to  turn  the  head  carrying  the  wire  in  order 
to  keep  the  suspended  bar  at  its  original  posi¬ 
tion.  The  Cavendish  experiment  enables  the 
physicist  to  compute  the  mass  of  the  earth  and 
to  determine  also  its  mean  density,  which  ac¬ 
cording  to  Boys  is  5.5268. 

TORSK  (Norw.,  Dan.,  Swed.  torsk,  connected 
with  Eng.  thirst),  or  Cusk.  A  small  cod  (Bros- 
mius  brosme )  of  the  European  side  of  the  North 
Atlantic,  taken  in  deep  water  and  regarded  as 
valuable.  It  is  usually  about  20  inches  long 
and  is  distinguished  by  its  long  dorsal  fin  and 
yellow  color. 

TOR'SO  ( It.,  stump,  trunk ) .  An  ancient 
statue  of  which  only  the  body  remains.  Of 
such  imperfect  relics  of  classic  art,  the  most 
famous  is  the  Torso  of  the  Belvedere  in  the 
Vatican,  the  work  of  Apollonios,  son  of  Nestor, 
an  Athenian.  It  is  a  masterpiece  of  the  later 
Greek  sculpture  (first  century  b.c. ),  showing  a 
thorough  mastery  of  the  treatment  of  the  nude 
in  all  its  details,  though  without  the  ideality  of 
the  best  period.  It  represents  a  man  of  gi¬ 
gantic  build,  seated  on  a  rough  rock  over  which 
a  skin  is  thrown.  It  is  usually  called  Hercules, 
though  Sauer  prefers  to  consider  it  Polyphemus. 
No  successful  or  convincing  restoration  has 
yet  been  made.  The  common  story  that  it  was 
discovered  in  the  Campo  del  Fiore  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  placed  by 
order  of  Pope  Julius  II  in  the  Vatican,  is  cer¬ 
tainly  wrong.  It  is  only  known  that  it  was  for¬ 
merly  in  the  possession  of  the  Colonna  family 
and  was  brought  to  the  Vatican  by  Pope  Clement 
VII  (1523-34).  Consult  Loewy,  Inschriften  der 
griechischen  Bildhauer,  No.  343  (Leipzig,  1885), 
and  B.  Sauer,  Torso  von  Belvedere  (Giessen, 
1894). 

TOR'STENSON,  Lennart,  Count  of  Obtala 


TORT 


TORTOISE 


364 


(1603-51).  A  Swedish  general,  born  at  Tor- 
stena,  West  Gothland,  Aug.  17,  1603.  He  be¬ 
came  a  royal  page  in  1618  and  attended  Gusta- 
vus  Adolphus  in  most  of  his  earlier  campaigns. 
When  Gustavus  entered  Germany  in  1630,  Tor¬ 
stenson  was  captain  of  the  bodyguard;  and  the 
brilliant  services  he  rendered  were  rewarded  with 
rapid  promotion.  In  1641,  on  the  death  of 
Baner,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  Swedish  forces  in  Germany.  He  invaded 
Silesia  in  May,  1642,  routed  the  Imperialists 
at  Glogau  and  Schweidnitz,  reduced  most  of 
Moravia,  and  being  pressed  back  into  Saxony 
by  the  Archduke  Leopold  William  and  Pic- 
colomini,  turned  upon  his  pursuers  (Nov.  2, 
1642)  and  signally  defeated  them  on  the  his¬ 
toric  field  of  Breitenfeld.  He  then  laid  Moravia 
and  Austria  under  contribution.  The  Emperor, 
Ferdinand  III,  despairing  of  protecting  his  ter¬ 
ritories  from  Torstenson,  negotiated  with  Chris¬ 
tian  IV  of  Denmark  to  make  a  diversion  by 
invading  Sweden;  but  Torstenson  with  charac¬ 
teristic  promptitude  left  Moravia  in  September, 
1643,  traversed  Saxony,  burst  into  Holstein,  and 
in  less  than  six  weeks  subjugated  the  Danish 
mainland.  The  Imperialists  under  Gallas  fol¬ 
lowed  him  to  aid  their  allies,  but  arrived  too 
late  and  were  routed  and  driven  into  Saxony, 
and  again  totally  defeated  at  Jiiterbog  in  at¬ 
tempting  to  bar  Torstenson’s  return  into  Bo¬ 
hemia  (1644).  The  Swedish  general  won  a 
great  victory  over  Hatzfeld  at  Jankau  (March 

6,  1645)  and  carried  his  arms  to  the  Danube. 
The  Emperor  was  compelled  to  flee  from  Vienna, 
the  Saxons  again  joined  the  Swedes,  and  the 
Danes,  routed  at  sea  as  well  as  on  land,  sought 
peace.  In  1646  disease  compelled  Torstenson  to 
resign  the  command  and  retire  to  Sweden,  where 
he  was  created  Count  and  appointed  to  vari¬ 
ous  high  offices.  He  died  at  Stockholm,  April 

7,  1651.  Consult  De  Peyster,  Torstenson  (New 
York,  1886).  See  Thirty  Years’  War. 

TORT  (Lat.  torquere,  to  twist,  OF.  torte, 
twisted ) .  A  civil  wrong.  A  short  and  exact 
definition  of  tort  is  not  possible.  Legal  au¬ 
thorities  have  attempted  such  definition,  but 
unsatisfactorily,  as  “a  wrong  independent  of 
contract.”  Yet  the  assault  on  a  passenger  by 
the  employee  on  a  street  car  gives  rise  to  an 
action  in  tort  and  an  action  for  breach  of  the 
contract  of  transportation.  The  elements  of 
a  tort  are  that  it  consists  of  the  breach  of  a 
legal  duty  which  may  have  been  created  by  con¬ 
tract  or  implied  by  law,  and  such  duty  must  He 
owing  to  the  party  injured.  It  is  distinguished 
from  contracts  in  its  nature  in  that  it  involves 
a  greater  amount  of  moral  turpitude.  The 
very  names  of  the  principal  torts  connote  wrong, 
such  as  slander,  fraud,  negligence,  and  conver¬ 
sion  ( q.v. ) .  An  action  in  tort  usually  carries 
with  it  the  right  to  arrest  the  defendant.  It 
differs  from  a  crime,  as  it  is  an  offense  against 
an  individual,  while  a  crime  is  an  offense  against 
the  state.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest  branches 
of  law,  as  undoubtedly  in  primitive  communities 
the  settlement  of  active  disputes  was  one  of 
the  first  functions  of  authoritv,  while  contract 
rights,  breaches  of  agreement,  were  left  to  the 
individuals.  Later,  as  acts  tended  to  become 
breaches  of  the  peace,  the  state  assumed  them 
to  be  offenses  against  itself.  The  distinction 
between  contracts,  torts,  and  crimes  has,  even 
in  modern  communities,  not  been  clearly  held. 
The  law  of  torts  is  itself  constantly  changing. 
With  changing  social  conditions  and  the  recog¬ 


nition  of  altered  obligations  new  legal  duties 
of  one  individual  to  another  are  defined.  Acts 
which  were  not  torts  have  become  so.  For 
example,  at  common  law  the  landlord  owed  little 
or  no  obligation  to  repair.  The  roof  of  the 
house  might  fall  in  or  the  stairs  give  way,  and 
the  landlord  was  not  liable,  but  under  modern 
conditions,  where  frequently  a  number  of  ten¬ 
ants  dwell  in  a  tenement  house,  statutes  impose 
a  duty  on  the  landlord;  the  Iheory  being  that 
the  landlord  exercises  supervision  and  control 
over  the  roof  and  hallways  used  by  the  tenant 
jointly,  no  responsibility  resting  on  the  indi¬ 
vidual  tenant.  The  landlord  therefore  is  held 
liable  for  injuries  in  an  action  in  tort,  for 
negligence  in  failure  to  make  repairs,  after 
notice.  A  branch  of  the  law  of  tort  which  is  not 
settled  and  is  yet  in  process  of  change  is 
that  of  what  is  known  as  “unfair  competition.” 
Another  example  of  the  change  of  the  law 
of  torts  with  altered  social  conditions  is  the 
modern  recognition  by  statutes  of  the  obligation 
of  employers  in  regard  to  accidents  to  their 
employees.  The  essential  element  of  legal  duty 
should  be  distinguished  from  moral  duty.  Thus, 
a  man’s  property  may  be  injured  by  fire  which 
a  bystander  could  have  extinguished  or  pre¬ 
vented  at  little  risk.  No  cause  of  action  would 
lie  for  the  neglect  of  the  bystander  because  he 
was  under  no  legal  obligation  to  act.  Thus, 
many  accidents  happen  and  injuries  result  for 
which  no  remedy  exists.  But  where  a  right  of 
action  does  exist  damages  are  not  confined  to 
those  which  the  law  would  recognize  in  an 
action  on  contract,  and  exemplary  damages  may 
be  recovered.  A  classification  of  the  principal 
torts  has  been  attempted  on  the  basis  of  the 
nature  of  the  injuries.  Injuries  to  property 
are  such  as  conversion,  trespass,  nuisance;  to 
person,  negligence,  assault ;  to  feelings,  such  as 
injuries  to  reputation,  libel,  slander,  alienation 
of  affection,  and  seduction  (q.v.).  As  a  gen¬ 
eral  rule  the  party  must  elect  whether  to  sue 
on  a  contract  or  a  tort.  An  example  of  the 
same  act  which  is  both  a  breach  of  contract,  a 
tort,  and  a  crime,  is  that  of  the  misappropria¬ 
tion  of  funds  by  a  trustee.  It  is  a  breach  of 
the  contract  of  trust;  it  is  a  tort,  conversion; 
and  it  is  a  crime,  embezzlement.  The  law  will 
award  damages  for  the  breach,  equity  will  follow 
the  misappropriated  funds  and  allow  arrest  of 
the  defendant,  and  the  state  will  punish  for  the 
crime.  Another  act  which  may  be  given  as  an 
example  is  that  of  criminal  libel.  The  libel 
may  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  is  punishable 
by  the  state  as  a  crime,  and  at  the  same  time 
give  a  right  of  redress  to  the  individual  in  tort. 
See  Campbell’s  (Lord)  Act. 

Bibliography.  C.  G.  Addison,  A  Treatise  on 
the  Law  of  Torts  (7th  ed.,  2  vols.,  London, 
1893)  ;  E.  A.  Jaggard,  Hand-Book  of  the  Law 
of  Torts  (2  vols.,  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  1895)  ; 
Rudolf  Sohm,  Institutes  of  Roman  Law  (Eng. 
trans.  by  J.  C.  Ledlie,  3d  ed.,  Oxford,  1901); 
F.  M.  Burdick,  Cases  on  Torts  ( 3d  ed.,  Albany, 
1905)  ;  T.  M.  Cooley,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Torts  (3d  ed.,  2  vols.,  Chicago,  1906);  Sir 
Frederick  Pollock,  Law  of  Torts  ( 8th  ed.,  Lon¬ 
don,  1908)  ;  Clerk  and  Lindsell,  The  Laic  of 
Torts  (6tli  ed.,  Toronto,  1912);  F.  M.  Burdick, 
Law  of  Torts  (3d  ed.,  Albany,  1913)  ;  F.  H. 
Bohlen  ( ed. ) ,  Cases  on  the  Law  of  Torts  ( 2 
vols.,  Indianapolis,  1915). 

TORTICOLLIS.  See  Wryneck. 

TORTOISE,  tor'tus,  -tis  (OF.  tortue,  tortugue% 


TORTOISE 


TORTOISE  SHELL 


365 


Fr.  tortue,  tortoise,  from  Lat.  tortus ,  twisted,  so 
called  from  its  crooked  feet;  termination  in¬ 
fluenced  by  Eng.  porpoise).  A  turtle- of  ter¬ 
restrial  habits.  The  term  is  indefinite,  but 
usually  distinguishes  land  chelonians  from  ma¬ 
rine  species,  although  tortoise  shell  is  exclu¬ 
sively  a  marine  product,  and  certain  fresh-water 
turtles,  as  the  terrapins,  are  spoken  of  as  marsh 
tortoises.  Its  most  exact  application  is  prob¬ 
ably  to  the  family  Testudinidse,  in  which  the 
shell  is  always  covered  with  well-developed 
horny  shields.  It  includes  the  terrapins  or 
aquatic  mud  turtles  of  the  genera  Emys, 
Chrysemys ,  and  similar  groups,  in  which  the 
feet  are  adapted  for  both  walking  and  swim¬ 
ming  and  the  carapace  is  often  ornamented  by 
gay  colors  or  sculpturings.  Many  are  almost 
wholly  terrestrial,  as  is  the  case  with  the  com¬ 
mon  box  tortoise  (see  Turtle)  of  the  United 
States.  Near  allies  are  the  famous  Greek  tor¬ 
toise  of  the  Mediterranean  region  and  many 
other  species  of  the  typical  genus  Testudo; 
also  the  Florida  gopher.  See  Gopher  Tortoise. 

The  most  important  and  distinctive  members 
of  the  group  are  the  gigantic  land  tortoises  of 
various  oceanic  islands,  now  extinct  or  nearly 
so.  (See  Extinct  Animals.)  All  these  belong 
to  the  genus  Testudo  and  differ  little  except  in 
size  from  the  other  members  of  the  family. 
Some  of  them  are  not  larger  than  other  large 
turtles,  but  those  most  noted  greatly  exceed 
any  other  living  forms,  although  surpassed  by 
the  Testudo  atlas  of  the  early  Pliocene  in  India, 
whose  shell  was  6  feet  or  more  in  length.  Others, 
with  shells  about  4  feet  in  length,  were  its 
contemporaries  in  Europe  and  in  North  America. 
Their  representatives  survived  until  a  recent 
date  or  still  live  in  the  Galapagos  Islands, 
Madagascar,  and  the  Mascarene  Islands,  but 
nowhere  upon  any  continent. 

Specimens  of  small  species  have  been  known 
to  live  more  than  100  years  and  one,  at  least, 
more  than  150  years.  The  Madagascar  species 
( Testudo  grandidieri )  became  extinct  probably 
before  that  island  was  discovered  by  white  men, 
but  at  least  two  species  of  the  Camoros  have 
remained  until  within  historic  times.  One  (the 
elephant  tortoise,  Testudo  gigantea,  see  Land 
Tortoise)  is  now  extinct  in  its  original  home, 
the  North  Island  of  Aldabara,  but  preserved  in 
the  Seychelles,  and  a  specimen  living  in  England 
in  1897  then  measured  5214  X  50  inches  over 
the  curve  of  its  shell  and  weighed  358  pounds; 
another  in  St.  Helena  was  more  than  a  century 
old  in  1900.  Daudin’s  tortoise,  of  South  Alda¬ 
bara,  also  survives  in  small  numbers,  and  several 
were  taken  to  Europe  in  1895,  one  of  which,  at 
least  100  years  old,  had  a  shell  55  inches  long. 
Several  other  species,  probably  or  surely  ex¬ 
tinct,  inhabited  Rodriguez  and  other  islands  of 
the  Indian  Ocean,  where  they  were  found  in 
abundance  by  the  early  voyagers  and  planters, 
but  were  slaughtered  for  food  or  as  curiosities. 

The  Galapagos  Islands  had  several  species 
of  similar  gigantic  tortoises,  one  to  each  island 
of  the  archipelago,  which  differed  from  the 
Eastern  ones  mainly  in  haying  longer  necks  and 
smaller  heads.  Some  were  long  ago  exter¬ 
minated  by  man  or  by  the  pigs  which  Ecua¬ 
dorans  turned  loose  upon  the  islands  a  century 
aero:  others  still  survive  in  small  numbers, 
although  in  1893  and  again  in  1898  large  num¬ 
bers  were  taken  away  and  distributed  to 
zoological  gardens  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
New  York  and  Washington  getting  several  old 


and  young  specimens.  The  largest  collection  of 
all  living  species  is  that  at  Tring  Park,  Eng¬ 
land,  where  the  biggest  known  Gal&pagos  tor¬ 
toise  ( Testudo  elephant  opus)  is  one  measuring 
56  X  49  inches  over  the  curve  of  its  carapace, 
which  was  taken  from  Duncan  Island  in  1813 
to  Rotuina,  thence  to  Sydney  in  1880,  and  finallv 
to  England. 

Bibliography.  C.  R.  Darwin,  A  Naturalist’s 
Voyage  around  the  World  (London,  I860;  new 
ed.  in  Everyman’s  Library,  New  York,  1908); 
A.  C.  Gunther,  Gigantic  Land-Tortoises  (London, 
1877);  Hans  Gadow,  “Amphibia  and  Reptiles,” 
in  Cambridge  Natural  History,  vol.  viii  (Lon¬ 
don,  1901 )  ;  United  States  National  Museum, 
Annual  Report  (Washington,  1889);  R.  L. 
Ditmars,  Reptiles  of  the  World  (New  York, 
1910),  and  especially  John  Van  Denburgh,  “The 
Gigantic  Land  Tortoises  of  the  Galapagos  Archi¬ 
pelago,”  in  California  Academy  of  Sciences, 
Proceedings,  vol.  ii  (San  Francisco,  1914).  Cf. 
Turtle;  and  see  illustration  under  Land  Tor¬ 
toise. 

TORTOISE  BEETLE,  or  Shield  Beetle.  A 
leaf  beetle  of  the  subfamily  Cassidinse.  The 
adults  are  rounded  convex  beetles  with  a  curious 
marginal  expansion  of  the  upper  surface  and 
with  the  power  of  withdrawing  the  head  into 
the  thorax,  which  gives  them  a  resemblance  to  a 
tortoise.  Their  larvge  are  flattened,  fringed  with 
spines,  and  the  anal  end  of  the  body  is  pro¬ 
vided  with  a  forked  appendage  which  is  bent 
forward  over  the  back;  to  this  are  attached  the 
cast-oil  skins  of  the  larvae  and  their  excrement  as 
a  protective  covering.  A  remarkable  group  of 
tortoise  beetles,  belonging  to  the  genus  Por- 
phyraspis,  cover  themselves  in  the  larval  state 
with  a  dense  coat  of  fibres  of  the  palm  tree, 
upon  which  they  live,  each  of  the  fibres  being 
many  times  the  length  of  the  insect’s  body  and 
elaborately  curved  so  as  to  form  a  round  nest 
under  which  the  larva  lives.  Many  species  have 
a  brilliant  golden-green  or  iridescent  metallic 
coloring  which  disappears  after  death,  but  may 
be  restored  by  moistening  the  dead  insect. 
Several  very  beautiful  species  occur  upon  the 
morning-glory  and  upon  sweet  potato  ( see 
Sweet-Potato  Insects),  a  large  species  ( Phy - 
sonata  unipunctata )  feeds  upon  the  wild  sun¬ 
flower,  and  a  very  common  brick-red  species 
( Chelymorpha  argus)  feeds  upon  the  milkweed. 
See  Plate  of  Beetles. 

TORTOISE  PLANT.  See  Hottentot  Bread. 

TORTOISE  SHELL.  The  semitransparent 
and  beautifully  mottled  material  of  the  scales 
covering  the  carapace  of  the  hawksbill  (q.v.),  a 
marine  turtle  found  in  all  tropical  seas.  In 
this  species  the  13  shield  plates  do  not  join  at 
the  edges,  but  overlap  posteriorly;  the  larger 
central  ones  are  broadly  triangular  in  outline, 
keeled,  and  6  or  7  inches  broad,  and  those  of 
a  large  turtle  may  weigh  eight  pounds.  They 
are  rarely  thick  enough  to  serve  the  ornamental 
purposes  to  which  tortoise  shell  is  usually  ap¬ 
plied,  but  when  heated  in  oil  or  boiled  in  water 
may  be  welded  together  under  pressure,  or 
molded  into  a  form  which  will  be  retained  when 
cooled.  “In  genuine  articles  of  Oriental  manu¬ 
facture  these  welds  can  generally  be  detected, 
or  their  compound  nature  is  indicated  by  the 
beautiful  pattern,  which  is  too  regular  in  the 
imitations  now  common.”  Even  the  shavings 
and  fragments  are  welded  into  serviceable  pieces. 
The  turtles  are  taken  usually  when  they  come 
ashore  to  lay  their  eggs ;  and  the  plates  are 


TORTURE 


TORTOISE-SHELL  BUTTERFLY 

(or  were)  sometimes  removed  by  roasting  the 
living  animal  until  they  were  loosened  and 
could  be  torn  off.  This  cruel  process  injures  the 
shell.  The  proper  way  is  to  kill  the  turtle  and 
then  detach  the  plates  by  immersion  in  boiling 
water.  In  its  nature  and  chemical  composition 
the  material  closely  resembles  horn  (q.v.).  The 
use  of  tortoise  shell  has  long  been  known. 
Julius  Caesar  found  great  quantities  of  it  in 
the  storehouses  of  Alexandria.  The  Romans 
veneered  furniture  with  it.  In  modern  times,  in 
addition  to  comb  making,  tortoise  shell  is  made 
into  cardcases,  trays,  handkerchief  boxes,  and 
various  other  articles  of  ornament  and  the  toilet. 
It  is  used  still  to  inlay  expensive  furniture,  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  producing  the  most  com¬ 
plicated  and  beautiful  examples  of  this  sort  of 
Si  rt 

TORTOISE-SHELL  BUTTERFLY.  Any 

one  of  the  butterflies  of  four  or  five  common 
American  genera.  They  are  usually  of  medium 
size  and  have  the  wings  on  the  upper  side 
of  some  shade  of  black  or  brown  marked  with 
red,  yellow,  or  orange.  The  commonest  species 
in  the  eastern  United  States  are  the  following: 
Euvanessa  antiopa,  sometimes  called  the  mourn¬ 
ing  cloak  (q.v.)  and  in  England  known  as  the 
Camberwell  beauty.  Aglais  milberti  is  com¬ 
mon  in  the  northern  United  States  and  Canada. 
Its  caterpillars  feed  upon  the  nettle  plants  of 
the  genus  Urtica.  Eugonia  calif ornica  is  con¬ 
fined  to  California  and  in  the  larval  stage  feeds 
upon  Ceanothus.  Eugonia  j-album,  the  Comp¬ 
ton  tortoise,  is  a  northern  species  whose  larvae 
feed  upon  willows. 

TORTO'LA.  One  of  the  Virgin  Islands  (q.v.). 

TQRTONA,  tor-td'na.  A  town  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Alessandria,  Italy,  on  the  Scrivia,  12 
miles  east  of  Alessandria  (Map:  Italy,  B  2).  It 
has  a  ruined  castle  overlooking  the  town.  The 
town  manufactures  silk,  markets  grain  and  wine, 
and  quarries  stone.  Tortona  was  destroyed  by 
Frederick  Barbarossa  in  the  twelfth  century  for 
its  allegiance  to  the  Guelphic  cause.  Pop. 
(commune),  1901,  17,425;  1911,  20,151. 

TORTOSA,  tor-to'sa.  A  fortified  town  of 
Spain,  Province  of  Tarragona,  42  miles  from  the 
city  of  Tarragona,  picturesquely  situated  on  a 
sloping  eminence  overlooking  the  Ebro,  from  the 
mouth  of  which  it  is  distant  about  22  miles,  and 
which  is  navigable  to  this  town  for  vessels  of 
light  draft  (Map:  Spain,  F  2).  The  town  has 
a  cathedral  with  fine  carved  work  and  marbles. 
There  are  manufactures  of  rope,  paper,  leather, 
soap,  and  pottery,  of  palm  leaf  and  feather  grass, 
but  the  fisheries  give  employment  to  most  of  the 
people.  In  the  vicinity  are  ruins  of  a  Roman 
city.  Pop.,  1900,  24,306;  1910,  28,097. 

TORTRIC'IDJE.  See  Leaf  Roller. 

TORTUGA,  tor-too'ga,  or  TORTUE,  tor-tn'. 
An  uninhabited  island  off  the  north  coast  of 
Haiti,  West  Indies  (Map:  West  Indies,  D  2). 
Area,  about  80  square  miles.  Its  surface  is 
broken.  It  was  formerly  occupied  by  buccaneers 
and  produced  sugar,  tobacco,  etc. 

TORTUGAS,  tor-too'gaz.  A  group  of  islands 
off  the  coast  of  Florida.  See  Dry  Tortugas. 

TORTURE  (Lat.  tortura,  a  twisting,  torture, 
from  torquere,  to  rack,  twist,  torment ) .  The 
infliction  of  severe  bodily  pain  either  as  pun¬ 
ishment  or  for  purpose  of  revenge  or  for  the 
purpose  of  compelling  the  person  tortured  to  give 
evidence  or  make  confessions  in  judicial  pro¬ 
ceedings.  Among  primitive  and  savage  peoples 
torture  has  been  used  as  a  means  of  ordeal  (q.v.) 


and  as  a  means  of  punishing  captured  enemies. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  the  Church  made  use 
of  torture  as  a  means  of  compelling  religious 
conformity  and  for  the  purpose  of  extorting 
evidence  in  heresy  trials.  Throughout  southern 
and  western  Europe  the  most  extreme  cruelties 
were  practiced  for  this  purpose  (see  Inquisi¬ 
tion),  and  it  was  not  until  1816  that  torture 
was  finally  prohibited  by  papal  bull.  Examina¬ 
tion  by  torture,  otherwise  called  “the  question,  ’ 
has  been  largely  used  in  many  countries  as  a 
judicial  instrument  for  extracting  evidence  from 
unwilling  witnesses  or  confessions  from  accused 
persons.  In  ancient  Athens  slaves  were  always 
examined  by  torture,  and  their  evidence  seems 
on  this  account  to  have  been  deemed  more  valu¬ 
able  than  that  of  freemen.  No  free  Athenian 
could  be  examined  by  torture,  but  torture  seems 
occasionally  to  have  been  used  in  executing  crimi¬ 
nals.  Under  the  Roman  Republic  only  slaves 
could  be  legally  tortured,  and,  as  a  general  rule, 
they  could  not  be  tortured  to  establish  their 
master’s  guilt.  Under  the  Empire,  however,  tor¬ 
ture,  besides  being  much  used  in  examining 
slaves,  might  by  order  of  the  Emperor  be  in¬ 
flicted  even  on  freemen,  to  extract  evidence  of 
the  crime  of  Icesa  majestas,  a  prerogative  fre¬ 
quently  exercised  by  the  Roman  emperors.  Cic¬ 
ero  and  other  enlightened  Romans  condemned 
its  use.  Until  the  thirteenth  century  torture 
seems  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  canon  law; 
about  that  period  the  Roman  treason  law  began 
to  be  adapted  to  heresy  as  crimen  Iwsce  majes- 
tatis  Divince.  A  decree"  of  Pope  Innocent  IV  in 
1282,  calling  on  civil  magistrates  to  put  persons 
accused  of  heresy  to  the  torture  to  elicit  con¬ 
fessions  against  themselves  and  others,  was  prob¬ 
ably  the  earliest  instance  of  ecclesiastical  sanc¬ 
tion  being  extended  to  this  mode  of  examina¬ 
tion.  Gradually  the  ecclesiastical  courts  devel¬ 
oped  from  the  Roman  law  and  applied  a  system 
of  torture  which  reached  its  culmination  in  the 
atrocities  of  the  Inquisition.  The  influence  of 
the  Church  during  the  Middle  Ages  undoubtedly 
contributed  to  the  adoption  of  torture  by  the 
civil  tribunals.  It  was  early  adopted  by  the 
Italian  municipalities,  but  its  introduction  into 
western  Europe  as  an  instrument  of  judicial  in¬ 
quisition  as  distinguished  from  the  ordeal  or 
compurgation  was  slow.  It  first  appeared  in 
France  in  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury  and  in  Germany  in  the  fifteenth  century 
and  ultimately  became  a  part  of  the  legal  system 
of  every  European  nation  except  Sweden  and 
England.  The  use  of  torture  seems  to  have  been 
repugnant  to  the  genius  of  the  law  of  England, 
and  it  never  became  a  part  of  the  common  law, 
although  its  use  by  exercise  of  the  royal  preroga¬ 
tive  was  lawful  both  in  state  trials  and  in  the 
case  of  ordinary  crimes.  The  first  instance  we 
have  of  its  use'is  in  1310,  in  aid  of  the  ecclesi¬ 
astical  law,  during  the  struggle  between  Pope 
Clement  V  and  the  Templars.  Edward  II,  when 
applied  to  to  sanction  the  infliction  of  torture 
by  the  Inquisitors  in  the  case  of  certain  Tem¬ 
plars  accused  of  heresy  and  apostasy,  at  first  re¬ 
fused;  but  on  a  remonstrance  by  Clement  he  re¬ 
ferred  the  matter  to  the  Council;  and  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  Council  the  Inquisitors 
were  authorized  to  put  the  accused  to  the  tor¬ 
ture,  but  without  mutilation  or  serious  injury 
to  the  person,  or  effusion  of  the  blood.  During 
the  Tudor  period  the  Council  frequently  assumed 
the  power  of  directing  torture  warrants  to  the 
lieutenant  of  the  Tower  and  other  officers  both 


TORUS 


TOSCANINI 


367 


against  state  prisoners  and  those  accused  of 
other  serious  crimes;  and  similar  warrants  were 
at  times  issued  under  the  sign  manual.  Under 
James  I  and  Charles  I  torture  was  less  resorted 
to  and  only  in  state  trials.  In  1628,  in  the 
ease  of  Felton,  the  assassin  of  the  Duke  of  Buck¬ 
ingham,  the  judges  declared  the  examination  of 
the  accused  by  torture,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
eovering  his  accomplices,  to  be  illegal.  The  last 
recorded  instance  of  the  use  of  torture  in  Eng¬ 
land  was  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I  (1640)  to 
compel  a  confession  of  treason.  The  use  of  tor¬ 
ture  was  never  legal  in  the  English  colonies, 
and  the  few  instances  of  torture  in  the  American 
colonies  were  properly  forms  of  execution,  or 
the  infliction  of  peine  forte  et  dure  (q.v.)  as  a 
means  of  compelling  the  defendant  to  plead  to  an 
indictment. 

Even  during  the  period  when  the  use  of  torture 
was  most  prevalent  its  cruelty  was  recognized 
and  its  employment  deplored  as  an  evil  neces¬ 
sary  to  the  due  administration  of  justice.  In 
all  ages  there  have  been  leading  writers  and 
thinkers  who  denounced  the  use  of  torture,  not 
only  because  of  its  cruelty  and  its  debasing 
effect  upon  public  morals,  but  because  of  its 
unreliability  as  a  means  of  discovering  the 
truth,  since  it  oftentimes  led  the  innocent  from 
weakness  and  exhaustion  to  plead  guilty  or 
accuse  others  of  crimes  which  had  not  been  com¬ 
mitted.  The  horrors  of  the  Inquisition  and 
the  excessive  use  of  judicial  torture  from  the 
fourteenth  to  the  sixteenth  century  led  to  a 
gradual  but  nevertheless  progressive  change  of 
public  sentiment,  which  ultimately  caused  its 
disuse  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  The  use 
of  torture  was  abolished  in  Prussia,  Saxony, 
Austria,  and  Switzerland  by  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Its  use  in  Russia  was  lim¬ 
ited  by  command  of  Catharine  II  in  1762  and 
finally  abolished  in  1801.  In  France  it  was 
abolished  in  1789  (although  temporarily  restored 
by  the  Bourbons  in  1814),  in  Wiirttemberg  in 
1806,  in  Bavaria  in  1807,  in  Hanover  in  1822, 
and  in  Baden  in  1831. 

The  instruments  and  methods  of  judicial  tor¬ 
ture  have  been  numerous.  Among  the  Greeks 
torture  was  inflicted  by  the  rack  (q.v.),  the 
scourge,  by  thrusting  the  victim  bent  double 
into  a  vault  which  compelled  him  to  retain  that 
position  until  his  suffering  became  extreme,  by 
the  injection  of  vinegar  into  the  nostrils,  and 
by  the  application  of  fire.  The  Romans  also 
made  use  of  the  rack,  torture  by  fire,  the  scourge, 
and  mutilating  the  flesh  by  hooks.  The  wheel, 
upon  which  the  victim  was  bound  and  his  bones 
broken  by  the  gradual  application  of  force,  was 
also  used  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  Among 
the  lesser  tortures  may  be  mentioned  the  thumbi- 
kins,  boots,  pincers,  and  manacles;  and  in  Eng¬ 
land  an  instrument  corruptly  called  the  scav¬ 
enger’s  daughter,  the  invention  of  Sir  William 
Skeffington  (or  Skevington),  lieutenant  of  the 
Tower  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  This  enu¬ 
meration,  however,  by  no  means  includes  all  the 
methods,  ingenious  and  unspeakably  cruel,  by 
which  torture  was  inflicted  upon  innumerable 
victims  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Consult: 
David  Jardine,  Reading  on  the  Use  of  Torture  in 
the  Criminal  Law  of  England  (London,  1837)  ; 
Sir  J.  F.  Stephen,  History  of  the  Criminal  Law  of 
England  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1883)  ;  H.  C.  Lea,  Super¬ 
stition  and  Force  (4th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1892). 

TO'RUS  (Lat.,  protuberance ,  mattress,  bed). 
A  convex  molding  having  a  semicircular  profile; 


a  larger  form  of  the  bead.  Its  principal  use  is  in 
base  moldings  of  all  kinds  in  classic  and  neo¬ 
classic  architecture;  notably  the  circular  tori 
of  the  Doric,  Attic,  and  Corinthian  bases.  See 
Base;  Molding. 

TO'RY  ( from  Ir.  toridhe ,  tornidhe,  tornighe, 
pursuer,  plunderer,  from  torighim ,  to  fancy, 
pursue).  The  name  of  one  of  the  historic  par¬ 
ties  in  England.  It  was  originally  the  term  ap¬ 
plied  to  Irish  brigands  and  about  the  year  1680 
was  given  as  a  nickname  to  the  supporters  of 
the  Duke  of  York,  afterward  James  II,  when 
his  exclusion  from  the  succession  on  account  of 
his  (Catholic)  religion  was  proposed  by  Shaftes¬ 
bury.  It  was  intended  to  imply  that  those  who 
opposed  the  exclusion  were  papists.  About  1830 
the  name  Conservative  began  to  take  the  place 
of  Tory.  I11  the  United  States  during  the  Revo¬ 
lution  the  adherents  of  the  crown  were  called 
Tories.  See  Loyalists;  Whig  and  Tory. 

TORY,  Henry  Marshall  (1867-  ).  A 

Canadian  educator.  He  was  born  at  Guysboro, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  graduated  at  McGill  Univer¬ 
sity  in  1890.  He  studied  theology  at  the  Wes¬ 
leyan  Theological  College,  Montreal,  entered  the 
Methodist  ministry  in  1889,  but  retired  in  1893. 
He  was  lecturer  in  mathematics  at  McGill  in 
1893-1902  and  then  associate  professor  until 
1908,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  newly  established  Provincial  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Alberta  at  Strathcona.  He  published 
A  Manual  of  Laboratory  Physics  (1902). 

TORZHOK,  t6r-zhok'.  An  old  district  town 
in  the  Government  of  Tver,  Russia,  situated  on 
the  Tvertza,  294  miles  southeast  of  St.  Peters¬ 
burg  ( Petrograd )  ( Map :  Russia,  E  3 ) .  In  its 
vicinity  lace  and  gold  and  silver  embroideries 
are  extensively  produced  by  peasant  women.  In 
the  tenth  century  Torzhok  was  a  dependency  of 
Novgorod.  Pop.,  1910,  13,723. 

TOSCA.  An  opera  by  Puccini  (q.v.),  first 
produced  in  Rome,  Jan.  14,  1900;  in  the  United 
States,  Feb.  4,  1901  (New  York). 

TOSCANELLI  DAL  POZZO,  tos'ka-nel'le 
dal  pdt'so,  Paolo  (1397-1482).  An  Italian  as¬ 
tronomer  and  geographer,  born  at  Florence. 
Through  the  accounts  of  Marco  Polo  and  other 
travelers  he  came  to  believe  that  India  could 
be  reached  by  an  ocean  voyage  to  the  West. 
In  1474  he  imparted  his  views  by  letter  to 
Columbus,  and  also  to  the  King  of  Portugal. 
It  is  doubtful  if  Toscanelli  was  the  first  to 
suggest  the  idea  of  a  sea  journey  to  the  West 
to  Columbus,  although  he  may  have  strength¬ 
ened  Columbus’  determination  to  carry  out 
his  plans.  Consult  Henry  Vignaud,  Toscanelli 
and  Columbus  (New  York,  1902). 

TOSCANINI,  tds'ka-ne'ng,  Arturo  (1867- 
) .  An  Italian  orchestral  conductor,  born  at 
Parma.  He  received  his  education  at  the  Con¬ 
servatory  of  Parma,  studying  piano,  cello,  and 
composition.  Having  made  his  debut  as  operatic 
conductor  at  Turin,  he  was  engaged  for  the  Dal 
Verme  in  Milan.  There  his  brilliant  work  at¬ 
tracted  such  general  attention  that  Gatti-Casazza 
(q.v.),  who  assumed  the  directorship  of  La 
Scala  in  1895,  secured  his  services.  In  this 
position  he  found  ample  opportunity  to  display 
his  genius  as  operatic  and  symphonic  conductor. 
From  1908  to  1915  he  was  principal  conductor 
at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  in  New  York. 
Through  consummate  musicianship,  a  magnetic 
and  authoritative  personality,  and  dignified  re¬ 
serve,  he  gained  a  strong  hold  upon  his  artists 
as  well  as  his  audiences.  As  a  builder  of  tre- 


TOSCHI 


TOTEMISM 


368 


mentions  climaxes  lie  had  no  superior  and  few 
equals.  He  directed  without  score  a  repertory  of 
almost  100  operas  of  all  nationalities  and  schools 
and,  in  addition,  an  extensive  concert  repertory. 
Even  during  rehearsals  he  conducted  by  memory. 

TQSCHL  to'ske,  Paolo  (1788-1854).  An 
Italian  engraver,  one  of  the  last  representatives 
of  the  old  school  of  line  work.  He  was  born  at 
Parma,  went  to  Paris  in  1809  to  study  engraving 
under  Bervic,  with  whom  he  remained  until 
1819,  when  he  returned  to  Parma,  founded  a 
school  of  engraving,  and  was  appointed  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  His  best-known 
engravings  are  from  Gerard’s  “Entrance  of  Henry 
IV  into  Paris”  (1818);  Daniele  da  Volterra’s 
“Descent  from  the  Cross”;  Raphael’s  “Spasimo” 
(Madrid)  ;  Correggio’s  “Madonna  della  Sco- 
della,”  and  a  series  of  that  master’s  Parmesan 
frescoes.  His  work  is  solidly  and  carefully  exe¬ 
cuted,  but  without  brilliancy  or  originality. 

TOSSING  THE  CABER.  See  Caber,  Toss¬ 
ing  THE. 

TOSTI,  to'ste,  Sir  Francesco  Paolo  (1846- 
1916).  An  Italian-English  song  composer,  born 
in  Ortona  di  Mare  in  the  Abruzzi.  After  study¬ 
ing  at  the  Naples  Conservatory  he  was  appointed 
an  instructor  there.  He  resigned  in  1869,  went 
to  Rome  and  appeared  in  concerts  as  a  singer, 
after  which  he  was  made  vocal  instructor  at  the 
court,  Rome.  In  1875  he  Avent  to  London  and 
in  1880  was  appointed  singing  teacher  to  the 
royal  family.  He  was  knighted  in  1908.  In 
1913  he  returned  to  Italy,  making  Rome  his 
permanent  residence.  His  numerous  English 
and  Italian  songs  have  become  exceedingly 
popular. 

TOS'TIG  (died  1066).  A  powerful  English 
earl,  brother  of  King  Harold  II.  He  was  prob¬ 
ably  the  third  son  of  Earl  Godwin  and  shared 
in  his  father’s  banishment,  returning  with  him 
in  1052.  Edward  the  Confessor  was  very  fond 
of  Tostig,  and  when  Earl  Siward  died,  in  1055, 
Tostig  received  Northumbria,  Northamptonshire, 
and  Huntingdonshire.  Tostig  proved  an  able 
and  energetic  ruler,  restoring  security  to  the  dis¬ 
ordered  country.  But  his  tyranny  alienated  the 
Northumbrians,  and  in  1065  they  declared  Tostig 
an  outlaw  and  chose  Morkere  in  his  place.  Har¬ 
old  sided  with  the  rebels  against  his  brother, 
and  as  a  result  Tostig  was  banished,  though 
Edward  regretted  it  exceedingly.  In  1066,  when 
Harold  had  succeeded  Edward  the  ponfessor  as 
King  of  England,  Tostig  offered  hik  support  to 
William  of  Normandy.  This  offer  was  accepted, 
and  Tostig  thereupon  went  to  King  Harald 
Haardraade  of  Norway  and  induced  him  to  make 
an  invasion  into  England.  But  on  Sept.  25, 
1066,  King  Harold  met  them  at  Stamford  Bridge 
and  totally  defeated  them.  Harald  Haardraade 
and  Tostig  were  both  slain.  Consult  E.  A.  Free¬ 
man,  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  vols.  ii 
and  iii  (3d  ed.,  Oxford,  1877).  See  Harold  IT. 

TOTAL  ABSTINENCE.  See  Temperance. 

TOTANA,  to-ta'na.  A  town  of  the  Province 
of  Murcia,  Spain,  24  miles  southwest  of  the  town 
of  that  name  (Map:  Spain,  E  4).  A  gorge  di¬ 
vides  the  town  into  two  parts,  the  Barrio  de 
Sevilla  and  the  Barrio  de  Triana.  The  town  is 
celebrated  for  its  oranges,  the  mining  of  salt¬ 
petre,  linen  spinning,  and  especially  for  its  tina- 
jas  (terra-cotta  jars),  widely  used  for  holding 
oil  and  wine.  Water  is  brought  to  the  fountains 
by  an  aqueduct  7  miles  long.  Pop.,  1900,  13,714; 
1910,  13.591. 

TOTARA.  See  Podocarpus. 


TO'TEMISM  (irregularly  derived  from  Al¬ 
gonquin  ototeman,  his  brother-sister  kin).  An 
association  between  a  form  of  social  organiza¬ 
tion  and  a  form  of  worship.  Complex  ethnologi¬ 
cal  phenomena,  such  as  totemism,  cannot  be 
readily  defined;  thus,  any  definition  of  totemism, 
including  the  one  proposed  above,  can  give  but 
an  inadequate  idea  of  the  institution.  A  brief 
generalized  description  of  the  content  of  totem¬ 
ism,  on  the  other  hand,  may  prove  of  consider¬ 
able  service.  A  tribe  or  group  of  tribes  which 
have  totemism  may  be  said  to  comprise  & 
totemic  complex.  The  essential  aspects  of  a 
totemic  complex  are  three  in  number: 

1.  The  totemic  tribe  is  subdivided  into  a  num¬ 
ber  of  social  units,  usually  clans  or  gentes,  but 
sometimes  families  or  local  groups. 

2.  The  people  of  the  tribe  possess  a  set  of  be¬ 
liefs  and  practices,  mythological,  religious,  cere¬ 
monial,  artistic,  economic,  which  almost  in  all 
cases  centre  around  certain  attitudes  towards 
animals,  plants,  or  inanimate  objects. 

3.  These  beliefs  and  practices  are  distributed 
among  the  people  of  the  tribe  in  such  a  way  that 
the  beliefs  and  practices  of  each  social  unit, 
usually  clan  or  gens,  while  not  identical  with 
those  of  all  the  other  social  units,  are  equivalent 
to  them.  The  social  units  are  thus  constituted 
equivalent  totemic  units,  while  the  entire  sys¬ 
tem  is  a  totemic  complex. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Totemic 
Tribes.  While  by  no  means  universal  in 
primitive  society,  totemism  is  widely  distributed. 
In  North  America  totemic  complexes  are  repre¬ 
sented,  roughly  speaking,  in  five  areas:  the  Pa¬ 
cific  Northwest,  the  Southwest,  the  Southeast,  the 
Northeast,  and  the  Eastern  Plains  area  inhabited 
by  tribes  speaking  Siouan  languages  and  divided 
into  totemic  gentes.  While  our  knowledge  of 
South  America  is  as  yet  very  fragmentary, 
totemic  tribes  have  been  reported  from  ^British 
Guiana  and  Brazil.  With  the  accumulation  of 
further  data  the  totemic  tribes  of  South  Amer¬ 
ica  may  prove  to  be  as  numerous  as  are  those 
of  the  Northern  continent.  In  Africa  a  large 
number  of  totemic  communities  have  been  re¬ 
corded  among  the  negroes  of  the  Congo,  in  the 
central  eastern  area,  and  in  several  districts 
along  the  western  coast.  Some  of  the  exogamous 
gotras  of  India  are  certainly  totemic.  Totemism 
has  been  found  in  one  district  in  Sumatra,  in  the 
southeastern  section  of  New  Guinea,  in  almost 
all  of  the  Melanesian  Islands,  and  in  parts  of 
Polynesia.  Practically  all  of  the  known  tribes 
of  Australia  have  some  form  of  totemism. 

Whatever  the  limitations  of  the  scope  and 
bearing  of  totemism.  the  wide  distribution  of  the 
institution  indicates  that  the  beliefs  and  asso¬ 
ciations  involved  in  totemism  are  peculiarly 
congenial  to  earlv  society  and  must  be  rooted  in 
psychological  attitudes  widely  entertained  by 
primitive  man. 

Totemism  as  a  Universal  Stage  in  the  De- 
vel omnent  of  Religion.  Impressed  by  the  wide 
distribution  of  totemic  phenomena  and  the  al¬ 
most  universal  character  of  the  attitudes  towards 
•animals,  plants,  and  inanimate  objects  which 
are  so  common  in  totemism,  a  number  of  authors 
have  attempted  to  represen  tUbtemism  as  a  stage 
in  religious  evolution  through  which  all  society 
must  have  passed.  Most  prominent  among  these 
attempts  are  those  of  Jevons,  Gomme,  Wundt, 
and  Durkheim.  While  Gomme  was  satisfied  to 
see  in  totemism  a  peculiar  combination  of  social 
form  and  psychic  disposition  which  to  him 


TOTEM  POLES,  SOUTH ERN  ALASKA 


COPYRIGHT,  1902,  BY  DODD,  MEAD  l  COMPANY 


jit 

OF  THE 

(‘WIVERbil  V  OF  ILLINOIS 


TOTEMISM 


TOTEMISM 


seemed  a  necessary  phase  of  religious  and  social 
development,  Jevons’s  theory  is  much  more  am¬ 
bitious.  According  to  him  totemic  beliefs  and 
rites,  in  addition  to  constituting  a  natural  and 
universal  outgrowth  of  primitive  animism,  also 
lie  at  the  root  of  all  animal  worship,  of  sacrifice, 
oT  the  blood  covenant,  of  the  domestication  of 
^aninials>-  Wundt  differs  from  Jevons  in  so  far 
as  he  posits  a  stage  in  human  development,  a 
stage  of  very  great  duration,  when  totemism  \\4as 
unknown  and  the  attitudes  which  characterize 
totemism  remained  dormant.  This  early  period, 
the  Era  of  Primitive  Man,  was  succeeded  by  the 
Totemic  Era,  also  of  impressive  duration  and 
distinguished  by  a  set  of  specific  beliefs,  activi¬ 
ties,  and  institutions.  In  Durkheim’s  view  to¬ 
temism  again  becomes  the  root  of  all  religion. 
He  finds  the  birthplace  of  religious  rites,  beliefs, 
and  concepts  in  the  totemic  institutions  of  cen- 
tral  Australia.  Durkheim  first  identifies  the 
totemic  principle,  the  fundamental  concept  un¬ 
derlying  totemism,  with  mana,  supernatural 
magic  power,  then  derives  it  from  the  social 
setting  of  the  individual,  which  in  primitive 
Australia  is  constituted  by  the  totemic  clan. 
Frorn  the  totemic  principle  on  its  conceptual 
sklejirises  the  belief  in  souls  as  well  as  the  con¬ 
cept  of  deity  or  god,  while  in  its  dynamic  aspect 
it  becomes  the  forerunner  of  force,'  the  scientific 
concept  of  power.  The  very  categories  of 
thought,  such  as  causality,  space,  time,  totality, 
find,  according  to  Durkheim,  their  early  proto¬ 
types  in  the  totemic  classifications  of  nature  and 
its  phenomena. 

Theories  of  the  Origin  of  Totemism.  An¬ 
other  aspect  of  totemic  phenomena  which  has 
received  wide  attention  is  the  hypothetical  ori¬ 
gin  of  totemism.  While  differing  in  their  specific 
interpretations,  the  different  authors  agree  in 
holding  that  the  theory  of  the  origin  of  totem¬ 
ism  which  to  them  seems  most  plausible  must 
thence  have  universal  validity.  Thus,  Frazer 
has  at  different  times  propounded  three  dif¬ 
ferent  totemic-origin  theories.  The  earliest  one 
ascribes  totemism  to  the  belief  in  ‘‘bush  souls,” 
according  to  which  individuals  may  temporarily 
deposit  their  souls  in  animals,  plants,  or  inani¬ 
mate  objects.  The  second  theory  sees  the  root 
of  totemism  in  the  magical  ceremonies  of  the 
Central  Australians,  which  are  performed  by  the 
members  of  each  totemic  clan  to  further  the 
multiplication  of  its  sacred  animal.  The  last 
hypothesis,  finally,  known  as  the  conceptional 
theory  of  the  origin  of  totemism,  is  based  on  cer¬ 
tain  Australian  beliefs  with  reference  to  the 
conception  of  children,  according  to  which  the 
visions  or  real  experiences  of  pregnant  women 
determine  the  totemic  membership  of  the  child. 
Lang  claims  that  the  first  impetus  towards  the 
development  of  totemic  ideas  and  practices  was 
derived  from  the  animal  names  by  means  of 
which  primitive  tribes  so  often  distinguish  one 
another.  Out  of  the  primitive  speculations  with 
reference  to  the  origin  and  significance  of  such 
names  totemism  arose.  According  to  Hill-Tout 
the  totem  is  closely  related  to  the  personal 
guardian  spirit,  from  which,  in  fact,  it  must 
TiaveJ^een  derived.  Haddon,  finally,  believes  that 
tolemism  must  have  arisen  in  a  state  of  society 
where  local  groups  possessed  special  hunting 
rights  and  taboos  with  reference  to  different 
animals. 

Ethnological  Interpretation  of  Totemic 
Complexes.  The  justification  of  approaching 
totemic  phenomena  from  the  standpoints  out- 


369 

lined  above  was  sought  in  certain  general  and 
certain  special  postulates.  The  general  postu¬ 
lates  are  those  of  the  classical  evolutionary  con¬ 
ception,  according  to  which  culture  in  its  en¬ 
tirety  as  well  as  in  its  special  phases  every¬ 
where  begins  in  essentially  the  same  way  and 
passes  in  its  subsequent  development  through  es¬ 
sentially  similar  stages.  It  must  suffice  to  note 
here  that  the  consensus  of  scientific  opinion  no 
longer  supports  this  classical  theory,  serious 
flaws  in  which  have  been  revealed  by  a  more  in¬ 
tensive  study  of  fact  as  well  as  a  more  rigorous 
application  of  method.  The  special  postulates 
underlying  the  totemic  theories  here  discussed 
are  that  the  particular  traits  of  which  totemism 
consists  are  always  nearly  the  same;  that  these 
traits  are  organically,  i.e.,  genetically,  related; 
that  they  are  specifically  totemic  traits;  and 
that  one  is  consequently  justified  in  assuming 
the  former  existence  of  one  or  several  of  such 
traits  which  may  be  missing  in  any  given  to¬ 
temic.  community  at  the  time  of  investigation. 
All  of  these  postulates  may  readily  be  shown 
to  be  erroneous.  The  totemic  traits  here  re¬ 
ferred  to  are  totemic  exogamy,  the  rule  that  no 
two  individuals  of  a  totemic  clan  may  inter¬ 
marry  g  totemic  taboo,  the  prohibition  to  eat 
or  kill  the  totemic  animal;  totemic  names,  clan 
names  derived  from  the  totemic  animal  or  plant; 
totemic  descent,  the  belief  that  the  individuals 
of  the  clan  have  descended  from  their  totemic 
nJlimal^ — etc.  Now,  if  one  examines  any  two 
totemic  areas,  he  will  often  discover  that  the 
above  traits  are  by  no  means  equally  represented 
in  the  two  areas.  The  comparison,  e.g.,  of  the 
totemism  of  some  of  the  tribes  of  the  American 
Northwest  with  that  of  some  of  the  Central 
Australian  tribes,  reveals  the  fact  that,  while 
totemic  names  are  found  in  both  places,  they 
do  not  apply  to  the  corresponding  social  units; 
that  exogamy,  while  represented  in  both  areas, 
does  not  appear  as  a  primary  feature  of  the  to¬ 
temic  clan,  but  as  a  derivative  feature,  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  clan  is  comprised  in  a  larger 
social  unit,  the  phratry;  that  totemic  taboo  and 
descent,  while  represented  in  the  Australian 
area,  are  altogether  absent  in  the  American  one; 
and,  what  is  still  more  significant,  one  finds  that 
in  addition  to  the  classical  totemic  traits  cer¬ 
tain  other  traits  appear  in  both  areas:  in  Amer¬ 
ica^  association  of  the  totem  with  the  gihrrdian 
spirit,  a  feature  not  found  in  Australia,  and 
a  Highly  developed  art  deeply  saturated  with 
totemic  ideas,  whereas  the  totemic  art  of  Aus¬ 
tralia  is  at  best  a  passive  reflection  of  the  totemic 
content;  in  Australia  magic  ceremonies  for  the 
multiplication  of  the  totemic  animal,  while  in 
America  similar  ceremonies  appear  altogether 
apart  from  totemism ;  and  a  belief  in  the  in¬ 
carnation  of  ancestral  totemic  spirits,  while  in 
America  the  belief  in  incarnation  exists,  but 
again  does  not  refer  to  totemic  spirits.  A  fur¬ 
ther  comparison  of  the  results  reached  with  the 
conditions  in  other  totemic  areas,  in  America, 
Africa,  Melanesia,  confirms  the  impression  that, 
while  several  of  the  totemic  traits  here  enumer¬ 
ated  have  a  wide  distribution,  the  various  to¬ 
temic  groups  or  complexes  differ  often  strikingly 
in  the  nature,  number,  and  cultural  significance 
of  their  totemic  traits.  The  more  extended  com¬ 
parison  also  reveals  the  fact  that  the  traits 
so  far  considered  in  association  with  totemism 
are  bv  no  means  restricted  in  their  distribution 
to  totemic  complexes,  but  occur  also  where  there 
is  no  totemism.  Thus,  animal  names  and  taboos 


TOTEMISM 


TOTEMISM 


370 


must  be  recognized  as  features  of  much  wider 
distribution  than  totemism,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  the  belief  in  animal  descent;  exogamy  not 
infrequently  is  associated  with  groups  that  are 
not  totemic,  such  as  villages,  or  groups  of  in¬ 
dividuals  related  by  blood;  and  so  on  with  the 
other  traits.  Thus,  the  conclusion  is  reached 
that  totemic  complexes  are  not  genetically  sim¬ 
ple,  but  must  be  regarded  as  highly  complex 
aggregates  of  features  of  disparate  historic  der¬ 
ivation,  which,  being  brought  together  by  a 
process  of  secondary  association,  are  welded  into 
a  more  or  less  perfectly  integrated  totemic  sys¬ 
tem.  The  acceptance  of  the  above  view  of  to¬ 
temic  phenomena  inevitably  leads  one  to  assume 
a  critical  attitude  towards  the  conception  of 
totemism  as  derived  from  one  particular  source, 
or  as  the  most  primitive  form  of  religion,  or 
as  a  universal  stage  in  the  development  of  re¬ 
ligion.  Being  correlated  with  a  definite  form 
of  social  organization,  usually  a  clan  system, 
totemism  may  not  be  ascribed  to  tribes  that  are 
not  organized  on  such  a  basis.  Tribes  whose  so¬ 
cial  organization  is  of  the  family-village  type 
are  very  numerous,  nor  is  there  any  evidence  that 
such  tribes  have  ever  passed  through  a  clan 
stage;  hence  they  never  had  totemism.  More¬ 
over,  some  tribes  with  clan  systems  have  no 
totemism,  and,  in  the  absence  of  convincing 
evidence  to  the  contrary,  one  is  not  justified  in 
attributing  totemism  to  them  in  the  past,  there 
being:  no  necessary  genetic  connection  between 
totemism  and  clan  systems.  Totemism  not  be¬ 
ing  universal,  religion,  which  is  universal,  can 
obviously  not  be  derived  from  it.  Totemism, 
moreover,  cannot  be  strictly  conceived  as  a  primi¬ 
tive  institution,  for  it  must  have  been  unknown 
during  that  entire  period  designated  by  Wundt 
as  the  Era  of  Primitive  Man,  when  the  local 
group  and  the  loosely  articulated  family  con¬ 
stituted  the  framework  of  social  organization. 
When  totemism  is  considered  on  its  religious 
side,  one  must  always  remember  that,  if  that 
term  is  at  all  applicable  to  totemism,  it  is  an 
altogether  peculiar  variety  of  religion,  in  so  far 
as  an  essential  aspect  of  totemism  is  constituted 
by  its  social  connotations.  Totemism  is  not  a 
religion  of  the  tribe  but  of  the  clan,  which 
means  that  the  specific  content  of  that  religion 
differs  with  each  clan,  the  unity  of  the  tribal 
complex  being  conditioned  by  the  formal  identity 
of  these  clan  religions.  Therefore,  the  Kangaroo 
clansmen  of  central  Australia,  e.g.,  whose  par¬ 
ticular  beliefs  and  rites  are  altogether  different 
from  those  of  the  Dingo  clansmen,  will  neverthe¬ 
less  have  no  quarrel  with  the  latter,  although  in¬ 
dividuals  of  the  two  clans  will  often  be  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  same  local  group,  in  fact,  in  one 
family;  therefore,  also,  the  Kangaroo  men,  who 
may  not  kill  nor  eat  the  kangaroo,  will  remain 
undisturbed  if  the  killing  and  eating  are  done 
by  a  Dingo  man.  It  has  also  been  observed  that 
the  totemic  religion  scarcely  ever  constitutes 
the  whole  of  the  religion  of  a  people,  but  is  ac¬ 
companied  by  ancestor  worship,  or  fetichism,  or 
any  other  form  of  belief.  As  to  the  origin  of 
totemism,  it  needs  hardlv  be  said  that  all 
monogenetic  attempts  in  that  direction  must  be 
summarily  rejected,  for  an  institution  so  com¬ 
plex  in  its  composition  can  obviously  not  be 
assumed  to  have  alwavs  found  its  beginning 
in  one  source. 

Totemic  Complexes  and  Religious  Socie¬ 
ties.  Totemic  communities,  as  complexes  of  his¬ 
torically  and  psychologically  heterogeneous  fea¬ 


tures,  display  certain  striking  similarities  to 
another  form  of  socio-religious  association  fairly 
common  in  primitive  groups,  viz.,  religious  so¬ 
cieties.  A  religious  society  is  a  group  of  in¬ 
dividuals  who  bear  a  common  name  (often  de¬ 
rived  from  an  animal),  share  a  set  of  religious 
and  mythological  beliefs,  and  perform  together 
certain  ceremonies.  Where  the  societies  occur, 
there  is  always  more  than  one  such  society  in  the 
tribe,  while  often  a  large  part  of  the  individuals 
of  the  tribe  are  grouped  in  religious  societies. 
While  male  societies  are  by  far  the  more  com¬ 
mon,  female  societies  also  occur,  but  almost  in¬ 
variably  the  membership  of  a  society  does  not 
include  both  sexes,  but  is  restricted  to  the  one 
or  the  other.  The  geographical  distribution  of 
religious  societies  is  rather  striking.  In  a  large 
number  of  totemic  areas  religious  societies  also 
occur,  e.g.,  in  the  Northwestern,  Southwestern, 
Southeastern,  and  Eastern  Plains  areas  of  North 
America,  in  west  Africa,  and  Melanesia.  This 
distribution  suggests  possibilities  of  genetic  re¬ 
lationship.  Webster  has  propounded  a  theory 
according  to  which  religious  societies  are  to  be 
regarded  as  totemism  in  decay,  as  a  normal 
stage  of  evolution  from  totemism  to  other  forms 
of  religious  organization.  In  this  dogmatic  form 
the  theory  must  certainly  be  rejected,  but  it 
may  contain  a  germ  of  truth  in  so  far  as  ge¬ 
netic  relationship  between  totemism  and  religious 
societies  may  have  obtained  in  individual  in¬ 
stances.  Thus,  in  the  southwest  of  North 
America  religious  societies  may  have  developed 
out  of  totemic  clans,  while  in  the  Eastern  Plains 
area,  represented  by  the  Omaha  and  other  Siouan 
tribes,  totemic  gentes  may  have  grown  out  of 
local  groups  with  religio-ceremonial  functions. 
According  to  recent  evidence  such  relations  be¬ 
tween  the  two  institutions  also  seem  probable  in 
certain  parts  of  Melanesia.  Of  even  greater  in¬ 
terest  than  the  geographical  and  the  possible 
genetic  relations  between  totemism  and  religious 
societies,  are  the  similarities  and  contrasts  of 
the  two  institutions  from  the  theoretical  stand¬ 
point.  In  the  one  case  as  in  the  other  the  tribe 
is  divided  into  a  set  of  social  units;  these-units 
have  common  functions,  ceremonial,  religions, 
artistic;  and  these  functions  cluster  about  or 
grow  out  of  certain  attitudes  towards  animals, 
plants,  or  inanimate  objects,  although  the  latter 
feature  is  by  no  means  so  characteristic  of  re¬ 
ligious  societies  as  it  is  of  totemic  complexes. 
In  the  one  case,  moreover,  as  in  the  other  the 
institution  must  be  regarded  as  a  complex  of  his¬ 
torically  disparate  traits.  The  similarity  thus 
seems  almost  to  approach  identity.  The  con¬ 
trasts,  however,  are  equally  significant.  While 
religious  societies,  like  clans,  are  social  units, 
they  are  constituted  social  units  solelv  bv  the 
exercise  of  common  functions.  Take  away  the 
functions  and  nothing  remains  but  an  aggregate 
of  wholly  unrelated  individuals.  Not  so  in  the 
case  of  the  clan.  While  it  is  true  that  with  the 
clan  also  the  functions  determine  its  precise  posi¬ 
tion  in  the  culture  of  the  group,  the  clan  would 
remain  a  social  unit  even  if  stripped  of  all  its 
functions.  This  is  due  to  its  social  composi¬ 
tion,  for  a  clan  is  a  hereditary  group  of  indi¬ 
viduals  who  are  in  part  related  by  blood  and  in 
part  assume  themselves  to  be  so  related.  This 
constitutes  perhaps  the  most  fundamental  con¬ 
trast  between  a  clan  and  a  religious  society. 
Other  differences  are  not  lacking,  however.  The 
religious  aspect  is  almost  invariably  more  pro¬ 
nounced  in  the  societies  than  it  ever  is  in  to- 


TOTERO 


TOTONAC 


371 

TOT'ILA  (?-552).  An  Ostrogothic  king 
whose  real  name  was  Baduila.  He  was  chosen 


temic  clans.  The  societies  are  largely  unisex¬ 
ual,  while  the  clan  always  embraces  related 
individuals  of  both  sexes.  The  clan  is  a  heredi¬ 
tary  unit,  while  the .  society  is  usually  non- 
hereditary,  although  certain  offices  in  it  may  be 
hereditary,  and  a  tendency  towards  inheritance 
of  the  society  itself  occurs  here  and  there. 
Thus,  what  might  be  called  the  sociopsychologi- 
eal  flavor  of  a  tribal  group  of  religious  societies 
is  quite  distinct  from  that  of  a  totemic  complex. 
Therefore,  while  the  two  institutions  present 
from  the  theoretical  standpoint  a  set  of  similar 
problems,  it  will  be  profitable  to  keep  them 
apart  conceptually  as  well  as  for  purposes  of  in¬ 
tensive  study. 

Bibliography.  McLennan,  “Worship  of 
Plants  and  Animals,"  in  Fortnightly  Review , 
vol.  vi  (n.  s.,  London,  1869)  ;  J.  G.  Frazer,  To¬ 
temism  (Edinburgh,  1887);  F.  B.  Jevons,  In¬ 
troduction  to  the  History  of  Religion  (London, 
1896)  ;  Leon  Marillier,  “La  place  du  totemisme 
dans  1  Evolution  religieuse,  ’  in  Revue  de  Vhistoire 
des  religions,  vols.  xxxvi,  xxxvii  (Paris,  1897- 
98);  Spencer  and  Gillen,  Native  Tribes  of  Cen¬ 
tral  Australia  (London,  1899)  ;  Vincenz  Zaple- 
tal,  Der  Totemismus  und  die  Religion  Israels 
(Freiburg,  1901);  Charles  Hill-Tout,  “Origin 
of  the  Totemism  of  the  Aborigines  of  British 
Columbia"  and  “Totemism:  A  Consideration  of 
its  Origin  and  Import,"  in  Royal  Society  of 
Canada,  Proceedings  and  Transactions,  vols.  vii, 
ix  (2d  series,  Ottawa,  1901—03)  ;  J.  J.  Atkinson, 
Primal  Law  (London,  1903)  ;  Andrew  Lang,  So¬ 
cial  Origins  (New  York,  1903);  E.  B.  Tylor, 
Primitive  Culture  (4th  ed.,  2  vols.,  ib.,  1903); 
Spencer  and  Gillen,  Northern  Tribes  of  Central 
Australia  (London,  1904)  ;  Arnold  van  Gennep, 
Tabou  et  totemisme  a  Madagascar :  etude  de¬ 
scriptive  et  theorique  (Paris,  1904)  ;  Andrew 
Lang,  The  Secret  of  the  Totem  (New  York, 
1905)  ;  G.  L.  Gomme,  Folklore  as  an  Historical 
Science  (London,  1908)  ;  Hutton  Webster,  Primi¬ 
tive  Secret  Societies:  A  Study  in  Early  Politics 
and  Religion  (New  York,  1908)  ;  J.  G.  Frazer, 
Totemism  and  Exogamy  (4  vols.,  ib.,  1910)  ;  A. 
A.  Goldenweiser,  “Totemism:  An  Analytical 
Study,"  in  Journal  of  American  Folk-Lore,  vol. 
xxiii  (Boston,  1910)  ;  Avebury,  Marriage,  To¬ 
tem-ism,  and  Religion  (London,  1911);  W. 
Wundt,  Elemente  der  Volkerpsychologie :  Grund- 
linien  einer  psychologischen  Entwicklungsge- 
schichte  der  Menschheit  (Leipzig,  1912)  ;  W.  H. 
R.  Rivers,  History  of  Melanesian  Society  (2 
vols.,  Cambridge,  1 9  i 5 )  ;  E.  Durkheim,  Ele¬ 
mentary  Forms  of  the  Religious  Life:  A  Study 
in  Religious  Sociology  (Eng.  trans.  by  J.  W. 
Swain,  London,  1915). 

TOTE'RO.  See  Tutelo. 

TOTH,  tot,  Koloman  (1831-81).  An  Hun¬ 
garian  poet,  born  at  Baja,  County  of  Bacs- 
Bodrog.  He  took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848 
and  published  in  1852  his  first  collection  of  pa¬ 
triotic  poems,  which  achieved  instant  success. 
The  next  year  appeared  Paul  Kinizsi,  composed 
in  imitation  of  the  Toldi  of  Aranv  (q.v. ).  Then 
came  a  number  of  plays,  one  of  which,  Egy 
kirdlynd  (A  Queen,  1857),  took  the  Hungarian 
Academy’s  prize.  In  1860  Toth  founded  the 
comic  paper  Bolond  Miska  (Foolish  Michael). 
The  same  year  he  was  elected  to  the  Kisfaludy 
Society  and  in  1861  to  ^the  academy.  The  play 
A  n-dk  az  alkotmdnyban  (Women  in  Constitu¬ 
tional  Life,  1871)  was  the  first  to  be  well  re¬ 
ceived  on  the  stage,  Toth’s  popularity  being  in 
the  field  of  patriotic  verse. 


m  541  to  occupy  the  throne  made  vacant  by  the 
assassination  of  his  uncle  Hildibald.  He  prose¬ 
cuted  the  war  against  the  forces  of  the  Eastern 
Emperor  not  only  with  great  success  but  also 
with  generosity  and  humanity.  After  reducing 
southern  Italy  he  laid  siege  to  Rome,  to  relieve 
which  Justinian  had  sent  out  the  celebrated  Bel- 
isarius.  The  city  fell,  however,  in  546,  and 
after  two  more  years  of  warfare,  in  which  he 
was  poorly  supported,  Belisarius  asked  to  be  re¬ 
called.  Totila  thereupon  ravaged  Sicily,  re¬ 
duced  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  and  harassed  the 
coasts  of  Greece,  but  in  552  was  defeated  and 
killed  at  Taginse  by  an  army  under  the  eunuch 
Narses.  Consult  Edward  Gibbon,  Decline  and, 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  (ed.  bv  J.  B.  Burv, 
vol.  iv,  London,  1912),  and  Cambridge  Medieval 
History,  vol.  ii  (New  York,  1913) . 

TOTLEBEN,  tot'la-ben,  or  TODLEBEN, 
Franz  Eduard  Ivanovitch,  Count  (1818-84). 
A  Russian  general  of  engineers.  He  was  born  at 
Mitau,  Courland,  May  20,  1818,  and  after  study¬ 
ing  at  Riga  was  admitted  as  a  student  to  the 
college  of  engineers  at  St.  Petersburg.  He  served 
as  a  lieutenant  of  engineers  in  the  Caucasus 
campaign  of  1848-51  and  in  1854  took  part  in 
the  siege  of  Silistria.  When  the  French  and 
English  troops  undertook  the  siege  of  Sebasto¬ 
pol,  Totleben,  then  a  colonel,  was  sent  to  assist 
in  its  defense.  The  fortifications  were  placed 
under  his  direction.  The  principle  on  which  he 
acted  was  to  watch  the  works  of  the  allies  and  to 
establish  against  them  on  every  point  a  supe¬ 
riority  of  fire,  by  multiplying  the  number  and  in¬ 
creasing  the  calibre  of  his  guns.  The  prodigious 
activity  displayed  by  the  Russians  in  making 
good  the  damage  sustained  by  the  heavy  fire  of 
the  enemy  filled  the  allied  army  with  astonish¬ 
ment.  Massive  ramparts  mounted  with  formid¬ 
able  batteries  rose  at  each  threatened  point 
within  the  line  of  defense.  In  June,  1855,  Totle¬ 
ben  was  wounded,  and  he  was  forced  to  relin¬ 
quish  active  supervision  of  the  defense.  After 
the  conclusion  of  peace,  he  expanded  what  was 
at  first  a  mere  engineer’s  report  into  a  history 
of  the  war  in  the  Crimea,  entitled  Defense  de 
Sebastopol.  For  his  services  Totleben  was  made 
adjutant  to  the  Emperor  and  in  1869  general  of 
engineers.  In  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877- 
78  Totleben  was  intrusted  with  the  investment 
of  Plevna  after  repeated  assaults  on  the  works 
had  been  repulsed  with  immense  slaughter.  He 
succeeded  in  completely  cutting  off  the  city  from 
all  outside  relief,  so  that  finally  nothing  was 
left  to  Osman  Pasha  but  to  attempt  to  break 
through  the  lines  of  the  besiegers,  in  which  he 
failed.  In  April,  1878,  he  received  the  supreme 
command  of  the  Russian  forces  in  Turkey.  He 
became  Governor-General  of  Odessa  in  1879  and 
commandant  of  Vilna  in  the  following  year.  He 
died  at  Soden,  Germany,  July  1,  1884,*  and  was 
buried  in  Sebastopol.  (See  Crimean  War.) 
There  are  biographies  of  Totleben  by  Brialmont 
(Brussels,  1884)  and  bv  Krahmer  (Berlin, 
1888). 

TOTNES,  tbtrn€s,  George  Carew,  Earl  of. 
See  Carew. 

TOTO'NAC.  An  ancient  cultured  nation 
whose  territory  embraced  the  northern  portion  of 
the  present  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  with  the  adja¬ 
cent  portion  of  Puebla,  Mexico.  Their  language 
has  numerous  Mayan  and  Nahuatlan  affinities, 
but  appears  to  be  of  distinct  stock.  They  claim 


TOTONICAPAN 


TOUCAN 


372 


to  have  come  from  the  northwest  about  800 
years  before  the  Spanish  Conquest  and  to  have 
been  the  builders  of  the  remarkable  ruins  of 
Teotihuacan,  about  10  miles  northwest  of  the 
city  of  Mexico.  For  several  centuries  they  had 
maintained  their  independence,  but  had  been  con¬ 
quered  by  the  Aztec  emperors  some  time  before 
the  coming  of  the  Spaniards.  Cortes  made  his 
first  landing  in  their  territory.  They  were  fully 
as  advanced  as  the  Aztecs.  Their  capital,  Cem- 
poalla,  was  about  5  miles  from  the  seacoast,  with 
houses  built  of  brick  and  mortar,  each  house  in 
the  centre  of  a  small  garden  watered  by  a  con¬ 
stantly  flowing  stream,  and  the  city  itself  was 
surrounded  by  fruit  trees  and  fields  of  grain. 
Their  religion  was  a  ceremonial  sun  worship, 
and  they  practiced  circumcision  and  head  flat¬ 
tening.  They  still  constitute  an  important  part 
of  the  population  of  their  former  territory,  re¬ 
taining  many  of  their  ancient  rites  interwoven 
with  those  of  the  conquering  religion. 

The  superbly  carved  stones  of  peculiar  shapes 
that  are  commonly  ascribed  to  the  Totonac  have 
an  excellence  second  only  to  Maya  sculpture.  The 
most  interesting  stones  are  shaped  like  a  capital 
U  and  are  called  sacrificial  yokes,  although 
their  original  use  is  unknown.  Human  and  rep¬ 
tile  motives  are  combined  in  the  elaboration  of 
these  yokes.  Other  stones  of  peculiar  shapes 
bear  remarkable  sculptures  of  birds,  etc.  In 
pottery  the  most  beautiful  objects  are  the  so- 
called  “laughing  faces,”  which  are  infectious  in 
their  realism.  All  of  these  faces  wear  broad 
smiles.  It  is  in  the  Totonac  area  that  the  art 
of  the  Archaic  Mexican  type,  seems  to  have  first 
come  under  the  influence  of  the  Maya.  The 
most  famous  ruin  is  that  of  Papantla. 

TOTONICAPAN,  to'to-ne-ka-panL  A  town 
in  the  department  of  the  same  name,  Guatemala, 
61  miles  northwest  of  the  capital  city  (Map: 
Central  America,  B  3 ) .  Its  population  is  al¬ 
most  wholly  native,  of  Quiche  descent,  and  its 
industries  accordingly  consist  of  simple  weaving 
and  wood  and  stone  work.  The  town  was  the 
centre  of  the  Quiche  opposition  to  Alvarado. 
Pop.  (est.),  18,000. 

TOT'TEL,  Richard  (c.1525-94).  An  English 
publisher,  compiler  of  the  celebrated  Tottel’s 
Miscellany .  Of  his  early  life  nothing  is  known. 
Granted  in  1553  a  seven  years’  patent  to  print 
law  books,  and  charter  member  of  the  Stationers’ 
Company  in  1557,  his  patent  was  renewed  for  life 
in  1559.  He  reached  a  high  position  in  the  Sta¬ 
tioners’  Company,  but  left  it  in  1589  on  account 
of  ill  health.  Besides  the  law  books  issued,  Tot- 
tel  published  volumes  of  general  literature  which 
invest  him  with  a  bibliographic  interest.  Among 
these  were  More’s  Dialogue  of  Comfort  (1553)  ; 
Lydgate’s  Fall  of  Princes  (1554);  Hawes’s 
Pastime  of  Pleasure  (1555)  ;  Grimald’s  transla¬ 
tion  of  De  Officiis  (1556)  ;  and  Surrey’s  transla¬ 
tion  (1557)  of  the  second  and  fourth  books  of 
the  JEneid — the  earliest  English  blank  verse 
known.  The  Miscellany  appeared  June  5,  1557, 
and  contained  271  unpublished  poems  by  Surrey, 
Wyatt,  Grimald,  Forrest,  Hey  wood,  Thomas, 
Vaux,  and  others  unidentified.  The  verse  of 
Surrey  and  Wyatt  is  not  known  to  have  ap¬ 
peared  elsewhere.  The  Miscellany  was  the  first 
of  poetic  anthologies  in  England. 

TOT'TEN,  Joseph  Gilbert  (1788-1864).  An 
American  soldier,  born  at  New  Haven,  Conn.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1805  and  during  the 
War  of  1812  served  as  chief  engineer  in  the  cam¬ 
paign  of  1812-13  on  the  Niagara  frontier  and  in 


that  of  1813-14  on  the  Lake  Champlain  line  of 
operations,  and  participated  in  the  battle  of 
Queenstown  Heights,  the  capture  of  Fort  George, 
the  attack  on  La  Cole  Mill,  and  the  battle  of 
Plattsburg.  For  gallant  conduct  in  the  last- 
named  engagement  he  was  brevetted  lieutenant 
colonel.  In  1847,  during  the  Mexican  War,  he 
directed  the  engineering  operations  in  the  siege 
of  Vera  Cruz  and  for  his  services  was  brevetted 
brigadier  general.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
served  as  commander  of  the  corps  of  engineers 
(1861-64),  as  president  of  a  board  to  regulate 
and  fix  the  ordnance  of  permanent  fortifications 
and  field  batteries  (1861-62),  and  on  April  21, 
1864,  one  day  before  his  death,  was  brevetted 
major  general,  U.  S.  A.  He  was  much  interested 
in  the  natural  sciences  and  was  an  authority  on 
conchology.  Two  species  of  shells,  the  Gemma 
Tottenii  and  the  Succinea  Tottenii,  were  named 
in  his  honor.  He  published  Reports  on  Rational 
Defenses  (1851),  Essays  on  Ordnance  (1857), 
and  other  works. 

TOTTENHAM,  tot'en-am.  A  town  in  Middle¬ 
sex,  England,  a  connecting  suburb  of  London,  6 
miles  northeast  of  St.  Paul’s  (Map:  London, 
C  8),  on  the  river  Lea.  The  town  is  mainly 
residential,  and  among  its  public  parks  is  the 
Bruce  Castle  Park,  the  site  of  the  old  Bruce 
estate  and  castle  in  which  King  Robert’s  father 
died  in  1303.  Alexandra  Palace,  a  favorite 
metropolitan  pleasure  resort,  is  partly  within 
the  urban  limits.  Pop.,  1901,  102,703;  1911, 
137,418. 

TOTTORI,  tot-to're.  The  capital  of  the  Pre¬ 
fecture  of  Tottori,  in  west  Hondo,  Japan,  70 
miles  northwest  of  Kobe  (Map:  Japan,  D  6). 
It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  silk  goods. 
Pop.,  1908,  32,682. 

TOUCAN,  too-kan'  or  too'kan  (Brazil,  tou- 
cano,  probably  “nose  bone,”  less  plausibly  ex¬ 
plained  as  meaning  “feather,”  or  of  onomato- 
poetic  origin ) .  A  bird  of  the  family  Rham- 
phastidse,  related  to  the  barbets,  jacamars,  and 
puff  birds  ( qq.v. ) ,  and  not  very  distantly  to  the 
woodpeckers,  and  containing  about  60  known 
species,  all  natives  of  tropical  America  and 
remarkable  for  the  magnitude  of  the  bill.  They 
are  divided  into  two  groups,  the  true  toucans 
( Rhamphastos )  and  the  aragaris  {Pteroglossus) , 
of  which  the  latter  contains  the  greater  number 
of  species;  the  former  has  the  larger  bill,  and 
the  tail  is  shorter.  There  is  a  difference  also  in 
the  prevalent  colors,  the  aragaris  generally  ex¬ 
hibiting  much  green  and  yellow,  while  the  true 
toucans  have  the  ground  color  of  the  plumage 
usually  black;  the  throat,  breast,  and  rump 
often  gayly  adorned  with  white,  yellow,  and  red. 
The  colors,  however,  are  not  in  general  finely 
blended,  but  appear  in  strong  contrast.  The 
legs  of  toucans  are  short;  the  feet  have  two 
toes  before  and  two  behind.  The  form  of  the 
body  is  short  and  thick;  the  tail  is  compara¬ 
tively  short,  rounded  or  even,  and  is  turned  up 
over  ' the  body  when  the  bird  is  at  roost.  The 
base  of  the  enormous  bill  is  of  the  full  width 
and  depth  of  the  head;  it  is  in  some  species  more 
than  half  the  length  of  the  body.  The  bill  is 
arched  towards  the  tip,  irregularly  toothed  along 
the  margins  of  the  mandibles,  and  extremely 
cellular  and  light,  yet  strong  in  structure.  The 
tongue  is  long,  narrow,  and  singularly  feathered 
on  each  side  and  takes  an  important  part  in 
gathering  food.  Toucans  eat  fruits  with  avidity, 
but  they  also  seize  and  devour  small  birds,  liz¬ 
ards,  etc.  They  make  a  curious  clattering  noise 


TOUCEY 


373 


I  with  their  great  mandibles  and  emit  a  harsh  cry. 
They  live  chiefly  in  the  depths  of  the  South 
American  forests,  in  small  flocks.  Almost  noth¬ 
ing  is  known  of  their  life  histories,  hut  they 
are  supposed  to  lay  white  glossy  eggs  in  hol¬ 
lows  of  trees,  making  little  if  any  nest  for  them. 
Toucans  are  easily  tamed  and  in  captivity  read¬ 
ily  eat  rice,  bread,  potatoes,  eggs,  meat,  and 
other  kinds  of  food  and  make  amusing  pets. 
The  colors  of  the  bill  are  in  most  species  bril¬ 
liant  during  life,  but  disappear  from  stuffed 
specimens.  The  largest  species,  as  the  toco  of 
Argentina  ( Rhamphastos  toco),  are  about  24 
inches  in  length,  the  bill  in  this  species  measur¬ 
ing  7 y2  inches  and  the  tail  10  inches.  One  of 
the  most  familiar  species  is  the  Brazil  ariel,  in 
which  the  throat  is  yellow  and  the  rump  scarlet. 
See  Plate  of  Hornbills  and  Toucans.  ‘ 
TOUCEY,  tou'sl,  Isaac  (1796-1869).  An 
American  statesman,  born  at  Newtown,  Conn. 
He  was  educated  privately,  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  at  Hartford  in  1818.  From 
1822  to  1825  he  was  State’s  attorney  for  Hart¬ 
ford  County  and  from  1835  to  1839  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  United  States  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives.  He  was  again  State’s  attorney  in  1842- 
44  and  was  elected  Governor  by  the  Legislature 
in  1846,  when  the  election,  instead  of  being 
decided  by  the  people,  was  put  upon  that  body. 
From  June,  1848,  to  March  3,  1849,  he  was  At¬ 
torney-General  of  the  United  States.  In  1850 
he  served  in  the  State  Senate  and  in  1852  in 
the  State  House  of  Representatives.  In  1852-57 
he  was  United  States  Senator  and  under  Presi¬ 
dent  Buchanan  he  was  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
(1857  to  March  3,  1861).  It  was  charged  by 
the  Republicans  that  he  had  manifested  sym¬ 
pathy  with  the  Southern  cause  by  sending  the 
warships  of  the  United  States  to  distant  sta¬ 
tions  so  that  they  could  not  readily  be  ioined 
for  action. 

TOUCH  (OF.  toucher,  tocher,  Fr.  toucher,  It. 
toccare,  from  Ger.  *tukkon,  OHG.  zuckan,  Ger. 
zucken,.  to  twitch).  One  of  the  five  special 
senses;  the  tactile  sense.  The  sense  of  touch  is 
widely  distributed,  but  it  must  be  distinguished 
from  the  other  varieties  of  common  sensation — 
pain,  and  temperature  perception.  These  are 
perceived  through  the  same  nerves — the  sensory 
— but  the  nerve  fibres  which  are  identified  with 
the  sense  of  touch  proper  are  provided  with 
special  end  organs,  and  the  sense,  moreover,  is 
exercised  in  any  degree  of  perfection  only  in 

1  those  parts  where  there  is  an  abundance  of 
special  end  organs.  These  are  of  two  kinds: 
touch  corpuscles,  situated  chiefly  in  the  skin; 
and  end  bulbs,  found  mainly  in  the  mucous 
membranes.  The  lips  and  genital  organs,  being 
on  the  border  line  of  skin  and  mucous  membrane, 
are  possessed  of  both  touch  corpuscles  and  end 
bulbs.  The  Pacinian  corpuscles  are  widely  dis¬ 
tributed,  but  their  part  in  connection  with  the 
tactile  sense  is  only  partially  understood.  They 

I  are  numerous  as  the  nerves  of  the  palmar  sur¬ 
face  of  the  fingers,  but,  when  found,  are  situ¬ 
ated  deeply  in  the  skin  or  in  the  subcutaneous 
tissue.  The  acuteness  of  the  sense  of  touch  de¬ 
pends  to  some  extent  on  the  cutaneous  circula¬ 
tion,  and  this  is  largely  influenced  by  the  sur¬ 
rounding  temperature.  The  numbness  produced 
by  the  application  of  cold  to  the  surface  of  the 
body  is  thus  explained. 

The  acuteness  of  the  sense  of  touch  is  com¬ 
monly  measured  by  an  instrument  known  as 
the  aesthesiometer  and  consisting  of  two  needle 


TOUCH  IN  ANIMALS 

points  in  arms  movable  upon  a  graduated  scale. 
A  pair  of  compasses  may  be  used  in  the  same 
way.  The  nearer  together  the  points  can  be 
separately  perceived,  the  greater  the  delicacy  of 
touch.  I  he  distance  at  which  these  two  points 
can  be  separately  distinguished  in  various  parts 
of  the  body  is  indicated  in  the  following  table: 

Millimeter 


Tip  of  tongue .  _  j  j 

Palm  of  terminal  joint  of  finger . !!!!!!!!!!!..'.'!.  2.2 

Palm  of  second  joint  of  finger . j  [  4  4 

Tip  of  nose. . . . ..!!!!!!!!!!!!]*  g!6 

white  part  of  Hps . ..!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!  s!s 

Back  of  second  joint  of  finger . ...!!!!!!!!!!  ll!l 

Skin  over  cheek  bone . ..!!!!!!!!!!.!  15.4 

Back  of  hand .  29  8 

Forearm . '.39.6 

Sternum .  44  0 

Back . .'.'.V.'.'.V. ‘.'.‘.’.'.‘.'.  '.'.66.0 


It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  point  of  greatest 
delicacy  of  touch  is  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  and 
the  seat  of  the  least  developed  tactile  sense  is  the 
skin  over  the  spinal  column.  The  sense  of  touch, 
like  all  other  perceptions,  can  be  sharpened  by 
use.  This  improvement  is  not  to  be  explained 
by  an  increased  development  of  the  terminal 
organs,  nor  by  a  growth  of  new  nerve  fibres  in 
the  skin,  but  by  a  more  exact  limitation  of  the 
sensation  areas  in  the  brain.  Many  artisans 
acquire  a  highly  specialized  sense  of  touch.  The 
delicacy  of  the  tactile  sense  in  the  blind  is 
well  known;  they  are  able  to  read  fine  raised 
letters  and  to  make  articles  of  delicate  structure 
in  a  manner  impossible  to  individuals  who  can 
see.  See  Cutaneous  Sensations;  Psychologi- 
cal  Apparatus;  Psychology;  Sensation; 
Skin. 

TOUCH.  In  music,  a  term  denoting  the 
manner  in  which  the  digitals  of  a  keyed  instru¬ 
ment  are  manipulated.  Most  important  are  the 
smooth  legato  touch  and  the  detached  staccato 
touch.  It  is  of  vital  importance  which  muscles 
are  employed  in  playing  different  passages.  The 
muscles  of  the  fingers,  the  wrist,  and  the  arm 
produce  very  different  effects,  generally  distin¬ 
guished  as  tone  color.  Thus,  when  we  speak  of  a 
pianist  as  lacking  in  color,  it  means  that  he  em¬ 
ploys  one  set  of  muscles  almost  to  the  exclusion 
of  others.  It  is  the  matter  of  touch  that  pro¬ 
duces  what  are  called  singing,  velvety,  or  hard 
tones. 

TOUCH  IN  ANIMALS.  A  general  term  for 
the  cutaneous  senses  of  pressure,  pain,  and 
temperature,  as  evidenced  by  the  selective  re¬ 
actions  of  animals  to  contact,  warmth,  and  cold. 

Mammals  behave  as  if  sensitive  to  contact, 
and  it  is  probable  that  the  hairs  which  are  found 
upon  the  skin  of  all  mammals  are  organs  of 
pressure.  (See  Cutaneous  Sensations.)  The 
vibrissse  of  rats  have  been  shown  to  be  highly 
developed  forms  of  such  pressure  organs.  Most 
mammals,  moreover,  appear  to  possess  a  sense 
of  support;  thus,  they  will  not,  when  blinded, 
walk  off  the  edge  of  a  table.  The  ability  of 
bats  to  avoid  small  wires  stretched  in  the  path 
of  their  flight  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon 
the  excitability  of  the  ears,  as  is  shown  by  the 
result  of  stopping  the  auditory  meatus.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  drumskin  of  the  ear  acts 
in  this  case  as  an  organ  of  touch,  excited  by 
the  condensations  of  the  air  which  occur  when 
the  bat  approaches  a  wire.  Fish  and  amphibia 
show  many  responses  to  contact.  Some  fish  are 
unequally  sensitive  to  pressure  in  different 
regions;  and  some,  it  is  thought,  swim  against 
the  current  of  a  stream  in  response  to  pressure 


TOUCH  PAPER 


TOULON 


374 


cues  from  the  flowing  water.  See  Kinesthetic 
Sensations  in  Animals;  Mechanical  Sense 
in  Animals. 

In  general,  mammals  are  sensitive  to  thermal 
stimuli.  Rats  and  squirrels  have  been  trained 
to  discriminate  between  two  temperatures  sepa¬ 
rated  by  as  little  as  10°  C.  A  study  of  the 
dependence  upon  temperature  of  the  breathing 
rhythm  of  the  decerebrized  frog  makes  it  appear 
that  the  frog,  at  least  in  a  reflex  manner,  is  as 
sensitive  as  the  human  being  to  thermal  changes. 
For  touch  in  man,  see  Cutaneous  Sensations. 
Consult  J.  B.  Watson,  Behavior  (IjTew  York, 
1914). 

TOUCH  PAPER.  See  Pyrotechny. 

TOUCHSTONE,  or  Lydian  Stone.  A  hard 
black  variety  of  quartz  or  flinty  jasper  used  for 
testing  the  purity  of  precious  metals,  especially 
gold.  The  stone  originally  used  was  a  peculiar 
bituminous  quartz  from  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor. 
When  a  piece  of  gold  is  rubbed  across  the  sur-. 
face  of  the  stone,  it  leaves  a  streak  which  is 
more  or  less  reddish,  according  to  the  amount 
of  copper  that  it  contains,  and  by  comparing  the 
streak  with  those  of  alloys  of  known  composi¬ 
tion  the  expert  can  determine  approximately 
the  value  of  the  metal.  See  Basanite. 

TOUCH'WOOD.  The  decayed  wood  of  wil¬ 
lows  and  some  other  trees  used  as  tinder.  See 
Amadou. 

TOUL,  tool  (anciently  Tullum  Leucorum) .  A 
fortified  town,  capital  of  an  arrondissement 
in  the  Department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  France, 
14  miles  west  of  Nancy  (Map:  France,  N.,  L  4). 
The  former  cathedral  of  St.  Etienne  is  noted 
for  its  graceful  proportions,  octagonal  towers, 
and  thirteenth-century  cloisters;  the  fine  Gothic 
church  of  Saint-Gengoult  also  has  elegant  clois¬ 
ters,  in  the  flamboyant  style  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  the  eighteenth-century  episcopal 
palace  is  now  used  as  the  town  hall.  The  bishop¬ 
ric,  founded  in  the  fifth  century,  was  suppressed 
at  the  time  of  Napoleon.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  Middle  Ages  and  later  down  to  1552  Toul 
was  a  free  city  of  the  German  Empire.  In  that 
year  it  was  seized  by  Henry  II  of  France.  In 
1790  its  fortifications  were  reconstructed  upon 
the  Vaubanian  principle.  In  1814  the  town  was 
stormed  by  the  Russians,  and  on  Sept.  23,  1870, 
it  was  taken  by  the  Germans  after  a  siege  of 
nearly  six  weeks.  Pop.,  1901,  12,287;  1911, 
13,663. 

TOULINGUET,  tooTaN'ga'.  See  Twillin- 

GATE. 

TOULMIN,  tool'min,  Henry  (1767-1823). 
An  American  jurist,  born  at  Taunton,  England. 
He  removed  in  1793  to  Virginia  and  from  1794 
to  1796  was  president  of  Transylvania  Univer¬ 
sity.  In  1796-1804  he  was  Secretary  of  State 
of *  Kentucky  and  in  the  latter  year  was  ap¬ 
pointed  judge  of  the  United  States  Circuit  Court 
of  Mississippi.  Subsequently  he  served  in  the 
Alabama  Legislature  and  assisted  in  framing 
the  constitution  of  that  State.  He  published : 
A  Description  of  Kentucky  (1792);  Collection 
of  the  Acts  of  Kentucky  (1802)  ;  Revieio  of  the 
Criminal  Laio  of  Kentucky  (1804),  with  James 
Blair;  Digest  of  the  Territorial  Laws  of  Ala¬ 
bama  (1823). 

TOULMIN,  Joshua  (1740-1815).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  Unitarian  clergyman.  He  was  born  in  Lon¬ 
don  and  became  pastor  of  a  dissenting  congre¬ 
gation  in  Colyton,  Devonshire,  in  1761.  In  1765 
he  accepted  a  call  from  a  Baptist  congregation 
in  Taunton.  He  then  turned  Unitarian  and 


in  1804  became  minister  of  a  Unitarian  congre 
gation  at  Birmingham.  He  published  many 
biographies,  including  Memoirs  of  Faust  us  So- 
cinus  (1777),  also  A  Historical  View  of  the 
State  of  the  Protestant  Dissenters  in  England 
under  King  V/illiam  (1814),  and  edited  ^Neal  a 
History  of  the  Puritans  (new  ed.,  5  vols.,  1822). 
A  volume  of  sermons  was  published  after  hia 
death  (1825). 

TOULON,  too'ldN'.  The  capital  of  an  arron¬ 
dissement  in  the  French  Department  of  Var,  a 
fortress  of  the  first  class,  and  the  second  naval 
station  in  France  (Map:  France,  S.,  L  5).  It  is 
situated  on  a  fine  and  well-protected  bay  of  the 
Mediterranean,  42  miles  east-southeast  of  Mar¬ 
seilles,  and  is  partly  surrounded  by  hills,, 
crowned  by  detached  forts.  The  old  town  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  city  is  of  uninviting 
appearance.  Surrounding  it  on  the  north  are 
the  modern  quarters  embellished  with  wide 
avenues  and  fine  buildings.  In  the  old  town 
is  situated  the  only  ancient  building  of  any 
particular  architectural  value — the  Sainte-Marie 
Majeure  Church.  It  is  Romanesque  and  dates 
from  the  eleventh  century;  it  contains  a  hand¬ 
some  reredos.  Besides  the  numerous  naval  and 
military  open  spaces  and  grounds  (including  the 
Place  d’Armes)  in  Toulon,  there  are  in  the 
northern  part  two  spacious  and  prominent 
squares — the  Place  de  la  Liberte  (the  finest  in 
the  new  town)  and  the  Jardin  de  la  Ville,  an 
attractive  promenade.  The  most  important 
avenue  of  the  city,  the  Boulevard  Strasbourg, 
connects  the  two  "squares,  and  on  it  are  the 
Musee  Bibliotheque  (a  handsome  modern  Re¬ 
naissance  edifice)  and  the  immense  Marine  Hos¬ 
pital.  The  Place  d’Armes,  to  the  southeast  and 
near  the  port,  is  the  main  square  in  the  city. 

The  harbor  has  five  principal  basins.  It  con¬ 
nects  with  surrounding  bays,  which  stretch 
away  under  hills  bristling  with  forts,  and  ex¬ 
tends  past  Fort  de  l’Aiguillette  out  into  the 
great  harbor  or  roadstead  which  opens  into  the 
sea.  The  port  has  an  easy  access  and  is  well 
sheltered.  The  marine  arsenal,  an  immense  and 
complete  establishment  with  its  buildings,  basins, 
and  canals,  adjoins  the  city  on  the  west.  It 
dates  from  the  time  of  Henry  IV  and  on  an 
enlarged  scale  was  planned  by  Vauban.  It 
embraces  650  acres. 

Toulon  has  a  lyceum,  the  Ecole  Rouviere, 
marine  schools,  a  marine  library,  a  marine  bo¬ 
tanic  garden,  and  a  marine  observatory.  Ship¬ 
building,  iron  and  copper  founding,  lace  making, 
fishing,  and  viticulture  are  the  main  industries. 
The  vicinity  produces  olives  and  figs.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  exports  are  wines,  oils,  and  fruits.  In 
1912  there  entered  and  cleared  1043  vessels 
of  587,948  tons.  Pop.,  1901,  101,602;  1911, 

104,582. 

Toulon  is  the  ancient  Telo  Martius,  noted  for 
its  dye  works.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
in  889,  and  like  calamities  befell  it  in  the 
twelfth  century.  It  surrendered  to  the  forces  of 
Charles  V  in  i524  and  also  in  1536.  Henry  IV 
and  Louis  XIV  fortified  it.  It  repelled  the  allied 
fleets  of  England  and  Holland  in  1707.  In  1793 
it  was  turned  over  by  the  Royalists  to  the  Eng¬ 
lish  and  their  allies.  It  was  thereupon  besieged 
by  the  forces  of  the  Convention,  Napoleon  Bona¬ 
parte  gaining  there  great  distinction  as  com¬ 
mander  of  the  artillery.  The  town  was  taken 
in  December,  and  its  inhabitants  were  ruthlessly 
punished.  Consult:  Octave  Teissier,  Notice  sur 
les  archives  communales  de  la  ville  de  Toulon 


TOULOUSE 


TOULOUSE 


375 


(Toulon,  1863)  ;  G.  Lambert,  Histoire  de  Toulon 
(3  vols.,  ib.,  1886—89)  ;  Rozet,  Essai  sur  la 
climatologie  de  Toulon  (Paris,  1890). 

TOULOUSE,  tooTooz'.  A  city  of  France, 
formerly  the  capital  of  Languedoc  and  the  pres¬ 
ent  capital  of  the  Department  of  Haute-Garonne. 
It  is  situated  130  miles  southeast  of  Bordeaux 
(Map:  France,  S.,  F  5).  Toulouse  lies  in  a  rich 
valley  on  the  right  bank  of  the  navigable  Ga¬ 
ronne.  It  is  subject  to  high  winds,  to  floods, 
and  in  summer  to  very  hot  weather.  Three 
bridges  across  the  river  connect  the  city  with 
the  Faubourg  Saint-Cyprien  on  the  west  bank. 
The  noble  Pont  Neuf,  a  stone  bridge  of  seven 
arches,  dates  from  1543.  The  streets  of  TAu- 
louse  are  for  the  most  part  narrow,  unattractive, 
and  poorly  paved.  Two  wide  lines  of  boule¬ 
vards,  however — the  outer  one  following  the 
canals — divide  the  city  from  the  surrounding 
suburbs,  and  many  extensive  improvements  have 
been  begun.  On  the  extreme  east  is  the  Parc 
du  Caousou. 

In  the  centre  of  the  town,  in  the  Place  du 
Capitole,  stands  the  Capitole,  or  town  hall.  It 
dates  from  the  sixteenth  century,  but  has  re¬ 
cently  been  almost  wholly  reconstructed.  It 
possesses  little  architectural  merit.  The  edifice 
owes  its  name  to  the  city  magistrates,  or  Capi- 
touls,  who  ceased  to  exercise  their  functions 
about  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  famous  Academie  des  Jeux- 
Floraux,  an  ancient  literary  institution  which 
lends  especial  renown  to  the  city.  These  Jeux- 
Floraux,  or  Floral  Games,  which  date  from  1324, 
are  poetical  tournaments,  in  which  the  prizes 
allotted  on  May  3  of  each  year  consist  of  flowers 
of  gold  and  silver.  In  the  Capitole  also  are  an 
academy  of  legislation,  founded  in  1851,  and 
an  academy  of  science,  inscriptions,  and  belles- 
lettres,  founded  in  1640. 

Near  the  Capitole  are  the  Municipal  Theatre 
and  a  square  donjon,  restored  by  Viollet-le-Duc. 
The  latter  contains  the  city’s  archives.  Farther 
south  is  the  museum  of  fine  arts,  occupying  in 
part  an  ancient  Augustine  convent.  In  this  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  city  is  the  cathedral  of  Saint-Etienne, 
a  curious  inharmonious  edifice  belonging  to 
different  times  and  architectural  types. 

In  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  city  are 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes  and  the  Jardin  Royal. 
Here  splendid,  spacious  avenues  unite  in  the 
sightly  Grand  Rond,  which  is  decorated  with 
statues.  To  the  west  is  the  Palace  of  Justice, 
formerly  the  Palace  of  the  Parlement,  with  sev¬ 
eral  beautiful  rooms.  In  the  vicinity  stands  the 
statue  of  the  jurist  Jacques  de  Cujas,  a  na¬ 
tive  of  Toulouse.  Northward  is  the  church  of 
Notre  Dame  de  la  Dalbade,  whose  square  tower, 
splendid  Renaissance  portal,  and  interior  merit 
mention.  Prominent  among  the  old  mansions 
in  the  vicinity  is  the  Hotel  Lasbordes — a  splen¬ 
did  creation  of  Bachelier,  much  of  whose  work  is 
to  be  seen  in  Toulouse.  Farther  north,  near  the 
Pont  Neuf,  is  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  de  la 
Daurade.  Not  far  away  is  the  lycee,  occupying 
part  of  the  extensive  Renaissance  establishment 
of  the  merchant  Bernuy,  who  guaranteed  the 
ransom  of  Francis  I  after  the  French  defeat  at 
Pavia.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  Protestant  church. 
To  the  north  of  the  Capitole  and  connected  with 
it  by  the  Rue  du  Faur,  the  most  important  street 
in  the  city,  is  Saint-Sernin,  the  finest  church  in 
Toulouse.  It  is  a  superb  cruciform  Romanesque 
structure,  begun  in  the  eleventh  century  and 
restored  under  Viollet-le-Duc.  The  splendid 


octagonal  tower  rises  210  feet,  with  tiers  of 
triangular  arches.  Saint-Saturnin,  the  martyred 
apostle  of  Toulouse,  is  buried  here. 

At  the  head  of  the  educational  institutions 
stands  the  university.  (See  Toulouse,  Univer¬ 
sity  of.)  There  are  a  splendid  school  of  medi¬ 
cine,  a  school  of  fine  arts,  a  veterinary  college, 
an  observatory,  an  artillery  school,  a  museum 
of  industrial  art  and  antiquities,  and,  in  addi¬ 
tion,  many  learned  societies  which  occupy  now 
the  splendid  Hotel  d’Assezat,  bequeathed  to  them 
in  1896.  The  city  library  has  over  213,000  vol¬ 
umes  and  1000  manuscripts. 

loulouse  is  a  city  of  wealth  and  prominence 
industrially  and  commercially,  owing  to  its  com¬ 
manding  position  in  the  south  of  France.  The 
Canal  du  Midi  (q.v.)  is  here  joined  by  the  Canal 
Lateral,  and  thus  commerce  between  the  Atlan¬ 
tic  and  the  Mediterranean  is  accommodated  by 
water,  Toulouse  being  the  centre  of  this  traffic. 
Much  of  the  commerce  from  interior  France  to 
Spain  also  passes  through  Toulouse.  The  trade 
of  the  city  is  very  extensive  in  wine  and  grain. 
There  are  two  historic  mills  on  the  river.  One 
is  known  to  have  existed  in  1182;  the  other 
traces  its  origin  back  to  the  ninth  century. 
There  are  a  national  tobacco  factory,  iron  and 
copper  foundries,  a  cannon  foundry,  and  car¬ 
riage  and  farm-machinery  works.  Stained  glass 
is  also  manufactured.  Pop.  (commune),  1901, 
149,841;  1911,  149,576. 

History.  Toulouse,  the  ancient  Tolosa,  was 
long  prominent  before  the  Romans  came  into 
Gaul.  It  was  taken  by  the  consul  Csepio  in 
106  b.c.,  and  he  despoiled  its  great  shrine  of 
the  rich  treasures  for  which  it  had  been  famous. 
It  became  the  chief  city  of  the  Visigoths  in 
419,  and  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks 
in  507.  It  was  long  important  as  the  seat  of 
the  counts  of  Toulouse.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century  it  suffered  terribly  in  the 
Albigensian  troubles.  In  1562,  4000  Huguenots 
were  killed  in  Toulouse.  The  Protestant  Jean 
Calas,  made  famous  by  the  noble  exertions  of 
Voltaire,  was  broken  on  a  wheel  here  in  1762 
on  an  unjust  charge.  At  Toulouse  Soult  made 
an  unsuccessful  stand  against  Wellington  on 
April  10,  1814.  Consult:  A.  L.  C.  A.  Du  Mege, 
Histoire  des  institutions  religieuses,  politiques 
.  .  .  de  Toulouse  (4  vols.,  Toulouse,  1844-46)  ; 
Justin  Jourdan,  Panorama  historique  de  Tou¬ 
louse  (ib.,  1877)  ;  Toulouse:  histoire,  archeologie 
monumentale,  facultes,  etc.  (ib.,  1887),  published 
anonymously;  C.  Douais,  L’Art  a  Toulouse: 
materiaux  pour  servir  d  son  histoire  de  XV me 
au  XVIIIme  siecle  (Paris,  1904). 

TOULOUSE,  County  of.  A  feudatory  state, 
which  played  a  prominent  role  among  the  prin¬ 
cipalities  of  mediaeval  France.  It  was  estab¬ 
lished  by  Charles  the  Great  in  778,  and  its 
rulers  became  hereditary  about  the  middle  of 
the  ninth  century.  The  dominion  of  the  counts 
finally  extended  over  the  whole  of  Languedoc, 
over  Rouergue,  and  over  part  of  Guienne  and 
Provence.  Count  Raymond  IV  had  a  distin¬ 
guished  share  in  the  First  Crusade  (1096-99). 
He  died  in  1105.  His  son  Bertrand  established 
the  Principality  of  Tripolis  on  the  coast  of 
Syria.  Raymond  VI  (1194-1222)  is  celebrated 
as  a  patron  of  the  Provencal  poets  and  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  Albigensian  wars.  Having  re¬ 
fused  to  take  severe  measure  against  the  Albi- 
genses,  he  incurred  the  wrath  of  the  Church, 
which  let  loose  against  him  the  crusading  forces 
of  Simon  de  Montfort,  to  whom  Raymond’s 


TOULOUSE 


TOURGEE 


376 


possessions  were  transferred  by  Pope  Innocent 
III.  Raymond  was  unable  to  make  head  against 
the  invaders,  who  overran  and  laid  waste  his 
country.  Simon  de  Montfort  fell  at  the  siege 
of  Toulouse  in  1218,  and  not  long  after  Raymond 
succeeded  in  recovering  a  part  of  his  lands.  He 
enjoyed  his  regained  power,  however,  for  only  a 
brief  time,  dying  in  1222.  His  son  Raymond  \  II 
(1222-49)  secured  possession  of  most  of  the  do¬ 
minions  of  his  house,  but  in  1229  he  was  forced 
to  cede  a  large  part  to  Louis  IX  of  France  and 
acknowledge  him  as  his  overlord.  His  daughter 
and  heiress,  Jeanne,  was  married  to  the  King’s 
brother,  Alphonse,  Count  of  Poitou,  on  whose 
death,  in  1271,  the  County  of  Toulouse  was 
united  with  the  French  crown. 

TOULOUSE,  Edouard  (1865-  ).  A 

French  alienist  and  psychologist,  born  at  Mar¬ 
seilles.  He  studied  medicine  in  his  native  city 
and  at  Paris,  and  was  physician  of  the  insane 
asylums  of  the  Seine  and  then  head  physician  of 
the  asylum  at  Villejuif.  At  the  latter  place 
he  established  a  laboratory  of  experimental 
psychology  and  with  N.  Vaschide  invented  much 
of  the  apparatus  there  used.  He  was  founder 
and  editor  of  the  Bibliotheque  de  Psychologie 
Experiment  ale  and  of  the  Revue  de  Psyohiatrie 
and  an  editor  of  La  Revue  Scientifique.  His 
writings  include:  Les  causes  de  la  folie  (1896)  ; 
Emile  Zola  (1896);  Organisation  scientifique 
d’un  service  d’alienes  (1900);  Les  conflits  in- 
tersexuels  et  sociaux  (1904);  Technique  de 
psychologie  experimentale  (2  vols.,  1905;  2d  ed., 
1911),  with  N.  Vaschide  and  H.  Pieron;  Les 
legons  de  la  vie  (1906)  ;  Henri  Poincare  (1910)  ; 
Comment  former  un  esprit  (1910);  Comment 
conserver  sa  sante  (1914). 

TOULOUSE,  University  of.  A  French  uni¬ 
versity,  founded  as  a  result  of  the  Albigensian 
heresy  and  the  crusade  against  Toulouse,  as  a 
bulwark  of  orthodoxy,  by  Pope  Gregory  IX 
in  1230-33.  It  is  the  first  of  European  universi¬ 
ties  founded  by  deliberate  purpose  and  thus  be¬ 
came  the  model  for  later  foundations.  Its  chief 
purpose  was  originally  theological,  but  it  de¬ 
veloped  into  a  noted  school  of  law  and  event¬ 
ually  took  up  the  royal  as  against  papal  inter¬ 
ests.*  It  was  particularly  rich  in  colleges,  no 
fewer  than  10  well-endowed  foundations  being 
enumerated.  At  the  Napoleonic  reorganization 
it  was,  like  other  universities,  merged  into  the 
national  system.  It  includes  now  four  regular 
faculties:  law,  medicine  and  pharmacy,  science, 
and  philosophy,  besides  the  faculty  of  Protestant 
theology  of  Montauban,  and  the  two  “free  facul¬ 
ties  of"  theology  and  philosophy.”  In  1913  it 
had  nearly  2869  students.  The  university  li¬ 
brary  contains  over  139,423  volumes,  besides 
30.500  volumes  at  Montauban. 

TOUMEY,  James  William  (1865-  ). 

An  American  forester,  born  at  Lawrence,  Mich. 
He  graduated  in  1889  from  the  Michigan  Agri¬ 
cultural  College  and  later  studied  at  Harvard. 
Fie  served  as  professor  of  biology  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Arizona  in  1891-98  and  as  director  of 
the  Arizona  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  in 
1897-98.  For  two  years  he  was  connected  with 
the  government  forestry  service;  he  then  went  to 
Yale,  rising  to  be  director  of  the  Forest  School 
(1910).  ITis  writings  include  articles  and  bulle¬ 
tins  on  agriculture,  botany,  and  forestry. 

TOUR,  toor,  Maurice  Quentin  de  la.  See 
La  Tour,  Maurice  Quentin  de. 

TOURACOO,  or  Touraco.  Same  as  Turaco 
(q.v.). 


TOURAINE,  tod-ran'.  One  of  the  former 
provinces  of  France,  corresponding  to  the  present 
Department  of  Indre-et-Loire.  The  capital  was 
Tours  ( q.v. ) .  After  having  been  under  the  rule 
of  its  own  counts  Touraine  was  united  about 
the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century  with  Anjou.. 
With  Anjou  it  passed  in  1154  to  England.  It 
was  reacquired  by  France  half  a  century  later, 
was  made  a  duchy  in  1356,  and  was  definitively 
united  with  the  crown  in  1584.  See  ‘'Map  of 
France,  Showing  Former  Provinces,”  under 
France. 

TOURANE,  too-ran',  or  Touran.  A  town  of 
Annam,  40  miles  southeast  of  Hue  (q.v.)  (Map: 
FFencli  Indo-China,  E  3).  There  are  large  sub¬ 
stantial  markets,  a  silk  filature,  an  opium  farm, 
etc.  Numerous  steamers  maintain  communi¬ 
cation  with  Europe  and  the  adjacent  ports,  and 
there  is  an  extensive  commerce  carried  on  in 
sugar,  rattan,  bamboo,  areca  nuts,  silk,  and 
cassia.  Tea,  coffee,  and  the  mulberry  are  culti¬ 
vated  in  the  neighborhood,  and  coal  is  mined. 
Pop.,  1913,  7853,  of  whom  184  were  Europeans. 

TOURAS'SXAN  EPOCH.  The  name  some¬ 
times  applied  to  an  epoch  of  European  prehis¬ 
toric  archseology  at  the  end  of  the  Paleolithic 
period,  just  before  the  close  of  the  Quaternary. 
It  is  so  named  from  the  rock  shelter  of  Tourasse 
at  Saint-Martory,  Haute-Garonne,  France.  See 
Paleolithic  Period. 

TOURCOXNG,  tobr'kwaN/.  The  capital  of  an 
arrondissement  in  the  Department  of  Nord, 
France,  7%  miles  northeast  of  Lille  (Map: 
France,  N.,  J  2).  It  is  practically  a  part  of  the 
great  industrial  centre  Roubaix.  The  town  has 
a  fine  modern  Gothic  church,  a  large  new  town 
hall,  a  chamber  of  arts  and  manufactures,  and 
schools  of  painting,  drawing,  music,  and  archi¬ 
tecture.  In  1866  a  monument  was  erected  to 
commemorate  the  defeat  here  in  1794  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish  and  Austrians  by  Jourdari  and  Moreau.  The 
wool-manufacturing  output  of  this  district  rep¬ 
resents  nearly  the  entire  output  of  north  France. 
There  are  manufactories  of  velvet-pile  carpets, 
woven  goods,  and  furniture  stuffs,  also  cotton, 
linen,  and  silk  mills,  dye  works,  machine  shops, 
and  a  sugar  refinery.  Tourcoing  was  captured 
by  the  Germans  in  the  War  which  began  in 
1914.  It  was  later  damaged  by  allied  aircraft. 
See  War  in  Europe.  Pop.,  1901,  79,243;  1911, 
82,644. 

TOURGEE,  toor-zha',  Albion  Winegar  (1838- 
1905)  .  An  American  novelist,  born  in  Williams- 
field,  Ohio.  He  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Rochester  (New  York)  in  1862,  receiving  his 
degree  while  serving  in  the  Federal  army.  He 
had  been  wounded  at  Bull  Run  and  was  dis¬ 
charged,  but  reentered  the  service,  only  to  be  taken 
prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Murfreesboro,  Tenn. 
Immediately  after  the  war  lie  became  an  editor 
and  took  up  the  practice  of  law  at  Greensboro, 
N.  C.  From  1868  to  1875  he  was  judge  of  the 
Superior  Court  of  North  Carolina,  and  was  later 
(1881-84)  editor  of  the  Continent  at  Philadel¬ 
phia.  He  was  appointed  United  States  Consul 
at  Bordeaux  in  1897  and  was  transferred  to 
Halifax  in  1903.  His  numerous  novels  were 
founded  chiefly  on  his  experience  in  the  South 
during  the  Reconstruction  period.  The  list  in¬ 
cludes:  Toinette  (1874)  ;  A  Fool’s  Errand 
(1879),  perhaps  his  best-known  work;  Bricks 
ivithout  Straw  (1880)  ;  John  Eax  and  Mamelon 
(1882)  ;  Hot  Plowshares  (1883)  ;  An  Appeal  to 
Ccesar  (1884);  Black  Ice  (1888);  Letters  to  a 
King  (1888);  Murvale  Eastman,  Christian  So- 


TOURMALINE 


TOURNAMENT 


377 


cialist  (1890);  An  Outing  with  the  Queen  of 
Hearts  (1894);  The  Mortgage  on  the  Hip-Roof 
House  (1896).  Tourg6e  also  published  several 
legal  books,  North  Carolina  Code  of  Civil  Proce¬ 
dure  (1878)  and  A  Digest  of  Cited  Cases  (1879). 

TOURMALINE,  toor'ma-lln  (Fr.  tourmaline, 
from  Singhalese  tournamal,  turamali,  tourma¬ 
line).  A  complex  aluminium  borosilicate,  con¬ 
taining  also  chromium,  iron,  magnesium,  and 
the  alkalies.  It  crystallizes  in  the  hexagonal 
system.  According  to  composition,  several  varie¬ 
ties  are  distinguished,  as  chromium  tourmaline, 
iron  tourmaline,  lithium  tourmaline,  magnesium 
tourmaline,  and  magnesium-iron  tourmaline.  It 
has  a  vitreous  lustre,  may  be  either  transparent 
or  opaque,  and  may  be  colorless  as  well  as  blue, 
green,  red,  brown,  and  black.  Some  crystals 
are  red  internally  and  green  externally,  and  still 
others  are  red  at  one  extremity  and  green,  blue, 
or  black  at  the  other.  Tourmaline  is  the  most 
dichroitic  of  all  gems.  The  mineral  is  usually 
found  in  granite,  gneiss,  or  mica  schist.  It  oc¬ 
curs  also  in  dolomite,  granular  limestone,  and  in 
certain  contact  rocks  near  dikes  of  igneous  rocks, 
also  in  rolled  pebbles  in  alluvial  deposits.  The 
white  or  colorless  tourmalines  are  called  acliro- 
ite,  the  black  varieties  aphrizite  and  schorl,  while 
those  of  various  shades  of  blue  are  known  as 
indicolite,  the  red  varieties  as  rubellite,  and  the 
green  transparent  specimens  from  Brazil  are 
known  as  Brazilian  emeralds.  The  colored  crys¬ 
tallized  varieties  of  tourmaline,  when  transpar¬ 
ent,  are  highly  prized  as  gems.  They  are  found 
in  Burma,  Ceylon,  and  India,  in  the  Urals,  the 
Harz,  and  Brazil,  while  in  the  United  States 
splendid  specimens  occur  in  Maine,  especially 
near  Paris.  Specimens  also  occur  in  Massachu¬ 
setts,  Connecticut,  New  York,  and  California. 
Consult  G.  F.  Kunz,  Gems  and  Precious  Stones 
of  North  America  (New  York,  1892).  See  Gems. 

TOURNACHON,  tbbr'na'shoN/,  Felix  (1820- 
1910).  A  French  author,  artist,  and  aeronaut, 
better  known  under  the  pseudonym  Nadar.  He 
was  born  in  Paris,  studied  medicine  at  Lyons, 
and  returned  to  Paris  as  a  journalist.  In  1849 
he  founded  the  Revue  Comique  and  in  1854  pub¬ 
lished  he  Panth eon -Nadar,  a  gallery  of  contem¬ 
porary  celebrities.  He  soon  afterward  engaged 
in  experiments  in  aerial  navigation  and  con¬ 
structed  Le  G4ant,  the  largest  balloon  hitherto 
made.  In  it  he  made  a  number  of  ascensions  and 
was  once  carried  as  far  as  Hanover.  During  the 
siege  of  Paris  by  the  Prussians  he  made  use  of 
his  knowledge  as  an  aeronaut  to  carry  informa¬ 
tion  to  the  outside  country  and  commanded  the 
company  of  aeronauts  of  the  Place  Saint-Pierre, 
Montmartre.  Among  his  numerous  published 
works  are:  La  rohe  de  Dejanire  (1841;  2d  ed., 
1859);  Quand  j’6tais  etudiant  (1856);  Me¬ 
mories  du  Ceant  ( 1864)  ;  Le  droit  au  vol  ( 1865)  ; 
Les  ballons  en  1870  (1871)  ;  Le  monde  ou  Von 
patauge  (1883). 

TOURNAI.  See  Tournay. 

TOURNAMENT,  todr'na-ment  (OF.  tour- 
noyement,  tournoiement,  from  tournoier,  to  joust, 
tilt,  tourney,  wheel  about,  from  tourner,  to  turn, 
from  Lat.  tornare,  to  turn  in  a  lathe,  from 
tornus,  from  Gk.  ropvos,  compasses,  carpenter’s 
chisel).  A  knightly  sport  of  the  Middle  Ages,  in 
which  combatants  engaged  one  another  with  the 
object  of  exhibiting  their  courage,  prowess,  and 
skill  in  the  use  of  arms.  It  existed  first  probably 
in  France,  whence  it  spread  to  Germany  and 
England  and  afterward  to  the  south  of  Europe. 
A  tournament  was  usually  held  on  the  invita¬ 


tion  of  some  prince,  who  sent  a  king-of-arms  or 
herald  through  his  own  dominions  and  to  foreign 
courts.  The  intending  combatants  hung  up  their 
armorial  shields  on  the  trees,  tents,  and  pavilions 
around  the  arena  for  inspection,  to  show  that 
they  were  worthy  candidates  for  the  honor  of 
contending  in  the  lists  in  respect  of  birth,  mili¬ 
tary  prowess,  and  character.  The  combat  took 
place  on  horseback,  or  at  least  was  always  be¬ 
gun  on  horseback,  though  dismounted  combatants 
frequently  continued  it  on  foot.  The  usual 
arms  were  blunted  lances  or  swords;  but  the  or¬ 
dinary  arms  of  warfare,  called  arms  a  Voutrance, 
were  sometimes  used  by  cavaliers  who  were  am¬ 
bitious  of  special  distinction.  The  prize  was 
bestowed  by  the  lady  of  the  tournament  on  the 
knight  to  whom  it  had  been  adjudged,  he  rever¬ 
ently  approaching  her  and  saluting  her  and  her 
two  attendants.  The  period  when  tournaments 
were  most  in  vogue  comprised  the  twelfth,  thir¬ 
teenth,  and  fourteenth  centuries ;  and  the  place 
where  the  most  celebrated  English  tournaments 
were  held  was  the  tiltyard  near  St.  James’s, 
Smithfield,  London.  The  Church  at  first  dis¬ 
countenanced  tournaments,  some  of  its  decrees 
prohibiting  persons  from  engaging  in  them  under 
pain  of  excommunication  and  denying  Christian 
burial  to  a  combatant  who  lost  his  life  in  one. 
The  Church  seems,  however,  to  have  looked  with 
more  favor  on  these  combats  after  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  During  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  tournaments  continued  to 
be  held,  but  the  alteration  in  the  social  life  and 
warfare  of  Europe  had  changed  their  character, 
and  they  are  rather  to  be  regarded  as  state 
pageants  than  as  real  combats.  The  death’ of 
Henry  II  of  France,  in  1559,  consequent  on  the 
loss  of  his  eye  at  a  tournament,  led  to  their 
general  abandonment,  both  in  France  and  else¬ 
where. 

Military  Tournaments.  The  modern  mili¬ 
tary  tournament  embraces  all  the  personal  skill 
in  the  use  of  arms  of  the  ancient  chivalric  tour¬ 
nament  and  has  much  of  its  pageantry.  New 
inventions  and  contact  with  many  nations  have 
incorporated  into  military  necessities  and  pas¬ 
times  many  novelties  unknown  in  ancient  times, 
and  these  find  their  supreme  exposition  in  the 
national  tournaments  of  both  America  and  Eng¬ 
land.  There  is  no  mystery  about  the  origin  of 
the  modern  military  tournament;  data,  place, 
and  reason  are  all  available.  In  1878  the  staff 
of  the  Military  Gymnasium,  Aldershot,  gave 
an  exhibition  of  military  exercises  at  the  Albert 
Hall  in  London  in  aid  of  the  widows  and  orphans 
of  the  British  soldiers  killed  in  the  Zulu  War. 
It  was  of  necessity  very  limited  in  its  functions; 
but  the  next  year  a  fully  organized  competition 
in  the  use  of  weapons  of  offense  and  defense,  be¬ 
tween  all  branches  of  the  service,  cavalry,  in¬ 
fantry,  artillery,  engineers,  and  hospital  corps, 
was  held.  The  programme  was  (and  still  is) 
practically  divided  into  two  parts:  one  coming 
strictly  within  the  line  of  military  duty,  such 
as  feats  of  strength  and  skill  with  sword,  lance, 
sabre,  and  bayonet,  and  horsemanship,  including 
riding  and  driving;  the  other  division  consisting 
of  sports  and  pastimes,  such  as  tent  pegging, 
mounted  wrestling,  etc.  To  such  an  extent  did 
the  desire  to  compete  extend  in  Great  Britain 
that  it  has  become  necessary  to  impose  the  re¬ 
striction  of  passing  through  and  obtaining  the 
first  place  in  merit  in  a  district  tournament  as 
a  condition  precedent  to  competition  at  the  na¬ 
tional  tournament.  The  peg  used  in  tent  pegging 


TOURNAY 


TOURS 


378 


is  an  ordinary  wooden  tent  peg  3  inches  broad 
and  1  foot  long,  driven  nearly  perpendicular 
into  the  ground  until  less  than  one-half  of  it  is 
in  sight.  The  trooper  rides  at  the  gallop,  strikes 
it  if  possible,  and,  without  relaxing  the  grasp 
of  his  lance  or  the  speed  of  his  horse,  wrenches 
the  peg  out  of  the  ground  and  carries  it  away  on 
his  lance  point. 

In  America  the  military  tournament  held 
each  year  in  Madison  Square  Garden,  New  York, 
has  become  a  recognized  institution.  It  dillers 
from  the  British  tournament  in  that  the  latter 
consists  of  competitions  as  well  as  of  exhibition 
performances,  while  in  America  it  is  made  up 
entirely  of  exhibition  work.  The  tournaments 
have  been  regularly  held  since  1897.  Consult: 
Dillon,  “Tilting  in  Tudor  Times,”  in  Archceo- 
logical  Journal,  vol.  lv  (London,  1898-99)  ; 
A.  Schaer,  Die  altdeutschen  Fechter  und  Spiel- 
leute  (Strassburg,  1901);  J.  L.  Weston,  The 
Three  Days’  Tournament :  A  Study  in  Romance 
and  Folk-Lore  (London,  1912)  ;  K.  G.  T.  Web¬ 
ster,  “The  Twelfth-Century  Tourney,”  in  Anni¬ 
versary  Papers,  by  colleagues  and  pupils  of 
G.  L.  Kittredge  (Boston,  1913). 

TOURNAY,  toor'na',  or  TOURNAI.  The 
capital  of  an  arrondissement  and  the  largest 
town  in  the  Province  of  Hainault,  Belgium,  48 
miles  south  by  west  of  Ghent,  on  the  Scheldt 
River,  here  spanned  by  several  bridges  (Map: 
Belgium,  B  4).  The  most  striking  edifice  is 
the  twelfth-century  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  in 
the  Romanesque  style.  The  nave,  dating  from 
1146,  and  the  fagade  with  its  porch  and  sculp¬ 
tures  are  of  special  interest.  Other  architectural 
features  of  the  town  include  the  twelfth-century 
belfry,  the  church  of  Saint-Quentin  in  the  Tran¬ 
sitional  style,  the  church  of  Saint-Brice,  with 
the  tomb  of  Childeric,  and  the  church  of  Saint- 
Jacques.  The  thirteenth-century  bridge,  the  art 
gallery,  the  museum  of  natural  history,  and  the 
old  monastery  buildings,  now  utilized  as  the 
municipal  headquarters,  are  also  noteworthy. 
The  public  library  has  60,000  volumes.  Manu¬ 
facturing  is  the  principal  industry,  the  town 
being  noted  for  its  carpets  and  high-grade  porce¬ 
lain.  Cotton  and  woolen  goods,  linen,  and 
liquors  are  also  produced.  Pop.,  1900,  35,004; 
1910,  37,523.  Tournay,  the  ancient  Civitas 

Nerviorum  or  Turnacum,  was  for  a  time  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks.  A  bishop¬ 
ric  was  founded  here  in  484.  The  town  was  at 
various  times  and  for  long  periods  a  possession 
of  France,  which  finally  relinquished  it  in  1748. 
It  is  famous  for  the  gallant  defense  made  by  its 
garrison,  under  the  Princess  d’Epinoy,  against 
Alexander  of  Parma  in  1581. 

TOURNEFORT,  toorn'fCr',  Joseph  Pitton 
de  (1656-1708).  A  French  botanist,  born  at 
Aix,  Provence.  After  having  explored  the  flora 
of  his  native  district,  he  was  sent,  at  the 
King’s  expense,  to  Spain,  Portugal,  England, 
and  Holland,  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  and 
Thrace,  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  Asia 
Minor,  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  adding  many 
species  to  the  list  of  known  plants.  He  pub¬ 
lished  several  botanical  works  and  a  Voyage  to 
the  Levant  (1717).  His  botanical  system,  which 
maintained  its  ground  till  the  time  of  Linnaus, 
was  of  great  use  in  promoting  the  progress  of 
botany,  but  he  rendered  still  greater  service  to 
science  by  grouping  plants  in  general  and  is  re¬ 
garded,  therefore,  as  the  founder  of  genera. 

TOURNEUR,  Tubnotjr,  or  Turner,  ter'ner, 
Cyril  ( ?1575-1626) .  An  English  dramatist. 


He  found  employment  in  the  Low  Countries  and 
served  as  secretary  to  Sir  Edward  Cecil  in  the 
expedition  to  Cadiz  (1625).  He  is  the  author 
of  two  plays,  The  Atheist’s  Tragedie  (written 
probably  about  1603,  published  1611)  and  The 
Revenger’s  Tragedie  (published  1607).  The  lat¬ 
ter  is  a  powerful  though  lurid  tragedy,  in  praise 
of  which  Swinburne’s  fine  rhetoric  has  taken  a 
free  rein.  Tourneur  also  wrote  elegies  and  other 
nondramatic  pieces.  Consult  his  Plays  and 
Poems  (ed.  by  J.  C.  Collins,  2  vols.,  London, 
1878)  ;  the  two  plays  edited,  with  Webster,  by 
J.  A.  Symonds  (“Mermaid  Series,”  ib.,  1888)  ; 
and  A.  C.  Swinburne,  “Cyril  Tourneur,”  in  The 
Age  of  Shakespeare  (New  York,  1908). 

TOURNEUX,  (Jean)  Maurice  (1849-  ). 

A  French  litterateur  and  bibliographer,  born 
in  Paris.  His  work  is  noted  for  erudition 
combined  with  charm  of  style.  He  published 
bibliographies  of  Prosper  Merimee  (1876)  and 
Theophile  Gautier  (1877);  Diderot  et  Cath¬ 
erine  II  (1899);  Eugene  Delacroix  (1902);  J. 
B.  Perronneau  (1903)  ;  Table  generale  de  la 
Revue  d’histoire  litteraire  de  la  France,  189Jy- 
1898  (1900);  La  Tour  (1904);  L6on  Sapin 

(1906);  Bibliographie  de  Vhistoire  de  Paris 
pendant  la  revolution  frangaise  (5  vols., 
1900-13). 

TOURNIQUET,  toor'ni-ket  (Fr.  tourniquet, 
turnstile,  tourniquet,  from  tourner,  to  turn ) . 
An  instrument  for  compressing  an  artery  of  the 
thigh  or  arm,  either  for  the  purpose  of  pre¬ 
venting  too  great  a  loss  of  blood  in  amputa¬ 
tion,  or  checking  dangerous  hemorrhage  from 
accidental  wounds,  or  stopping  the  circulation 
through  an  aneurism. 

The  common  tourniquet  consists  of  three  parts, 
viz.,  (1)  a  pad  to  compress  the  artery,  (2) 
a  strong  band  which  is  buckled  round  the  limb, 
and  (3)  a  bridgelike  contrivance  over  which 
the  band  passes,  with  a  screw  whose  action  raises 
the  bridge  and  consequently  tightens  the  band. 

To  prevent  the  loss  of  venous  blood  during 
an  amputation,  it  is  customary  to  elevate  the 
limb  to  a  vertical  position  or  to  strap  it  with 
an  elastic  bandage  for  several  minutes  before 
the  tourniquet  is  applied.  The  older  forms  of 
tourniquet  are  now  almost  universally  replaced 
by  a  simple  rubber  strap  or  piece  of  rubber  tub¬ 
ing  which  is  passed  several  times  around  the 
limb  under  tension  and  fastened.  This  general 
type  is  known  as  Esmarch’s  tourniquet. 

TOURS,  toor.  A  city  of  France,  the  capital 
of  the  Department  of  Indre-et-Loire.  It  is  145 
miles  by  rail  southwest  of  Paris,  in  the  rich 
level  valley  of  the  Loire,  on  the  left  bank  of  that 
stream,  and  extends  2  miles  southward  to  the 
Cher  (Map:  France,  N.,  F  5).  The  pleasant 
situation  and  the  equable  climate  attract  many 
English  and  American  families  as.  sojourners. 
Two  great  lines  of  boulevards,  extending  through¬ 
out  the  city,  cross  at  its  geographical  centre, 
where  the  modern  Palace  of  Justice  adorns  a  fine 
square.  In  this  square  stands  Fournier’s  bronze 
statue  of  Balzac.  Saint-Gatien,  the  stately 
French-Gothic  cathedral  of  Tours,  rises  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  city,  near  the  river. 
It  dates  from  1170,  was  finished  about  1550, 
and  is  exceptionally  complete  as  to  execution. 
The  flamboyant  turreted  fagade  is  profusely  deco¬ 
rated,  and  the  rose  window  is  of  an  exquisite 
pattern.  Near  the  centre  of  the  city  are  the 
striking  detached  towers  of  Saint-Martin  and 
Charlemagne — remains  of  the  celebrated  church 
of  Saint-Martin  marking  the  site  of  the  tomb 


TOURS 


379  TOUSSAINT 


Oi  the  saint.  The  church  was  rebuilt  about  the 
twelfth  century  in  splendid  proportions.  The 
structure  was  torn  down  in  1802,  making  way 
for  a  street.  Near  by  is  the  new  basilica  of 
Saint-Martin.  The  ruined  chateau  Plessis-les- 
Tours,  identified  with  the  life  of  Louis  XI,  lies 
just  southwest  of  Tours.  Besides  the  statue  of 
Balzac  should  be  mentioned  the  statues  of  Des¬ 
cartes  and  Rabelais  and  also  the  Renaissance 
fountain. 

The  city  has  an  art  school,  a  large  and  a  small 
seminary,  the  College  de  Saint-Louis  de  Gonzaga, 
and  a  drawing  school.  The  public  library  con¬ 
tains  170,000  volumes  and  2007  manuscripts. 
In  the  archiepiscopal  palace  is  a  museum  of 
archseology,  paleontology  art,  coins,  etc.  The 
Museum  of  Tours,  near  the  river,  has  some  500 
pictures  of  small  value  and  collections  of  sculp¬ 
tures,  enamels,  antiquities,  etc.  The  city  has 
manufactures  of  steel,  machinery,  iron  imple¬ 
ments,  silk  stuffs,  corsets,  leather,  confectionery, 
painted  glass,  pottery,  and  chemicals.  There  are 
printing  works.  The  trade  is  very  active,  both 
by  rail  and  by  river.  Pop.  (commune),  1901, 
64,695;  1911,  73,398. 

History.  Tours,  named  from  the  Gallic  tribe 
of  Turones,  was  an  active  ally  of  Vercingetorex 
against  the  Romans.  It  was  later  the  Roman 
Caesarodunum.  The  place  became  at  a  very  early 
date  the  seat  of  an  important  bishopric,  which 
soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  an  archbishopric.  Nu¬ 
merous  councils  were  held  here.  Tours  was  taken 
by  the  Visigoths  in  473  and  by  Clovis  in  507.  It 
is  famous  for  the  momentous  battle  fought  in 
the  direction  of  Poitiers  in  732,  when  Charles 
Martel  (q.v. )  repulsed  the  vast  invading  army 
of  the  Saracens.  The  city  was  the  capital  of 
Touraine  (q.v.).  It  rose  to  great  importance  un¬ 
der  the  Valois  kings,  Louis  XI  in  particular 
favoring  the  city,  which  for  a  time  was  a  great 
seat  of  the  silk  manufacture.  The  States-Gen- 
eral  were  repeatedly  assembled  here.  In  Oc¬ 
tober,  1870,  the  Government  of  National  Defense 
was  organized  at  Tours,  whence  it  was  removed 
in  December  to  Bordeaux.  The  Germans  occu¬ 
pied  the  city  from  Jan.  10  until  March  8,  1871. 
Consult:  Eugene  Giraudet,  Histoire  de  la  ville 
de  Tours  (2  vols.,  Tours,  1873)  ;  P.  C.  A.  Grand- 
maison,  Tours  archeologique  (ib.,  1879)  ;  Casi- 
mir  Chevalier,  Tours  capitate  (ib.,  1896)  ;  Paul 
Vitry,  Tours  et  les  chateaux  de  Touraine  (Paris, 
1905)  ;  Chanoine  Boissonnot,  La  cathedrale  de 
Tours:  histoire  et  descriptive  (Tours,  1909). 

TOURS,  Berengarius  of.  See  Berengarius 
of  Tours. 

TOURS,  Martin  of.  See  Martin  of  Tours. 

TOURVILLE,  toor'veP,  Anne  Hilarion  de 
Cotentin,  Count  de  (1642-1701).  A  French 
admiral.  He  was  born  at  Tourville,  near 
Coutances,  Nov.  24,  1642.  He  entered  the  French 
navy  and  became  a  captain  at  25,  having  distin¬ 
guished  himself  by  service  against  the  Turks 
and  Algerians.  In  1669  he  participated  in  the 
French  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Candia  and 
fought  with  distinction  at  Agosta,  off  the  coast 
of  Sicily,  in  April,  1676,  and  received  the  com¬ 
mand  of  a  squadron  with  which  in  June  of  the 
following  year  he  won  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  allied  British  and  Dutch  off  Palermo  (June 
2 ) .  He  became  lieutenant  general  of  marine 
and  from  1682  to  1688  saw  active  service  against 
the  Barbary  pirates,  varied  bv  his  share  in  the 
bombardment  of  Genoa  in  1684.  In  1689  he 
was  made  a  vice  admiral  and  commanded  the 
French  fleets  in  the  operations  against  England 
Vol.  XXII.— 25 


and  Holland.  In  June,  1690,  he  entered  the 
English  Channel  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  fleet 
and  inflicted  a  disastrous  defeat  on  the  united 
English  and  Dutch  armament  near  Beacliy  Head. 
In  1692,  Louis  XIV  having  decided  upon  an 
invasion  of  England  on  behalf  of  James  II,  a 
fleet  was  assembled  at  Brest  under  Tourville  in 
order  to  protect  the  descent.  With  44  ships  of 
the  line  Tourville  assailed  an  Anglo-Dutch  fleet 
of  82  vessels  under  Lord  Russell  off  Cape  La 
Hogue  and  after  a  desperate  fight  was  decisively 
beaten  (May  29).  Tourville,  however,  suffered 
no  discredit  for  this  defeat,  in  which  his  talents 
and  courage  were  abundantly  displayed.  In  1693 
he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France  and  in  June 
defeated  a  British-Dutch  fleet  under  Sir  George 
Rooke  off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  capturing  27  ships 
of  war  and  merchant  vessels  and  destroying  45 
others.  He  was  subsequently  charged  with  the 
defense  of  the  Mediterranean  coasts  of  France, 
but  saw  no  active  fighting.  He  died  in  Paris, 
May  28,  1701.  Fraudulent  Memoires  in  Tour- 
ville’s  name  were  published  in  1742-58.  Con¬ 
sult  Delarbre,  Tourville  et  la  marine  de  son 
temps  (Paris,  1889). 

TOUSSAINT,  too'saN/,  Anna  Louisa  Geer- 
truida  (1812-86).  A  Dutch  novelist,  born  at 
Alkmaar,  of  parents  descended  from  French  Prot¬ 
estant  refugees.  In  1851  she  married  the  archi¬ 
tectural  painter  Jan  Bosboom  (1817-91)  and 
thenceforth  lived  at  The  Hague.  The  .reputation 
won  with  her  first  works,  Almagro  (1837),  De 
Graaf  van  Devonshire  (1838),  and  De  Engelsclien 
te  Rome  (1839),  was  enormously  increased  on 
the  appearance  of  Het  huis  Lauernesse  (1841; 
10th  ed.,  1885),  an  historical  romance  of  the 
Reformation,  which  was  translated  into  several 
languages.  Among  her  other  historical  novels, 
dealing  mainly  with  English,  Dutch,  and  Spanish 
scenes,  the  Leicester  trilogy,  Leycester  in  'Neder¬ 
land  (1846),  De  vrouwen  uit  het  Leycestersche 
tijd,vak  (1849—50),  and  Gideon  Florensz  (1854— 
55),  is  the  most  remarkable.  Subsequently  she 
was  eminently  successful  with  modern  character 
delineations,  of  which  Majoor  Frans  (1874)  is 
an  excellent  example.  Fine  artistic  workman¬ 
ship  distinguishes  her  dialogue  tale  Raymond  de 
schrijnmerker  (1880).  Her  collected  works  were 
published  in  25  volumes  (Arnhem,  1880-88). 
For  her  life,  consult  Jan  ten  Brink  (Amster¬ 
dam,  1886). 

TOUSSAINT,  Francois  Dominique,  called 
l’Ouverture  (1743-1803).  A  Haitian  soldier 
and  statesman.  He  was  born  near  Cape  Fran- 
cais  in  the  island  of  Haiti  in  1743  and  was  a 
full-blooded  negro,  his  father  and  mother  both 
being  African  slaves.  He  was  coachman  and  af¬ 
terward  assistant  to  the  overseer  of  his  master’s 
sugar  plantation  and  acquired  some  little  edu¬ 
cation,  which  he  used  to  good  advantage.  When 
the  French  Revolution  broke  out,  he  was  the 
overseer  of  his  master,  a  planter  named  De 
Libertat.  A  decree  of  the  French  Constituent 
Assembly,  May  15,  1791,  gave  to  all  free  persons 
of  color  the  privileges  of  French  citizenship,  but 
the  white  planters  of  Haiti  did  everything  in 
their  power  to  delay  the  application  of  the  de¬ 
cree.  On  Aug.  23,  1791,  the  slaves  became  a 
factor  in  the  problem  by  rising  in  a  fierce  in¬ 
surrection.  Toussaint  took  part  in  the  uprising 
and  won  a  prominent  place  among  the  leaders 
of  the  insurrection.  The  revolt  was  temporarily 
suppressed,  but  the  repeal  by  the  French  As¬ 
sembly  in  May,  1792,  of  the  Decree  of  1791, 
reopened  the  civil  war.  For  a  while  Toussaint 


TOWER 


TOUSSAIISTT-MAIZEROY  380 


took  service  with  the  Spaniards  in  the  east  of 
the  island,  with  whose  aid  he  overran  a  part  of 
the  French  territory.  Commissioners  from 
France  attempted  to  settle  the  troubles  of  the 
island  and  finally  proclaimed  universal  freedom 
'n  August,  1793.  This  won  Toussaint  over  to 
the  side  of  the  French  Republic,  and  he  came  to 
the  front  as  the  recognized  leader  of  his  race. 
The  English  at  this  time  had  seized  Port  au 
Prince  and  were  besieging  the  French  Governor, 
Laveaux,  in  Port  de  la  Paix.  Toussaint  went 
to  his  assistance,  and  it  was  Laveaux  who  by 
his  exclamation,  Mais  cet  homme  fait  ouverture 
partout,  gave  Toussaint  the  surname  I’Ouverture, 
by  which  he  has  since  been  known.  In  1796 
Toussaint  was  made  commander  in  chief  of  the 
French  forces  on  the  island  and  signalized  him¬ 
self  in  the  following  year  by  compelling  the 
surrender  of  the  English  who  had  invaded  Haiti. 
H6douville,  the  French  Commissioner,  had  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  stirring  up  dissension  between  the 
negroes  and  the  mulatto  element,  and  in  1799 
a  fierce  civil  war  was  waged  between  the  blacks 
under  Toussaint  and  the  mulattoes  under  Gen. 
Andre  Rigaud.  Toussaint  succeeded  in  crush¬ 
ing  his  opponent,  December,  1799.  By  January, 
1801,  he  had  brought  the  whole  island  under  his 
power.  He  now  became  virtually  a  dictator,  but 
ruled  the  island  with  moderation  and  firmness 
and  with  justice  towards  the  different  classes 
of  the  population.  He  had  an  administrative 
council  of  nine,  eight  of  whom  were  white  men. 
A  constitution  was  drawn  up,  providing  for  free 
trade  and  naming  Toussaint  life  President.  Af¬ 
ter  the  Treaty  of  Amiens  had  freed  him  tempo¬ 
rarily  of  danger  from  England,  Napoleon  pro¬ 
claimed  the  reestablishment  of  slavery  in  the 
island.  Toussaint  replied  by  a  declaration  of 
independence  in  July,  1802.  Napoleon  sent  Gen¬ 
eral  Leclerc  with  30,000  men  to  reduce  the 
Haitians  to  submission.  Leclerc  was  joined  by 
many  of  Toussaint’s  enemies,  among  them  being 
Rigaud  and  the  future  rulers,  Petion  and  Boyer. 
Toussaint  was  treacherously  arrested,  taken  to 
France,  and  imprisoned  without  trial  in  the 
Chateau  Joux,  near  Besangon,  where  he  died, 
April  27,  1803,  from  cruelty  and  neglect.  Con¬ 
sult  his  Memoir es,  precedes  d’une  etude  histor- 
ique  et  critique  ...  by  Saint-Remy  (Aux  Cayes, 
Haiti,  1853)  ;  J.  R.  Beard,  Toussaint  L’Ouver- 
ture :  A  Biography  and  Autobiography  (Boston, 
1863)  ;  T.  P.  Gragnon-Lacoste,  Toussaint  L’Ou¬ 
verture,  general  en  chef  de  I’armce  de  Saint 
Domingue,  surnomme  le  premier  des  Noirs 
(Bordeaux,  1877),  based  on  the  l’Ouverture  fam¬ 
ily  papers;  Victor  Schoelcher,  Vie  de  Toussaint 
L’Ouverture  (Paris,  1889)  ;  C.  W.  Mossell,  Tous¬ 
saint  L’Ouverture :  The  Hero  of  Saint  Domingo 
(Lockport,  N.  Y.,  1896)  ;  also  Wordsworth’s 
poem,  “To  Toussaint  L’Ouverture.” 

TOU  SS  AIN'T -MAIZEROY,  Rene.  See 
Maize&oy. 

TOUT,  tout,  Thomas  Frederick  (1855-  ). 

An  English  historian,  born  in  London,  and  edu¬ 
cated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford  (M.A.,  1882). 
He  was  a  fellow  of  Pembroke  College  and  also 
professor  at  St.  David’s  College,  Lampeter,  until 
1890,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
mediieval  and  modern  history  in  Manchester 
University.  In  1912-13  he  lectured  at  Oxford. 
His  publications  include:  History  of  England 
for  Schools  (2  vols.,  1890,  1898),  with  Prof. 
York  Powell;  Analysis  of  English  History 
(1891)  ;  Edward  the  First  (1893)  ;  The  Empire 
and  the  Papacy  (1898)  ;  History  of  Great  Brit¬ 


ain  (3  vols.,  1902-06)  ;  “Germany  and  the  Em¬ 
pire,”  in  Cambridge  Modem  History  (vol.  i? 
1902)  ;  History  of  England ,  1216-1317 ,  vol.  iii  of 
Longman’s  Political  History  of  England  (1905)  ; 
The  Place  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  II  in  English 
History  (1914). 

TOWAGE  (from  tow;  connected  with  AS. 
teon,  Goth,  tiuhan,  OHG.  zogan,  ziohan,  Ger. 
ziehen,  to  draw,  Lat.  ducere,  to  lead ) .  Assist¬ 
ance  in  propelling  or  drawing  rendered  by  one 
vessel  to  another.  Towing  is  usually  done  by 
tugs,  but  the  service  may  be  performed  by  any 
sort  of  vessel.  Where  such  service  is  rendered 
to  vessels  which  have  been  injured  it  becomes 
salvage  (q.v.).  A  vessel  thus  assisted  is  com¬ 
monly  referred  to  as  a  tow.  A  tug  is  not  held 
to  the  strict  responsibility  of  a  common  carrier 
and  is  liable  only  for  lack  of  reasonable  skill 
in  such  service  and  for  negligence.  The  master 
of  the  tug  is  obliged  to  see  that  the  tow  is 
properly  made  up,  having  regard  to  the  voyage  to 
be  made;  must  have  skill  in  navigation  and  be 
reasonably  familiar  with  the  course  to  be  fol¬ 
lowed.  The  master  of  the  tow  must  follow  all 
reasonable  orders  of  the  master  of  the  tug  as 
to  steering,  etc.  A  tug  should  not  abandon  a 
tow  except  in  cases  of  extreme  necessity,  and, 
in  general,  it  may  be  said  that  it  must  seem  in¬ 
evitable  that  the  .  tug  will  be  lost  unless  the 
tow  is  abandoned  in  order  to  justify  that  course. 
The  charges  for  towage  constitute  a  maritime 
lien  upon  the  tow,  which  will  follow  it  until 
paid.  All  questions  of  towage  are  governed  by 
admiralty  law.  Consult  the  authorities  referred 
to  under  Admiralty  Law.  See  Rules  of  the 
Road. 

TQWAjSFDA.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Bradford  Co.,  Pa.,  80  miles  northwest  of  Wilkes- 
Barre,  on  the  Susquehanna  River,  and  on  the 
Lehigh  Valley  and  the  Susquehanna  and  New 
York  railroads  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  J  2).  It 
has  a  public  library  and  fine  high-school  and 
courthouse  buildings.  Towanda  is  known  pri¬ 
marily  for  its  industrial  interests,  which  include 
flour/ planing,  and  silk  mills,  a  foundry  and  ma¬ 
chine  shop,  dye  works,  and  manufactories  of 
talking  machines,  cut  glass,  toys,  and  furniture. 
Towanda  was  settled  in  1770  and  first  incorpo¬ 
rated  in  1828.  Pop.,  1900,  4663;  1910,  4281. 

TOWER  (AS.  tur,  from  Lat.  turris,  Gk. 
rvppLs,  tyrris,  rvpcns,  tyrsis,  tower).  Generally, 
a  building  higher  than  its  horizontal  dimensions. 
In  antiquity  the  tower  was  used  chiefly  as  a 
lookout  or  for  defense  and  occasionally  for  light¬ 
house  purposes,  though  the  form  of  those  build¬ 
ings  is  not  accurately  known.  In  connection 
with  ancient  and  mediaeval  fortifications  the 
term  is  applied  to  structures  but  little  higher 
than  the  adjacent  walls.  A  special  form  of  for¬ 
tress  tower  was  the  keep  or  donjon  (q.v.).  In 
mediaeval  Italy  strong  lookout  towers  were  often 
erected  by  powerful  families  in  the  cities,  and 
those  of  Bologna  (Garisenda,  Asinelli,  etc.)  and 
San  Gimignano  are  still  standing.  The  civic 
belfries  of  Bruges,  Ghent,  and  other  Flemish 
cities  were  not  merely  bell  towers,  but  visible 
tokens  of  municipal  or  communal  liberties  and 
privileges.  In  the  Far  East  the  tower  is  asso¬ 
ciated  with  the  double  purpose  of  commemora¬ 
tion  and  religious  sacrifice,  in  such  buildings  as 
the  stupa  and  tope  (q.v.)  of  southern  Asia  and 
the  paoh-tah  or  octagonal  tower  of  China.  The 
lofty  wooden  pagodas  connected  with  the  tem¬ 
ples  of  Japan  are  emblematic  and  commemora¬ 
tive  features  of  the  temple  group  aiid  no  more. 


TOWER 


381  TOWER  OF  LONDON 


(For  the  wide  use  of  the  tower  in  Mohammedan 
architecture,  see  Minaret.)  The  round  towers 
of  Ireland,  long  the  subject  of  animated  con¬ 
troversy,  have  such  small  window  openings  that 

j.  r  were  not  intended  as  bell 

towers,  t  hey  are  very  slender,  high,  and  costly 
in  comparison  with  the  humble  churches  which 
stand  near  them ;  and  the  soundest  conclusion 
seems  to  be  that  they  were  intended  partly  as 
watchtowers,  partly  as  places  for  the  deposit 
of  valuables  in  the  case  of  sudden  forays.  In 
the  Christian  world  the  tower  appears  in  Italy 
at  an  early  time  and  at  least  as  early  as  the 
eighth  centu^,  perhaps  in  the  sixth,  in  the  two 
round  bell  towers  at  Ravenna  of  San  Apollinare 
Kuo vo  and  San  Apollinare  in  Classe.  In  Italy 
the  detached  and  separate  tower  ( see  Campa¬ 
nile)  held  its  own  until  the  complete  disap¬ 
pearance  of  mediaeval  architecture  in  the  fif¬ 
teenth  century,  and  many  of  the  civic  towers 
of  the  Italian  cities  rival  those  of  the  great 
churches;  but  in  northern  Europe  it  is  found 
incorporated  with  the  main  structure  of  the 
church  at  a  period  at  least  as  early  as  the 
eleventh  century.  The  tower  generally  stands 
upon  the  ground,  with  its  vertical  lines  easily 
seen  from  foundation  to  summit;  and  this  re¬ 
mains  true  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  except 
for  the  central  towers  of  the  cruciform  churches. 

I  lie  last-named  towers  are  built  over  the  open 
interior  and  are  supported  on  four  great  arches 
or  groups  of  arches,  spanning  the  four  sides 
of  the  crossing  of  nave  and  transept.  Nearly 
all  of  these'  towers  were  originally  designed  to 
carry  lofty  spires  (q.v. ),  but  in  many  cases  these 
were  never  built. 

The  complete  Gothic  cathedral  was  intended 
to  have  seven  towers — two  to  the  west  front, 
four  to  the  transept  fronts,  and  one  over  the 
crossing.  (See  Bell  Tower;  Belfry;  Cam¬ 
panile;  Leaning  Tower;  Minaret.)  These 
mediaeval  towers  and  spires  are  among  the  most 
impressive  and  beautiful  features  of  the  Old 
Y\  orld  architecture.  The  Renaissance  developed 
several  types  of  tower  and  steeple,  especially  in 
England  after  1650,  whence  the  Wren-Gibbs 
type  was  carried  into  American  Colonial  church 
architecture.  There  are  a  few  fine  Renaissance 
towrers  in  Italy,  notably  that  of  San  Giorgio 
Maggiore  at  Venice;  hardly  any  in  France  or 
Germany.  Modern  towers  of  note  (apart  from 
such  monuments  as  those  of  Bunker  Hill  and 
Washington)  are  not  numerous.  The  loftiest  is 
the  Eiffel  Tower  at  Paris  (1889),  of  steel,  300 
meters  (980  feet)  high,  used  as  a  scientific  ob¬ 
servatory;  the  tower  of  the  Sacre  Cceur  on 
Montmartre,  Paris;  the  Victoria  Tower  of  the 
London  Houses  of  Parliament;  and  the  church 
towers  completed  in  modern  times  in  Germany. 
(See  Spire.)  Some  tall  office  buildings  (q.v.) 
in  the  United  States  are  really  lofty  towers. 
Consult:  Charles  Wickes,  Spires  and  Towers  of 
Mediceval  Churches  of  England  (3  vols.,  London, 
1859)  ;  Conrad  Sutter,  Thurmbuch :  Thurmformen 
alter  Stile  und  Lander  (2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1895)  ; 
A.  P.  Heywood,  Bell  Towers  and  Bell  Ringing 
(New  York,  1914)  ;  W.  G.  Rice,  Carillons  of 
Belgium  and  Holland  (ib.,  1914).  See  Leaning 
Tower. 

TOWER,  tou'er,  Charlemagne  (1848-  ). 

An  American  capitalist  and  diplomat,  born  in 
Philadelphia.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard. 
From  1882  to  1887  he  was  president  of  the 
Duluth  and  Iron  Range  Railroad  and  managing 
director  of  the  Minnesota  Iron  Company.  He 


then  removed  to  Philadelphia,  whe*re  during  the 
next  10  years  he  was  an  ofiicer  in  various  im¬ 
portant  corporations.  He  was  United  States 
Minister  to  Austria-Hungary  from  1897  to  1899 
and  was  Ambassador  to  Russia  from  1899  to 
1902  and  to  Germany  from  1902  to  1908.  He 
published:  The  Marquis  de  La  Fayette  in  the 
American  Revolution  (2  vols.,  1895);  Catalogue 
of  a  Collection  of  American  Colonial  Laws 
( 1890)  ;  Essays  I'olitical  and  Historical  (1914). 

TOWER,  William  Lawrence  (1872-  ). 

An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Halifax,  Mass. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  (Harvard),  the  Harvard  Graduate 
School,  and  the  University  of  Chicago  (B.S., 
1902),  where  he  taught  thereafter,  becoming 
associate  professor  in  1911.  He  did  important 
experimental  work  in  heredity,  investigating  es¬ 
pecially  the  laws  of  heredity  in  beetles  and  "pub¬ 
lishing  An  Investigation  of  Evolution  in  Chrys- 
omelid  Beetles  of  the  Genus  Leptinotarsa  (1906). 
He  published  also  The  Development  of  the  Colors 
and  Color  Patterns  of  Coleoptera  (1903)  and, 
with  Coulter,  Castle,  Davenport,  and  East,  an 
essay  on  Heredity  and  Eugenics  (1912). 

TOWER,  Zealous  Bates  (1819-1900).  An 
American  soldier,  born  at  Cohasset,  Mass.  He 
graduated  with  first  honors  at  West  Point  in 
1841,  served  under  General  Scott  in  the  Mexican 
War,  led  the  storming  column  at  Contreras,  and 
was  wounded  at  Chapultepec.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  V  ar  he  was  chief  engineer  in  the  de¬ 
fense  of  Fort  Pickens.  In  November,  1861,  he 
was  made  brigadier  general  of  volunteers  and  on 
Aug.  30,  1862,  was  severely  wounded  at  Manas¬ 
sas.  After  recovering  he  was  superintendent  of 
West  Point  from  July  until  September,.  1864. 
He  then  became  chief  engineer  of  the  defenses  of 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  and  his  skillful  work  at  that 
Place  contributed  to  the  total  defeat  of  General 
Hood  in  December,  1864.  He  was  brevetted 
major  general  in  the  United  States  army  in 
March,  1865,  and  in  November  of  that  year  be¬ 
came  lieutenant  colonel  in  the  Engineer  Corps. 
He  was  promoted  colonel  in  January,  1874,  and 
retired  in  1883. 

TOWER  BRIDGE.  A  drawbridge  spanning 
the  Thames  just  below  the  Tower  of  London^, 
opened  in  1894.  The  carriage  way,  at  a  height 
of  29%  feet,  consists  of  two  approaches  of  270 
feet  and  a  central  span  of  200  feet,  with  a  ris¬ 
ing  draw  formed  by  twin  bascules,  which  can  be 
raised  in  a  minute  and  a  half.  There  is  an 
elevated  footway  above  the  draw,  which  is  used 
when  the  draw  is  open,  142  feet  above  the  river, 
reached  by  elevators  and  stairs.  The  Gothic 
towers  are  of  steel  and  masonry.  The  cost  was 
over  £1,000,000. 

TOWER  CLOCKS.  See  Clock. 

TOWER  HILL.  An  elevation  northwest  of 
the  Tower  of  London,  formerly  the  public  place 
of  execution  for  persons  sentenced  for  treason. 
Here  many  of  the  most  noted  men  of  England 
were  put  to  death,  their  bodies  being  buried  in 
the  adjacent  chapel  of  St.  Peter  ad  Vincula. 
TOWER  OF  BABEL.  See  Babel,  Tower  of 
TOWER  OF  LONDON.  In  feudal  davs  a 
powerful  fortress  and  long  afterward  a  state 
prison  of  gloomy  memories.  It  is  now  a  govern¬ 
ment  storehouse  and  armory.  It  is  a  collection 
of  buildings  in  the  form  of ‘an  irregular  quadri¬ 
lateral  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames,  and  on 
the  east  side  of  the  city  of  London.  The  space 
occupied  is  between  12  and  13  acres  of  rising 
ground,  and  the  whole  is  surrounded  by  a  broad 


TOWER  OF  LONDON  382  TOWERS  OF  SILENCE 


but  shallow  moat,  now  dry.  The  moat  is  bor¬ 
dered  within  by  a  lofty  castellated  wall,  with 
massive  flanking'  towers  at  frequent  intervals. 
Within  this  wall  rises  another  of  similar  con¬ 
struction,  but  of  greater  height,  within  which 
are  the  various  barracks  and  armories ;  and  in 
the  centre  of  all  is  the  lofty  keep  or  donjon 
known  as  the  White  Tower.  This  last-named 
building,  erected  by  the  Bishop  of  Rochester 
in  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror,  is  the 
most  interesting  in  the  whole  structure.  Its 
walls  are  in  parts  16  feet  thick  and  of  solid 
masonry.  The  White  Tower  was  the  court  of 
the  Plantagenet  kings,  whereas  the  various  other 
towers  are  principally  noteworthy  on  account 
of  the  illustrious  prisoners  who  have  been  con¬ 
fined  in  them.  The  southeast  angle  of  this  tower 
is  occupied  in  its  upper  part  by  the  chapel  of 
St.  John,  the  oldest  place  of  worship  in  London, 
a  perfect  example  of  the  early  Anglo-Norman 
style.  The  rest  of  this  tower  is  occupied  by  the 
old  state  apartments  and  the  royal  Armory, 
which  contains  a  collection  of  ancient  and 
medieval  arms  and  armor,  the  latter  exhibited 
in  complete  suits  on  wooden  figures  of  men  and 
horses.  Some  of  these  figures  represent  English 
kings  arrayed  in  the  armor  which  the  kings 
actually  wore  while  living.  The  Wakefield  Tower 
contains  the  Jewel  Office,  in  which  are  exhibited 
the  magnificent  crown  jewels,  sceptre  orb,  and 
some  of  the  royal  gold  service.  To  the  Jewel 
Office  and  the  Armory  visitors  are  admitted  on 
payment  of  a  small  fee.  In  the  northwest  cor¬ 
ner  of  the  quadrangle  is  St.  Peter’s  Chapel,  now 
the  garrison  church. 

Early  writers  have  alleged  that  Julius  Csesar 
built  the  Tower  of  London  as  a  Roman  fortress. 
The  spot  was  in  fact  occupied  by  some  structure 
before  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror,  as  is 
shown  by  the  massive  foundations  discovered  in 
the  course  of  later  erections ;  but  of  the  nature 
of  these  earlier  buildings  we  know  little.  The 
White  Tower,  already  mentioned,  is  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  historical  Tower  of  London.  During 
the  reigns  of  the  first  two  Norman  kings  the 
Tower  seems  to  have  been  used  as  a  fortress 
merely.  In  Henry  I’s  time  it  was  already  a 
state  prison.  That  monarch  and  his  successors 
gradually  increased  the  size  and  strength  of  the 
ramparts  and  towers,  until  the  whole  became  a 
great  feudal  stronghold.  The  kings  frequently 
lived  there,  holding  their  courts,  and  often  sus¬ 
taining  sieges  and  blockades  at  the  hands  of 
their  rebellious  subjects.  On  the  accession  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  however,  the  Tower  ceased  to 
be  a  palace.  Of  the  long  list  of  executions  for 
political  offenses  which  it  witnessed,  those  occur¬ 
ring  during  the  war  which  began  in  1914  were 
the  first  after  those  of  the  rebellion  of  1745. 

In  1841  a  fire  broke  out  in  the  Bowyer  Tower, 
and  extended  to  the  armories,  causing  the  de¬ 
struction  of  numerous  modern  buildings  and 
many  thousand  arms.  At  present  the  Tower  of 
London  is  in  charge  of  the  War  Department  and 
contains  arms  and  accoutrements  for  the  com¬ 
plete  equipment  of  a  large  army.  The  mint  and 
public  records  were  formerly  kept  in  it,  but  have 
now  been  removed  to  more  suitable  buildings. 
The  government  of  the  Tower  is  vested  in  a 
constable,  who  has  great  privileges  and  is  usu¬ 
ally  a  military  officer  of  long  service  and  dis¬ 
tinguished  rank,  whose  position  is  honorary;  the 
deputy  constable,  also  an  officer  of  repute,  is  the 
actual  governor.  He  has  under  him  a  small 
staff  and  the  corps  of  yeomen  of  the  guard,  more 


commonly  known  as  beefeaters.  See  Beef¬ 
eater. 

Bibliography.  J.  W.  Bayley,  History  and 
Antiquities  of  the  Tower  of  London  (2  vols., 
London,  1825)  ;  W.  H.  Dixon,  Her  Majesty’s 
Tower  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1901)  ;  Violet  Brooke- 
Hunt,  Prisoners  of  the  Tower  of  London  (Lon¬ 
don,  1901)  ;  Lord  Gower,  The  Tower  of  London 
(2  vols.,  ib.,  1901-02)  ;  William  Benham,  The 
Tower  of  London,  ‘‘Portfolio  Monographs,”  No. 
47  (ib.,  1906)  ;  C.  G.  Harper,  The  Tower  of 
London:  Fortress,  Palace  and  Prison  (ib.,  1909)  ; 
Richard  Davey,  The  Tower  of  London  (ib., 
1910)  ;  Rene  Francis,  The  Tower  of  London 
(Philadelphia,  1915). 

TOWER  OF  THE  WINDS.  An  octagonal 
building,  north  of  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  be¬ 
longing  to  the  second  or  first  century  b.c.,  42 
feet  high  and  26  feet  in  diameter,  bearing  on  the 
upper  part  of  each  side  the  sculptured  symbol 
of  a  wind.  It  was  originally  surmounted  by  a 
bronze  weathercock  in  the  form  of  a  Triton.  Be¬ 
sides  indicating  the  direction  of  the  wind,  the 
exterior  walls  were  marked  to  serve  as  a  sun¬ 
dial,  and  there  appears  to  have  been  within  the 
tower  a  water  clock,  the  method  of  operating 
which  has  not  been  clearly  ascer¬ 
tained.  It  is  also  called  the  Clep¬ 
sydra  of  Andronicus  Cvrrhestes. 

1  TOWER  SHELL.  One  of  the 
elongated,  tightly  coiled  shells  of 
the  gastropods  of  the  family  Tur- 
ritellidee,  allied  to  V ermetus  (see 
Worm  Shell),  about  131  species 
of  which  are  known  from  the 
warmer  seas,  and  many  fossil 
forms.  Most  of  them  are  covered 
with  a  brownish  epidermis,  which, 
when  removed,  exhibits  a  delicately 
sculptured  and  often  finely  colored 
surface.  Only  the  lower  part  of  the  spiral  is 
occupied  by  the  adult  animal,  the  distal  half 
of  the  shell  being  partitioned  off. 

TOWERS  OF  SILENCE.  The  structures 
upon  which  the  Parsis  (q.v.)  and  Ghebers  (q.v.) 
expose  the  bodies  of  their  dead  to  be  devoured  by 
vultures,  or  sometimes  dogs,  in  accordance  with 
the  precepts  of  their  religion  as  taught  by  Zo¬ 
roaster  (q.v.).  The  prescription  for  building 
these  structures  is  as  old  as  the  Avesta  (q.v.), 
where  they  are  called  Dakhmas.  The  best  mod¬ 
ern  specimens  are  to  be  seen  on  Malabar  Hill, 
Bombay,  India,  and  across  the  Bombay  harbor 
at  Ooran;  there  is  also  one  near  Teheran  and 
another  near  Yezd  in  Persia,  where  the  ruins 
of  a  deserted  tower  are  likewise  to  be  seen. 
Though  the  older  shape  of  the  Dakhmas  seems 
to  have  been  rectangular,  the  modern  towers  are 
circular.  The  best  constructed  are  of  massive 
stone  or  of  bricks  covered  with  cement.  They 
are  20  or  30  feet  high,  75  to  100  in  diameter, 
and  they  resemble  huge  gas  reservoirs  in  form, 
with  a  small  door  at  one  side  for  the  entrance  of 
the  bodies.  The  top  is  open  to  the  sky;  the 
floor  below  is  built  of  large  slabs  of  stone;  in 
each  slab  is  a  slight  depression,  called  a  pavi,  in 
which  the  body  is  laid  for  the  “heaven-sent  birds” 
to  devour.  Small  ducts  lead  from  every  pavi  into 
the  central  pit  where  the  bones  are  placed  after 
they  have  been  denuded  of  flesh  by  the  vultures, 
which  is  often  accomplished  in  a  few  hours. 
From  this  central  well  there  run  four  drains, 
at  right  angles,  to  carry  away  any  deposit  that 
might  remain  and  conduct  it  through  quick¬ 
lime,  sand,  and  other  absorbents  lest  the  earth 


TOWHEE 


TOWN  HALL 


might  be  defiled  by  its  contact.  Herodotus 
(Hist.,  i,  140)  alludes  to  this  method  of  dispos¬ 
ing  of  the  dead  in  ancient  Iran,  and  the  Zoroas- 
trians,  who  still  keep  up  the  practice,  maintain 
that  it  is  a  solution  of  the  sanitary  question. 
Consult:  D.  Karaka,  Histcn'y  of  the  Parsis  (2 
vols.,  London,  1884)  ;  Modi,  A  Tower  of  Silence 
(Bombay,  1885)  ;  id.,  Funeral  Ceremonies  of  the 
Parsees :  Their  Origin  and  Explanation  (2d  ed., 
ib.,  1905)  ;  A.  V.  W.  Jackson,  Persia  Past  and 
Present  (New  York,  1906). 

TOWHEE.  See  Chewink. 

TOWLE,  tol,  George  Makepeace  (1841-93). 
An  American  historian  and  journalist,  born  in 
Washington,  D.  C.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1861  and  at  the  Harvard  Law  School  in  1863 
and  practiced  law  in  Boston.  He  was  United 
States  Consul  at  Nantes  (1866-68)  and  at  Brad¬ 
ford,  England  (1868-70),  was  managing  editor 
of  the  Boston  Commercial  Bulletin  (1870-71), 
foreign  editor  of  the  Boston  Post  (1871-76), 
and  later  was  connected  with  Appleton’s  Jour¬ 
nal,  the  Art  Journal,  and  the  Youth’s  Compan¬ 
ion.  His  works  include:  History  of  Henry  the 
Fifth ,  King  of  England  (1866);  The  Eastern 
Question  (1877);  Principalities  of  the  Danube 
(  1877);  Beaconsfield  (1878);  Young  Folks’ 
Heroes  of  History  (1878-82);  Modern  France, 
1851-79  (1879)  ;  Certain  Men  of  Mark  (1880)  ; 
England  and  Russia  in  Asia  (1885);  England 
in  Egypt  (1885);  Young  People’s  History  of 
England  (1886);  Young  People’s  History  of 
Ireland  (1887J. 

TOWN  (AS.  tun,  OHG.  ziin,  Ger.  Zaun, 
hedge,  inclosure;  connected  with  Ir.  dun,  Welsh 
din,  hill  fort).  The  name  applied  generally 
throughout  the  Punted  States  to  small  munici¬ 
palities  or  urban  communities  between  the  vil¬ 
lage  and  the  city.  In  New  England  it  more  often 
denotes  a  quasi-corporate  area,  either  urban  or 
rural,  constituting  a  subdivision  of  the  county, 
which  elsewhere  is  usually  called  the  town¬ 
ship  or  supervisor’s  district.  (For  the  urban 
town,  see  Municipality,  or  Municipal  Corpo¬ 
ration.)  The  New  England  town  is  the  most 
important  local  administrative  unit  in  the  gov¬ 
ernmental  system.  The  centre  of  political  activ¬ 
ity  is  the  town  meeting,  which  meets  usually 
once  a  year  and  may  be  attended  by  all  the  legal 
voters  of  the  town.  It  discusses  measures  of 
common  interest  to  the  town,  elects  the  town 
officers,  and  votes  the  taxes  for  the  ensuing  year. 
The  government  of  the  New  England  town  is 
therefore  a  pure  democracy  and  the  only  real 
example  of  the  kind  in  the  American  political 
system.  The  town  meeting  governs  through  a 
body  of  officers,  varying  according  to  the  needs 
of  the  community.  These  are  usually  the  select¬ 
men,  varying  in  number  from  three  to  nine,  who 
are  the  executive  magistrates  of  the  town,  the 
town  clerk,  treasurer,  constables,  tax  assessors, 
overseers  of  the  poor,  and  school  trustees.  In 
some  towns  there  are  such  officers  as  field  drivers, 
pound  keepers,  fence  viewers,  measurers,  sealers, 
etc.  In  England  the  word  “town”  applies  to  the 
small  municipalities  as  in  the  United  States, 
although  the  word  “borough”  is  used  to  designate 
certain  of  the  old  towns.  See  Township.  Con¬ 
sult:  Edward  Channing,  Town  and  County  Gov¬ 
ernment  in  the  English  Colonies  of  North  Amer¬ 
ica  (New  York,  1884)  ;  J.  A.  Fairlie,  Local  Gov¬ 
ernment  "in  Counties,  Toions  and-  Villages  (ib., 
1906)  ;  Bryce,  American  Commonwealth  (new 
ed.,  2  vols.,  ib.,  1910)  ;  C.  A.  Beard,  Readings  in 
American  Government  and  Politics  (ib.,  1914). 


TOWN  CROSS.  See  Cross. 

TOWN,  Itiiiel  (1784-1844).  An  American 
architect,  born  at  Thompson,  Conn.  In  partner¬ 
ship  with  Alexander  J.  Davis  he  opened  an  office 
in  New  Pork  City  in  1829,  and  with  him  de¬ 
signed  the  old  State  capitol  (demolished)  of 
Connecticut  at  New  Haven,  the  capitols  of  In¬ 
diana  and  North  Carolina,  the  former  city  hall 
at  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  several  interesting 
churches  in  New  Haven  and  Hartford.  Town 
built  also  several  government  buildings  at  Wash¬ 
ington  and  a  number  of  bridges,  including  one 
over  the  James  River  near  Richmond,  Va.  His 
works  represent  the  transition  from  the  expir¬ 
ing  Georgian  style  to  the  Greek  and  Graeco-Ro¬ 
man  types  of  the  Classical  Revival  in  America. 
They  reveal  a  refined  taste  both  in  composition 
and  in  detail.  He  was  one  of  the  original  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design,  New 
York.  A  large  part  of  his  extensive  library  on 
art  went  to  Yale  College.  His  publications  in¬ 
clude  Description  of  Improvements  in  the  Con¬ 
struction  of  Bridges  .(1821)  and  Atlantic  Steam¬ 
ships  (1838). 

TOWNE,  Henry  Robinson  (1844-  ). 

An  American  manufacturer,  born  in  Philadel¬ 
phia.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania  in  1861—62  and  then  became  a  drafts¬ 
man  for  the  Port  Richmond  Iron  Works.  In 
1863-66,  for  the  national  government,  he  had 
charge  of  work  on  gunboats  and  monitors.  In 
1868  he  became  associated  with  Linus  Yale  in 
the  manufacture  of  locks  and  after  Yale’s  death 
in  1868  became  president  of  the  Yale  &  Towne 
Manufacturing  Company  at  Stamford,  Conn. 
In  1889  he  was  president  of  the  American  So¬ 
ciety  of  Mechanical  Engineers  and  in  1908-13 
of  the  Merchants’  Association  of  New  York. 
He  wrote  A  Treatise  on  Cranes  (1883)  and 
Locks  and  Builders’  Hardware  (1904). 

TOWNELEY,  Charles  (1737-1805).  An 
English  archaeologist  and  collector  of  classical 
antiquities.  He  was  born  at  Burnley,  Lanca¬ 
shire,  was  educated  at  Douai  College  and  under 
the  tutorship  of  John  Tuberville  Needham. 
Upon  visiting  Rome  and  Florence,  in  1765,  he 
became  interested  in  antiquities,  which,  after 
receiving  advice  from  Winckelmann  and  other 
archaeologists,  he  began  to  collect  in  1768.  In 
1772  he  bought  two  houses  in  Park  Street,  West¬ 
minster,  London,  where  he  deposited  his  col¬ 
lection.  He  made  frequent  visits  to  Rome  and 
until  1780  continued  to  add  to  his  acquisitions, 
including  the  Nollekens  (q.v.)  collection.  In 
1786  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Dilettanti  and  in  1791  trustee  of  the  British 
Museum.  After  his  death  his  marbles  and  terra 
cottas  were  purchased  by  the  British  Museum 
for  £20,000,  and  in  1814  his  bronzes,  coins,  gems, 
and  drawings  were  also  acquired.  His  collec¬ 
tions  in  the  Museum  are  described  and  illus¬ 
trated  by  Ellis,  Townley  Gallery  (London,  1846). 

TOWN  HALL.  A  building  for  the  legislative 
and  administrative  business  of  a  town  or  city, 
containing  usually  the  public  offices  of  the  mayor 
and  various  municipal  administrations,  and  the 
chambers  for  the  meetings  of  the  legislative 
bodies  of  the  city  (aldermen,  council,  etc.).  In 
small  towns  court  rooms  and  a  jail  are  added, 
and  a  large  public  hall  is  also  often  provided. 
A  belfry  and  clock  tower  is  a  feature  of  nearly 
all  French,  German,  Flemish,  and  British  town 
halls  and  of  many  of  the  more  notable  American 
examples.  The  French  include  a  salle  des  ma- 
riages  in  their  town  halls  and  treat  with  cs- 


TOWNLEY 


384  TOWN  PLANNING  AND  HOUSING 


pecial  effectiveness  the  entrances,  lobbies,  and 
grand  stairways. 

The  oldest  examples  of  the  town  hall  in  Eu¬ 
rope  belong  to  the  Middle  Ages.  They  date  from 
the  time  of  recognition  of  the  right  of  municipal 
self-government,  of  which  they  are  the  expres¬ 
sion.  In  southern  France  the  town  hall  of  Saint- 
Antonin  (twelfth  century)  is  one  of  the  oldest 
in  Europe.  In  Italy  there  grew  up  by  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century  almost  as  many  states  as  cities, 
each  of  which  provided  itself  in  time  with  one 
or  more  municipal  buildings  according  to  its  par¬ 
ticular  form  of  administration.  Of  these  the 
greater  part  date  from  the  late  thirteenth  and 
the  fourteenth  centuries,  some  of  the  most  im¬ 
portant  being  those  at  Cremona  (1245)  ;  at  Siena 
the  superb  red-brick  Palazzo  Pubblico  with  its 
slender  tower  (1289)  ;  at  Pistoia  the  two  palaces 
del  Podesta  and  del  Communale  (1294-1385)  ;  at 
Florence  the  vast  Palazzo  Vecchio  (1298),  with 
its  impressive  tower  overhanging  the  street; 
the  Doge’s  Palace  at  Venice;  the  elegant  Palazzo 
del  Consiglio  at  Verona  (1473).  The  Renais¬ 
sance  added  but  few  to  the  Italian  list.  In 
Germany  the  Rathaus,  or  municipal  council 
house,  appears  in  the  fourteenth  century  (e.g., 
Brunswick),  but  the  finest  and  most  numerous 
examples  belong  to  the  Renaissance,  as  at 
Bremen,  Cologne,  Liibeck,  Altenburg,  Augsburg, 
and  Nuremberg,  with  picturesque  towers  and 
high  gables.  Very  notable  are  the  sumptuously 
ornate  Belgian  town  halls  of  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  at  Brussels,  Louvain,  Ghent, 
Bruges,  Courtrai,  Arras  in  France  (destroyed  in 
the  Great  War),  and  Oudenarde,  and  the  fine 
Renaissance  structure  at  Antwerp.  But  few 
mediaeval  town  halls  remain  in  France,  that  of 
Compiegne  being  the  finest  (late  fifteenth  cen¬ 
tury  ) . 

The  Renaissance  gave  France  the  fine  town 
halls  of  Beaugency,  Rheims,  Rouen,  Lyons,  and 
Paris,  the  last  two  now  replaced  by  modern  edi¬ 
fices,  recalling  the  original  structures.  The 
Paris  example  is  the  largest  and  most  splendid 
of  modern  town  halls,  especially  in  its  interior 
decorations.  In  Great  Britain  it  was  not  until 
the  nineteenth  century  that  the  town  hall  be¬ 
came  important;  it  forms  one  of  the  most  in¬ 
teresting  and  successful  subjects  of  recent  archi¬ 
tectural  design,  as,  e.g.,  at  Sheffield  and  at  Ox¬ 
ford.  The  town  hall  at  Hamburg  is  the  finest 
of  recent  German  works  in  the  same  line,  far 
superior  to  the  modern  Gothic  town  hall  at 
Vienna. 

In  the  United  States  the  Philadelphia  city 
hall  is  the  largest  and  ugliest  of  modern  exam¬ 
ples;  that  at  New  York,  dating  from  1809,  one 
of  the  most  refined  and  elegant.  The  earlier 
town  halls  of  the  United  States  follow  Colonial 
or  “Greek  revival”  models;  the  later  ones  are  in 

the  stvle  of  the  French  Renaissance  or  in  what 
*/ 

may  be  called  the  neo-Roman  style.  Early  in 
the  twentieth  century  the  tower  or  skyscraper 
type  came  into  use  for  town  halls  (e.g.,  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.)  and  municipal  offices  (Municipal 
Building,  New  York).  See  Municipal  Archi¬ 
tecture. 

TOWNLEY,  James  (1714-78).  An  English 
clergyman  and  dramatist,  born  in  Barking,  near 
London.  He  was  educated  at  the  Merchant  Tay¬ 
lors’  School,  London,  and  at  St.  John’s  College, 
Oxford.  After  holding  various  preferments  in 
the  Church,  lie  was  appointed,  in  1760,  head 
master  of  the  Merchant  Taylors’  School  and  in 
1772-77  was  vicar  of  Hendon  in  Middlesex.  He 


is  best  remembered  as  the  author  of  the  satirical 
farce  High  Life  below  Stairs  (Drurv  Lane,  Oct. 
31,  1759),  which  has  been  translated  into  French 
and  German  and  has  been  performed  throughout 
the  world.  It  was  formerly  attributed  to  Gar¬ 
rick.  Two  other  farces  written  by  Townley  did 
not  succeed.  Consult  J.  Genest,  Some  Account 
of  the  English  Stage,  vol.  iv  (Bath,  1832). 

TOWNLEY,  James  (1774-1833).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  minister  of  the  Wesleyan  denomination.  He 
was  born  in  Manchester.  He  was  president  of 
the  Wesleyan  Conference  in  1829.  As  a  scholar 
he  was  second  only  to  Adam  Clarke  in  the  de¬ 
nomination.  His  most  important  work  was 
Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,  Exhibiting 
the  History  and  Fate  of  the  Sacred  Writings, 
Including  Notices  of  Translators  and  Other  Emi¬ 
nent  Biblical  Scholars  (3  vols.,  1821;  2  vols., 
1842). 

TOWN  PLANNING  AND  HOUSING. 

Town  planning,  or  city  planning,  and  housing 
are  so  closely  related  that  one  cannot  be  con¬ 
sidered  without  reference  to  the  other.  But 
since  city  planning  (q.v. )  has  been  treated  in 
the  article  under  that  title,  reference  to  it  here 
will  be  merely  incidental.  Housing,  as  the 
term  is  now  understood,  has  to  do  with  all 
dwellings.  Until  comparatively  recently  the 
attention  of  housing  workers  was  concentrated 
upon  the  dwellings  of  the  poor.  Even  in  Amer¬ 
ica,  where  class  distinctions  are  not  so  gener¬ 
ally  recognized,  it  began  with  the  same  attitude 
of  mind,  as  indicated  by  the  word  “tenement”  in 
the  legislation.  But  the  change  in  the  United 
States  has  been  more  rapid  than  in  Great  Brit¬ 
ain.  In  the  United  States  it  was  early  found 
that  the  popular  distinction  between  tenement 
house  and  apartment  house  was  not  tenable 
when  requiring  minimum  standards.  Here,  as 
everywhere,  it  was  the  poor  who  suffered  most 
from  bad  housing  conditions.  As  is  not  the 
case  in  England,  the  poor  in  the  metropolis,  to 
whom  attention  was  first  directed,  lived  in  tall, 
row  tenement  houses.  Consequently  it  was 
they  for  whose  benefit  the  earliest  efforts  were 
made.  But  when  the  first  really  effective  law 
was  drafted,  the  New  York  Tenement  House 
Law  of  1901,  it  was  found  that  the  minimum 
requirements  for  certain  fundamentals,  such  as 
light  and  air,  were  greater  than  were  provided 
by  the  builders  of  many  expensive  apartment 
houses.  Since  the  words  “tenement  house”  as 
used  in  this  law  include  “any  house  or  building, 
or  portion  thereof,  which  is  rented,  leased,  let, 
or  hired  out,  to  be  occupied,  or  is  occupied,  as 
the  home  or  residence  of  three  families  or  more 
living  independently  of  each  other,  and  doing 
their  cooking  upon  the  premises,  or  by  more 
than  two  families  upon  any  floor,  so  living  and 
cooking,”  they  cover  the  most  expensive  apart¬ 
ment  houses  as  well  as  the  cheapest  tenements. 
The  result  is  that  “new  law”  tenement  houses, 
i.e.,  erected  since  the  enactment  of  the  Law 
of  1901,  on  the  lower  east  side  are  better  lighted 
and  ventilated  than  many  “old  law”  apartment 
houses  in  fashionable  districts. 

The  long  struggle  to  secure  effective  housing 
legislation  in  New  York  attracted  attention 
throughout  the  country,  and  many  other  cities 
enacted  tenement-house  legislation  based  upon 
that  of  the  metropolis,  though  the  worst  of 
their  housing  was  to  be  found  not  in  multiple 
dwellings  but  in  unsanitary  shacks  and  hovels. 
Once  these  cities  had  passed  beyond  the  purely 
imitative  stage  and  had  begun  to  study  their 


TOWN  PLANNING  AND  HOUSING  385  TOWN  PLANNING  AND  HOUSING 


needs,  they  discovered  that  what  they  required 
was  not  tenement-house  regulation  applicable 
only  to  the  type  of  dwelling  prevalent  on  Man¬ 
hattan,  but  housing  regulation  applicable  to 
all  dwellings.  The  first  American  city  to  act 
upon  this  discovery  was  Columbus,  Ohio,  which 
in  1911  passed  an  ordinance  that  covers  one 
and  two-family  houses  as  well  as  tenement 
houses.  Since  then  the  application  has  been 
made  still  wider,  and  the  later  codes  cover  “any 
house  or  building  or  portion  thereof  which  is 
occupied  in  whole  or  in  part  as  the  home,  resi¬ 
dence,  or  sleeping  place  of  one  or  more  human 
beings,  either  permanently  or  transiently.” 
(Housing  Ordinance,  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan, 
1914.) 

Relation  of  Town  Planning  and  Housing. 
Further  study  of  the  housing  problem  showed 
that  even  this  was  not  sufficient.  Regulation 
of  individual  houses,  essential  as  it  is,  cannot 
alone  produce  housing  of  the  standard  now  de¬ 
manded.  So  the  housing  worker  has  been  drawn 
into  city  planning.  The  size  and  shape  of  lots 
are  matters  of  first  importance  to  him,  for 
these  influence  the  type  and  character  of  the 
dwelling;  and  size  and  shape  of  lots  are  largely 
determined  by  the  size  and  shape  of  blocks, 
i.e.,  by  the  direction  and  arrangement  of  streets. 
Many  other  problems  of  city  planning  also 
have  a  direct  effect  upon  housing,  as,  e.g.,  that 
of  transportation.  Good  and  cheap  transporta¬ 
tion  makes  larger  areas  accessible  and  so  per¬ 
mits  of  spreading  out  the  population  in  houses 
of  good  type;  inadequate  or  expensive  trans¬ 
portation  causes  the  population  to  crowd  near 
the  centre  and  raises  land  values  so  that  only 
closely  packed  and  multiple  dwellings  will  yield 
a  profit. 

The  fundamental  trouble  in  the  past,  that 
which  it  is  most  anxiously  sought  to  prevent 
in  the  future,  is  land  overcrowding.  This  has 
been  almost  universal  in  cities.  The  convenience 
of  living  near  the  centre,  even  with  modern 
means  of  transportation,  is  the  temptation 
which  leads  first  to  overcrowding  the  land  with 
buildings  until  adequate  open  space  even  for 
lighting  and  ventilating  the  rooms  is  sacrificed, 
then  to  the  erection  of  high  multiple  dwellings 
that  pile  one  family  above  another. 

Fortunately  the  superintensive  use  of  land  by 
the  erection  of  multiple  dwellings  is  not  univer¬ 
sal.  In  some  countries  the  multiple  dwelling 
is  almost  unknown.  Even  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  Holland  and  Belgium,  despite  their 
dense  populations,  have  escaped  it,  while  in 
the  British  Isles  England  remains  essentially 
a  nation  of  families  living  in  single  houses, 
though  Scotland  has  followed  the  French  tradi¬ 
tion  and  put  its  people  into  high  tenement 
houses  or  landes.  The  United  States  and  Can¬ 
ada  in  recent  years  have  shown  an  inclination 
to  follow  continental  precedents,  but,  except 
in  the  neighborhood  of  New  York  and  in  New 
England,  wffiere  the  wooden  “three-decker”  has 
obtained  a  strong  foothold,  our  cities  are  not 
of  a  predominantly  tenement  character,  while 
some,  even  among  the  oldest,  like  Philadelphia 
and  Baltimore,  have  refused  to  welcome  the 
multiple  dwelling. 

In  none,  however,  have  we  escaped  other  ills 
which  go  with  unregulated  growth.  Philadel¬ 
phia  packs  its  little  houses  together  so  closely 
that  in  some  of  the  oldest  districts  there  is 
scarcely  room  for  a  narrow  passageway  to  the 
doors  of  dwellings  that  occupy  what  once  were 


back  yards.  There  is  no  space  here,  either  in¬ 
doors  or  out,  for  proper  toilets,  several  families 
being  compelled  to  use  one  convenience,  often  a 
filthy  privy,  placed  at  the  far  end  of  the  nar¬ 
row  passageway  and  directly  under  the  win¬ 
dows  of  the  end  houses.  Baltimore,  Washing¬ 
ton,  many  of  the  Southern  cities,  even  Chi¬ 
cago,  have  alley  dwellings  placed  on  the  rear 
of  lots.  Unsanitary  conditions;  filthy  dilapi¬ 
dated  privies,  surface  drainage  for  all  house¬ 
hold  waste  water,  decaying  accumulations  of 
garbage  and  other  refuse,  windowless  rooms, 
cellar  dwellings,  room  overcrowding,  prevail  to 
an  extent  which  no  city  will  believe  until  in¬ 
vestigation  has  produced  facts  and  pictures. 
(Consult  lists  of  reports  on  housing  conditions 
in  American  cities,  National  Municipal  Revieio, 
October,  1912,  and  January,  1914.)  Even  in 
small  cities,  in  towns,  in  villages  these  con¬ 
ditions  abound. 

American  cities  and  towns  are  in  no  way 
peculiar  in  this  respect.  Descriptions  of  con¬ 
ditions  found  in  neglected  sections  of  European 
cities  and  towns,  and  in  those  of  Australia,  might, 
with  change  of  names,  almost  be  substituted 
for  the  descriptions  of  those  found  in  America. 
The  results  of  ignorance  and  neglect,  of  taking 
the  profit  of  the  moment  without  regard  for  the 
future,  have  everywhere  been  the  same. 

Housing  Movement  in  Europe  and  Amer¬ 
ica.  Public  concern  for  housing  is  not  wholly 
modern,  though  the  thorough  study  we  are  now 
giving  it  and  the  effective  measures  we  are  be¬ 
ginning  to  use  are  comparatively  recent.  Eber- 
stadt,  in  his  Handbuch  des  Wohungswesens, 
states  that  in  Rome  in  the  later  period  of  the 
Empire  a  population  of  between  one  and  two 
millions  was  huddled  in  tenement  barracks  of 
many  stories.  There  were  46,602  of  these  at 
one  time  as  against  1780  patrician  houses.  The 
northern  barbarians  who  overran  the  Empire 
were  not  accustomed  to  the  closely  packed 
cities  of  the  south,  but  what  they  found  they 
adopted,  and  during  the  Middle  Ages,  urged 
by  the  necessity  for  keeping  their  increasing 
populations  behind  expensive  city  walls,  even 
the  towns  of  Germany  subdivided  their  lots 
and  made  houses  narrower  and  narrower,  cling¬ 
ing  to  the  single  family  house  despite  pressure 
of  population.  The  time  came,  however,  when 
these  old  houses  must  be  shared  by  two  or  more 
families,  and  finally,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  tenement  house  was  introduced  from  Italy 
to  become  the  characteristic  dwelling  of  the 
middle  and  lower  classes. 

From  early  times  there  have  been  building 
regulations  both  on  the  Continent  and  in  the 
British  Isles.  But  these  dealt  chiefly,  as  do 
present  American  building  codes,  with  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  property.  The  need  of  light  and  air 
and  cleanliness  was  scarcely  recognized  until 
modern  times.  So  the  cities  grew  more  crowded 
and  cleanliness  was  scarcely  recognized  until  the 
industrial  era,  with  its  great  expansion  of  urban 
populations,  made  conditions  in  towns  so  un¬ 
endurable  that  serious  attention  was  given  to 
making  cities  fit  for  people  to  live  in. 

England,  as  the  first  industrial  nation,  was 
perhaps  the  first  to  feel  the  need  for  regula¬ 
tion  which  would  safeguard  the  dwellings  of 
its  people.  Writers  with  a  social  vision  like 
Dickens,  statesmen  like  Disraeli,  saw  the  men¬ 
ace  to  the  nation  if  conditions  were  not  bet¬ 
tered.  Parliament  passed  a  series  of  acts  giv¬ 
ing  greater  and  greater  powers  to  public  offi- 


TOWN  PLANNING  AND  HOUSING  386  TOWN  PLANNING  AND  HOUSING 


cials  in  the  regulation  of  private  property  until 
in  the  Housing  and  Town  Planning  Act,  etc., 
1909,  was  enacted  a  constructive  measure  which 
made  possible  the  prevention  of  future  slums 
by  permitting  local  authorities  to  town-plan  un¬ 
developed  areas  and  impose  regulations  which 
would  maintain  wholesome  standards.  This 
act,  it  was  admitted,  met  but  part  of  the  prob¬ 
lem,  leaving  as  it  did  the  already  built  upon 
areas  to  be  dealt  with  only  according  to  the 
fragmentary  legislation  of  the  past.  Germany 
was  more  prompt  than  England  to  recognize 
the  social  significance  of  the  industrial  era. 
As  it  came  to  Germany  later  than  to  England, 
Germany  had  the  advantage  of  seeing  its  effects 
before  these  had  become  a  part  of  the  national 
life.  Moreover,  the  nearly  universal  military 
service  of  German  youth  brought  more  vividly 
to  the  attention  of  the  authorities  the  evil  ef¬ 
fect  of  bad  housing  in  the  rapidly  growing  in¬ 
dustrial  cities.  So  regulation  of  urban  de¬ 
velopment  and  of  housing  was  quicker  and 
more  effective  than  in  England.  The  results 
of  German  thoroughness  in  this  as  in  other 
phases  of  municipal  life  have  been  recognized 
by  both  American  and  English  students  who 
have  frequently  called  attention  to  the  non¬ 
existence  in  German  cities  of  the  sordid,  de¬ 
pressing  slums  of  American  and  British  in¬ 
dustrial  centres.  But  Germany  has  not  yet 
solved  its  housing  problems,  as  men  like  Ru¬ 
dolph  Eberstadt,  Bernhard  Dernburg,  and 
Werner  Hegemann  freely  admit.  “Berlin,”  e.g., 
houses  “nearly  one-half  of  its  population  in 
one-room  dwellings  in  tall  tenements  crowded 
around  one  or  more  internal  courts.” 

Tiie  Germans  have  come  to  see  that  the  funda¬ 
mental  defect  in  their  housing  is  the  type  of 
building,  the  barrack  tenement  which  they 
adopted  from  Italy  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Their  first  efforts  in  town  planning  and  hous¬ 
ing  reform  accepted  this  type.  The  desire  there 
was  to  produce  an  imposing,  a  beautiful,  and 
sanitary  city.  Wide  boulevards,  impressive 
public  buildings  and  open  spaces,  and  model 
tenements  engaged  their  attention.  Now  they 
see  that  wide  paved  residence  streets  impose 
burdens  on  abutting  property  which  practically 
necessitate  high  multiple  dwellings,  that  wide 
spaces  between  streets  lead  to  the  building  of 
rear  tenements  about  interior  courts,  and  that 
the  model  tenement,  no  matter  what  advan¬ 
tages  it  may  offer  in  the  way  of  kindergartens 
for  the  children  of  the  tenants  or  common  rooms 
for  the  tenants  themselves,  is  not  to  be  com¬ 
pared  in  social  value  with  the  single  family 
house. 

Unfortunately,  however,  the  coming  of  the 
tenement  raises  land  values  so  that  the  single 
family  house  becomes  economically  impossible. 
Land  in  German  cities  is  8  or  10  times  as  costly 
as  in  corresponding  sections  of  English  cities, 
where  the  single  family  house  is  the  rule.  (Pehl- 
mann.)  Yet  the  Germans  have  set  themselves 
to  the  task  of  encouraging  the  erection  of  single 
family  houses  and  discouraging  the  erection  of 
tenement  houses.  They  have  begun  by  seeking 
regulations  which  will  limit  the  height  of  dwell¬ 
ings  and  the  proportion  of  the  lot  that  may  be 
occupied,  thereby  reducing  the  value  of  a  par¬ 
ticular  lot,  but  spreading  this  value  over  areas 
which  under  the  system  of  close  tenement  build¬ 
ing  would  lie  undeveloped  for  many  years. 

The  improvement  of  housing  conditions  is  a 
matter  of  public  concern  in  all  countries  of 


western  Europe,  but  the  examples  of  Germany 
and  Great  Britain  may  be  taken  as  illustrative. 

In  America  the  housing  awakening  dates 
back  to  about  1910,  though  in  some  of  the 
older  cities,  notably  New  York,  housing  re¬ 
form  has  been  a  vital  issue  since  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1900  Governor 
Roosevelt  appointed  a  commission,  headed  by 
Robert  W.  deForest,  which  secured  the  enact¬ 
ment  of  a  law  which  worked  almost  a  trans¬ 
formation  in  the  plans  of  multiple  dwellings 
and  provided  for  effective  enforcement  by  the 
creation  of  a  Tenement  House  Department. 
One  and  two-family  houses  were  not  included 
in  its  scope — a  matter  of  increasing  importance, 
since  the  city  extended  its  boundaries  to  take 
in  Brooklyn,  Queens,  and  Richmond.  This  part 
of  the  problem  was  being  approached  along 
city-planning  lines  and  in  the  proposal  to  dis¬ 
trict  the  city,  applying  different  regulations  to 
the  different  districts. 

METHODS  USED 

As  the  housing  problem  is  most  complicated, 
many  methods  are  used  in  its  solution.  Among 
these  are:  regulation,  setting  definite  minimum 
standards;  districting  or  zoning,  setting  pro¬ 
gressively  higher  standards  for  new  develop¬ 
ments;  the  creation  of  garden  suburbs .  or  vil¬ 
lages;  the  building  of  improved  dwellings  on 
a  limited  dividend  basis;  and  the  social  man¬ 
agement  of  wage  earners’  dwellings. 

Regulation.  Regulation  is  recognized  as  an 
essential  in  all  the  countries  where  serious  ef¬ 
forts  to  improve  housing  are  being  made.  In 
America  it  first  took  the  form  of  tenement- 
house  legislation.  Later  laws,  however,  cover 
all  dwellings  and  include:  general  provisions; 
dwellings  hereafter  erected,  light  and  ventila¬ 
tion,  sanitation,  fire  protection,,  alterations, 
maintenance,  improvements,  requirements  and 
remedies. 

After  the  enactment  of  the  New  York  law 
(which  applies  only  to  cities  of  the  first  class) 
in  1901,  New  Jersey  enacted  (1904)  a  similar 
law  applying  to  the  whole  State.  Since  then 
other  States  ( Connecticut,  Massachusetts,  In¬ 
diana,  Pennsylvania,  California)  have  enacted 
laws  which  apply  to  all  or  a  large  proportion 
of  their  cities,  and  many  cities  have  adopted 
local  ordinances  of  secured  State  laws  of  local 
application. 

Districting.  Such  general  regulations  must 
necessarily  be  based  upon  existing  conditions 
in  the  worst  sections  of  a  city  or  in  the  worst 
city  of  the  State.  State  legislation  therefore 
usually  provides  that  any  city  may  raise  the 
standards  it  sets.  It  is  proposed  that  city 
ordinances  be  similarly  supplemented  by  dis¬ 
tricting  or  zoning  regulations  which  will  per¬ 
mit  of  progressively  higher  standards  being  re¬ 
quired  in  new  districts  or  those  further  re¬ 
moved  from  the  old  crowded  centres.  One  of 
the  most  promising  features  of  regulation  by 
districts  is  the  power  it  gives  to  establish  new 
industrial  centres,  so  relieving  the  pressure  upon 
the  old  centre  and  permitting  an  increasing 
proportion  of  the  population  to  live  in  homes 
of  good  type  within  easy  distance  of  their  work. 
This  is  a  form  of  regulation  which  has  been  ap¬ 
plied  in  part  in  several  cities,  but  was  not  thor¬ 
oughly  worked  out  until  1916,  when  a  New  York 
City  commission  submitted  a  plan  for  districting 
the  metropolis.  So  far  the  efforts  have  been 


TOWN  PLANNING  AND  HOUSING  387  TOWN  PLANNING  AND  HOUSING 


confined  to  height  regulation  and  to  setting 
aside  certain  areas  for  residence  purposes  and 
forbidding  their  invasion  by  business  or  in¬ 
dustry. 

Garden  Suburbs.  Simply  to  apply  regula¬ 
tions,  which  at  best  are  negative,  is  not  suf¬ 
ficient,  so  the  creation  of  garden  suburbs  or 
villages  is  being  undertaken.  In  these  the  lat¬ 
est  lessons  of  city  planning  are  applied  to  se¬ 
cure  not  only  economy  and  convenience,  but  also 
all  those  attributes  of  pleasant  living  which 
may  be  grouped  under  the  word  “amenities.” 
To  the  Englishman,  accustomed  to  closely  packed 
towns  where  solid  lines  of  brick  buildings  run  un¬ 
broken  to  the  open  country,  most  of  the  smaller 
cities  and  towns  of  the  United  States  and 
the  suburbs  of  the  larger  cities,  with  their  de¬ 
tached  houses  and  yards,  are  garden  cities  and 
suburbs.  The  limit  of  8  or  10  or  12  houses 
per  acre,  which  he  sets,  is  one  that  is  scarcely 
approached  in  good  American  developments. 
But  in  the  planning  of  the  area  and  the  archi¬ 
tecture  of  the  houses  America  is  only  beginning, 
as  at  Forest  Hills  Gardens  (New  York)  and 
Roland  Park  (Baltimore),  to  realize  the  pos¬ 
sibilities. 

Improved  Housing.  Improved  housing  in¬ 
cludes  the  garden  suburb  or  village,  though, 
as  used  in  America,  the  term  has  generally  been 
confined  to  the  erection  and  social  manage¬ 
ment  of  dwellings,  often  in  the  older  sections 
of  cities,  without  reference  to  the  town  planning 
which  is  a  characteristic  of  the  garden  com¬ 
munity.  The  chief  features  of  improved  hous¬ 
ing  are  careful  planning  of  dwellings  so  as  to 
promote  in  every  way  the  welfare  of  the  ten¬ 
ants,  financing  on  a  limited-dividend  basis  (usu¬ 
ally  5  per  cent)  so  that  excess  income  is  used 
for  the  improvement  of  the  dwellings  or  the  re¬ 
duction  of  rent  instead  of  the  profit  of  the 
owners,  and  social  management,  which,  while 
aiming  to  secure  a  fair  return  upon  the  invest¬ 
ment,  also  seeks  to  establish  a  friendly  and  help¬ 
ful  relationship  between  tenant  and  owner. 

In  all  of  these  respects  the  builders  of  im¬ 
proved  dwellings  have  been  of  far  greater  serv¬ 
ice  than  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  people 
for  whom  they  have  provided.  Alfred  T.  White, 
who  in  1877  erected  his  first  group  of  dwellings 
in  Brooklyn,  by  his  demonstration  of  the  fact 
that  dwellings  could  be  planned  so  as  to  se¬ 
cure  abundant  light  and  air  and  provide  proper 
sanitary  conveniences  and  yet  pay  a  fair  re¬ 
turn  upon  the  investment,  brought  about  one  of 
the  most  important  advances  in  local  housing 
regulation.  (Tenement  House  Law,  1879.)  In 
Washington  and  in  Philadelphia  the  plans  of  the 
improved  houses  have  been  used  by  other  build¬ 
ers.  But  the  full  benefit  was  not  secured  owing 
to  the  lack  of  an  organized  propaganda  such 
as  that  conducted  in  England  by  the  Garden 
Cities  and  Town  Planning  Association,  which 
has  spread  the  idea  from  one  end  of  the  country 
to  the  other. 

Housing  by  Employers.  Aside  from  the 
limited-dividend  companies  are  a  considerable 
number  of  corporations  which  have  provided 
for  the  housing  of  their  employees.  Some  of 
these  have  built  villages  about  their  plants 
which  rival  in  beauty  the  much  better  known 
villages  of  the  Cadburys  (Bournville) ,  Lever 
Brothers  (Port  Sunlight),  and  the  Rowntrees 
(New  Earswick)  in  England. 

Copartnership.  Two  methods  which  have 
won  approval  abroad  have  not  yet  been  tried 


in  America.  The  copartnership  companies,  in 
which  the  tenants  by  regular  payments  in  ad¬ 
dition  to  rent  gradually  acquire  stock  in  the 
company,  so  retiring  outside  capital,  have  ap¬ 
parently  demonstrated  their  value  in  England, 
but  up  to  1916  only  one  attempt  along  similar 
lines  has  been  made  in  America.  This  was  at 
Billerica,  Mass.,  and  at  that  date  was  not  yet 
in  full  operation. 

Government  Aid.  This  method  is  that  of 
government  loans  of  cash  or  credit,  usually  to 
municipalities  or  to  approved  limited-dividend 
companies.  The  details  vary  in  different  coun¬ 
tries,  but  a  brief  description  of  English  pro¬ 
cedure  must  suffice.  The  money  must  be  used 
in  the  erection  of  workingmen’s  houses  (a  work¬ 
ingman  is  one  whose  annual  income  does  not 
exceed  £160).  After  assuring  itself  that  the 
building  conforms  to  its  standards  the  govern¬ 
ment  will  advance  85  per  cent  of  the  cost  se¬ 
cured  by  a  first  mortgage  and  repayable  in 
annual  installments  over  a  period  of  "from  20 
to  80  years,  usually  30  years.  The  interest 
rate  varies  from  2%  to  4%  per  cent,  but  is  usu¬ 
ally  from  3^2  to  3%  per  cent. 

Canada  has  made  a  beginning  in  government 
aid  through  a  provincial  law  which  authorizes 
cities  and  towns  of  Ontario  to  guarantee  se¬ 
curities  of  approved  housing  companies  up  to 
85  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  the  develop¬ 
ment.  Under  this  act  Toronto  guaranteed 
the  securities  of  the  Toronto  Housing  Com¬ 
pany,  which  erected  several  groups  of  dwell¬ 
ings.  In  the  United  States  there  have  been 
two  definite  attempts  to  secure  government  aid. 
The  Massachusetts  Homestead  Commission  in¬ 
troduced  a  bill  providing  for  the  loan  of  State 
money  to  be  used  in  building  workingmen’s 
dwellings.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  Com¬ 
monwealth  declared  that  this  bill  would  be  un¬ 
constitutional,  since  it  would  involve  taxation 
for  private  rather  than  public  benefit.  The 
Commission  therefore  prepared  an  amendment 
to  the  constitution  permitting  the  Legislature 
to  authorize  the  Commonwealth  to  buy  and  im¬ 
prove  land,  build  upon  it,  and  sell  the  same 
for  the  purpose  of  relieving  congestion  of  pop¬ 
ulation  and  providing  homes  for  citizens,  pro¬ 
vided  the  sale  was  not  made  at  less  than  cost. 
This  amendment  was  adopted  by  a  large  ma¬ 
jority  at  the  general  election  in  November,  1915. 

In  1915  bills  were  introduced  in  Congress 
authorizing  the  loan  of  government  money  for 
the  erection  of  workingmen’s  dwellings  in  the 
District  of  Columbia.  The  amount  of  the  loan 
was  not  to  exceed  three-fourths  of  the  value  of 
the  property,  was  to  be  repaid  within  40  years, 
and  was  to  bear  interest  not  exceeding  4  per  cent. 

Municipal  Housing.  Another  form  of  gov¬ 
ernmental  activity  in  Europe  has  not  received 
such  general  approval,  and  there  is  no  attempt 
in  America  to  imitate  it.  This  is  the  building 
of  dwellings  by  the  government  itself.  Here 
Germany’s  experience  differs  from  that  of  Eng¬ 
land,  especially  in  the  success  which  has  at¬ 
tended  municipal  operations  in  Ulm. 

Liverpool  is  the  great  English  example  of 
government  house  building  and  management, 
though  many  other  English  cities  have  under¬ 
taken  large  developments.  Necessary  as  they 
may  have  been  to  improve  sanitary  and  social 
conditions,  they  have  all  been  failures  finan¬ 
cially.  Liverpool,  however,  presents  a  strong 
argument  even  on  the  financial  side  by  its 
showing  of  more  than  compensating  savings  in 


TOWNS 


TOWNSEND 


388 

charges  for  health,  police,  etc.,  as  a  result  of 
its  housing  schemes.  See  City  Planning; 
Housing  Problem. 

Bibliography.  Wagner,  Die  Tdtigkeit  der 
Stadt  Ulm  (Ulm,  1903)  ;  G.  W.  W.  Hangar, 
“Housing  of  the  Working  People  in  the  United 
States  by  Employers,”  in  United  States  Bureau 
of  Labor,  Bulletin  No.  54  (Washington,  1904)  ; 
Budgett  Meakin,  Model  Factories  and  Tillages 
(Philadelphia,  190G)  ;  H.  I.  Triggs,  Town  Plan¬ 
ning:  Past ,  Present,  and  Possible  (London, 
1909);  J.  S.  Nettlefold,  Practical  Housing 
Problem,  (popular  ed.,  New  York,  1910)  ;  Ru¬ 
dolph  Eber stadt,  Handbuch  der  Wohnungswesens 
und  der  Wohnungsfrage  (Jena,  1910)  ;  C.  M. 
Robinson,  Width  and  Arrangement  of  Streets 
(New  York,  1911)  ;  American  Association  of 
Commerce  and  Trade,  The  Housing  Problem  as 
Solved  by  the  German  City  of  Ulm  (Berlin, 

1911) ;  R.  M.  Hurd,  Principles  of  City  Land 
Values  (3d  ed.,  New  York,  1911);  Ebenezer 
Howard,  Garden  Cities  of  Tomorrow  (London, 

1912)  ;  C.  B.  Purdom,  The  Garden  City:  A 

Study  in  the  Development  of  a  Modem  Toivn 
(ib.,  1913)  ;  H.  B.  Bashore,  Overcrowding  and 
Defective  Housing  in  the  Rural  Districts  (New 
York,  1915);  John  Nolen  (ed.),  City  Plan¬ 
ning  (ib.,  1915)  ;  G.  R.  Taylor,  Satellite  Cities 
(ib.,  1915)  ;  George  Cadbury,  Town  Planning 
(ib.,  1915),  with  special  reference  to  Bir¬ 

mingham.  Publications  of  commissions,  societies, 
etc.:  Tenement  House  Department  of  New  York 
City,  Reports  (New  York,  1902  et  seq.)  ;  Na¬ 
tional  Housing  Association,  Proceedings  (ib., 
1911  et  seq.)  ;  Heights  of  Buildings  Commission, 
Report  (ib.,  1913)  ;  National  City  Planning 

Conference,  Proceedings  (London,  1914)  ;  New 
York  School  of  Philanthropy  (New  York,  1909 
et  seq.)  ;  Presidents’  Homes  Commission  (Wash¬ 
ington)  ;  City  Homes  Association  (Chicago)  ; 
Philadelphia  Housing  Commission  (Philadel¬ 
phia).  Periodicals:  National  Municipal  Review 
(Philadelphia,  quarterly)  ;  The  Survey  (New 
York,  weekly)  ;  The  American  City  ( ib.,  monthly )  ; 
Housing  Betterment  (ib.,  quarterly)  ;  Garden 
Cities  and  Toivn  Planning  (London,  monthly); 
Co-Partnership  (ib.,  monthly);  Gartenstadt 
(Berlin,  monthly). 

TOWNS,  Charles  B.  (  ?-  ) .  An  Ameri¬ 

can  expert  on  drug  habits.  He  established  a 
hospital  in  New  York,  where  he  successfully 
treated  persons  addicted  to  the  use  of  alcohol, 
morphine,  opium,  tobacco,  etc.  Towns,  who 
visited  China  in  1908,  opened  hospitals  at 
Peking,  Tientsin,  and  Shanghai  and  cured 
4000  opium  users.  Having  at  this  time  fully 
demonstrated  the  efficiency  of  his  method,  he 
published  it  for  the  benefit  of  the  medical  pro¬ 
fession.  He  was  author  of  the  restrictive  drug 
legislative  act  of  New  York,  known  as  the 
Boylan  Law,  which  was  enacted  in  1914.  He 
published  Habits  that  Handicap :  The  Menace 
of  Opium,  Alcohol,  and  Tobacco  and  the  Rem¬ 
edy  (1915). 

TOWNS'END,  Charles  Elroy  (1856-  ). 

An  American  legislator,  born  at  Concord, 
Jackson  Co.,  Mich.  He  attended  the  University 
of  Michigan  in  1877-78,  was  register  of  deeds 
of  Jackson  County  in  1886-97,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1895,  and  thereafter  practiced  at 
Jackson,  Mich.  He  served  as  a  delegate  to  the 
Republican  National  Convention  in  1888  and 
from  1898  to  1902  was  a  member  of  the  Re¬ 
publican  State  Central  Committee.  A  member 
of  the  Fifty-eighth  to  the  Sixtv-first  Congresses 


(1903—11),  he  was  reelected  to  his  seat  in  the 
House,  but  in  1911  became  United  States  Sen¬ 
ator. 

TOWNSEND,  Charles  Haskins  (1859- 
) .  An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Par¬ 
nassus,  Pa.  From  1883  to  1902  he  was  connected 
with  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,  and 
thereafter  was  director  of  the  New  York 
Aquarium.  He  also  served  as  a  member  of 
the  Bering  Sea  Fur  Seal  Commission  in  1896 
and  as  an  expert  before  the  Russo- American 
fisheries  arbitration  at  The  Hague  (1902).  In 
1912-13  he  was  president  of  the  American  Fish¬ 
eries  Society.  He  published  a  number  of 
scientific  papers  and  popular  articles. 

TOWNSEND,  Edward  Waterman  ( 1855  — 

) .  An  American  journalist  and  novelist, 
notable  for  his  studies  of  lower  New  York  life 
and  dialect.  He  was  born  in  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
After  a  common-school  education  he  became  en¬ 
gaged  in  journalism  in  New  York  and  attracted 
attention  by  sketches  of  Bowery  life  done  in 
the  picturesque  slang  of  the  streets,  and  con¬ 
tributed  to  the  Sun  and  the  J ournal.  These 
are  collected  in  part  as  Chimmie  Fadden,  Major 
Max,  and  Other  Stories  (1895);  Chimmie  Fad- 
den  Explains,  Major  Max  Expounds  (1895),  and 
Near  a  Whole  City-Full  (1897).  A  Daughter 
of  the  Tenements  (1895)  and  Days  Like  These 
(1901)  are  novels,  also  of  New  York  life.  La¬ 
ter  books  are  Chimmie  Fadden  and  Mr.  Paul 
(1902)  ;  Lees  and  Leaven  (1903)  ;  Sure  (1904)  ; 
Reuben  Larkmead  ( 1905 )  ;  Our  Constitution 
(1906);  Beaver  Creek  Farm  (1907);  The 
Climbing  Courvatels  ( 1909 ) .  He  was  elected  to 
the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters  in 
1914. 

TOWNSEND,  George  Alfred  (1841-1914). 
An  American  journalist,  born  in  Georgetown, 
Del.  He  was  educated  in  Philadelphia  and  was 
successively  connected  with  the  Inquirer  and 
Press  of  that  city,  the  New  York  Herald  and 
World,  and  the  Chicago  Tribune.  He  first 
gained  distinction  as  a  war  correspondent  in 
the  Austro-Prussian  War  (1866).  Among  his 
books  are:  Campaigns  of  a  Non-Combatant 
(1865)  ;  Poems  (1870)  ;  Washington  Outside  and 
Inside  (1871)  ;  Tales  of  the  Chesapeake  (1880)  ; 
The  Entailed  Hat  (1884);  President  Cromwell 
(1885),  a  drama;  Poems  of  Men  and  Events 
(1899);  Poems  of  the  Delaware  Peninsula. 
Much  of  his  newspaper  correspondence  was  over 
the  signature  Gath. 

TOWNSEND,  Luther  Tracy  (1838-  ). 

An  American  Methodist  Episcopal  theologian, 
educator,  and  author.  He  was  born  at  Orono, 
Me.,  and  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in 
1859,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in 
1862.  In  1863-64  he  served  as  adjutant  in  the 
army.  He  was  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Greek 
in  Boston  University  School  of  Theology  (1868- 
72),  and  then  professor  of  practical  theology 
and  sacred  rhetoric  until  his  retirement  in  1893. 
Among  his  publication  are:  Credo  (1869); 
Sword  and  Garment  (1871);  The  Supernatural 
Factor  in  Revivals  (1877)  ;  The  Intermediate 
World  (  1878);  Story  of  Jonah  in  the  Light 
of  Higher  Criticism  (1897);  Evolution  or  Cre¬ 
ation  (1899);  Anastasis  (1900);  Adam  and 
Eve,  History  or  Myth?  (1904);  God  and  the 
Nation  (1905);  The  Deluge  (1907);  Bible  In¬ 
spiration  (1909)  ;  Bible  Studies  (1913)  ;  The 
Stars  are  not  Inhabited  (1914). 

TOWNSEND,  Thomas  Seaman  (1829-1908). 
An  American  compiler,  born  in  New  York  City. 


TOWNSEND 


TOWNSHEND 


389 


From  1860  to  1901  he  collected  and  arranged  all 
important  items  concerning  the  Civil  War  that 
appeared  in  the  newspapers  of  the  country,  thus 
forming  a  chronological  history  of  great  value 
to  future  historians.  This  enormous  collection 
of  125  volumes  is  now  in  the  Columbia  Uni¬ 
versity  Library.  It  is  entitled  the  Townsend 
Library  of  National,  State,  and  Individual  Civil 
War  Records.  He  published  Honors  of  the  Em¬ 
pire  State  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion  (1899). 

TOWNSEND,  William  John  (1835-  ). 

An  English  Methodist  clergyman,  born  at  New- 
castle-on-Tyne.  Educated  at  Ranmoor  College, 
Sheffield,  he  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Meth¬ 
odist  New  Connexion  in  1860,  and  was  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  conference  in  1886,  general  mis¬ 
sionary  secretary  (1886—91),  and  Connexional 
editor  (1893-97).  He  was  president  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  Free  Church  Council  in  1902  and  of 
the  first  annual  session  of  the  United  Metho¬ 
dist  Conference  ( 1908 ) .  Besides  helping  to 
edit  A  New  History  of  Methodism  (2  vols., 
1909),  he  published:  The  Great  Schoolmen  of 
the  Middle  Ages  (1881)  ;  Madagascar :  Its  Mis¬ 
sionaries  and  Martyrs  (1892)  ;  The  Great  Sym¬ 
bols  (1901;  new  ed.,  1912);  History  of  Popu¬ 
lar  Education  in  England  and  Wales  ( 1903 )  ; 
Robert  Morrison  (new  ed.,  1904)  ;  The  Story  of 
Methodist  Union  (1906). 

TOWNSEND’S  WARBLER.  A  wood  war¬ 
bler  ( Dendroeca  townsendi )  of  the  Pacific  coast 
of  the  United  States,  black  and  yellow  in  color 
(see  Colored  Plate  of  American  Wood  Warb¬ 
ler  with  the  article  Warbler)  and  having 
the  general  habits  of  its  congeners.  ( See 
Warbler.)  It  is  not  numerous  and  lives  in 
the  mountain  forests.  This  and  several  other 
birds  of  the  West  owe  their  names  to  the 
naturalist  J.  K.  Townsend,  who  in  1834,  in 
company  with  Thomas  Nuttall  (q.v. ),  traveled 
overland  to  the  Pacific  coast  and  brought  to 
the  notice  of  science  many  novel  species  of 
animals. 

TOWNSHEND,  toun'zend,  Charles,  second 
Viscount  (1674-1738).  An  English  statesman. 
A  descendant  of  a  very  ancient  English  family  of 
Norfolk,  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage  in  1687, 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  King’s  College,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  and  took  his  seat  as  a  Tory  in  the 
House  of  Lords  in  1697.  He  was  named  by 
the  Godolphin  administration  one  of  the  com¬ 
missioners  for  arranging  the  union  with  Scot¬ 
land  (1706),  was  joint  plenipotentiary  with 
Marlborough  at  Gertruydenburg,  and  negotiated 
with  the  States-General  in  1710  the  Barrier 
Treaty,  which  pledged  the  States-General  to  the 
Hanoverian  succession,  and  England  to  procure 
the  Spanish  Low  Countries  for  the  United 
Provinces,  as  a  barrier  against  France.  In  1712, 
upon  the  formation  of  the  Harley  ministry, 
Townshend  was  dismissed  from  his  places,  and 
the  Barrier  Treaty  was  censured  by  the  House 
of  Commons,  which  voted  that  Townshend  and 
all  who  had  been  concerned  in  the  treaty  were 
enemies  to  the  Queen  and  Kingdom.  This  per¬ 
secution  raised  him  from  the  rank  of  a  fol¬ 
lower  to  the  station  of  a  leader.  He  main¬ 
tained  a  close  correspondence  with  the  court  of 
Hanover  and  obtained  the  entire  confidence  of 
George  I,  who  on  his  accession  to  the  throne 
of  England  made  Townshend  Secretary  of  State 
with  power  to  name  his  colleagues.  He  selected 
General,  afterward  Earl,  Stanhope  and  formed 
a  ministry  entirely  Whig  in  its  party  charac¬ 
ter.  He  strengthened  it  by  the  addition  of  his 


brother-in-law,  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  who,  from 
being  at  first  paymaster  of  the  forces,  was  soon 
made  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and  First 
Lord  of  the  1  reasury.  Through  misrepresen¬ 
tations  on  the  part  of  his  colleagues,  Townshend 
lost  favor  with  the  King  and  was,  in  1716,  dis¬ 
missed  from  office.  After  the  breaking  up  of 
the  South  Sea  Bubble  and  the  death  of  Sun¬ 
derland  (q.v.)  and  of  Stanhope,  Townshend 
again  (1721)  became  Secretary  of  State.  But 
he  was  no  longer  the  acknowledged  leader  of 
the  Whigs.  The  superior  talent  of  Walpole,  his 
financial  abilities,  and  his  influence  in  the 
House  of  Commons  caused  a  change  in  the  rela¬ 
tive  position  of  the  two  ministers  and  con¬ 
verted  the  two  men  into  rivals  and  enemies. 
Townshend,  resigning  the  contest,  retired  to 
Rainham,  to  cultivate  his  paternal  acres. 
“Never  minister  had  cleaner  hands,”  said 
Chesterfield;  and  his  reputation  for  both  pri¬ 
vate  and  public  integrity  remains  unsullied. 

TOWNSHEND,  Charles  (1725-67).  An 
English  politician.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
the  third  Viscount  Townshend  and  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  Leyden  and  Oxford.  He  entered  Parlia¬ 
ment  in  1747,  attached  himself  to  Lord  Hali¬ 
fax,  and  was  given  a  position  in  the  Board  of 
Trade  in  1748.  In  1754  Townshend  was  made 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  but  resigned  the  follow¬ 
ing  year.  Becoming  a  member  of  the  Privy 
Council  under  Pitt  in  1757,  upon  the  dissolu¬ 
tion  of  the  Whig  government  in  1761  he  was 
won  over  by  Bute  with  an  offer  of  the  post 
of  Secretary  for  War.  On  Bute’s  resignation 
in  1763  he  was  appointed  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade.  After  opposing  the  Grenville 
administration  he  accepted  the  position  of 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  under  Pitt  in  1766. 
But  Pitt  soon  lost  control  over  his  colleagues 
by  his  acceptance  of  the  peerage  and  his  long 
periods  of  illness,  so  that  Townshend  began  to 
advocate  measures  to  which  Pitt  was  opposed. 
In  1767  his  first  budget  was  rejected,  and  he 
thereupon  proposed  those  taxes  on  certain  goods 
imported  into  America  which  was  one  of  the 
chief  causes  of  the  Revolution.  Townshend  him¬ 
self  did  not  live  to  see  this  result,  but  died 
suddenly  on  Sept.  4,  1767.  He  was  ranked  as 
an  orator  with  Pitt  and  was  far  more  popu¬ 
lar  than  the  Great  Commoner  Avith  the  House 
of  Commons.  Consult  P.  H.  Fitzgerald,  Charles 
Townshend:  Wit  and  Statesman  (London, 
1866),  and  Harry  Graham,  Splendid  Failures 
(ib.,  1913). 

TOWNSHEND,  Sir  Charles  James  (1844- 
) .  A  Canadian  jurist.  He  was  born  at 
Amherst,  Nova  Scotia,  and  was  educated  at 
King’s  College,  Windsor.  Called  to  the  bar  in 
1866,  he  practiced  his  profession  at  Amherst. 
He  was  a  Conservative  member  of  the  Pro¬ 
vincial  Legislature  in  1878-84,  a  member  of 
the  Provincial  cabinet  in  1878-82,  and  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1884-87.  In  1887  he 
was  appointed  a  puisne  judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Nova  Scotia  and  in  1907-15  was  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Province.  In  1911  he  was 
knighted. 

TOWNSHEND,  Charles  Vere  Ferrers 
(1861—  ).  A  British  soldier,  commander  in 

chief  of  the  Mesopotamia  campaign  in  the  Great 
War.  He  entered  the  Royal  Marines  in  1881, 
but  joined  the  army  in  1886  and  was  promoted 
through  the  grades  to  major  general  in  1911. 
He  served  in  the  Stidan  and  Nile  expeditions 
(1884-85)  and  in  the  Hunza  Nagar  expedition 


TOWNSHEND 


TOXJEMIA 


390 


(1891-92);  commanded  Chitral  Fort  during  a 
siege;  and  participated  in  the  Dongola  expedi¬ 
tion  (1898)  and  in  the  South  African  War 
(1899-1900).  Town sh end  was  assistant  adju¬ 
tant  general  of  the  Ninth  Division  Army  in 
India  in  1907-09,  and  in  1912-13  commanded  a 
division  of  the  Territorial  Force.  During  the 
European  War  (see  War  in  Europe)  he  com¬ 
manded  the  British  army  that  withstood  for 
nearly  five  months  a  Turkish  siege  at  Kut  el 
Amara  in  Mesopotamia,  and  was  compelled  to 
surrender  in  April,  1916,  for  lack  of  food. 

TOWNSHEND,  George,  first  Marquis  ( 1724— 
1807).  A  British  soldier.  He  served  early  in 
the  Netherlands  and  at  Culloden  and  Laufeld. 
While  temporarily  retired  from  the  army  he 
drafted  the  Militia  Bill  of  1757.  In  1759,  as 
brigadier  general,  he  joined  Wolfe’s  expedition 
against  Quebec,  commanded  the  left  wing  on 
the  Heights  of  Abraham,  and  at  Wolfe’s  death 
succeeded  to  the  chief  command.  In  1764  he 
took  the  family  title,  Viscount  Townsliend.  As 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1767-72  he  was 
in  continual  dispute  with  the  Irish  House  of 
Commons.  He  was  made  Marquis  in  1786  and 
field  marshal  in  1796. 

TOWNSHIP  (AS.  tunscipe,  from  tun,  in¬ 
closure,  town  +  -scripe,  Eng.  -ship).  A  minor 
political  or  territorial  division  in  England  and 
the  United  States.  In  England,  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times,  as  a  political  unit  it  was  known  as  the 
tunscipe;  as  an  ecclesiastical  area  it  was  the 
parish.  As  a  political  unit  it  had  a  popular 
assembly  (tun  moot)  ;  as  an  ecclesiastical  unit 
it  had  a  vestry  meeting.  The  chief  executive 
officer  was  the  tun  reeve.  He  with  the  priest 
and  four  other  persons  represented  the  township 
in  the  popular  assembly  of  the  hundred  and 
county.  Upon  the  settlement  of  the  American 
Colonies  the  township  was  transplanted  to 
America  and  still  survives,  like  many  other  polit¬ 
ical  institutions  of  English  origin.  Here  it  is 
a  subdivision  of  the  county,  and  its  political 
importance  varies  with  the  locality  of  the  State. 
In  New  England,  under  the  name  of  the  town, 
it  plays  a  far  more  important  part  in  the  work 
of  the  local  administration  than  the  county — in 
fact,  it  performs  most  of  the  business  of  local 
government  which  in  the  Southern  States  is  at¬ 
tended  to  by  the  county.  (See  Town.)  In  the 
Middle  and  Western  States  the  township  plays 
a  somewhat  less  important  part  in  the  work  of 
the  local  government  than  it  does  in  New  Eng¬ 
land,  the  county  there  sharing  with  the  town¬ 
ship  many  of  the  important  functions  of  local 
government. 

In  the  Southern  States  the  township  is  not  an 
administrative  unit  of  much  importance.  On 
account  of  early  social  and  political  conditions 
there,  the  county  has  been  from  the  first  the 
chief  unit  of  local  government,  although  there 
are  signs  of  development  in  the  Southern  town¬ 
ship  which  may  increase  its  administrative  im¬ 
portance  in  the  future.  In  some  of  the  Middle 
and  Western  States  the  town  meeting  exists,  hav¬ 
ing  been  transplanted  from  New  England.  Else¬ 
where  the  chief  governing  authority  is  a  township 
board.  The  township  has  a  quasi-corporate  ca¬ 
pacity,  being  able  to  own  real  estate  and  to  sue 
and  be  sued,  but  in  performing  public  govern¬ 
mental  duties  it  acts  for  the  State  and  cannot 
be  held  liable  for  the  negligence  or  tortious  acts 
of  its  agents.  The  word  “township”  is  also  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  units  of  the  congressional  survey 
in  some  of  the  Southern  and  Western  States, 


these  being  rectangular  areas  6  miles  square, 
each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  36  sections 
containing  640  acres.  ( See  diagram  under 
Surveying.)  This  is  probably  the  most  simple 
svstem  of  land  division  yet  established.  The 
congressional  township,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
is  not  a  public  corporation  or  juristic  person¬ 
ality,  but  a  geographical  convenience.  Consult 
Ashley,  “The  Anglo-Saxon  Township,”  in  Quar¬ 
terly  Journal  of  Economics,  and  Bryce,  Ameri¬ 
can  Commonwealth  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  New  York, 
1910). 

TOWNS'LEY,  Clarence  Page  (1855-  ). 

An  American  soldier,  born  at  Dekalb,  St.  Law¬ 
rence  Co.,  N.  YT.  He  graduated  from  the  State 
Normal  School  at  Potsdam,  N.  Y.,  in  1872,  from 
Union  College  in  1876,  and  from  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1881.  Entering  the 
artillery  service,  he  was  promoted  captain  in  1899 
and  colonel  in  1911.  During  the  Spanish- Ameri- 
can  War  he  served  on  the  staff  of  General  Ludlow, 
who  was  chief  of  artillery  and  chief  ordnance 
officer  of  the  Department  of  Havana,  Cuba.  In 
1909—11  he  was  commandant  of  the  Coast  Artil¬ 
lery  School  at  Fort  Monroe  and  in  1912-16  was 
superintendent  of  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  (West  Point). 

TOWNS'VILLE.  A  fortified  seaport  on  the 
east  coast  of  Queensland,  Australia,  situated 
on  Cleveland  Bay  at  the  mouth  of  Ross  Creek, 
870  miles  northwest  of  Brisbane  (Map:  Queens¬ 
land,  E  5 ) .  It  has  a  cathedral,  courthouse, 
technical  school,  barracks,  etc.  Its  industrial 
establishments  include  foundries,  distilleries, 
and  meat-exporting  establishments.  It  .is  the 
terminus  of  the  railway  from  Winton,  365  miles 
inland,  and  has  an  extensive  shipping  trade; 
the  harbor  is  tidal  and  has  been  much  improved 
by  two  long  breakwaters,  large  vessels  being 
enabled  to  enter.  Pop.,  1901,  12,717 ;  1911, 

13,835. 

TOWSE,  J(ohn)  Ranken  (1845-  ).  An 

American  dramatic  critic.  He  was  born  at 
Streatliam,  Surrey,  England,  and  was  educated 
at  Cambridge.  Coming  to  the  United  States 
in  1869,  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  New  York 
Evening  Post  the  next  year  and  after  1874  was 
its  dramatic  critic.  To  this  paper  he  contrib¬ 
uted  notable  articles  on  all  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  theatrical  productions.  Some  of  his  criti¬ 
cisms  appeared  also  in  the  Nation.  In  the.  Sat¬ 
urday  supplement  of  the  Post  were  published 
his  Sixty  Years  of  the  Theatre:  An  Old  Critic’s 
Memories  (1913-14;  part  ii,  1915-16). 

TOW'TON.  A  parish  in  Yorkshire,  England, 
about  11  miles  southwest  of  York,  noted  as  the 
scene  of  a  decisive  victory  gained  by  the  Yorkist 
forces  under  Edward  IV  and  the  Earl  of  M  ar¬ 
wick  over  the  Lancastrians,  commanded  by  the 
Duke  of  Somerset  and  the  Earl  of  Northumber¬ 
land,  March  29,  1461.  The  battle  is  said  to 
have  been  the  most  sanguinary  ever  fought  on 
English  soil,  and  according  to  a  contemporary 
statement  28,000  men  were  left  dead  upon  the 
field.  The  victory  secured  Edward  IV  (q.v.) 
in  possession  of  the  throne.  See  Roses,  Wars 
of  THE. 

TOXiE'MIA.  A  poisoned  condition  of  the 
blood  due  to  the  circulating  in  it  of  toxic  ma¬ 
terials,  either  chemical  or  bacterial  in  their 
nature.  These  toxins  may  be  derived  from 
putrefactive  or  other  fermentative  changes  in 
the  intestinal  tract  or  from  the  products  of 
bacterial  activity  in  the  tissues  circulating  the 
blood.  When  bacteria  themselves  find  entrance 


TOXICOLOGY 


391 


TOXICOLOGY 


into  the  blood  stream,  the  condition  is  known 
as  bacteraemia.  See  Autointoxication;  Immu¬ 
nity;  Toxin;  Vaccine  Therapy. 

TOXTCOL'OGY  (from  Gk.  to^lkov,  toxikon, 
poison,  neut.  sing,  of  to^lkos,  toxikos,  relating  to 
the  bow,  from  to&v,  toxon,  bow,  so  called  be¬ 
cause  first  used  to  poison  arrow  points  -f-  -\oyia, 
-logia,  account).  The  branch  of  medical  science 
which  treats  of  the  nature  of  poisons,  their 
morbific  effects  on  the  animal  system,  their  de¬ 
tection  in  the  organs  or  tissues  of  the  body, 
their  antidotes,  of  the  treatment  of  poisoning, 
and  of  the  legal  questions  connected  with  poi¬ 
soning.  A  poison  may  be  defined  as  any  sub¬ 
stance  which  when  applied  to  the  body  or  in¬ 
troduced  into  the  system,  in  whatever  manner, 
produces  death  or  serious  bodily  harm.  Poisons 
may  enter  by  the  mouth  or  may  be  absorbed 
by  the  skin  in  amounts  sufficient  to  cause  death 
or  severe  toxic  symptoms,  as  from  lotions  or 
salves  containing  opium,  corrosive  sublimate, 
arsenic,  carbolic  acid,  etc.  Gaseous  or  volatile 
poisons  may  enter  the  lungs  through  inspired 
air,  e.g.,  illuminating  gas,  carbon  monoxide,  or 
chlorine.  Poisons  may  gain  access  to  the  cir¬ 
culation  through  ulcerated  surfaces  or  wounds; 
by  direct  injection  into  the  tissues,  as  by  hypo¬ 
dermic  injection,  poisoned  weapons,  or  snake¬ 
bites;  or  they  may  be  introduced  by  way  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  rectum,  vagina,  urethra, 
etc. 

Most  medicinal  agents  are  poisonous  if  taken 
in  sufficient  quantity,  this  quantity  varying 
with  the  individual,  the  state  of  health,  fullness 
or  emptiness  of  the  stomach,  habit,  and  other 
circumstances.  The  influence  of  habit  is  shown 
by  opium  habitues  who  take  enormous  doses  of 
the  drug  without  immediate  evil  effects.  A  spe¬ 
cial  susceptibility  to  certain  substances  is  noted 
in  some  individuals.  This  is  called  idiosyn¬ 
crasy.  Idiosyncrasy  towards  certain  articles  of 
food  or  towards  foreign  proteins  such  as  egg 
albumen,  serums,  etc.,  when  injected,  is  now 
looked  upon  as  a  phase  of  anaphylaxis  (q.v. ). 
Races  and  individuals  may  possess  or  attain  a 
high  degree  of  immunity  to  particular  poisons — 
the  Oriental  is  much  less  susceptible  to  opium 
than  the  European,  and  the  latter  bears  alcohol 
better  than  savage  races.  In  certain  diseases 
there  is  a  diminished  susceptibility  to  the  ac¬ 
tion  of  particular  poisons,  while  in  others  there 
is  increased  sensibility.  Thus,  in  tetanus,  hy¬ 
drophobia,  mania,  or  delirium  tremens  doses  of 
various  sedatives  may  be  given  with  benefit 
which  would  in  health  prove  fatal;  on  the 
other  hand,  when  there  is  a  predisposition  to 
apoplexy,  an  ordinary  dose  of  opium  may  cause 
death.  Some  poisons  are  harmless  to  the  stom¬ 
ach,  but  violently  toxic  when  injected  beneath 
the  skin. 

Poisons  may  be  classified  according  to  their 
chemical  properties  or  their  physiological  ac¬ 
tion.  The  latter  is  the  usual  and  most  satis¬ 
factory  basis  and  depends  upon  the  effects  of 
poisons  upon  the  system  when  in  healthy  con¬ 
dition.  According  to  the  physiological  classi¬ 
fication  poisons  are  divided  into  two  great 
groups :  ( 1 )  the  irritants  and  ( 2 )  the  neurotics. 
An  irritant  poison  is  one  which  when  swallowed 
produces  irritating  effects  upon  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal,  resulting  in 
nausea,  vomiting,  purging,  pain  in  the  abdo¬ 
men,  cramps  in  the  stomach  and  other  parts  of 
the  body.  This  group  is  subdivided  into  (a) 
corrosives,  whose  action  is  chiefly  local,  and  (6) 


the  true  irritants,  whose  local  effects  may  be 
slight,  but  which  produce  their  characteristic 
effect  after  absorption.  Many  drugs  act  in  both 
ways,  e.g.,  oxalic  acid  and  carbolic  acid.  A 
neurotic  poison  is  one  which  acts  chiefly  on  the 
nervous  system,  producing  drowsiness,  giddi¬ 
ness,  headache,  delirium,  stupor,  coma,  con¬ 
vulsions,  or  paralysis. 

A  few  principles  of  the  general  treatment  of 
poisoning  may  be  given.  The  indications  are 
( 1 )  to  neutralize  and  render  harmless  the 
poison  by  the  administration  of  the  proper 
antidote  (q.v.);  (2)  to  remove  the  poison  from 
the  body  by  inducing  vomiting  or  washing  out 
the  stomach;  (3)  to  combat  the  effects  of  poison 
already  absorbed  by  giving  drugs  which  are 
antagonistic  to  the  one  absorbed  and  supporting 
life  until  the  body  rids  itself  of  the  poison 
through  natural  excretory  channels.  Mechani¬ 
cal  antidotes  include  the  use  of  the  stomach 
tube  or  pump,  the  employment  of  emetics,  ca¬ 
thartics,  stimulants,  injections,  ligations,  etc. 
The  true  or  chemical  antidotes  include  albu¬ 
min,  milk,  charcoal,  soap,  starch,  oils,  tannin, 
turpentine,  acids,  alkalies,  potassium  perman¬ 
ganate,  sodium  chloride,  iodine,  iron,  etc. 

When  a  poison  has  been  taken  by  the  mouth 
the  stomach  should  be  emptied  immediately  by 
means  of  the  stomach  tube  or  emetics,  except 
where  there  is  severe  corrosion  and  perforation 
of  the  stomach  is  feared.  A  prompt  and  cer¬ 
tain  emetic  is  apomorphine,  which  will  act  when 
given  hypodermically.  Domestic  resources  are 
usually  limited  to  large  drafts  of  mustard  and 
warm  water,  warm  milk  in  large  quantities, 
oils,  butter,  and  lard,  common  salt  solution, 
soapsuds;  these  often  act  with  great  prompt¬ 
ness.  Ipecac  in  the  form  of  the  sirup  is  found 
in  most  households  and  may  be  given  in  doses 
of  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  to  adults  or  half 
that  to  children.  It  is  safe  and  unirritating, 
but  is  too  slow  for  emergencies.  Other  useful 
emetics  are  copper  sulphate,  zinc  sulphate,  tur- 
peth  mineral,  and  alum.  In  poisoning  it  is 
better  to  use  almost  any  emetic  at  once  than  to 
lose  valuable  time  getting  the  right  one..  When 
poisoning  is  due  to  irritants  after  evacuation  of 
the  stomach,  bland  and  viscid  fluids  should  be 
given  to  protect  the  wall  of  the  alimentary  tract 
and  allay  inflammation.  These  agents  are 
called  demulcents — flaxseed  tea,  white  of  egg, 
milk,  etc.  Where  the  poison  has  gained  en¬ 
trance  by  inoculation,  as  in  the  case  of  dog- 
bites  or  the  stings  of  reptiles,  the  part  should 
be  washed,  sucked,  or  incised  freely,  and  a  liga¬ 
ture  applied  about  the  extremity  above  the 
wound,  i.e.,  between  it  and  the  heart.  The 
wound  should  then  be  thoroughly  cauterized. 

The  stomach  having  been  emptied,  the  next 
step  is  to  administer  the  proper  antidote  or 
physiological  antagonist.  In  general  it  is  to 
be  remembered  that  alkalies  counteract  acids 
and  vice  versa,  since  they  tend  to  form  harm¬ 
less  salts.  Poisoning  by  the  irritant  metallic 
salts  is  best  treated  with  albumin,  in  the  form 
of  white  of  egg,  an  inert,  insoluble  albuminate 
being  formed.  The  antidote  for  the  vegetable 
alkaloids  is  tannin,  most  conveniently  given  in 
the  form  of  strong  green  tea.  Chemical  anti¬ 
dotes  act  only  on  such  portions  of  the  poison 
as  have  not  been  absorbed  and  must  be  given 
promptly. 

Physiological  antidotes  or  antagonists  follow 
the  poison  into  the  circulation  and  combat  its 
effects  as  long  as  it  remains  in  the  body. 


TOXICOLOGY 


392 


TOXICOLOGY 


Corrosive  Poisons  include  acetic,  carbolic, 
chromic,  lactic,  oxalic,  and  salicylic  acids;  con¬ 
centrated  mineral  acids  (sulphuric,  nitric,  etc.)  ; 
creosote;  corrosive  sublimate,  the  caustic  alka¬ 
lies  (potassium  and  sodium  dioxide,  usually 
in  the  form  of  lye,  ammonia,  etc.)  ;  quick¬ 
lime;  potassium  chlorate;  and  potassium  nitrate. 
These  poisons  act  either  on  the  surface  of  the 
body,  causing  deep  and  painful  destruction  of 
tissue,  or  internally,  by  producing  intense  gas¬ 
troenteritis  and  collapse.  The  symptoms  com¬ 
mon  to  the  group  are  nausea,  vomiting,  pain, 
and  purging,  the  vomited  and  dejected  matters 
being  mucous,  serous,  or  bloody.  The  mouth 
and  lips,  hands  and  face,  are  frequently  burned 
and  corroded.  Treatment  consists  in  neutraliz¬ 
ing  the  poison  and  giving  demulcents.  In  the 
case  of  weak  acids,  magnesia,  chalk,  soap,  and 
dilute  ammonia  may  be  given  as  antidotes;  for 
alkaline  poisoning  weak  acids,  such  as  dilute 
vinegar  or  lemon  juice,  may  be  given.  When 
the  poison  is  concentrated  the  stomach  tube 
should  not  be  used.  Carbolic  acid  is  best  an¬ 
tidoted  with  dilute  alcohol.  The  sulphate  of 
magnesia  is  also  a  perfect  antidote. 

True  Irritants  include,  besides  certain  of  the 
corrosive  poisons  already  mentioned,  bromine, 
blister  beetle,  croton  oil,  chlorine,  antimony,  ar¬ 
senic,  copper,  chromium,  lead,  tin,  zinc,  phospho¬ 
rus,  and  iodine  (qq.v.).  In  concentrated  form 
most  of  them  cause  irritation  to  the  gastroin¬ 
testinal  tract,  and  also  show  specific  action  on 
various  organs  after  their  absorption  by  the 
blood.  Arsenic  is  commonly  employed,  or  taken 
accidentally,  with  homicidal  or  suicidal  in¬ 
tent.  It  is  widely  used  in  the  arts  and  is  a 
constituent  of  vermin  exterminators.  Poisoning 
may  be  acute  or  chronic.  In  acute  cases  the 
symptoms  are  those  common  to  irritant  poisons. 
The  chemical  antidote  is  known  as  arsenic  an¬ 
tidote,  or  dialyzed  iron.  A  small  dose  of  arsenic 
( 1  to  3  grains)  is  sufficient  to  kill.  Chronic 
poisoning  by  arsenic  is  also  common  as  a  re¬ 
sult  of  inhalation  or  contact  with  the  various 
arsenical  greens  used  in  coloring  wall  papers, 
carpets;  etc.,  grinding  arsenic  in  mills,  and 
from  vapors  in  smelting  copper.  Symptoms  are 
gastric  irritation,  cough,  throat  troubles,  grad¬ 
ually  failing  health,  and  paralysis.  See  Arsenic. 

Lead  poisoning  may  also  be  acute  or  chronic, 
the  latter  being  the  most  usual  form.  Acute 
cases  are  due  to  the  ingestion  of  the  acetate 
( sugar  of  lead ) ,  carbonate,  oxide,  or  chromate 
of  lead,  and  painters  are  the  chief  sufferers. 
The  prominent  symptoms  are  gastrointestinal 
irritation,  cramps  in  the  legs  and  abdomen,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  paralysis  of  the  extremities,  convul¬ 
sions,  and  coma.  The  sulphate  of  magnesia 
(Epsom  salt)  is  the  antidote,  forming  an  in¬ 
soluble  sulphate  of  lead  and  acting  also  as  a 
purge.  Chronic  poisoning  arises  from  handling 
paints,  drinking  ‘water  conducted  in  lead  pipes, 
the  use  of  cosmetics  containing  lead,  and  eating 
canned  foods  contaminated  by  solder.  It  is 
an  incident  of  many  different  trades.  (See  Oc¬ 
cupational  Diseases.)  The  symptoms  come 
on  insidiously  and  consist  of  a  peculiar  grip¬ 
ing  colic  (lead  colic),  obstinate  constipation, 
muscular  cramps,  paralysis  of  the  extensor  mus¬ 
cles  of  the  forearms  (wrist-drop),  and  a  blue 
line  at  the  junction  of  the  gums  and  teeth. 
Chronic  poisoning  is  treated  by  removing  its 
source  and  by  the  administration  of  Epsom 
salt  and  potassium  iodide  to  eliminate  the  lead 
already  absorbed.  See  Lead. 


Phosphorus  poisoning  is  due  to  yellow  phos¬ 
phorus,  commonly  derived  from  matches  or  rat 
poisons.  Workers  in  match  factories  are  most 
usually  attacked,  although  rat  poison  is  some¬ 
times  taken  with  suicidal  intent.  The  poison  is 
very  active  and  recovery  is  rare.  The  promi¬ 
nent  symptoms  in  acute  poisoning  are  vomiting 
of  matters  luminous  in  the  dark,  a  smell  of 
phosphorus  in  the  breath,  inflammation  of  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  jaundice,  convulsions, 
and  coma.  Treatment  consists  in  washing  out 
the  stomach  and  the  administration  of  old  oil 
of  turpentine  or  potassium  permanganate. 

Poisonous  Foods.  Many  foods  which,  owing 
either  to  their  inherent  properties  (mushrooms 
and  other  fungi)  or  to  the  development  of  putre¬ 
factive  bodies  within  them  (ptomaines),  produce 
symptoms  of  poisoning  when  eaten.  The  symp¬ 
toms  are  very  diverse,  but  intense  gastrointestinal 
irritation  is  common  to  all  of  them,  and  they 
may  therefore  be  appropriately  classed  as  ir¬ 
ritants.  Mushroom  poisoning  arises  through 
mistaking  various  fungi,  such  as  mushrooms, 
toadstools,  and  truffles,  for  edible  varieties. 
The  toxic  substance  in  many  of  these  is  mus¬ 
carine,  a  deadly  alkaloidal  poison,  producing 
violent  vomiting,  colic,  thirst,  dyspnoea,  paraly¬ 
sis,  and  death.  Ptomaine  poisoning  is  due  to 
the  products  of  putrefactive  decomposition  in 
animal  or  vegetable  matter.  The  ptomaines  are 
alkaloids  and  resemble  chemically  many  of  the 
'vegetable  alkaloids.  Not  all  ptomaines  are 
poisonous  and  not  all  food  poisons  are  pto¬ 
maines.  The  foods  which  sometimes  produce 
symptoms  of  poisoning,  whether  ptomaine  or 
other,  are  corned  beef,  sausage,  pickled  or  de¬ 
caying  fish,  putrid  game,  cheese,  milk,  shellfish, 
particularly  mussels  and  crayfish,  land  crab, 
etc.  The  treatment  of  food  poisoning,  from 
whatever  cause,  is  prompt  evacuation  of  the 
stomach,  preferably  by  stomach  tube,  using 
plenty  of  water,  and  administration  of  tannic 
or  gallic  acid  or  strong  tea.  See  Mushroom  ; 
Ptomaines. 

Neurotic  Poisons.  These  act  principally 
through  the  nervous  system  and  as  a  rule  pro¬ 
duce  little  or  no  tissue  change. 

Alcohol  may  act  as  an  acute  or  chronic  poison. 
Its  effects  are  fully  considered  under  Intoxica¬ 
tion. 

Opium  and  its  chief  alkaloid  (morphine) 
laudanum,  Majendie’s  solution  (of  morphine), 
and  paregoric  are  often  used  for  suicidal  or 
homicidal  purposes.  Paregoric  was  formerly  re¬ 
sponsible  for  many  cases  of  opium  poisoning  in 
children,  being  a  common  ingredient  of  soothing 
sirups.  Acute  opium  poisoning  is  characterized 
by  a  short  preliminary  stage  of  pleasurable  ex¬ 
citement  followed  by  drowsiness,  sleep,  and  com¬ 
plete  unconsciousness.  In  a  moderately  ad¬ 
vanced  case  the  pupils  are  contracted  to  a  pin 
point,  the  respirations  are  slow,  the  pulse  full, 
the  skin  moist.  The  breathing  grows  slower  un¬ 
til  death  supervenes  from  respiratory  paraly¬ 
sis.  The  stomach  must  be  promptly  emptied 
and  tannic  acid  or  potassium  permanganate 
given  as  antidote.  Stupor  is  combated  by  ad¬ 
ministration  of  strong  coffee,  atropine,  or  strych¬ 
nine,  and  by  cold  douches,  flicking  with  wet 
towels,  electrical  stimulation,  and  later  by  forced 
artificial  respiration.  Chronic  opium  poisoning 
is  seen  in  those  habituated  to  the  drug,  both  in 
eastern  and  western  countries.  See  Morphine; 
Opium. 

Cocaine  is  extensively  used  as  a  local  anses- 


TOXICOLOGY 


TOXICOLOGY 


thetic,  and  alarming  symptoms  have  followed 
its  absorption  by  the  mucous  membrane  or  its 
hypodermic  injection.  Death  occurs  very  rapidly 
(from  40  seconds  to  four  minutes),  with  great 
depression  and  respiratory  or  cardiac  failure. 
If  the  patient  can  be  kept  alive  for  half  an 
hour,  recovery  is  almost  certain.  If  the  poison 
has  been  taken  by  the  mouth,  evacuate  the 
stomach,  and  in  any  case  fresh  air,  artificial 
respiration,  and  stimulants  are  called  for.  See 
Cocaine. 

Chloral  is  quite  often  injudiciously  used  by 
the  public  to  induce  sleep  and  quiet  the  nerves; 
it  is  also  taken  with  suicidal  intent  and  given 
by  criminals  (knock-out  drops)  to  induce  pro¬ 
longed  stupor,  often  with  fatal  results.  The 
patient  simply  passes  into  a  deep  sleep  without 
previous  excitement,  and  death  occurs  from  heart 
failure.  Treatment  is  like  that  of  opium  and 
cocaine.  See  Chloral. 

Belladonna  and  its  alkaloid  atropine  produce, 
when  taken  in  poisonous  amounts,  dilatation  of 
the  pupil,  flushing  of  the  skin,  dryness  of  the 
mouth,  delirium,  and  sometimes  convulsions. 
Recovery  is  the  rule,  but  when  death  occurs  it 
is  from  paralysis  of  the  heart.  Treatment  con¬ 
sists  in  washing  out  the  stomach,  and  opium  is 
the  physiological  antidote.  Similar  in  effects 
and  treatment  to  belladonna  are  homatropine, 
hyoscyamus  (henbane),  hyoscyamine,  hyoscine, 
stramonium,  and  dulcamara.  See  Atropine; 
Belladonna. 

Strychnine  and  nux  vomica  are  contained  in 
certain  vermin  killers  and  used  both  for  suicide 
and  murder.  In  poisonous  doses  they  act  prin¬ 
cipally  on  the  spinal  cord,  producing  cramps 
and  convulsions  like  those  of  tetanus.  Death 
or  recovery  is  usually  speedy.  The  patient  is 
to  be  put  in  a  quiet  dark  room,  and  tannic  acid 
or  charcoal  is  given,  followed  by  stomach  wash¬ 
ing.  This  must  be  done  before  spasms  set  in. 
Chloroform  and  ether  control  the  convulsions, 
and  the  bromides  and  opium  act  in  the  same 
way,  but  more  slowly.  See  Strychnine;  Tet¬ 
anus. 

Prussic  acid  and  the  various  cyanogen  com¬ 
pounds  contained  in  cyanide  of  potash,  bitter 
almonds,  peach  and  plum  pits,  are  exceedingly 
rapid  and  fatal  poisons.  When  smaller  doses 
have  been  taken  sulphate  of  iron  may  be  given 
as  an  antidote,  and  affusions  and  douches  of 
cold  water  and  a  resort  to  artificial  respiration 
are  the  most  useful  measures.  See  Hydrocyanic 
Acid. 

Among  other  substances  in  the  class  which 
are  occasionally  taken  in  poisonous  doses  are 
aconite,  cannabis  indica,  curare  ( arrow  poison ) , 
digitalis,  hemlock,  and  the  various  coal-tar  prod¬ 
ucts,  such  as  acetanilid,  phenacetine,  and  sul- 
phonal  ( qq.v. ) . 

Anaesthetics  (ether,  chloroform,  and  nitrous 
oxide)  act  as  narcotic  poisons  when  taken  in 
overdose.  The  symptoms  may  be  divided  into 
two  stages — one  of  excitement  with  rapid  pulse 
and  respiration,  struggling  and  flushed  face; 
and  one  of  depression,  in  which  the  muscles  are 
relaxed,  the  patient  is  insensible,  passes  into 
coma,  and  dies  from  cardiac  or  respiratory  fail¬ 
ure.  When  dangerous  symptoms  come  on  during 
the  administration  of  an  anaesthetic,  this  is  to 
be  stopped,  the  tongue  drawn  forward,  the  pa¬ 
tient  exposed  to  a  current  of  fresh  air,  and 
if  breathing  stops  subjected  to  artificial  respira¬ 
tion.  Hypodermic  injections  of  atropine  or 
strychnine  are  also  given.  The  inhalation  or 


drinking  of  ether  and  chloroform  is  indulged  in 
as  a  habit  by  a  few  individuals.  See  Anaes¬ 
thetic. 

Gaseous  Poisons.  The  more  common  of  these 
are  carbonic-acid  gas,  carbon  monoxide,  hydro¬ 
gen  sulphide,  sulphurous  oxide,  illuminating  gas, 
sewer  gas,  and  cesspool  emanations,  and  car¬ 
bonic-acid  gas  (choke  damp)  as  found  in  the 
air  of  mines,  cellars,  and  wells.  Miners  are 
frequently  killed  by  the  latter.  Carbon  mon¬ 
oxide  occurs  in  charcoal  fumes,  fuel  gas,  and  il¬ 
luminating  gas  and  passes  into  the  air  of  a 
room  from  defective  flues  or  pipes.  Air  con¬ 
taining  1  per  cent  of  this  gas  is  rapidly  fatal. 
When  exposure  to  this  poison  has  been  long 
and  unconsciousness  exists,  recovery  is  not  prob¬ 
able.  The  effects  of  illuminating  gas  are  similar 
to  those  of  carbonic  oxide.  Sewer  gas  is  a 
mixture  of  sulpliureted  hydrogen,  ammonium 
sulphide,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic-acid  gas.  The 
symptoms  of  the  gaseous  poisons  depend  on 
the  amount  absorbed  and  vary  from  slight  head¬ 
ache  and  dizziness  to  suffocation  and  collapse. 
The  treatment  is  to  get  the  patient  into  the 
fresh  air,  give  oxygen,  or  perform  artificial 
respiration,  use  the  pulmotor,  and  stimulate. 
See  Pulmotor. 

Animal  Poisons.  The  stings  of  insects,  the 
bites  of  scorpions,  tarantulas,  snakes,  and  rabid 
dogs  are  comprised  in  this  group.  Their  action 
is  complicated.  The  local  effects  are  irritation, 
redness,  swelling,  and  oedema,  or  even  gangrene. 
The  poison  after  entering  the  circulation  may 
disorganize  the  blood,  causing  jaundice,  haemo- 
globinuria,  hemorrhage  into  the  tissues,  and 
cyanosis.  There  are  in  addition  general  symp¬ 
toms,  such  as  vertigo,  dyspnoea,  prostration,  car¬ 
diac  paralysis,  and  finally  collapse.  Local  treat¬ 
ment  of  such  bites  consists  in  the  application 
of  a  tight  band  or  ligature  above  the  wound 
to  prevent  absorption;  the  destruction  by  the 
knife  or  cautery  of  the  area  containing  the 
poison  after  removing  as  much  as  possible  by 
suction;  and  the  administration  of  stimulants 
such  as  ammonia,  alcohol,  or  strychnine,  to  keep 
up  the  strength  until  the  poison  is  eliminated. 
A  serum  known  as  antivenene  has  been  employed 
as  treatment  in  bites  of  poisonous  snakes  with 
doubtful  results.  See  Glanders  ;  Hydrophobia  ; 
Serum  Therapy. 

The  medicolegal  duties  of  the  medical  ex¬ 
aminer  in  cases  of  fatal  poisoning,  whether  sui¬ 
cidal  or  homicidal,  are:  (1)  to  establish  the 
presence  or  absence  of  conditions  characteristic 
of  any  poison;  (2)  to  preserve  all  necessary 
material  for  subsequent  analytical  examination 
and  to  avoid  introducing  possible  causes  of 
error;  (3)  to  recognize  or  exclude  natural 
causes  of  death;  (4)  to  perform  experiments 
on  animals,  if  necessary,  in  order  to  demonstrate 
the  toxic  effect  of  the  substance  separated  by 
the  chemical;  and  (5)  to  record  carefully  all 
observations  and  state  clearly  the  conclusions 
as  to  the  cause  of  death.  Difficult  cases  con¬ 
stantly  arise  in  which  the  post-mortem  appear¬ 
ances  are  not  decisive  or  are  consistent  with 
either  disease  or  poison.  In  performing  an 
autopsy  for  medicolegal  purposes  the  identity 
of  the  body  must  first  be  established  and  the 
autopsy  should  be  done  in  the  presence  of  wit¬ 
nesses.  The  organs  and  tissues  to  be  removed 
and  preserved  for  future  analysis  are  deposited 
separately  in  clear  glass  jars,  which  are  sealed. 
The  tissues  and  organs  to  be  removed  are  the 
stomach,  and  intestines  ligated  and  unopened, 


TOXIN 


TOYNBEE 


394 


the  entire  liver,  the  blood  from  the  heart  and 
vessels,  both  kidneys,  the  urine,  the  entire  brain, 
a  large  piece  of  muscle  from  the  thigh,  and 
portions  of  the  bone  and  spleen.  Important 
information  as  to  the  time  of  absorption  is 
evidenced  by  the  distribution  of  poison  in  the 
various  tissues.  The  unabsorbed  residue  is 
found  in  the  stomach  and  intestines.  Poisons 
in  both  stomach  and  liver  indicate  a  short  in¬ 
terval  between  the  taking  and  death,  while 
poison  in  the  liver  and  other  organs,  with  none 
in  the  stomach,  indicates  a  greater  interval. 
Most  poisons  remain  in  the  liver  after  disap¬ 
pearing  from  the  stomach  and  remain  longer 
in  the  muscles  and  bones  than  in  any  other 
tissue.  Poisons  are  found  in  their  greatest 
purity  in  the  kidneys  and  urine.  Proof  of 
poisoning  has  been  established  by  chemists  by 
analysis  of  muscles  or  one  kidney,  when  all 
the  other  tissues  have  been  destroyed  by  the 
suspected  parties.  Besides  the  examination  for 
poisons  and  their  lesions,  every  organ  must 
be  examined  for  all  natural  causes  of  death, 
and  in  particular  the  causes  of  sudden  death 
should  be  rigidly  excluded.  Consult:  Witthaus 
and  Becker,  Medical  Jurisprudence,  Forensic 
Medicine,  and  Toxicology  (New  York,  1894)  ; 
J.  J.  Reese,  Medical  Jurisprudence  and  Toxicol¬ 
ogy  (8th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1911)  ;  W.  R.  Smith, 
Medical  Jurisprudence  (London,  1913)  ;  W. 
Autenrieth,  Laboratory  Manual  for  the  Detec¬ 
tion  of  Poisons  and  Powerful  Drugs  (Phila¬ 
delphia,  1915)  ;  A.  H.  Brundage,  Manual  of 
Toxicology  (8th  ed.,  New  York,  1915).  See 
Alkaloids;  Autopsy;  Death;  Medical  Juris¬ 
prudence;  Occupational  Diseases. 

TOX'IN.  Toxins  are  specific  poisonous  sub¬ 
stances  elaborated  by  the  metabolic  activities 
of  certain  microorganisms.  A  few  varieties  of 
bacteria  secrete  their  toxins  directly  into  the 
tissues  or  culture  media  in  which  they  grow 
and  are  known  as  soluble,  exogenous,  extracel¬ 
lular,  or  true  toxins.  Other  bacteria  retain 
most  of  the  poisonous  material  within  them¬ 
selves  and  hence  are  known  as  intracellular  or 
endotoxins,  these  being  liberated  only  when  the 
bacteria  become  disintegrated  by  chemical,  physi¬ 
cal,  or  mechanical  means.  Besides  bacterial 
toxins  there  are  characteristic  poisons  produced 
by  various  plants  and  animals  and  termed  re¬ 
spectively  phytotoxins  and  zootoxins.  The  more 
important  true  toxins  causing  infection  in  man 
are  those  of  diphtheria,  tetanus,  botulism,  dysen¬ 
tery,  staphylolysin,  and  other  bacterial  toxins. 
Owing  to  their  extreme  susceptibility  to  various 
chemical  and  physical  influences,  such  as  light, 
heat,  age,  etc.,  toxins  are  difficult  to  isolate 
in  their  pure  state.  Oxidizing  agents  destroy 
them,  and  our  knowledge  of  them  has  been 
gained  chiefly  through  the  lesions  and  symptoms 
which  they  produce  when  injected  into  suscepti¬ 
ble  animals.  They  are  all  poisonous,  but  in 
order  to  become  effective  must  enter  into  chemi¬ 
cal  combination  with  the  animal  cells.  They 
are,  with  the  exception  of  botulin,  destroyed 
by  the  gastrointestinal  juices.  While  their 
exact  chemical  nature  is  unknown,  it  is  the 
general  belief  that  they  are  toxalbumins  and 
closely  allied  to  proteins.  It  has  also  been 
abundantly  demonstrated  that  they  are  colloid 
in  nature  and  bear  a  close  resemblance  to 
enzymes.  They  differ  from  ptomaines  in  that 
they  are  absolutely  specific  synthetic  products, 
whereas  ptomaines  are  cleavage  products  from 
the  medium  upon  which  the  bacteria  grow. 


Toxins,  moreover,  can  give  rise  to  antibodies, 
whereas  ptomaines  cannot  produce  them.  See 
Antitoxin;  Bacteria;  Diphtheria;  Immunity; 
Serum  Therapy. 

TOXODONTIA,  tok's6-don'shi-a  (Neo-Lat. 
nom.  pi.,  from  Gk.  to£ov,  toxon,  bow  +  <35oi's, 
odous,  tooth).  An  extinct  suborder  of  ungulate 
mammals  found  fossil  in  the  Tertiary  deposits 
of  Argentina  and  Patagonia,  South  America. 
Toxodon  was  a  heavily  built  animal  as  large  as 
a  rhinoceros,  with  a  large  heavy  head  placed  on 
a  short  neck  which  sloped  down  from  the 
shoulders,  so  that  the  head  was  much  lower 
than  the  back.  The  teeth  are  large,  compressed 
laterally,  and  either  triangular  or  prismatic  in 
section,  and  they  grew  from  persistent  pulps. 
The  bones  of  the  skeleton  are  all  massive,  the 
legs  short  and  thick,  and  the  feet  are  three-toed. 
Nesodon,  an  earlier  genus  than  Toxodon,  was 
of  smaller  size  and  less  robust  build. 

TOXOPH'ILUS.  A  work  in  two  books  on 
archery  by  Roger  Ascham  ( q.v. ) ,  in  the  form  of 
conversations  between  Philologus  and  Toxoph- 
ilus  on  the  attractions  of  books  and  archery 
(q.v.). 

TOXOPHYLAX'INS.  See  Immunity. 

TOX'OSO'ZINS.  See  Immunity. 

TOY,  Crawford  Howell  (1836-  ).  An 

American  Orientalist.  He  was  born  in  Norfolk, 
Va.,  and  graduated  at  the  University  of  Virginia 
in  1856.  He  studied  at  Berlin  in  1866-68,  be¬ 
came  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  Southern  Bap¬ 
tist  Theological  Seminary  in  1869,  and  in  1880 
was  called  to  Harvard,  where  he  served  as  Han¬ 
cock  professor  of  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental 
languages  till  his  retirement  in  1909,  and  also 
as  Dexter  lecturer  on  biblical  literature  till 
1903.  In  1879  he  served  as  president  of  the 
American  Philological  Association.  His  pub¬ 
lications  include  a  translation  and  revision  of 
Erdmann’s  commentary  on  Samuel  in  Lange’s 
series  (1877)  ;  an  edition  of  Murray’s  Origin 
of  the  Psalms  (1880);  The  Religion  of  Israel 
(1882;  3d  ed.,  1884);  Quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  New  Testament  (1884); 
Judaism  and  Christianity  (1890);  the  Book  of 
Ezekiel  in  the  Polychrome  Bible  (Hebrew  text, 
1896;  English,  1898)  ;  Proverbs,  in  the  Inter¬ 
national  Critical  Commentary  (1899);  Intro¬ 
duction  to  the  History  of  Religions  (1913). 

TOYAMA,  to'ya'ma.  The  capital  of  the  Pre¬ 
fecture  of  Toyama  in  Japan,  situated  in  the 
central  part  of  Hondo,  near  the  west  coast 
(Map:  Japan,  E  5).  The  old  castle  is  used 
as  a  school.  There  are  manufactures  of  leather. 
Pop.,  1908,  57,437. 

TOYN'BEE,  Arnold  (1852-83).  A  pioneer 
of  the  Social  Settlement  movement.  He  was 
educated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  after¬ 
ward  became  a  tutor  and  iecturer  there.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  well-known  addresses 
on  political  economy,  but  is  best  known  by  his 
efforts  to  understand  the  economic  and  social 
problems  of  the  working  classes  of  Whitechapel, 
among  whom  he  made  his  home,  associating 
himself  with  the  religious  work  carried  on  there 
by  his  friend  S.  A.  Barnett.  Early  in  life 
Toynbee  had  come  under  the  influence  of  Ruskin, 
but  his  sympathy  with  the  artisan  class  found 
a  means  "of  expression  entirely  his  own.  His 
favorite  maxim,  “The  welfare  of  the  producer 
is  as  much  a  matter  of  interest  to  the  consumer 
as  the  price  of  the  product,”  voiced  the  religion 
of  the  student  of  social  conditions.  His  name 
is  associated  with  the  modern  Social  Settlement 


TOYNBEE 


TRACERY 


395 


(q.v.).  Two  years  after  his  death  in  the 
crowded  Whitechapel  district,  which  had  been 
the  scene  of  his  efforts,  Toynbee  Hall  Avas 
erected  by  the  men  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
who  had  shared  his  labors  there.  Consult  F.  C. 
Montague,  Arnold  Toynbee  (Baltimore,  1889), 
and  A.  Milner,  Arnold  Toynbee  (3d  ed.,  NeAV 
York,  1901). 

TOYNBEE,  Paget  (1855-  ).  An  Eng¬ 

lish  scholar,  especially  known  for  his  studies 
in  Dante.  A  brother  of  Arnold  Toynbee,  he  \\ras 
born  at  Wimbledon,  near  London,  attended 
Haileybury  College,  Hertfordshire,  and  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  and  was  a  private  tutor  (1878— 
92).  He  published:  Specimens  of  Old  French 
(ninth  to  fifteenth  century)  (1892);  Historical 
French  Grammar,  which  is  a  skillful  revision 
and  amplification  of  Brachet  (1896);  lticerche 
e  Note  Dantesche  (1899;  2d  series,  1904)  ;  Criti¬ 
cal  Text  of  the  “Divina  Commedia”  (1899); 
Life  of  Dante  (1900;  4th  ed.,  enlarged,  1910; 
Ital.  trans.,  1908)  ;  Dante  Studies  and  Researches 
( 1902)  ;  Dante  in  English  Literature,  from  Chau¬ 
cer  to  Cary  (2  vols.,  1909)  ;  A  Concise  Diction¬ 
ary  of  Proper  Names  and  Notable  Matters  in 
the  Works  of  Dante  (1914)  ;  The  Correspondence 
of  Gray,  Walpole,  West,  and  Ashton  (1915). 

TOYNBEE  HALL.  The  first  social  settle¬ 
ment  in  the  world,  founded  in  1884  by  Canon 
Samuel  A.  Barnett,  vicar  of  St.  Jude’s,  White¬ 
chapel,  East  London.  It  was  named  in  honor  of 
Arnold  Toynbee  ( q.v. ) ,  who  while  a  student  at 
Oxford  became  interested  in  bettering  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  poor  in  the  Whitechapel  district. 
In  1877  Canon  Barnett  formed  at  Oxford  a 
committee  to  consider  university  extension,  as 
a  result  of  which  various  lectures  were  given 
in  Whitechapel.  In  1884  the  University  Settle¬ 
ment  Association  was  formed  and  Toynbee  Hall 
AATas  opened. 

A  basic  principle  in  the  minds  of  its  founders 
was  that  constructive  action  for  the  alleviation 
of  the  condition  of  the  poor  required  that  prac¬ 
tical  experience  of  their  problems  to  be  gained 
only  by  intimate  association.  The  plan  provided 
that  young  university  men,  unencumbered  with 
family  affairs,  should  live  as  residents  at  the 
hall  and  devote  some  of  their  free  time  to  the 
problems  of  the  community.  About  the  resi¬ 
dents  was  grouped  a  body  of  “associates,”  about 
100  in  number,  who  lived  near  and  cooperated. 
Moreover  “guest  rooms”  at  the  hall  afforded 
temporary  quarters  for  graduates  and  under¬ 
graduates  who  desired  to  spend  short  periods 
there  assisting  and  learning.  Toynbee  Hall 
gradually  became  the  centre  of  educational  and 
social  endeavor  for  the  district.  Its  activities 
have  broadened  and  its  influence  deepened.  It 
has  libraries,  lecture  courses,  reading  clubs, 
technical  classes,  musical  societies,  numerous 
educational  activities,  Avorkingmen’s  clubs,  and 
is  an  active  factor  in  local  government.  Con¬ 
sult:  Philip  L.  Gell,  Account  of  the  Work  of 
Toynbee  Hall  in  East  London,  in  Johns  Hopkins 
University  Studies  (Baltimore,  1889)  ;  Canon 
S.  A.  Barnett  and  Mrs.  S.  A.  Barnett,  Prac¬ 
ticable  Social  ism  (London,  1915). 

TOYOHASHI,  to'yO-ha'she.  A  toAArn  in  the 
Prefecture  of  Aichi,  central  Hondo,  Japan,  45 
miles  bv  rail  southeast  of  Nagova  (Map:  Japan, 
E  6).  'Pop.,  1898,  21,785;  1908,  43,980. 

TO'ZER,  Henry  Fansiiaave  (1829-1916). 
An  English  Avriter,  teacher,  and  traATeler.  Af¬ 
ter  graduating  from  Exeter  College,  Oxford, 
in  1850,  he  Avas  tutor  there  from  1855  to  1893 
Vol.  XXII.— 26 


and  AA7as  also  curator  of  the  Taylor  Institution 
(Oxford)  from  1869  to  1893.  He  traA7eled  much 
in  Greece  and  in  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey, 
and,  besides  editing  various  Avorks,  published: 
The  Highlands  of  Turkey  (2  vols.,  1869)  ;  Lec¬ 
tures  on  the  Geography  of  Greece  (1873); 
Primer  of  Classical  Geography  (1877)  ;  Turkish 
Armenia  and  Eastern  Asia  Minor  (1881);  The 
Church  and  the  Eastern  Empire  (1888)  ;  The 
Islands  of  the  JEgean  (1890)  ;  History  of  An¬ 
cient  Geography  (1897);  An  English  Com¬ 
mentary  on  Dante’s  Divina  Commedia  (1901), 
and  a  translation  of  the  Divina  Commedia 
(1904). 

TRABERT,  tra'bert,  Wilhelm  (1863-1921  ). 
An  Austrian  meteorologist,  born  in  Franken- 
berg,  Hesse.  He  took  his  Ph.D.  in  18S8  at 
Vienna  University,  where  he  became  associate 
professor  in  1901.  The  next  year  he  \\ras  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  chair  of  cosmical  physics  at  Inns¬ 
bruck  and  later  to  the  directorship  of  the  Central 
Bureau  of  Meteorology  at  Vienna.  He  became 
a  member  of  the(  International  Polar  Commis¬ 
sion.  Trabert  published:  Meteorologie  (1896; 
2d  ed.,  1901);  Meteorologie  und  Klimatologie 
(1905);  Lehrbuch  der  Kosmischen  Physik 
(1911). 

TRA'CERY  (from  trace,  OF.  tracer,  trassei', 
Fr.  tracer,  to  trace,  track,  delineate,  from  ML. 
*tractiare,  frequentative  of  Lat.  trahere,  to  draAV, 
drag).  The  decorative  subdivision  of  a  AvindoAv, 
arch,  or  other  opening  into  smaller  parts  by 
means  of  mullions,  cusps,  and  foils,  perforated 
stonevmrk,  etc. ;  but  the  term  is  not  applied  to 
such  perforated  slabs  as  fill  many  Oriental  and 
some  Romanesque  Avindows.  Tracery  was  de¬ 
veloped  during  the  Gothic  period  chiefly  in 
France  and  England  from  its  germ  in  tAvo  open¬ 
ings  grouped  under  an  arch  with  a  decorative 
opening  pierced  in  the  spandrel  above  them. 
This  early  phase,  called  plate  tracery,  is  seen 
in  the  early  rose  windows  of  Chartres  (1170) 
and  in  English  churches  of  the  twelfth  century. 
The  openings  were  multiplied  and  in  later  ex¬ 
amples  replaced  by  slender  mullions,  arches, 
circles,  cusps,  and  foils  of  stone  (bar  tracery). 
The  general  frame  of  each  window  inclosed  sev¬ 
eral  separate  lights,  and  above  and  betAveen  their 
arched  summits  were  minor  foiled  openings. 
These  became  more  elaborate  in  the  succeeding 
centuries,  seeking  ever  more  complex  geometric 
combinations  of  lines.  The  rose  or  wheel  Avin- 
doAvs,  such  as  those  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris, 
and  the  clerestory  and  chapel  AvindoAvs  of  the 
cathedrals  of  Rheims  and  Amiens,  illustrate  the 
various  stages  of  this  development.  This  tracery 
spread  gradually  from  the  windoAvs  until  it 
overran  almost  every  part  of  the  church  Avith 
its  delicate  lace  patterns,  sometimes  on  a  solid 
ground  (Avail  tracery),  sometimes  pierced.  The 
period  of  a  Gothic  structure  can  generally  be 
judged  Avith  tolerable  accuracy  by  the  style  of 
its  tracery.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in 
England,  Avhere  tAvo  of  the  three  main  di\risions 
of  the  Gothic  movement,  the  Decorated  and  the 
Perpendicular,  are  so  called  on  account  of  their 
distinctive  styles  of  tracery.  During  the  Deco¬ 
rated  fq.v.)  period  the  tracery,  at  first  composed 
of  simple  arches,  circles,  and  cusps  (geometric), 
later  assumed  freer  curved  lines  (curvilinear 
or  floAving).  About  1375  there  is  an  almost 
abrupt  transition  to  the  Perpendicular  (q.v.) 
tracery,  in  Avhieh  vertical  mullions  dominate  the 
design.  The  English  tracery,  especially  in  the 
vast  east  and  west  AvindoAvs,  is  on  the  Avhole 


TRACHEA 


TRACT  SOCIETIES 


396 


richer  and  more  varied  than  the  French.  The 
finest  French  examples  are  the  great  rose  win¬ 
dows  of  the  west  fronts  and  especially  the 
transepts  of  the  great  cathedrals  (whence  the 
term  Rayonnant).  The  Flamboyant  (q.v.) 
style  in  France,  contemporary  with  the  English 
Perpendicular,  had  tracery  of  a  very  different 
description,  composed  of  swaying  and  flowing 
lines,  an  elaboration  of  the  English  curvilinear 
type.  German  tracery  followed  in  the  main, 
but  with  variations,  the  French  types  (e.g., 
Strassburg,  Freiburg).  With  a  few  exceptions 
Italian  tracery  is  negligible,  as  large  windows 
were  not  in  favor.  See  Gothic  Art;  Window. 

TRACHEA,  tra'ke-a  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat. 

trachia,  from  Gk.  rpaxeia,  tracheia,  trachea, 

windpipe,  rough  artery,  so  called  because  of  the 

rings  of  gristle,  from  rpa%es,  trachys,  rough ) , 

or  Windpipe.  The  tube  through  which  air- 

breathing  vertebrates  receive  air  into  the  lungs. 

It  extends  from  the  throat  to  the  bifurcation 

of  the  bronchi.  It  is  sufficientlv  described  under 

*/ 

Respiration.  Tracheotomy  (q.v.),  or  the  more 
modern  practice  of  bronchoscopy,  is  necessary 
for  the  removal  of  foreign  bodies  lodged  in  the 
trachea  and  bronchi.  The  trachea  shares  cer¬ 
tain  inflammations  and  morbid  processes  in  com¬ 
mon  with  the  larynx  and  the  bronchi.  For  figure 
of  trachea,  see  Bronchus. 

TRACHEYE.  The  characteristic  elements  of 
woody  tissue.  See  Tracheid. 

TRACHEID,  tra'ke-id.  A  cell  of  the  woody 
tissue  in  which  the  wall  is  thickened  (lignified), 
but  with  thin  areas  of  various  forms  left,  result¬ 
ing  in  different  patterns  of  wall  sculpture. 
Tracheids  are  single  cells  as  distinguished  from 
tracheae  (q.v.),  which  are  cell  fusions.  Tra¬ 
cheids  are  characteristic  of  the  secondary  wood 
of  gymnosperms,  while  tracheae  make  up  the 
wood  of  angiosperms.  See  Histology. 

TRA'CHEOT'OMY  (from  Gk.  rpaXeia,  tra¬ 
cheia,  trachea,  windpipe,  rough  artery  +  ropn 7, 
tome,  a  cutting,  from  reyveiv,  temnein,  to  cut) 
and  Laryngotomy  (from  Gk.  \apvy£,  larynx, 
larynx  +  Toyy,  tome,  a  cutting).  Opening  the 
trachea  by  incision  in  order  to  admit  the  en¬ 
trance  of  air  when  suffocation  is  threatened. 

Among  the  conditions 
which  demand  trache¬ 
otomy  are  foreign 
bodies  in  the  air 
passages,  cut  throat, 
diphtheria,  oedema  of 
the  glottis,  and  tu¬ 
mors  either  within 
the  larynx  or  press¬ 
ing  upon  the  air  pas¬ 
sages  from  without 
( as  a  goitre ) .  The 
air  passages  may  be 
opened  in  three  differ¬ 
ent  situations,  viz., 
through  the  crico¬ 
thyroid  membrane 
( see  Larynx  ) ,  when 
the  operation  is 
termed  laryngotomy ; 
through  the  cricoid 
cartilage  and  the  up- 
instruments  for  intubation,  per  rings  of  the 

trachea,  the  operation 
being  known  as  laryngotracheotomv ;  and 

through  the  trachea,  below  the  isthmus  of  the 
thyroid  gland,  constituting  tracheotomy  proper. 

The  incision  is  made  in  the  middle  line  of  the 


neck,  longitudinally,  the  blood  vessels  being 
pushed  aside  as  much  as  possible  with  the  handle 
of  the  knife.  When  the  trachea  is  exposed  and 
is  cut  through,  the  wound  is  held  apart  with 
tenacula  that  the  tube  may  be  inserted.  When 
the  operation  is  completed  a  large  curved  tube 
to  breathe  through  is  inserted  in  the  aperture 
and  secured  round  the  neck  with  tapes. 

A  double  tube  or  cannula  possesses  many  ad¬ 
vantages,  as  by  withdrawing  the  inner  one, 
which  should  slightly  project  at  its  lower  ex¬ 
tremity,  it  may  be  cleared  of  any  mucus  or  blood 
that  may  have  accumulated  in  it,  without  dis¬ 
turbing  the  wound.  The  calibre  of  the  inner  tube 
should  always  be  sufficiently  large  to  admit  as 
much  air  as  usually  passes  through  the  chink 
of  the  healthy  glottis.  Up  to  the  time  of 
O’Dwyer  (q.v.)  the  operation  of  tracheotomy 
was  frequently  and  successfully  performed.  In 
1885  Dr.  Joseph  O’Dwyer,  of  New  York,  devised 
instruments  wherewith  intubation  of  the  larynx 
was  performed  as  a  substitute  for  tracheotomy, 
especially  in  laryngeal  diphtheria.  Intubation 
consists  in  placing  a  short  tube  in  position  in  the 
larynx,  between  the  vocal  cords,  its  lower  end 
reaching  a  point  as  low  as  an  incision  would 
be  made  if  the  air  passages  were  opened  and 
thus  admitting  air  from  the  throat.  The  re¬ 
coveries  from  diphtheria  in  cases  in  which  in¬ 
tubation  is  practical  average  over  50  per  cent. 
The  necessity  for  tracheotomy  has  further  been 
reduced  by  the  introduction  of  electrically  lighted 
tubes  (laryngoscopes,  bronchoscopes),  through 
which  polypoid  or  fungous  growths  in  the  larynx 
and  foreign  bodies  in  even  the  smaller  bronchial 
tubes  can  be  seen  and  removed  with  special 
forceps. 

TRACHXNIiE,  tra-kin'i-e  (Lat.  nom.  pi., 
from  Gk.  T paxiviai,  women  of  Trachis).  A 
tragedy  by  Sophocles  describing  the  death  of 
Hercules,  caused  by  the  poisoned  coat  of  Nessus, 
sent  to  him  by  Deianira  in  jealousy  of  the  cap¬ 
tured  Iole.  The  play  takes  its  name  from  the 
chorus  composed  of  women  of  Trachis,  where 
Deianira  is  awaiting  the  return  of  her  husband. 

TRACHOMA,  tra-ko'ma.  A  disease  of  the 
conjunctiva.  See  Conjunctivitis,  Ora/nular 
Conjunctivitis. 

TRACHYTE,  triEkit  or  trak'it  (from  Gk. 
Tpaxvrys,  trachytes,  roughness,  from  rpax'-’s, 
trachys,  rough).  The  name  given  to  certain 
volcanic  rocks  which  are  composed  essentially 
of  alkali  feldspar,  having  no  quartz,  but  a  small 
proportion  of  either  biotite,  hornblende,  or 
augite.  It  agrees  thus  with  syenite  in  mineral 
constitution,  although  it  differs  from  the  latter 
in  its  finer  texture,  indicative  of  rapid  cooling 
at  or  near  the  surface.  The  presence  of  small 
cavities  often  gives  the  rock  a  rough  feel;  hence 
the  name. 

TRACK,  Railway.  See  Railways. 

TRACK  ATHLETICS.  See  Field  Sports. 

TRACKER  ACTION.  See  Organ. 

TRACT.  See  Gradual. 

TRACTA'RIANS.  A  popular  name  given, 
in  the  early  days  of  the  Oxford  movement  (q.v.), 
to  the  party  led  by  Newman,  Pusey,  and  Keble, 
from  the  Tracts  for  the  Times,  written  by  these 
and  other  members  of  the  party. 

TRACTION  ENGINE.  See  Automobile. 

TRACT  SOCIETIES  (Lat.  tractus,  treat¬ 
ment,  discussion,  handling,  drawing,  from  tra- 
here,  to  draw,  drag) .  The  word  “tract”  signifies 
a  brief  treatise.  In  the  modern  use  of  the  term 
it  is  applied  almost  exclusively  to  treatises  upon 


TRACT  SOCIETIES 


TRACT  SOCIETIES 


397 


religious  subjects,  and  a  tract  is  distinguished 
from  a  book  mainly  by  its  external  (pamphlet) 
form  and  its  brevity.  The  earliest  illustration 
of  a  tract  is  found  in  the  separate  books  of  the 
Bible,  each  one  of  which,  as  originally  circulated 
in  manuscript  form  from  hand  to  hand,  may  be 
considered  a  tract.  Apart  from  this,  however, 
we  may  consider  Wiclif,  the  great  English  re¬ 
former,  as  the  first  to  begin  the  work  of  writing 
and  distributing  tracts,  which,  though  laboriously 
produced  by  hand,  yet  obtained  a  large  circula¬ 
tion.  With  the  invention  of  printing  the  possi¬ 
bilities  for  the  development  of  tract  literature 
were  wonderfully  enlarged,  and  the  religious 
movement  which  culminated  in  the  Reformation 
may  be  said  to  mark  the  commencement  of  the 
general  dissemination  of  Christian  literature  in 
tract  form. 

The  availability  of  tracts  as  a  means  for  prop¬ 
agating  Christian  knowledge  led  to  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  societies  for  that  express  purpose.  An 
early  pioneer  among  tract  societies  for  English- 
speaking  peoples  was  the  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge,  which  was  organized  in 
England  in  1698  and  incorporated  in  1701  to  cir¬ 
culate  Bibles  and  religious  tracts  both  at  home 
and  abroad.  The  publication  of  tracts,  begun 
by  John  Wesley  in  1742,  was  soon  carried  for¬ 
ward  upon  a  large  scale,  and  in  1728  he  organized 
the  Society  for  the  Distribution  of  Tracts  among 
the  Poor.  The  first  interdenominational  union  of 
Christian  effort  for  the  circulation  of  tract 
literature  was  effected  in  1750,  in  the  city  of 
London,  by  the  formation  of  the  Society  for 
Promoting  Religious  Knowledge  among  the  Poor. 
This  was  followed  by  the  organization  of  simi¬ 
lar  societies  in  other  cities,  and,  though  none 
of  these  maintained  a  permanent  existence,  they 
must  be  regarded  as  forerunners  of  the  great 
tract  societies  of  modern  times.  In  the  closing 
decade  of  the  eighteenth  century,  at  Bath,  Eng¬ 
land,  Hannah  More  (q.v. )  initiated  a  move¬ 
ment  for  the  better  circulation  of  Christian  liter¬ 
ature  by  putting  forth  a  series  of  short  religious 
tales  in  tract  form,  named  the  Cheap  Repository. 
In  1795  the  Religious  Tract  Society  of  Scotland 
(now  known  as  the  Religious  Tract  and  Book 
Society)  was  founded  in  Edinburgh,  by  Rev. 
John  Campbell.  This  was  followed,  in  1799,  by 
the  organization  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society  of 
London,  which  stands  foremost  in  age  and  influ¬ 
ence  among  tract  societies  of  the  present  day. 

In  America  the  work  of  religious  publication 
was  begun  by  the  Methodist  Book  Concern,  which 
issued  its  first  publication  in  1789.  The  Massa¬ 
chusetts  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowl¬ 
edge,  founded  in  1803,  may  be  properly  regarded 
as  the  first  interdenominational  organization  for 
tract  work  in  America.  This  was  followed  by 
the  formation  of  various  local  societies,  among 
which  were  the  New  York  Religious  Tract  So¬ 
ciety,  organized  in  1812,  and  the  New  England 
Tract  Society,  organized  at  Andover  in  1814. 
The  latter  society  in  1823  changed  its  headquar¬ 
ters  to  Boston  and  its  name  to  the  American 
Tract  Society,  and  two  years  later  became  merged 
in  the  American  Tract  Society,  which  was  or¬ 
ganized  in  New  York  City,  on  May  11,  1825,  by 
friends  of  tract  work,  who  desired  to  see  a  so¬ 
ciety  of  national  scope  and  influence.  Since 
that  time  tract  societies  have  multiplied,  but 
the  American  Tract  Society  still  remains  the 
principal  agency  for  tract  distribution  in 
America. 

A  board  of  managers,  consisting  of  a  presi¬ 


dent,  vice  president,  and  36  members,  are  elected 
annually  by  this  society.  This  board  elects  the 
publishing,  distributing,  and  finance  committees. 
The  members  of  these  three  committees  consti¬ 
tute  an  executive  committee  to  conduct  the 
business  of  the  society.  To  promote  in  the 
highest  degree  the  objects  of  the  society,  the  con¬ 
stitution  specifies  that  the  officers  and  managers 
shall  be  elected  from  different  denominations  of 
Christians,  that  the  publishing  committee  shall 
contain  no  two  members  from  the  same  ecclesi¬ 
astical  connection,  and  that  no  tract  shall  be 
published  to  which  any  member  of  that  com¬ 
mittee  shall  object.  • 

Some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  work  of 
this  society  may  be  gained  from  the  following 
statistics.  The  whole  number  of  titles  of  dis¬ 
tinct  publications  (not  including  periodicals) 
issued  by  the  society  from  the  home  office  from 
1825  to  1916  was  9117.  These  have  been  pub¬ 
lished  in  more  than  a  score  of  different  lan¬ 
guages.  The  total  number  of  volumes  issued 
during  the  previous  90  years  is  35,018,140;  of 
tracts,  460,663,742;  and  of  periodicals,  295,- 
460,168,  making  a  grand  total  of  791,142,050 
copies  of  publications  printed.  Four  periodicals 
are  published:  American  Messenger,  Apples  of 
Gold,  Amerikaniseher  Botschafter  und  Deutscher 
Vollcsfreund,  and  Manzanas  de  Oro.  The  so¬ 
ciety  has  made  foreign  cash  appropriations 
amounting  to  $796,137,  by  the  aid  of  which 
5667  publications  have  been  issued  in  178  lan¬ 
guages  and  dialects.  It  has  also  furnished 
electrotypes  to  foreign-mission  stations  to  the 
value  of  $61,177.96. 

Missionary  colportage  is  an  important  feature 
of  the  society’s  work.  Since  its  organization 
the  missionary  colporteurs  of  the  society  have 
circulated  by  sale  and  grant  17,326,937  volumes; 
they  have  made  18,406,676  family  visits,  and 
they  have  addressed  585,948  religious  meetings. 
The  total  value  of  the  Christian  literature  cir¬ 
culated  gratuitously  by  the  society  since  its 
formation  amounts  to  $2,617,820.90. 

During  the  116  years  of  its  existence  the 
Religious  Tract  Society  of  London,  England, 
has  printed  or  assisted  the  printing  of  books  and 
tracts  in  282  languages,  dialects,  and  characters; 
its  annual  circulation  is  over  65,000,000,  and  its 
total  distribution  to  March,  1916,  is  estimated  at 
over  540,000,000  copies  of  its  publications. 

In  New  York  and  manv  other  cities  there 

«/ 

are  city-mission  and  tract  societies  which  find 
the  printed  page  a  valuable  auxiliary  in  reaching 
the  “submerged  tenth.”  Many  of  the  evangeli¬ 
cal  denominations  have  their  own  boards  of 
publication  or  publishing  societies,  which  employ 
tract  literature,  especially  in  aid  of  their  Sun¬ 
day-school  work.  In  Great  Britain,  in  addition 
to  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  there  are  several 
other  tract  societies,  such  as  the  Monthly  Tract 
Society  and  the  Stirling  Tract  Enterprise.  On 
the  continent  of  Europe  there  are  perhaps  a 
score  of  societies  which  are  engaged  more  or  less 
in  the  publication  and  circulation  of  tract  liter¬ 
ature.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  are 
the  Paris  Tract  Society  (Societe  des  Traites  Re- 
ligieux),  the  Toulouse  Religious  Book  and  Tract 
Society,  the  Geneva  Evangelical  Society,  the 
Italian  Evangelical  Publication  Society  of  Flor¬ 
ence,  and  the  German  Evangelical  Book  and  Tract 
Society.  In  India,  China,  Japan,  and  other 
heathen  lands  there  are  a  large  number  of 
tract  societies  which  aim  to  provide  Christian 
literature  in  the  native  languages. 


TRACY 


TRADE  ASSOCIATIONS 


398 


Bibliography.  The  literature  on  the  subject 
of  tract  societies  consists  chiefly  of  the  annual 
reports,  pamphlets,  etc.,  published  by  the  vari¬ 
ous  societies  themselves.  The  Story  of  the  Re¬ 
ligious  Tract  Society  for  One  Hundred  Years,  by 
Rev.  S.  G.  Green,  D.D.  (London,  1899),  was  pre¬ 
pared  by  an  editorial  secretary  of  the  Religious 
Tract  Society  of  London  and  is  an  authoritative 
history  of  that  society.  The  American  Tract 
Society:  An  Historical  Sketch  (New  York, 
1915),  though  but  a  brief  pamphlet,  presents  the 
salient  points  concerning  the  history  of  the 
American  Tract  Society. 

TRACY,  tra'se',  Auexandre  de  Prouville, 
Marquis  de  (1603-70).  A  French  soldier  and 
administrator.  After  serving  in  several  wars 
he  wras  appointed  lieutenant  general  of  the 
French  possessions  in  North  America  on  Nov. 
19,  1663,  and  reached  Quebec,  June  30,  1665, 
accompanied  by  many  young  nobles  and  200 
soldiers.  In  1666  with  1300  men  he  led  an  ex¬ 
pedition  against  the  Mohawks,  burned  several  of 
their  towns,  and  forced  them  to  sue  for  peace. 
This  expedition  greatly  alarmed  Gov.  Richard 
Nicolls  (q.v.),  of  New  York,  who  attempted  in 
vain  to  secure  the  aid  of  the  New  England 
Colonies  for  an  expedition  against  the  French. 
Soon  after  this  expedition  Tracy  returned  to 
France. 

TRACY,  Antoine  Louis  Claude  Destutt, 
Count  de.  A  French  philosopher.  See  Destutt 
de  Tracy. 

TRACY,  Benjamin  Franklin  (1830-1915). 
An  American  lawyer,  soldier,  and  cabinet  offi¬ 
cer,  born  at  Owego,  N.  Y.  He  was  educated  at 
Owego  Academy  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1851.  In  1853  he  was  elected  on  the  Whig 
ticket  as  district  attorney  of  Tioga  County 
and  in  1856  was  reelected.  Prior  to  this  he 
took  an  active  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
Republican  party  in  his  State.  In  1861  he  was 
elected  to  the  State  Assembly.  In  1862  he  re¬ 
cruited  the  109th  and  137th  New  York  V  olun¬ 
teers  and  became  colonel  of  the  former.  For  his 
gallantry  in  the  battle  of  the  Wilderness  he  re¬ 
ceived  the  congressional  medal  of  honor  in  1895. 
Wounded  in  this  battle,  he  was  compelled  to  re¬ 
linquish  his  command,  but  within  a  year  he 
again  entered  the  army  as  colonel  of  the  127th 
United  States  Regiment  of  negro  troops.  Subse¬ 
quently  he  commanded  the  prison  camp  at  Elmira 
and  at  the  close  of  hostilities  was  brevetted 
brigadier  general  of  volunteers.  From  1866  to 
1873  he  was  United  States  District  Attorney 
for  the  Eastern  District  of  New  York  and  from 
1881  to  1883  was  associate  judge  of  the  State 
Court  of  Appeals.  As  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in 
President  Harrison’s  cabinet  (1889-93)  he  did 
such  important  work  in  increasing  the  number 
of  battleships  and  raising  the  standards  of  the 
service  to  a  high  level  that  he  has  been  called 
the  “father  of  the  navy.”  In  1893  he  resumed 
his  law  practice  in  New  York  and  in  1897  was 
the  unsuccessful  Republican  candidate  for  mayor 
of  New  York  City.  In  1899  he  was  counsel  for 
Venezuela  before  the  Anglo- Venezuelan  Boundary 
Arbitration  Commission.  For  many  years  he 
was  head  of  the  law  firm  of  Tracy,  Boardman, 
and  Platt;  this  he  left  in  1900  to  associate  him¬ 
self  with  Coudert  Brothers.  At  the  age  of  83 
he  argued  a  case  before  the  United  States  Su¬ 
preme  Court. 

TRADE,  Balance  of.  See  Balance  of 

Trade. 

TRADE,  Board  of.  A  department  of  govern¬ 


ment  in  England  designated  “the  lords  of  the 
committee  of  his  Majesty’s  Privy  Council  ap¬ 
pointed  for  the  consideration  of  all  matters  re¬ 
lating  to  trade  and  foreign  plantations.”  Crom¬ 
well  in  1655  was  the  first  to  establish  a  perma¬ 
nent  committee  for  matters  of  trade.  Charles  II 
continued  the  policy  and  in  1660  created  two 
separate  councils  for  trade  and  for  foreign  plan¬ 
tations,  which  in  1672  were  consolidated  into  one. 
In  1786  the  present  department  was  established 
as  a  permanent  committee  of  the  Privy  Council. 
The  board  as  now  constituted  consists  of  the 
President,  who  is  a  member  of  the  cabinet,  to¬ 
gether  with  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  numerous  other 
ex-officio  members ;  but,  like  the  Treasury  Board, 
the  Board  of  Trade  does  not  meet  and  consists  in 
practice  of  the  President  and  his  staff.  It  com¬ 
prises  the  following  departments :  ( 1 )  The  com¬ 
mercial,  labor,  and  statistical  department,  whose 
principal  function  is  the  collection  and  dissemi¬ 
nation  of  information  concerning  matters  of 
trade.  Since  1886  it  has  published  the  Board  of 
Trade  Journal.  (2)  The  railway  department, 
established  in  1840,  with  numerous  duties  of 
supervision  and  inspection.  (3)  The  marine  de¬ 
partment,  established  in  1850,  which  has  general 
supervision  over  merchant  shipping  and  the  care 
of  seamen.  (4)  The  harbor  department,  whose 
province  includes,  besides  lighthouses,  harbors, 
etc.,  weights  and  measures,  coinage,  and  other 
miscellaneous  matters.  (5)  The  finance  depart¬ 
ment,  which  keeps  the  accounts  for  the  board 
and  audits  for  Parliament  the  reports  of  the  life- 
insurance  companies.  (6)  The  fisheries  depart¬ 
ment. 

TRADE,  Restraint  of.  See  Restraint  of 
Trade. 

TRADE  ASSOCIATIONS.  Associations  of 
men  engaged  in  manufacture  or  trade,  for  the 
furtherance  or  protection  of  their  mutual  in¬ 
terests.  In  England  these  associations  antedate 
the  nineteenth  century.  In  the  United  States 
some  were  founded  before  1850;  by  1890  they  had 
been  formed  in  most  well-established  industries ; 
while  by  1900  they  had  spread  to  almost  every 
subdivision  of  the  industrial  world.  Trade  as¬ 
sociation  may  include  one  or  more  of  three 
classes  of  functions — the  commercial,  the  indus¬ 
trial,  and  the  protective.  Associations  to  do  the 
work  of  business  agencies  display  most  clearly 
the  commercial  function.  The  London  Associa¬ 
tion  of  Guardians  for  the  Protection  of  rI  rade 
was  established  as  far  back  as  1776.  The  opera¬ 
tion  of  the  earlier  societies  was  confined  chiefly 
to  compilations  of  registers  of  bankruptcies,  in¬ 
solvencies,  and  private  settlements  with  cred¬ 
itors.  Societies  may  undertake  investigations 
into  the  circumstances  connected  with  a  bank¬ 
ruptcy  and  perform  the  general  agency  business 
of  their  members.  Later  features  are  in  con¬ 
nection  with  credit.  Large  commercial  concerns 
furnish  general  information,  but  there  is  still 
room  for  information  bureaus  within  some 
trades.  Many  establishments  have  special  credit 
men,  who  have  formed  a  national  association, 
with  branches  in  many  chief  cities  of  the 
United  States. 

The  general  industrial  functions  of  trade  asso¬ 
ciations  include,  first,  the  surveillance  of  impor¬ 
tant  influences,  such  as  legislation  or  railway 
rates,  which  affect  the  entire  trade.  With  many 
associations  the  tariff  question  is  a  weighty  and 
permanent  issue,  while  laws  affecting  labor,  the 
quality,  the  method  of  sale,  or  the  inspection  of 


399 


TRADE  ASSOCIATIONS 


TRADE-MARK 


goods  (as  in  brewing  or  boiler  making),  are 
constantly  watched,  advocated,  or  contested.  In 
the  second  place,  associations  may  seek  to  es¬ 
tablish  agreement  in  business  methods  to  keep 
their  members  informed  of  new  inventions  or 
processes,  of  market  conditions,  etc.  A  result 
of  this  activity  is  the  publication  of  a  trade 
journal,  of  which  the  Bulletin  of  the  Natio7uil 
Association  of  11  ool  Manufacturers  (formed  in 
1864)  is  a  well-known  example.  Various  special 
functions  are  often  assumed.  Provision  may  be 
made  for  exhibits  at  fairs,  trade  schools  may 
be  encouraged,  selling  agencies  established,  bu¬ 
reaus  of  employment  maintained,  local  improve¬ 
ments  furthered,  or,  as  in  the  lumber  business, 
a  system  of  mutual  insurance  may  be  attempted. 
An  important  function  is  the  promotion  of  so¬ 
ciability  and  good  will.  It  is  not  always  easy 
to  draw  a  line  between  the  acts  of  a  trade  asso¬ 
ciation  and  those  of  a  trade  combination  in 
which  the  financial  management  has  been  cen¬ 
tralized.  At  present  the  typical  forms  of  pro¬ 
tection  are:  (1)  against  introduction  of  so- 
called  unfair  methods  within  the  trade,  (2) 
against  railroad  discrimination  in  rates,  and 
(3)  against  labor  organizations.  Jobbers’  and 
retailers’  associations  protest  against  sales  di¬ 
rect  from  manufacturer  to  consumer  and  some¬ 
times  establish  a  boycott  against  recalcitrant 
manufacturers.  The  decreasing  importance  of 
the  jobber  in  the  distributive  system  makes  the 
efforts  of  their  associations  of  interest.  “Ex¬ 
clusive  agreements”  may  be  made  by  a  middle¬ 
men’s  association  with  certain  manufacturers,  in 
which  case  no  other  but  the  latter’s  goods  will  be 
used.  The  object  of  certain  associations  is  “to 
help  the  manufacturer  decide  who  are  legitimate 
dealers.” 

In  trades  where  freight  forms  an  important 
item  of  cost,  a  prime  object  of  the  association 
is  likely  to  be  adjustment  of  railroad  rates. 
The  National  Association  of  Stove  Manufactur¬ 
ers  and  the  National  Transportation  Association, 
an  organization  of  shippers,  are  examples.  In 
1903  the  Georgia  Sawmill  Association  took  the 
radical  move  of  disregarding  the  possibility  of  an 
appeal  to  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis¬ 
sion  and  themselves  asked  for  an  injunction  re¬ 
straining  certain  Southern  railroads  from  ad¬ 
vancing  rates  on  yellow  pine.  They  asked  that 
the  Southern  Freight  Association  be  declared  an 
illegal  combination  in  restraint  of  trade.  In¬ 
creased  demands  of  labor  organizations  in  recent 
years  have  greatly  stimulated  defensive  action 
by  trade  associations. 

In  the  period  1906-16  there  was  a  rapid 
growth  of  trade  associations  formed  to  deal  with 
powerful  and  well-organized  labor  unions.  Some 
are  openly  hostile  to  and  oppose  collective  bar¬ 
gaining,  some  are  willing  to  cooperate  with  the 
unions.  The  latter  associations  conclude  agree¬ 
ments  on  wage  scales  and  on  conditions  of  labor 
with  representatives  of  unions  or  federated 
unions  in  a  particular  industry.  The  control 
of  the  association  over  the  individual  member  is 
relatively  weak.  Employers’  associations  have 
sometimes  been  started  to  cooperate  with  the 
union,  but,  failing  to  reach  an  agreement,  have 
become  bitterly  opposed  to  the  aims  and  methods 
of  unionism,  the  National  Erectors’  Association 
is  a  case  in  point:  organized  in  1903,  it  treated 
with  the  unions,  and,  being  unable  to  reach  an 
agreement  satisfactory  to  both  sides,  finally  re¬ 
fused  to  treat  further.  A  bitter  struggle  ensued, 
characterized  by  strikes  and  dynamite  outrages. 


Many  of  the  associations  insist  on  the  right  of 
the  employer  to  determine  whom  he  shall  em¬ 
ploy  and  what  the  conditions  of  labor  shall  be. 
Frequently  special  employment)  agencies  are  main¬ 
tained  by  the  association  to  enable  members  to 
secure  an  adequate  supply  of  nonunion  labor. 
Some  have  been  active  in  improving  the  condi¬ 
tions  of  labor,  introducing  safety  systems,  and 
promoting  welfare  work. 

In  the  United  Kingdom  in  1912  there  were 
1079  local  employers’  associations  and  83  fed¬ 
erations  and  national  associations  of  employers, 
these  figures  do  not  include  those  formed  merely 
for  purposes  of  trade  protection,  insurance,  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge,  or  the  advancement  of 
technical  knowledge.  In  recent  years  many  as¬ 
sociations  of  employers  have  been  organized  in 
Germany.  The  Federation  of  German  Employ¬ 
ers’  Associations,  one  of  several  such  organiza¬ 
tions,  had  in  1907  a  membership  of  300  associa¬ 
tions,  with  a  total  of  over  1,200,000  men  in  the 
employ  of  their  members.  In  Germany  in  1913 
there  were  111  federations  or  national  associa¬ 
tions  and  3320  local  or  district  organizations, 
comprising  as  far  as  reported  a  membership  of 
145,207  employers,  who  employed  4,641,000  work¬ 
men.  Most  of  these  associations  were  principally 
concerned  with  the  relations  between  their  mem¬ 
bers  and  workmen.  There  are  no  satisfactory 
statistics  of  employers’  associations  in  the 
L  nited  States.  Consult:  Hollander  and  Barnett, 
Studies  in  American  Trade  Unionism  (New 
York,  1906)  ;  G.  Kessler,  “Die  deutschen  Arbeit- 
geberverbande,”  in  Schriften  des  Vereins  fur 
Sozialpolitik,  vol.  cxxiv  (Leipzig,  1907)  ;  Com¬ 
mission  on  Industrial  Relations,  Final  Report 
(Washington,  1915). 

TRADE-MARK.  A  mark,  name,  emblem,  or 
device  adopted  by  a  tradesman  or  manufacturer 
and  attached  to  or  stamped  upon  his  goods  in 
some  manner  for  the  purposes  of  identification 
by  the  public  and  protection  against  the  sale 
of  fraudulent  imitations.  The  law  of  trade¬ 
marks  is  of  modern  development.  In  1742  Lord 
Hardwick  declared  that  he  could  not  protect  a 
trade-mark  adopted  by  a  trader  from  being  used 
by  another.  It  was  not  until  1803  that  the  Eng¬ 
lish  courts  attempted  to  prevent  the  fraudulent 
use  of  an  adopted  trade-mark.  Since  that  time 
the  law  on  the  subject  has  developed  rapidly. 
The  statute  now  in  force  in  England  is  known 
as  the  Trade  Marks  Act,  1905.  It  provides  for 
registration  and  makes  the  registry  conclusive 
after  seven  years,  unless  the  registration  was 
fraudulent  or  contrary  to  morality. 

The  first  trade-mark  statute  in  the  United 
States  was  passed  in  1870.  The  salient  features 
of  the  present  law  were  enacted  in  1905,  although 
slight  amendments  were  passed  in  1906,  1907, 
and  1909.  Under  the  decisions  of  the  United 
States  courts  the  office  of  a  trade-mark  is  to  in¬ 
dicate  the  origin  or  ownership  of  an  article  on 
which  it  is  found.  Therefore  it  follows  that  a 
valid  trade-mark  must  fulfill  one  of  the  above 
essentials,  either  from  its  own  nature  or  by  rea¬ 
son  of  association  with  the  article  itself  and 
the  maker’s  name.  A  name  which  is  merely  de¬ 
scriptive  of  the  qualities  or  nature  of  an  article 
cannot  constitute  a  valid  trade-mark,  as  its  use 
as  such  might  tend  to  create  a  perpetual  mo¬ 
nopoly  in  the  sale  of  the  article.  For  example, 
the  United  States  courts  held  that  the  words 
“acid  phosphate”  could  not  be  protected  as  a 
trade-mark,  as  they  were  considered  to  be  de¬ 
scriptive  of  the  essential  characteristics  of  the 


TRADE  NAME 


TRADE-UNIONS 


400 


preparation  sold  under  that  name,  and,  as  it 
was  a  known  form  of  chemical  combination,  it 
would  prevent  others  from  describing  accurately 
a  similar  combination. 

In  general,  a  geographical  name  cannot  be  used 
as  an  exclusive  trade-mark;  although  the  use  of 
a  geographical  name  as  a  trade  name,  where  the 
article  bears  no  relation  to  the  name  and  is 
manufactured  elsewhere,  will  sometimes  be  pro¬ 
tected.  Fantastic  and  newly  coined  words  may 
be  regarded  as  trade-marks.  A  person's  own 
name  will  not  be  protected  as  a  trade-mark  as 
against  a  person  of  the  same  name  who,  acting 
in  good  faith,  desires  to  use  his  name  on  his  own 
goods.  A  trade  name  is  therefore  to  be  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  a  trade-mark  and  can  be  pro¬ 
tected  by  a  court  of  equity  only  where  some  one 
attempts  to  deceive  the  public  and  take  another 
person’s  trade  by  adopting  his  trade  name.  A 
close  imitation  of  a  trade-mark  may  amount  to 
an  infringement,  especially  if  there  are  other 
circumstances  tending  to  show  that  there  is  an 
intention  to  deceive  the  public  and  take  advan¬ 
tage  of  the  business  reputation  of  another.  The 
use  of  the  national  emblem  cannot  in  any  sense 
constitute  it  a  trade-mark.  On  the  other  hand 
an  Illinois  statute  prohibiting  the  use  of  the 
American  flag  for  advertising  purposes  has  been 
held  unconstitutional. 

Any  one  who  handles  goods  may  impress  his 
trade-mark  upon  them  and  be  protected  in  its 
use  if  he  has  exercised  any  peculiar  skill  or 
judgment  in  their  selection,  care,  or  alteration. 
The  right  to  an  exclusive  trade-mark  may  be  lost 
by  abandonment,  but  the  evidence  of  the  inten¬ 
tion  to  discontinue  using  it  must  be  very  clear. 
A  trade-mark  is  not  generally  considered  to  be 
property  in  the  sense  that  it  can  be  taken 
under  an  execution,  but  it  may  be  transferred 
from  one  person  to  another,  unless  it  is  of  such 
a  nature  that  to  allow  it  to  be  used  on  the  goods 
of  a  person  other  than  the  one  who  originally 
adopted  and  used  it  would  tend  to  deceive  the 
public.  The  sale  of  a  business,  good  will,  etc., 
usually  includes  the  trade-marks  under  which 
goods  were  sold  by  the  owners.  See  Copyright; 
Patent;  Trade  Name. 

Bibliography.  W.  H.  Browne,  Treatise  on 
the  Law  of  Trade-Marks  (2d  enlarged  ed.,  Bos¬ 
ton,  1898)  ;  Sir  Thomas  Barclay,  Law  of  France 
Relating  to  Trade-Marks  (London,  1899)  ;  J.  L. 
Hopkins,  Law  of  Trademarks,  Tradenames ,  and 
Unfair  Competition  (2d  ed.,  Chicago,  1905)  ; 
L.  B.  Sebastian,  Law  of  Trade  Marks  and  their 
Registration  (5th  ed.,  London,  1911);  Berthold 
Singer,  Trade  Mark  Laws  of  the  World  and  Un¬ 
fair  Trade  (New  York,  1913)  ;  H.  C.  Underwood, 
How  to  Select  Trade-Marks  (Fort  Wayne,  Ind., 
1913)  ;  G.  S.  Rogers,  Good  Will,  Trade-Marks, 
and  Unfair  Trading  (Chicago,  1914). 

TRADE  NAME.  A  name  under  which  a 
person  or  corporation  does  business  and  which 
by  user  becomes  so  associated  with  the  good  will 
of  the  business  as  to  be  valuable.  A  trade  name 
is  to  be  distinguished  from  a  trade-mark  which 
is  affixed  to  or  impressed  on  merchandise,  and 
when  .registered  is  protected  by  statute.  The 
wrongful  user  of  an  established  trade  name  will 
be  restrained  by  a  court  of  equity  on  the  ground 
that  it  constitutes  fraud  and  deceit  against  the 
public  and  an  unlawful  appropriation  of  some¬ 
thing  which  is  so  closely  allied  to  the  business  of 
another  as  to  be  a  species  of  property  right.  A 
trade  name  may  sometimes  be  registered  as  a 
trade-mark,  and  this  fact  is  the  source  of  the  con¬ 


fusion  resulting  from  the  use  of  these  terms  as 
being  interchangeable.  The  statutes  of  most 
States  prohibit  one  corporation  from  adopting 
the  same  name  as  another,  and  the  Secretary  of 
State  should  be  consulted  before  a  name  is 
adopted  for  a  new  corporation.  Furthermore, 
equity  will  protect  a  corporation  in  the  use  of  its 
name.  See  Trade-Marks,  and  references  there 
given. 

TRAD'ESCANT,  John  (C.1570-C.1637 ) .  A 
traveler,  naturalist,  and  gardener,  said  to  have 
been  born  in  Holland.  In  1620  he  fought  against 
the  Algerine  pirates.  Afterward  he  was  in  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  and  seems 
to  have  become  royal  gardener.  He  established 
a  physic  garden  and  museum  at  South  Lambeth 
and  was  the  first  Englishman  to  make  a  con¬ 
siderable  collection  of  objects  in  natural  history. 
His  son  John  (1608-62),  born  at  Meapham, 
Kent,  added  largely  to  his  father’s  collection  and 
in  1637  visited  Virginia,  where  he  gathered  “all 
varieties  of  flowers,  plants,  shells,  etc.”  In 
1656  he  published  his  Museum  Trades  cant  ianum : 
or  a  Collection  of  Rarities,  Preserved  at  South 
Lambeth,  Near  London.  Upon  his  death  the 
museum  went  by  will  to  Elias  Ashmole  and  in 
1682  became  the  nucleus  of  the  Ashmolean  Mu¬ 
seum  at  Oxford. 

TRADESCANTIA,  trad'es-kan'sln-a.  A 
genus  of  monocotyledonous  plants,  including 
about  35  species,  natives  of  tropical  and  tem¬ 
perate  America,  and  commonly  known  as  spider- 
worts.  About  15  species  are  natives  of  the 
United  States. 

TRADE  SCHOOLS.  See  Technical  Edu¬ 
cation. 

TRADE-UNION  CONGRESS.  A  British 

federation  of  trade-unions,  organized  in  1868, 
which  has  met  annually  since  that  date  except 
in  1871.  At  the  time  of  its  formation  the  Brit¬ 
ish  unions  were  engaged  in  an  earnest  struggle 
for  favorable  legislation,  and  the  congress  played 
an  important  part  in  securing  the  legislative 
victories  of  1871-75.  (See  Trade-Unions.) 
Since  that  time  it  has  confined  itself  largely  to 
the  tasks  of  creating  a  favorable  public  opinion, 
voicing  the  demands  of  organized  labor,  provid¬ 
ing  a  place  for  common  meeting,  and  securing 
favorable  labor  legislation.  The  last  function 
is  exercised  largely  through  a  permanent  parlia¬ 
mentary  committee,  the  expenses  of  which  are 
paid  by  a  per  capita  tax  upon  the  affiliated 
unions  "of  fl  10s.  per  1000  members.  The  par¬ 
liamentary  secretary  devotes  all  his  time  to  the 
work  and  receives  a  salary  of  £250  per  annum. 
The  congress  itself  is  thus  a  deliberative  body 
merely,  but  it  has  started  two  auxiliary  fed¬ 
erations — the  Labor  Representation  Committee 
(see  Labor  Party,  British)  and  the  General 
Federation  of  Trade-Unions.  (See  Trade- 
Unions,  The  General  Federation  of.)  The 
membership  of  the  trade-unions  represented  in 
the  trade-union  congresses  in  the  United  King¬ 
dom  increased  from  110,000  in  1866  to  1,500,- 
000  in  1890.  At  the  Forty-fourth  Congress,, 
held  in  Newcastle  in  1911,  there  were  127  trade- 
unions  with  a  membership  of  1,650,000  members 
represented.  The  total  income  for  the  year  was 
£6928. 

TRADE-UNIONS.  “The  term  ‘national 
trade-union,’  ”  says  the  Federal  statute  provid¬ 
ing  for  the  incorporation  of  trade-unions,  “in 
the  meaning  of  this  act  shall  signify  any  asso¬ 
ciation  of  working  people  having  two  or  more 
branches  in  the  States  or  Territories  of  the 


40i 


TRADE-U 


TRADE-UNIONS 

Lnited  States  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  its  mem¬ 
bers  to  become  more  skillful  and  efficient  work¬ 
ers,  the  promotion  of  their  general  intelligence, 
the  elevation  of  their  character,  the  regulation 
of  their  wages  and  their  hours  and  conditions 
of  labor,  the  protection  of  their  individual  rights 
in  the  prosecution  of  their  trade  or  trades, °the 
raising  of  funds  for  the  benefit  of  the  sick,  dis¬ 
abled,  or  unemployed  members,  or  the  families  of 
deceased  members,  or  for  such  other  object  or 
objects  for  which  working  people  may  lawfully 
combine,  having  in  view  their  mutual  protec¬ 
tion  or  benefit.”  No  definition  less  complete 
is  sufficient  fully  to  indicate  the  complex  char¬ 
acter  of  the  trade-union,  since  the  trade-union 
has  always  been  an  insurance  association  and  a 
social  and  educational  club,  as  well  as  “a  con¬ 
tinuous  association  of  wage  earners  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  maintaining  or  improving  the  conditions 
of  their  employment,”  as  Beatrice  and  Sidney 
Webb  define  it. 

History.  The  connection  between  the  modern 
trade-union  and  the  journeymen  clubs  of  the 
Middle  Ages  is  in  dispute.  Throughout  the  later 
Middle  Ages  and  frequently  after  the  fourteenth 
century  traces  are  encountered  of  journeymen 
clubs  the  German  Schenken,  the  French  con- 
freries  de  compagnons — which  maintained  a  more 
or  less  continuous  existence,  regulated  appren¬ 
ticeship,  paid  benefits,  and  engaged  in  conflicts 
with  employers,  characterized  by  the  elements 
of  the  modern  strike.  Admitting,  as  Professor 
Ashley  suggests,  that  the  journeymen  of  these 
fraternities  “were  almost  all  unmarried,  that 
when  employed  they  lived  in  the  master’s  house, 
that  the  masters  themselves  had  usually  been 
journeymen,  that  the  number  of  masters  and 
journeymen  was  very  much  the  same,”  there 
nevertheless  seems  no  tenable  reason  for  denying 
to  these  associations  the  essential  attributes  of 
the  modern  trade-union.  It  is  evident  that  ef¬ 
fective  and  solid  trade-unionism  is  intimately 
dependent  upon  the  existence  of  a  body  of  work¬ 
ers  who  will  naturally  remain  wage  earners 
throughout  their  lives.  In  other  words,  the 
trade-union  follows  in  general  the  permanent 
separation  of  the  employing  and  wage-earning 
classes.  This  separation,  speaking  generally, 
was  a  product  of  the  industrial  revolution  and 
the  factory  system.  Trade-unions  consequently 
did  not  become  numerous  until  late  in  the 
eighteenth  centurv. 

•i-  «/ 

In  England  trade-unionism  in  the  eighteenth 
century  is  marked  by  increasing  hostility  on 
the  part  of  Parliament  towards  combinations  of 
laborers.  Laws  regulating  wages,  apprentice¬ 
ship,  movement  of  laborers  from  parish  to  par¬ 
ish,  etc.,  existed,  and  the  activity  of  the  trade- 
unions  during  that  century  seems  to  have 
been  largely  directed  towards  enforcement  of 
those  laws,  which  the  employers  did  not  always 
observe.  Laws  against  combinations  of  work¬ 
ingmen  in  specific  trades  began  to  multiply  as 
the  doctrine  of  laissez-faire  secured  wider  ac¬ 
ceptance.  These  culminated  in  the  Combination 
Acts  of  1799  and  1800,  by  which  every  form  of 
combination,  whether  of  employer  or  employees, 
was  rigidly  prohibited.  In  effect,  the  acts  were 
enforced  against  the  laborers  only.  For  25 
years  the  unions  were  driven  into  hiding,  but 
were  by  no  means  extirpated.  In  1824  the 
whole  group  of  combination  laws  was  repealed, 
but  in  1825  a  reaction  set  in,  and  in  another 
statute  the  law  against  combination  was  re¬ 
vived,  but  it  left  laborers  free  to  combine;  to 


NS 

fix  wages  or  hours  of  Bibor  of  parties  to  the 
combination.  / 

the  Act  of  1825  was  followed  by  the  rise  of 
labor  organizations  dr  general  trade-unions  of  a 
Socialistic  nature  /described  under  Labor  Or¬ 
ganizations.  But  the  trade-union  proper  was 
making  steady  progress  within  the  separate 
trades,  in  which  identity  of  interests  made  unity 
of  organization  and  policy  av  comparatively  easy 
task.  About  1850  a  reaction  against  the  strike 
set  in,  and  reforms  in  the  management  of  the 
friendly-benefit  system  were  inaugurated.  The 
union  which  applied  the  new  ideas  most  suc¬ 
cessfully  was  the  Journeymen  Steam  Engine  and 
Machine  Makers’  and  Millwrights’  Friendly  So- 
ciety,  which  in  1850  absorbed  other  large  unions 
of  mechanics  and  became  the  Amalgamated  So¬ 
ciety  of  Engineers,  whose  careful  set  of  rules 
for  the.  financial  and  general  administration  of 
the  union  served,  according  to  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Webb,  as  the  “model  for  all  national  societies” 
founded  between  1852  and  1889.  The  reaction 
from  the  Socialistic  trade-unionism  of  the  thir¬ 
ties  brought  to  the  front  a  remarkable  group 
of  labor  leaders,  acute,  tactful,  industrious,  and 
conservative,  who  (1860-75)  united  in  a  per¬ 
sistent  and  energetic  campaign  for  legislative 
reform.  The  first  victory  came  in  the  Master 
and  Servant  Act  of  1867,  which  corrected  the 
most  glaring  defects  of  the  old  law  on  this  sub¬ 
ject.  The  union  leaders,  however,  aimed  at  more 
sweeping  concessions.  By  the  celebrated  Trade- 
Union  Act  of  1871  it  was  provided  that  no  trade- 
union  should  be  deemed  illegal  simply  because 
it  was  in  restraint  of  trade,  and  unions  were 
given  a  legal  standing  carrying  with  it  protec¬ 
tion  of  their  funds,  without  exposing  them  to 
the  ordinary  obligations  of  an  incorporated  com¬ 
pany.  Finally  in  1875  the  unions  secured  the 
passage  of  a  very  liberal  Employers’  and  Work¬ 
men’s  Act  (replacing  the  Master  and  Servant 
Act  of  1867),  and  a  revolutionary  Conspiracv 
and  Protection  of  Property  Act,  which  expressly 
permitted  peaceable  picketing,  and  provided  that 
no  combination  to  do  any  act  in  furtherance  of 
a  trade  dispute  between  employers  and  workmen 
should  be  indictable  as  a  conspiracy  unless  such 
act  if  committed  by  one  person  would  be  punish¬ 
able  as  a  crime. 

In  1860  a  giant  stride  towards  collective  bar¬ 
gaining  was  taken  by  the  formation  in  the 
hosiery  trade  of  the  first  joint  conference  be¬ 
tween  employers  and  employees  for  peaceful  set¬ 
tlement  of  trade  disputes.  Federation  of  trade- 
unions  began;  trade  councils  became  common  in 
the  cities,  and  in  1868  the  first  national  Trade- 
Union  Congress  was  held  at  Manchester.  Fi¬ 
nally  the  successful  legislation  of  1871,  like  that 
of  1824,  was  followed  by  an  expansion  of  trade- 
unionism  and  the  reappearance  of  many  of  the 
phenomena  which  had  marked  the  epoch  of  la¬ 
bor  organizations  in  the  thirties,  with  their 
ideal  of  an  aggressive,  militant  organization, 
free  from  the  incumbrance  of  friendly  benefits, 
embracing  workingwomen  and  unskilled  labor’ 
participating  actively  in  politics,  and  with  ten¬ 
dencies  towards  Socialism. 

The  most  noteworthy  event  of  late  years  is 
the  formation  in  1899  and  1900  respectively  of 
the  General  Federation  of  Trade-Unions  ‘(see 
Trade-Unions,  The  General  Federation  of) 
and  the  Labor  Representation  Committee,  later 
the  Independent  Labor  party.  Between  1892 
and  1911  inclusive  the  membership  of  British 
trade-unions  grew  from  1,500,451  to  3,010,346. 


TRADE-UNIONS 


TRADE-UNIONS  402 


In  the  United  States  there  is  no  positive  record 
of  a  trade-union  before  1803,  the  year  in  which 
the  New  York  Society  of  Journeymen  Ship¬ 
wrights  was  incorporated.  In  1806  a  union  of 
the  House  Carpenters  of  the  City  of  New  York 
was  organized,  and  the  first  union  of  the  Jour¬ 
neymen  Tailors  is  said  to  have  been  organized  in 
the  same  year.  As  early  as  1817  the  New  York 
Tvpographical  Society  had  been  in  active  ex¬ 
istence  for  some  time,  and  in  1822  the  Charitable 
Society  of  Shipwrights  and  Calkers  of  Boston 
and  Charlestown  was  formed. 

The  most  important  events  of  the  period 
1825-50  are  briefly  described  under  Labor  Or¬ 
ganizations.  For  a  time  trade-unionism  seems 
to  have  become  involved  in  general  reform; 
wide-reaching  and  ambitious  federations  were 
formed  which  worked  at  the  same  time  for  the 
abolition  of  slavery,  for  woman’s  rights,  land 
nationalization,  and  cooperation,  as  well  as  im¬ 
provement  of  conditions  of  employment.  Dur¬ 
ing  this  period  trade-unionism  proper  was  un¬ 
doubtedly  making  progress  in  the  separate 
trades,  and  by  1840  in  the  principal  industrial 
centres  local  unions  had  been  organized  among 
masons,  marble  cutters,  shoemakers,  saddleis, 
hatters,  tailors,  printers,  bricklayers,  roofers, 
painters,  carpenters,  and  shipworkers. 

The  15  years  between  1850  and  1865  may 
well  be  described  as  the  period  of  nationalization. 
Labor  leaders  had  learned  that  for  a  time  the 
labor  movement  must  go  forward  cautiously, 
that  participation  in  politics  and  broad  attempts 
to  reform  things  were  dangerous,  that  labor  or¬ 
ganizations  must  be  extended  within  trade  lines 
and  not  by  all-embracing  amalgamations.  In 
1850  the  union  now  known  as  the  International 
Typographical  Union  was  organized.  ( See 
Typographical  Union  of  North  America,  The 
International.)  This  was  probably  the  first 
American  national  union,  though  there  is  some 
reason  to  believe  that  the  Silk  and  Fur  Hat  Fin¬ 
ishers’  National  Association  was  organized  as 
earlv  as  1843.  The  National  Association  of  Hat 
Finishers  of  the  United  States  of  America  was 


has  been  perfected,  their  administration  im¬ 
proved.  A  number  of  vigorous  labor  journals 
have  appeared;  labor  parties  have  been  formed 
and  in  places  have  elected  labor  candidates;  per¬ 
manent  boards  of  collective  bargaining  or  arbi¬ 
tration  and  conciliation  have  been  formed  in 
many  trades;  boycotting  through  the  union  label 
and  labor  press  has  been  systematized  and  de¬ 
veloped;  favorable  legislation  has  been  secured 
in  every  State;  and,  more  important  than  any 
other  result,  public  opinion  has  been  brought  to 
concede  the  utility  and  even  the  necessity  of 
the  trade-union.  The  most  striking  phenomenon 
of  the  epoch  has  been  the  formation  of  large 
federations  of  unions.  Among  these  larger  or¬ 
ganizations  may  be  named  the  National  Labor 
Union  (1866)/ the  Knights  of  Labor  (1869), 
the  International  Association  of  Workingmen 
(1864),  the  Industrial  Brotherhood  (1873),  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  (1881),  the  Na¬ 
tional  Building  Trades  Council  (1897),  and  the 
American  Labor  Union  ( 1898) .  By  far  the  most 
important  of  these  is  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor.  (See  Labor,  American  Federation 
of.)  Until  1906  this  organization  avoided  di¬ 
rect  participation  in  politics,  confining  itself  to 
the  organization  of  new  unions,  the  passage  of 
legislation  favorable  to  labor,  the  extension  of 
the  union  label,  etc.  In  1906,  on  account  of  al¬ 
leged  violations  of  the  Federal  labor  laws,  the 
American  Federation  decided  to  enter  politics. 
It  concentrated  its  efforts  upon  defeating  a  num¬ 
ber  of  congressional  candidates  who  were  said  to 
be  especially  hostile  to  organized  labor,  but  its 
efforts  were  without  success. 

Statistics  of  Trade-Unions  in  the  United 
States.  These  are  collected  by  the  labor  bureaus 
of  a  few  States,  but  no  complete  enumeration  for 
the  whole  country  has  ever  been  made.  The  re¬ 
port  of  the  Industrial  Commission  gave  the  es¬ 
timated  membership  of  labor  organizations  in 
the  United  States  on  July  1,  1901,  at  1,400,000. 
The  average  membership  of  the  American  Federa¬ 
tion  of  Labor  alone  during  the  year  ending 
Sept.  30,  1911,  was  1,761,835. 


NEW  YORK  STATE 

AVERAGE  MEMBERSHIP 

OP  AMERICAN  FEDERATION 

OF  LABOR 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

TEAR 

Organiza¬ 

tions 

Membership 

Organiza¬ 

tions 

Membership 

Organiza¬ 

tions 

Membership 

1892  . 

1,203 

1,500,451 

1,259 

1,478,474 

1  £04 

860 

157,197 

1,299 

1,437,765 

1  £0^ 

927 

180,231 

1,303 

1,404,898 

1  £Qfi 

962 

170,296 

1,308 

1,491,007 

1  £07 

1,009 

168,454 

75 

264,825 

1,287 

1,609,909 

i  £Q£ 

1,087 

171,067 

110 

278,016 

1,310 

1,688,531 

1  £00 

1,320 

209,020 

158 

349,422 

1,302 

1,848,570 

1  000 

1,635 

245,381 

181 

548,321 

1,272 

1,955,704 

1  001 

1,881 

276,141 

221 

787,537 

1,282 

1,969,424 

i  Q02 

2,229 

329,098 

226 

1,024,399 

1,250 

1,954,594 

1  QOS 

2,583 

395,598 

374 

1,465,800 

1,237 

1,931,558 

1  904 

2,504 

391,676 

174 

1,676,200 

1,211 

1,901,674 

1  905 

2,402 

383,236 

200 

1,494,300 

1,209 

1,928,569 

1  900 

2,420 

398,494 

189 

1,454,200 

1,232 

2,122,241 

1  907 

2,497 

436,792 

237 

1,538,970 

1,221 

2,419,816 

1  90S 

2,444 

372,459 

181 

1,586,885 

1,195 

2,383,244 

1  909 

2,368 

372,729 

192 

1,482,872 

1,168 

2,362,450 

1  91  0 

2,457 

481,924 

255 

1,562,112 

1,153 

2,435,704 

1911 . 

2,498 

504,314 

209 

1,761,835 

1,168 

3,010,346 

founded  in  1854,  the  National  Protective  Asso¬ 
ciation  (the  Locomotive  Engineers)  in  1855,  the 
Sons  of  Vulcan  and  the  National  Spinners’  As¬ 
sociation  in  1858. 

Since  the  Civil  War  many  local  and  national 
unions  have  been  organized,  their  government 


A  more  satisfactory  idea  of  the  growth  of 
trade-unions  may  be  gained  from  the  preceding 
table,  in  which  the  total  membership  of  unions 
in  Great  Britain  and  New  York  is  given,  and 
the  average  membership  reported  or  paid  upon  to 
the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 


TRADE-UNIONS 


TRADE-UNIONS 


403 


Trade-Unions  and  the  Daw.  The  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  law  in  the  United  States  has  been 
different  from  that  in  England.  A  few  early 
cases  are  recorded  in  which  trade-unions  were 
declared  illegal,  but  as  early  as  1821  in  Penn¬ 
sylvania  and  1842  in  Massachusetts  a  view 
diametrically  opposite  to  the  English  law  was 
taken,  and  since  has  been  consistently  main¬ 
tained  by  American  courts,  except  in  so  far  as 
it  has  been  modified  in  recent  years  by  antitrust 
acts.  Workmen  may  combine  to  improve  con¬ 
ditions  of  employment  and  agree  not  to  work 
for  less  than  a  certain  amount  or  to  refuse  to 
work  for  employers  paying  less  than  this  amount 
without  active  interference  from  legal  authori¬ 
ties;  and  in  several  important  cases  the  courts 
have  gone  to  the  point  of  recognizing  the  legality 
of  the  by-laws  of  unions  and  even  of  enforcing 
them  (Master  Stevedores’  Association  v.  Walsh, 
2  Daly,  1 ;  People  v.  Musical  Mutual  Protective 
Union,  118  N.  Y.  101).  Legislatures  have  gone 
even  further  than  the  courts  in  recognizing  the 
legality  of  the  purposes  of  trade-unions.  The 
Federal  government  and  many  of  the  largest 
States  have  enacted  statutes  providing  for  the  in¬ 
corporation  of  trade-unions  under  exceptionally 
favorable  conditions.  But  only  a  few  unions 
have  taken  advantage  of  the  incorporation  laws, 
and  labor  leaders  generally  oppose  this,  on  the 
ground  that  it  would  subject  the  unions  to  many 
vexatious  and  costly  suits  at  law.  The  State 
legislatures  have  also  conferred  several  special 
privileges  upon  labor  organizations.  Massa¬ 
chusetts  and  Kansas,  e.g.,  have  exempted  labor 
organizations  from  the  operation  of  the  statutes 
regulating  fraternal  beneficiary  associations ; 
and  some  of  the  States  have  passed  statutes  pro¬ 
hibiting  employers  from  discharging  workmen 
for  joining  labor  organizations  and  even  from 


probably  be  given  to  the  State  statutes  save 
where  they  are  specifically  labor  organizations. 
Little  attempt  has  been  made  to  dissolve  unions 
or  punish  their  officers  under  antitrust  statutes, 
but  where  these  laws  apply  the  legality  of  the 
most  reputable  unions  is  threatened. 

Trade-Unions  in  Other  Countries.  While 
probably  the  germs  of  labor  organizations  in  al¬ 
most  every  country  of  continental  Europe  may  be 
found  in  earlier  and  even  in  mediaeval  organiza¬ 
tions  and  movements,  they  owe  their  present 
strength,  spirit,  and  methods  chiefly  to  the  So¬ 
cialistic  propaganda;  most  of  them  have  re¬ 
mained  in  close  connection  with  the  Social 
Democratic  parties,  and  many  of  them — partic¬ 
ularly  in  France,  Belgium,  Italy,  and  the  Scan¬ 
dinavian  countries — are  as  much  political  clubs 
as  trade-unions.  (See  Socialism.)  There  are, 
however,  a  number  of  strict  trade-unions  on  the 
Continent — particularly  among  printers — and 
this  number  is  increasing.  As  the  continental 
labor-union  grows  more  powerful,  it  manifests 
a  stronger  disinclination  to  be  treated  as  a  mere 
appendage  of  a  political  party.  The  continental 
union  was  late  in  developing.  The  year  1864, 
which  marks  the  formation  of  the  International 
Workingmen’s  Association  (see  International 
Workingmen’s  Association),  furnishes  a  sub¬ 
stantially  accurate  date  for  the  beginning  of 
the  trade-union  movement  on  the  Continent. 

The  political  character  of  continental  unionism 
has  decreased  its  efficiency  by  dividing  the  forces 
of  labor  into  several  semihostile  groups.  In 
Germany,  e.g.,  we  find  the  labor  organizations 
divided  into  three  distinct  classes:  a  group  of 
“peace”  unions,  known  as  the  Hirsch-Dunckersche 
Gewerkvereine,  assert  the  essential  harmony 
of  interests  between  employers  and  employees 
and  depend  upon  arbitration  and  friendly  bene- 


COUNTRY 

Beginning 
of  the 
modern 
movement 

APPROXIMATE  MEMBER¬ 
SHIP  OF  LABOR  ORGAN¬ 
IZATIONS 

EXPLANATORY 

Date 

Number 

Netherlands . 

1811 

1907 

12S, 845 

148,483 

78,119 

1,029,238 

Freedom  of  combination  was  granted  in  1811;  chief 
development  did  not  come  until  later. 

Belgium . 

1840 

1905 

Switzerland . 

1858 

1911 

Labor  Bureau  in  1907  estimated  that  20  per  cent  of 
labor  was  organized. 

In  addition  there  were  912,944  persons  in  agricultural 
associations  and  40,145  members  of  mixed  associations 
of  employers  and  employees. 

France . 

1874 

1911 

Germany . 

1865 

Austria . 

1867 

1911 

421,905 

128,224 

46,397 

85,387 

In  the  general  federation  of  Gewerkschaften. 

Denmark . 

1871 

1911 

Norway . 

1871 

1910 

Sweden . 

1883 

1911 

making  it  a  condition  of  employment  that  they 
should  not  belong  to  such  organizations.  A  few 
States  and  many  local  legislative  bodies  have 
enacted  laws  providing,  directly  or  indirectly, 
that  certain  public  work — usually  printing — • 
shall  be  performed  only  by  union  labor.  Within 
recent  vears  the  legal  status  of  trade-unions  has 
been  seriously  affected,  at  least  in  theory,  by  the 
so-called  antitrust  acts  passed  by  Congress  and 
many  State  legislatures,  making  contracts  or 
combinations  in  restraint  of  trade  or  commerce 
illegal.  The  Federal  statute — concerned,  of 
course,  only  with  interstate  trade  and  com¬ 
merce — has  been  held  to  apply  to  a  labor  organ¬ 
ization  of  draymen  and  longshoremen  (United 
States  v.  Workingmen’s  Amalgamated  Council, 
54  F.  R.  004)  ;  and  the  same  interpretation  will 


fits  rather  than  strikes  for  the  improvement  of 
the  conditions  of  employment.  Clearly  distin¬ 
guished  from  the  former  by  their  aggressive 
methods  in  general  are  the  socialistic  Gewerk- 
schaften,  which  in  turn  are  divided  into  two 
groups  over  the  question  of  direct  participation 
in  politics:  the  unions  federated  under  the  Cen¬ 
tral  Commission  advocating  a  separation  of  the 
labor  and  the  Socialistic  movements,  and  the 
local  organizations  opposed  to  this  separation. 
The  Christian  Unions  constitute  a  third  class 
distinct  from  and  opposed  to  the  preceding 
groups  by  their  anti-Socialistic  principles.  In 
Belgium  the  labor  organizations  have  been  prac¬ 
tically  dominated  bv  the  political  parties.  In 
France  the  factional  quarrels  of  the  Socialists 
have  been  carried  into  the  labor  organizations, 


TRADE-UNIONS 


404 


TRADE-UNIONS 


with  the  consequence  that  in  almost  every  city 
the  trades  are  grouped  into  several  hostile 
unions  whose  antagonism  makes  unity  of  action 
almost  impossible.  In  Australia,  on  the  other 
hand,  where  according  to  some  authorities  as 
many  as  75  per  cent  of  the  male  workingmen 
belong  to  trade-unions  and  where  the  unions 
have  secured  a  large  proportion  of  their  victories 
by  political  action,  Socialism  has  made  little 
headway. 

With  the  view  of  giving  some  idea  of  the  be¬ 
ginning  and  extent  of  labor  organization  in  the 
various  continental  countries,  the  tabular  state¬ 
ment  (page  403)  has  been  prepared.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  distinguish  the  labor  organizations 
from  the  political  clubs  and  fraternal  associa¬ 
tions  in  many  countries,  so  that  the  figures  must 
be  interpreted  as  rough  estimates  of  the  extent 
of  labor  organization  in  the  several  countries 
rather  than  exact  statistical  measurements. 

Classification  of  Trade-Unions.  As  was 
pointed  out  under  Labor  Organizations,  the 
trade-union  is  simply  one  branch  of  the  great 
family  of  labor  organizations.  The  following 
classification  brings  out  clearly  the  great  di¬ 
versity  of  structure  which  exists  both  among 
organizations  of  laborers  and  among  trade- 
unions  themselves: 


Government.  The  government  of  local  unions 
is  distinguished  by  its  thoroughgoing  democracy. 
The  tenure  of  office  is  usually  six  months,  and 
there  is  a  widespread  feeling  in  favor  of  rotation 
in  office.  The  most  important  local  officers  are 
the  business  agent  or  walking  delegate  and  the 
chairman  of  the  grievance  committee.  Only  a 
small  proportion  of  the  locals  have  such  officers, 
but  where  they  do  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to 
reelect  men  who  have  proved  themselves  the 
possessors  of  the  unusual  abilities  which  these 
positions  require.  The  government  of  the  na¬ 
tional  union  usually  comprehends  a  periodical 
convention,  a  permanent  executive  board,  a  corps 
of  organizers,  a  president,  several  vice  presidents, 
and  a  secretary  treasurer.  As  the  referendum  is 
apparently  becoming  more  and  more  popular  in 
America,  the  general  membership  must  be  counted 
in  many  unions  as  the  ultimate  source  of  legis¬ 
lative  power,  and  indeed  of  the  judicial  and 
executive  power,  as  well  as  in  the  numerous 
cases  in  which  the  general  membership  decides 
appeals,  votes  strikes  and  special  assessments, 
etc.  In  unions  which  do  not  employ  the  referen¬ 
dum  system  the  supreme  executive  and  judicial 
powers  are  vested  in  the  periodical  conventions 
and  in  the  executive  boards  between  conventions, 
but,  as  these  boards  are  usually  composed  of 


Labor 

Organizations 


Continuous 


Temporary 


Not  on  the  trade 
principle 


Political,*  e.g.,  Independent  Labor  party. 

Fraternal,*  e.g.,  Ancient  Order  of  United  Workmen. 
■  Mixed  assemblies,  e.g.,  Knights  of  Labor. 

Industrial  unions,  e.g.,  United  Mine  Workers. 
General  amalgamations,  e.g.,  Knights  of  Labor. 


On  the  trade 
principle 


f  Strike 
\  Boycott 


Nonfedera- 

tive 


'  Sublocals,  e.g.,  Printers’  chapels. 

Local  unions,  e.g.,  “Big  Six”  of  New  York. 
District  councils,  e.g.,  of  Carpenters  and 
Joiners. 

National  unions,  e.g.,  Iron  Molders’  Union. 
International  unions,  e.g.,  Cigar  Makers’  In¬ 
ternational  Union  of  America. 


Federative 


Central  unions,  e.g.,  Chicago  Federation  of 
Labor. 

State  federations,  e.g.,  Massachusetts  Feder¬ 
ation  of  Labor. 

Industrial  federations,  e.g.,  National  Building 
Trades  Council. 

General  federations,  e.g.,  American  Federa¬ 
tion  of  Labor. 


*  These  are  not  strictly  labor  organizations,  but  are  included  here  because  their  membership  is  drawn  almost  ex¬ 
clusively  from  the  ranks  of  labor. 


The  preceding  classification  emphasizes  the 
difference  between  amalgamated  labor  unions  and 
trade-unions  or  federations  in  which  the  in¬ 
dividuality  of  each  trade  is  preserved.  The 
“mixed  assembly”  is  simply  the  governmental 
unit  of  the  amalgamated  union.  It  was  a  per¬ 
manent  feature  of  the  Knights  of  Labor,  but  it  is 
also  used  by  the  Federation  of  Labor,  and  is 
known  as  the  “federal  union.”  It  supplies  a 
union  for  workmen  in  unorganized  trades,  or  in 
places  where  there  are  not  enough  workers  in  one 
organized  trade  to  start  a  local  union.  The 
industrial  union  is  merely  a  centralized  union, 
in  which  are  united  all  the  workers  of  any  one 
industry,  irrespective  of  trade  or  occupation. 
The  United  Mine  Workers,  e.g.,  aim  to  coalesce 
in  the  same  local  union  all  wage  earners  “work¬ 
ing  in  and  about  the  mines  except  mine  man¬ 
ager  and  top  boss.”  There  are  also  industrial 
unions  which  do  not  aim  to  unite  all  classes  of 
workmen  in  the  same  locals,  but  which  attempt 
to  unite  local  unions  of  the  different  trades  in  a 
single  national  body.  The  latter  are  to  be  re¬ 
garded  as  federations  of  trade-unions  rather 
than  labor  organizations.  The  “central”  or 
“central  union”  is  merely  another  name  for  the 
municipal  federation  of  trade-unions. 


unsalaried  workmen  living  in  different  cities 
and  conducting  their  deliberations  by  mail,  it 
frequently  happens  that  their  powers  are  vir¬ 
tually  exercised  by  the  president,  who,  with  the 
vice  president  and  secretary  treasurer,  almost 
invariably  have  seats  in  the  executive  board. 

Problems  of  Organization.  The  difficulties 
of  labor  organizations  show  themselves  in  bitter 
disputes  between  unions.  In  the  first  place, 
there  are  disputes  between  dual  unions.  This  is 
a  trade  war  between  rival  unions  which  claim 
control  of  the  same  trade  and  the  same  field. 
Secondly,  jurisdiction  disputes  .  are  likely  to 
arise.  These  may  be  divided  into  several  classes, 
according  to  the  cause  of  the  conflict,  (a) 
Territorial  disputes.  A  typical  instance  is  noted 
in  the  Twenty-fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bu¬ 
reau  of  Statistics  of  New  Jersey.  Here  the 
work  on  a  large  building  was  seriously  inter¬ 
rupted  for  months  by  a  quarrel  between  the 
New  York  and  Newark  local  unions  of  the  In¬ 
ternational  Brotherhood  of  Electrical  Workers, 
the  New  York  union  claiming  exclusive  right  to 
all  work  in  Newark  in  accordance  with  an  agree¬ 
ment  made  with  the  international  union.  The 
dispute  was  finally  settled  by  an  agreement,  in 
accordance  with  which  the  Newark  union  was 


405 


TRADE-UNIONS 


TRADE-UNIONS 


given  “one-half  the  jobs  which  a  New  York  con¬ 
tractor  may  have  to  dispose  of  on  a  building  in 
Newark,  the  Newarkers  to  have  the  New  York 
rate  of  wages.”  (b)  Demarcation  disputes, 
arising  from  conflicting  claims  to  certain  work 
lying  midway  between  two  distinct  trades.  The 
shipbuilding  industries  on  the  Tyne,  e.g.,  were 
tied  up  for  18  months  or  more  at  one  time  by 
demarcation  disputes  which  hinged  largely  about 
the  “limit  of  the  size  of  the  iron  pipes  to  be 
fitted  by  the  engineers  and  the  plumbers  respec¬ 
tively,  and  whether  the  joiners  should  or  should 
not  oe  confined  to  woodwork  of  one  and  one- 
half  inches’  thickness.”  (c)  The  third  class 
consists  of  those  arising  between  a  more  ex¬ 
tensive  and  a  less  extensive  union,  concerning 
the  autonomy  of  the  latter.  Thus,  the  increased 
division  of  labor  in  the  printing  trade  made  of 
the  pressmen  a  separate  class,  and  new  inven¬ 
tions  produced  the  stereotyper  and  electrotyper. 
It  was  inevitable  that  these  classes  should  de¬ 
sire  trade  independence,  and  that  the  original 
union  should  oppose  all  secessions.  There  has 
been  a  long  series  of  conflicts  between  the  old 
Typographical  Union  and  bodies  of  discontented 
pressmen,  bookbinders,  stereotypers,  and  electro- 
typers.  ( d )  Industrial  organization  versus 
trade  autonomy.  A  similar  but  far  more  im¬ 
portant  source  of  jurisdiction  disputes  is  the 
rapidly  growing  practice  of  adapting  labor  or¬ 
ganization  to  industrial  organization  and  unit¬ 
ing  in  one  union  all  the  trades  represented 
in  a  single  industry.  Industrial  organization 
inevitably  brings  the  union  adopting  it  into 
conflict  with  the  unions  of  the  separate  trades 
represented  in  the  industry.  Thus,  the  United 
Mine  Workers  have  had  serious  conflicts  with 
the  stationary  firemen  and  the  blacksmiths,  and 
the  brewery  workers  have  been  in  constant  strife 
with  the  painters  and  coopers,  the  team  drivers, 
etc.  In  the  strike  and  in  all  phases  of  collec¬ 
tive  bargaining  industrial  organization  is  su¬ 
perior,  both  for  employers  and  employees.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  subordination  of  a  minority 
of  skilled  workers  to  a  larger  number  of  less 
skilled  craftsmen  is  frequently  a  source  of  weak¬ 
ness  and  always  a  source  of  dissatisfaction. 

Ultimate  Form  of  Organization.  One  of 
the  most  persistently  advocated  remedies  for 
jurisdiction  disputes  has  been  that  of  amalga¬ 
mation,  the  form  of  organization  in  which  all 
the  trades  are  coalesced  in  a  strong  central 
union.  Amalgamation  has  never  proved  prac¬ 
ticable.  United  action  is  plainly  necessary,  but 
it  must  be  secured  by  federation  and  not  by 
consolidation.  Another  remedy  for  the  jurisdic¬ 
tion  dispute,  tried  with  only  partial  success,  is 
the  “jurisdiction  statement.”  The  constitution 
of  the  National  Building  Trades  Council,  e.g., 
provides  that  “all  organizations  affiliated  with 
any  local  Building  Trades  Council  shall  plainly 
and  satisfactorily  define  the  class  of  work  they 
claim,  and  no  trade  will  be  permitted  to  do  the 
work  pertaining  to  another.”  Up  to  the  present, 
the  jurisdiction  statement  has  been  of  but 
little  use  in  preventing  conflicts  between  unions. 
The  indications  are  strong  that  the  ultimate 
structure  of  union  organization  will  be  com¬ 
plex;  that  the  unit  of  government  will  be  the 
simple  trade-union  of  the  old  type,  but  that 
these  unions  will  be  combined  in  a  very  large 
number  of  cross-cutting  federations,  each  dis¬ 
tinct  and  independent,  but  all  of  them  formed, 
as  it  were,  of  the  same  material.  The  simple 
trade-union  will  probably  retain  jurisdiction  over 


such  questions  as  industrial  education,  appren¬ 
ticeship,  and  friendly  benefits.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  regulation  of  the  strike  and  the  settle¬ 
ment  of  demarcation  disputes  will  in  all  proba¬ 
bility  come  within  the  province  of  industrial 
federations,  which  are  even  now  multiplving 
rapidly.  The  industrial  federations  have  come 
to  stay.  Yet  there  will  undoubtedly  be  addi¬ 
tional  federations.  The  broad  general  federa¬ 
tion  represented  at  present  by  the  American 
I  edei  ation  of  Labor  will  surely  persist,  devot¬ 
ing  itself  particularly,  as  the  'federation  does, 
to  education  of  the  working  classes,  the  rapid 
extension  of  labor  organization,  the  promotion  of 
favorable  legislation,  the  defeat  of  unfavorable 
legislation,  the  wider  use  of  the  boycott,  and  the 
maintenance  of  a  labor  press.  It  is  probable 
that  the  time  is  almost  ripe  for  political  action 
by  labor  organizations.  But  past  experience 
teaches  unequivocally  that  almost  without  ex¬ 
ception  the  entrance  of  trade-unions  as  such  into 
politics  lias  proved  disastrous.  Such  being  the 
case,  it  is  probable  that  the  trade-union  will 
enter  politics  by  _  means  of  distinct  political 
federation.  A  striking  example  of  this  is  the 
Labor  Representation  Committee  (see  Laeor 
Party,  British)  of  Great  Britain. 

METHODS  AND  POLICIES  OF  TRADE-UNIONISM 

Trade-Unionism  and  Monopoly.  Probably 
no  social  institution  in  existence  represents  the 
change  from  the  old  economic  policy  of  laissez 
faire  more  concretely  than  the  trade-union.  Al¬ 
most  every  method  adopted  by  trade-unions 
is  in  essence  a  regulation  of  competition.  The 
essential  function  of  the  trade-union  is  collective 
bargaining;  and  the  first  condition  of  successful 
collective  bargaining  on  its  part  is  that  it  shall 
secure  substantial  control  of  the  efficient  supply 
of  labor.  In  securing  and  maintaining  such  con¬ 
trol  two  policies  are  adopted,  a  policy  of  inclu¬ 
sion  and  one  of  exclusion.  To  obtain  control  of 
a  particular  trade  in  a  particular  jurisdiction, 
the  utmost  effort  will  be  made  to  bring  into  the 
union  every  effective  competitor  for  work  to  be 
done  in  that  jurisdiction.  Once  having  control, 
there  is  the  strongest  temptation,  if  not  a  real 
necessity,  for  limiting  the  supply  of  craftsmen 
by  regulation  of  apprenticeship,  etc.  Many 
trade-unions  prosecute  the  work  of  organization 
vigorously  and  incessantly.  In  the  beginning 
trade-unionism  was  sporadic  and  instinctive,  and 
the  national  union  was  the  product  of  the  amal¬ 
gamation  of  two  or  more  self-organized  locals. 
At  present  organization  is  deliberate,  systematic, 
and  proceeds  from  the  top  down;  the  local  is  the 
child  rather  than  the  parent  of  the  national.  Even 
exclusive  unions  like  the  Window  Glass  Workers 
enter  heartily  into  the  work  of  organizing  the 
unskilled  workers,  because  with  the  increasing 
use  of  machinery  this  body  constitutes  a  constant 
menace  to  all  trades.  The  organization  of  wage 
earners  is  the  special  work  of  the  Federation  of 
Labor.  In  1911,  e.g.,  an  aggregate  amount  of 
$40,962.05  was  expended  by  the  federation  to 
defray  organization  expenses.  Of  this  amount 
$2,020.15  was  paid  to  district  or  volunteer  or¬ 
ganizers,  while  the  remaining  amount  was  paid 
to  49  salaried  organizers  of  the  federation.  New 
charters  were  issued  to  three  international 
unions,  61  city  central  bodies,  207  local  trade- 
unions,  and  55  Federal  labor  unions. 

Restriction  of  Membership.  In  almost 
every  American  union  the  applicant  for  admis- 


TRADE-UNIONS 


TRADE-UNIONS  406 


sion  must  be  accepted  by  the  local  which,  he  de¬ 
sires  to  enter,  and  in  voting  upon  applicants  a 
minority  of  the  members — in  some  important 
unions  as  few  as  three  blackballs — are  usually 
sufficient  to  exclude  the  candidate.  But  in  most 
American  unions  the  terms  of  admission  are 
purely  nominal. 

Entrance  to  a  Trade.  Trade-union  regula¬ 
tions  concerning  the  entrance  to  a  trade  fall  un¬ 
der  four  heads:  apprenticeship,  limitation  of  boy 
labor,  progression  within  the  trade,  and  the  ex¬ 
clusion  of  women.  Boy  labor  will  be  treated 
with  the  limitation  of  apprenticeship,  while  the 
regulation  of  promotion  within  a  trade  is  not  a 
question  of  great  practical  importance  in  Amer¬ 
ican  unions,  except  perhaps  in  the  union  of  Post 
Office  Clerks,  where  for  obvious  reasons  the  regu¬ 
lation  of  promotion  becomes  the  main  object. 
The  exclusion  of  women  is  no  longer  attempted 
by  American  or  English  unions,  the  only  case 
to  the  contrary  in  the  United  States  known  to 
the  writer  being  that  of  the  Upholsterers’  In¬ 
ternational  Union  of  North  America.  Never¬ 
theless,  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  female 
breadwinners  are  organized.  In  Great  Britain, 
e.g.,  in  1911  the  women  and  girls  constituted 
only  9  per  cent  of  the  members  of  trade-unions 
and  were  found  in  only  187  out  of  the  1168 
unions,  though  the  census  of  occupations  showed 
that  the  female  breadwinners  were  nearly  one- 
third  as  numerous  as  the  males.  In  1912  in 
New  York  State  the  women  constituted  7  per 
cent  of  all  members  of  trade-unions. 

Regulation  of  Apprenticeship  and  Boy- 
Labor.  The  regulation  of  apprenticeship  was 
not  in  origin  a  trade-union  policy ;  it  was  intro¬ 
duced,  adopted,  and  sanctioned  by  statute  law 
at  a  time  when  the  trade-union  did  not  exist. 
Consequently,  although  the  trade-unions  indorse 
the  regulation  of  apprenticeship  with  striking 
unanimity  and  still  regard  it  as  an  ideal,  such 
regulation  is  at  present  enforced  only  in  an  in¬ 
significant  number  of  trades  and  seems  to  be 
disappearing.  The  apprentice  system  is  much 
less  prevalent  in  the  United  States  than  in  Creat 
Britain;  and  in  the  latter  country  in  1897  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Webb  estimated  that  out  of  1,490,000 
members  of  the  trade-unions  only  90,000  belonged 
to  unions  actually  able  to  enforce  apprentice 
regulations.  The  desirability  and  expediency  of 
the  regulation  of  apprenticeship  by  trade-unions 
are  questionable.  An  examination  of  the  ap¬ 
prenticeship  regulations  of  the  few  Amei  ican 
labor-unions  which  are  able  to  enforce  them 
shows  that  the  educational  motive  is  decidedly 
a  minor  one,  while  these  regulations  exercise 
no  perceptible  effect  in  checking  child  labor  un¬ 
der  any  given  set  of  conditions.  On  the  other 
hand,  unions  which  have  acquired  sufficient 
power  to  regulate  apprenticeship  have  evinced  a 
strong  disposition  to  restrict  unduly  the  num¬ 
ber  of  apprentices.  A  wide  examination  of  the 
apprenticeship  regulations  of  American  unions 
shows  that  the  average  period  of  apprenticeship 
is  more  than  three  years  and  the  average  num¬ 
ber  of  apprentices  to  journeymen  somewhat  less 
than  1  to  10.  Finally— and  this  seems  con¬ 
clusive — the  restriction  of  membership  to  work¬ 
men  who  have  been  apprenticed  is  not  necessary 
to  the  successful  operation  of  the  union.  The 
United  Mine  Workers,  the  Locomotive  Engineers, 
the  Carpenters  and  Joiners,  and  in  fact  most 
of  the  large  unions,  in  practice  if  not  in  theory, 
are  completely  open. 

Monopolistic  Alliances  between  Trade- 


Unions  and  Employers’  Associations.  The 

evil  possibilities  of  the  policy  of  exclusion  are 
well  illustrated  in  occasional  compacts  between 
trade-unions  and  combinations  of  manufacturers 
in  which  the  two  organizations  combine  to  mo¬ 
nopolize  a  certain  industry  for  the  benefit  of 
both.  In  the  Birmingham  (England)  Metal 
Trades  these  alliances,  as  they  are  called,  were 
common  about  1897-98.  The  essential  featuie 
of  the  Birmingham  alliance  was  an  agreement 
by  which  the  employers  bound  themselves  to 
employ  none  but  union  men,  in  return  for  which 
the  latter  agreed  to  work  for  no  manufacturer 
who  sold  his  product  at  prices  less  than  those 
formally  adopted  by  a  wages  board  composed 
of  an  equal  number  of  employers  and  employees. 
For  every  advance  in  price  there  was  to  be  a 
proportionate,  though  not  an  equal,  advance  in 
wages.  Monopolistic  alliances  of  this  kind  are 
rare  and  as  a  rule  not  lasting. 

Regulation  of  Wages.  The  most  essential 
function,  as  well  as  the  explanation  and  justifi¬ 
cation  of  trade-unionism,  is  the  determination  of 
the  conditions  of  employment  by  collective  in¬ 
stead  of  individual  bargaining.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  condition  of  employment  is  the  rate  of 
wages,  as  is  well  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  in 
both  England  and  the  United  States  more  than 
50  per  cent  of  the  strikes  which  occur  are  from 
wage  disputes.  The  conditions  and  character¬ 
istics  of  the  regulation  of  wages  by  trade-unions 
may  be  briefly  summed  up:  (1)  The  standard 
rate  as  maintained  by  American  unions  is  a  local 
rate  fixed  by  the  local  union.  In  a  few  trades 
working  largely  by  piece,  such  as  the  Potters, 
Glass  Blowers,  etc.,  the  scale  of  prices  is  fixed 
for  the  whole  country  by  the  national  union; 
and  in  a  few  other  unions,  such  as  the  Brewery 
Workmen  and  the  United  Hatters  of  North 
America,  a  national  minimum  time  rate  is  pre¬ 
scribed.  But  in  the  vast  majority  of  unions 
the  regulation  of  wages  is  left  wholly  to  the 
local  union,  and  no  strong  demand  for  uniformity 
seems  to  exist.  (2)  Contrary  to  general  opin¬ 
ion,  the  majority  of  trade-unions,  in  trades  in 
which  it  is  possible,  favor  work  by  the  piece- 
rate  system.  In  England  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Webb 
have  made  a  careful  study  of  the  wage  system 
of  every  trade-union  having  more  than  1000 
members,  unskilled  laborers  and  transport  woik- 
ers  excepted.  Of  these,  111  unions,  having  1,- 
003,000  members,  were  examined;  49,  with 
573,000  members,  insisted  on  piecework;  24,  with 
140,000  members,  willingly  recognized  piece¬ 
work;  and  38,  with  290,000  members,  insisted 
on  time-work.  A  similar  investigation  in  the 
United  States  was  made  by  the  Industrial  Com¬ 
mission.  Information  was  secured  concerning  50 
important  unions  in  which  piecework  was  pos¬ 
sible.  Of  these  unions  28  accepted  the  piecework 
system  in  some  department  without  acti\  e  op¬ 
position,  while  22  unions  either  forbade  or  ac¬ 
tively  discouraged  piecework.  The  reasons  for 
this  are  clear.  In  some  occupations,  such  as 
spinning  and  weaving,  the  intensity  of  the  labor 
is  determined  by  the  speed  of  the  machine, 
or,  speaking  generally,  the  employer  finds  it 
possible  to  set  the  pace  for  the  employee.  In 
such  occupations  it  is  evident  that  the  workers 
will  insist  upon  piece  payment  to  prevent  forcing 
and  overexertion.  In  other  occupations,  such 
as  ordinary  carpentering  or  repair  work  in  gen¬ 
eral,  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  how  much  skill 
or  time  will  be  required  to  perform  a  given  job 
or  piece,  and  here  the  time  rate  is  the  workman  s 


TRADE-UNIONS 


TRADE-UNIONS 


407 


only  defense  against  exploitation.  The  testi¬ 
mony  collected  by  the  Industrial  Commission 
amply  proves  that  the  majority  of  the  labor  lead¬ 
ers  of  the  United  States  would  abolish  the  piece- 
rate  system  instantly  if  it  were  possible.  The 
leaders  hold  that  under  the  piecework  system 
the  most  proficient  workmen  set  the  pace  and 
fix  the  standard  rate,  thereby  depressing  the 
earnings  of  the  less  talented  but  no  less  indus¬ 
trious  or  deserving  shopmate.  In  addition  the 
argument  is  made  that  the  piece-rate  system 
either  encourages  excessive  production  and  thus 
depresses  prices,  or  throws  the  work  into  the 
hands  of  a  few  workmen,  thus  increasing  the 
amount  of  nonemployment,  both  of  which  re¬ 
sults  tend  strongly  to  reduce  wages.  The  feel¬ 
ing  is  also  prevalent  that  the  piece  system  stimu¬ 
lates  employees  tb  overexert  themselves  and  to 
work  themselves  out  at  an  early  age. 

The  piece  system  in  practice  may  be,  and  often 
is,,  manipulated  to  the  injury  of  the  general  body 
of  wage  earners.  It  is  true  that  employers  are 
disposed  to  reduce  piece  rates  as  soon  as  the 
more  efficient  workmen  in  their  employ  demon¬ 
strate  an  ability  to  earn  an  unusually  high  rate 
by  the  system;  and  furthermore,  the  testimony 
seems  convincing  that  in  many  instances  the 
piece-rate  system  leads  overambitious  employees 
to  injure  their  health  in  the  attempt  to  earn  high 
wages;  but  the  objection  to  piecework  on  the 
ground  that  it  leads  to  overproduction,  and  the 
defense  of  a  uniform  wage  irrespective  of  pro¬ 
ductive  power,  are  untenable,  if  not  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  trade-union,  at  least  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  general  public. 

Hours  of  Labor.  The  regulation  of  the  hours 
of  labor  is  an  important  function  of  the  trade- 
union,  as  the  question  of  the  working  day  is 
primarily  one  of  health,  morals,  and  the  neces¬ 
sary  leisure  for  education  and  social  and  reli¬ 
gious  duties.  In  this  respect  the  trade-unions 
have  from  the  beginning  placed  unusual  reliance 
upon  the  law.  But  they  have  also  worked  in¬ 
cessantly  to  reduce  the  hours  of  labor  by  direct 
negotiations  with  employers,  by  strikes,  and  by 
boycotts. 

The  normal  day,  like  the  standard  wage  in 
most  American  unions,  is  generally  left  to  the 
separate  locals,  and  even  in  the  few  nationals 
which  have  a  maximum  working  day  for  the 
whole  country  the  locals  are  left  free  to  secure 
a  shorter  working  day  if  possible.  But  although 
the  locals  have  wide  discretion  in  fixing  the 
normal  day,  the  national  organizations  and  lead¬ 
ers  constantly  urge  them  to  reduce  the  number 
of  hours,  and  among  the  national  organizations 
strong  enough  to  lead  in  this  matter,  laws  re¬ 
quiring  increased  rates  for  overtime,  or  wholly 
forbidding  overtime  except  in  cases  of  extreme 
emergency,  are  common. 

Restriction  of  Output.  The  preceding  sec¬ 
tion  makes  it  plain  that  trade-unions  do  restrict 
the  industrial  output  openly  and  systematically. 
The  restriction  of  the  output  of  individual  work¬ 
ers  is  accomplished  in  several  ways:  by  adopting 
a  normal  day  and  discouraging  or  prohibiting 
overtime;  by  limiting  the  daily  task  or  the  earn¬ 
ings  of  pieceworkers;  by  discouraging  or  pro¬ 
hibiting  the  grading  of  time-workers  and  thus 
leveling  wages;  by  forbidding  piecework,  time¬ 
work,  contract  jobs,  or  the  butty  system ;  and  in 
some  cases  by  encouraging  the  go-easy  system 
of  secret  loafing,  or  the  “adulteration  of  labor.” 

A  variety  of  arguments  are  brought  forward 
in  defense  of  the  general  policy  of  the  limitation 


of  output.  Trade-unions  claim  that  this  is  the 
only  way  of  preventing  overexertion  on  the  part 
of  workmen,  particularly  under  the  piece  sys¬ 
tem  ;  that  it  tends  to  prevent  unemployment  and 
moderates  the  destructive  competition  of  the 
army  of  the  unemployed;  and  finally,  that  it 
tends  to  prevent  overproduction.  There  is  a 
large  degree  of  truth  in  all  these  contentions. 
The  history  of  the  factory  system  is  one  long 
proof  of  the  truth  that,  under  a  regime  of  free¬ 
dom  of  contract  in  the  sale  and  purchase  of 
labor,  wage  earners  are  driven  by  the  employers 
and  led  by  the  pace  of  the  hardier  workmen  to 
impair  the  health  both  of  themselves  and  their 
offspring.  It  is  true  also  that  increased  leisure, 
wisely  spent,  tends  to  elevate  the  standard  of 
life,  and  that  wages  are  in  a  measure  determined 
by  the  standard  of  life;  that  collective  bargain¬ 
ing  presupposes  given  rules  based  upon  the  aver¬ 
age  efficiency  and  endurance,  thus  restraining 
in  its  operation  the  strongest  workmen  from 
doing  their  utmost;  that  in  periods  of  temporary 
depression  distributive  justice  sanctions  a  lim¬ 
itation  of  the  work  and  income  of  each,  in  order 
that  all  may  have  some  work  and  some  income. 

No  judgment  upon  this  subject  may,  however, 
be  rendered  except  in  concrete  cases.  When  the 
United  Mine  Workers  demand  an  eight-hour  day 
in  underground  mines,  the  justice  of  the  demand 
seems  unanswerable;  when  the  Window  Glass 
Workers  insist  on  a  four  months’  stop  each  year, 
the  demand  is  questionable;  but  when  the  Chi¬ 
cago  plumbers  limit,  as  they  did  in  1889,  the 
amount  of  work  in  some  branches  to  about  half 
as  much  as  could  be  performed  by  an  able-bodied 
workman  without  undue  strain,  the  demand  is 
prima  facie  inequitable. 

The  point  is  even  clearer  in  the  limitation  of 
wages  as  distinct  from  the  limitation  of  hours. 
That  the  Detroit  Stove  Founders  should  limit 
piece  earnings  per  day  to  $4.50  may  seem  rea¬ 
sonable  as  a  preventive  of  overexertion  ;  but  that 
time-workers,  like  stonecutters,  carpenters,  and 
coopers,  should  oppose  the  payment  of  more 
than  the  standard  rate  to  exceptionally  efficient 
workers,  or  that  the  machinists  should  oppose  a 
classification  of  their  workmen  by  the  Wrar  and 
Navy  departments,  thus  forcing  all  to  the  level 
of  the  idlest  or  most  incompetent,  seems  in¬ 
defensible.. 

Attitude  towards  Machinery.  Historically 
trade-unions  have  opposed  the  introduction  of 
labor-saving  machinery,  but,  speaking  generally, 
the  unions  have  realized  at  last  that  it  is  im¬ 
possible  effectively  to  oppose  the  introduction  of 
labor-saving  devices;  and  among  trade-union 
leaders  the  number  of  those  who  fully  realize 
that  the  machine  in  the  long  run  is  the  friend 
and  ally  of  the  wage-earning  classes  is  rapidly 
increasing.  Trade-union  leaders  may  be  said  in 
general  to  have  learned  how  to  meet  successfully 
the  industrial  problems  caused  by  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  machinery.  Thus,  when  the  printers 
were  confronted  with  a  great  decrease  in  the  de¬ 
mand  for  labor  as  a  result  of  the  invention 
of  the  typesetting  machine,  the  Typographical 
Union  met  the  problem  in  a  rational  manner. 
It  insisted  that  the  operators  of  the  machines 
should  be  selected  from  ordinary  printers,  and 
that  they  should  be  paid  as  much  at  least  as  the 
wages  of  the  hand  printers.  For  a  short  time 
large  numbers  of  printers  were  thrown  out  of 
employment,  but  in  three  years,  according  to  the 
estimate  of  the  president  of  the  Typographical 
Union,  the  increased  demand  for  printers,  conse- 


TRADE-UNIONS 


TRADE-UNIONS 


408 


quent  upon  the  decrease  in  the  cost  of  printing, 
afforded  work  for  more  than  the  old  supply  of 
printers.  The  justice  of  trade-union  regulation 
respecting  the  use  of  machinery  must  in  each 
case  be  decided  in  accordance  with  its  intent. 
Trade-unions  are  justified  in  the  attempt,  if  not 
clothed  with  the  duty,  of  lessening  hardships  oc¬ 
casioned  by  the  introduction  of  labor-saving 
inventions.  It  is  permanent  antagonism  to  ma¬ 
chinery  which  is  hopeless  and  economically 
fallacious. 

Trade-Union  Insurance.  Mutual  insurance 
— aid  to  the  traveling  journeyman  in  search  of 
work,  assistance  in  case  of  sickness,  and  a  col¬ 
lection  to  defray  burial  expenses — was  perhaps 
the  principal  function  of  the  trade-union  of  the 
eighteenth  century  and  still  constitutes  a  prin¬ 
cipal  function  of  trade-unionism  in  foreign  coun¬ 
tries,  particularly  in  England.  In  the  13  years 
(1898-1910),  e.g.,  the  100  principal  trade-unions 
in  England  expended  $2,948,314  in  dispute  or 
strike  pay,  $6,656,632  in  unemployment  benefits, 
$10,997,694  in  other  benefits,  and  $5,567,926  for 
administration  expenses. 

Among  American  unions,  however,  conditions 
are  entirely  different.  Of  115  international 
unions  reporting  to  the  Federation  of  Labor  in 
1911,  71  paid  death  benefits  to  the  amount  of 
$1,471,381.37,  29  paid  $818,556.88  in  sick  bene¬ 
fits,  8  paid  traveling  benefits  of  $58,784.71,  3 
paid  tool  insurance  to  the  amount  of  $5,648.70, 
and  16  paid  total  unemployment  benefits  of 
$218,742.71. 

While  it  is  evident  that  the  friendly  benefit 
is  not  essential  to  the  successful  conduct  of  a 
trade-union,  it  is  also  true  that  the  leading 
American  labor  leaders  strongly  advise  the  in¬ 
stitution  of  the  benefit  system,  and  in  unions 
maintaining  this  system  it  has  been  of  immense 
service  in  accumulating  large  reserve  funds,  in 
forcing  obedience  from  members,  in  preventing 
them  from  dropping  out  when  their  interest 
wanes,  and  in  stimulating  a  more  conservative 
policy  in  general.  The  powerful  Cigar  Makers’ 
International  Union,  e.g.,  and  the  railroad 
brotherhoods  furnish  illustrations  of  the  advan¬ 
tages  of  the  insurance  system  as  an  auxiliary 
to  trade-unionism.  (See  Railway  Brother¬ 
hoods.)  The  insurance  function,  however,  is 
strictly  subordinate,  except  in  one  or  twTo  organi¬ 
zations.  The  insurance  funds  are  unprotected 
and  may  be  expended  in  strikes,  trade  wars,  or 
for  any  purposes  meeting  the  approval  of  con¬ 
stituted  authorities.  After  having  paid  insur¬ 
ance  assessments  for  years  the  individual  mem¬ 
ber  may  be  expelled  for  a  trifling  infraction  of 
rules,  or  may  see  the  insurance  system  abolished 
and  all  funds  dissipated  in  supporting  a  sympa¬ 
thetic  strike.  Nevertheless  the  individual  mem¬ 
bers  acquiesce  in  this  condition  of  affairs  and 
oppose  any  attempt  at  regulative  legislation. 
The  widespread  opposition  of  trade-unions  to  in¬ 
corporation  rests  largely  upon  the  belief  that  it 
would  destroy  this  unlimited  freedom  in  the  use 
of  insurance  funds. 

Collective  Bargaining,  Arbitration,  and 
Conciliation.  Modern  political  economy  recog¬ 
nizes  in  collective  bargaining  a  legitimate  and  the 
most  important  function  of  trade-unionism. 
This  concerted  action,  by  which  employers  are 
prevented  from  fixing  wages  at  the  rate  accept¬ 
able  to  the  neediest  competitor,  is  the  goal  and 
aim  of  trade-unionism.  The  walking  delegate, 
or  business  agent,  who  represents  a  body  of  union 
workmen,  advises  them  wThat  rate  of  wages  to 


demand,  and  conducts  their  negotiations  for 
them,  is  thus  not  an  ugly  incident,  but  an  es¬ 
sential  necessity  of  trade-unionism — the  very 
heart  of  the  institution. 

In  England  systematic  collective  bargaining 
by  recurrent  joint  conferences  wTas  first  intro¬ 
duced  in  the  hoisery  trade  about  1860.  At  the 
present  time  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Webb  estimate  “that 
in  all  skilled  trades  where  men  work  in  concert 
on  the  employer’s  premises  90  per  cent  of  the 
workmen  find  either  their  rate  of  wages  or  their 
hours  of  work  and  often  many  other  details  pre¬ 
determined  by  a  collective  bargain  in  which  they 
personally  have  taken  no  part,  but  in  which  their 
interests  have  been  dealt  with  by  representatives 
of  their  class.”  And  in  the  United  States  the 
system  has  been  introduced  to  an  extent  scarcely 
realized  by  the  general  public.  Thousands  of 
local  agreements  exist  in  the  cities,  particularly 
in  building  industries;  in  about  a  dozen  trades 
national  agreements  exist.  The  history  of  trade 
arbitration  and  collective  bargaining  shows  that 
the  value  of  these  agreements  lies  in  the  concilia¬ 
tory  spirit  engendered  by  conferences  in  which 
employees  and  employers  meet  on  a  footing  of 
friendly  equality.  This  arbitrator  or  umpire, 
with  decisive  vote,  is  relatively  unimportant. 
The  reason  for  this  statement  lies  in  the  im¬ 
portant  difference  between  the  adoption  of  new 
contracts  and  the  interpretation  of  existing 
contracts.  The  latter  function  is  judicial  and 
may  safely  be  left  to  authoritative  arbiters.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  adoption  of  new  principles, 
or  the  determination  of  future  conditions,  is  a 
matter  of  competitive  struggle,  which,  except 
on  extraordinary  occasions,  should  not  be  left 
to  outside  parties,  however  disinterested.  Recog¬ 
nizing  this  truth,  trade-union  leaders  generally 
oppose  compulsory  arbitration;  and  even  in  col¬ 
lective  bargaining  arbitration  seems  to  be  going 
out  of  favor  both  in  England  and  the  United 
States.  In  the  printing  (newspaper)  and  gen¬ 
eral  foundry  trades  agreements  for  arbitration 
exist,  but  none  of  the  national  systems  of  collec¬ 
tive  bargaining  in  the  United  States  contain  a 
provision  for  arbitration  in  case  representatives 
of  employers  and  employees  fail  to  agree. 

Collective  bargaining  is  somewhat  dependent 
upon  the  organization  of  employers,  and  it  in¬ 
creases  in  extent  and  efficiency  as  employers’ 
organizations  increase.  Associations  of  employ¬ 
ers  are  not  new,  but  in  the  last  few  years  they 
have  become  not  only  more  numerous  than  in  the 
past,  but  more  systematic  and  more  thoroughly 
managed.  (See  Trade  Associations.)  Most  of 
the  existing  manufacturers’  associations,  like 
the  Stove  Founders’  National  Defense  Associa¬ 
tion  and  the  National  Association  of  Builders, 
encourage  collective  bargaining  and  thus  make 
for  industrial  peace.  A  large  majority  of  Amer¬ 
ican  unions  officially  indorse  arbitration  and 
conciliation.  In  Great  Britain  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Webb  think  that  the  opposition  to  arbitration 
in  the  strict  sense  is  steadily  growing.  In  the 
United  States  opinion  is  divided,  and  it  is  im¬ 
possible  to  say  whether  opposition  is  increasing 
or  decreasing.  It  is,  however,  indisputable  that 
the  employees  far  more  frequently  invoke  the 
aid  of  State  boards  of  arbitration  than  the  em¬ 
ployers,  and  that  they  are  practically  undivided 
in  support  of  collective  bargaining  on  the  one 
hand  and  in  opposition  to  compulsory  arbitration 
on  the  other  hand. 

Strikes.  Trade-union  regulations  respecting 
strikes  (see  Strikes  and  Lockouts)  are  so  di- 


TRADE-UNIONS 


TRADE-UNIONS 


409 


verse  that  it  is  impossible  to  describe  them  in  a 
few  sentences.  Generally  speaking,  the  local 
union  is  the  active  agent  in  the  strike;  the  na¬ 
tional  organizations  in  which  a  local  may  be 
forced  to  strike  against  its  will  number  prob¬ 
ably  less  than  a  dozen,  and  in  only  three  or  four 
may  a  local  be  expelled  for  striking  against 
the  decision  of  the  national  officers.  The  con¬ 
trol  of  the  locals  is  through  the  purse.  Many 
unions  maintain  protective  funds,  or  war  chests, 
which  in  well-managed  organizations  assume  very 
respectable  proportions.  If  the  local  desires 
strike  pay  and  other  financial  support,  it  must 
refrain  from  striking  except  in  accordance  with 
established  regulations  of  the  union.  In  the 
better  organized  unions  a  procedure  like  the  fol¬ 
lowing  is  imposed  upon  locals:  Before  the  strike 
may  be  considered  a  local  grievance  committee, 
or  the  local  president  or  business  agent,  must 
attempt  to  settle  the  grievance  amicably  with  the 
employer  in  question.  If  this  fails/ the  local 
may  then  vote  upon  the  question  of  striking,  and 
this  ballot  is  usually  secret,  while  in  most  unions 
a  two-thirds  vote  is  required  to  authorize  the 
strike.  If  the  local  indorses  the  strike,  the 
decision  must  be  ratified  by  the  national  presi¬ 
dent  or  executive  board,  and  at  this  point,  again, 
most  unions  require  the  national  president  to 
proceed  to  the  scene  immediately  and  make 
every  effort  to  adjust  the  grievance  by  peaceable 
negotiation  with  the  employer.  Only  after  the 
failure  of  this  attempt  may  the  national  sanc¬ 
tion  be  conferred  upon  the  strike. 

The  effect  of  such  regulations  can  be  easily  ap¬ 
preciated.  The  strike  of  the  past  was  sporadic, 
passionate,  and  directed  against  some  abuse 
which  the  workers  believed  intolerable.  The 
strike  of  the  present  day  is  deliberately  and  sys¬ 
tematically  conducted;  it  marks  the  rising  mar¬ 
ket  and  periods  of  prosperity;  with  many  trade- 
unions  it  has  become  a  settled  policy.  It  is  not 
intended  to  suggest  that  trade-unions  encourage 
strikes;  the  general  opinion  of  economic  writers 
is  to  the  contrary.  What  is  meant  is  that  the 
strike  as  conducted  by  the  trade-union  is  gov¬ 
erned  by  interest  and  not  by  passion;  and  that 
“while  the  most  intelligent  and  conservative 
labor  leaders  freely  recognize  the  expensiveness 
of  strikes  and  desire  to  supplant  them  as  far 
as  possible  with  peaceable  methods  of  negotia¬ 
tion,  they  almost  uniformly  maintain  that  work¬ 
ingmen  gain  in  the  long  run  far  more  than  they 
lose  by  the  general  policy  of  striking.”  For  the 
statistics  of  strikes,  see  Strikes  and  Lockouts. 

Boycotts.  The  American  union  has  done  with 
the  boycott  what  it  has  done  with  the  strike — 
made  it  less  violent,  but  more  deliberate  and 
systematic.  The  old  form  of  boycott — the  fiery 
crusade  for  the  social  and  commercial  ostracism 
of  the  offending  employer — is  still  met  with  oc¬ 
casionally,  but  the  favorite  method  at  present 
is  to  place  the  recalcitrant  employer  on  an  un¬ 
fair  list  and  spread  the  ban  through  the  medium 
of  the  labor  press.  The  initiative  is  largely 
taken  by  complaint  of  the  local  union  to  the  na¬ 
tional  executive  board  that  some  employer  is 
violating  union  rules.  The  national  officers 
usually  offer  the  employer  a  hearing  at  which  to 
disprove  the  charges,  or  offer  proof  of  intention 
to  discontinue  the  objectionable  practice,  and 
if  such  proof  is  not  supplied  the  offender  is 
placed  on  the  list  of  merchants  or  manufactur¬ 
ers  with  whom  loyal  trade-unionists  are  encour¬ 
aged  to  have  no  business  dealings  either  as  pur¬ 
chasers  of  commodities  or  sellers  of  labor.  A 


majority  of  American  unions  use  this  system  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent.  The  Federation  of 
Labor  gives  national  scope  to  the  more  impor¬ 
tant  boycotts  by  indorsing  them  and  including 
the  offenders’  names  in  the  column  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Federationist.  It  is  clear  that  if  the 
1,465,800  or  more  members  of  the  Federation 
strictly  observed  every  official  boycott  the  latter 
would  become  a  formidable  weapon  against  man¬ 
ufacturers  and  sellers  of  commodities  in  general 
use  among  the  laboring  classes.  The  observance, 
however,  is  so  lax  that  the  boycott  is  not  ef¬ 
fective  except  in  a  few  industries,  such  as  the 
brewing  industry,  and  in  some  union  strong¬ 
holds,  such  as  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  the  larger 
cities  generally. 

The  question  of  the  legality  'of  boycotts  has 
long  been  a  matter  of  controversy  in  the  Ameri¬ 
can  courts.  In  the  Danbury  Hatters’  case  in 
1915  the  Supreme  Court  of' the  United  States 
held  that  a  boycott  conducted  by  a  trade-union 
against  a  firm  whose  products  are  sold  in  any 
State  other  than  that  in  which  they  are  manu¬ 
factured,  constitutes  a  combination  in  restraint 
of  trade  and  is  in  violation  of  the  Sherman  Anti¬ 
trust  Act.  While  this  case  was  in  the  courts, 
in  1914,  the  Clayton  Act  was  passed,  including 
a  clause  which  expressly  declares  that  boycotts 
are  not  in  violation  of  any  law  of  the  United 
States. 

Finally,  trade-unions  exert  what  is  often  called 
“a  legal  boycott”  through  the  familiar  union 
label,  which  has  played  such  an  important  part 
in  the  building  up  of  the  Cigarmakers’,  Garment 
Workers’,  and  Hatters’  unions  in  America,  and 
the  use  of  which  is  now  spreading,  not  only 
among  American  unions,  but  among  those  of 
England,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Australia.  See 
Union  Label. 

Bibliography.  Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb, 
History  of  Trade  Unionism  (new  ed.,  London, 
1911),  containing  an  exhaustive  bibliography ; 
Adams  and  Sumner,  Labor  Problems  (New 
York,  1905)  ;  R,.  T.  Ely,  The  Labor  Movement 
in  America  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1905)  ;  Hollander  and 
Barnett,  Studies  in  American  Trade  Unionism 
(ib.,  1906)  ;  Samuel  Gompers,  Labor  in  Europe 
and  America  (ib.,  1910)  ;  F.  T.  Carlton,  History 
and  Problems  of  Organized  Labor  (Boston, 
1911);  E.  D.  Bullock  (comp.),  Selected  Ar¬ 
ticles  on  Trade-Unionism  (White  Plains,  N.  Y., 
1913)  ;  Helen  Marot,  American  Labor  Unions 
(New  York,  1914);  Louis  Levine,  Syndicalism 
in  France  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1914);  also  Annual  Re¬ 
ports  of  the  Industrial  Commission  (Washing¬ 
ton,  1885  et  seq.)  ;  Bulletins  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Labor  (ib.,  bimonthly)  ;  Report  of  the 
Royal  Commission  on  Labor  (London,  annually)  ; 
Reports  of  the  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statis¬ 
tics  of  Labor  (Boston);  Annual  Reports  of  the 
New  York  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  and 
monthly  journals  published  by  various  trade- 
unions. 

TRADE-UNIONS,  THE  GENERAL  FED¬ 
ERATION  OF.  The  central  labor  organiza¬ 
tion  of  Great  Britain.  It  was  organized  July 
1,  1899,  under  the  auspices  of  the  British  Trade- 
Union  Congress  for  the  purposes  of  upholding 
“the  rights  of  combination  of  labor,”  promoting 
industrial  peace,  and  establishing  a  fund  for 
mutual  assistance  and  support.  The  Federation 
is  “open  to  every  bona-fide  trade-union  in  Great 
Britain,”  but  the  unit  of  membership  is  the 
trade-union  and  “no  branches  or  individuals  are 
allowed  to  join.”  It  is  governed  by  a  general 


TRADE  WINDS 


410  TRAFFIC  AND  TRAFFIC  PROBLEMS 


council  of  delegates  which  meets  annually,  and 
between  these  sessions  by  a  management  com¬ 
mittee  of  15.  Appeals  may  be  taken  from  the 
decisions  of  both  the  council  and  the  committee 
to  the  general  membership.  The  Federation  is 
“nonpolitical  and  nonlegislative,”  leaving  to 
the  Labor  Representation  Committee  ( see  Labor 
Party,  British)  the  campaign  for  the  elec¬ 
tion  of  labor  representatives  to  Parliament, 
and  to  the  Parliament  committee  of  the 
Trade-Union  Congress  the  agitation  for  favor¬ 
able  labor  laws.  The  Federation  pays,  in 
strikes  authorized  by  the  general  council  or  the 
management  committee,  two  grades  of  strike 
benefits — five  shillings  a  week  per  member  “on 
the  higher  scale”  and  half  this  amount  “on 
the  lower  scale.”  Unions  on  the  higher  scale 
contribute  sixpence  a  member  per  quarter,  and 
unions  on  the  lower  scale  threepence  a  member 
per  quarter,  on  90  per  cent  of  the  total  member¬ 
ship,  exclusive  of  superannuated  members.  In 
cases  of  emergency  the  management  committee 
is  authorized  to  increase  the  regular  dues  100 
per  cent.  The  entrance  fee  is  one  penny  per 
member  upon  90  per  cent  of  the  total  member¬ 
ship,  but  in  addition  it  is  provided  that  “Any 
society  desirous  of  joining  the  Federation  shall 
pay  ten  per  cent  of  the  average  worth  per  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  class  or  scale  the  union  or  society  is 
joining,  in  addition  to  their  entrance  fee,  but 
any  society  not  in  existence  at  the  time  of  adop¬ 
tion  of  this  scheme  shall  be  allowed  to  join  on 
payment  of  five  per  cent  of  the  average  worth 
per  member  of  the  Federation  at  the  time  of 
joining.”  No  union  is  entitled  to  benefits  until 
it  has  belonged  to  the  Federation  for  12  months. 
The  Federation  started  with  343,000  members. 
In  1910  the  membership  was  709,564. 

TRADE  WINDS.  See  Wind. 

TRADING  STAMPS.  Slips  of  engraved  or 
printed  paper,  usually  in  the  form  of  gummed 
stamps,  which  are  given  by  merchants  to  pur¬ 
chasers  of  goods  and  which  may  be  presented  to 
some  person  or  corporation  in  exchange  for  ar¬ 
ticles  of  value.  The  purchasers  of  goods  are 
generally  given  books  in  which  the  stamps  are 
pasted  until  a  sufficient  number  have  accumu¬ 
lated  for  redemption.  The  advertising  advan¬ 
tages  of  this  scheme  have  made  it  very  profitable, 
and  one  method  of  obtaining  the  desired  publi¬ 
city  is  the  printing  of  books  containing  the  names 
of  "all  subscribers  and  distributing  these  books 
among  the  residents  of  the  surrounding  country 
or  district. 

Although  frequently  attacked  as  constituting  a 
contract  void  against  public  policy,  because  of 
the  element  of  chance  involved,  the  courts  have 
uniformly  upheld  such  contracts.  In  certain 
specific  instances,  however,  as  when  stamps  con¬ 
taining  certain  numbers,  the  obtaining  of  which 
depends  upon  mere  chance,  are  more  valuable 
than  others,  the  scheme  constitutes  a  violation 
of  the  statutes  against  the  maintenance  of  lot¬ 
teries.  Because  of  the  claim  that  the  trading- 
stamp  business  is  demoralizing  in  that  it  fosters 
a  desire  in  the  public  to  get  something  for  noth¬ 
ing  and  that  it  tends  to  maintain  the  gambling 
spirit,  statutes  were  passed  in  many  States  pro¬ 
hibiting  the  distribution  of  such  stamps.  It 
was  contended  also  that  the  scheme  was  objec¬ 
tionable  because  many  people  who  received 
stamps  failed  to  present  them  for  the  premium 
offered,  and  that  in  any  event  the  dealer  dis¬ 
tributing  the  stamps  was  bound  to  reduce  the 
quality  of  his  wares  or  increase  the  price. 


These  statutes,  however,  have,  with  a  few  slight 
exceptions  depending  upon  the  peculiar  wording 
of  the  particular  statute,  been  held  to  be  un¬ 
constitutional  as  an  improper  exercise  of  the 
police  power  and  a  taking  of  property  without 
due  process  of  law.  Such  was  the  fate  of  such 
legislation  in  New  York  and  New  Hampshire. 
See  Lottery. 

TRADU'CIANISM  (from  Lat.  traducianus, 
from  tradux ,  vine  branch  for  propagation,  from 
traducer,  to  lead  along,  train,  propagate,  from 
trans,  across,  through  -j-  ducere,  to  lead ) .  One 
of  the  theories  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  ex¬ 
plaining  the  production  of  the  soul  in  the  pro¬ 
creation  of  human  species.  It  is  ascribed  to 
Tertullian  (q.v.)  as  its  first  author  and  is 
elaborately  explained  and  defended  by  him  in 
his  book  On  the  Soul,  written  after  he  had  lapsed 
into  the  Montanist  heresy.  In  opposition  to 
others  who  had  held  the  theory  of  preexist¬ 
ence  of  souls,  Tertullian  taught  that  souls,  like 
bodies,  are  propagated  from  one  generation 
to  the  next.  In  another  place  he  describes  this 
origin  of  soul  from  soul  as  generation,  and  even 
of  a  class  analogous  to  corporeal  generation ;  and 
this  more  gross  and  material  exposition  of  the 
theory  of  traducianism  is  sometimes  called  gener- 
ationism,  which,  however,  is  commonly  looked 
upon  as  a  totally  distinct  theory.  A  third 
hypothesis  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  soul 
is  that  of  creationism  (q.v.). 

TRAETTA,  trli-et'ta,  Tommaso  (1727-79). 
An  Italian  composer,  born  at  Bitonto.  He  stud¬ 
ied  at  the  Conservatorio  di  Loreto,  Naples  (1738- 
48),  and  in  1751  produced  his  first  opera,  Far- 
nace,  in  Naples.  From  1765  to  1768  he  was  a 
director  of  a  conservatory  in  Venice  and  re¬ 
signed  to  become  court  composer  to  Catharine  II 
at  St.  Petersburg.  Of  his  40  operas  perhaps  the 
most  important  is  Ippolito  ed  Aricia  (1759), 
which  gained  for  its  composer  a  life  pension 
from  the  King  of  Spain.  His  works  were  char¬ 
acterized  by  theatrical  effectiveness  and  harmonic 
vigor.  Consult  V.  Capruzzi,  Traetta  e  la  musica 
(Naples,  1878). 

TRAFALGAR',  or,  more  commonly  in  Eng¬ 
land,  tra-fal'ger,  Cape.  A  low  promontory  on 
the  south  coast  of  Spain,  about  29  miles  south¬ 
west  of  Tarifa  (q.v.),  at  the  western  entrance 
to  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  It  is  memorable  for 
the  great  naval  victory  obtained  off  its  shores 
by  the  British  fleet  under  Nelson  over  the  com¬ 
bined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  on  Oct.  21, 
1805.  The  allies  had  33  ships,  commanded  by 
the  French  vice  admiral,  Villeneuve,  while  Nel¬ 
son  had  27.  The  British  fleet  was  arranged  in 
two  columns.  The  first  under  Collingwood  fell 
upon  the  rear  of  the  allied  fleet,  commanded  by 
the  Spanish  vice  admiral,  Gravina.  After  a  ter¬ 
rible  contest,  in  which  Nelson  himself  lost  his 
life,  the  two  British  columns  completely  disor¬ 
ganized  the  hostile  line.  Eighteen  ships  were 
captured,  and  Napoleon’s  naval  power  was  gone 
forever.  For  the  influence  this  victory  had  on 
the  course  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  see  Nelson, 
Horatio;  Napoleon  I.  Consult  Edward  Fraser, 
The  Enemy  at  Trafalgar  (London,  1906). 

TRAFALGAR  SQUARE.  A  London  square 
named  from  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  and  contain¬ 
ing  the  imposing  granite  column  in  memory  of 
Nelson  and  statues  of  Havelock,  Napier,  Gor¬ 
don,  and  George  IV.  About  it  are  many  public 
buildings. 

TRAFFIC  AND  TRAFFIC  PROBLEMS. 

See  Railways. 


TRAFTON 


41 1  TRAJAN 


TRAF'TON,  Mark  (1810—1901).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  born  in  Ban¬ 
gor,  Me.  He  joined  the  Maine  conference  in 
1831,  but  held  most  of  his  charges  in  the  New 
England  and  Providence  conferences.  In  1855, 
while  serving  as  pastor  at  Westfield,  Mass.,  he 
was  elected  to  represent  his  district  in  the 
Thirty-fourth  Congress.  He  was  known  as  a 
poet  also.  He  published :  A  Plea  for  Infant  Bap¬ 
tism  and  against  Exclusive  Immersion  (1846)  ; 
Rambles  in  Europe  (1852)  ;  The  Safe  Investment 
(1856);  Baptism,  Subjects  and  Modes  (1870); 
Scenes  in  my  Life  (1877). 

TRAG'ACANTH.  See  Gums. 

TRAGEDY.  See  Drama. 

TRAGIC  POET,  House  of  the.  One  of  the 
most  attractive  houses  of  Pompeii,  made  famous 
as  the  home  of  Glaucus  in  Bulwer’s  Last  Days 
of  Pompeii.  The  name  was  assigned  through 
misconception  of  a  painting  discovered  at  the 
time  of  the  excavation.  It  had  two  stories  and 
was  richly  decorated  with  paintings,  among  them, 
‘‘The  Nuptials  of  Zeus  and  Hera”  and  “The  Send¬ 
ing  Away  of  Briseis,”  both  preserved  in  the 
Naples  Museum,  together  with  the  noted  mosaic 
of  a  dog  with  the  motto  “Cave  Canem,”  origi¬ 
nally  in  the  floor  of  the  vestibule.  Consult 
August  Mau,  Pompeii:  Its  Life  and  Art  (Eng. 
trans.  by  F.  W.  Kelsey,  2d  ed.,  New  York,  1902). 

TRAG'OPAN  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  rpayos, 
tragos,  goat  _=| -  II av,  Pan,  Pan ) ,  or  Horned 
Pheasant.  One  of  the  pheasant-like  birds  of 
the  genus  Tragopan,  which  have  naked  cheeks,  a 
hornlike  caruncle  projecting  backward  from  be¬ 
hind  each  eye,  and  a  loose  wattle,  capable  of  be¬ 
ing  inflated,  hanging  beneath  the  bill.  Five 
species  are  known,  all  found  in  India  and  China. 
They  are  brilliantly  colored,  live  high  up  among 
the  mountains,  and  are  probably  the  only  mem¬ 
bers  of  their  family  which  nest  in  trees.  See 
Horned  Pheasant. 

TRAILING  ARBUTUS.  See  Arbutus, 
Trailing. 

TRAILL,  tral,  Catherine  Parr.  A  sister  of 
Agnes  Strickland  ( q.v. ) . 

TRAILL,  Henry  Duff  (1842-1900).  An 
English  journalist  and  author,  born  at  Black- 
heath,  near  London.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Merchant  Taylors’  School,  London,  and  at  St. 
John’s  College,  Oxford.  In  1869  he  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple,  but  he  soon  gave 
up  law  for  journalism.  He  edited  the  Observer 
from  1889  to  1891  and  was  the  projector  and 
first  editor  of  Literature  (established  1897). 
Traill  did  much  miscellaneous  work  of  good 
quality.  For  the  “English  Men  of  Letters  Series” 
he  wrote  Sterne  (1882)  and  Coleridge  (1884); 
for  “English  Worthies,”  Shaftesbury  (1886); 
for  “English  Statesmen,”  William  III  (1888); 
and  for  “English  Men  of  Action”  Strafford 
(1889).  Other  biographies  by  him  are  Lord 
Salisbury  (1891),  Sir  John  Franklin  (1896), 
and  Lord  Cromer  (1897).  In  politics  and  his¬ 
tory  notable  works  of  his  are:  Central  Govern¬ 
ment  (1881);  the  exhaustive  Social  England 
(1892-1904),  of  which  he  was  editor:  From 
Cairo  to  the  Soudan  Frontier  (1896)  ;  England, 
EffVPt,  and  the  Soudan  (posthumous,  i900). 
The  New  Lucian  ( 1884) ,  Number  Twenty  ( 1892 ) , 
and  The  New  Fiction  and  Other  Essays  (1897) 
represent  him  at  his  best  as  a  satirist  and  as 
a  commentator  on  life  whose  humor  is  stronglv 
tinctured  with  melancholy.  Political  verse  con¬ 
tributed  to  various  periodicals  was  collected 
under  the  titles  Recaptured  Rhymes  (1882)  and 
You.  XXII.— 27 


Saturday  Songs  (from  the  Saturday  Review , 
1890). 

TRAIN,  George  Francis  (1829-1904).  An 
American  author,  born  in  Boston,  Mass.  Af¬ 
ter  engaging  in  the  mercantile  business  in  Bos¬ 
ton  and  Australia  he  went  to  England  in  1860 
and  undertook  to  form  street-railway  companies 
in  Birkenhead  and  London,  but  his  plans  were 
obstructed  by  legal  opposition.  His  publications 
include:  An  American  Merchant  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Australia  (1851);  Young  America  Abroad 
(1857);  Irish  Independency  (1865);  Champion¬ 
ship  of  Women  (1868).  He  also  published  an 
autobiography  entitled  My  Life  in  Many  States 
and  in  Foreign  Lands  (1902). 

TRAIN  BANDS.  Early  English  militia 
raised  by  commissions  of  musters  and  organized 
and  drilled  as  military  bodies.  On  the  abolition 
of  the  fyrd  in  1604,  James  I  organized  in  its 
place  the  train  bands  to  the  number  of  nearly 
200,000  men.  As  an  organization  the  train  bands 
were  neither  militia  nor  volunteers,  but  partook 
of  the  nature  of  both  and  in  point  of  efficiency 
lacked  both  discipline  and  drill.  During  the 
Civil  War  they  sided  almost  to  a  unit  with  the 
Parliamentarians  and  rendered  very  effective 
service.  After  the  Restoration  the  command  and 
control  of  the  army  w^ere  definitely  assigned  to 
the  King;  before  this  time  the  question  had  been 
in  doubt.  The  term  is  also  found  in  connection 
with4  forces  of  militia  in  the  early  American 
Colonies. 

TRAIN  DISPATCHING.  See  Railways. 

TRAINED  NURSES.  See  Nurses,  Train¬ 
ing  of. 

TRAINING.  See  Physical  Education. 

TRAIN  STOP,  Automatic.  See  Block- 
Signal  System. 

TRA'JAN  (Marcus  Ulpius  Traianus) 
(51-117  a.d.).  A  Roman  Emperor  (98-117), 
born  at  Italica,  near  Seville,  in  Spain.  He  was 
descended  from  a  family  which  was  probably  of 
Roman  origin  and  was  early  trained  to  arms, 
becoming  a  leader  in  the  Parthian  and  German 
campaigns  during  the  reigns  of  Titus  and  Domi- 
tian.  He  was  prsetor  (85)  and  consul  (91)  and 
was  adopted  (97)  by  Nerva  (q.v.)  as  his  col¬ 
league  and  successor.  Trajan  celebrated  his  ac¬ 
cession,  in  January,  98,  by  largesses  to  the  sol¬ 
diers  and  to  Roman  citizens  and  their  children. 
He  also  made  provision  out  of  the  Imperial 
treasury  for  the  maintenance  of  the  children  of 
poor  freemen  in  Rome  and  other  Italian  towns. 
In  101  Trajan  set  out  on  his  first  campaign 
against  the  Dacians,  who  had  exacted  tribute 
from  Rome  since  Domitian’s  time.  The  struggle 
was  long  and  destructive,  but  the  Romans  at 
last  gained  a  decisive  superiority  and  in  a  sub¬ 
sequent  campaign  (104-105)  completely  subdued 
their  opponents,  whose  country  thenceforth  be¬ 
came  the  Roman  province  of  Dacia  and  was  se¬ 
cured  by  partial  colonization.  This  conquest, 
the  first  since  the  death  of  Augustus,  vras  cele¬ 
brated,  on  Trajan’s  return  to  Rome,  by  a  tri¬ 
umph  and  by  games  on  a  most  extensive  scale, 
which  continued  for  four  months.  The  Column 
of  Trajan  was  erected  to  commemorate  this  vic¬ 
tory.  In  106  Trajan  again  went  to  the  East. 
Landing  in  Syria,  he  marched  northward,  re¬ 
ceiving  on  his  way  the  submission  of  numerous 
princes,  and  conquered  Armenia,  wffiich  he  made 
a  province.  The  record  of  the  events  of  the  next 
seven  years  of  Trajan’s  reign  is  extremely  de¬ 
fective,  the  few  notices  in  Dio  Cassius  and  others 
being  insufficient  for  the  construction  of  a  con- 


TRAJAN 


TRAJECTORY 


412 


secutive  narrative.  In  115  he  again  set  out  from 
Syria,  directing  his  march  this  time  against  the 
Parthian  Empire.  He  took  Ctesiphon  almost 
without  a  struggle  and,  descending  the  Tigris, 
subdued  the  tribes  on  both  banks,  being  the  first 
and  only  Roman  general  who  navigated  the  Per¬ 
sian  Gulf.  On  his  return  he  found  that  Mesopo¬ 
tamia,  north  Syria,  and  Arabia  required  to  be 
subdued  again.  This  being  done,  and  Partliia 
again  conquered,  Trajan  attempted  to  reach 
Italy,  but  died  at  Selinus  in  Cilicia. 

Though  most  of  Trajan’s  reign  was  spent  in 
the  gratification  of  his  warlike  ambition,  inter¬ 
nal  affairs  were  not  neglected;  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  justice  was  vigorous  and  impartial;  that 
of  finance  was  equally  acceptable;  informers 
( delatores )  were  severely  punished,  and  pecu¬ 
lating  governors  of  provinces  rigorously  prose¬ 
cuted.  The  improvement  and  beautifying  of 
Rome  were  carried  on ;  the  Empire  was  traversed 
in  all  directions  by  new  military  routes,  canals 
and  bridges  were  constructed,  new  towns  built, 
the  Via  Appia  was  restored,  the  magnificent 
Forum  Traiani  erected,  and  the  harbor  of  Cen¬ 
tum  Cell®  (Civitavecchia)  constructed.  Dur¬ 
ing  Trajan’s  reign  a  mild  persecution  of  the 
Christians  took  place.  Consult:  Johannes  Dier- 
auer,  Beitrdge  zu  eine  kritisohen  Geschichte  Tra- 
jans  (Leipzig,  1868)  ;  Schiller,  Geschichte  der 
romischen  Kaiserzeit  (Gotha,  1883);  and  the 
article  “Ulpius,  8,”  in  Friedrich  Lubker,  Real¬ 
lexikon  des  klassischen  Altertums  (8th  ed., 
Leipzig,  1914). 

TRAJAN,  Arch  of.  1.  An  arch  at  Bene- 
vento,  Italy,  somewhat  resembling  the  Arch  of 
Titus  at  Rome,  erected  in  114  a.d.  to  commemo¬ 
rate  the  completion  by  Trajan  of  a  new  road  to 
Brundisium.  It  is  of  white  marble  with  one 
archway  27  feet  high,  the  whole  structure  being 
50  feet  in  height.  The  reliefs  represent  the  tri¬ 
umphs  of  Trajan  over  the  Dacians.  The  arch  is 
one  of  the  finest  and  best-preserved  specimens  of 
the  Roman  arch.  2.  A  triumphal  arch,  in  good 
preservation,  at  Ancona,  Italy,  built  by  the 
Roman  Senate  in  112  a.d.  It  commemorates  the 
building  of  new  quays  by  Trajan.  The  single 
archway  is  29  by  46  feet.  3.  An  arch  at  Tim- 
gad  (q.v.). 

TRAJAN,  Baths  of.  Baths  built  by  Trajan 
on  portions  of  the  remains  of  the  Golden  House 
of  Nero  in  Rome  (Therm*  Trajan*).  The 
scanty  ruins  are  situated  on  the  Appian  Way, 
where  some  remains  may  be  seen  in  the  Villa 
Field.  They  adjoin  the  Baths  of  Titus  (q.v.), 
with  which  they  were  confused  until  1895,  on 
the  northeast.  The  materials  of  the  magnificent 
edifice  were  used  in  limekilns  and  in  construct¬ 
ing  other  buildings.  Consult  S.  B.  Platner,  The 
Topography  and  Monuments  of  Ancient  Rome 
(2d  ed.,  Boston,  1911). 

TRAJAN,  Forum  of.  An  immense  group  of 
public  buildings  in  ancient  Rome,  filling  the 
space  between  the  Capitoline  and  Quirinal  hills. 
It  was  named  after  its  principal  builder,  the 
Emperor  Trajan,  and  included  the  Forum  proper, 
entered  by  the  famous  Arch  of  Trajan  and  con¬ 
taining  his  equestrian  statue  in  bronze;  the 
Basilica  Ulpia;  the  celebrated  Column  of  Trajan, 
in  the  midst  of  a  cloistered  court,  where  were 
also  located  the  two  Ulpian  libraries,  one  Greek, 
the  other  Latin;  and  the  Temple  of  Trajan,  built 
by  Hadrian.  See  Forum. 

'  TRAJAN’S  COLUMN.  A  celebrated  column 
at  Rome,  erected  114  a.d.,  near  the  centre  of  the 
Forum  of  Trajan,  ostensibly  by  the  Roman  Sen¬ 


ate  and  people,  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Trajan. 
The  pedestal  is  covered  with  sculptured  trophies 
of  Dacian  arms,  and  a  very  remarkable  series  of 
bas-reliefs,  forming  a  spiral  round  the  shaft, 
3-4  feet  wide  and  660  feet  long,  exhibits  a  con¬ 
tinuous  history  of  the  military  achievements  of 
Trajan  in  his  Dacian  wars.  These  are  in  excel¬ 
lent  preservation  and,  independently  of  their 
beauty  as  works  of  art,  are  invaluable  as  records 
of  ancient  costume,  military  operations,  and  his¬ 
tory.  A  spiral  staircase  in  the  interior  of  the 
column  leads  to  its  summit.  The  column  proper 
is  of  the  Roman  Doric  or,  rather,  Tuscan  order; 
its  height,  including  base,  shaft,  and  capital, 
but  excluding  the  lofty  pedestal  (18  feet),  is 
just  100  Roman  feet  (29.57  meters).  The  tradi¬ 
tion  that  its  total  height  of  147  feet  above  the 
pavement  marked  the  height  of  the  hill  removed 
to  level  the  site  of  the  Forum  is  now  generally 
discredited.  The  summit  was  crowned  by  a  colos¬ 
sal  statue  of  the  Emperor,  which  was  incongru¬ 
ously  replaced  (by  Pope  Sixtus  V  in  1588)  by 
one  of  St.  Peter.  The  ashes  of  Trajan,  who  died 
in  the  East,  were  said  to  have  been  deposited 
under  this  column  in  a  golden  vase,  but  no 
traces  of  such  a  burial  have  been  found,  though 
a  few  years  ago  a  chamber  was  found  in  the 
base  in  which  the  ashes  may  once  have  been 
deposited.  Consult:  C.  E.  Frohner,  La  colonne 
Trajane  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1872-74)  ;  Salomon 
Reinach,  La  colonne  Trajane  au  musee  de  Saint- 
Germain  (ib.,  1886)  ;  Conrad  Cichorius,  Die  Re¬ 
liefs  der  Trajanssdule  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1896— 
1900)  ;  E.  Petersen,  Trajans  dakische  Kriege 
(Leipzig,  1899)  ;  S.  B.  Platner,  The  Monuments 
and  Topography  of  Ancient  Rome  (2d  ed.,  Bos¬ 
ton,  1911). 

TRAJAN’S  WALL.  A  line  of  fortifications 
stretching  across  the  Dobrudja  from  Czerna- 
voda,  where  the  Danube  bends  northward,  to  a 
point  of  the  Black  Sea  coast  near  Kustendje.  It 
consists  of  a  double  and  in  some  places  a  triple 
line  of  ramparts  of  earth  (8%-ll  feet  in  height 
on  the  average,  though  occasionally  it  attains 
an  altitude  of  19%  feet),  bounded  along  its 
north  side  by  a  valley  which,  being  generally 
marshy,  serves  admirably  the  purpose  of  a  ditch. 
The  construction  of  this  rampart  is  attributed  to 
Trajan,  the  general  of  the  Emperor  Valens,  who 
in  377  a.d.  endeavored  by  this  means  to  check 
the  advance  of  the  Visigoths.  In  1854  Trajan’s 
wall  became  an  important  line  of  defense  on  the 
invasion  of  the  Dobrudja  by  the  Russians,  and 
the  invaders  were  twice  defeated  in  their  at¬ 
tempts  to  pass  it — at  Kostelli  (April  10)  and 
Czernavoda  (April  20-22). 

TRAJEC'TORY  (from  Lat.  trajicere,  trans- 
jicere,  to  throw  across,  from  trans,  across, 
through  -{-  jacere,  to  throw ) .  In  mathematics, 
any  plane  curve  which  cuts  at  a  constant  angle 
a  series  of  plane  curves  of  the  same  species 
having  a  common  origin.  If  the  constant  angle 
is  a  right  angle,  the  curve  is  called  an  orthogonal 
trajectory  of  the  system.  The  question  of  such 
a  curve  was  proposed  by  Johann  Bernoulli 
(1691)  in  his  Acta  Eruditorum,  and  Newton 
(1716)  laid  the  foundation  for  the  theory  of 
trajectories.  Consult,  for  the  history  of  the 
trajectory,  Terquem,  in  the  Nouvelles  armales  de 
mathematiques  (Paris,  1845)  ;  for  the  various 
classes,  Brocard,  Notes  de  bibliographic  des 
eourbes  geometriques  (Bar-le-Duc,  1897,  and 
supplement,  1899).  See  Gunnery. 

TRAJECTORY,  in  Gunnery.  See  Bal¬ 
listics. 


TRALEE 


TRAMP 


413 


% 


TRALEE'.  A  seaport  of  Ireland,  the  chief 
town  of  County  Kerry,  on  the  Lee,  1  mile  from 
its  mouth  and  207  miles  west-southwest  of  Dub¬ 
lin  (Map:  Ireland,  B  7).  The  town  is  well 
built  and  dates  from  the  twelfth  century  Pop 
1901,  9867;  1911,  10,300. 

TRALLES,  tral'lez.  An  ancient  city  of 
Lydia  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the  Eudon  River,  a 
northern  branch  of  the  Mseander.  Its  origin  was 
ascribed  to  Argive  and  Thracian  settlers.  It 
was  a  thriving  commercial  centre.  Under  the 
Seleucidse  it  was  known  as  Seleucia  and  An- 
tiochia. 

TRAM.  See  Silk. 

TRAMP.  The  American  equivalent  of  the 
English  “sturdy  beggar”  and  “vagrant.”  His 
first  statutory  appearance  was  in  1876  in  New 
Jersey,  and  he  was  soon  recognized  legally  in 
21  States.  He  is  commonly  defined  as  an  able- 
bodied  man  without  visible  means  of  support, 
wandering  aimlessly,  begging,  and  refusing 
work,  camping  and  kindling  fires  on  highways 
and  private  property,  and  terrorizing  women  and 
children.  What  really  distinguishes  him  from 
the  prosaic  vagrant  of  other  countries  is  his 
extensive  use  of  the  railways — stealing  rides,  or, 
in  his  argot,  “jumping  trains.”  From  1901  to 
1905  inclusive  23,964  “trespassers”  were  killed 
and  25,236  injured  by  railroads  in  the  United 
States,  or  more  than  the  combined  numbers  for 
passengers  and  trainmen.  From  one-half  to 
three-fourths  of  these  trespassers  are  tramps. 

The  great  difficulty  with  the  train- jumping 
tramp  is  that  local  authorities  do  not  like  to 
bear  the  expense  of  prosecutions  and  mainte¬ 
nance  in  jail.  The  common  custom  is  for  the 
authorities  to  put  the  tramp  back  on  the  next 
train  or  give  him  24  hours  to  leave  town.  By 
this  method  each  town  naturally  receives  as 
many  as  it  gets  rid  of.  Action  by  a  unit  at  least 
as  broad  as  the  State  is  absolutely  necessary. 
In  1895  Massachusetts  showed  a  mean  daily 
tramp  population  of  791,  as  against  451.4  in 
1890,  implying  a  total  for  the  "State  of  2832, 
as  against  1616  before,  and  of  79,427  for  the 
United  States.  The  mean  was  lower,  with  but 
two  slight  intermissions,  afterward,  and  in  1902- 
03  was  369.6,  suggesting  1323  for  Massachusetts 
and  38,636  for  the  United  States.  In  1905 
Massachusetts  passed  an  effective  vagrancy  law, 
and  conditions  in  that  State  ceased  to  be  in¬ 
dicative  for  the  country  as  a  whole.  The  effects 
are  shown  by  the  numbers  of  tramps  sheltered 
in  almshouses  in  the  State  in  the  successive 
years.  In  1905  there  were  23,341;  1906,  7200; 
1907,  3127;  1908,  423;  1909,  272;  1914,  131. 
Unfortunately  no  general  decrease  in  vagrancy 
is  indicated,  as  they  were  merely  driven  to 
other  States.  In  1915  the  problem  was  most 
acute  in  New  York  City,  which  has  the  reputa¬ 
tion  of  being  “the  best  town  for  bums  in  the 
L’nited  States.”  The  average  cost  of  the  tramp 
to  the  community  is  about  $4.40  a  week,  inde¬ 
pendent  of  his  possible  depredations;  and  al¬ 
though  83.5  per  cent  of  tramps  say  their  health 
is  good,  10  per  cent  of  them  admit  having  had 
a  dangerous  contagious  disease. 

There  are  no  national  repressive  laws.  Those 
of  the  various  States  have  been  characterized  by 
a  severity  born  of  panic,  a  penalty  sometimes 
being  12  months’  imprisonment,  and  in  two 
States  sale  at  public  auction  for  a  designated 
period.  Contrary  to  the  common  impression, 
the  tramp  generally  has  learned  and  frequently 
practiced  a  trade  or  profession,  about  one-half 


having  this  ability.  The  proportion  of  pro¬ 
fessionals,  or  those  who  never  work,  is  small, 
their  real  weakness  being  chronic  tendency  to 
intermittency  in  work.  This  is  fostered  by 
their  habits  and  marital  condition,  63  per  cent 
being  admitted  drunkards  and  93  per  cent  un¬ 
married;  and  again  by  the  conditions  of  indus¬ 
trial  activity,  the  drunkard  being  employed  only 
when  he  is  indispensable,  and  discharged,  along 
with  the  unmarried  man,  when  business  slack¬ 
en8  witness  the  great  rise  in  tramp  popula¬ 
tion  after  1873  and  the  fall  after  1901.  Statis¬ 
tics  seem  to  show  that  the  surest  way  of  correc¬ 
tion  lies  in  prevention. 

In  England  the  ancient  penalties  against  what 
we  call  tramping  were  very  severe.  Under 
Edward  VI  the  punishment  was  branding  on 
the  breast  with  a  V  and  two  years’  slavery.  In 
1572  it  was  whipping  for  the  first  offense,  bor¬ 
ing  the  ear  with  a  hot  iron  for  the  second,  and 
death  for  the  third.  A  fine  of  10  times  the  dole 
was  imposed  on  the  person  helping  the  vagrant. 
The  vagrant  may  now  be  lodged  in  the  casual 
ward  of  the  Union  (almshouse),  where  he  must 
break  stone  or  pick  tow  in  payment.  The  alarm¬ 
ing  increase  in  the  evil  in  England  led  the 
President  of  the  Local  Government  Board  in 
v1904  to  appoint  a  departmental  committee  on 
vagrancy.  In  its  report  in  1906  this  committee 
recommended  much  more  stringent  treatment 
and  the  introduction  of  the  Swiss  and  German 
travel-card  system  to  distinguish  vagrants  from 
honest  work  seekers. 

In  Germany  the  most  drastic  modern  measure 
against  the  prime  vice  of  tramping,  open  men¬ 
dicancy,  was  that  taken  in  Bavaria  in  1790-95, 
under  Count  Rumford,  where  in  four  years  10,- 
000  vagabonds  were  arrested.  It  proved  effec¬ 
tive.  The  number  of  tramps  in  Germany  is 
unknown,  but  has  been  set  at  100,000.  The 
tramp  there  is  the  lineal  descendant  of  the  old 
artisan  wandering  abroad  to  complete  his  knowl¬ 
edge  of  his  craft.  Beginning  in  1854,  when 
Professor  Perthes,  of  Bonn,  founded  a  cheap 
tavern  for  them,  where  no  drink  stronger  than 
beer  could  be  had,  the  number  of  these  home 
refuges  ( Eerbergen  zur  Heimat)  increased  in 
1901-02  to  462,  a  gain  of  72  from  1892  to  1902, 
with  an  aggregate  of  paying  guests  for  the  year 
of  1,931,575  and  of  nonpaying  guests  or  those 
rendering  an  equivalent  in  work  of  759,057.  For 
108,505  of  these  situations  were  found.  In  1910 
the  number  was  449,  according  to  the  statistics 
of  the  association  (Deutschen  Hevbevgs  Vei'ein) 
into  which  they  had  been  organized  in  1886. 
Three  new  ones  were  opened  and  nine  closed 
during  the  year.  Of  these  217  were  connected 
with  V  erpflegungstationen  or  Wander  arbeits- 
stdtten.  The  number  sheltered  during  the  year 
was  _  2,726,850,  aggregating  4,727,297  nights’ 
lodgings  (as  against  2,622,000  and  4,547,028 
the  previous  year).  Employment  was  found  for 
133,899,  a  decrease  of  5189  compared  with  the 
previous  year.  In  more  or  less  direct  commu¬ 
nication  with  the  Eerbergen,  in  240  instances 
under  the  same  roof,  is,  on  the  one  hand,  a  great 
network  of  local  establishments  (Verpflegung- 
stationen)  where  lodging  and  a  meal  is  fur¬ 
nished  in  exchange  for  work,  generally  wood¬ 
chopping;  or,  if  there  is  no  separate  building, 
an  order  is  given  for  cheap  entertainment  at  a 
local  tavern. 

On  the  other  hand  is  a  chain  of  labor  colonies 
{ Arbeiterlcolonien) ,  the  first  of  which  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  1882  at  Wilhelmsdorf  in  Westphalia  by 


TRAMP 


414 


TRANSBAIKALIA 


Pastor  von  Bodelschwingli.  The  number  in  1910 
was  34  in  Germany,  with  an  additional  one  for 
Germans  in  England  at  Libury  Hall,  near  Lon¬ 
don.  Twenty-six  were  established  between  1882 
and  1892,  a  decade  of  especial  industrial  de¬ 
pression.  During  the  year  1910,  12,303  persons 
were  admitted  (against  12,878  for  1909)  and 
12,445  dismissed.  The  total  number  admitted 
from  the  beginning  was  226,935,  and  the  capac¬ 
ity  of  the  existing  colonies  4888.  It  is  inter¬ 
esting  to  note  that,  of  the  12,303  admitted,  4/42 
came  for  the  first  time  and  2548  for  the  second, 
while  1342  had  been  over  seven  times  in  a  col¬ 
ony;  9467  had  never  been  married,  and  only  513 
were  married  at  the  time  of  admission.  Of  those 
dismissed,  about  exactly  half  (6324)  left  at 
their  own  request,”  situations  were  found  by 
the  colonies  for  911  and  by  the  occupant  him¬ 
self  in  1295  cases.  The  rest  were  mainly  dis¬ 
charged  for  misdemeanors  of  various  sorts  or 
ran  away  or  were  turned  over  to  the  poor-relief 
authorities  or  hospitals;  37  died.  Of  recent 
years  public  action  dealing  with  vagrancy  has 
been  growing  in  Germany.  A  Prussian  Law 
of  June  29,  1907,  empowers  the  Diet  (Landtag) 
of  any  province  to  compel  communal  and  munic¬ 
ipal  authorities  to  establish  wayfarers’  lodges 
{Wanderarbeitsstatte) ,  and  Westphalia  has  since 
put  in  operation  a  complete  system.  The  best 
example  of  what  may  be  done  is  afforded  by  the 
Kingdom  of  Wiirttemberg,  where  a  quasi-public 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Wanderarbeits- 
statten  in  Wiirttemberg,  assisted  by  fiscal  ap¬ 
propriations,  maintains  a  chain  of  27  institu¬ 
tions  (close  of  1909).  During  the  year  October, 
1909,  to  September,  1910,  82,212  migratory  work¬ 
ers  were  admitted  to  the  lodges.  rIhe  cost  to 
the  state  of  a  day’s  entertainment  is  about  one 
mark  (25  cents)  ‘  against  an  estimated  average 
intake  of  from  two  to  three  times  as  much  when 
they  are  permitted  to  beg.  The  system  reduced 
court  sentences  for  begging  and  vagrancy  by 
78.5  per  cent  the  first  year.  Three  labor  colo¬ 
nies  with  a  capacity  of  150  are  an  adjunct  of  the 
system.  Every  applicant  received  must  have  a 
travel  card  {Wander  schein) ,  to  be  obtained  on 
establishment  of  identity  and  proof  of  a  clear 
police  record  and  of  having  been  employed  or 
prevented  from  work  by  sickness  during  the  pre¬ 
ceding  three  months.  A  day’s  entertainment  is 
given  for  four  hours’  work.  After  the  midday 
meal  the  wanderer  must,  if  no  suitable  work 
can  be  furnished  him,  proceed  to  the  next  Ar- 
beitsstatt,  the  time  of  arrival  and  departure 
being  punched  on  the  Wander  schein. 

The  Swiss  labor  colonies  have  attracted  par¬ 
ticular  notice  in  the  United  States.  They  are 
compulsory  and  under  the  supervision  of  the 
cantonal  authorities;  there  is  one  in  each  can¬ 
ton,  that  at  Wytzwyl  being  the  largest  and 
most  successful.  *  They  have  nearly  eliminated 
vagrancy  from  Switzerland.  Partly  as  a  result 
of  Mr.  Edmond  Kelly’s  book  on  “The  Elimina¬ 
tion  of  the  Tramp”  (1908),  the  New  York 
Legislatures  of  1911  and  1912  passed  bills  es¬ 
tablishing  a  tramp  farm  along  the  Swiss  lines 
in  the  State.  Land  was  purchased,  but  owing 
to  insufficient  appropriations  the  work  has  not 
been  carried  to  completion  (1913).  Massachu¬ 
setts  has  a  tramp  farm. 

Labor  colonies  are  also  more  or  less  success¬ 
ful  in  Holland  and  Belgium,  and  the  French 
have  experimented,  under  Paris  municipal  pat¬ 
ronage,  along  the  same  lines,  at  La  Chalmelle 
in  the  Department  of  Marne. 


Bibliography.  J.  F.  Willard  (Josiah  Flynt, 
pseud.),  Tramping  with  Tramps  (New  York, 
1899);  W.  A.  Wyckoff,  The  Workers:  An  Ex¬ 
periment  in  Reality  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1899)  ;  id.,  A 
Day  with  a  Tramp  (ib.,  1901);  Report  of  the 
Departmental  Committee  on  I  agrancy  (  London, 
1906),  a  thorough  discussion  of  the  situation 
and  methods  of  dealing  with  it  in  Europe;  O.  F. 
Lewis,  “Vagrancy  in  the  United  States,”  in 
Proceedings  of  the  Conference  on  Charities ^  and 
Correction  (New  \ork,  1907)  ;  Edmond  Kelly, 
The  Elimination  of  the  Tramp  (ib.,  1908)  ;  W. 
H.  Dawson,  The  Vagrancy  Problem  (London, 
1910)  ;  Report  of  the  New  York  Prison  Asso¬ 
ciation  (New  York,  1912)  ;  S.  A.  Rice,  The 
Vagrancy  Problem  in  New  York,”  in  Proceedings 
of  the  Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction 
(ib.,  1914). 

TRANCE  (OF.,  Fr.  transe,  extreme  fear,  Sp., 
Portug.  trance,  crisis,  hour  of  death,  from  Lat. 
transitus,  passage  over,  from  transire,  to  pass 
over,  cross,  from  trans,  across,  through  + 
to  go).  A  general  term  in  psychology  denoting 
various  forms  of  modified  consciousness.  The 
psychological  symptoms  vary  from  seeming  in¬ 
animation  to  a  waking  condition,  though  a  mani¬ 
festly  abnormal  one,  of  exaggerated  suggestibil¬ 
ity  in  respect  to  some  dominating  idea.  In  gen¬ 
eral  there  is  more  or  less  marked  anaesthesia. 
What  may  be  termed  the  waking  trance  is  also 
characterized  by  extraordinary  concentration  or 
automatic  mental  action,  while  the  ordinary 
functions  of  the  body  are  little  interrupted.  The 
thoughts  of  the  subject  are  ordinarily  fixed  on 
one  kind  of  idea,  frequently  religion.  In  trance 
sleep,  except  in  its  protractedness  and  the  less¬ 
ened  sensibility  to  external  stimuli,  there  ap¬ 
pears  to  be  little  that  is  abnormal.  In  trance 
coma  these  symptoms  are  more  intense,  and 
respiration  and  circulation  are  feebler.  In  death 
trance,  except  sometimes  the  inner  dream  life, 
all  animation  ceases,  including  the  action  of 
heart  and  lungs.  The  thought,  or  dream,  of 
trance  is  likely  to  be  more  sequential  and  coher¬ 
ent  in  character  than  that  of  normal  sleep. 
Various  pathological  and  psychopathic  condi¬ 
tions  are  often  called  trance,  such  as  deep  and 
unusually  protracted  sleep,  lethargy,  suspended 
animation,  the  hypnotic  state,  and  altered  per¬ 
sonality.  Consult:  J.  M.  Charcot,  Lectures  on 
the  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System  (London, 
1877-89)  ;  G.  J.  Preston,  Hysteria  and  Certain 
Allied  Conditions  (Philadelphia,  1897);  Irank 
Podmore,  Modern  Spiritualism  (2  vols.,  London, 
1902)  ;  Morton  Prince,  Dissociation  of  a  Per¬ 
sonality  (2d  ed.,  New  York,  1908)  ;  J.  H.  Hyslop, 
Psychical  Research  and  Survival  (London,  1913). 
See  Somnambulism. 

TRANI,  trii'ne.  A  seaport  in  the  Province 
of  Bari  delle  Puglie,  Italy,  27  miles  by  rail 
northwest  of  Bari  (Map:  Italy,  F  4).  Its  an¬ 
cient  walls  have  given  place  to  spacious  boule¬ 
vards.  The  twelfth-century  cathedral  has  a 
very  high  tower  and  magnificent  bronze  doors. 
The  Santa  Maria  Immaculata  is  a  beautiful 
church.  The  Gothic  palace  (the  seat  of  a  priests’ 
seminary)  and  the  old  castle  (now  a  prison) 
are  both  interesting.  Excellent  building  stone 
is  quarried.  Trani  first  came  into  notice  when 
it  submitted  to  the  Normans  in  1073.  During 
the  Crusades  it  carried  on  a  heavy  trade  with 
the  Levant.  Pop.  (commune),  1901,  31,800; 
1911,  32,059. 

TRANSBAIKALIA,  tr&ns'bi-ka'le-a.  A 
province  of  eastern  Siberia  (Map:  Asia,  N  3). 


TRANSCASPIA  415  TRANSCENDENTALISM 


Area,  238,308  square  miles.  The  province  is 
divided  by  the  Yablonoi  Mountains,  a  part  of 
the  Stanovoi  (q.v.)  chain,  into  two  parts,  of 
which  the  western  has  the  character  of  an 
elevated  plateau  intersected  by  a  deep  valley 
that  extends  from  Lake  Baikal  to  the  Uda  River 
and  is  used  by  the  chief  highways  as  well  as 
by  the  trans-Siberian  Railway.  The  portion 
east  of  the  Yablonoi  chain  is  lower  than  the 
western  part  and  is  traversed  in  the  southeast 
by  the  Nerchinsk  Mountains.  The  region  is 
watered  by  the  Argun  and  Shilka,  which  unite 
to  form  the  Amur,  by  the  Vitim,  a  tributary  of 
the  Lena,  and  by  the  Selenga  (q.v.),  a  tributary 
of  Lake  Baikal.  Of  the  numerous  lakes  the 
principal  is  Baikal  (q.v.).  The  climate  is  con¬ 
tinental,  dry,  and  very  severe,  the  temperature 
being  occasionally  as  low  as  —58°.  The  snow¬ 
fall  is  slight.  Transbaikalia  is  one  of  the  most 
highly  mineralized  regions  of  Siberia.  Gold  is 
found  especially  in  the  Nerchinsk  Mountains, 
where  there  are  also  rich  deposits  of  silver  and 
lead.  Coal  is  found  near  the  southeastern  shore 
of  Lake  Baikal,  and  iron  in  many  parts.  The 
mining  industry,  however,  is  not  highly  devel¬ 
oped,  and  only  the  gold  output  is  important. 
The  mines  are  owned  to  a  large  extent  by  the 
state  and  worked  by  convict  labor,  the  centre 
of  the  mining  industries  being  the  Nerchinsk 
region.  Agriculture  is  confined  chiefly  to  the 
south,  where  the  natural  conditions  are  more 
favorable.  Stock  raising  is  extensively  carried 
on,  and  hunting  is  still  of  considerable  impor¬ 
tance.  The  chief  manufactures  are  leather, 
spirits,  and  flour.  The  transit  trade  with  Mon¬ 
golia  through  Kiakhta  (q.v.)  is  large.  Esti¬ 
mated  population  at  the  beginning  of  1914, 
945,700,  of  which  the  town  population  was  144,- 
300.  The  Russian  population  is  largely  in  the 
Nerchinsk  mining  region.  Prosperous  settle-* 
ments  of  Raskolniks  are  in  the  Chikoi,  Khilok, 
Uda,  and  other  valleys.  There  are  many  Cos¬ 
sacks,  largely  Mongolian  in  character.  The 
aboriginals,  mostly  Buryats  (about  180,000) 
and  Tunguses  (about  30,000),  have  still  in  the 
main  preserved  their  clan  organization,  although 
many  of  them  have  been  assimilated  with  the 
Russians.  Capital,  Tchita  (q.v.). 

TRANSCAS'PIA.  A  Russian  province  in 
west  Asia  (Map:  Asia,  G  4).  Its  area  is  235,- 
120  square  miles.  In  its  general  features  the 
region  resembles  Turkestan,  of  which  it  may  be 
considered  a  western  continuation.  The  larger 
part  of  the  norjh  consists  of  elevated  table-lands 
with  some  mountains  in  the  peninsula  of 
Manghishlak  in  the  northwest  and  a  deep  de¬ 
pression  near  the  Khivan  frontier  in  the  east. 
The  central  part  is  lower  and  is  practically  a 
desert  with  shifting  sands  and  dried-up  river 
courses.  The  southern  part  is  traversed  by  a 
mountain  chain  which  separates  the  sandy  des¬ 
erts  of  Turcomania  from  the  highlands  of  'north 
Persia  and  from  its  structure  and  direction 
appears  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  Caucasus 
system.  This  region  is  watered  by  the  Atrek, 
which  flows  along  the  southern  boundary  to 
the  Caspian  and  by  the  Tejend  and  the  Murghab. 
As  a  whole,  Transeaspia  is  scantily  watered. 
Irrigation  is  practiced.  The  coast  is  indented  by 
a  number  of  deep  inlets,  of  which  that  of  Kara 
Bugas  is  noted  for  its  extreme  salinity.  The 
climate  is  hot  and  dry,  and  the  precipitation 
extremely  meagre.  The  region  contains  rich 
mineral  deposits,  of  which  salt,  naphtha,  ozo¬ 
cerite,  and  gypsum  are  mined  to  some  extent. 


Agriculture  is  developing  in  the  southern  part, 
which  is  more  favorably  situated  with  regard 
to  irrigation.  The  principal  products  are  wheat, 
sorghum,  rice,  and  barley.  Cotton  is  also  suc¬ 
cessfully  cultivated.  The  natives  have  extensive 
herds  of  sheep  and  other  stock  and  export  skins 
and  wool.  A  number  of  household  industries, 
such  as  rug  weaving  and  the  production  of 
various  articles  of  felt,  are  more  or  less  devel¬ 
oped.  The  chief  medium  of  transportation  is 
the  Transcaspian  Railway,  which  traverses  the 
southern  part  of  the  territory.  Pop.,  1912,  486,- 
200,  of  whom  the  Turcomans  constituted  about 
two-thirds.  Capital,  Askhabad  (q.v.). 

TRANS'CAUCA'SIA.  The  southern  part  of 
the  Caucasus  (q.v.),  comprising  six  governments, 
three  provinces,  and  two  districts  of  Russia 
(Map:  Asia,  F  4).  Area,  about  95,405  square 
miles.  It  was  the  scene  of  severe  fighting  be¬ 
tween  the  Russians  and  the  Turks  during  the 
Great  War.  (See  War  in  Europe.)  Pop., 
1912,  6,931,900. 

TRAN'SCENDEN'TAL,  TRAN'SCEND'- 

ENT  ( from  transcendent,  from  Lat.  transcendens, 
pres.  p.  of  Lat.  transcendere,  to  surpass,  from 
trans,  across,  through  -f-  scandere,  to  climb, 
Skt.  skand,  to  spring,  ascend).  Words  employed 
by  various  schoolmen,  in  particular  Duns  Sco- 
tus,  to  describe  the  conceptions  that  by  their 
universality  rise  above  or  transcend  the  10  Aris¬ 
totelian  categories.  ( See  Category.  )  Thus, 
according  to  Scotus,  ens,  or  being,  because  it  is 
predicable  of  substance  and  accident  alike,  of 
God  as  well  as  of  the  world,  is  raised  above  these 
by  including  or  comprehending  them. 

Between  the  hitherto  convertible  terms  “tran¬ 
scendental”  and  “transcendent”  Kant  drew  a 
distinction,  of  considerable  importance  in  un¬ 
derstanding  his  own  system.  By  the  word 
“transcendental”  he  designates  the  various 
forms,  categories,  or  ideas  assumed  to  be  con¬ 
stitutive  or  regulative  elements  of  human  ex¬ 
perience;  although  they  are  manifested  only  in 
experience,  they  are  not  products  of  experience. 
Among  such  transcendental  elements  are  space 
and  time,  causality,  and  substantiality.  The 
knowledge  that  these  elements  are  not  of  empiri¬ 
cal  origin  is  called  transcendental  knowledge. 
The  word  “transcendent”  Kant  reserves,  but 
not  with  uniform  consistency,  for  those  objects 
that  lie  in  the  world  of  things  in  themselves, 
entirely  inaccessible  to  experience,  and  for  any 
pretended  knowledge  of  such  objects.  See  Kant. 

TRANSCENDENTAL  DEDUCTION.  See 
Deduction. 

TRAN'SCENDEN'TALISM.  A  term  ap¬ 
plied  in  philosophy  to  Kant’s  system  and  to 
those  like  it  in  maintaining  that  there  can  be 
knowledge  of  transcendental  elements.  (See 
Transcendental.)  The  terms  Transcendental¬ 
ism  and  Transcendental  school  are  now  fre¬ 
quently  used  by  English-speaking  peoples  to 
designate  the  views  of  thinkers  like  Emerson 
(see  Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo)  and  his  col¬ 
leagues  in  the  Transcendental  Club  (1836)  and 
at  Brook  Farm  (q.v.).  The  so-called  Tran¬ 
scendental  movement  was  mainly  confined  to 
New  England,  especially  to  Massachusetts,  and 
in  point  of  time  to  about  1830-50.  In  its  origin 
it  dates  much  further  back,  and  in  its  effects  it 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  entirely  extinct  to-day. 
In  character  it  was  partly  philosophical,  thus 
connecting  with  German  and  French  thought; 
partly  economic,  thus  connecting  with  French 
and  English  schemes  of  social  reform;  partly 


TRANSCENDENTALISM 


TRANSCENDENTALISM  416 


literary,  thus  connecting  with  the  poetry  of  such 
dissimilar  characters  as  Wordsworth  and  Shel¬ 
ley  and  with  the  gospel  of  Carlyle;  partly 
theological  in  a  loose  sense,  thus  connecting 
with  Unitarianism ;  but  on  the  whole,  as  Emer¬ 
son  averred,  primarily  spiritual,  thus  connect¬ 
ing  with  and  finally  coalescing  in  contemporary 
movements  for  regeneration  of  every  kind.  It 
may  be  said  that  New  England  Transcendental¬ 
ism  was  in  the  main  a  result  of  a  revolt  from 
the  formalism  both  of  Unitarianism  and  of  Cal¬ 
vinism,  and  coalesced  with  a  loose  system  of 
intuitional  philosophy  borrowed  from  Germany 
and  with  the  Romantic  revolt  from  classicism  in 
literature,  as  well  as  with  a  contemporaneous 
American  movement  for  securing  the  benefits  of 
foreign  culture,  and  which  finally  more  or  less 
merged  in  the  great  antislavery  agitation.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  dwell  briefly  on  each  element. 

Transcendentalism  in  New  England  was  in¬ 
volved  in  the  great  awakening  of  a  century 
before,  for  both  were  spiritual  manifestations, 
the  earlier  of  which  did  much  to  shake  the  hold 
of  rigid  Calvinism  and  to  introduce  the  religious 
emotionality  and  liberalism  that  were  later  to 
culminate  in  men  like  William  Ellery  Clianning 
and  Theodore  Parker  (qq.v.).  Within  20  years 
after  the  awakening  Arminianism  and  Arian- 
ism,  through  the  agency  of  the  Deists  and  other 
British  writers,  had  made  many  converts,  es¬ 
pecially  in  eastern  Massachusetts.  Jonathan 
Mavhew  (q.v.)  is  typical  of  these  early  liberals 
or  Unitarians.  The  followers  of  Jonathan  Ed¬ 
wards  struggled  valiantly  against  the  innova¬ 
tors  and  held  most  of  New  England  for  ortho¬ 
doxy,  but  by  1785  there  was  a  distinctively 
Unitarian  church  (King’s  Chapel)  in  Boston, 
even  if  30  years  were  to  elapse  before  this  name 
could  be  definitely  fastened  on  the  seceders  from 
Calvinism.  This  change  of  faith  was  not  effected 
without  heartburning  and  a  development  of 
religious  unrest  among  New  Englanders,  which 
made  the  acceptance  of  new  philosophical  ideas, 
new  literary  standards,  and  new  social  theories 
all  the  easier  when  the  time  was  ripe.  The  ap¬ 
pointment  of  Unitarian  professors  at  Harvard, 
resulting  in  the  founding  of  Andover  Theologi¬ 
cal  Seminary  (q.v.),  and  the  preaching  of  such 
men  as  the  younger  Buckminster  and  Channing, 
undoubtedly  prepared  the  way  for  Emerson, 
Alcott,  Ripley,  and  Parker. 

But  although  by  1825  Unitarianism  had  won 
a  victory  in  Boston  and  its  environs,  it  was 
not  destined  to  maintain  its  ascendency  for  so 
long  a  period  as  its  foe,  Calvinism,  had  done. 
It,  too,  showed  a  tendency  to  formalism,  both 
in  thought  and  in  taste,  and  impressionable 
souls  soon  broke  away  into  new  paths  of  phi¬ 
losophy,  theology,  and  literature.  Some  little 
knowledge  of  Kant  and  his  successors,  of  Schlei- 
ermacher,  and  of  Goethe  had  been  obtained  by  a 
few  persons  prior  to  1830.  Before  1840  the 
labors  of  George  Ripley,  F.  H.  Hedge  ( qq.v. ) , 
and  other  translators  had  considerably  increased 
this  knowledge;  in  consequence  the  influence  of 
German  thought  upon  New  England  Transcen¬ 
dentalism  cannot  be  ignored,  although  it  is 
easily  exaggerated.  French  thought,  as  illus¬ 
trated  by  Cousin  and  more  by  Fourier,  was  less 
influential,  but  that  there  was  a  decided  taste 
for  foreign  literature  which  gave  an  impetus 
to  the  contemporaneous  movement  for  a  greater 
and  freer  spiritual  life  seems  to  be  clearly  es¬ 
tablished.  This  meant  dissatisfaction  with 
eighteenth-century  standards  and  with  the  colo¬ 


nial  character  of  American  literature  and  thus 
involved  the  founding  of  the  Dial  (q.v.,  1840- 
44).  Nor  in  this  connection  should  we  forget 
the  interest  displayed  by  some  Transcendental- 
ists  in  the  Oriental  Scriptures,  in  Neoplatonism, 
and  in  more  or  less  occult  literature.  But  be¬ 
hind  the  revolt  from  formal  Unitarianism  and 
the  craving  for  new  forms  of  philosophy  and 
literature  that  characterized  many  young  per¬ 
sons  in  New  England  between  1830  and  1840, 
there  was  the  uplift  of  the  world’s  spirit  that 
showed  itself  in  many  ways,  and  there  was  also 
on  the  part  of  aspiring  souls  a  contempt  for 
the  vulgarity  and  selfishness  of  American  polit¬ 
ical  and  business  life  of  this  epoch.  It  is  no 
wonder  that  New  England  was  unable  to  de¬ 
velop  orderly  schools  of  thought  and  literature 
and  seemed  given  over  to  extremists  and  fad¬ 
dists  of  all  sorts. 

In  1836  (September  19)  Emerson,  Hedge, 
Alcott,  and  others  formed  the  so-called  Hedge 
or  Transcendental  Club.  Little  came  of  this 
organization  until  the  Dial  was  started  in  1840 
and  Brook  Farm  (q.v.)  was  founded  in  1841. 
Neither  enterprise  was  fully  successful,  but  both 
were  influential  upon  literature  and  thought, 
though  not  greatly  upon  action.  Under  Mar¬ 
garet  Fuller  (q.v.)  and  Emerson  the  Dial  was  a 
hospitable  receptacle  for  the  verses  of  the  Tran- 
scendentalist  poets — C.  P.  Cranch  (q.v.),  the 
younger  W.  E.  Channing  ( q.v. ) ,  and  others, 
whose  merits  are  slowly  being  recognized — and 
for  many  of  the  best  papers  of  the  two  editors 
and  of  Thoreau.  (See  Thoreau,  Henry  D.) 
It  did  not  create  or  recreate  American  literature, 
but  it  undoubtedly  stimulated  important  writers. 
Brook  Farm  community  life  was  laughed  at  by 
the  hard-headed  and  not  effectively  supported  by 
many  of  the  leading  Transcendentalists  them¬ 
selves,  but  it  set  up  a  beneficial  ideal  of  “plain 
living  and  high  thinking,”  it  furnished  Haw¬ 
thorne  material  for  his  Blithedale  Romance,  and 
it  doubtless  leavened  the  utilitarian  spirit  of  the 
country  and  the  age. 

No  writer  upon  New  England  Transcenden¬ 
talism  has  failed  to  remark  upon  the  exceedingly 
elusive  character  of  the  movement.  It  is  diffi¬ 
cult  to  disengage  its  elements,  to  delimit  it  in 
point  of  time,  to  say  what  it  really  accom¬ 
plished,  to  determine  what  it  became.  If  it  had 
been  fully  organized,  the  case  would  have  been 
different  for  the  student,  yet  the  results  would 
probably  have  been  less  fortunate,  both  to  the 
Transcendentalists  themselves  and  to  the  Ameri¬ 
can  people  at  large.  Not  being  hampered  by  or¬ 
ganization,  by  formulas,  by  the  apparatus  of 
propagandism,  the  Transcendentalists  were  bet¬ 
ter  able  to  serve  a  more  specific  cause  of  greater 
moment — that  of  Abolition.  They  were  also  en¬ 
abled  to  follow  the  bent  of  individual  genius 
after  having  experienced  the  stimulating  effects 
of  having  lived  in  a  period  of  uplift.  Emerson 
became  the  favorite  moralist  of  his  countrymen 
and  an  important  poet;  Alcott  gave  full  vent 
to  his  eccentricity  and  ended  as  the  patron 
saint  of  the  Concord  Philosophers;  Margaret 
Fuller  had  a  brilliant  and  only  too  short  career 
as  a  critic  and  woman  of  letters;  Ripley,  by 
his  reviews  in  the  Tribune  and  his  services  with 
C.  A.  Dana  (q.v.)  as  an  encyclopaedist,  showed 
that  a  Brook  Farmer  was  capable  of  valuable 
if  homely  work  in  the  cause  of  letters  and 
science;  Thoreau  revealed  nature  to  his  country¬ 
men  and  became  a  high  priest  of  individualism 
as  well  as  a  writer  of  truly  classic  prose;  Theo- 


TRANSCENDENTAL  NUMBERS 


TRANSFORMER 


417 


dore  Parker  died  just  before  the  beginning  of  the 
crusade  of  which  he  was  perhaps  the  greatest 
preacher.  Thousands  of  men  and  women 
throughout  New  England  were  inspired  by 
Transcendentalism  to  devote  themselves  to  every 
form  of  philanthropy.  The  era  of  the  Tran¬ 
scendental  ists  was  in  many  respects  an  Ameri¬ 
can  Renaissance,  the  effects  of  which  were  not 
confined  to  this  country,  but  were  spread,  chiefly 
through  the  writings  of  Emerson,  Thoreau,  and 
Channing,  to  England  and  to  some  extent  to 
the  continent  of  Europe.  That  their  ideas  were 
vague  and  often  transcended  reason,  not  to 
say  common  sense,  that  their  literary  work  was 
largely  amateurish,  that  their  extravagances 
gave  much  occasion  to  legitimate  ridicule,  that 
their  so-called  movement  was  the  forerunner  of 
religious  and  social  manias  of  all  sorts,  can 
scarcely  be  gainsaid;  hut  it  is  equally  idle  to 
deny  the  loftiness  of  their  aims  and  the  impor¬ 
tance  of  their  works. 

Consult:  O.  B.  Frothingliam,  Transcendental¬ 
ism  in  New  England  (New  York,  1876)  ;  Lind¬ 
say  Swift,  Brook  Farm:  Members,  Scholars,  and 
Visitors  (ib.,  1900)  ;  T.  W.  Higginson,  Old  Cam¬ 
bridge  (ib.,  1900)  ;  G.  W.  Cooke,  Unitarianism 
in  America  (Boston,  1902)  ;  id.,  The  Poets  of 
Transcendentalism :  An  Anthology  (ib.,  1903)  ; 
Leighton,  French  Philosophers  and  New  England 
Transcendentalism  (Charlottesville,  Va.,  1908); 
H.  C.  Goddard,  Studies  in  New  England  Tran¬ 
scendentalism  (New  York,  1908).  The  last  two 
works  contain  bibliographies. 

TRANSCENDENTAL  NUMBERS.  See 
Number. 

TRANSCONTINENTAL  RAILWAYS.  See 

Canada;  Siberia;  United  States,  Transpor¬ 
tation. 

TRANSCRIP'TION  (Lat.  transcriptio,  from 
transcribere,  to  transcribe,  from  trans,  across, 
through  +  scribere,  to  write).  In  music,  an  ar¬ 
rangement  of  a  composition  for  instruments  or 
voices  other  than  those  employed  by  the  com¬ 
poser.  See  Paraphrase. 

TRANSEPT  (from  Lat.  trans,  across, 
through  +  septum,  sceptum,  inclosure,  parti¬ 
tion;  connected  with  scopes,  hedge).  A  pro¬ 
jecting  wing  at  right  angles  with  the  nave  and 
aisles  of  a  church,  forming  one  of  the  smaller 
arms  of  the  cross.  The  term  is  improperly  used 
in  the  singular  to  designate  the  two  transepts 
together.  In  some  early  basilicas  and  a  few 
Italian  churches  of  later  date  (e.g.,  Santa  Croce 
and  San  Lorenzo,  Florence)  the  transepts  are 
at  the  extreme  east  end,  forming  a  T-plan.  The 
square  space  at  the  meeting  of  the  nave  and 
transepts  is  called  the  crossing.  In  the  early 
Middle  Ages  the  transept  became  quite  common 
and  in  the  Gothic  age  almost  universal.  The 
transepts  sometimes  project  beyond  the  side 
aisles;  when  this  is  not  the  case,  they  show 
externally  by  their  height  above  the  side-aisle 
roofs  and  internally  by  their  width  and  height, 
which  are  equal  to  those  of  the  nave.  The  cross¬ 
ing  is  often  surmounted  by  a  spire,  tower,  or 
dome  requiring  much  heavier  piers  than  those 
of  the  nave  and  choir  generally. 

While  single  transepts  were  the  rule,  double 
transepts  were  sometimes  used  in  England  and 
Germany.  The  double  English  transept  was  on 
the  scheme  of  the  archbishop’s  or  Passion  cross, 
with  both  arms  east  of  the  nave;  the  double 
German  transept  was  connected  with  the  double 
choir,  one  at  each  end  of  the  church.  The 
ends  of  the  transepts  in  Gothic  churches  were 


often  treated  as  fagades  only  second  in  im¬ 
portance  to  the  main  front,  with  their  large 
rose  or  wheel  windows  and  their  elaborate  por¬ 
tals.  Those  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris,  of  Chartres, 
Rouen,  and  Amiens  are  particularly  beautiful. 
Many  of  the  English  transepts  have  only  one 
side  aisle;  the  French  examples  have  usually 
two.  See  Church. 

TRANSFER  PROCESS.  See  Lithography. 

TRANSFIG'URA'TION  (Lat.  transfigura- 
tio,  from  transfigurare,  to  transfigure,  from  trans, 
across,  through  -f-  figurare,  to  form,  from  figura, 
shape,  form)  of  Christ.  The  temporary  revela¬ 
tion  of  the  glory  of  Jesus  during  his  earthly 
ministry,  recorded  in  Mark  ix.  2-8  and  parallel 
passages.  The  festival  commemorating  it  can 
be  traced  back  to  the  fifth  century,  but  was 
established  on  August  6  as  a  solemn  feast  for 
the  whole  Roman  Catholic  church  in  1457,  as  a 
thanksgiving  for  the  victory  over  the  Turks  near 
Belgrade.  It  was  retained  as  a  black-letter  fes¬ 
tival  by  the  Church  of  England  and  restored  as 
a  greater  feast  by  the  American  Episcopal 
church  at  the  revision  of  the  Prayer  Book  in 
1892. 

TRANSFORM A'TION.  See  Marble  Faun. 

TRANSFORM'ER.  In  electrical  engineer¬ 
ing,  an  apparatus  for  transforming  or  convert¬ 
ing  an  electric  current.  The  term  commonly 
is  applied  to  a  device  for  transforming  an  al¬ 
ternating  current  to  a  higher  or  lower  voltage. 
Machines  for  converting  alternating  currents  to 
continuous  currents  and  vice  versa  are  known 
as  converters  or  rectifiers  (q.v.)  and  are  de¬ 
scribed  under  dynamo-electric  machinery  ( q.v. ) . 
Devices  for  obtaining  pulsating  currents  of  high 
potential  from  pulsating  currents  of  low  po¬ 
tential  are  described  under  induction  coil  (q.v.). 
Devices  for  transforming  a  continuous  current  at 
one  voltage  to  a  continuous  current  at  another 


Iron  Core 


Fig.  1.  DIAGRAM  OF  ESSENTIAL  PARTS  OF  A  TRANSFORMER. 

voltage  are  known  as  dynamotors  and  are  de¬ 
scribed  under  dynamo-electric  machinery  (q.v.). 
The  present  article  treats  only  of  devices  used 
to  transform  alternating  currents  into  other 
alternating  currents  differing  in  magnitude  and 
potential  and  known  as  static  transformers. 

A  transformer  consists  of  two  electric  cir¬ 
cuits,  each  made  up  of  turns  of  insulated  con¬ 
ductor,  interlinked  with  a  magnetic  circuit, 
usually  consisting  of  iron,  in  such  a  manner 
that  any  magnetic  flux  set  up  by  a  current  in 
one  electric  circuit  will  thread  the  other.  (See 
Magnetism.)  Any  change  in  the  current  in 
one  of  the  coils  causes  a  change  in  the  mag¬ 
netic  flux,  and  a  change  in  the  magnetic  flux 
threading  the  second  coil  generates  a  voltage 
in  that  coil.  If  the  current  in  one  coil  is 
continually  changing,  as  is  the  case  with  an 
alternating  current,  an  alternating  flux  is  set  up 


TRANSFORMER 


TRANSFORMER 


418 


and  the  alternation  of  that  part  of  this  flux 
threading  the  second  coil  produces  an  alter¬ 
nating  voltage  in  the  second  coil.  At  the  same 
time  the  alternation  of  the  flux  produces  an 
alternating  voltage  in  the  first  coil  which  op¬ 
poses  the  current  and  is  known  as  the  counter 
electromotive  force  ( C.  E.  M.  F. ) . 

Since  with  an  iron  magnetic  circuit  practi¬ 
cally  all  the  magnetic  flux  set  up  by  the  coil 
into  which  a  current  is  sent  (the  primary) 
threads  the  other  coil  (the  secondary),  there 
is  very  little  leakage  of  flux  and  the  voltage 
induced  in  any  one  turn  of  either  coil  is  prac¬ 
tically  the  same.  Thus,  if  there  are  10  turns 
in  the  primary  coil  and  one  turn  in  the  sec¬ 
ondary  coil,  the  counter  electromotive  force  of 
the  primary  will  be  10  times  the  induced  elec¬ 
tromotive  force  of  the  secondary  coil,  whereas, 
in  accordance  with  the  law  of  conservation  of 
energy,  if  power  is  given  out  by  the  secondary 
it  must  be  taken  from  the  primary,  and  both 
members  have  very  nearly  the  same  power,  i.e., 
the  product  of  volts  and  amperes  in  the  pri¬ 
mary  is  equal  to  the  product  of  volts  and  am¬ 
peres  in  the  secondary.  Hence  the  currents  are 
inversely  proportional  to  the  voltages  or  to  the 
respective  numbers  of  turns  in  the  two  windings. 

The  winding  having  the  greater  number  of 
turns  and  the  higher  voltage  is  known  as  the 
high-tension  winding;  the  one  with  the  lower 
voltage  and  turns  is  the  low-tension  winding. 
The  winding  connected  to  the  source  of  energy 
is  called  the  primary  and  that  connected  to  the 
load  the  secondary.  If  the  low-tension  winding 
is  the  primary  we  have  a  step-up  transformer, 
and  if  the  high-tension  winding  is  the  pri¬ 
mary  we  have  a  step-down  transformer.  The 
former  type  is  used  in  power  stations  to  raise 
the  voltage  of  the  alternating-current  genera¬ 
tors  (usually  about  2200  volts)  to  a  suitable 
voltage  for  the  transmission  line  (30,000  to 
60,000  volts),  while  the  step-down  transformer 
is  used  at  the  other  end  of  the  line  to  lower 
the  voltage  of  the  transmission  line  to  a  volt¬ 
age  suitable  to  the  consumer. 

When  the  secondary  winding  is  closed  through 
an  external  circuit,  a  current  will  flow  and 
set  up  a  magnetic  reaction.  The  turns  of  the 
secondary  carrying  a  current  form  a  magneto¬ 
motive  force  opposing  the  primary  flux  and 
tending  to  reduce  it.  A  reduction  in  primary 
flux  causes  a  decrease  in  the  counter  electro¬ 
motive  force,  which  permits  more  current  to 
flow  in  the  primary,  so  that  the  primary  wind¬ 
ing  may  always  be  resolved  into  two  magneto¬ 
motive  forces — one  overcoming  the  counter  mag¬ 
netomotive  force  of  the  secondary  and  one  un¬ 
opposed  producing  the  primary  flux.  The  latter 
unopposed  magnetomotive  force  results  from  the 
magnetizing  current  or  no-load  current. 

Since  in  practice  both  windings  have  elec¬ 
trical  resistance,  there  will  be  a  loss  of  voltage 
in  each  whenever  current  flows,  and  thus  the 
observable  voltage  at  the  terminals  of  the  sec¬ 
ondary  or  load  will  be  less  than  that  gener¬ 
ated  by  the  primary  flux,  and  the  voltage  im¬ 
pressed  on  the  primary  must  be  greater  than 
the  counterelectric  force  by  the  amount  of  the 
resistance  drop  in  that  circuit. 

Since  it  is  impossible  to  place  the  two  wind¬ 
ings  so  that  all  the  flux  set  up  by  either  wind¬ 
ing  will  interlink  the  other  winding,  there  is  a 
leakage  of  flux  between  the  two  windings,  and 
besides  the  mutual  or  useful  flux  common  to  both 
windings  each  winding  has  an  additional  flux 


caused  by  its  own  particular  current  and  linked 
only  with  itself.  The  windings  are  thus  inductive 
and  have  induced  in  them  a  voltage  which  serves 
no  useful  purpose,  but  reacts  against  the  main 
voltage.  This  is  the  same  in  effect  as  if  choke 
coils  (i.e.,  coils  so  wou#id  as  to  have  consider¬ 
able  reactance)  or  inductances  were  connected 
into  the  external  part  of  each  winding.  The 
reactive  voltage  in  such  an  inductance  is  out 
of  phase  with  the  current  which  produces  it, 
and  its  effect  must  be  shown  by  vector  rela¬ 
tions.  If  the  current  is  in  phase  with  the 
useful  voltage,  the  reactive  voltage  is  at  one- 
quarter  period  out  of  phase  or  at  right  angles 
to  the  useful  voltage.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
load  is  inductive  and  the  current  lags  behind 
the  useful  voltage,  the  reactive  voltage  will  be 
directly  subtractive.  Thus,  when  supplying  a 
load  the  secondary  external  voltage  for  a  given 
impressed  voltage  on  the  primary  is  less  than 
when  the  transformer  is  not  loaded,  and  the 
ratio  of  transformation  is  different,  being  less 
than  the  ideal  in  a  step-up  transformer  and 
more  than  the  ideal  in  a  step-down  transformer. 
The  transformer  is  said  to  have  a  regulation 
expressed  by  the  percentage  decrease  in  second¬ 
ary  terminal  voltage  from  no  load  to  full  load. 

Under  all  operating  conditions  there  must 
be  a  certain  mutual  magnetic  flux  in  order  to 
produce  voltage,  the  voltage  depending  upon  the 
magnitude  of  this  flux  and  its  rate  of  change, 
i.e.,  the  frequency  of  the  impressed  voltage. 
To  produce  this  flux  a  magnetizing  current  must 
flow.  This  magnetizing  current  is  in  phase  with 
its  flux  and  therefore  out  of  phase  with  the 
voltage,  as  an  alternating  voltage  is  always 
one-quarter  period  out  of  phase  with  the  flux 
which  produces  it.  The  magnetizing  current 
is  therefore  said  to  be  reactive  or  wattless,  as 
it  represents  very  little  active  power  or  heat 
power.  On  the  other  hand,  the  alternation  of 
the  magnetic  flux  in  the  iron  produces  various 
losses  in  the  iron  known  as  hysteresis  (q.v.) 
and  eddv-current  losses.  (See  Foucault  Cur- 
rents.)  Hence  a  small  component  of  the  no- 
load  current  must  be  in  phase  with  the  voltage 
to  supply  this  heat-power  loss  and  is  known 
as  the  energy  component  of  the  no-load  current. 

These  losses  are  reduced  as  far  as  possible 
in  practice  by  using  specially  selected  steel  hav¬ 
ing  a  low  hysteresis  loss  and  a  high  electrical 
resistance  to  reduce  the  eddy-current  loss.  Re¬ 
cent  forms  of  steel  containing  silicon  are  very 
good  in  this  respect.  In  addition  the  steel  is 
divided  into  thin  sheets  or  laminations  to  re¬ 
duce  the  value  of  the  loss  from  eddy  currents. 

The  loss  in  voltage  due  to  the  electrical  re¬ 
sistance  of  the  two  windings  also  represents  a 
loss  of  energy,  and  the  energy  output  of  the 
secondary  is  less  than  the  amount  of  energy 
input  to  the  primary  due  to  these  so-called  cop¬ 
per  losses  as  well  as  the  losses  in  the  iron 
called  the  core  loss.  Thus,  the  energy  equation 
of  the  transformer  is  Input  =  Output  +  Core 
loss  +  Copper  loss  in  both  windings.  The  core 
loss  varies  only  a  fraction  of  a  per  cent  be¬ 
tween  no  load  and  full  load  and  is  called  a  con¬ 
stant  loss,  while  the  copper  loss,  being  pro¬ 
portional  to  the  square  of  the  current,  is  very 
nearly  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  load. 
It  is  called  the  variable  loss.  At  that  load  of 
any  transformer  at  which  the  copper  loss  is 
equal  to  the  iron  loss  the  efficiency  is  a  maxi¬ 
mum. 

These  losses  of  energy  manifest  themselves 


I 


TRANSFORMER  419  TRANSFORMER 


in  the  body  of  the  transformer  as  heat,  and  a 
considerable  skill  is  displayed  in  the  design  of 
a  transformer  to  dispose  of  this  heat  without 
causing  a  rise  in  temperature  of  the  transformer 
which  will  injure  the  insulating  materials  used. 
This  is  accomplished  by  allowing  spaces  in  the 
iron  core  between  the  windings  and  the  core 
and  between  various  parts  of  the  windings 
themselves.  These  are  known  as  ducts,  and 
through  these  ducts  either  oil  or  air  is  circu¬ 
lated  to  carry  olf  the  heat.  The  former  method 
gives  what  are  known  as  air-cooled,  and  the 
latter,  oil-cooled  transformers.  The  air-cooled 
type  is  usually  supplied  with  a  ventilating  fan 
to  force  the  air  through  the  transformer,  while 
the  oil-cooled  type  is  placed  in  a  large  tank  of 
oil,  and  as  the  oil  next  to  the  heated  parts  of 
the  body  becomes  heated,  it  rises  to  the  top, 
is  replaced  by  cooler  oil,  and  the  hot  oil  gives 

sides  of  the  tank,  which  in 
turn  transmit  it  to  the  sur¬ 
rounding  outside  air. 

Transformers  are  divided 
into  two  types  in  accordance 
with  the  arrangement  of 
their  magnetic  and  electric 
circuits.  The  core  type 
(Figs.  1,  2)  consists  of  one 
magnetic  circuit  with  the 
two  electric  circuits  wound 
on  the  two  legs  of  a  rec¬ 
tangular  core,  the  windings 
being  divided  into  many  sections  and  inter¬ 
spersed  to  reduce  the  magnetic  leakage.  The 
shell  type  (Fig.  3)  consists  of  two  magnetic  cir¬ 
cuits  with  a  common  leg  around  which  the  vari¬ 
ous  sections  of  the  two  windings  are  placed. 
The  relative  advantages  of  the  two  types  are  a 


up  its  heat  to  the 


Fig.  2.  core-type 

TRANSFORMER. 


Iron 


Fig.  3.  shell-type  transformer. 

matter  of  detail  of  design  and  mechanical  con¬ 
struction,  but  in  1916  the  core  type  was  growing 
in  favor  and  the  shell  type  was  declining. 

The  first  transformers  were  constructed  by 
Michael  Faraday  in  England  in  1831  and  nearly 
at  the  same  time  by  Joseph  Henry  in  the  United 
States.  Faraday  discovered  that  when  the  cur¬ 
rent  in  a  coil  was  varied  a  voltage  was  induced 
in  a  near-by  coil,  although  both  were  stationary 
and  did  not  touch.  This  is  called  mutual  in¬ 
duction.  For  a  long  time  the  only  applica¬ 
tion  of  this  discovery  was  in  the  making  of 
induction  coils  (q.v. ),  Ruhmkorff  coils,  and  other 
similar  small  apparatus.  With  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  alternating  currents  into  electrical  en¬ 
gineering,  however,  the  transformer  found  a 
wide  field  of  application.  When  a  current  flows 
through  a  conductor  there  is  a  loss  of  energy 
proportional  to  the  resistance  of  the  conduc¬ 
tor  multiplied  by  the  square  of  the  current. 
The  energy  transmitted,  however,  is  propor¬ 
tional  to  the  product  of  the  current  and  the 
voltage.  Tf  we  double  the  voltage  we  can  use 
one-half  the  current  for  the  same  energy  trans¬ 


mitted,  and  one-half  the  current  gives  one- 
quarter  the  amount  of  energy  lost  as  heat  in 
the  conductor.  From  this  relation  comes  the 
law  that  the  amount  of  copper  required  in  a 
conductor  to  transmit  a  given  amount  of  energy 
over  a  given  distance  with  a  certain  loss  is 
inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
voltage  used.  It  is  desirable  to  use  a  high 
voltage  in  the  transmission  system,  but  it  is 
dangerous  and  inconvenient  to  use  a  high  volt¬ 
age  in  the  generating  machinery  and  particu¬ 
larly  in  the  small  devices  in  which  the  energy 
is  utilized.  It  is  thus  economically  advanta¬ 
geous  to  use  step-up  transformers  between  the 
generators  and  the  transmission  line  and  to 
use  step-down  transformers  between  the  trans¬ 
mission  line  and  the  load. 

The  transformer  is  therefore  the  keystone  of 
the  present-day  transmission  systems,  making 
it  possible  to  operate  the  transmitting  lines  at 
from  60,000  to  150,000  volts  and  still  use  safe 
and  convenient  voltages  in  the  machinery  at 
each  end  of  the  system.  By  this  means  it  is 
possible  to  transmit  electrical  energy  economi¬ 
cally  over  distances  of  from  100  to  200  miles. 
Transformers  for  100,000  volts  are  quite  com¬ 
mon,  those  for  150,000  volts  are  found  in  com¬ 
mercial  operation,  while  transformers  for  750,- 
000  and  1,000,000  volts  are  in  use  for  testing 
•purposes.  In  regard  to  size  the  largest  units 
are  of  15,000  kilo  volt  ampere  capacity.  Trans¬ 
formers  for  a  given  power  are  much  smaller 
in  bulk  than  any  other  class  of  electrical  ap¬ 
paratus  of  the  same  capacity  on  account  of  their 
high  efficiency,  and  on  this  account  as  well  as 
because  they  have  no  moving  parts  they  are 
much  cheaper. 

There  are  three  general  classes  of  transform¬ 
ers:  (a)  constant  potential;  (b)  current  or 
series;  (c)  constant  current.  The  first  class 
is  intended  to  receive  power  from  a  circuit  of 
approximately  constant  potential  and  deliver  an 
approximately  constant  potential.  The  great 
majority  of  power  transformers  are  of  this 
class.  The  current  or  series  transformer  is  in¬ 
tended  to  be  connected  in  series  with  the  load, 
is  independent  of  the  potential,  and  is  designed 
to  deliver  from  its  secondary  a  current  bearing 


Fig.  4.  three-phase  transformer. 


a  definite  proportion  to  the  primary  current. 
It  is  used  for  supplying  instruments  and  con¬ 
trolling  devices.  Its  success  depends  upon  the 
accuracy  and  constancy  of  the  relation  of  the 
currents  in  the  two  windings.  The  constant- 
current  transformer  is  intended  to  receive  en¬ 
ergy  from  a  source  of  constant  potential  and 
to  supply  a  constant  current  in  the  secondary 
irrespective  of  the  amount  of  the  load.  It  is 
used  for  supplying  arc  lamps  operating  upon 
a  series  circuit.  The  method  of  operating  is 


TRANSFORMER 


420 


TRANSFUSION  OF  BLOOD 


to  vary  the  relative  position  of  the  two  windings 
and  thus  the  amount  of  flux  from  the  primary 
which  interlinks  the  secondary. 

Power  transformers  may  be  single  phase,  con¬ 
taining  one  primary  circuit  and  one  second¬ 
ary  circuit,  or  polyphase,  containing  two  or 
three  primary  circuits  and  a  like  number  of 
secondary  circuits,  one  primary  and  one  sec¬ 
ondary  each  wound  on  one  of  several  legs  of 
the  magnetic  circuit  having  a  common  connec¬ 
tion  (Fig.  4). 

An  autotransformer,  sometimes  called  a  com¬ 
pensator,  but  more  properly  named  a  single¬ 
circuit  transformer,  consists  of  a  single  elec¬ 
trical  circuit  wound  on  a  magnetic  core.  When 
a  voltage  is  impressed  upon  this  circuit  and  a 
current  flows,  a  flux  is  set  up  which  generates 
the  same  counter  electromotive  force  in  each 
turn  of  the  winding.  If  a  connection  is  made  to 
the  middle  point  of  this  winding,  the  voltage 
between  this  point  and  either  extremity  is  one- 
lialf  of  the  total,  and  if  the  intermediate  con¬ 
nection  is  made  at  any  other  point  the  main 
voltage  is  divided  into  parts  directly  propor¬ 
tional  to  the  number  of  turns  between  the 
special  connection  and  the  main  terminals.  It 
is  thus  possible  to  get  any  fractional  voltage 
desired  by  tapping  at  the  proper  turn  of  the 
single  winding.  This  device  is  used  when  it 
is  desired  to  obtain  a  transformation  of  volt¬ 
ages  varying  only  slightly  from  unity,  i.e.,  from 
100  volts  to  80  volts.  The  current  will  be  in¬ 
versely  transformed.  The  advantage  of  the  ar¬ 
rangement  is  that,  when  the  ratio  of  trans¬ 
formation  is  not  very  great,  much  less  copper 
and  somewhat  less  iron  are  required  for  the 
same  output.  If  the  difference  between  the 
primary  and  secondary  voltage  is  10  per  cent 
of  that  of  the  primary,  the  device  need  have 
only  10  per  cent  of  the  size  of  the  usual  two- 
circuit  transformer. 

A  potential  regulator  is  a  special  form  of 
transformer  in  which  the  secondary  coil  is  con¬ 
nected  in  series  with  the  primary  so  that  its 
voltage  is  either  added  to  or  subtracted  from 
the  primary,  giving  a  convenient  regulation  of 
voltage.  The  magnitude  of  the  secondary  volt¬ 
age  is  varied  by  changing  the  position  of  the 
magnetic  circuit  so  that  the  amount  and  di¬ 
rection  of  the  flux  set  up  by  the  primary  may 
be  varied  with  respect  to  the  secondary.  It  is 
used  for  regulating  the  voltage  at  the  ends  of 
alternating-current  transmission  circuits. 

An  induction  regulator  is  a  device  constructed 
like  a  polyphase  induction  motor,  but  both 
members  are  normally  stationary  and  each  phase 
of  the  secondary  is  designed  for  a  low  voltage 
and  connected  in  series  with  one  primary  phase. 
The  flux  set  up  by  the  primary  rotates  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  law  of  the  polyphase  magnetic  field 
and  induces  voltages  in  the  secondaries  propor¬ 
tional  to  the  number  of  turns.  By  varying  the 
position  of  the  secondary  with  respect  to  the 
primary  by  hand,  the  secondary  voltage  may  be 
added  to  or  subtracted  from  the  primary  or  may 
be  connected  in  some  intermediate  phase  so  that 
it  is  possible  to  vary  the  voltage  per  phase  by 
gradual  increments  from  primary  minus  sec¬ 
ondary  voltage  to  primary  plus  secondary  volt¬ 
age.  Its  use  is  the  same  as  the  potential  regu¬ 
lator,  except  that  it  is  adapted  to  polyphase  cir¬ 
cuits. 

Bibliography.  S.  P.  Thompson,  Dynamo 
Electric  Machinery,  vol.  ii  (7th  ed.,  New  York, 
1905)  ;  Gisbert  Kapp,  Transformers  for  Single 


and  Multiphase  Currents  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1908)  ; 
C.  P.  Steinmetz,  Theory  and  Calculation  of  Al¬ 
ternating  Current  Phenomena  (4tli  ed.,  ib., 
1908)  ;  H.  M.  Hobart,  Design  of  Static  Trans¬ 
formers  (ib.,  1911);  Franklin  and  Esty,  Ele¬ 
ments  of  Electrical  Engineering,  vol.  ii  (3d  ed., 
ib.,  1912)  ;  Vladimir  Harapetoff,  Experimental 
Electrical  Engineering  and  Manual  for  Electri¬ 
cal  Testing  (2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  ib.,  1912-13)  ; 
W.  T.  Taylor,  Transformer  Practice  (2d  ed., 
ib.,  1913)  ;  D.  C.  Jackson,  Alternating  Currents 
and  Alternating  Current  Machinery  (new  ed., 
ib.,  1913)  ;  Harold  Pender  (ed.),  American  Hand¬ 
book  for  Electrical  Engineers  (ib.,  1914)  ;  W. 
P.  Maycock,  Alternating  Current  Work  (ib., 
1915)  ;  also  Transactions  of  the  American  In¬ 
stitute  of  Electrical  Engineers  (ib.,  annually) 
and  the  General  Electric  Review  (Schenectady, 
monthly ) . 

TRANSFU'SION  OF  BLOOD  (Lat.  trans- 
fusio,  from  transfundere,  to  pour  from  one  to 
the  other,  from  trans,  across,  through  +  fun- 
dere,  to  pour).  The  injection  into  one  person 
of  blood  taken  from  another,  either  directly, 
from  vein  to  vein,  or  after  it  has  been  defi- 
brinated.  The  operation  has  been  regarded  as 
legitimate  in  obstetric  surgery  since  the  year 
1824,  when  Dr.  Blundell  published  his  well- 
known  work  entitled  Physiological  and  Patho¬ 
logical  Researches.  The  operation  had,  however, 
been  vaguely  known  to  the  medical  profession 
for  the  last  four  centuries;  and  there  are  ob¬ 
scure  allusions  in  the  Roman  poets,  which  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  practiced  as  early 
as  the  Augustan  age.  References  to  transfu¬ 
sion  are  also  found  in  the  papyri  of  the  Egyp¬ 
tians  and  in  the  works  of  Pliny  and  Celsus. 
Pope  Innocent  VIII  was  transfused  in  1492, 
three  boys  who  acted  as  donors  losing  their 
lives,  probably  from  air  embolism,  in  this  un¬ 
successful  experiment.  The  older  and  rather  for¬ 
midable  operation  of  transfusion  gave  way  for 
a  long  time  to  the  operation  of  infusion  into 
the  veins  or  subcutaneous  tissues  of  a  hot  saline 
solution  of  a  temperature  of  100°  F.  to  120°  F. 
This  solution  contains  sodium  chloride  in  the 
proportion  in  which  it  is  found  in  solution  in 
normal  physiological  tissues  (about  0.6  per 
cent ) .  But  during  the  past  few  years  the 
technique  of  blood  transfusion  has  been  much 
simplified,  and  the  procedure  is  undertaken  with 
success  in  simple  hemorrhage,  as  in  the  case 
of  bleeding  from  gastric  or  intestinal  ulcer, 
after  surgical  operations  entailing  shock  and 
loss  of  blood;  and  in  altered  blood  conditions 
such  as  those  occurring  in  pernicious  anaemia, 
acute  gas  poisoning,  cancer,  etc.  Transfusion 
may  be  direct  or  indirect.  In  the  latter  method 
the  desired  amount  of  blood  is  withdrawn  from 
the  donor  into  a  glass  jar  containing  a  small 
amount  of  sodium  citrate  solution  to  prevent 
clotting.  The  resulting  mixture  is  injected  into 
a  vein  of  the  recipient.  The  direct  method  is 
the  most  satisfactory,  and  its  use  wafs  largely 
stimulated  in  America  by  the  work  of  Crile 
in  1898  and  Carrel  in  1902.  Their  method  in¬ 
volves  dissecting  out  the  veins.  A  still  sim¬ 
pler  procedure  was  invented  by  Linderman, 
which  with  modifications  is  now  the  favored 
method.  Two  small  needles  connected  with 
cannulas  are  inserted — one  into  a  vein  of  the 
donor,  the  other  into  a  vein  of  the  recipient. 
A  series  of  Record  syringes  are  now  filled  rap¬ 
idly  with  blood  from  the  donor  and  emptied 
into  the  vein  of  the  recipient,  warm  saline  so- 


TRANSISTHMIAN  CANAL 


421 


TRANSIT  OF  VENUS 


lution  being  injected  in  the  intervals  to  keep 
the  blood  from  clotting  in  the  needles.  The 
process  may  be  further  simplified  by  interpos¬ 
ing  a  three-way  stopcock,  which  renders  the 
flow  nearly  continuous.  Consult  J.  S.  Horsley, 
Surgery  of  the  Blood  Vessels  (St.  Louis,  1915). 

TRANSISTHMIAN  CANAL.  The  projects 
for  a  transisthmian  canal  have  included  two 
principal  routes,  the  Nicaragua  and  the  Pan¬ 
ama,  though  there  also  has  been  a  discussion 
of  a  number  of  secondary  routes,  some  of  which 
have  been  investigated  by  engineers  and  re¬ 
ceived  study  for  many  years.  The  most  thor¬ 
ough  and  comprehensive  study  of  recent  years 
was  that  made  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commis¬ 
sion  in  1899-1901,  and  not  only  were  the  two 
main  routes  discussed,  but  also  other  possible 
projects.  The  political  questions  involved  have 
largely  been  confined  to  the  Nicaragua  and 
Panama  schemes,  and  as  these  propositions  have 
attracted  such  widespread  attention  in  the  past 
and  as  each  possesses  certain  unique  features, 
both  engineering  and  otherwise,  they  will  be 
found  fully  treated  under  their  respective  heads. 
(See  Nicaragua  Canal;  Panama  Canal.)  It 
might  be  said,  however,  that  the  United  States 
Senate,  on  Feb.  18,  1916,  ratified  a  treaty  with 
Nicaragua  whereby,  in  exchange  for  a  payment 
of  $3,000,000,  the  exclusive  rights  for  an  in- 
teroceanic  canal  across  Nicaraguan  territory 
were  granted  and  a  naval  base  in  the  Gulf  of 
Fonseca  ceded  for  99  years. 

The  result  of  many  examinations  showed  that 
there  was  no  probability  of  the  existence  of  any 
practicable  canal  location  between  Panama  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Atrato  River  except  by  the 
adoption  of  a  tunnel  line,  and  there  seemed  to 
be  no  reason  for  further  field  work  except  in 
the  interest  of  geography.  Consult  Report  of 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  1899-1901  (Wash¬ 
ington,  1901),  and  the  bibliography  under  Nica¬ 
ragua  Canal  and  Panama  Canal. 

TRANSIT  INSTRUMENT  (Lat.  transitus, 
passage  over).  An  astronomical  instrument 
consisting  principally  of  a  telescope  fixed  to  a 
horizontal  east-and-west  axis  and  revolving  in 
the  plane  of  the  meridian.  It  is  employed,  as 
its  name  denotes,  in  the  observation  of  the 
meridian  transits  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  i.e., 
in  noting  the  exact  instants  when  they  reach 
the  meridian  of  the  observatory.  The  axis, 
which  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  instru¬ 
ment  and  thus  demands  the  utmost  care  in  its 
construction,  consists  of  a.  hollow  sphere  or 
cube,  to  opposite  sides  of  which  are  tightly 
fastened  the  bases  of  two  cones  in  whose  apices 
the  pivots  are  screwed;  the  sphere  or  cube  is 
pierced  for  the  admission  of  the  telescope,  which 
is  firmly  fastened  at  right  angles  to  the  axis. 
One  of  the  pivots  is  hollowed  so  that  a  stream 
of  light  can  be  directed  from  a  lantern  halfway 
along  the  interior  of  the  axis,  and  through  an 
aperture  in  the  side,  into  the  telescope  tube, 
where,  being  received  by  a  small  reflector, 
set  at  45°  to  the  axis  and  telescope  tube,  it  is 
directed  to  the  eyepiece,  rendering  visible  a 
series  of  fine  spider  threads  stretched  across  the 
field  of  view.  The  pivots  must  lie  carefully 
turned  to  a  perfectly  cylindrical  form  and  fitted 
into  the  instrument  so  that  they  are  accurately 
in  line.  One  extremity  of  the  axis  carries  one 
and  sometimes  two  small  graduated  circles,  each 
supplied  with  index,  clamping  screws,  and 
vernier;  these  circles  are  capable  of  indicating 
angular  measures  to  within  1'  or  2'.  There  are 


three  adjustments  necessary  before  a  transit 
instrument  can  be  used:  the  axis  must  be  hori¬ 
zontal;  the  sight  line  of  the  telescope,  as  marked 
by  the  spider  threads,  must  be  at  right  angles 
to  the  axis  of  motion;  and  the  latter  must  be 
placed  so  as  to  point  accurately  east  and  west. 
On  the  perfection  of  the  first  two  of  these  ad¬ 
justments  depends  whether  the  telescope  sweeps 
over  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere,  and  the  third 
is  necessary  to  insure  that  this  great;  circle 
shall  be  the  meridian  of  the  place  of  observa¬ 
tion.  These  adjustments  can  never  be  made 
quite  perfect,  and  the  usual  mode  is  to  investi¬ 
gate  the  amount  of  error  in  each  and  allow  for 
it  by  a  calculated  correction  applied  to  the  ob¬ 
served  time  of  the  star’s  crossing  the  meridian. 
To  note  accurately  this  observed  time  by  the 
astronomical  clock  is,  as  we  have  said,  the  es¬ 
sential  part  of  a  transit  observation.  It  is 
best  done  by  means  of  a  chronograph  (q.v. ), 
an  instrument  with  which  an  automatic  record 
of  the  observed  time  can  be  made  by  means  of 
an  electric  signal  sent  out  directly  from  the  ob¬ 
server’s  hand.  The  transit  used  by  engineers 
will  be  found  described  and  illustrated  under 
Surveying  Instruments. 

TRANSIT  OF  VENUS.  The  passing  of 
Venus  across  the  sun’s  disk,  seen  when  the 
planet  is  exactly  in  line  with  the  sun  and  the 
earth  at  inferior  conjunction.  The  two  planets, 
Mercury  and  Venus,  whose  orbits  lie  between 
the  sun  and  the  earth’s  orbit,  can  at  times  pass 
between  us  and  the  sun.  They  can  then  be 
seen  in  the  telescope,  appearing  as  black  dots 
projected  on  the  Juminous  solar  surface.  These 
transits  can  occur  only  when  the  earth  is  near 
one  of  the  nodes  of  the  planet’s  orbit,  i.e.,  in 
the  case  of  Venus  in  June  and  December  and 
in  the  case  of  Mercury  in  May  and  November, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  angular  distance  be¬ 
tween  the  centres  of  the  sun  and  the  planet  is 
less  than  the  sun’s  angular  semidiameter,  or 
about  16'.  On  account  of  the  inclination  of 
the  planet’s  orbit  to  the  ecliptic,  this  means, 
in  the  case  of  Venus,  that  the  planet  must  be 
less  than  about  1°  42'  from  the  node,  and  the 
smallness  of  this  limit  alone  shows  that  transits 
of  Venus  are  of  rare  occurrence.  At  present  the 
intervals  in  years  between  successive  transits 
occur  in  the  following  order:  8;  121%;  8; 

105%;  8;  121%.  The  last  two  transits  oc¬ 
curred  on  Dec.  8,  1874,  and  Dec.  6,  1882;  the 
next  two  will  not  take  place  until  June  8,  2004, 
and  June  6,  2012.  Two  transits  of  Mercury 
have  already  occurred  during  the  present  cen¬ 
tury,  viz.,  on  Nov.  12,  1907,  and  Nov.  6,  1914. 
The  remaining  dates  for  the  century  are  given 
below;  it  will  be  noticed  transits  of  Mercury 
are  more  frequent  than  those  of  Venus. 


May  7,  1924 
November  8,  1927 
May  10.  1937 
November  12,  1940 
November  13,  1953 


November  6,  1960 
May  9,  1970 
November  9,  1973 
November  12,  1986 
November  14,  1997 


If  the  exact  instant  of  time  be  observed  when 
the  planet  first  touches  the  solar  disk  and  again 
when  it  finally  leaves  it,  the  observations  can 
be  used  to  calculate  the  solar  parallax  and  the 
distance  from  the  earth  to  the  sun.  Transits 
of  Venus  are  especially  well  suited  for  this 
purpose,  and  they  have  been  very  elaborately 
observed  in  the  past,  especially  in  the  years 
1874  and  1882.  Unfortunately  experience  has 
proved  that  it  is  impossible  to  observe  the  re¬ 
quired  instants  of  time  with  sufficient  preci- 


TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER 


TRANSKEI  TERRITORY  422 


sion,  and  other  methods  of  measuring  the  sun’s 
distance  are  now  preferred  by  astronomers. 

Transits  of  Mercury  are  not  well  adapted  for 
solar  parallax  observations  and  are  indeed  of 
quite  minor  importance  astronomically.  See 
Black  Drop  :  Parallax. 

TRANSKEI  (trans-ki')  TERRITORY.  A 
dependency  of  the  Cape  Province,  South  Africa, 
between  the  Great  Kei  River  and  TembulamL 
Area,  3552  square  miles.  Pop.,  1911,  188,895 
(2189  whites),  this  being  the  most  densely  pop¬ 
ulated  part  of  Cape  Province.  The  territory  is 
administered  by  a  chief  magistrate  and  is  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  Native  Territories  Penal  Code. 

TRANSLATION.  See  Mechanics. 

TRANSLATION,  Sense  of.  See  Static 
Sense. 

TRANS'LEITHA'NIA.  A  name  applied  to 
the  eastern  division  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy  on  account  of  its  position  east  of  the 
Leitha  River,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  bound¬ 
ary  line  between  the  two  divisions  of  the 
monarchy.  See  Cisleitiiania. 

TRANSMIGRATION.  See  Metempsychosis. 

TRANSMISSION  GEAR,  in  Motor  Ve¬ 
hicle.  See  Motor  Vehicle. 

TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER  BY  ELEC¬ 
TRICITY.  The  electrical  transmission  of  en¬ 
ergy  in  considerable  quantities  from  the  point  of 
generation  to  one  or  more  distant  points  of  deliv¬ 
ery.  This  excludes  telegraphy  and  telephony 
where  energy  is  transmitted  over  a  wire  but  in 
small  quantities.  Energy  is  transmitted  in  order 
to  utilize  a  cheap,  convenient,  or  otherwise  advan¬ 
tageous  source  of  energy  supply,  and  the  total  cost 
of  generation  and  transmission  to  the  point  of  use 
must  be  less  than  would  be  the  cost  of  generation 
at  the  point  of  use,  otherwise  such  transmis¬ 
sion  would  not  be  profitable.  Therefore  trans¬ 
mission  plants  are  usually  supplied  by  water 
power  or  by  cheap  coal,  and  the  electricity  is 
derived  from  generators.  In  general  the  term 
“transmission”  would  include  any  arrangement 
for  the  transmission  of  electrical  energy  from 
a  generator  to  the  utilizing  devices,  but  by  con¬ 
vention  among  engineers  the  term  is  confined 
to  the  transmission  of  energy  at  comparatively 
high  voltages  over  considerable  distances  with¬ 
out  any  division  or  distribution  of  the  energy, 
while  the  term  “distribution”  applies  to  the 
transmission  of  energy  from  a  local  centre  to 
various  utilizing  devices  over  distances  of  1 
or  2  miles  and  at  voltages  from  100  to  2000. 
Each  transmission  line  is  therefore  only  a  part 
of  the  whole  system  and  is  augmented  by  dis¬ 
tribution  lines  in  order  to  make  the  system 
complete.  The  weight  of  copper  required  to 
transmit  any  amount  of  energy  for  any  dis¬ 
tance  with  any  specified  loss  in  power  is  di¬ 
rectly  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  dis¬ 
tance  and  inversely  proportional  to  the  square 
of  the  voltage,  and  is  given  in  exact  terms  for 
direct-current  work  and  to  a  close  approxima¬ 
tion  for  alternating-current  work  by  the  formula 
W  ==  125  PD2  -f-  KE2,  where  W  is  the  weight  of 
copper  in  pounds,  P  is  the  power  delivered  in 
watts,  D  is  the  distance  one  way  in  thousands  of 
feet,  K  is  the  ratio  of  power  lost  in  the  line  to 
the  power  delivered,  and  E  is  the  voltage  de¬ 
livered. 

The  fundamental  fact  in  the  transmission  of 
energy  by  electricity  is  that  great  distances 
can  be  economically  overcome  only  by  the  use 
of  high  voltages.  This  explains  why  direct 
current  is  seldom  considered  as  a  means  of 


transmission.  Direct-current  generators  can¬ 
not  be  built  for  more  than  1500  volts  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  trouble  at  the  commutator.  To 
connect  a  large  number  of  such  generators  in 
series  involves  great  difficulties  in  the  use  of 
the  energy  at  the  receiving  end.  The  motors 
must  also  be  connected  in  series  and  be  insu¬ 
lated  to  stand  the  maximum  voltage.  This  lim¬ 
its  their  use  to  places  where  skilled  supervision 
can  be  exercised.  There  are  a  few  instances  of 
the  use  of  direct-current  transmission  in  Eu¬ 
rope,  but  in  the  United  States  there  is  none. 

Voltages.  The  alternating-current  system 
lends  itself  admirably  to  high-voltage  trans¬ 
mission  because  the  alternating-current  trans¬ 
former  (q.v. )  permits  the  use  of  any  convenient 
voltage  in  the  generators,  such  as  2200,  and  this 
may  be  easily  and  economically  transformed 
to  a  high  voltage  suitable  for  transmission, 
such  as  30,000  to  150,000.  At  the  load  end 
of  the  line  other  transformers  receive  the  high 
voltage  and  transform  it  to  some  low  alternat¬ 
ing  voltage  suitable  to  the  consuming  devices. 
Thus,  the  alternating-current  transformer  makes 
possible  the  economical  operation  of  high-volt¬ 
age  transmission  lines.  The  usual  voltages  em¬ 
ployed  in  transmission  lines  vary  from  30,000 
to  150,000  volts,  depending  upon  the  amount  of 
power  and  the  distance  over  which  energy  is 
to  be  transmitted,  and  practice  shows  that  the 
voltage  chosen  is  about  1000  for  each  mile  of 
transmission.  With  the  higher  voltages  the  ex¬ 
pense  for  copper  for  a  given  power  decreases 
very  rapidly,  but  the  expense  of  the  insulators 
and  poles  increases,  and  the  cost  for  insulation 
at  voltages  over  100,000  is  very  considerable. 
At  this  voltage  the  phenomenon  of  the  loss  of 
energy  between  the  two  wires  suspended  in  air, 
known  as  corona  and  due  to  the  breaking  down 
and  ionization  of  the  air,  becomes  of  importance, 
and  to  reduce  this  loss  it  is  necessary  to  space 
the  wires  at  a  considerable  distance  from  each 
other  and  to  increase  the  size  of  the  wire  used. 

The  electrical  energy  may  be  transmitted  in 
the  form  of  single-phase,  two-phase,  or  three- 
phase  alternating  currents  as  well  as  by  direct 
current.  Single-phase  and  direct-current  sys¬ 
tems  require  two  wires,  the  three-phase  requires 
three  wires,  while  the  two-phase  system  requires 
four  wires.  For  a  given  voltage  between  wires 
the  relative  weights  of  copper  required  are: 
single-phase  and  two-phase,  100;  three-phase, 
75;  direct-current,  50.  For  reasons  mentioned 
above  the  direct-current  system  is  not  much 
used  and  the  three-phase  system,  being  next  in 
economy  of  copper,  is  most  generally  used.  The 
single-phase  system  is  objectionable  because 
single-phase  motors  are  not  easily  made  to  be 
self-starting  and  have  a  poorer  efficiency  than 
the  three-phase,  while  the  three-phase  induc¬ 
tion  motor  is  a  very  satisfactory  device. 

Frequencies.  The  frequency  of  the  alternat¬ 
ing  current  is  either  25,  50,  or  60  cycles  per 
second.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  trans¬ 
mission  line  alone  25  cycles  is  preferable  on 
account  of  the  lesser  effect  of  the  inductance 
and  capacity  of  the  line  and  the  advantages  of 
a  low  frequency  for  generators  and  motors  of 
very  large  size."  But  for  lighting  purposes  the 
higher  frequency  is  necessary  and  the  cost  of 
transformers  is  less  with  the  higher  frequency. 
The  inductance  of  a  line  depends  upon  the  length 
of  line  and  the  distance  between  the  wires  and 
produces  a  reactive  drop  in  voltage  proportional 
to  the  frequency.  This  loss  in  voltage  does 


TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER 


TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER 


423 


not  represent  a  loss  of  energy,  but  interferes 
with  the  voltage  regulation.  The  capacity  of  a 
line  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  line  and 
the  proximity  of  the  conductors  to  each  other 
and  is  very  great  in  underground  cables.  The 
capacitjf  causes  a  charging  current  proportional 
to  the  voltage  and  frequency,  which  may  be 
called  an  idle  current,  as  it  represents  no  en¬ 
ergy  but  flows  even  at  no  load. 

As  a  result  of  the  inductance  and  capacity 
of  a  transmission  line  which  represent  energy 
stored  either  in  electromagnetic  or  electrostatic 
form,  the  line  is  subject  to  dangerous  potentials 
whenever  anything  causes  a  sudden  variation 
in  the  distribution  of  this  stored  energy. 

Line  Construction.  The  construction  of  a 
transmission  line  may  consist  either  of  wooden 
poles  and  wooden  cross  arms  carrying  the 
wires  on  glass  or  porcelain  insulators,  or  steel 
latticework  poles,  or  sometimes  towers  carry¬ 
ing  the  wires  suspended  from  the  arms  by  sus¬ 
pension  insulators.  The  wooden  pole  is  satis¬ 
factory  and  cheaper  for  voltages  up  to  about 
60,000,  while  the  steel  type  is  better  for  the 
higher  voltages.  In  the  wooden-pole  construc¬ 
tion  the  insulators  are  fastened  rigidly  on  up¬ 
right  pins  on  the  cross  arms,  and  the  conduc¬ 
tors,  consisting  usually  of  copper  but  sometimes 
of  stranded  aluminium,  are  laid  on  these  insula¬ 
tors  and  fastened  to  them.  The  poles  are  usu¬ 
ally  from  40  to  50  feet  in  height,  spaced  100  to 
150  feet  apart,  and  carry  two  cross  arms  with 
duplicate  transmission  lines  on  each  side  of 
the  pole,  giving  increased  capacity  and  reli¬ 
ability.  The  steel  construction  may  consist 
either  of  lattice  poles  for  moderate  voltages  or 
large  towers  for  high  voltages  with  duplicate 
lines.  The  latter  are  40  to  6Q  feet  high,  spaced 
from  400  to  600  feet  apart  and  arranged  to 
place  the  wires  from  5  to  10  feet  apart,  the 
wires  being  hung  from  arms  on  the  tower  by 
suspension  insulators  connected  like  links  in 
a  chain. 

The  wires  used  are  generally  between  No.  2 
and  No.  0000  Brown  and  Sharp  gauge,  and  solid 
if  of  copper,  but  of  larger  cross  section  and 
stranded  around  a  steel  core  if  of  aluminium. 
A  transmission  line  usually  costs  from  $2000  to 
$4000  per  mile,  not  including  the  cost  of  the 
right  of  way. 

Cables.  Another  type  of  transmission  devel¬ 
oped  as  a  result  of  conditions  in  the  large 
cities  is  by  means  of  underground  cables,  in 
which  the  three  conductors,  shaped  roughly  like 
sectors  of  a  circle,  are  insulated  from  each 
other  and  from  the  outside  bv  rubber  or  prefer¬ 
ably  paper  and  the  whole  incased  in  a  lead 
sheathing  and  sometimes  by  a  steel  armor. 
This  type  of  transmission  is  in  general  use  at 
voltages  of  13,000,  and  there  are  certain  ex¬ 
amples  in  operation  with  voltages  as  high  as  30,- 
000.  It  is  much  more  expensive  to  install  and 
used  only  where  lopal  conditions  require  it. 

Regulation.  Tne  line  regulation  is  the  dif¬ 
ference  between  the  voltage  delivered  and  the 
voltage  impressed  at  the  generator  end  of  the 
line  and  in  practice  has  values  from  5  to  20 
per  cent,  as  the  loss  in  voltage  due  to  the  self¬ 
inductance  of  the  line  may  be  quite  great  and 
varies  considerably  with  the  load.  This  varia¬ 
tion  in  voltage  is  no  longer  objectionable,  as 
regulating  devices  are  available  which  will  main¬ 
tain  the  voltage  delivered  to  the  customer  fairly 
constant  irrespective  of  the  voltage  of  the  trans¬ 
mission  line.  The  loss  of  energy  and  power  in 


the  transmission  line  varies  from  5  to  15  per 
cent  and  depends  largely  upon  economic  condi¬ 
tions.  If  the  cost  of  energy  at  the  source  is 
low,  it  is  advisable  to  be  economical  in  the 
amount  of  copper  installed  in  the  line  and  thus 
save  in  the  cost  of  the  line.  This  relation  is 
expressed  in  a  very  general  form  by  what  is 
known  as  Kelvin’s  law,  which  states:  “The 
most  economical  transmission  system  is  that 
in  which  the  annual  interest  on  the  cost  of 
the  copper  of  the  line  is  equal  to  the  value 
of  the  energy  lost  in  the  line  in  one  year.” 
However,  this  does  not  take  account  of  the  cost 
of  #the  poles,  insulators,  right  of  way,  main¬ 
tenance,  etc.,  and  must  be  qualified  in  practice. 

Notable  Installations.  As  interesting  ex¬ 
amples  of  the  latest  practice  in  electrical  trans¬ 
mission  of  energy  in  1916,  the  following  in¬ 
stallations  may  be  mentioned :  the  Pacific 
Light  &  Power  Co.,  at  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  trans¬ 
mits  60,000  kilowatts  over  241  miles  at  a  volt¬ 
age  of  150,000  and  a  frequency  of  60  cycles; 
the  line  consists  of  aluminium  conductors.  The 
Ausable  Electric  Co.,  near  Battle  Creek,  Mich., 
transmits  19,000  kilowatts,  a  distance  of  245 
miles  by  means  of  copper  conductors  operating 
at  140,000  volts  and  60  cycles;  this  in  1916  was 
about  the  longest  line  in  commercial  operation. 
The  Hydro  Electric  Power  Commission  of  On¬ 
tario  transmits  107,000  kilowatts  from  Niagara 
Falls  to  Toronto  and  other  cities,  a  distance  of 
135  miles,  using  both  copper  and  aluminium  con¬ 
ductors  and  operating  at  110,000  volts  and  25 
cycles.  The  Mississippi  River  Power  Co.  has 
a  plant  of  112,000  kilowatts’  capacity,  with  pro¬ 
vision  for  225,000  kilowatts  ultimately,  at 
Keokuk,  Iowa,  using  the  power  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  River;  this  is  transmitted  over  a  distance 
of  144  miles  by  means  of  copper  conductors  at 
110,000  volts  and  25  cycles  and  is  the  largest 
capacity  in  a  single  plant. 

Distribution  Systems.  The  local  distribu¬ 
tion  of  electric  energy  may  be  by  direct  cur¬ 
rents,  by  single-phase  alternating  currents,  or 
by  polyphase  alternating  currents.  The  choice 
between  the  alternating-current  system  and  the 
direct-current  system  depends  upon  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  apparatus  used  for  the  load  and 
upon  the  available  current.  Direct-current  mo¬ 
tors  are  usually  preferable  to  alternating-cur¬ 
rent  motors  on  account  of  their  convenience  and 
ease  of  control,  but  are  limited  in  the  voltage 
at  which  they  may  be  operated.  The  alternat¬ 
ing-current  system  allows  a  greater  freedom  in 
the  choice  of  voltage  on  account  of  the  sim¬ 
plicity  and  cheapness  of  transformers.  The 
single-phase  system  is  preferable  for  lighting 
alone  on  account  of  the  simplicity  of  its  con¬ 
nections,  but  if  many  motors  are  to  be  sup¬ 
plied  either  the  two-phase  or  three-phase  sys¬ 
tem  should  be  used  on  account  of  the  superior 
starting  ability  and  efficiency  of  the  motors. 
The  three-phase  system  is  generally  used  at 
present  on  account  of  the  economy  of  copper 
in  distribution.  If  the  power  is  to  be  used 
for  a  combined  load  of  lighting  as  well  as  mo¬ 
tors,  a  frequency  of  50  or  60  cycles  is  prefer¬ 
able,  as  the  flickering  of  the  lamps  at  25  cycles 
is  unpleasant,  although  such  lamps  are  in  use 
in  some  cities. 

The  most  convenient  voltage  for  local  dis¬ 
tribution  is  the  220-volt  3-wire  system,  in  which 
220-volt  motors  are  operated  between  two  of 
the  wires  and  110-volt  lamps  and  small  motors 
may  be  operated  between  the  third  wire  and 


TRANSPORTATION 


TRANS-MISSISSIPPI  EXPOSITION  424 


either  of  the  others.  This  is  a  very  common 
arrangement  both  for  direct-current  and  single¬ 
phase  distribution.  If  many  large  motors  are 
to  be  used,  500  to  600  volts  is  chosen  on  account 
of  the  lesser  copper  required,  and  this  is  the 
usual  voltage  in  the  distribution  of  energy  for 
street  and  interurban  railways.  In  the  three- 
phase  system  a  voltage  of  220  between  lines  is 
the  more  common,  although  voltages  of  110,  440, 
and  550  are  in  use.  It  is  also  quite  customary 
to  distribute  at  2200  volts  and  use  step-down 
transformers  for  a  group  of  motors. 

The  use  of  the  electric  motor  in  factories  and 
shops  is  becoming  more  general,  and  on  account 
of  the  convenience  and  the  economy  of  energy 
the  electric  motor  is  rapidly  taking  the  place 
of  shafting  and  belting  for  the  transmission  of 
energy,  even  for  the  short  distances  between  the 
power  station  and  the  machinery  of  a  factory. 
Large  and  medium  size  machines  are  driven  by 
individual  motors,  and  groups  of  small-size  ma¬ 
chines  are  driven  by  one  motor  and  a  short 
shafting.  Recent  types  of  electric  motors  are 
designed  to  have  a  range  of  speed  of  1:3  or  1:4 
by  very  gradual  steps,  resulting  from  a  control 
of  the  field.  This  gives  a  very  nice  control 
of  the  machine.  Another  advantage  of  the  use 
of  electric  motors  is  that,  when  one  machine 
or  group  of  machines  is  not  in  use,  the  motors 
driving  them  may  be  shut  down  and  a  waste 
of  energy  may  be  avoided. 

Bibliography.  Louis  Bell,  Electric  Power 
Transmission  (5th  ed.,  New  York,  1907)  ;  J.  O. 
Ferguson,  The  Elements  of  Electrical  Transmis¬ 
sion  (ib.,  1911)  ;  R.  A.  Lundquist,  Transmission 
Line  Construction  (ib.,  1912);  Harold  Pender 
(ed.),  American  Handbook  for  Electrical  Engi¬ 
neers  (ib.,  1914)  ;  W.  A.  Del  Mar,  Electric  Power 
Conductors  (ib.,  1914)  ;  E.  W.  Keer,  Power  and 
Power  Transmission  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1914)  ;  Crocker 
and  Arendt,  Electric  Motors  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1914)  ; 
H.  B.  Dwight,  Constant-Voltage  Transmission 
(ib.,  1915)  ;  and  for  recent  development,  papers 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Institute 
of  Electric  Engineers  (New  York,  annually), 
Proceedings  of  the  National  Electric  Light  As- 
sociation  (ib.,  annually),  and  the  Electrical 
Engineering  Press. 

TRANS-MISSISSIPPI  EXPOSITION.  An 

exposition  held  in  Omaha,  Neb.,  June-October, 
1898.  The  site  covered  about  200  acres,  a  mile 
north  of  the  city.  The  main  buildings,  with 
exhibits  devoted  to  agriculture,  fine  arts,  ma¬ 
chinery  and  electricity,  manufactures,  mines  and 
mining,  and  the  United  States  government,  were 
grouped  around  a  grand  court  and  surrounded 
the  lagoon  or  canal  which  terminated  at  its 
west  end  in  a  lake  400  feet  across,  at  the  end 
of  which  was  an  electric  fountain.  The  grounds 
were  skillfully  improved  by  gardening,  until 
the  prairie  gained  the  name  of'  Magic  City.  Of 
special  interest  among  the  features  was  the 
ethnological  gathering  of  500  Indians,  repre¬ 
senting  25  tribes.  The  total  attendance  was 
2,613,508,  and  the  total  receipts  $1,924,077. 

TRANS'PADANE  REPUBLIC.  A  republic 
formed  by  Napoleon  in  1796  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Po  and  in  1797  united  with  the  Cispa- 
dane  Republic,  on  the  north  side,  to  form  the 
Cisalpine  Republic  (q.v.). 

TRANS'PIRA'TION  (from  Lat.  trans, 
across,  through  +  spirare,  to  breathe).  The 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  aerial  surfaces 
of  plants.  The  term  is  used  instead  of  evapor¬ 
ation,  first  because  the  evaporation  is  modi¬ 


fied  by  the  action  of  the  living  organisms,  and, 
second,  because  the  absorption  of  radiant  energy 
by  the  organism  prevents  the  complete  stoppage 
of  evaporation  when  the  plant  is  surrounded 
with  a  saturated  atmosphere.  In  most  land 
plants  transpiration  from  the  epidermal  cells 
is  inconsiderable,  because  such  become  nearly 
waterproof  by  cutinization  of  the  outer  walls. 
The  cells  bordering  the  interior  air  chambers 
(see  Aeration)  are  nearly  or  completely  satu¬ 
rated  with  water,  and  from  them  it  evaporates 
readily  into  the  air  occupying  these  spaces, 
whence  it  finds  its  way  by  diffusion  through  the 
stomata  (q.v.).  The  rate  of  transpiration  will 
be  determined  by  the  relative  humidity  of  the 
outer  air,  temperature,  wind,  light,  etc.  Trans¬ 
piration  is  unavoidable,  because  gases  must  be 
absorbed  from  the  air  (see  Absorption);  it  is 
necessary,  at  least  to  some  plants,  for  cooling; 
and  it  is  advantageous  for  the  movement  of 
dissolved  salts.  See  Conduction. 

Since  excessive  loss  of  water  is  one  of  the 
greatest  dangers  to  which  plants  are  subject, 
plants  growing  in  dry  regions  show  a  great 
variety  of  adaptations  to  reduce  the  rate  of 
transpiration  and  to  conserve  the  moisture  which 
reaches  them.  (See  Xerophytes.)  The  amount 
of  water  transpired  varies  greatly  on  account 
of  variation  in  external  conditions  and  internal 
structure.  A  few  examples  of  transpiration 
under  normal  conditions  will  illustrate.  In  12 
hours  on  a  hot,  dry  day  a  sunflower  3.5  feet 
high,  having  a  leaf  area  of  5316  square  inches, 
lost  30  ounces  of  water.  The  loss  of  water 
from  100  square  centimeters  of  leaf  surface  in 
24  hours  for  the  pea  was  2.51  grams,  for  the  hop 
4.3  grams,  for  the  hemp  9.3  grams.  Estimates 
as  to  the  loss  of  water  during  the  growing 
season  by  the  plants  of  wheat  grown  on  one 
hectare  (about  2.5  acres)  equal  1,179,920  liters, 
and  by  oats  2,277,760  liters.  If  all  this  water 
could  be  caught  and  condensed  on  the  same  area, 
it  wrould  reach  in  the  first  case  a  depth  of  118 
millimeters  (4%  inches)  and  in  the  second 
228  millimeters  (9  inches).  A  beech  tree  hav¬ 
ing  200,000  leaves  was  estimated  to  lose  be¬ 
tween  300  and  400  liters  (about  2  barrels)  on 
a  hot  dav.  See  Energy  of  Plants. 

TRANSPIRATION  OF  GASES.  See  Dif¬ 
fusion  :  Effusion. 

TRANS'PORTA'TION.  The  carrying  of 

persons  and  goods  from  place  to  place.  The 
part  which  transportation  plays  in  the  prac¬ 
tical  life  of  a  community  depends  most  directly 
upon  the  complexity  of  its  economic  system. 
Wherever  the  division  of  labor  and  the  localiza¬ 
tion  of  industry  have  reached  a  high  degree  of 
development  transportation  necessarily  attains 
a  correspondingly  high  development.  The  rise 
of  industry  on  a  great  scale  and  the  creation  of 
efficient  means  of  transportation  mutually  con¬ 
dition  each  other. 

More  than  1000  years  before  our  era  Phoeni¬ 
cian  ships  were  trading  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  later  along  the  shores  of  the  same  sea  the 
Greek  cities  built  up  their  colonial  and  trade 
system.  Rome  was  relatively  late  in  develop¬ 
ing  maritime  traffic,  but  by  the  time  of  the  Em¬ 
pire  an  extensive  commercial  system  had  arisen, 
bringing  to  Rome  the  raw  produce  of  Sicily  and 
north  Africa  and  extending  westward  even  be¬ 
yond  Gibraltar.  Ancient  land  transport  was 
comparatively  insignificant.  The  Greek  roads 
were  chiefly  to  sacred  places,  such  as  Delphi,  and 
their  economic  importance  was  small.  The  Ro- 


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TRANSPORTATION 


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425 


man  roads  were  established  for  military  rather 
than  economic  reasons,  but  they  were  vastly 
more  extensive.  Centring  at  Koine,  they  not 
only  stretched  through  Italy,  but  ( under  the 
Empire)  to  Constantinople  and  Asia  Minor, 
along  parts  of  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  west¬ 
ward  to  Spain,  over  the  Alps  to  Gaul,  and 
through  Britain.  Excellent  as  these  roads  of¬ 
ten  were,  their  method  of  construction  was 
wastefully  expensive  from  the  modern  stand¬ 
point. 

the  return  to  a  more  primitive  economy  in 
the  early  Middle  Ages  meant  that  for  a  time 
transportation  should  cease  to  play  any  im¬ 
portant  part  in  the  economic  life  of  Europe. 
The  salient  points  in  the  story  of  its  gradual 
revival  are  the  stimulus  given ‘by  the  Crusades 
to  trade  with  the  East,  the  consequent  growth 
of  the  Italian  cities,  and,  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury,  the  formation  of  the  great  trade  league 
(Hansa)  of  the  north  European  towns.  Al¬ 
though  the  rise  of  towns  and  the  establishment 
of  fairs  made  a  certain  amount  of  land  or  river 
transport  necessary,  it  was  slow,  insecure,  and 
costly  and,  at  least  on  the  Continent,  was  sub¬ 
ject  to  burdensome  and  arbitrary  tolls.  The 
destruction  of  the  Eastern  caravan  routes 
through  the  Turkish  and  Mongol  invasions  gave 
especial  importance  to  the  discovery  of  an  ocean 
route  to  the  Indies  made  by  Portuguese  naviga¬ 
tors  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
introduction  of  the  compass  made  transoceanic 
voyages  readily  possible.  The  discovery  of 
America  made  them  profitable,  and  helped  to 
shift  the  centre  of  trade  from  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  to  the  Atlantic,  from  the  Italian  cities 
to  the  Portuguese,  the  Spanish,  and  the  Dutch. 
The  growth  of  colonial  empires,  based  essen¬ 
tially  on  transportation,  marks  a  most  impor¬ 
tant  era  in  the  world’s  economic  history. 


many  of  the  local  tolls  were  put  aside.  I11 
England  little  effective  action  was  taken  by  the 
central  government,  and,  despite  many  Turnpike 
Acts  (granting  rights  to  levy  tolls  in  return 
for  maintaining  roads)  the  English  highways 
remained  poor  throughout  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury,  till  the  efficient  road-making  methods  of 
McAdam  (1756—1836)  and  Telford  made  possi¬ 
ble  the  great  improvements  of  the  nineteenth. 
In  the  L  nited  States,  as  in  England,  private  or 
local  activity  has  been  chiefly  relied  on  for  road 
making.  Private  turnpikes  were  constructed  in 
Colonial  times,  and  during  the  “internal  im¬ 
provement”  era,  after  1800,  Federal  roads  were 
built.  Koadbuilding  has  been  recently  carried 
on  systematically  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States. 

The  slowness  and  costliness  of  land  transpor¬ 
tation,  even  in  the  eighteenth  century,  made  it 
impossible  to  convey  ordinary  goods  any  long 
distance.  An  era  of  canal  building,  which  began 
in  England  soon  after  1750,  met  in  part  the  in¬ 
creasing  need  of  the  growing  industrial  centres 
for  communication  with  one  another  and  with 
the  sea.  The  same  movement  appears  in  the 
L  nited  States  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  next 
century.  V  ith  the  rise  of  the  factory  system 
following  1760,  with  the  application  of  steam 
power  to  mining  and  manufactures,  and  the  pos¬ 
sibilities  of  machine  production  on  a  large  scale, 
came  an  imperative  need  for  more  rapid  and 
more  adequate  means  of  transport,  which  only 
the  railroad  and  the  steamship  could  supply. 
Through  them,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  inter¬ 
national  industry  has  been  made  possible. 

The  following  table,  from  the  Report  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Navigation 
(1915),  shows  the  merchant  marines  of  the 
world,  according  to  Lloyds  Register  (1915-16). 
Only  vessels  of  over  100  tons  are  included. 


COUNTRY 

SAIL 

STEAM 

TOTAL 

Number 

Net  tons 

Number 

Net  tons 

Number 

Tonnage 
(steam,  gross) 
sail,  net 

British: 

United  Kingdom . 

610 

305,663 

8,675 

11,760,277 

9,285 

19,541,368 

Colonies . 

525 

137,487 

1,543 

930,764 

2,068 

1,732,700 

Total . 

1,135 

443,150 

10,218 

12,691,041 

11,353 

21,274,068 

United  States: 

Sea . 

1,347 

943,288 

1,233 

1,655,718 

2,580 

3,522  933 

Northern  Lakes . 

31 

92,323 

569 

1,681,788 

600 

2  323  397 

Philippine  Islands . 

8 

2,280 

61 

26,549 

69 

46,309 

Total . 

1,386 

1,037,891 

1,863 

3,364,055 

3,249 

5,892,639 

Germany . 

269 

286,860 

1,897 

2,661,945 

2,166 

4,706,027 

N  orway . 

516 

.551,379 

1,658 

1,179,568 

2,174 

2,529,188 

r  ranee . 

523 

376,119 

1,016 

1,090,809 

1,539 

2,285,728 

Japan . 

Italy . 

522 

222,914 

1,155 

655 

1,162,331 

925,464 

1,155 

1,177 

1,826,068 

1,736,545 

Holland . 

99 

24,028 

710 

922,860 

809 

1,522,547 

■Sweden . 

372 

101,087 

1,090 

594,808 

1,462 

1.122,883 

Kussia . 

512 

202,811 

744 

498,105 

1,256 

1,054,762 

Austria-Hungary . 

11 

1,515 

422 

630,840 

433 

1,018,210 

Greece . 

Spain . 

77 

15,734 

433 

561,330 

510 

908,725 

54 

13,449 

588 

539.134 

642 

899,204 

Denmark . 

249 

51,295 

586 

474,278 

835 

854,996 

World’s  total,  including  above  with 

all  other  countries . 

6,212 

3,532,561 

24,508 

28,159,895 

30,720 

49,261,769 

Land  transport  lagged  far  behind  that  on  the 
sea.  With  the  growth  of  centralized  nations 
a  political  motive  arose  for  the  improvement  of 
roads  and  of  internal  trade.  Under  Louis  XIV 
(1643-1715),  during  the  ministry  of  Colbert, 
the  French  roads  were  greatly  bettered,  and 


It  appears  from  these  figures  that  steamships 
comprise  68  per  cent  of  the  world’s  vessels  (not 
reckoning  China,  Turkey,  etc.)  and  nearly  89 
per  cent  of  their  tonnage,  although  for  some 
nations  the  percentages  are  much  higher.  The 
preponderance  of  British  ships  is  most  notable 


TRANSPORTATION 


TRANSPORTATION  426 


in  steamships.  In  1801  there  was  in  the  U  nited 
Kingdom  a  total  net  tonnage  of  1,786,000 ;  in 
1850  the  figure  was  3,565,000;  in  1880,  6,575,- 
000;  in  1915,  12,065,940.  The  percentage  of 
net  steam  tonnage  was  4.7  in  1850,  41.4  in  1880, 
and  97.4  in  1905.  German  shipping  grew  still 
more  rapidly.  The  sailing  tonnage  decreased 
from  1,223,000  in  1885  to  286,860  in  1915,  but 
the  (net)  steam  tonnage  rose  from  520,186  in 
1885  to  1,057,525  in  1895  and  from  1,910,660 
in  1905  to  2,661,945  in  1915. 

Before  the  introduction  of  iron  ships  Ameri¬ 
can  builders  were  greatly  favored  by  the  cheap¬ 
ness  of  native  timber,  and  for  this  and  other 
reasons  American  shipping  was  dominant  in  the 
world’s  carrying  trade.  The  tonnage  engaged 
in  foreign  traffic  was  667,000  in  1800,  and, 
though  somewhat  set  back  by  the  War  of  1812, 
it  rose  to  1,439,000  in  1850  and  2,497,000  in 
1861.  This  was  its  maximum.  The  coasting 
trade  continued  to  rise  from  1,117,000  in  1840 
to  2,645,000  in  1860  and  from  4,286,000  in  1900 
to  6,486,000  in  1915,  including  vessels  of  all 
sizes.  But  foreign  shipping  had  fallen  to  1,- 
314,000  in  1880  and  in  1910  was  but  782,000. 
However,  on  account  of  the  Great  War,  this  in¬ 
creased  to  1,863,000  in  1915.  While  in  1860 
66.5  per  cent  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  the 
United  States  were  carried  in  American  ves¬ 
sels,  in  1870  the  percentage  was  only  35.6;  in 
1880,  17.4;  in  1890,  12.9;  and  in  1900,  9.3.  Yet 
in  1915  the  percentage  rose  to  14.3. 

The  growth  of  railway  mileage  since  1830 
is  shown  in  the  following  table,  compiled  from 
the  Journal  de  la  Soctete  de  Statistique  de  Paris, 
1909-10: 


GROWTH  OF  RAILWAY  MILEAGE  SINCE  1830 


YEAR 

U  nited 
States 

Great 

Britain 

and 

Ireland 

France 

Ger¬ 

many 

Russia 

The 

World 

1830 

23 

57 

24 

121 

1840 

2,818 

838 

303 

360 

17 

4,792 

1850 

9,021 

6,624 

1,870 

3,761 

311 

23,980 

1860 

30,626 

10,437 

5,865 

7,285 

989 

67,055 

1870 

52,922 

15,151 

11,019 

12,253 

6,982 

128,407 

1880 

93,262 

17,929 

16,109 

21,057 

14,617 

230,515 

1890 

166,654 

20,334 

24,030 

26,638 

19,225 

377,746 

1900 

194,334 

21,932 

26,611 

31,933 

29,892 

491,236 

1910 

240,438 

23,285 

30,185 

37,337 

36,880 

625,659 

For  further  statistics  and  general  discussion 
of  this  subject,  see  Railways;  Steam  Navi¬ 
gation. 

Bibliography.  W.  S.  Lindsay,  History  of 
Merchant  Shipping  (4  vols.,  London,  1874-76)  ; 
A.  T.  Hadley,  Railroad  Transportation :  Its  His¬ 
tory  and  its  Laws  (New  York,  1885);  Alfred 
Picard,  Trait4  des  chemins  de  fer  (4  vols., 
Paris,  1887)  ;  W.  Gotz,  Die  Verkehrswege  im 
Dienste  des  Welthandels  (Stuttgart,  1888)  ;  A. 
Vander  Borght,  Das  Ver  Kehrswesen  (Leipzig, 
1894)  ;  J.  P.  Davis,  The  Union  Pacific  Railway: 
Study  in  Railway  Politics,  History,  and  Eco¬ 
nomics  (Chicago,  1894)  ;  H.  Fry,  History  of  North 
Atlantic  Steam  Navigation  (London,  1895)  ; 
William  Hall,  Modern  Navigation :  Text-Book  of 
Navigation  and  Nautical  Astronomy  (ib.,  1904)  ; 
E.  R.  Johnson,  Ocean  and  Inland  Water  Trans¬ 
portation  (New  York,  1906)  ;  H.  G.  Moulton, 
Waterways  versus  Railways  (Boston,  1912)  ;  F. 
A.  Talbot,  Steamship  Conquest  of  the  World 
(Philadelphia,  1913)  ;  Seymour  Dunbar,  His¬ 


tory  of  Travel  in  America  (Indianapolis,  1915)  ; 
Kirkaldy  and  Evans,  History  and  Economics  of 
Transport  (New  York,  1915);  also  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  Reports  (Washington, 
annual)  ;  Poor's  Manual  of  Railroads  (New 
York,  annual)  ;  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Navigation  (Washington,  annual). 

TRANSPORTATION,  Conduct  of.  See 
Railways. 

TRANSPORTATION,  in  Law.  See  Ad¬ 
miralty  Law  ;  Carrier,  Common  ;  Commerce  ; 
Highway;  Maritime  Law;  Public  Calling; 
etc. 

TRANSPORTATION,  Penal.  Banishment 
from  society  in  the  form  of  exile,  ostracism,  or 
♦outlawry.  The  practice  is  well  known  among  un¬ 
civilized  peoples  and  existed  among  the  ancient 
nations  and  in  mediaeval  Europe.  In  England, 
under  a  Statute  of  Elizabeth  (1597),  “dangerous 
rogues”  might  be  banished  by  justices  in  quar¬ 
ter  sessions,  but  no  system  of  transportation 
can  be  said  to  have  arisen  till  the  time  of 
Charles  II,  when  justices  were  empowered  to 
send  certain  offenders  to  America  instead  of 
inflicting  the  death  penalty.  In  1717  trans¬ 
portation  was  authorized  as  a  substitute  for 
other  punishments  than  hanging,  and  the  con¬ 
tract  system,  by  which  individuals  agreed  to 
transport  convicts  in  return  for  their  labor 
during  the  period  of  sentence,  was  established. 
The  business  was  profitable  at  first,  but  be¬ 
came  less  so,  until  a  payment  had  to  be  made 
for  each  criminal  transported.  Protests  from 
America  were  frequent  but  unavailing.  After 
1776  a  twofold  system  was  developed.  To  meet 
immediate  needs,  hulks  stationed  in  the  Thames 
(later  at  Portsmouth  and  other  places)  were 
arranged  to  receive  convicts;  and  though  this 
was  begun  merely  as  a  temporary  expedient, 
it  endured  as  a  legalized  system  for  over  three- 
quarters  of  a  century.  Involving  overcrowding 
and  bad  sanitary  and  moral  conditions,  the 
hulk  system  was  severely  criticized  by  several 
parliamentary  committees,  but  was  abolished 
only  gradually,  as  penitentiaries  were  con¬ 
structed. 

Within  a  decade  after  1776  a  settlement  for 
criminals  had  been  founded  in  Australia  (q.v.). 
In  1787  the  first  lot  of  convicts  left  for  New 
South  Wales.  In  1804  transportation  to  Tas¬ 
mania  began.  The  number  sent  was  at  first 
small.  The  annual  average  up  to  1816  was 
less  than  600,  but  it  reached  2000  in  1820-30. 
The  spirit  and  practice  of  the  system  were  es 
sentially  penal,  not  reformatory,  and  conditions 
of  life  in  a  colony  where  most  persons  were 
convicts  were  almost  inevitably  bad.  The  re¬ 
port  of  the  parliamentary  committee  of  1838 
condemned  the  system  at  almost  all  points,  and 
(1842)  a  “probation  system”  was  planned  by 
which  prisoners  were  classified  and  might  pass 
through  various  stages  towards  pardon  or  free¬ 
dom.  The  difficulty  of  the  scheme  was  to  find 
work  in  the  colonies  for  ticket-of-leave  men 
or  “probationers,”  while  the  matter  was  fur¬ 
ther  complicated  by  an  increasing  objection  of 
the  colonists  to  the  importation  of  convicts. 
Norfolk  Island  was  for  years  a  criminal  de¬ 
pot,  first  of  criminals  from  New  South  Wales, 
and,  afterward  for  about  20  years,  after  1826, 
from  Van  Diemen’s  Land.  Transportation  to 
New  South  Wales  ceased  after  1849  and  to 
Tasmania  after  1852.  Thenceforth  Western 
Australia  was  from  1850  the  only  outlet,  and 
though  the  probation  system  worked  there  sue- 


TRANSPORTATION  427  TRANSVAAL 


cessfully,  the  colony  was  unable  to  provide  for 
all  English  convicts.  With  the  development  of 
the  system  of  penal  servitude  (1853-G3)  trans¬ 
portation  declined,  and  the  last  shipment  to 
Western  Australia  was  in  18G8. 

In  France  penal  transportation  was  estab¬ 
lished  by  a  Law  of  1854.  Guiana  was  at  first 
utilized  as  a  place  to  send  criminals,  but  its 
climate  proved  quite  unsuitable,  and  after  18G4 
most  prisoners  condemned  to  transportation 
were  sent  to  New  Caledonia.  Here  the  penal 
settlement  numbered  over  1200  in  1894,  when 
transportation  to  that  colony  was  discontinued. 
According  to  the  present  law  persons  condemned 
to  hard  labor,  if  military  offenders  or  recidi¬ 
vists,  may  be  sent  to  Guiana.  In  a  representa¬ 
tive  year  the  number  of  convicts  sent  to  Guiana 
runs  between  700.  and  800.  Russia  is  the  only 
other  modern  nation  which  has  practiced  trans¬ 
portation  on  a  large  scale.  Siberia  (q.v. )  was 
made  a  place  of  settlement  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  after  the  discovery  of  the  mines 
the  system  grew  apace.  Between  1807  and  1899 
it  was  estimated  that  865,000  persons  had  been 
transported  to  Siberia.  Since  1869  the  island 
of  Sakhalin  (q.v.)  has  been  used  largely  as  a 
penal  colony.  In  1896  it  contained  15,000  con¬ 
victs  and  exiles  and  less  than  3000  free  settlers. 
The  horrors  of  Siberian  exile  have  been  miti¬ 
gated  in  recent  years.  Convict  labor  does  not 
prove  of  permanent  economic  advantage,  and 
in  Siberia,  as  elsewhere,  it  has  been  found  im¬ 
possible  to  colonize  a  country  with  convicts.  In 
1900,  following  the  investigation  of  a  commis¬ 
sion  of  1899,  the  Russian  penal  system  was  radi¬ 
cally  reformed.  Imprisonment  is  to  take  the 
place  of  exile  for  all  except  political  and  re¬ 
ligious  offenders.  No  further  attempt  is  to  be 
made  to  settle  convicts  as  colonists,  but  all 
those  exiled  will  remain  imprisoned  during  their 
sentences.  Consult:  Franz  Holtzendorff,  Die  De¬ 
portation  als  Strafmittel  in  alter  und  neuer  Zeit 
(Leipzig,  1859)  ;  Sir  E.  F.  Du  Cane,  Punishment 
and  Prevention  of  Crime  (London,  1885);  Kro¬ 
potkin,  In  Russian  and  French  Prisons  (ib., 
1887)  ;  George  Kennan,  Siberia  and  the  Exile 
System  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1891)  ;  F.  H.  Wines, 
Punishment  and  Reformation  (new  ed.,  ib., 
1910);  H.  De  Windt,  The  New  Siberia :  Visit 
to  Penal  Islands  of  Sakhalin  (London,  1896). 

TRANSPORTATION  AND  WATER 
WORKS.  See  Public  Utilities,  Regula¬ 
tion  of. 

TRANSPOSING  INSTRUMENTS  (from 
transpose,  OF.,  Fr.  transposer,  from  Lat.  trans- 
ponere,  to  transpose,  from  trans,  across,  through 
+  ponere,  to  place).  Those  musical  instruments 
whose  natural  scale  is  always  expressed  in 
C  major  irrespective  of  the  actual  pitch.  Some 
composers  have  begun  to  disregard  the  keys  in 
which  parts  for  such  instruments  were  always 
written  and  to  employ  the  key  of  the  piece  for 
all  instruments.  See  Musical  Instruments. 

TRANS'POSI'TION  (Lat.  transpositio,  from 
transponere,  to  transpose).  In  music,  the  per¬ 
formance  of  a  composition  in  a  key  other  than 
the  one  in  which  it  was  written  by  the  composer. 
Vocal  works  are  most  frequently  transposed, 
as  when  a  tenor  wishes  to  sing  a  work  origi¬ 
nally  written  for  low  voice.  Transposition  oc¬ 
curs  also  often  in  transcription.  Singers  have 
no  difficulty  in  transposing  a  song  into  any  key, 
but  the  transposition  at  sight  upon  any  instru¬ 
ment,  especially  the  organ  or  pianoforte,  is  diffi¬ 
cult.  See  Score. 

Vol.  XXII.— 28 


TRAN'SUBSTAN'TIA'TION  (ML.  transub- 
stantiatio,  change  of  substance).  A  word  used 
by  Roman  Catholic  theologians  to  designate  the 
change  which  they  believe  to  take  place  in  the 
eucharistic  elements  of  bread  and  wine  in  virtue 
of  the  consecration.  The  term  was  first  officially 
adopted  by  the  Church  at  the  Lateran  Council 
of  1215,  and  the  doctrine  involved  by  it  explicitly 
defined  as  an  article  of  faith  by  the  Council  of 
Trent:  “The  whole  substance  of  the  bread  is 
changed  into  the  body  of  Christ,  and  the  whole 
substance  of  the  wine  into  his  Blood,  the  species 
alone  remaining.” 

The  definition  of  the  manner  of  Christ’s  pres¬ 
ence  is  theological,  and  the  terms  thereof  rest 
on  Scholastic  philosophy,  which  to-day  is  the 
system,  taught  in  all  Catholic  seminaries.  It 
is  based  upon  the  belief  in  the  existence  in 
everything  of  an  essential  distinctive  principle 
not  cognizable  by  the  senses,  called  substance; 
the  species  or  accidents  of  the  thing  are  quali¬ 
ties  which  are  perceived  by  the  senses — color, 
taste,  smell,  solidity,  etc.  In  transubstantia- 
tion,  accordingly,  the  accidents  remain  un¬ 
changed,  while  the  underlying  substances  of 
bread  and  wine  cease  to  exist,  their  places  being 
taken  by  the  substance  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ.  The  objections  to  the  doctrine  have 
been  chiefly  drawn  from  the  philosophical  diffi¬ 
culties  which  are  involved  in  it;  and  the  de¬ 
fenders  of  it  have  therefore  added  to  the 
proofs  which  they  profess  to  draw  from  the 
Scripture  and  tradition  a  general  demonstra¬ 
tion  that  the  doctrine,  although  mvsterious, 
does  not  involve  any  philosophical  repugnance 
or  impossibility.  Leibnitz  (q.v.),  although  a 
Protestant,  has  not  only  entered  at  great  length 
and  in  several  portions  of  his  works  into  this 
philosophical,  discussion,  but  professes  to  prove, 
by  strict  philosophical  principles — by  the  con¬ 
sideration  of  the  properties  of  matter,  of  sub¬ 
stance,  of  space,  extension,  and  the  like — that 
the  essential  principle  of  the  body  “may  exist 
in  many  places  at  the  same  time,  nay,  under 
far-distant  and  distinct  species.”  See  Lord’s 
Supper,  and  bibliography  there  given ;  also  Sub¬ 
stance. 

TRANSVAAL,  trans-val',  or  Province  of 
the  Transvaal;  formerly  South  African  Re¬ 
public.  A  British  possession  in  South  Africa 
(Map:  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  H— K  5).  There  were 
transferred  to  Natal,  in  January,  1903,  7000 
square,  miles  of  area,  including  the  districts  of 
Vrijheid,  Utrecht,  and  a  section  of  the  Wakker- 
stroom  District,  with  a  total  population  of  nearly 
60,000,  8000  being  whites.  Its  area  is  110,426 
square  miles. 

The  interior  of  the  Transvaal  is  a  bush  coun¬ 
try  (Bosch  veld)  lying  4000  feet  above  sea  level, 
studded  with  small  hills.  In  the  east  this 
plateau  is  terminated  by  the  northern  Drakens¬ 
berg,  culminating  in  the  Mauchberg  (8730  feet). 
On  the  eastern  border  are  the  Lebombo  Moun¬ 
tains.  Across  the  interior  plateau  stretches 
from  east  to  west  the  far-famed  Witwatersrand, 
with  Johannesburg  and  the  rich  gold  fields, 
which  separates  the  Limpopo  and  the  Vaal 
basins.  Just  north  of  the  Witwatersrand  and  in 
general  parallel  with  it  extend  the  Magalies 
Mountains.  Pretoria  lies  at  the  eastern  outlet 
of  the  narrow  valley  thus  formed.  In  the  centre 
of  the  extensive  Drakensberg  system,  which  oc¬ 
cupies  the  whole  eastern  third  of  the  colonv,  is 
Barberton  with  its  gold  fields.  The  Transvaal 
is  drained  mainly  by  the  Limpopo  River,  which 


TRANSVAAL 


TRANSVAAL 


428 


forms  the  boundary  on  the  northwest  and  north, 
and  the  Vaal  River,  which  forms  most  of  the 
southern  boundary.  The  Olifant  River,  the 
principal  affluent  of  the  Limpopo,  has  nearly  its 
entire  course  within  the  Transvaal.  The  Bar¬ 
berton  region  is  drained  by  the  Komati,  which 
flows  into  the  Indian  Ocean.  None  of  the 
rivers  of  the  Transvaal,  however,  are  navigable. 

The  climate  west  of  the  Drakensberg  and 
south  of  the  Magalies  Range  is  subtropical,  with 
a  European  character.  The  mean  annual  tem¬ 
perature  is  67°  F.  January  is  the  warmest 
month,  July  the  coldest.  There  are  winter 
frosts.  The  northern  and  eastern  sections  of 
the  Transvaal  are  more  tropical,  especially  the 
valley  of  the  Limpopo.  Rain,  on  the  whole  very 
uncertain,  is  most  prevalent  from  October  to 
April,  and  it  ranges  from  40  inches  in  the  east 
to  12  in  the  west.  The  climate  of  the  interior 
uplands  is  noted  for  its  healthfulness.  Among 
the  distinctive  trees  are  the  thorny  acacias  and 
the  eucalyptus.  The  range  of  plants  is  very 
large,  including  the  European  grains  and  many 
of  the  valuable  tropical  species.  The  northeast¬ 
ern  section  is  the  least  fruitful.  The  flocks 
and  herds  of  the  Boers  were  very  large  before 
the  War  of  1899-1902,  and  horses  were  also 
bred,  though  to  a  much  less  extent. 

Granite  and  slate  are  in  general  the  basic  for¬ 
mations,  upon  which  rests  the  so-called  Cape  For¬ 
mation,  above  which  are  found  quartzite  and  coal- 
bearing  layers.  The  Transvaal  is  exceptionally 
rich  in  minerals,  including  copper,  iron,  coal 
(in  different  sections),  lead,  diamonds  (in  the 
Pretoria  District  and  in  the  southwest  corner 
in  the  direction  of  Kimberley ) ,  and  notably 
gold.  Gold  was  first  discovered  in  1867  and  is 
now  found  abundantly  in  numerous  districts. 
The  rich  gold  fields  of  the  Witwatersrand— the 
Rand,  of  which  Johannesburg  is  the  mining 
centre — and  those  of  Barberton  have  made  the 
Transvaal  particularly  famous.  Around  them 
developed  the  history  of  the  colony.  From  1905 
to  the  end  of  1914  the  value  of  the  gold  pro¬ 
duced  was  £312,546,987,  chiefly  in  the  Rand. 
The  largest  output  was  in  1912,  9,107,512 
ounces,  £38,686,250;  in  1914,  8,394,322  ounces, 
£35,656,814.  Other  important  mineral  products 
in  1914  were:  diamonds,  1,142,683  carats,  £1,- 
162,031;  coal,  5,157,268  tons,  £1,150,746;  tin 
ores,  3386  tons,  £307,282;  copper,  14,957  tons  of 
concentrates,  £320,327;  silver  (contained  in 
gold  bullion  and  base  metal  ores),  890,782 
ounces,  £102,471.  The  total  mineral  production 
in  1905  was  valued  at  £22,698,275;  in  1913, 
£42,500,410.  The  number  of  persons  working 
at  the  gold  mines  in  January,  1915,  was  21,966 
whites  and  178,229  colored.  The  diamond  mines 
are  situated  chiefly  in  the  Pretoria  District;  in 
January,  1915,  367  whites  and  222  colored  were 
engaged  in  diamond  mining.  The  coal  mines 
are  in  the  Barberton,  Middelburg,  and  Peters¬ 
burg  districts;  in  January,  1915,  566  whites  and 
10,332  colored  were  engaged  in  coal  mining. 
Copper  mining  has  increased  rapidly  in  recent 
years. 

The  country  is  well  adapted  to  agriculture  and 
stock  raising,  though  its  possibilities  are  as 
yet  meagrely  developed.  The  area  under  culti¬ 
vation  is  increasing  and  amounts  to  upward  of 
2.000,000  acres,  but  much  agricultural  produce 
has  to  be  imported.  Maize  and  tobacco  are  re¬ 
garded  as  the  most  important  crops.  At  the 
end  of  1913  sheep  numbered  5,024,898;  goats, 
2,104,527.  Horses  in  1913  numbered  about  89,- 


000;  mules,  25,000;  asses,  106,000;  cattle,  1,- 
339,000;  swine,  303,000;  ostriches,  5400.  Manu¬ 
facturing  is  not  greatly  developed,  but  there  are 
iron  and  brass  factories,  breweries,  brick,  tile, 
and  pottery  works,  grain  and  saw  mills,  ma¬ 
chine  shops,  and  factories  for  tobacco,  soap, 
ice,  explosives,  etc.  Since  the  establishment  of 
the  Union  of  South  Africa  foreign-trade  statis¬ 
tics  are  not  published  for  the  separate  prov¬ 
inces. 

The  principal  imports  are  ironwork  and  ma¬ 
chinery,  chemicals,  wood,  sugar,  preserved  meats, 
flour,  articles  of  apparel,  and  live  animals. 
The  exports  are  principally  mining  products, 
wool,  tobacco,  horses,  and  mules.  The  largest 
amount  comes  through  the  Cape  Province, 
though  almost  as  much  enters  through  Natal. 
The  Transvaal  has  railway  communication  with 
the  sister  provinces  and  with  Portuguese  East 
Africa.  At  the  end  of  1913  there  were  2638 
miles  of  railway  open  to  traffic,  of  which  all 
but  6  miles  was  government  line. 

The  Transvaal  was  annexed  to  Great  Britain, 
Sept.  1,  1900.  After  an  intermediate  period 
of  military  rule  and  crown  colony  government 
it  received  in  1906  a  constitution,  which  pro¬ 
vided  for  a  bicameral  legislature  consisting  of 
an  elective  lower  house  of  69  members  and  a 
nominated  upper  house  of  15  members.  The 
Transvaal  is  one  of  the  original  provinces  of 
the  Union  of  South  Africa,  established  May 
31,  1910.  It  has  an  administrator  appointed  by 
the  Governor-General  for  five  years  and  a  pro¬ 
vincial  council  of  36  members  elected  for  three 
years.  The  province  elects  eight  members  to 
the  Upper  House  and  45  members  to  the  Lower 
House  of  the  Union  Parliament.  The  suffrage  is 
conferred  on  every  white  male  British  subject. 
The  capital  is  Pretoria  (q.v.),  which  is  also  the 
seat  of  the  Union  administration.  For  the 
fiscal  year  1915  the  estimated  revenue  was 
£1,308,900;  expenditure  chargeable  against  reve¬ 
nue,  £1,349,580;  capital  expenditure,  £435,801. 

The  population  was  returned  by  the  censuses 
of  1904  and  1911  as  follows: 


RACES 

1  nn,i 

1911 

lyiH: 

Males 

Females 

Total 

Whites . 

297,277 

236,913 

183,649 

420,562 

Bantu . 

937,127 

705,862 

513,983 

1,219,845 

Mixed  and  other 
colored  . 

35,547 

28,780 

17,025 

45,805 

Total . 

1,269,951 

971,555 

714,657 

1,686,212 

The  most  numerous  Bantu  race  is  the  Basuto, 
with  455,801  in  1911;  next  are  the  Tonga,  171,- 
848,  and  the  Bechuana,  106,500.  East  Indians 
numbered  10,048,  and  persons  returned  as 
“mixed,”  22,655.  The  white  and  other  adherents 
of  the  leading  churches  were  as  follows  in  1911: 
Dutch  churches,  204,058  and  24,634;  Anglican, 
89,805  and  51,355;  Methodist,  27,938  and  92,- 
969;  Presbyterian,  24,739  and  6670;  Lutheran, 
6618  and  101,271;  Roman  Catholic,  22,312  and 
6439.  Persons  returned  as  of  no  religion  num¬ 
bered  943,616. 

History.  The  Transvaal  was  one  of  the  two 
states  founded  by  the  Boers  after  the  “great 
trek,”  or  emigration,  from  Cape  Colony.  These 
Boers  were  descendants  of  the  colonists  who 
had  come  into  South  Africa  under  the  Dutch 
control.  They  were  a  hardy,  vigorous,  bigoted 
race,  holding  the  natives  in  slavery  and  hence 


Tt-T 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  Of 


"Y 

ILLINOIS 


^  ! 


o  i 

CQ  => 


eS  Qj 

S  O  , 


THE  L5EHARY 
Or  T HE 

UNIVERSITY  Or  ILLINOIS 


TRANSVAAL 


429 


TRANSVAAL 


1i 


not  getting  along  well  with  their  savage  neigh¬ 
bors.  The  dislike  of  the  English  which  naturally 
aiose  after  the  latter  took  possession  of  Cape 
Colony  in  1806  culminated  in  1833,  when  the 
Emancipation  Law  was  passed.  Some  years 
later  a  considerable  number  of  the  Boers  went 
north  with  their  families,  flocks,  and  household 
goods  and  at  first  founded  a  colony  at  Natal. 
This  was  broken  up  by  the  British  "government 
in  1843,  and  the  Boers,  going  westward,  founded 
the  Orange  Free  State.  In  1848  this  also 
was  taken  under  British  control  (remaining 
thus,  however,  only  for  a  few  years),  and  the 
more  irreconcilable  of  the  Boers  “trekked”  once 
more,  across  the  Vaal,  and  founded  the  South 
African  Republic,  commonly  known  as  the 
Transvaal.  By  the  Sand  River  Convention,  con¬ 
cluded  in  1852,  Great  Britain  recognized  the 
independence  of  “the  emigrant  Boers  living 
north  of  the  Vaal  River”  and  boundaries  were 
duly  established.  The  new  state  was  for  some 
years  allowed  to  take  its  own  course,  and  the 
only  interference  with  its  increasing  prosperity 
came  from  the  struggles  with  the  "natives,  be¬ 
tween  whom  and  the  Boers  there  was  bitter 
enmity.  In  18/  /  some  discontented  burghers 
suggested  to  the  British  government  that  the 
Transvaal  should  be  taken  under  its  protection. 
Mistaking  the  appeal  of  a  faction  for  national 
sentiment,  the  British  Commissioner,  Sir  The- 
ophilus  Shepstone,  declared  the  Republic  British 
crown  territory,  and  annexation  was  persisted 
in  by  the  British  government  in  spite  of  re¬ 
peated  appeals.  In  1880  the  people  revolted 
against  the  British  regime.  On  December  13  a 
mass  meeting  was  held  at  Heidelberg  and  the 
restoration  of  the  independent  Republic  was 
declared.  A  brief  campaign,  in  which  the  Boers 
developed  remarkable  fighting  powers,  according 
to  methods  especially  adapted  to  the  country, 
followed  this  act.  The  Boer  victories  of  Laing’s 
Nek  and  Ingogo  were  followed  by  the  battle  of 
Majuba  Hill  (Feb.  27,  1881),  which  resulted 
in  the  worst  defeat  sustained  by  British  arms 
in  many  years.  On  Aug.  8,  1881,  peace  was 
concluded  by  the  Convention  of  Pretoria,  in 
which  self-government  was  restored  to  the 
Transvaal  burghers,  subject  to  the  suzerainty 
of  the  British  crown.  This  latter  reservation 
gave  Great  Britain  the  right  to  maintain  a 
British  Resident  in  the  country  and  to  march 
her  armies  across  the  territory  in  time  of  war 
and  also  the  control  of  external  relations.  The 
Convention  of  London,  signed  Feb.  27,  1884, 
omitted  the  suzerainty  clause,  and  the  Boers 
claimed  that  thereby  Great  Britain  gave  up  all 
control  over  their  affairs.  The  British  govern¬ 
ment,  on  the  contrary,  maintained  that  the  Con¬ 
vention  of  London  was  supplementary  to  that 
of  Pretoria,  and  that  the  latter  was  in  force 
except  where  directly  contravened  by  the  former. 
In  the  years  1881-93  several  events  occurred 
which  reacted  upon  the  relations  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  South  African  Republic.  The 
first  of  these  was  the  formation  in  Cape  Colony 
of  the  Afrikander  Bond,  with  a  platform  calling 
for  a  union  of  European  races  in  South  Africa 
on  a  basis  of  South  African  nationality  and 
independence.  This  movement  increased  the  dis¬ 
like  of  the  British  government  to  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  any  strong,  independent  power  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  British  South  African  pos¬ 
sessions.  The  advance  of  the  English  into 
Mashonaland  and  Matabeleland,  which  the  Boers 
had  coveted  and  which  hemmed  them  in,  was  to 


them  an  added  irritation;  and  the  climax  was 
reached  in  the  aggressive  attitude  of  the  British 
South  Africa  Company,  which  held  rights  of 
exploitation  and  administration  in  the  new 
British  territories. 

The  discovery  of  gold  in  the  Transvaal  in 
1884  opened  a  new  and  troubled  era.  Hitherto 
the  country  had  been  agricultural  and  rural, 
with  a  homogeneous  population.  Now  there  was 
a  sudden  influx  of  mining  men,  promoters,  and 
adventurers  of  all  nations.  In  the  Witwaters- 
land  was  founded  the  populous  mining  city  of 
Johannesburg,  inhabited  very  largely  by  these 
Uitlanders,  or  outlanders.  The  Boers  felt  that 
the  primitive  life  they  had  wished  to  preserve 
was  invaded,  circumscribed,  and  likely  to  be 
overwhelmed.  They  therefore  sought  to  restrict 
the  privileges  of  citizenship  in  order  to  retain 
the  political  control  in  their  own  hands.  This 
led  to  constant  friction  and  to  attempts  to  se¬ 
cure  British  intervention.  In  the  autumn  of 
1S95  a  plan  was  arranged  between  the  leaders 
of  the  British  South  Africa  Company — Cecil 
Rhodes  (q.v.),  his  colleague,  Mr.  Beit,  and 
Dr.  Jameson,  administrator  of  Rhodesia — on  the 
one  hand,  and  several  leaders  of  the  Uitlanders 
Lionel  Phillips,  Charles  Leonard,  and  John 
Hays  Hammond  representing  them — on  the 
other,  for  an  armed  raid  into  the  Transvaal 
from  Rhodesia  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  about 
by  a  display  of  force  the  reforms  desired.  Dr. 
Jameson  made  it  understood  finally  that  he 
should  act  in  behalf  of  the  British  supremacy. 
The  Johannesburg  committee  did  not  apparently 
intend  to  overthrow  the  government,  and  when 
this  was  known  sought  to  stay  action  while 
they  issued  a  manifesto  calling  for  the  desired 
reforms.  Jameson,  disregarding  their  warning, 
entered  the  Transvaal  December  29  with  600 
men.  He  was  defeated,  surrounded,  and  obliged 
to  surrender  (Jan.  2,  1896).  The  Transvaal 
government  turned  the  prisoners  over  to  the 
British  government  for  trial.  They  were  con¬ 
victed  in  England  and  received  light  sentences. 
Four  of  the  Johannesburg  leaders  were  con¬ 
demned  to  death  by  the  Transvaal  courts,  but 
this  was  commuted  to  a  heavy  fine.  The  raid 
caused  a  great  excitement  and  assumed  inter¬ 
national  importance.  It  brought  the  agitation 
and  the  bitter  feeling  between  the  two  countries 
to  an  acute  stage.  The  controversy,  concealing 
under  diplomatic  phraseology  much  irritation 
on  both  sides,  continued  for  some  time  longer. 
Mr.  Chamberlain,  the  English  Colonial  Secre¬ 
tary,  seemed  determined  to  force  the  position 
of  the  Republic,  and  President  Kruger  was 
obstinate  in  his  refusal  to  yield  any  important 
point.  In  the  autumn  of  1899,  when  war  seemed 
imminent,  the  Orange  Free  State  decided  to 
make  common  cause  with  the  South  African 
Republic.  On  October  9  an  ultimatum  which 
made  peace  and  continued  negotiation  impos¬ 
sible  was  presented  to  the  British  agent  at 
Pretoria  and  Mr.  Chamberlain  summarily  closed 
the  correspondence.  War  broke  out  in 'Novem¬ 
ber,  1899  (see  South  African  War),  and  ended 
in  May,  1902.  As  a  result  the  Boer  republics 
were  incorporated  in  the  British  Empire.  The 
protracted  struggle  left  the  Transvaal  burghers 
in  a  ruined  condition,  and  the  first  necessity  was 
to  restore  the  rural  population  to  their  homes. 
For  this  purpose  the  British  government,  in 
the  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Vereeniging,  prom¬ 
ised  to  provide  the  sum  of  £3,000,000.  and  the 
process  of  repatriation  was  immediately  beoun. 


TRANSVAAL 


TRANSVERSAL 


430 


Many  Boers,  however,  preferred  exile  to  living 
under  the  British  crown,  and  there  was  a 
considerable  emigration  in  the  following  years 
to  German  Southwest  Africa,  Argentina,  Mexico, 
and  the  United  States.  The  most  prominent 
question  of  the  years  immediately  following  the 
war  was  connected  with  the  supposed  difficulty 
of  obtaining  an  adequate  supply  of  native  labor 
for  the  Rand  mines.  An  ordinance  providing 
for  the  importation  of  Chinese  laborers  was 
nevertheless  issued  by  the  Legislative  Council 
in  February,  1904,  and  the  first  consignment  of 
coolies  arrived  in  June.  By  the  end  of  1905 
about  50,000  Chinese  had  been  brought  to  the 
Rand.  The  hardships  of  the  compound  system 
to  which  the  laborers  were  subjected  resulted 
in  constant,  successful  attempts  at  escape,  and 
wandering  bands  of  Chinese  soon  became  a  seri¬ 
ous  menace  to  life  and  property  in  the  Rand 
section.  The  prospect  of  the  grant  of  repre¬ 
sentative  government  led,  in  1905,  to  the  rise 
of  political  parties,  including  the  Progressive 
Association  which  stood  for  the  maintenance  of 
complete  British  ascendency,  the  Responsible 
Government  Association,  and  Het  \  oik  repre¬ 
senting  the  Boer  element.  The  tremendous  vic¬ 
tory  gained  in  Great  Britain  by  the  Liberals 
in  the  general  election  of  January,  1906,  was 
due  in  very  large  degree  to  the  general  abhor¬ 
rence  for  the  system  of  Chinese  ‘‘servitude’ 
established  in  the  Transvaal.  On  July  31, 
1906,  the  Liberal  government  announced  a  new 
constitution  for  the  colony  (see  above,  section 
on  Government) .  The  first  election  took  place 
in  February,  1907.  The  conciliatory  spirit  in 
which  the  new  government  entered  upon  its 
duties  was  shown  in  a  speech  of  General  Botha, 
who  became  the  first  Premier,  outlining  his  pro¬ 
gramme  at  a  banquet  given  in  its  honor  at 
Pretoria  in  March.  He  declared  that  the  British 
government  and  people  had,  by  the  grant  of  a 
free  constitution,  trusted  the  people  of  the 
Transvaal  in  a  manner  unequaled  in  history 
and  that  it  was  impossible  for  the  Boers  ever 
to  forget  such  generosity.  His  cabinet  would  do 
its  best  to  create  a  united  nation,  in  which 
one  section  would  not  regard  the  other  with 
contempt  or  distrust.  As  soon  as  responsible 
government  was  established  in  the  Orange  Liver 
Colony,  the  cabinet  would  begin  to  work  towards 
a  union  of  all  South  Africa.  He  denied  that 
the  government  was  hostile  to  the  mining  in¬ 
terests,  but  declared  its  opposition  to  any  com¬ 
bination  of  corporations  aiming  at  monopolizing 
portions  of  the  country.  No  extreme  measures 
would  be  taken  against  the  employment  of 
Chinese  labor,  and  the  natives  would  also  be 
treated  fairly.  As  regards  education,  Dutch¬ 
speaking  and  English-speaking  children  would 
be  taught,  up  to  a  certain  point,  each  in  his 
own  language. 

A  great  question  which  agitated  the  Trans¬ 
vaal  was  the  immigration  of  Hindus,  who  came 
in  large  numbers  to  work  in  the  mines.  In  order 
to  maintain  “white  supremacy,”  severe  immigra¬ 
tion  and  domicile  laws  were  enacted  and  many 
Hindus  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country. 
On  May  31,  1910,  the  Transvaal  was  united  with 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal,  and  the  Orange 
Free  State  to  form  the  new  Union  of  South 
Africa,  and  Pretoria  was  made  the  capital  and 
the  seat  of  government  of  the  new  federal  union. 
For  the  further  history  of  the  Transvaal,  see 
Union  of  South  Africa. 

Bibliography.  General:  Alfred  Aylward,  The 


Transvaal  of  To-Day  (new  ed.,  Edinburgh, 
1881);  C.  J.  Alford,  Geological  Features  of  the 
Transvaal  (London,  1891):  Goldmann  and 
Kitchin,  South  African  Mines  (3  vols.,  ib., 
1895-96);  F.  R.  Statham,  South  Africa  as  It 
Is  (ib.,  1897);  A.  Seidel,  Transvaal,  die  siid- 
afrikanische  Republik  (Berlin,  1898)  ;  Sir  F.  E. 
Younghusband,  South  Africa  To-Day  (London, 

1899)  ;  Sir  R.  Tangye,  In  Few  South  Africa  (ib., 

1900) ;  A.  H.  Keane,  The  Boer  States:  Land 

and  People  (ib.,  1900)  ;  Bryce,  Impressions  of 
South  Africa  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1900);  A.  R.  Colqu- 
houn,  Renascence  of  South  Africa  (ib.,  1900). 
History:  G.  M.  Theal,  History  of  the  Boers  in 
South  Africa  (London,  1887)  ;  id.,  History  of 
South  Africa  (ib.,  1888-89);  Albrecht,  La 

republique  sudafricaine  (Brussels,  1889)  ;  F.  R. 
Statham,  Paul  Kruger  and  his  Times  (London, 
1898)  ;  J.  C.  Voigt,  Fifty  Years  of  the  History^ 
of  the  Republic  of  South  Africa,  1795-1845 
(ib.,  1899);  V.  S.  Aubert,  Le  Transvaal  et 
V Angleterre  en  Afrique  du  Sud  (Paris,  1899)  ; 
H.  Cloete,  History  of  the  Great  Boer  Trek  (Lon¬ 
don,  1899  )  ;  Ireland,  The  Anglo-Boer  Conflict 
(ib.,  1900)  ;  W.  E.  G.  Fisher,  The  Transvaal  and 
The  Boers  (ib.,  1900);  Bryce,  Brooks,  and 
others,  Briton  and  Boer:  Both  Sides  of  the 
South  African  Question  (New  York,  1900)  ; 
Jules  Leclercq,  L’Ind6pendance  des  Boers  et  les 
origines  des  republiques  sudafricaines  (Brussels, 

1900)  ;  A.  C.  Dovle,  The  Great  Boer  War  (Lon¬ 
don,  1900)  ;  Louis  Creswicke,  South  Africa  and 
the  Transvaal  War  (6  vols.,  New  York,  1900— 
01);  A.  T.  Mahan,  The  War  in  South  Africa 
(London,  1901);  J.  Ogden,  The  War  against 
the  Dutch  Republics  (Manchester,  England, 

1901) ;  A.  C.  Doyle,  War  in  South  Africa:  Its 
Cause  and  Conduct  (New  York,  1902)  ;  E.  H. 
Walton,  Inner  History  of  the  National  Conven¬ 
tion  of  South  Africa  (ib.,  1912)  ;  Pierre  M6rimee, 
La  politique  anglaise  au  Transvaal  (Toulouse, 
1913). 

TRANSVER'SAL  (ML.  transversalis,  from 
Lat.  transversus,  traversus,  transverse,  p.p.  of 
transvertere,  to  cross,  transverse,  from  trans, 
across,  through  +  vertere,  to  turn ) .  In  geom¬ 
etry,  a  term  commonly  applied  to  a  line  cutting 
a  pencil  of  parallels.  In  modern  plane  geometry 
the  term  is  extended  to  .mean  any  straight  line 
cutting  the  other  lines  of  a  figure.  Thus,  any 


C  - 


line  intersecting  the  three  lines  forming  a 
triangle  ABC  in  P,  Q,  R,  is  a  transversal  of  the 
triangle.  The  theory  of  transversals  is  one  of 
the  most  important  in  modern  geometry.  It 
has  its  origin  in  a  theorem  attributed  to 
Ptolemy  (q.v.),  but  which  is  found  in  the 
Spherics  of  Menelaus  (q.v.)  and  which  has  been 
thought  to  go  hack  to  Hipparchus  (q.v.). 
This  states  that  a  straight  line  drawn  arbi¬ 
trarily  in  the  plane  of  a  triangle  determines 
on  the  lines  of  its  sides  six  segments  such  that 
the  product  of  three  not  having  a  common  ex¬ 
tremity  equals  the  product  of  the  other  three. 
More  generally,  of  course,  a  transversal  may  be 


TRANSYLVANIA 


TRANSYLVANIA 


43i 


a  curve  cutting  other  curves;  and  in  particular 
a  geodetic  line  cutting  the  sides  of  a  spherical 
triangle.  Pappus  (q.v.)  in  his  Collections  ap¬ 
proaches  the  theory  from  another  standpoint 
and  shows  that  if  a  pencil  of  four  lines  is  cut 
by  a  transversal  in  the  points  A,  B,  C,  D,  the 
AC  BC 

ra/ti°  -j -jj  —  jyjj  is  constant  for  any  position 

of  the  transversal.  Pappus  also  showed  that 
if  a  transversal  cuts  the  sides  and  diagonals  of 
a  complete  quadrilateral,  the  six  segments  deter¬ 
mined  on  this  transversal  are  such  that  the 


product  of  three  not  having  a  common  extremity 
will  equal  the  product  of  the  other  three;  that 
each  diagonal  is  cut  harmonically  by  the  other 
two;  and  that  when  a  hexagon  has  three  of  its 
vertices  collinear  and  the  other  three  also  col- 
linear,  the  intersections  of  the  opposite  sides 
are  collinear  also — a  special  case  of  Pascal’s 
theorem  on  a  hexagon  inscribed  in  a  conic. 
Desargues  (q.v.)  in  his  Essai  pour  les  coniques 
generalized  the  theorem  of  Pappus  with  respect 
to  the  quadrilateral.  He  showed  that,  if  a 
transversal  cuts  a  conic  and  a  quadrilateral 
inscribed  therein,  the  product  of  the  segments 
between  either  point  of  the  conic  and  two  op¬ 
posite  sides  of  the  quadrilateral  will  have  to 
the  product  of  the  segments  between  this  point 
and  the  other  two  opposite  sides  the  same 
ratio  as  between  the  corresponding  products 
when  the  other  point  of  the  conic  is  taken.  The 
theory  was  extended  by  Pascal,  who  was  a 
friend  of  Desargues,  and  later  by  Newton,  Cotes, 
and  Maclaurin.  In  more  recent  times  Carnot 
and  Poncelet  have  been  among  the  foremost  to 
elaborate  the  theory.  To  Carnot  is  due  the 
introduction  of  negative  lines  in  the  theory  of 
transversals,  and  the  treatment  of  the  subject 
as  related  to  modern  geometry.  See  Concur¬ 
rence  and  Collinearity,  Ceva’s  and  Menelaus’ 
theorems  being  important  examples  of  the 
theory  of  transversals. 

TRAN'S  YLVA'NIA  (Hung,  erdely,  from 
erdo,  forest,  the  name  corresponding  to  Lat. 
Transilvania,  beyond  the  forest;  Ger.  Siebenbiir- 
gen) .  A  former  grand  duchy  and  crownland  of 
Austria,  since  1867  an  integral  part  of  the 
lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown.  Area,  57,804 
square  kilometers.  It  occupies  the  southeastern 
corner  of  the  Hungarian  Kingdom,  with  an 
area  of  21,518  square  miles  (Map:  Hungary, 
J  3 ) .  It  is  separated  from  Rumania  on  the 
east  and  south  by  the  great  range  of  the 
Carpathian  Mountains,  which  bends  round  at  a 
right  angle,  the  part  extending  east  and  west 
being  known  as  the  Transylvanian  Alps.  The 
interior  is  crossed  by  numerous  spurs  of  the 
border  chains  and  has  an  elevated  surface 
cut  by  many  mature  valleys  of  great  fertility. 
The  chief  river,  the  Maros,  an  affluent  of  the 
Theiss,  crosses  the  country  from  northeast  to 


southwest,  The  southern  part  is  traversed  by 
the  Aluta,  an  affluent  of  the  Danube,  which 
breaks  through  the  Transylvanian  Alps  in  the 
Red  Tower  Pass,  while  the  northern  part  is 
drained  by  the  Szamos,  an  affluent  of  the 
J  heiss.  Transylvania  has  a  number  of  small 
mountain  lakes  and  is  rich  in  mineral  springs. 
Hie  region  is  famous  for  its  scenery,  and 
the  mixture  of  nationalities,  with  the  various 
costumes,  adds  greatly  to  its  picturesqueness. 
The  climate  has  a  continental  character  of  con¬ 
siderable  range  in  temperature,  and  in  the 
mountain  regions  the  winters  are  long  and 
severe.  In  spite  of  its  mountainous  surface 
Transylvania  has  a  very  productive  soil.  The 
chief  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats,  flax, 
tobacco,  and  some  industrial  plants.  Fruits  and 
especially  grapes  are  cultivated  extensively. 
Stock  breeding  is  favored  by  the  abundance  of 
meadow  land  and  is  carried  on  on  a  large  scale. 
The  local  breed  of  horses  is  superior  and  many 
are  exported.  Wool  is  an  important  product. 
The  mineral  products  include  salt,  gold,  silver, 
and  coal.  Wild  game  still  abounds  in  the  moun¬ 
tains  and  large  forests,  including  bears,  wolves, 
foxes,  and  boars.  Transylvania  is  well  provided 
with  transportation  facilities.  Pop.,  1900,  2,- 
456,998;  1910,  2,678,367.  The  vernacular  of  55 
per  cent  of  the  population  in  1910  was  Ruma¬ 
nian,  34.3  per  cent  Magyar,  8.7  per  cent  German. 
The  Germans  represent  mainly  descendants  of 
colonists  brought  into  the  country  from  the 
region  of  the  lower  Rhine  by  King  Gejza  II  of 
Hungary  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen¬ 
tury.  They  dwell  mainly  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  country,  the  district  inhabited  by  them 
being  known  as  Saxon  Land.  Their  chief  town 
is  Hermannstadt  (Nagyrzeben) .  The  great  bulk 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Transylvania  belong  to 
the  peasant  class.  The  nobility  and  gentry  are 
Magyars.  Of  the  population  29.6  per  cent  are 
Greek  Orthodox,  28  per  cent  Greek  Catholic, 
26  per  cent  Protestant  (including  2.5  per  cent 
Unitarian),  14  per  cent  Roman  Catholic,  and 
2.4  per  cent  Jewish. 

History.  Transylvania  formed  part  of  the 
Roman  Province  of  Dacia.  When  the  great 
migration  of  nations  took  place  it  was  for  a 
time  occupied  by  the  Germanic  peoples.  They 
were  followed  by  the  Avars,  after  whom  came 
the  Petchenegs.  In  the  eleventh  century  the 
country  was  brought  under  the  sway  of  the 
Magyars.  The  advent  of  German  colonists  in 
the  twelfth  century  improved  the  condition  of 
the  country.  It  was  probably  not  long  after 
this  that  the  immigration  of  Wallachs  set  in 
from  the  region  now  called  Rumania.  Under 
the  Hungarian  kings  Transylvania  was  ruled 
by  voivodes.  In  1526,  after  the  battle  of  Mohacs, 
in  which  Louis  II  of  Hungary  was  overwhelmed 
by  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  the  national  party 
among  the  Hungarians  chose  John  Zapolya,  Voi¬ 
vode  of  Transylvania,  King.  He  had  a  rival 
in  Ferdinand  I  of  Hapsburg.  Part  of  Hungary 
remained  in  possession  of  John  Zapolya,  who 
was  upheld  by  the  Turks.  Transylvania  was 
severed  from  the  Kingdom  of  Hungary,  the 
royal  crown  remaining  in  the  possession  of  the 
Hapsburgs.  From  1571  to  1576  the  country  had 
an  able  prince  in  Stephen  B&thory,  who  in  1575 
was  elected  King  of  Poland.  Other  princes  of 
the  B&thory  (q.v.)  family  followed.  At  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  Transylvania 
was  for  a  short  time  in  the  power  of  Austria, 
but  in  1604  a  great  rising  of  the  Protestants 


TRANSYLVANIA 


TRAPANI 


432 


in  the  country  and  in  Hungary  took  place  un¬ 
der  the  head  of  Stephen  Bocskay  (q.v.),  who 
was  elected  Prince  of  Transylvania  in  1605  and 
in  1606  forced  the  Hapsburgs  to  recognize  the 
liberties  of  the  Hungarian  Protestants.  In  the 
Thirty  Years’  War  two  princes  of  Transylvania, 
Bethlen  Gabor  (q.v.)  and  George  Rakoczy  (q.v.), 
figured  among  the  champions  of  the  Protestant 
cause.  When  Leopold  I  of  Austria,  after  the 
overthrow"  of  the  Turks  at  Vienna  (1683),  had 
made  himself  master  of  the  heart  of  Hungary, 
he  proceeded  to  secure  possession  of  Transyl¬ 
vania.  Prince  Michael  I  Apafi  (q.v.)  had  to 
acknowledge  the  Austrian  ruler  as  overlord  of 
Transylvania,  which  was  united  with  Hungary, 
and  his  son,  Michael  II,  was  forced  to  renounce 
his  title  for  a  money  consideration.  In  the 
Peace  of  Karlovitz,  in  1699,  the  Turkish  Sul¬ 
tan  recognized  the  sovereignty  of  Austria  over 
the  country.  The  Diploma  of  Leopold  I  in  1691 
had  guaranteed  to  Transylvania  its  ancient 
privileges  and  customs.  It  was  erected  into  a 
grand  principality  in  1765.  In  the  Hungarian 
revolution  of  1848-49  Transylvania  was  the 
scene  of  terrible  massacres  of  the  Magyars  by 
the  Wallachs  and  of  the  victories  and  final  de¬ 
feat  of  General  Bern  (q.v.).  In  1849  Transyl¬ 
vania  was  separated  from  Hungary  and  made 
an  Austrian  crownland.  In  1867  it  was  again 
united  with  Hungary.  Transylvania  was  in¬ 
vaded  by  the  Russians  in  the  Great  War. 
See  War  in  Europe.  Consult:  G.  A.  Bielz, 
Handbuch  der  Landeskunde  Siebenbiirgens  (Her- 
mannstadt,  1857);  Karl  Reissenberger,  Das 
Gross  furstentum  Siebenbilrgen  (Vienna,  1881); 
Rudolf  Bergner,  Siebenbiirgen  (Leipzig,  1884)  ; 
Hauer  and  Stache,  Geologie  Siebenbiirgens  (Vi¬ 
enna,  1885)  ;  E.  Gerard,  The  Land  beyond  the 
Forest  (London,  1888)  ;  Cambridge  Modern  His¬ 
tory,  vols.  ii,  iii,  v,  x-xii  (New  York,  1904-10). 

TRANSYLVANIA,  Prince  of.  See  Beth¬ 
len  Gabor. 

TRANSYLVANIA  COLLEGE.  An  institu¬ 
tion  for  higher  education  founded  in  Lexington, 
Ky.,  in  1798.  It  succeeded  Transylvania  Sem¬ 
inary,  which  was  chartered  in  1783.  The  sem¬ 
inary  was  located  near  Danville,  Ky.,  but  was 
removed  to  Lexington  in  1789.  It  was  con¬ 
solidated  with  Kentucky  Academy  and  the 
name  changed  to  Transylvania  University  in 
1798.  Gifts  to  its  endowment  fund  were  given 
by  George  Washington,  John  Adams,  Aaron 
Burr,  John  Jacob  Astor,  and  General  Lafayette. 
In  1865  Transylvania  was  consolidated  with 
Kentucky  University,  the  successor  of  Bacon 
College,  and  the  institution  took  the  name  of 
Kentucky  University.  In  1908,  however,  the 
name  Transylvania  was  resumed,  and  in  1915 
the  title  was  changed  from  that  of  Transylvania 
University  to  Transylvania  College.  The  al¬ 
umni  of  the  college '  number  more  than  4000. 
In  the  autumn  of  1915  there  were  270  students, 
of  whom  142  were  preparing  for  religious  vo¬ 
cations.  The  faculty  numbered  24.  The  en¬ 
dowment  at  the  end  of  the  collegiate  year  was 
$499,249.  The  library  contains  21,000  volumes. 
The  buildings,  grounds,  and  equipment  were 
valued  at  $525,000,  and  the  annual  income 
amounted  to  $70,648.  The  president  in  1916 
was  Richard  F.  Crossfield,  LL.  D. 

TRANSYLVANIA  UNIVERSITY.  See 
Transylvania  College. 

TRAP  (Ger.  Trapp,  from  Swed.  trapp,  trap 
rock,  from  trappa,  Ger.  Treppe,  stair;  so  called 
because  often  developed  in  steplike  masses). 


A  very  general  term,  little  employed  in  scien¬ 
tific  language,  but  commonly  used  to  designate 
dense  and  generally  fine-grained  igneous  rocks 
of  black  or  dark-green  color.  The  term  is  al¬ 
most  synonymous  with  basalt  (q.v.)  or  dia¬ 
base  (q.v.),  but  might  include  as  well  gabbro, 
norite,  peridotite,  pyroxenite,  etc.  When  al¬ 
tered  such  rocks  assume  a  green  color  from 
the  hornblende,  chlorite,  epidote,  or  other  sec¬ 
ondary  minerals  developed  in  them,  and  they 
are  then  known  as  greenstone.  Both  greenstone 
and  trap  include  a  wide  range  of  rock  families, 
which  by  reason  of  their  fine  texture  and  often 
altered  condition  are  difficult  to  determine  with¬ 
out  careful  and  generally  microscopic  study. 

TRAP.  See  Plumbing. 

TRA'PA  (Neo-Lat.,  abbrev.  of  ML.  calci- 
trapa,  caltrop,  from  Lat.  calx,  heel  +  ML. 
trappa,  snare,  from  OHG.  trappa,  trapa,  AS. 
trceppe,  treppe,  Eng.  trap /  so  called  from  the 


four  spines  of  some  species,  which  thus  resemble 
caltrops).  A  small  genus  of  aquatic  plants,  the 
only  representative  of  the  family  Hydrocaryaceae, 
now  generally  placed  in  the  family  Haloragi- 
daceae.  Trapa  natans,  the  water  caltrops,  is 
found  in  ditches  and  ponds  in  southern  Europe, 
is  grown  in  ponds  in  Holland,  and  is  found  in 
a  few  places  in  Massachusetts  and  New  York.  The 
floating  leaves  are  rhomboidal,  toothed,  and 
smooth ;  those  under  water  are  cut  into  capillary 
segments.  The  fruit  has  four  spines;  the  large, 
almond-like  kernels  are  edible,  either  raw  or 
roasted  or  in  soups,  and  taste  somewhat  like 
chestnuts;  hence  the  French  name  marron  d’eau 
(water  chestnut).  Nuts  of  Trapa  bispinosa, 
the  Singhara  nut,  being  starchy,  are  widely 
used  as  food  in  Cashmere,  where  they  are 
made  into  cakes,  etc.  Trapa  bicornis,  by  some 
botanists  considered  to  be  a  form  of  Trapa  na¬ 
tans,  is  much  cultivated  in  China  for  its  edible 
fruit.  Some  botanists  reduce  all  the  species  to 
one,  with  possibly  several  varieties. 

TRAPANI,  tra'pa-ne.  The  capital  of  the 
province  of  Trapani,  Sicily,  situated  on  a  penin¬ 
sula  of  the  northwest  coast,  45  miles  west  by 
south  of  Palermo  (Map:  Italy,  D  5).  There 
are  several  fine  churches  with  noteworthy  sculp¬ 
tures  and  paintings,  and  palaces  architectur¬ 
ally  interesting.  The  lyceum  has  a  picture  gal¬ 
lery  and  a  natural-history  collection.  The  spe- 


TRAPDOOR  SPIDER 


433 


TRAPPING 


cial  industries  are  connected  with  the  working 
of  coral,  shell  cameos,  marble,  and  alabaster 
There  are  also  shipbuilding  yards,  saltworks, 
fisheries,  and  an  export  trade  in  wine,  fruits, 
olive  oil,  etc.  The  fine  harbor,  which  is  de¬ 
fended  by  a  fort,  is  the  scene  of  much  commer¬ 
cial  activity.  Near  the  city  is  the  ancient  An- 
nunziata  pilgrimage  church,  with  the  famous 
statue  of  the  Madonna  of  Trapani.  Trapani, 
the  ancient  Drepanum  and  •  seaport  of  Eryx 
(q.v. ),  was  fortified  by  the  Carthaginians  in 
the  third  century  b.c.  Here  in  24<f  b.c.  they 
defeated  the  Romans  in  a  great  naval  battle. 
Eight  years  later,  however,  Trapani  became  a 
Roman  colony.  It  was  a  royal  residence  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Pop.,  1901,  59,452;  1911,  62,572. 

TRAPDOOR  SPIDER.  Any  one  of  the 
large  hairy  tropical  spiders  of  the  family  Thera- 
phosidae,  which  make  long  tubes  in  the  earth, 
lining  them  with  silk  and  fashioning  at  the  en¬ 
trance  a  bevel-edged,  hinged,  accurately  fitting 
trapdoor  made  of  alternate  layers  of  earth  and 
silk.  The  upper  surface  is  covered  with  earth 
or.  gravel  so  as  to  disguise  the  entrance.  The 
spider  hides  in  the  nest  when  not  seeking  prey, 
and  with  some  species  a  branch  to  the  tunnel 
is  built  with  a  separate  door. 

The  digging  of  the  burrow  (always  on  high 
sloping  ground)  is  a  laborious  task.  The  earth 
is  loosened  with  the  mandibles  and  is  carried 
away  piece  by  piece  supported  by  the  mandibles 
and  maxillae.  One  observed  took  an  hour  to 
dig  a  hollow  as  large  as  half  a  walnut.  A  spe¬ 
cies  common  in  the  southwestern  United  States 
( Ctcnitza  calif ornica)  digs  holes  nearly  an  inch 
in  diameter  and  sometimes  a  foot  in  length. 
When  the  spider  is  on  guard,  holding  the  door 
down  from  inside  by  means  of  its  mandibles 
and  feet,  it  is  impossible  to  raise  the  trapdoor 
without  tearing  it.  Experimenters  at  San  Diego, 
Cal.,  removed,  the  trapdoors  of  60  nests,  unhing¬ 
ing  them  at  night.  Without  exception  the  spider 
had  by  morning  completed  a  new  door.  Con¬ 
tinued  removal  resulted  in  a  falling  off  in  the 
quality  of  the  doors,  owing  to  the  failure  of 
the  spider’s  supply  of  silk.  The  fifth  door  made, 
by  a  single  spider,  was  almost  entirely  of  mud 
with  hardly  enough  web  to  coat  and  hinge  it. 
When  the  trapdoors  were  fastened  down,  a  side 
branch  with  a  new  door  was  always  made  over¬ 
night  with  an  opening  near  the  original  mouth. 

The  nests  are  generally  in  pairs,  but  it  is 
not  known  whether  they  are  occupied  by  differ¬ 
ent  sexes.  The  young  hatch  in  the  mother’s 
burrow  and  live  there  for  a  few  weeks;  then 
they  leave  the  nest  and  begin  small  tubes  of 
their  own.  The  food  of  these  spiders  consists 
largely  of  ants  and  other  crawling  wingless 
insects.  They  have  been  known  to  eat  earth¬ 
worms  and  large  caterpillars.  The  trapdoor 
spiders  of  southern  Europe  make  thin  covers 
which  rest  loosely  on  the  top  of  the  hole,  but 
they  are  covered  with  leaves  or  something  of 
the  sort  in  order  to  disguise  them. 

Consult:  J.  T.  Moggridge,  Harvesting  Ants 
and  Trap-Door  Spiders  (London,  1873)  ;  .T.  H. 
Emerton,  The  Structure  and  Habits  of  Spiders 
(Salem,  Mass.,  1878);  H.  C.  McCook,  Ameri¬ 
can  Spiders  and  their  Spinning  Work,  vol.  iii 
(Philadelphia,  1893);  J.  H.  Emerton,  Common 
Spiders  of  the  United  States  (Boston,  1902)  ; 

•T.  II.  Fabre,  The  Life  of  the  Spider  (Eng.  trans. 
by  Alexander  Teixeira  de  Mattos,  New  York, 
1913)  ;  J.  H.  Comstock,  Spider  Book  (  new  ed., 
ib.,  1914). 


TRAPE'ZITJM.  As  commonly  defined  in  the 
United  States,  a  quadrilateral  of  which  no  two 
sides  are  parallel.  The  distinction  between 
trapezium  and  trapezoid  was  not  always  clearly 
made  by  Greek  writers,  but  in  general  the  word 

tiapezium  meant  a  quadrilateral  having  two 
parallel  sides,  arid  “trapezoid”  meant  a  quadri¬ 
lateral  in  general,  ordinarily  having  no  parallel 
sides.  In  England  this  is  the  present  usage,  a 
trapezium  having  two  parallel  sides  and  a  trape¬ 
zoid  having  no  parallel  sides.  See  Quadri¬ 
lateral. 

TRAP'EZOID  (Gk.  Tpaire^oeidrjs,  trapezoeides, 
s  iaped  like  a  trapezium,  from  rpaire^a,  trapeza, 
table,  f i  om  rerpa-  tetra -,  four  -J-  ttovs,  pous, 
foot  +  eldos,  eidos,  form).  As  commonly  defined 
in  the  United  States,  a  quadrilateral  two  of 
whose  sides  are  parallel;  but  see  the  discussion 
under  Trapezium.  The  parallel  sides  are  called 
the  bases.  The  area  of  a  trapezoid  is  given  by 
the  formula  A  =  y2(b  +  &')  a,  where  b  and  V 
are  the  bases  and  a  the  altitude.  See  Quadri¬ 
lateral. 

TRAPP,  John  (1601—69).  A  Puritan  clergy¬ 
man.  He  was  born  at  Croome  d’Abetot;  gradu¬ 
ated  B.A.  at  Oxford  (1622);  was  usher  (1622- 
24),  then  headmaster  of  the  free  school  at  Strat¬ 
ford-on-Avon  (1624-26);  vicar  of  Weston-on- 
Avon,  2  miles  from  Stratford  (1636-46);  rec¬ 
tor  of  Welford  (1646-60);  then  went  back  to 
Weston,  where  he  died.  His  fame  rests  upon 
his  biblical  commentaries,  which  furnish  a 
specimen  of  Puritan  Bible  study  at  its  best 
and  are  often  both  witty  and  wise.  They  were 
issued  in  a  collected  edition  in  1662  et  seq.  and 
reissued,  with  a  Memoir  by  A.  B.  Grosart,  as 
Commentary  on  the  Old  and  Hew  Testaments 
(1865-68).  Consult  Spurgeon,  Commenting  and 
Commentaries  (London,  1876). 

TRAPPING  (from  trap,  AS.  trceppe,  treppe, 
OHG.  trappa,  trapa,  trap,  snare;  connected  with 
Ger.  Trappe,  flight  of  stairs,  ladder) .  The  taking 
of  animals  and  birds  by  means  other  than  the 
arrow,  spear,  or  gun.  The  methods  used  may 
be  divided  into  four  classes:  (1)  the  pit,  the 
inclosure,  and  the  heavy  deadfall,  for  the  larg¬ 
est  animals,  such  as  "the  bear  and  the  lion, 
and  the  lighter  deadfall  and  snap  trap  for 
smaller  beasts,  as  wolves,  foxes,  and  beavers; 
(2)  the  box  trap,  the  switch-up,  and  various 
snap  traps  and  snares  for  the  lesser  kinds  of 
quadrupeds;  (3)  nets  of  various  kinds  with 
or  without  decoys  and  birdlime  for  birds;  (4) 
nets  and  baskets  for  fish. 

The  pit  is  a  hole  in  the  earth,  lightly  covered 
and  carefully  concealed.  It  is  placed  where 
the  game  is  likely  to  go  voluntarily  or  where  it 
may  be  drawn,  either  by  judicious  beating  or 
by  an  enticing  bait.  The  covering  breaks  and 
the  quarry  is  caught  in  the  pit.  The  kind  of 
animal  so  caught  varies  with  the  country;  e.g., 
the  Arabs  trap  lions  in  pits.  The  inclosure  is 
a  space  round  which  in  Africa  the  heavy  creep¬ 
ing  vines  from  tree  to  tree  have  been  woven 
together  into  rough  hurdles,  and  in  Asia  the 
bamboo  is  similarly  employed. 

The  heavy  deadfall  inclosure  is  a  pen  about 
3  feet  wide,  4  feet  deep,  and  5  feet  high,  made 
of  logs  driven  into  the  soil.  Four  heavy  corner 
posts  hold  transverse  logs  and  the  fall  log. 
The  principle  of  the  trap  is  that  when  the  bait 
is  disturbed,'  say  by  a  bear,  a  heavy  log  will 
fall  upon  the  animal’s  back  and  crush  its  body 
against  the  lower  log  fixed  across  the  front 
of  the  pen.  To  reach  the  bait  the  bear  must 


TRAPPISTS 


TRAQUAIR 


434 


enter  the  trap  at  least  halfway.  A  slight  for¬ 
ward  pull  releases  the  lower  end  of  the  bait 
stick  and  causes  the  fall  log  to  drop.  Some¬ 
times  the  fall  log  is  a  heavy  slab  set  up  on 
bait  sticks.  The  box  trap  is  practically  the 
deadfall,  but,  instead  of  the  log  falling  on  the 
captive,  the  box  lid  falls  down  on  the  box’s 
sides  and  end  and  incloses  the  catch  unhurt. 
This  can  be  placed  anywhere,  even  in  a  tree. 
For  the  switch-up  a  runway  of  the  animal 
sought  is  selected,  and  on  either  side,  a  notched 
stick  is  driven  projecting  about  8  inches 
aboveground,  with  a  crosspiece  resting  on  the 
notches.  A  spring  sapling  about  5  feet  long 
is  then  driven  into  the  ground  near  by  and 
its  springy  head  bent  over  the  crosspiece  and 
fastened  to  it,  after  which  a  noose  of  brass 
wire  is  hung  on  it  (or  an  overhanging 
branch  of  a  tree  may  be  used  in  the  same 
way).  The  rabbit  or  other  small  animal 
hopping  along  the  runway  runs  his  head  in 
the  sliding  noose;  this  grips  his  neck,  and 
in  his  struggles  he  releases  the  crosspiece,  which 
lets  the  sapling  spring  up  to  vertical,  and  the 
captive  is  lifted  off  its  feet  and  strangled.  The 
steel-spring  trap  is  used  for  every  kind  of 
quadruped,  from  the  bear  to  the  rat.  It  is 
made  of  two  jaws  of  steel,  which  when  open  lie 
flat  on  the  ground  harmless,  but  when  the  pan 
between  them  is  depressed  the  spring  forces  the 
jaws  together,  generally  catching  the  animal’s 
leg. 

Fish  are  trapped  in  many  ways:  by  gill  nets 
spread  from  stake  to  stake  across  the  swims 
of  the  fish  when  they  come  from  the  sea,  like 
shad,  into  the  estuaries  in  the  spring  to  spawn; 
or  by  other  nets,  set  to  catch  fish  migrating 
from  the  fresh  waters  to  the  sea,  like  salmon 
and  trout.  Similar  ones  are  sometimes  set  un¬ 
der  ice,  near  holes  cut  through  it,  towards  which 
the  fish  will  invariably  come  to  the  light.  There 
is  the  cast  net,  a  circular  net  with  lead  weights 
around  its  bottom  edge,  which  when  thrown 
and  spread,  by  a  twirl  of  the  arm,  into  shallow 
water  where  a  shoal  of  fish  are,  sinks  rapidly 
at  the  full  extent  of  the  circle,  and  when  drawn 
in  by  the  caster  pulls  up  all  the  fish  within  its 
area.  Baskets  are  set  for  eels,  into  which  they 
can  crawl,  but  out  of  which  they  cannot  re¬ 
turn.  Snares — or  snigs,  as  they  are  sometimes 
called — will  capture  fish  in  shallow  water, 
notably  pike.  They  are  wire  nooses  at  the  end 
of  a  rod  which  the  snarer  deftly  slips  over  the 
head  of  the  fish  and  tightens  with  a  snatch. 
Snaring  game  fish  is  generally  prohibited  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  most  of  the  States  seines 
or  nets  of  any  kind  may  be  lawfully  used  only 
under  rigid  restrictions.  Consult:  Harding, 
Wolf  and  Coyote  Trapping  (Columbus,  Ohio, 
1909)  ;  E.  Kreps,  Science  of  Trapping  (ib., 
1909)  ;  F.  H.  Buzzacott,  Encyclopedia  of  the 
Hunter’s  and  Trapper’s  Art  (2d  ed.,  Chicago, 
1913). 

TRAP'PISTS.  A  branch  of  the  Cistercian 
Order,  following  the  reforms  introduced  in  1664 
by  Jean  le  Bouthillier  de  Ranee  (q.v.).  They 
take  their  name  from  th*e  monastery  of  La 
Trappe  in  Normandy,  of  which  Ranc6  was  abbot 
when  he  began  his  reforms.  They  are  among 
the  most  austere  of  Roman  Catholic  orders. 
The  day  in  a  Trappist  monastery,  begins  with 
matins  in  the  church  at  2  A.M.,  followed  by 
a  half-hour’s  meditation,  and  mass  or  study  oc¬ 
cupies  the  time  until  ten  minutes  to  six.  Then 
follows  prime,  and  from  7.30  to  9  manual  labor 


or  instruction.  At  9.45  terce,  high  mass,  sext, 
and  examination  of  conscience.  Dinner  is  at 
11,  except  on  fast  days,  when  it  is  an  hour 
later.  The  hour  after  it  is  occupied  by  study 
in  winter,  but  a  siesta  is  conceded  in  summer. 
Work  or  teaching  comes  again  from  2  to  4; 
vespers  and  meditation  at  5,  at  6  compline,  at 
7  supper,  and  bed  at  8.  The  dinner  consists 
of  a  small  quantity  of  soup  and  vegetables  with 
a  pound  of  bread;*  a  little  fruit,  and  one  glass 
of  beer.  The  supper  is  of  a  similar  nature, 
and  those  who  need  it  are  allowed  a  little 
milk,  coffee,  or  broth  on  rising.  The  fasting 
season  lasts  from  Holy  Cross  Day  (September 
14)  until  Easter.  The  Trappist  sleeps  in  his 
habit,  removing  only  his  shoes.  Only  the  su¬ 
periors  have  separate  rooms;  each  of  the  others 
has  simply  a  curtained  alcove  in  a  dormitory. 
Perpetual  silence  is  the  most  characteristic  re¬ 
striction  imposed.  It  is  absolute,  unless  he  lias 
the  care  of  guests  or  needs  to  speak  to  his  supe¬ 
riors  ;  other  communications  are  by  signs.  When 
sick,  he  is  nursed  in  the  infirmary  ;  dying,  he 
is  carried  into  the  church  to  receive  the  last 
rites  in  the  presence  of  his  brethren.  The 
dead  are  buried  in  their  habits,  without  coffins. 
Novices  are  received  after  two  years’  probation, 
and  three  years  later  may  be  professed.  Besides 
the  choir  brothers,  who  are  or  mean  to  be 
priests,  and  the  lay  brothers,  oblates  are  also 
received — persons  who  for  some  reason  do  not 
wish  to  take  the  vows,  but  conform  to  the  rule 
during  their  residence. 

The  earlier  houses  of  the  order  were  nearly 
all  in  France;  their  expulsion  from  that  coun¬ 
try  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution  and  under  the 
Third  Republic  has  caused  them  to  plant  nu¬ 
merous  monasteries  in  other  countries.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  official  statistics,  in  1908  they  had  4000 
members  .in  71  monasteries.  They  have  three 
houses  in  England,  two  in  Ireland,  nine  in  Bel¬ 
gium,  five  in  Italy,  five  in  Holland,  three  in 
Germany,  four  in  Asia,  two  in  Africa,  and  10 
in  America,  including  four  in  the  United  States, 
five  in  Canada,  and  one  in  Brazil.  The  monas¬ 
teries  in  the  United  States  are  located  at  Getli- 
semane,  Ky. ;  New  Malleray  (near  Dubuque), 
Iowa ;  Lonsdale,  R.  I. ;  Jordan,  Oreg.  They  do 
not  as  a  rule  undertake  the  cure  of  souls,  but 
conduct  a  few  mission  stations  in  South  Africa, 
the  Congo  State,  Japan,  China,  etc.  Consult: 
C.  Gaillardin,  Les  Trappistes  ou  Vordre  de 
Citeaux  au  XIXme  siecle  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1844)  ; 
La  Trappe,  par  un  Trappiste  de  Sept-Fons  (ib., 
1870)  ;  F.  Pfannenschmidt,  Geschichte  der  Trap- 
pisten  (Paderborn,  1874);  Suchier,  Der  Orden 
den  Trappisten  und  die  vegetarische  Lebensiveise 
(2d  ed.,  Munich,  1906).  For  the  ordinary 
reader,  the  most  vivid  and  accurate  account  of 
life  in  a  Trappist  monastery  is  in  J.  K.  Huys- 
mans,  En  Route  (Eng.  trans.  by  C.  Kegan  Paul, 
London,  1896). 

TRAQUAIR,  trak'war,  Ramsey  Heatley 
(1840-1912).  A  British  naturalist,  born  at 
Rhynd,  Perthshire.  He  graduated  at  Edinburgh 
University  and  from  1873  to  1906  was  keeper  of 
natural  history  collections  at  the  Royal  Scottish 
Museum,  Edinburgh.  From  1883  till  1887  and 
again  from  1896  till  1900  he  was  Swiney  lec¬ 
turer  on  geology  in  the  British  Museum.  Tra- 
quair  became  a  leading  authority  on  fossil 
ichthyology.  His  publications  include:  Struc¬ 
ture  and  Affinities  of  the  Paleeoniscidce  (1879)  ; 
Structure  and  Affinities  of  the  Platysomulce 
(1879)  ;  Report  on  Fossil  Fishes  Collected  by  the 


TRARIEUX 


435 


Geological  Survey  of  Scotland  in  the  Silurian 
Rocks  of  the  South  of  Scotland  (1900);  Les 
poissons  Wealdiens  de  Bernissart  (1911). 

TRARIEUX,  Gabriel  (1870-  ).  A 

French  diamatist  and  poet,  born  at  Bordeaux 
and  educated  at  the  Lyc6e  Condorcet.  He  was 
codirector  of  the  review  L’Art  et  la  Vie  ( 1896- 
98)  and  of  the  Revue  d’Art  Dramatique  (1898- 
1901)  and  in  1903  was  appointed  dramatic 
critic  of  La  Revue.  Trarieux  became  a  member 
of  the  central  committee  of  the  League  for  the 
Defense  of  the  Rights  of  Man.  He  wrote:  verse, 
La  chanson  du  prodigue  (1892)  and  La  coupe 
de  ThuU  (1896);  dramatic  criticism,  La  lan- 
terne  de  Diogene  (1902);  essays,  Les  petites 
provinciales  (1904)  ;  and  the  following  dramas: 
Joseph  d’Arimathie  (1898);  Sur  la  foi  des 
traites  (1900);  Les  vaincus ;  Hypatie;  Savon- 
arole  (1900);  La  guerre  au  village  (1903); 
L’Otage  (1907);  L’Alibi  (1908);  La  dette 
(1909);  Un  soir  and  La  brebis  perdue  (both 
1911);  L’Escapade  (1912). 

TRARIEUX,  Jacques  Ludovic  (1840-1904). 
A  French  advocate  and  Senator,  father  of  Ga¬ 
briel  Trarieux  (q.v.).  He  was  born  at  Aube- 
terre,  Charente,  and  became  an  advocate  at 
Bordeaux,  where  he  was  elected  a  deputy  in 
1879.  In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  he  joined 
the  Republican  Left.  He  failed  in  the  elections 
of  1881  and  1884,  but  was  returned  to  the 
Chamber  for  Charente  in  1885.  In  1888  he  was 
elected  for  Gironde  to  the  Senate,  where  he  sat 
with  the  Left  Centre,  and  in  1897  was  reelected. 
Trarieux  served  in  the  Ribot  cabinet  in  1895. 
He  was  one  of  the  four  Senators  who  were 
charged  with  the  prosecution  of  General  Bou¬ 
langer  (see  Boulanger,  Georges  Ernest)  be¬ 
fore  the  High  Court,  and  he  was  also  active  in 
the  revision  of  the  Dreyfus  case  ( see  Dreyfus, 
Alfred),  being  the  founder  and  first  president 
of  the  League  for  the  Defense  of  the  Rights  of 
Man  (Ligue  pour  la  Defense  de  l’Homme  et  du 
Citoyen ) . 

TRASIMENO,  tra'se-ma'nd,  Lago  (Lat. 

7  rasimenus  Lacus) ,  or  Lago  di  Perugia.  A 
lake  in  Italy,  lying  between  Cortona  and 
Perugia  (Map:  Italy,  D  3).  It  is  about  10 
miles  in  length  by  8  in  breadth;  the  greatest 
depth  is  not  above  30  feet.  The  lake  "has  no 
apparent  outlet,  and  the  margins  are  flat  and 
overgrown  with  reeds.  It  is  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  hills,  those  on  the  north  side,  ex¬ 
tending  from  Cortona  to  the  lake,  being  known 
as  Gualandro  Hills — the  montes  Cortonenses  of 
Livy.  They  are  covered  at  the  present  day  with 
oaks,  vineyards,  and  olive  plantations.'  The 
lake  is  memorable  chiefly  for  the  great  victory 
obtained  by  Hannibal  in  217  b.c.,  during  the 
Second  Punic  War,  over  the  Romans  under 
Flaminius.  Consult  Livy,  xxii,  3-6. 

TRASK,  Spencer  (1844-1909).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  banker  and  philanthropist,  born  in  Brooklyn. 
He  graduated  from  Princeton  in  1866  and  en¬ 
tered  the  Wall  Street  banking  house  of  H.  G. 
Marquand.  In  1881  he  established  the  firm  of 
Spencer  Trask  &  Co.,  which  became  well  known 
in  finance,  having  branch  houses  in  Philadelphia, 
Albany,  and  Providence.  He  early  saw  the  value 
of  Edison’s  experiments  and  became  one  of  the 
inventor’s  supporters,  as  president  of  the  Edison 
Electric  Light  Company  and  director  in  nu¬ 
merous  companies  manufacturing  the  Edison 
products.  He  was  also  identified  with  many 
other  corporations  and  with  railroads,  reorgan¬ 
ized  the  New  York  Times,  was  a  patron  of  "art, 


TRAUTENAU 


and  built  St.  Christina’s  Home  for  children  at 
*  aratoga.  He  was  deeply  interested  in  munici¬ 
pal  reform  and  in  local  Democratic  politics.  He 
was  killed  in  a  railroad  collision.  Spencer  Trask 
did  much  to  restore  to  popularity  the  mineral 
waters  at  Saratoga,  and  in  1915  an  elaborate 
memorial  was  erected  there  in  recognition  of 
this  service.  His  wife,  Kate  Nichols  (“Ka- 
trrna  )  Trask,  became  well  known  as  an  author. 

TRASTAMARE,  Henry  II  of.  See  Henry 
11  of  Trastamare. 

TRASTEVERE,  tras-ta've-re.  A  district  of 
Rome  about  the  Janiculum,  which  was  annexed 
to  the  city  by  Augustus  as  the  Regio  Transti- 
benna.  In  Imperial  times  it  was  the  abode 
of  street  peddlers  and  during  the  Middle  Amis 
was  frequented  by  foreigners.  It  is  now  almost 
entirely  inhabited  by  the  working  classes.  Many 
"valuable  antiquities  have  been  recovered  in  the 
district,  among  them  the  Apoxyomenos  (q.v.)  of 
Lysippus.  Consult  K.  Baedeker,  Central  Italy 
and  Rome  (15th  Eng.  ed.,  Leipzig,  1909). 

TRAU,  trou.  A  town  of  Dalmatia,  Austria,, 
on  the  Adriatic,  12  miles  west  of  Spalato  (Map: 
Austiia,  E  5).  It  is  interesting  for  its  remains 
of  Venetian  domination,  including  a  thirteenth- 
century  cathedral.  Pop.,  1910,  3507. 

TRAUBE,  trou'be,  Ludwig  (1818-76).  A 
German  clinician,  born  at  Ratibor,  Silesia.  He 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Breslau,  Berlin 
(M.D.,  1840),  and  Vienna.  He  became  lecturer 
at  the  University  of  Berlin  in  1849  and  for 
many  years  was  connected  with  the  Charite 
lospital.  In  1862  he  was  made  professor  at 
the  Friedrich- Wilhelm  Institute  and  in  1872 
professor  at  the  university.  Traube  was  espe¬ 
cially  noted  for  his  experiments  on  animals  for 
the  purpose  of  demonstrating  pathological  condi¬ 
tions.  The  practice  of  auscultation  and  percus¬ 
sion  was  greatly  promoted  by  him,  and  he  also 
made  important  studies  regarding  diseases  of 
the  heart,  kidneys,  and  lungs.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  Gesammelte  Beitrdge  zur 
Pathologie  und  Physiologie  (1871) 

TRAUMAT'RQPISM  (from  '  Gk.  rpaOya, 
trauma,  wound  -f-  Tpo-iry,  trope,  a  turning,  from 
rpeircLv,  trepein,  to  turn).  The  sensitiveness  of 
plant  parts  to  wounding,  by  reason  of  which 
thej'  change  their  growth  so  as  to  curve  away 
fiom  the  side  wounded.  This  sensitiveness  is 
especially  manifested  by  roots;  in  which,  how¬ 
ever,  severe  wounding  may  produce  a  purely  me¬ 
chanical  effect,  overpowering  the  true  irritable 
reaction,  which  is  only  manifest  in  response  to 
slighter  wounds.  See  Growth. 

TRAUH,  troim.  A  river  of  Austria.  It 
rises  on  the  Gross-Hochkasten  in  northwest 
Styria  and,  entering  Upper  Austria,  traverses 
the  Hallstattersee  and  the  Traunsee  (q.v.)  and 
flows  into  the  Danube  a  few  miles  below  Linz. 

It  is  celebrated  for  its  trout.  Near  the  village 
of  Roitham  it  forms  a  notable  waterfall.  Leno-th 
about  110  miles. 

TRAUNSEE,  troun'za,  or  GMUNDENER- 
SEE,  gmun'den-er-za.  The  largest  lake  of  Aus¬ 
tria  after  the  Attersee  (Map:  Austria-Hungary, 

C  3).  It  lies  in  Upper  Austria,  at  an  altitude 
of  1376  feet,  between  Ebensee  and  Gmunden  in 
alley,  and  is  8  miles  long  and  626 
feet  deep.  Like  the  Attersee,  it  is  situated  amid 
impressive  surroundings  and  is  noted  for  its 
picturesqueness. 

TRAUTENAU,  trou'te-nou.  A  frontier  town 
°f  Bohemia,  situated  74  miles  northeast  of 
1  i  ague,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aupa,  a  tribu- 


trautwine 


TRAVELING  SIDEWALK 


436 


tarv  of  the  Elbe.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  linen 
industry  of  the  Riesengebirge  and  has  in  addi¬ 
tion  paper  mills.  Here  occurred  two  engage¬ 
ments  between  the  Prussians  and  Austrians, 
June  27  and  28,  1866.  Pop.,  1900,  14,791;  1910, 
16,143. 

TRAXJTWINE,  trout'win,  John  Cresson 
(1810-83).  An  American  civil  engineer,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  In  1828  he  began  study 
in  the  office  of  William  Strickland,  whom  he 
assisted  in  building  the  United  States  Mint 
at  Philadelphia.  Between  1831  and  1836  he 
was  an  engineer  on  several  railways  and  in 
1836-42  was  chief  engineer  of  the  Hiawassee 
Railway,  connecting  Georgia  and  Tennessee. 
Trautwine  helped  to  build  the  Canal  del  Dique, 
between  the  Bay  of  Cartagena  and  the  Magda¬ 
lena  River,  and  he  executed  (1850)  surveys  for 
the  Panama  Railway,  for  the  Lackawanna  and 
Lanesborougli  Railway  (1856),  and  for  a  railway 
route  across  Honduras  (1857).  He  also  planned 
a  system  of  docks  for  Montreal.  He  wrote : 
Method  of  Calculating  the  Cubic  Contents  of 
Excavations  and  Embankments  (1851);  Held 
Practice  of  Laying  out  Circular  Curves  for  Rail¬ 
roads  (1851)';  Civil  Engineer’s  Pocketbook 
(1872).  The  Pocketbook  was  long  known  as  the 
“engineer’s  bible”  and  under  the  editorship  of 
John  C.  Trautwine  2d  and  3d  passed  through 
many  editions  and  is  still  current. 

TRAVAILLEURS  DE  LA  MER,  tra/va'yer' 
de  la  mar'  (Fr.,  Toilers  of  the  Sea).  A  novel  by 
Victor  Hugo  (1866),  containing  wonderful  de¬ 
scriptions  of  the  sea. 

TRAV'ANCORE'.  A  native  state  of  Brit¬ 
ish  India,  lying  territorially  within  the  Province 
of  Madras  (Map:  India,  C  8).  It  occupies  the 
western  part  of  the  extreme  south  end  of  the 
Indian  peninsula  and  stretches  from  Cape  Com¬ 
orin  northward  along  the  coast  to  Cochin. 
Area,  7129  square  miles.  The  coast,  which  is 
low  and  sandy,  is  lined  with  lagoons  receiving 
numerous  small  streams.  The  land  rises  gradu¬ 
ally  to  the  crest  of  the  Anamalay  Mountains, 
which  extend  along  the  eastern  boundary  with 
an  average  altitude  of  4000  to  5000  feet,  rising 
in  their  highest  peaks  to  over  8500  feet.  The 
climate  is  hot  on  the  coast ;  the  rainfall  is 
heavy,  and  the  mountain  slopes  are  covered  with 
forests  of  valuable  woods,  such  as  teak  and 
ivory. 

Rice,  the  sago  palm,  and  vegetables  are  among 
the  principal  products.  Pepper,  coffee,  tea, 
coconut  products,  and  timber  are  the  chief  arti¬ 
cles  exported.  Travancore  is  one  of  the  most 
progressive  of  the  native  states  of  India.  Its 
chiefs  for  a  long  period  have  been  highly  quali¬ 
fied  by  character  and  education  for  their  posi¬ 
tions,  government  has  been  well  administered, 
and  a  higher  degree  of  prosperity  has  prevailed 
than  has  been  common  in  India.  The  chieftaincy 
descends  in  the  female  line.  The.  ruling  family 
belongs  to  the  Hindu  race.  A  tribute  of  $400,- 
000  is  paid  annually  to  the  British  in  con¬ 
sideration  of  the  protection  which  they  afford. 
Pop.,  1901,  951,038;  1911,  3,428,975,  the  great 
majority  being  Hindus.  About  one-fifth  of  the 
population  are  Syrian  Christians.  Trivandrum 
(q.v.)  is  the  capital. 

TRAV'ELER,  The.  A  poem  by  Oliver  Gold¬ 
smith  (1764). 

TRAVELERS,  Law  as  to.  See  Carrier, 
Common  ;  Highway  ;  Rules  of  the  Road  ; 
Ticket. 

TRAVELER’S  JOY.  See  Clematis. 


TRAVELER’S  TREE,  or  Ravenala  ( Rave - 
nala  madagascariensis) .  A  remarkable  plant 
of  the  family  Musaceae,  a  native  of  Mada¬ 
gascar.  The  stem  resembles  that  of  the  plantain 
or  banana,  but  sends  out  leaves  only  on  two 
opposite  sides.  The  lower  leaves  drop  as  the 
stem  grows,  and  in  old  trees  they  are  sometimes 
30  feet  in  air.  A  tree  often  has  24  leaves, 
each  leafstalk  6  or  8  feet  long,  and  the  blade 
4  or  6  feet  more.  The  blade  of  the  leaf  is 
oblong,  bright  green,  and  shining.  The  fruit 
is  not  succulent,  but  is  filled  with  a  brilliant 
blue  or  purple  fine  silky  fibre,  among  which 
are  30  to  40  seeds.  Forty  or  50  fruits  grow 
in  a  bunch,  and  three  or  four  bunches  may  be 
seen  at  once  on  the  tree.  The  leaves  are  used 
for  thatch  and  for  other  purposes,  and  the 
leafstalks  for  partitions  and  often  for  walls 
of  houses.  The  bases  of  the  leafstalks  usually 
hold  water,  even  in  the  driest  weather,  more 
than  a  quart  being  readily  obtained  by  piercing 
the  thick  part  of  the  base.  This  water,  used 
for  drinking  in  case  of  need,  has  suggested  the 
name.  A  second  species,  Ravenala  guyanensis, 
occurs  in  South  America. 

TRAVELING  GRATES.  See  Shaking 
Grates;  Stoker,  Automatic. 

TRAVELING  SIDEWALK.  An  arrange¬ 
ment  for  the  transportation  of  passengers,  con¬ 
sisting  essentially  of  a  series  of  parallel,  closely 
abutting  platforms  traveling  on  wheels  or  rollers 
at  different  speeds.  A  sidewalk  of  this  char¬ 
acter  was  installed  at  the  Columbian  Exposition 
at  Chicago  in  1893  to  convey  passengers  from 
one  part  of  the  grounds  to  another,  and  similar 
structures  have  been  employed  at  other  exposi¬ 
tions  and  elsewhere.  The  principle  of  opera¬ 
tion  of  the  traveling  sidewalk  may  be  readily 


SECTION  OF  TRAVELING  SIDEWALK. 


understood  by  an  explanation  of  the  accompany¬ 
ing  diagram.  In  this  diagram  a,  b ,  c,  d,  e,  and 
f  are  the  parallel  platforms.  The  platform  a 
is  stationary,  but  the  others  all  travel  by  means 
of  flexible  rails  riding  on  the  rims  of  the  wheels 
g,  h,  i,  j,  and  k.  These  wheels  rotate  on  a  com¬ 
mon  shaft  at  the  same  number  of  rotations  per 
minute,  but,  being  of  different  diameters,  they 
carry  the  superimposed  platforms  at  different 
speeds;  thus,  platform  b  has,  say,  a  speed  of  3 
miles  per  hour,  c  a  speed  of  6  miles,  cl  a  speed 
of  9  miles,  e  a  speed  of  12  miles,  and  f  a  speed 
of  15  miles.  The  platforms  travel  continuously, 
and  a  foot  passenger  desiring  to  use  them  steps 
from  the  stationary  platform  a  onto  the  mov¬ 
ing  platform  b  and  then  onto  c,  d,  e,  and  /  in 
succession ;  the  return  to  the  stationary  plat¬ 
form  is  made  in  a  similar  manner,  but,  of 
course,  in  the  reverse  direction.  By  having  the 
difference  between  the  speeds  of  any  two  adja¬ 
cent  platforms  no  greater  than  the  speed  of  a 
brisk  walk  the  transition  from  one  speed  of 
travel  to  the  next  higher  or  lower  is  accom¬ 
plished  without  difficulty,  and  the  pedestrian 
can  board  and  leave  the  moving  platforms  at 
any  point  he  may  choose.  It  has  been  proposed, 
where  the  distances  to  be  traveled  are  consider¬ 
able,  to  have  seats  on  the  highest-speed  section. 


TRAVELER’S  TREE 


THE  UBR  MW 

Of  Vr’.E 

OHiVEBSlT^  Or 


TRAVELING  STAIRWAY 


437 


TRAWLING 


A  traA  eling  stairway  is  a  similar  arrangement 
placed  on  an  incline,  but  supplied  with  but  one 
moving  platform.  It  is  used  for  ascending  to 
ele\  ated-i  ail  way  platforms  and  in  large  shops, 
and  is  called  an  escalator  (q.v. ).  See  Elevator 
Escalator. 

TRAVELING  STAIRWAY.  See  Elevator, 
Escalator. 

TRAVEMUNDE,  tra'vc-mun'dc.  A  town  of 
Germany,  the  outport  of  Liibeck,  lying  9  miles 
northeast  of  that  city,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Trave 
(Map:  Germany,  D  2).  It  is  a  well-known 
watering  place.  The  old  walls  of  the  town  were 
torn  down  in  1882.  Pop.,  1900,  1849;  1910, 
21/  4. 

TRAVERS,  Jerome  D(unstan)  (1887- 
) .  An  American  golf  champion.  He  was 
metropolitan  champion  of  New  York  for  five 
years,  and  for  three  years  held  the  New  Jersey 
honors.  The  national  amateur  title,  which  he 
first  won  in  1907,  he  held  in  1907,  1908,  1912, 
and  1913,  losing  to  Francis  Ouimet  in  1914. 
In  1915  he  won  the  national  open  title,  playing- 
72  holes  in  297  strokes.  He  published  Ti  •avers3 
Golf  Book  (1913),  and  The  Winninq  Shot 
(1915),  with  Grantland  Rice. 

TRAVERS,  Morris  William  (1872-  ). 

An  English  chemist.  He  was  born  in  London 
and  studied  there  at  University  College  and  in 
France  at  Nancy.  At  the  former  institution  he 
taught  until  1903,  was  next  professor  of  chem¬ 
istry  at  University  College,  Bristol,  and  in 
1906-14  was  director  of  the  Indian  Institute 
of  Science  at  Bangalore.  His  researches  on 
gases  at  low  temperatures  are  well  known  and 
include  Argon  and  its  Companions,  with  Sir  Wil¬ 
liam  Ramsay;  The  Liquefaction  of  Hydrogen 
(1900);  The  Experimental  Study  of  Gases 
(1901;  Ger.  trans.,  1905);  Researches  on  the 
Attainment  of  very  Loio  Temperatures  (1904); 
Further  Notes  on  the  Self -Intensive  Process  for 
Liquefying  Gases  ( 1906 ) . 

TRAVESARI,  tra'ver-sa're,  Ambrogio.  See 
Ambrogio  il  Camaldolese. 

TRAV'ERSE.  In  common-law  pleading,  a 
denial  of  facts  alleged  in  a  pleading.  A  traverse 
includes  all  pleadings  by  way  of  denial,  whether 
made  by  the  defendant  or  "the  plaintiff.  See 
Pleading. 

TRAVERSE  (OF.,  Fr.  travers,  from  Lat. 
traversus,  transversus,  lying  across,  transverse, 
p.p.  of  transvertere,  to  turn  across,  from  trans, 


across,  through  +  vertere,  to  turn).  In  forti¬ 


fication,  a  mass  of  earth  projecting  inward  from, 
or  flanking,  the  parapet,  and  designed  to  afford 
protection  against  oblique  or  enfilade  fire  or 
both,  "traverses  must  not  rise  above  the  crest 
of  the  work,  otherwise  they  would  reveal  the 
gun  positions.  In  modern  fortification  they  are 
employed  only  to  a  limited  extent.  In  gunnery 
(q.v.)  traverse  describes  the  moving  or  pointing 
of  a  gun.  on  its  pivot,  when  taking  aim,  the  gear 
by  which  the  operation  is  accomplished  being 
known  as  traversing  gear.  The  platforms  by 
which  heavy  naval  or  fortress  guns  and  carriages 
are  moved  into  position,  or  by  which  their 
direction  is  changed,  are  called  traversing  plat¬ 
forms.  See  Fortification. 

TRAV'ERSE  CITY.  A  city  and  the  countv 
seat  of  Grand  Traverse  Co., ‘Mich.,  60  miles 
northeast  of  Manistee,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Boardman  River,  on  Grand  Traverse  Bay,  an 
inlet  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  the  Pere  Mar¬ 
quette,  the  Grand  Rapids  and  Indiana,  the 
Traverse  City,  Leelanau,  and  Manistique,  and 


the  Manistee  and  Northeastern  railroads  (Map: 
Michigan,  I)  4).  It  possesses  an  attractive 
situation  and  good  fishing  facilities  and  enjovs 
considerable  reputation  as  a  summer  resort. 
Hie  Northern  Michigan  Insane  Asylum  is  here, 
and  there  are  two  public  libraries.  Traverse 
City  is  situated  in  a  noted  cherry-growing  re¬ 
gion  and  is  also  extensively  engaged  in  manu¬ 
facturing.  It  is  known  for  its  production  of 
oval  wood  dishes.  Some  of  the  other  im¬ 
portant  manufactures  are  baskets,  lumber, 
interior  finishings,  farm  implements,  shoes, 
cider,  candy,  flour,  leather,  fur  coats  and  robes, 
furniture,  foundry  and  machine-shop  products, 
etc.  I  lie  city  has  adopted  the  commission 
form  of  government.  Traverse  City  was  settled 
about  1850  and  was  chartered  as  a  citv  in  1895 
Pop.,  1900,  9407;  1910,  12,145;  1915  (U  S* 
est.),  13,542;  1920,  10,925. 

TRA V'ERTINE  ( from  It.  travertino,  tibur- 
tino ,  from  Lat.  tiburtinus,  travertine,  relating 
to  Tibur,  from  Tibur,  an  ancient  town  of 
Latium,  now  called  Tivoli).  A  massive  or 
cryptocrystalline  variety  of  limestone  that  is 
deposited  from  springs  or  rivers  and  usually 
has  an  irregularly  banded  structure  owing  to 
its  mode  of  formation.  A  variety  known  as 
calc  tufa  consists  of  cellular  depositions  from 
the  waters  of  small  springs  and  often  contains 
fossil  leaves,  twigs,  etc.  See  Calcareous  Tufa. 

TRAV'ESTY  (OF.  travesti,  p.p.  of  travester, 
to  disguise,  from  Lat.  trans,  across,  through  -(- 
vestire,  to  clothe,  from  vestis,  garment).  A 
term  applied  in  literature  to  denote  a  burlesque 
representation  of  something  previously  executed 
in  a  serious  and  lofty  manner.  It  differs  from 
parody  (q.v.)  in  this  respect:  that  while  the 
latter  changes  the  subject  matter  and  the 
dramatis  person®,  but  mockingly  imitates  the 
style  of  the  original,  the  former  leaves  the  sub¬ 
ject  matter  partially,  and  the  dramatis  person® 
wholly,  unaltered;  producing  a  purely  comic 
effect  by  the  substitution  of  the  mean,  the 
frivolous,  and  the  grotesque  in  action  or  speech, 
for  the  serious,  the  noble,  or  the  heroic.  See 
Parody. 

TRA  VI  AT  A,  tra'vi-ii'ta,  La.  An  opera  by 
Verdi  (q.v.),  first  produced  in  Venice,  March 
6,  1853;  in  the  United  States,  Dec.  3,  1856 
(New  York) . 

TRAV'IS,  William  Barrett  (1811-36).  An 
American  soldier,  born  in  Edgefield  Co.,  S.  C. 
After  studying  law  he  began  practice  at  Clai¬ 
borne,  Ala.,  about  1830.  He  removed  to  Texas, 
then  beginning  the  struggle  for  independence,  in 
1832  and  at  once  took  part  in  the  insurrection. 
He  was  made  a  colonel  in  the  revolutionary 
army  and  was  captured  by  the  Mexican  forces, 
but  was  finally  released.  With  about  150  men 
he  defended  the  Alamo  (q.v.)  from  Feb.  23  to 
March  6,  1836,  against  Gen.  Santa  Anna  (q.v.) 
and  about  5000  Mexicans.  Desperate  fighting- 
continued  until  only  Travis  and  five  others  were 
left.  They  surrendered  on  being  assured  that 
their  lives  would  be  spared,  but  by  Santa  Anna’s 
orders  they  were  all  killed. 

TRAWLING  (from  traivl,  from  OF.  trauler, 
troller,  troler,  Fr.  troler,  to  ramble,  stroll,  drag 
about).  One  of  two  modes  of  deep-sea  fishing 
or  of  exploration  of  the  depths.  In  Europe  a 
trawl  or  beam  trawl  is  a  triangular  purse¬ 
shaped  net,  about  70  feet  long,  usually  having-  a 
breadth  of  about  40  feet  at  the  mouth.  The 
upper  part  of  the  mouth  is  secured  to  a  wooden 
beam  which  keeps  the  net  open;  this  beam  is 


TREACLE  BIBLE 


TREASON 


438 


supported  on  two  upright  iron  frames,  known  as 
trawl  heads  or  irons.  The  underside  of  the 
net  is  made  with  a  deeply  curved  margin  at¬ 
tached  to  the  ground  rope,  the  whole  length 
of  it  in  contact  with  the  ground.  A  trawl 
has  also  generally  two  pockets,  one  on  each  side, 
made  by  lacing ‘together  the  upper  and  under 
parts,  so  that  fish  turning  back  from  the  cod 
may  be  caught  in  them.  The  meshes  vary  m 
size  from  4  inches  square  at  the  mouth  to  1  /4 
inches  square  in  the  cod,  or  narrow  hinder  end 
of  the  net.  Two  stout  ropes  about  15  fathoms 
lonor  are  fastened  to  the  trawl  heads  and  form 
a  bridle,  to  which  is  shackled  a  towing  line 
150  fathoms  long.  Trawling  is  generally  m  the 
direction  of  the  tide  and  can  be  followed  with 
advantage  only  on  a  sandy  or  other  smooth  bot¬ 
tom.  The  vessels  employed  on  the  Dogger  bank 
and  near  the  English  coast  vary  in  size  from 
35  to  60  tons.  Many  of  these  trawlers  stay 
at  sea  for  six  weeks  at  a  time  in  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  their  fish  being  packed  in  ice,  col¬ 
lected  by  fast-sailing  cutters,  and  conveyed  to 
market.  Cod,  haddock,  etc.,  are  caught  in  great 
numbers  by  trawling;  some  kinds  of  flat  fish, 
as  soles,  are  scarcely  to  be  obtained  by  other 
means.  Smaller  trawl  nets  are  used  in  bays 
and  estuaries. 

In  the  United  States  a  trawl  is  a  long  line 
anchored  on  the  fishing  ground,  from  which 
depends  a  row  of  short  lines  carrying  baited 
hooks.  The  device  is  principally  used  on  the 
fishing  banks.  See  Deep-Sea  Exploration  ; 
Fisheries 

TREACLE  (tre'k’l)  BIBLE.  See  Bible, 

Curious  Editions  of. 

TREACLE  MUSTARD.  See  Erysimum. 

TREADMILL.  A  machine  where  the  weight 
of  men  or  animals  acting  on  a  series  of  treads 
or  steps  arranged  on  a  cylinder  or  endless  band 
is  employed  to  furnish  power.  The  most  gen¬ 
eral  application  of  this  machine  has  been  to 
farming  machinery,  where  horses  and  dogs  aie 
used  to  supply  the  motive  power.  The  endless 
band  formed  by  the  treads  is  inclined  and  is 
connected  with  a  flywheel,  to  which  the  ma¬ 
chinery  to  be  operated  is  connected  by  belting. 
The  term  ‘Treadmill”  is  most  generally  applied, 
however,  to  a  device  formerly  in  general  use  in 
prisons  in  Great  Britain  for  convicts  sentenced 
to  hard  labor.  It  consisted  of  a  wheel  in  the 
form  of  a  long  hollow  cylinder,  with  steps 
around  its  circumference  and  a  hand  rail  above 
the  wheel,  so  that  a  prisoner  might  support 
himself  while  treading  the  steps  and  thus  work¬ 
ing  the  wheel.  The  desired  resistance  could  be 
created  by  means  of  weights,  or  the  motive 
power  thus  created  utilized  to  grind  grain, 
etc.  The  physical  exercise  was  severe,  and  the 
use  of  the  treadmill  in  British  prisons,  which 
had  been  gradually  abandoned,  was  entirely 
abolished  early  in  the  twentieth  century.  The 
crank,  a  small  wheel  with  paddles,  which  revolves 
in  a  box  partially  filled  with  sand  or  gravel, 
was  substituted  in  some  prisons  where  unpro¬ 
ductive  hard  labor  was  necessary,  but  this  also 
was  abolished  in  a  more  enlightened  penology. 
As  the  amount  of  work  could  be  measured  with 
accuracy,  the  treadmill  was  occasionally  em- 
ploved  in  phvsiological  investigations. 

TREAD'WELL,  Aaron  Louis  (1866-  ). 

An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Redding,  Conn., 
and  educated  at  Wesleyan  University  (B.S., 
1888;  M.S.,  1890)  and  at  the  University  of 
Chicago  .(Ph.D.,  1898).  He  was  professor  of 


zoology  and  geology  at  Miami  University  (1891 
1900)  and  at  Vassar  College  was  professor  of 
biology  (1900-14)  and  thereafter  professor  of 
zoology.  In  addition,  he  was  an  instructor  at 
the  Marine  Biological  Laboratory  at  Woods 
Hole  (1898-1906,  1913)  and  honorary  curator 
of  annulates  at  the  American  Museum  of  Nat¬ 
ural  History  from  1909.  His  writings  include 
a  number  of  papers  dealing  chiefly  with  annelid 
systematics  and  embryology,  the  most  important 
of  the  latter  being  The  Cytogeny  of  Podarke 
obscura  (1901).  He  contributed  to  the  New 
International  Encyclopaedia. 

TREADWELL,  Daniel  (1791-1872).  An 
American  inventor,  born  at  Ipswich,  Mass. 
Among  his  more  important  inventions  aie  a 
power  printing  press ;  a  system  of  turnouts  for 
single-track  railroads  (1826);  the  gypsy,  a 
hemp-spinning  machine  for  the  manufactuie.  of 
cordage  (1829)  ;  and  a  method  of  constructing 
cannon  from  wrought  iron  and  steel  according 
to  a  process  said  to  resemble  that  invented  latei 
by  Sir  William  Armstrong.  (See  Armstrong, 
William  George,  Baron.)  Of  these,  the  spin¬ 
ning  machine  was  probably  the  most  successful. 
In  1822,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  John  Ware,  he 
founded  the  Boston  Journal  of  Philosophy  and 
the  Arts,  and  from  1834  to  1845  he  occupied 
the  chair  of  Rumford  professor  at  Harvard. 
Treadwell  had  a  taste  for  theology  and  was  one 
of  Longfellow’s,  circle  of  friends,  and  is  the  theo¬ 
logian  of  the  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn.  He  pub¬ 
lished:  The  Relations  of  Science  to  the  Useful 
Arts  (1855)  ;  On  the  Practicability  of  Construct¬ 
ing  a  Cannon  of  Great  Calibre  (1856)  ;  On  the 
Construction  of  Hasped  Cannon  (1864)..  Con¬ 
sult  biographical  sketch  by  M.  Wyman  in  Me¬ 
moirs  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences,  vol.  xi  (Cambridge,  1888)  ;  also  Sam¬ 
uel  Longfellow,  Life  of  Henry  Wadsworth  Long¬ 
fellow  (Boston,  1886). 

TREADWELL,  Frederick  Pearson  (185/- 
1918).  A  chemist,  long  resident  in  Switzerland. 
He  was  born  in  New  Hampshire,  but  early  went 
abroad  and  studied  chemistry  at  Heidelberg, 
where  he  received  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  in  1878 
and  served  as  assistant  to  the  great  Bunsen 
(q.v.).  In  1883  he  went  to  Switzerland  and 
became  assistant  to  Victor  Meyer  ( q.v. )  at  the 
Technical  School  in  Zurich.  There  he  had 
become  professor  by  1894.  With  Meyer  he 
published  Tabellen  zur  qualitativen  Analyse, 
but  he  is  best  known  for  his  Lehrbuch  der 
analytischen  Chemie  (2  vols. )  which  passed 
through,  many  editions  and  was  translated  into 
several  languages,  the  English  version  being 
widely  used  as  a  textbook  in  American  uni- 
versities. 

TREASON  (OF.  traison,  traisson,  Fr.  trahi- 
son,  treason ;  from  Lat.  traditio ,  sui  render,  de 
livery,  from  tradere,  to  deliver  over,  betray). 
At  common  law  there  were  two  distinct  classes 
of  crime  known  as  treason,  termed  respectively 
high  treason  and  petit  treason.  The  first  was 
disloyalty  to  the  sovereign  or  a  violation  of 
allegiance  due  him.  The  second  was  a  violation 
of  the  allegiance  due  from  an  inferior  to  a  supe¬ 
rior,  by  taking  the  life  of  the  superior,  as  of  a 
wife  to  her  husband,  a  servant  to  his  master,  or 
an  ecclesiastic  to  his  superior.  Petit  treason 
is  now  everywhere  punished  only  as  a  homicide. 
Hi  Mi  treason,  being  in  effect  treachery  against 
the  sovereign,  was  the  highest  crime  a  subject 
could  commit.  By  the  ancient  common  law, 
however,  the  crime  was  not  clearly  defined; 


TREASON 


439 


TREASON 


* 


. 


% 


; 


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v 


hence  there  was  great  latitude  as  to  what  was 
held  by  the  judges  to  be  treason.  Thus,  the 
accroaching,  or  attempting  to  exercise,  royal 
power  (a  very  uncertain  charge)  has  been 
treated  as  treason ;  and  killing  the  King's  father 
or  brother,  or  even  his  messenger,  has  also  been 
so  treated.  The  inconvenience  of  these  con¬ 
structive  treasons  led  to  tlie  passing  of  the 
Statute  of  25  Edw.  Ill,  c.  2,  which  attempted 
to  define  treason;  and  it  was  defined  in  five 
forms :  ( 1 )  \\  hen  a  man  compasses  or  imagines 
the  death  of  the  King,  Queen,  or  their  eldest 
son  and  heir.  Under  this  clause  it  was  held 
that  the  husband  of  a  queen  regnant  was  not 
included ;  but  it  includes  a  king  de  facto  without 
regard  to  his  title.  The  phrase  “compassing  and 
imagining  the  death  of  a  king”  has  been  held 
to  mean  the  mere  purpose  or  design,  as  distin¬ 
guished  from  the  carrying  such  design  into 
effect;  nevertheless,  the  purpose  can  be  proved 
only  by  some  overt  act,  such  as  providing 
weapons  or  ammunition  for  the  purpose  of 
killing  the  King,  or  assembling  and  consulting 
on  the  means  to  kill  the  King,  although  such 
acts  might  fall  short  of  the  legal  definition 
of  an  attempt.  The  law  has  often,  however, 
been  strained;  a  paper  found  in  a  closet  was 
held  to  convict  Algernon  Sidney  (1683),  though 
merely  speculative  in  its  character.  (2)  An¬ 
other  form  of  treason  was  the  violating  of 
the  King’s  companion  (i.e.,  wife),  or  his 
eldest  daughter  unmarried,  or  the  wife  of  the 
King’s  eldest  son  and  heir.  (3)  Another  form 
was  that  of  levying  war  against  the  King  in 
his  realm  either  by  taking  arms  to  dethrone 
the  King  or  under  pretense  to  reform  religion 
or  the  laws;  by  resisting  the  King’s  forces;  or 
by  joining  an  insurrection.  (4)  It  was  also 
treason  to  adhere  to  the  King’s  enemies  in 
Uie  realm  by  giving  them  aid  and  comfort,  as 
by  sending  intelligence  or  provisions  or  selling 
arms  to  them.  (5)  Lastly,  it  was  treason  to 
siap  the  Chancellor,  Treasurer,  or  the  King’s 
justices  of  the  bench  or  in  assize  while  in  their 
places  administering  justice.  Besides  these 
specific  forms  of  treason,  the  Statute  of  Edw. 
Ill  enacted  that,  if  there  should  be  other  cases 
not  above  specified,  the  judge  should  tarry 
without  going  to  judgment,  till  the  King  and 
Parliament  should  judge  it  treason  or  other 
felony — which  was  a  safeguard  against  the 
judges  indulging  too  much  in  refinements -about 
constructive  treason.  At  a  later  period,  between 
the  reigns  of  Henry  IV  and  Mary,  the  courts, 
nevertheless,  returned  to  the  practice  of  invent¬ 
ing  constructive  treasons  and  included  as  such 
the  clipping  of  money,  burning  houses  to  extort 
money,  refusing  to  abjure  the  Pope,  etc.  These 
and  other  newly  invented  treasons  were  totally 
abolished  by  a  Statute  of  1  Edw.  VI,  c.  12,  but 
many  of  like  nature  were  established  under 
Elizabeth.  xV  subsequent  Statute  of  1  Anne, 
c.  17,  provided  that  whoever  endeavors  to 
hinder  the  next  in  succession  under  the  Act 
of  Settlement  from  succeeding  to  the  crown 
is  to  be  held  guilty  of  treason;  and  whoever 
maliciously  affirms  another  to  have  right  to  the 
crown  otherwise  than  according  to  the  Act  of 
Settlement  commits  treason.  Moreover,  bv  36 
Geo.  Ill,  c.  7,  whoever  compasses  or  intends 
death  or  bodily  harm  to  the  person  of  the  King 
is  to  be  adjudged  a  traitor.  The  Act  of  25 
Edw.  Ill,  c.  2,  was  confirmed  and  made  per¬ 
petual  by  57  Geo.  Ill,  c.  6,  Avhich  with  the 
other  statutes  referred  to  embody  the  English 


statutory  law  upon  the  subject.  There  have 
been  numerous  statutes  making  certain  specific 
acts  treason,  but  most  of  these  were  repealed 
shortly  after  their  enactment.  The  crime  is 
neither  a  felony  nor  a  misdemeanor,  but  a  grade 
of  crime  by  itself.  All  acting  and  abetting  in 
the  commission  of  treason  are  principals,  there 
being  no  accessories  in  the  crime  of  treason. 
See  Accessory;  Principal. 

A  copy  of  an  indictment  for  treason  and  a 
list  of  the  witnesses  and  jurors,  together  with 
the  addresses  of  the  latter,  must  be  delivered 
to  the  prisoner  10  days  before  the  trial,  and 
he  is  entitled  to  have  counsel  assigned  to  de¬ 
fend  him.  This  right,  which  prisoners  accused 
of  other  crimes  have  not  in  English  law,  was 
conferred  by  a  Statute  of  William  III. 

The  punishment  for  treason  was  the  most 
severe  and  revolting  of  the  harsh  punishments 
imposed  by  the  common  law.  The  traitor  was 
to  be  drawn  on  a  hurdle  to  the  place  of  execu¬ 
tion,  hanged  by  the  neck,  his  head  then  severed 
from  the  body,  the  body  divided  into  four 
quarters,  and  the  head  and  quarters  to  be  at 
the  disposal  of  the  crown.  But  in  1870  these 
barbarities  were  abolished,  and  the  penalty  is 
now  changed  to  execution  by  hanging.  The  con¬ 
sequence  of  a  conviction  of  treason  was  also 
forfeiture  (q.v.)  and  corruption  of  blood,  the 
corruption  of  blood  having  the  effect  that  the 
attainted  person  could  neither  inherit  lands 
from  his  ancestors  nor  transmit  them  to  any 
heir.  But  this  was  altered  as  regards  England 
and  Ireland  in  1870  by  the  Statute  of  33  and 
34  Viet.,  c.  23.  The  convict  suffers  forfeiture 
and  is  disqualified  for  any  public  office;  the 
court  may  order  him  to  pay  the  costs  of  his 
conviction,  and  his  whole  property  is  transferred 
to  administrators  named  by  the  crown,  who  ad¬ 
minister  it  and  retransfer  the  surplus  to  his 
heirs  and  representatives. 

There  are  certain  minor  offenses  which  are 
called  misprision  of  treason,  being  those  closely 
bordering  on  treason.  (See  Misprision.)  Such 
are  offenses  which  consist  in  the  bare  knowl¬ 
edge  and  concealment  of  treason,  without  any 
degree  of  assent  thereto,  for  any  assent  makes 
the  party  a  principal  traitor.  The  punishment 
of  misprision  of  treason  was  loss  of  goods  and 
lands  during  life. 

In  the  United  States  treason  may  be  either 
against  an  individual  State  or  against  the 
United  States.  In  the  former  case  it  may  be 
an  offense  at  common  law,  although  the  con¬ 
stitution  or  statutes  of  most  of  the  States  de¬ 
fine  the  crime  and  provide  a  punishment.  Most 
of  these  provisions,  however,  are  modeled  after 
the  provisions  of  the  United  States  Constitution 
defining  treason.  The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  (Art.  Ill,  Sec.  3)  provides  that  treason 
against  the  United  States  shall  “consist  only  in 
levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  or 
giving  aid  and  comfort  to  their  enemies.”  It  is 
further  provided  that  no  person  shall  be  con¬ 
victed  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of 
two  witnesses  to  the  overt  act  or  upon  confes¬ 
sion  in  open  court.  The  penalty  is  death  or 
imprisonment  and  fine  at  the  discretion  of  the 
court.  Levying  war  within  the  meaning  of 
this  provision  must  be  a  defiance  of  public 
government  by  armed  force  and  must  amount  to 
more  than  a  mere  riot  or  an  interference  with 
the  execution  of  the  laws  for  some  private 
purpose.  The  acts  of  the  defendant  must  also 
proceed  beyond  mere  preparation,  as  by  enlist- 


TREASURE  ISLAND 


TREASURY 


440 


ment  of  men  for  military  service.  They  must 
meet  or  be  assembled  for  a  treasonable  purpose 
and  some  act  done  towards  executing  with  force 
their  purposes.  Thus,  an  assembly  of  men 
arrayed  in  a  military  manner  for  the  purpose 
of  overawing  the  public  and  finally  assailing 
the  government  is  levying  war  upon  the  gov¬ 
ernment,  although  no  actual  blow  is  struck.  Ad¬ 
hering  to  or  giving  aid  and  comfort  to  the 
enemies  of  the  United  States  means  more  than 
mere  sympathy  with  enemies  of  the  government; 
it  must  be  the  voluntary  giving  of  actual  assist¬ 
ance  to  those  who  are  waging  war  against  the 
United  States. 

Most  of  the  State  constitutions  contain  pro¬ 
visions  similar  to  the  clause  of  the  United  States 
Constitution,  defining  treason  against  the  State 
and  providing  a  punishment.  Generally  they 
provide  that  treason  against  a  State  may  be 
committed  by  armed  opposition  to  its  laws 
or  by  forcibly  attempting  to  overthrow  or 
usurp  the  government.  In  practice,  the  common 
law  of  crime  and  the  statute  law  of  crime 
in  the  several  States  have  been  found  adequate 
to  punish  crime  of  a  treasonable  nature  without 
resorting  to  prosecution  for  treason,  and  there 
have  been  few  prosecutions  for  the  specific  of¬ 
fense  of  treason  against  a  State.  Consult  au¬ 
thorities  referred  to  under  Criminal  Law. 
Cf.  Praemunire.  See  Attainder. 

TREASURE  ISLAND.  A  stirring  tale  of 
adventure  by  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  (1883).' 

TREASURER,  Lord  High.  Formerly  the 
third  great  officer  of  the  crown  in  England, 
who  was  sole  head  of  the  King’s  exchequer. 
The  office  was  originally  held  by  one  person, 
but  in  1612  James  I  put  it  in  commission;  and 
from  the  accession  of  George  I  (1714)  down  to 
the  present  time  it  has  been  the  practice  to  vest 
the  office  in  a  board  of  Lords  Commissioners  of 
the  Treasury. 

TREASURE-TROVE  ( treasure ,  from  OF. 
tresor,  Fr.  tresor,  It.,  Sp.  tesoro,  from  Lat. 
thesaurus,  from  Gk.  drjaavpos,  treasure  -f-  trove, 
from  OF.  trover,  trouvei %  Fr.  trouver,  to  find). 
In  the  common  law  of  England,  hidden  treasure 
of  gold,  silver,  and  bullion  accidentally  found 
in  the  earth,  the  owner  of  which  cannot  be 
ascertained.  Treasure-trove  belongs  to  the 
crown,  and  in  certain  districts  the  right  to 
claim  it  has  been  granted  to  the  nobility.  In 
order  to  come  within  this  rule,  the  treasure 
must  be  concealed,  as  distinguished  from  that 
which  is  casually  lost  and  remains  on  the  sur¬ 
face,  as  to  which  a  different  rule  applies.  A 
finder  of  treasure-trove  is  bound  by  law  to  give 
notice  of  his  discovery  to  the  proper  officials 
of  the  crown,  and  failure  to  do  so  may  subject 
him  to  fine  and  imprisonment.  The  present 
policy  of  the  English  government  is  to  allow 
a  finder  to  keep  "treasure  thus  discovered,  less 
a  small  percentage  of  its  value  to  be  paid  to  the 
crown,  unless  it  is  valuable  as  an  object  of  his¬ 
torical  or  antiquarian  interest,  in  which  cases 
it  is  claimed  by  the  crown  in  order  to  be  pre¬ 
served  in  the  national  museums.  By  the  Treas¬ 
ure-Trove  Act  of  India,  if  no  owner  is  found, 
the  finder  is  entitled  to  three-quarters  and  the 
owner  of  the  ground  to  one-quarter  of  its  value. 
Though  there  are  dicta  to  the  effect  that  the 
common  law  as  to  treasure-trove  applies  in  the 
United  States,  such  a  right  is  seldom,  if  ever, 
enforced.  See  Finding. 

TREASURY,  Department  of  the.  The 
executive  department  of  the  government  of  the 


United  States  controlling  the  national  finances. 
It  was  established  by  Act  of  Congress  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1789,  and  was  the  successor  of  the  Treasury 
Department  created  by  the  Congress  of  the  Con¬ 
federation  in  1781,  of  which  Robert  Morris 
was  for  a  time  superintendent.  It  is  the  most 
extensive  and  complex  of  the  departments  and 
in  rank  stands  next  to  the  Department  of  State. 
At  its  head  is  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
appointed  by  the  President,  who  is  a  member 
of  the  cabinet  and  receives  a  salary  of  $12,000. 
He  is  second  among  the  cabinet  officers  in  the 
line  of  succession  to  the  presidency.  The  de¬ 
partment  as  originally  established  consisted  of 
a  Secretary,  a  Comptroller,  an  Auditor,  a  Treas¬ 
urer,  a  Register,  and  an  Assistant  Secretary, 
together  with  a  few  clerks.  From  this  the  de¬ 
partment  has  grown  to  be  a  vast  establishment 
employing  some  5000  persons  at  Washington, 
with  numerous  bureaus,  branches,  and  offices 
throughout  the  country.  The  only  qualification 
for  the  office  of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is 
the  negative  one  that  he  shall  not  be  interested 
in  foreign  commerce.  He  is  required  to  digest 
and  prepare  plans  for  the  revenue  and  public 
credit,  to  prescribe  forms  for  keeping  the  public 
accounts,  to  superintend  collection  of  the  reve¬ 
nues,  to  grant  all  warrants  under  certain  limita¬ 
tions  for  moneys  issued  from  the  Treasury  in 
pursuance  of  appropriations  made  by  law,  and, 
in  general,  to  perform  such  duties  relative  to 
the  finances  of  the  United  States  as  shall  be 
required  by  law.  Simultaneously  with  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  the  country  the  duties  of  the  de¬ 
partment  have  been  extended  to  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  the  national  debt,  the  supervision  of 
the  national  banks,  the  internal-revenue  system, 
the  legal-tender  currency,  the  merchant  marine, 
the  lighthouse  system,  the  life-saving  and  public- 
health  services,  the  Coast  Survey,  etc.  The  Sec¬ 
retary  is  ex  officio  a  member  of  the  Federal  Re¬ 
serve"  Board.  He  is  aided  by  three  Assistant 
Secretaries.  The  business  of  the  department  is 
distributed  among  the  following  offices  and  bu¬ 
reaus  :  the  Comptroller  of  the  Treasury,  six 
Auditors,  the  Treasurer,  the  Register,  the  Comp¬ 
troller  of  the  Currency,  the  Commissioner  of  In¬ 
ternal  Revenue,  the  Mint,  the  Bureau  of  En¬ 
graving  and  Printing,  and  the  Public-Health 
Service. 

The  Comptroller  of  the  Treasury,  since  1894, 
has  been  aided  by  an  Assistant  Comptroller.  He 
exercises  a  kind"  of  supervisory  power  over  the 
Auditors,  countersigns  warrants  drawn  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  etc.  He  is  ex  officio 
a  member  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Board.  The 
original  act  creating  the  Treasury  Department 
provided  for  a  single  Auditor;  four  additional 
Auditors  were  provided  in  1817,  and  a  sixth 
was  added  in  1836.  The  six  Auditors  are  as¬ 
signed  to  the  Treasury,  War,  Interior,  Navy, 
Post-Office,  and  State  and  other  departments  re¬ 
spectively,  with  the  duty  of  examining  accounts. 
The  Treasurer  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  sign¬ 
ing  the  paper  currency  and  of  receiving  and 
keeping  the  moneys  of  the  United  States  and 
with  disbursing  the  same  on  warrants  properly 
drawn  and  countersigned.  There  are  Assistant 
Treasurers  at  New  York,  Boston,  St.  Louis, 
Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  Baltimore,  Cincin¬ 
nati,  Chicago,  and  San  Francisco.  The  Register 
signs  all  stocks  and  bonds  and  all  Treasury 
notes  and  coin  certificates  issued  under  the 
authority  of  the  United  States.  The  Comptroller 
of  the  Currency  enforces  the  provisions  of  the 


TREASURY  NOTE 


441 


TREATIES 


: 


national  banking  laws  and  superintends  the 
issue  of  bank-note  currency.  At  the  head  of 
the  Bureau  of  Internal  Revenue  is  a  commis¬ 
sioner  v  I10  is  charged  with  the  enforcement  of 
the  internal-revenue  laws  and  the  collection 
of  the  internal  revenues.  He  is  aided  by  a  col¬ 
lector  in  each  revenue  district.  For  the  collec¬ 
tion  of  the  customs  there  is  a  collector  in  each 
district,  a  surveyor  in  the  larger  ports,  and 
a  general  board  of  appraisers  to  hear  appeals 
against  decisions  of  the  collectors  with  regard 
to  the  durability  of  imported  goods.  The^  Di¬ 
rector  of  the  Mint  has  the  supervision  of  all 
mints  and  assay  offices  throughout  the  country 
and  makes  annual  reports  to  Congress  on  the 
coinage  of  the  country,  the  yield  of  precious 
metals,  etc.  The  Bureau  of  Engraving,  estab¬ 
lished  in  1874,  has  charge  of  the  preparation  of 
designs,  stamps,  bank  notes,  bonds,  Treasury 
drafts,  and  other  securities  of  the  United  States. 
I  he  Solicitor  of  the  Treasury  has  charge  of  all 
legal  measures  to  prevent  the  evasion  of  the 
revenue  laws  and  the  counterfeiting  of  the 
coin  and  other  securities  of  the  United  States. 

TREASURY  NOTE.  A  certificate  of  credit 
issued  by  the  Treasury  Department  on  the  au¬ 
thority  of  the  government  and  made  receivable 
for  government  dues.  In  the  United  States 
treasury  notes  bearing  interest  were  issued  at 
different  times  before  the  Civil  War,  but  it 
was  during  that  struggle  that  the  financial 
necessities  of  the  government  first  led  to  the 
issue  of  very  great  quantities  of  noninterest¬ 
bearing  Treasury  notes,  which,  however,  were 
made  legal  tender  for  all  public  and  private 
debts  except  duties  upon  imports  and  interest 
on  the  public  debt.  See  Money. 

TREAT,  Robert  (1622-1710).  A  Colonial 
Governor  of  Connecticut,  born  in  England.  He 
emigrated  to  America  with  his  father  and  set¬ 
tled  in  Wethersfield,  Conn.  In  1639  he  settled 
in  Milford,  from  1653  to  1659  was  a  deputy, 
and  from  1659  to  1664  was  an  assistant.  He 
opposed  the  union  of  the  Connecticut  River  and 
New  Haven  settlements  and  went  with  the  dis¬ 
satisfied  faction  which  founded  Newark,  N.  J. 
In  1672  he  returned  to  Milford  and  later  dis¬ 
tinguished  himself  in  King  Philip’s  War.  In 
1676  he  was  chosen  Deputy  Governor  of  Con¬ 
necticut  and  in  1683  was  elected  Governor  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  two  years  in  which 
the  Colony  was  under  Sir  Edmund  Andros 
(1687-89),  served  until  1698.  From  the  latter 
year  to  1708  he  was  again  Deputy  Governor.  He 
was  a  zealous  guardian  of  popular  liberty  in 
the  Colony  as  against  the  interference  and  en¬ 
croachments  of  Sir  Edmund  Andros  (q.vj. 

TREATIES,  Indian.  The  first  step  of  the 
United  States  government  in  determining  its 
policy  in  regard  to  the  Indians,  whether  ex¬ 
pressed  or  implied,  was  to  decide  as  to  the 
nature  of  their  territorial  rights,  this  being  the 
chief  and  altogether  the  most  important  factor 
in  their  relations  with  the  whites.  The  decision 
reached  on  this  point  is  distinctly  stated  by 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in  the  case 
of  Johnson  and  Graham’s  Lessee  v.  McIntosh  (8 
Wheaton,  453  et  seq.),  as  follows:  “It  has  never 
been  contended  that  the  Indian  title  amounted 
to  nothing.  Their  right  of  possession  has  never  . 
been  questioned.  The  claim  of  the  government 
extends  to  the  complete,  ultimate  title,  charged 
with  the  right  of  possession,  and  to  the  exclusive 
power  of  acquiring  this  right.”  The  next  step 
was  to  determine  the  branch  of  the  government 


to  carry  out  this  policy.  By  the  ninth  of  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  it  was  declared  that 
the  United  States  in  Congress  assembled  have 
the  sole  and  exclusive  right  and  power  of  regu¬ 
lating  the  trade  and  managing  all  affairs  with 
the  Indians  not  members  of  any  of  the  States.” 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that,  while  acting  un¬ 
der  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  the  right  of 
managing  and  controlling  the  relations  with  the 
Indians  resided  in  Congress  alone.  When  the 
Constitution  was  framed  this  authoritv  was  con¬ 
ferred  upon  the  legislative  department  in  the 
following  brief  statement:  “To  regulate  com¬ 
merce  with  foreign  nations  and  among  the  sev¬ 
eral  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes .”  It  is 
apparent,  from  the  use  of  the  term  “tribes,” 
that  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  had  in 
contemplation  the  method  of  dealing  with  the 
Indians  as  tribes  through  treaties.  This  is 
clearly  shown  by  the  Act  of  March  1,  1793,  in 
which  it  is  stated  that  no  purchase  or  grant  of 
lands  from  the  Indians  shall  be  of  any  validity 
unless  the  same  be  made  by  a  treaty  or  con¬ 
vention  entered  into  pursuant  to  the  Constitu¬ 
tion.  ’  1  his  action  of  Congress  necessarily 

placed  the  initiatory  steps  in  dealing  with  the 
Indians  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  President 
as  the  treaty-making  power,  subject  to  con¬ 
firmation  by  the  Senate. 

The  Colonies  and  also  the  mother  country  had 
treated  with  the  Indians  as  “nations,”  their 
chiefs  or  sachems  often  being  designated  as 
“kings” — and  this  idea  was  ingrafted  into  United 
States  policy.  It  must  also  be  remembered 
that  the  Colonies  were  weak,  the  Indian  tribes 
comparatively  strong  and  capable  of  requiring 
recognition  of  equality.  Notwithstanding  the 
evident  anomaly  of  such  a  course,  the  growth  in 
numbers  and  strength  of  the  whites,  and  the 
diminishing  power  of  the  natives,  this  implied 
equality  was  recognized  in  dealings  between  the 
two  until  the  Act  of  March  3,  1871.  During 
all  this  time  Indian  titles  to  lands  were  extim 
guished  only  under  the  treaty-making  clause 
of  the  Constitution;  and  these  treaties,  though 
the  tribe  may  have  been  reduced  to  a  small 
band,  were  usually  clothed  in  the  same  stately 
verbiage  as  the  most  important  treaty  with  a 
great  European  power.  From  the  formation  of 
the  government  up  to  March  3,  1871,  653 

treaties  were  made  with  97  different  tribes  or 
recognized  tribal  organizations. 

It  was  ordered  by  this  Act  of  March  3,  1871, 
that  “No  Indian  nation  or  tribe  within  the  ter¬ 
ritory  of  the  United  States  shall  be  acknowl¬ 
edged  or  recognized  as  an  independent  nation, 
tribe,  or  power  with  whom  the  United  States 
may  contract  by  treaty,”  thus  terminating  a  legal 
fiction  that  lasted  nearly  100  years.  It  appears, 
from  the  Annual  report  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Indian  Affairs  for  1890,  that  the  Indian  title 
to  all  the  public  domain  had  been  extinguished, 
except  in  Alaska,  in  the  portions  included  in 
162  reservations,  and  those  acquired  by  the 
Indians  through  purchase.  As  the  title  to  res¬ 
ervations  is  derived  in  most  cases  from  the 
United  States,  and  title  by  purchase  is  derived 
directly  or  indirectly  from  the  same  source,  it 
may  be  stated  that  the  Indian  title  to  all  the 
public  domain,  except  in  Alaska,  had  practically 
been  extinguished  by  the  year  1890.  It  would 
seem,  in  fact,  that  the  United  States  government 
proceeded  on  the  theory  that  all  the  lands 
within  its  bounds  were  held  by  the  natives,  and 
hence  that  their  possessory  right  must  be  ex- 


TREATY 


TREATY  442 


tinguished.  The  only  known  variation  from  this 
rule  was  in  the  case  of  the  Uintah  Utes,  where 
an  omitted  portion  of  their  claimed  territory 
was  taken  possession  of  without  agreement. 

A  natural  corollary  of  land  cessions  by  the 
Indians  to  the  United  States  government  was 
the  establishment  of  reservations  for  these  na¬ 
tives  either  within  the  limits  of  the  original 
territory  or  elsewhere.  These  were  the  restricted 
areas  to  which  the  Indians  were  confined  in 
order  to  bring  them  more  directly  under  the 
control  and  care  of  the  government  and  to 
lessen  the  liability  of  conflict  with  the  whites 
and  warring  between  the  tribes.  It  was  hoped 
also  that  by  thus  curbing  the  wandering  habit 
these  reservations  might  become  the  first  step 
towards  civilization.  This  policy  (also  followed 
in  Canada  under  both  French  and  English  con¬ 
trol)  was  inaugurated  by  the  government  as 
early  as  1786  and  continued  as  an  established 
policy  to  the  present  day.  The  earliest  reserva¬ 
tions  were  chiefly  formed  as  the  result  of  the 
cession  of  lands  by  the  tribes,  thus  restricting 
their  limits,  but  expressly  stating  in  the  treaty 
defining  the  bounds  that  the  portion  so  limited 
was  “allotted  to”  or  “reserved  for”  the  given 
Indians.  (For  a  list  of  these,  see  Indian  Res¬ 
ervations.)  The  method  of  establishing  res¬ 
ervations  has  not  been  uniform — some  being 
by  treaty,  some  by  executive  order,  and  others 
by  act  of  Congress.  Those  established  by  execu¬ 
tive  order,  independent  of  the  act  of  Congress, 
were  not  held  to  be  permanent  before  the  General 
Allotment  Act  of  1887,  under  which  the  tenure 
has  been  materially  changed,  and  all  reserva¬ 
tions,  whether  by  executive  order,  act  of  Con¬ 
gress,  or  treaty,  *  are  held  permanent.  Reserva¬ 
tions  by  executive  order  under  authority  of 
an  act  of  Congress  are  those  which  have  been 
authorized  or  established  by  acts  of  Congress 
and  their  limits  defined  by ‘executive  order,  or 
have  been  first  established  by  executive  order 
and  subsequently  confirmed  by  Congress. 

Other  respects  in  which  the  power  of  Congress 
intervenes  in  reference  to  Indian  lands,  or  is 
necessary  to  enable  the  Indians  to  carry  out 
their  desires  in  regard  thereto,  are  the  follow¬ 
ing:  1.  Allotments  of  land  in  severalty  previ¬ 
ous  to  the  Act  of  Feb.  8,  1887,  could  be  made 
only  by  treaty  or  by  virtue  of  an  act  of  Con¬ 
gress,  but  by  this  act  general  authority  is  given 
to  the  President  for  this  purpose.  2.  Leases 
of  land,  sale  of  standing  timber,  granting  of 
mining  privileges,  and  right  of  way  to  rail¬ 
roads  are  all  prohibited  to  the  Indians  without 
some  enabling  act  of  Congress.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  obligatory  on  the  government  to 
prevent  any  intrusion,  trespass,  or  settlement 
on  the  lands  of  any  tribe  of  Indians  except 
where  their  consent  has  been  given  by  agreement. 
Consult  C.  C.  Royce,  “Indian  Land  Cessions  in 
the  United  States,”  in  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology,  Eighteenth  Annual  Report,  part  ii 
(Washington,  1902). 

TREATY  (OF.  traite,  traicte,  Fr.  traite,  It. 
trattato,  treaty,  from  ML.  tractatus,  treaty, 
agreement,  from  Lat.  tractare,  to  treat,  manage, 
frequentative  of  trahere,  to  draw,  drag).  A 
compact  or  agreement  entered  into  between  the 
governments  or  sovereigns  of  two  or  more  states. 
A  treaty  is  somewhat  analogous  to  a  contract  in 
private"  law,  the  main  differences  being  in  the 
origin,  purpose,  and  manner  of  enforcement. 
Thus,  a  treaty  is  concluded  with  more  formality 
than  a  private  contract,  its  purposes  are  usually 


of  a  public  character,  while  its  enforcement  rests 
chiefly  upon  the  good  faith  of  the  contracting 
parties.  The  right  of  entering  into  treaty  rela¬ 
tions  is  one  of  the  essential  attributes  of  sov¬ 
ereignty  and  is  therefore  not  usually  permitted 
to  so-called  dependent  states  except  under  cer¬ 
tain  restrictions,  nor  to  the  component  members 
of  states  having  the  federal  system  of  govern¬ 
ment.  So-called  dependent  states  frequently 
retain  the  right  of  making  commercial  and 
extradition  treaties,  postal  and  customs  conven¬ 
tions,  and  sometimes  treaties  of  alliance  and 
of  naturalization.  Component  members  of  con¬ 
federate  states  usually  retain  a  considerable  de¬ 
gree  of  treaty-making  power,  as,  e.g.,  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  German  Bund  of  1815-66  or  the 
States  of  Argentina  (q.v.)  .  Under  the  present 
German  Empire  the  individual  states  enjoy 
the  power  to  make  treaties  only  with  their 
immediate  foreign  neighbors,  and  only  concern¬ 
ing  postal  and  telegraph  communication  across 
the  boundary  between  them.  The  Common¬ 
wealths  of  the  United  States  are  expressly  for¬ 
bidden  to  enter  into  treaty  relations  with  foreign 
states  or  to  make  agreements  among  themselves 
except  with  the  consent  of  Congress.  Ihe  treaty¬ 
making  power  of  a  country  is  determined  by  its 
constitution.  In  the  United  States  it  is  vested 
in  the  President,  acting  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate,  two-thirds  of  the 
members  concurring.  ^The  President  exercises 
this  power  through  the  Department  of  State  or 
through  special  plenipotentiaries  appointed  for 
the  purpose.  In  monarchical  countries  the 
treaty-making  power  is  usually  a  prerogative 
of  the  crown,  but  an  indirect  influence  is  fre¬ 
quently  exercised  by  the  Legislature,  especially 
when  an  appropriation  of  money  is  necessary 
to  carry  into  effect  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty. 
In  the  German  Empire  treaties  which  relate 
to  any  subject  already  regulated  by  Imperial 
law  require  the  approval  of  the  Legislature.  In 
the  French  Republic  the  President  is  empowered 
to  negotiate  treaties;  but  if  the  treaty  is  one 
of  peace  or  commerce,  or  involves  the  finances 
or  the  territory  of  the  state,  or  relates  to  the 
personal  or  property  rights  of  Frenchmen  in 
foreign  states,  the  approval  of  the  two  Chambers 
is  necessary.  With  the  few  exceptions  of  this 
kind,  the  negotiation  and  ratification  of  treaties 
in  the  European  states  are  in  the  same  hands, 
but  they  are  distinct  and  separate  steps,  and 
ratification  may  be  withheld  after  the  treaty 
has  been  negotiated.  Everywhere  formal  rati¬ 
fication  is  essential  to  the  validity  of  a  treaty. 

In  the  United  States,  where  the  negotiating 
and  ratifying  authorities  are  in  different  hands, 
the  question  of  ratification  assumes  a  double 
importance,  for  it  by  no  means  follows  that 
ratification  is  a  matter  of  course.  In  several 
notable  instances  treaties  negotiated  by  the 
President  have  been  rejected  by  the  Senate. 
Foreign  governments,  therefore,  negotiating  with 
the  President  of  the  United  States  are  presumed 
to  know  that  negotiation  is  only  the  initial 
stage  in  the  procedure.  The  Senate  has,  more¬ 
over,  claimed  the  right,  and  has  exercised  it 
in  several  instances,  of  ratifying  only  a  part 
of  a  treaty  instead  of  sending  it  back  as  a 
whole  for  revision.  An  important  question  has 
arisen  in  the  United  States  as  to  whether 
Congress  is  bound  to  enact  the  necessary  legisla¬ 
tion  to  carry  into  effect  the  stipulations  of  a 
treaty  negotiated  by  the  President  and  duly 
ratified  by"  the  Senate.  This  question  first  arose 


TREATY 


443  TREATY 


in  1704  in  connection  with  the  unpopular  Jay 
Treaty  (q.v. ),  which  called  for  an  appropriation 
of  money  to  carry  it  into  effect.  The  House  of 
Representatives  was  at  first  inclined  to  refuse 
its  concurrence  and  gave  in  only  after  a  sharp 
struggle,  and  then  by  a  very  close  vote.  It  is 
impossible  to  say  even  now  that  the  question 
has  been  decided  one  way  or  another.  The  rule 
now  is  to  lay  reciprocity  .treaties  before  Congress 
for  its  approval  and  for  the  enactment  of  the 
necessary  legislation  to  carry  them  into  effect. 
This  practice  has  been  followed  in  the  case  of 
reciprocity  treaties  with  Mexico,  Canada,  and 
Cuba. 

The  question  has  also  been  raised  as  to  how 
far  the  government  is  bound  by  the  action  of 
its  negotiator  provided  he  has  not  exceeded  his 
instructions.  Formerly  the  rule  prevailed  that 
if  the  plenipotentiary  acted  in  accordance  with 
his  full  power  his  principal  was  bound  by  his 
action,  since  the  knowledge  of  the  full  power 
by  the  other  party  was  a  motive  which  induced 
him  to  negotiate.  Some  writers,  following  the 
doctrines  of  the  Roman  law,  still  hold  that  the 
principals  are  in  good  faith  bound  by  the  acts 
of  their  duly  authorized  plenipotentiaries. 
Others  make  a  distinction  in  this  respect  be¬ 
tween.  treaties  proper  and  contracts,  holding 
that,  in  view  of  the  magnitude  of  the  interests 
involved  in  agreements  between  states  and  the 
possibility  of  errors  of  judgment  or  of  policy 
on  the  part  of  negotiators,  a  right  of  examina¬ 
tion  and  of  rejection  is  indispensable.  It  is 
now  universally  conceded  that  the  principal  may 
withhold  his  ratification  from  treaties  nego¬ 
tiated  .  strictly  in  pursuance  of  instructions 
v  here  it  is  found  to  be  impossible  from  physical 
or  other  reasons  to  fulfill  their  stipulations,  or 
on  account  of  mutual  error  by  which  both 
parties  were  misled,  or  where  ‘  a  change  of 
circumstances  upon  which  the  validity  of  the 
treaty  was  made  to  depend  has  occurred,  or 
where  ratification  of  the  treaty  would  involve 
injury  to  a  third  party. 

dhe  extent  of  the  treaty-making  power  unless 
restricted,  by  the  constitution  is  almost  unlim¬ 
ited.  It  includes  the  acquisition  of  foreign  ter¬ 
ritory,  the  disposal  of  domestic  territory,  the 
recognition  of  new  states,  the  creation  of  servi¬ 
tudes,  the  formation  of  alliances,  the  granting 
of  special  privileges  with  respect  to  trade,  com¬ 
merce,  and  residence,  the  delimitation  and  recti¬ 
fication  of  boundaries,  the  guarantee  of  terri¬ 
torial  integrity,  the  neutralization  of  ship 
canals,  etc.  It  is  a  common  provision  in  Euro¬ 
pean  constitutions  to  restrict  the  treaty-making 
power  with  regard  to  the  cession  of  domestic 
territory  by  requiring  the  approval  of  the 
legislature  in  such  cases.  A  constitutional  ques¬ 
tion  has  been  raised  in  the  United  States  as 
to  whether  the  treaty-making  power  extends 
to  the  alienation  of  land  belonging  to  a  State, 
and  on  this  point  constitutional  lawyers  differ 
in  opinion,  but  the  better  view  seems  to  be  that 
where  doubt,  exists  as  to  the  right  of  a  State  to 
land  which  it  claims  the  disputed  territory  may 
be  ceded  by  treaty.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
contended  that  land  to  which  the  right  of  the 
State  is  undisputed  cannot  be  disposed  of  with¬ 
out  the  consent  of  the  State  except  in  case  of 
conquest,  where  transfer  is  inevitable  as  a  means 
of  terminating  the  war. 

The  usual  conditions  essential  to  the  validity 
of  a  treaty  are,  first,  that  the  contracting 
parties  shall  possess  the  requisite  capacity  for 

Vol.  XXII.— 29 


entering  into  treaty  engagements.  Thus,  neu¬ 
tralized  states  are  lacking  in  the  capacity  to 
enter  into  treaties  which  contemplate  the  wag¬ 
ing  of  offensive  war.  In  the  second  place,  the 
plenipotentiaries  who  negotiate  the  treaty  must 
be  properly  authorized.  In  the  United '  States 
the  President  rarely  if  ever  participates  directlv 
in  the  negotiations.  This  duty  generally  de¬ 
volves  upon  the  Secretary  of  State,  although 
not  infrequently  the  work  is  intrusted  to  a 
minister  resident  or  to  a  special  plenipotentiary 
or  commissioner.  Agreements  entered  into  in 
excess  of  their  authority  are  invalid  and  rati¬ 
fication  may  be  withheld.  An  unauthorized 
agreement  is  called  a  sponsion  and  is  of  no  effect 
unless  approved  by  the  sponsor’s  government. 
The  third  essential  to  the  validity  of  a  treaty  is 
freedom  of  consent  on  the  part  of  the  signatory 
powers-.  If  either  party  acts  under  constraint 
the  resulting,  agreement  is  void  except  in  the 
case  of  treaties  or  other  agreements  arising  in 
the  course  of  war,  where  from  the  nature  of 
the  case  the  element  is  present.  But  an  error 
as  to  the  value  of  a  consideration  such  as  may 
result  from  imperfect  geographical  knowledge 
with  regard  to  a  boundary  will  not  affect  the 
validity  of  the  treaty.  Finally,  treaties  which 
stipulate  for  the  execution  of  objects  which  are 
physically  impossible  of  execution,  which  are 
repugnant  to  the  usages  of  international  law, 
or  which  conflict  with  previous  engagements 
with  other  powers  are  held  to  be  invalid.  Thus 
treaties  stipulating  the  establishment  of  slavery, 
assuming  joint,  control  over  a  portion  of  the 
high  seas,  or  impairing  the  sovereignty  of  a 
third  power  would  be  invalid. 

Treaties,  are  susceptible  of  classification  along 
different  lines.  Vattel  classifies  them  as  equal 
and  unequal,  or  those  in  which  the  reciprocal 
considerations  are  equal  and  those  in  which  they 
are  unequal;  personal  treaties,  which  expire 
with  the  death  of  the  sovereign  who  contracts 
them;  and  real  treaties,  which  bind  the  state 
permanently.  De  Martens  follows  the  same 
arrangement,  but  adds  transitory  conventions 
and  mixed  treaties.  Calvo  distinguishes  treaties, 
with  reference  to  their  form,  into  transitory 
and  permanent;  with  reference  to  their  nature, 
into  personal  and  real;  with  reference  to  their 
effects,  into  equal  and  unequal  and  simple  and 
conditional;  and,  finally,  with  reference  to  their 
objects,  into  treaties  of  guarantee,  commerce, 
neutrality,  alliance,  etc.  Hall  arranges  them 
as  follows:  (1)  those  which  are  declaratory  of 
the  law  as  understood  by  the  contracting 
parties;  (2)  those  which  stipulate  for  practices 
which  the  contracting  parties  wish  to  incorporate 
into  the  usages  of  law,  but  which  they  know  to 
be  outside  the  actual  law;  (3)  those  which  are, 
in  fact,  mere  bargains,  in  which,  without  any 
reference  to  legal  considerations,  something  is 
bought  by  one  party  at  the  price  of  an  equivalent 
given  by  the  other. 

Cartels,  capitulations,  and  suspensions  of 
arms,  or  truces,  are  sometimes  involved  in  the 
classifications  of  treaties,  although  strictly 
speaking  they  are  not  treaties.  Transitory 
agreements  or  conventions  are  treaties  which 
contemplate  the  immediate  execution  of  the 
stipulations  and  which  are  complete  when  this 
act  has  been  performed.  Examples  are  treaties 
of  delimitation,  of  cession,  etc.  Permanent 
treaties  are  those  which  are  continuous  in  ef¬ 
fect,  either  perpetually  or  for  a  specified  period. 
Such  are  treaties  of  amity  and  commerce,  of 


TREATY 


444 


TREATY 


neutrality,  of  extradition,  postal  and  customs 
conventions,  etc.  Cartels  are  agreements  entered 
into  in  time  of  war  between  the  commanders 
of  opposing  armies  for  the  purpose  of  effecting 
an  exchange  of  prisoners,  and  they  may  be 
transitory  or  for  the  period  of  the  war.  Capitu¬ 
lations  are  similar  agreements  for  the  surrender 
of  a  place,  fleet,  or  army.  Every  general  com¬ 
manding  is  presumed  to  have  authority  to  enter 
into  agreements  of  this  kind  subject  to  any 
restrictions  that  may  be  imposed  by  the  au¬ 
thority  of  his  own  state. 

A  creaty  of  alliance  is  an  agreement  between 
two  or  more  states  with  a  view  to  concerted 
action  for  a  certain  purpose.  It  may  be  tem¬ 
porary  or  permanent,  equal  or  unequal,  and  of¬ 
fensive  or  defensive  or  both.  Defensive  alliances 
are  usually  formed  with  a  view  to  preventing 
armed  aggression  against  either  party  while  of¬ 
fensive  alliances  are  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
waging  war  against  another  state  or  states.  A 
good  example  of  the  first  class  was  the  Treaty 
of  1778  between  the  United  States  and  France, 
while  the  alliances  formed  among  various  Euro¬ 
pean  states  to  curb  the  ambitions  and  aggres¬ 
sions  of  Louis  XIV  and  Napoleon  I  were  in 
form  examples  of  offensive  alliances,  although 
defensive  in  character.  Treaties  of  guarantee 
are  entered  into  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
the  observance  and  execution  of  already  existing 
treaties  or  for  the  maintenance  of  certain  exist¬ 
ing  conditions  for  a  limited  period  or  in  per¬ 
petuity.  Among  the  conditions  which  have  been 
made  the  subject  of  guarantee  may  be  mentioned 
the  independence  and  territorial  integrity  of 
states,  as,  for  example,  Greece  in  1832  and  the 
Ottoman  Empire  in  1856;  the  neutralization 
of  states,  as  in  the  case  of  Belgium  and  Switz¬ 
erland;  the  neutralization  of  ship  canals,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Suez  and  Panama  canals;  the 
free  navigation  of  rivers;  and  the  payment  of 
state  debts. 

What  are  known  as  reciprocity  treaties  have 
been  the  subject  of  frequent  negotiations  .  in 
recent  years,  on  account  of  the  increasing  im¬ 
portance  of  international  commercial  relations. 
Such  treaties  provide  for  reciprocal  commercial 
advantages,  usually  in  the  form  of  reduced  cus¬ 
toms  tariffs  on  the  products  of  each  state 
when  imported  into  the  other.  They  are  usually 
entered  into  for  limited  periods  of  time  and 
are  sometimes  subject  to  revision  at  stated 
periods.  According  to  the  older  usage,  in  1916 
still  followed  by  the  United  States,  the  special 
privileges  granted  by  reciprocity  treaties  cannot 
be  claimed  of  right  by  other  nations  simply 
because  they  have  treaties  entitling  them  to 
the  same  privileges  as  are  allowed  to  the  most 
favored  nation.  The  basis  for  refusal  to  grant 
such  privileges  is  that  the  nation  demanding 
them  is  not  able  to  offer  in  return  the  same 
advantages  as  the  nation  to  which  the  privileges 
have  just  been  given.  According  to  European 
usage,  such  special  privileges  are  forthwith  ac¬ 
corded  to  nations  having  most  favored  nation 
treatment.  Treaties  of  peace  resemble  ordinary 
treaties  in  form  and  in  substance,  but  differ 
from  them  as  regards  the  position  of  the  con- 
tractifig  parties,  since  the  element  of  duress  is 
usually  present  in  the  negotiations,  and  hence 
freedom  of  conduct  is  not  one  of  the  requisites 
to  the  validity  of  such  treaties.  See  Wae. 

As  regards  the  preparation  of  treaties,  it  has 
already  been  said  that  the  ordinary  method  of 
negotiation  is  by  a  regular  agent  or  commis- 


sioner.  During  the  nineteenth  century,  however, 
the  preparation  of  a  number  of  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  European  treaties  has  been  intrusted  to 
general  international  congresses  or  conferences 
composed  of  ambassadors  and  in  some  cases 
of  the  sovereigns  of  the  states  concerned.  Such 
were  the  Congress  of  Vienna  of  1814-15  (see 
Vienna,  Congress  of),  called  to  settle  the  ques¬ 
tions  growing  out  of  the  Napoleonic  wars;  the 
Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1818  (see  Aix-la- 
Ciiapelle),  which  terminated  the  military  oc¬ 
cupation  of  France;  the  Congress  at  Paris  in 
1856  (see  Paris,  Treaties  of),  which  effected 
a  partial  settlement  of  the  Eastern  Question  at 
the  close  of  the  Crimean  War  and  drew  up  a 
declaration  relative  to  the  usages  of  maritime 
warfare;  the  Congress  of  Berlin  of  1878  (see 
Berlin,  Congress  of),  in  respect  to  the  ques¬ 
tions  growing  out  of  the  war  between  Turkey 
and  Russia;  and  the  Congress  of  Bucharest  in 
1913  called  to  settle  the  terms  of  peace  after  the 
second  Balkan  War. 

The  language  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
treaties  was  formerly  Latin.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  replaced  by 
French,  which  is  now  the  general  diplomatic  lan¬ 
guage  of  Europe  and  America.  Each  signatory 
power  may  insist  upon  the  use  of  its  own  lan¬ 
guage,  in  which  case  a  copy  is  prepared  for 
each  state  in  its  own  language  and  is  usually 
arranged  in  parallel  columns.  Two  states  having 
a  common  tongue  naturally  employ  that  lan¬ 
guage.  With  regard  to  the  form  it  may  be  said 
that  no  fixed  rule  prevails  except  that  the  stipu¬ 
lations  of  the  treaty  are  usually  preceded  by  a 
recital  of  the  names  and  titles  of  the  negotiators, 
with  a  statement  of  the  purposes  which  the 
treaty  is  intended  to  accomplish.  The  treaty  is 
divided  into  articles  and  clauses,  ending  with 
the  terms  of  ratification  and  the  signatures  of 
the  negotiators.  A  copy  is  prepared  for  each 
contracting  party,  and  the  signatures  follow, 
usually  according  to  the  principle  of  the  alter- 
nat,  i.e.,  the  plenipotentiary  from  each  state 
signs  first  the  copy  intended  for  the  use  of 
his  own  government.  After  the  act  of  ratifica¬ 
tion  by  each  of  the  parties  there  follows  the 
formal  exchange  of  ratifications,  when  the  opera¬ 
tion  of  the  treaty  begins.  Treaties  sometimes 
contain  provisions  for  the  accession  of  third  par¬ 
ties.  Such  were  the  Declaration  of  Paris  (q.v.) 
in  1856,  the  Geneva  Convention  (q.v.)  of  1868, 
and  the  Treaty  of  Washington  of  1871.  See 
Washington,  Treaty  of. 

Treaties  are  terminated  in  various  ways. 
They  cease  to  be  binding  with  the  mutual  con¬ 
sent  of  the  parties  thereto;  or  with  the  denuncia¬ 
tion  of  either  party  if  that  right  has  been 
reserved  when  the  object  of  the  treaty  has  been 
attained,  as  in  the  case  of  a  boundary  treaty, 
an  arbitration  treaty,  or  convention  for  the  set¬ 
tlement  of  claims;  when  the  operation  of  the 
treaty  is  conditioned  upon  terms  which  no 
longer  exist,  as  in  the  case  of  a  treaty  allowing 
free  navigation  on  a  river  which  has  ceased  to 
be  navigable ;  and  when  either  party  refuses  to 
perform  mutual  stipulations.  In  the  latter  case 
the  other  party  may  consider  itself  released 
from  its  obligations,  or  it  may  demand  a  ful¬ 
fillment  of  the  treaty  and  require  an  indemnity 
for  injuries  resulting  from  any  infractions 
thereof.  By  the  usages  of  international  law  the 
refusal  of  either  party  to  abide  by  a  treaty, 
however  burdensome,  is  a  sufficient  cause  of  war, 
since,  as  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary  contract,  it 


TREATY 


TREATY 


445 


■ 


is  binding  upon  both  parties  until  mutually 
abrogated.  rl  hus,  the  German  invasion  of  Bel¬ 
gium  in  1014,  in  defiance  of  the  treaty  of  neu¬ 
tralization  to  which  Great  Britain  was  a  party, 
afforded  cause  of  war  to  the  latter  state.  Ma¬ 
terial  change  in  the  circumstances  contemplated 
in  a  treaty  is  sometimes  put  forward  as  sufficient 
ground  for  disregarding  it.  Thus,  in  1915  Greece 
refused  to  live  up  to  the  terms  of  her  treaty 
with  Servia,  whereby  she  was  bound  to  come 
to  Servia’s  aid  if  attacked  by  Bulgaria,  on  the 
ground  that  the  treaty  contemplated  independent 
aggression  on  Bulgaria’s  part,  and  not  aggres¬ 
sion  incidental  to  the  action  of  powers  of  the 
first  rank.  Finally,  it  is  to  be  said  that  a 
treaty  is  terminated  when  the  state  of  things 
contemplated  by  the  parties,  and  hence  its  real 
basis,  no  longer  exists.  Thus,  a  treaty  is 
entered  into  in  contemplation  of  the  continuance 
of  a  particular  form  of  government  which  in 
the  course  of  time  is  displaced  by  another.  Or 
the  basis  of  the  treaty  may  be  changed  by 
the  absorption  of  one  state  by  another,  as  in 
the  case  of  Algeria,  a  state  with  which  the 
United  States  had  a  treaty  previous  to  the 
French  conquest  begun  in  1S30.  Similarly  the 
establishment  of  the  German  Empire  in  '  1871 
put  an  end  to  the  treaties  between  the  United 
States  and  the  several  German  states  with 
which  she  had  entered  into  treaty  relations. 
^  hen  a  state  is  destroyed  or  loses  its  national 
character  by  other  means,  its  treaties  fall  to  the 
ground,  but  ordinarily  a  mere  change  in  the 
form  of  government  will  not  affect  its  obliga¬ 
tions  to  other  states.  In  case  of  war  between 
the  contracting  parties  all  treaties  are  sus¬ 
pended,  while  certain  of  them  are  terminated, 
treaties  stipulating  for  a  permanent  arrange¬ 
ment  of  territorial  and  other  national  rights  are 
at  most  simply  suspended  during  the  war  and 
revive  at  peace.  Such  are  treaties  which  recog¬ 
nize  within  certain  territorial  limits  the  inde¬ 
pendence  of  one  of  the  contracting  parties ; 
treaties  which  establish  new  rules  or  modify  old 
rules  of  international  law,  such  as  the  Declara¬ 
tion  of  Paris  of  1856;  and  treaties  which  con¬ 
template  a  state  of  war  and  which  come  into 
effect  only  at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  such 
as  treaties  of  alliance  and  treaties  which  regu¬ 
late  blockades  and  define  contraband  of  war, 
regulate  rules  of  capture,  etc.  Treaties  of  com¬ 
merce  and  navigation  and  postal  conventions  are 
usually  extinguished  by  war. 

Sir  Travers  Twies  says  that  Great  Britain  in 
practice  admits  of  no  exception  to  the  rule  that 
all  treaties  as  such  are  put  an  end  to  by  subse¬ 
quent  war  between  the  contending  parties.  In 
pursuance  of  this  rule  the  treaties  of  Westphalia 
and  Utrecht  were  several  times  reversed  by  the 
signatory  powers  after  they  had  engaged  in 
war  with  one  another.  (See  Westphalia, 
Peace  of;  Utrecht,  Peace  of.)  A  notable 
diplomatic  discussion  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States  arose  after  the  War  of  1812 
over  the  question  whether  the  Treaty  of  1783 
(see  Paris,  Treaties  of)  ,  in  so  far  as  it  granted 
to  the  Colonists  fishery  rights  off  Newfoundland, 
was  suspended  by  the  subsequent  war  between 
the  contracting  parties.  The  United  States 
claimed  that  the  treaty  provision  in  question 
was  not  extinguished,  it  being  the  recognition 
of  a  preexisting  right  which  the  Colonies  had 
always  enjoyed  in  common  with  the  mother 
country.  Great  Britain  claimed,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  the  permission  to  fish  on  British 


coasts  was  in  the  nature  of  a  grant  of  a  special 
privilege  and  therefore  terminated  by  the  war. 

As  in  the  case  of  private  contracts,  certain 
rules  for  the  interpretation  of  treaties  have 
grown  up.  Phillimore  arranges  the  rules  of 
interpretation  under  three  heads :  ( 1 )  authentic 
interpretation,  i.e.,  the  interpretation  supplied 
by  the  lawgiver  himself;  (2)  usual  interpreta¬ 
tion,  based  on  usage  and  precedent;  and  (3) 
doctrinal  interpretation,  or  the  interpretation 
founded  upon  scientific  exposition  of  the  terms 
of  the  treaty  itself.  The  following  are  the 
commonest  rules  of  interpretation:  Words  are  pre¬ 
sumed  to  have  been  used  in  their  ordinary  sense, 
but  technical  terms  are  used  in  the  sense  and 
with  the  meaning  applied  to  them  in  the  particu¬ 
lar  art  to  which  they  belong;  the  provision  of 
a  treaty  can  have  but  one  true  meaning  and  the 
interpretation  must  be  mutual ;  the  interpreta¬ 
tion  should  be  made  with  regard  to  the  context 
and  spirit  of  the  whole  treaty;  terms  peculiar 
to  the  language  of  one  of  the  contracting  par¬ 
ties  must  be  given  the  meaning  which  they  have 
in  that  language;  clauses  defining  grants,  privi¬ 
leges,  and  favors  should  be  strictly  interpreted; 
an  interpretation  which  renders  a  treaty  in¬ 
operative  is  to  be  avoided;  special  clauses  are 
to  be  preferred  to  general,  prohibitory  to  per¬ 
missive;  earlier  clauses  are  explained  by  later 
ones  and  obscure  clauses  by  clearer  ones  in  later 
treaties,  as  later  treaties  explain  and  modify 
earlier  ones  on  the  same  subject.  The  rule  has 
been  laid  down  by  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  that  a  treaty  is  on  the  same  plane  of 
equality  with  a  statute  of  Congress,  so  that  a 
later  statute  may  supersede  a  prior  treaty, 
while  a  subsequent  treaty  may  supersede  a 
prior  statute  on  a  given  subject.  A  notable 
instance  was  the  supersession  in  1882  of  a  treaty 
with  China  by  the  act  of  Congress  for  excluding 
Chinese  laborers.  This  mode  of  terminating 
treaties,  however,  is  not  sanctioned  by  inter¬ 
national  law  and  does  not  affect  the  responsibil¬ 
ity  of  either  contracting  party  for  the  fulfill¬ 
ment  of  its  _  obligations.  In  the  United  States 
treaties  go  into  effect  from  the  date  of  signa¬ 
ture  so  far  as  the  contracting  parties  are 
concerned,  but  only  from  the  date  of  ratification 
so  far  as  the  rights  of  the  individual  are  in¬ 
volved.  Another  rule  of  interpretation  in 
the  United  States  is  that  the  Supreme  Court 
will  not  undertake  to  enforce  a  treaty  which 
requires  congressional  legislation  for  its  execu¬ 
tion.  .  Until  such  legislation  is  forthcoming  the 
individual  concerned  must  address  himself  to 
the  political  departments  of  the  government. 

To  secure  the  enforcement  of  treaties,  it  was 
formerly  the  custom  to  demand  and  receive 
hostages,  the  last  instance  of  the  kind  being  in 
1748  to  secure  the  execution  of  the  Treaty  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  Solemn  oaths  accompanied  by 
religious  rites  on  the  occasion  of  ratification 
were  once  common,  but  are  no  longer  resorted 
to.  Pledges  are  sometimes  required,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  treaty  of  peace  between  Germany 
and  France  in  1871,  when  certain  French  for¬ 
tresses  were  retained  by  the  Germans  as  security 
for  the  payment  of  the  large  indemnity  exacted 
from  France.  The  organs  for  the  enforcement  of 
a  treaty  are  the  courts,  the  legislature,  the  ex¬ 
ecutive,  and  the  army  and  navy.  Thus,  treaties 
of  peace,  of  cession,  of  commerce,  etc.,  are  en¬ 
forced  for  the  most  part  by  the  legislative 
branch  assisted  by  the  executive,  while  in  the-' 
case  of  treaties  of  naturalization,  extradition, 


TREATY  ELM 


TREBBIA 


446 


and  treaties  affecting  the  rights  of  foreigners 
the  judicial  branch  plays  an  important  part. 

Bibliography.  Sir  Edward  Hertslet,  The 
Map  of  Europe  by  Treaty  (4  vols.,  London, 
1875-91);  Georg  Jellinek,  Die  rechtliohe  Natur 
der  Statenvertrdge  (Vienna,  1880)  ;  Franz  von 
Holtzendorff,  Handbuch  des  Volkerrechts,  vol. 
iii  (Hamburg,  1887)  ;  S.  M.  Burnham,  Struggles 
of  the  Nations,  or,  The  Principal  Battles,  Sieges, 
and  Treaties  of  the  World  (2  vols.,  Boston, 
1891);  Freeman  Snow,  Treaties  and  Topics  in 
American  Diplomacy  (ib.,  1894);  J.  B.  Moore, 
History  and  Digest  of  the  International  Arbi¬ 
trations  to  which  the  United  States  has 
been  a  Party  (6  vols.,  Washington,  1898)  ; 
C.  H.  Butler,  The  Treaty  Making  Power  of 
the  United  States  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1902)  ; 
Sir  Edward  Hertslet,  The  Map  of  Africa  by 
Treaty  (3d  ed.,  3  vols.,  London,  1909)  ;  Treaties, 
Conventions,  etc.,  between  the  United  States  and 
Other  Powers,  1776-1909  (Washington,  1910)  ; 
Pierre  Albin,  Les  grands  traites  politiques 
(Paris,  1911);  S.  B.  Crandall,  Treaties:  Their 
Making  and  Enforcement  (2d  ed.,  Washington, 
1915);  R.  B.  Mowat  (ed.),  Select  Treaties  and 
Documents  to  Illustrate  the  Development  of 
the  Modern  European  States-System  (Oxford, 
1915). 

TREATY  ELM.  The  tree  in  Shackamaxon, 
Philadelphia,  under  which  William  Penn  made 
his  famous  treaty  with  the  Indians  in  1682.  Its 
probable  site  is  now  occupied  by  the  Penn 
Treaty  Monument. 

TREATY  RIGHTS,  Ecclesiastical.  Those 
rights  relating  to  the  exercise  of  religion  which 
are  secured  by  treaty  to  the  subjects  or  citi¬ 
zens  of  one  state  while  they  are  residing  in 
the  territory  of  another  state.  The  international 
agreements  from  which  such  rights  arise  differ 
radically  from  those  treaties,  generally  known 
as  concordats,  which  are  made  from  time  to 
time  between  sovereign  states  and  the  see  of 
Rome  to  regulate  the  condition  of  the  adherents 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  within  the  juris¬ 
diction  of  the  contracting  state,  since  no  ec¬ 
clesiastical  authority  is  made  a  party  to  the 
contract,  which  is  directly  between  sovereign 
states  in  favor  of  the  citizens  of  one  or  both. 
Such  a  body  of  rights  belongs  to  the  department 
of  private  international  law.  It  had  its  origin 
in  the  Reformation  period,  when  the  organic 
unity  of  W7estern  Christendom  was  broken  and 
there  was  no  single  ecclesiastical  authority  with 
which  a  state  could  deal  in  relation  to  all  its 
subjects.  At  the  present  time  among  the  Great 
Powers  of  the  world,  and  especially  among  those 
of  Western  civilization,  the  liberties  and  rights 
of  foreign-born  residents  are  amply  secured  by 
what  is  known  as  “the  most  favored  nation 
clause”  of  the  prevailing  treaties.  Those  na¬ 
tions,  however,  which  have  been  foremost  in 
missionary  enterprise  among  peoples  of  a  dif¬ 
ferent  civilization  have  found  their  interests  to 
require  intervention  by  their  governments,  and 
the  United  States  of  America,  in  the  protection 
of  widespread  missionary  enterprise,  has  secured 
for  its  citizens  ecclesiastical  rights  in  many 
countries.  These  rights  differ  considerably 
both  in  extent  and  kind,  although,  speaking 
generally,  they  have  been  elaborated  as  time 
went  on  and  intercourse  became  more  frequent. 
The  first  of  such  rights  specifically  mentioned 
was  secured  by  the  United  States  in  its  Treaty 
of  1805  with  the  Sultan  of  Tripoli,  in  which 
it  was  provided  that  the  Consul  or  Agent  of 


the  United  States  should  have  liberty  to  exercise 
his  religion  in  his  own  house,  and  that  his 
servants  should  not  be  impeded  in  going  to 
his  house  at  the  hours  of  prayer.  The  Treaty  of 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo  concluded  with  the  Republic 
of  Mexico  in  1848  stipulated  for  American 
residents  freedom  from  prosecution  on  account 
of  their  religion  and  also  liberty  to  propagate 
it.  The  Treaty  concluded  in  1856  with  the 
King  of  Siam  provides  that  all  American  citi¬ 
zens  visiting  or  residing  in  Siam  shall  be  al¬ 
lowed  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion,  and 
liberty  to  build  places  of  worship  in  such  local¬ 
ities  as  shall  be  assented  to  by  the  Siamese  au¬ 
thorities.  Americans  have  ecclesiastical  treaty 
rights  in  China  which  were  not  abrogated  by 
the  foreign  intervention  following  the  Boxer 
uprising.  They  are  provided  by  two  treaties — 
one  of  June  18,  1858,  and  the  other  of  July  4, 
1868.  American  citizens  have  a  right  by  the 
terms  of  these  treaties  to  teach  and  practice 
peaceably  the  principles  of  the  Christian  reli¬ 
gion,  to  reside  in  those  places  where  foreigners 
are  permitted  to  reside,  and  in  such  places  to 
establish  and  maintain  schools  and  to  maintain 
cemeteries  free  from  profanation.  They  have 
also  the  right  to  attend  the  Chinese  educational 
institutions  under  the  control  of  the  central  gov¬ 
ernment.  By  the  Treaty  of  1858  with  Japan 
Americans  are  secured  the  free  exercise  of  their 
religion  and  the  right  to  erect  suitable  places 
of  worship.  American  citizens  are  forbidden 
to  injure  any  Japanese  temple  or  Mia,  and 
neither  Americans  nor  Japanese  are  allowed  to 
do  anything  calculated  to  excite  religious  ani¬ 
mosity.  The  government  of  Japan  has  abolished 
the  practice  of  trampling  on  religious  emblems. 
By  the  Treaty  of  1859  with  the  Republic  of 
Paraguay  citizens  of  the  United  States  residing 
in  Paraguay  are  at  liberty  to  exercise  in  private 
and  in  their  own  dwellings  or  the  dwellings  of 
the  consuls  of  the  United  States  their  religious 
services,  but  no  right  of  propaganda  is  specified. 
The  Treaty  of  1830  with  the  Ottoman  Empire 
merely  confirmed  as  the  treaty  rights  of  Ameri¬ 
cans  privileges  already  existing.  American  mis¬ 
sionaries  were  first  established  in  Turkey  in 
1818,  and  the  privileges  of  extraterritoriality 
were  then  assigned  to  them  by  ancient  usage. 
The  liberty  to  exercise  their  religious  functions, 
as  a  privileged  class,  had  been  db  antiquo 
granted  by  a  voluntary  extension  of  what  is 
known  as*  the  Edict  of  Toleration  granted  by 
the  Turks,  upon  their  conquest  of  Constanti¬ 
nople,  to  the  ecclesiastics  of  any  friendly  Chris¬ 
tian  nation.  While  the  United  States  was  not 
a  party  to  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878),  yet 
the  guaranty  given  by  the  Turkish  delegates 
applies  to  American  citizens:  “Throughout  the 
[Ottoman]  Empire  the  most  different  religions 
are  professed  by  millions  of  the  Sultan’s  sub¬ 
jects,  and  not  one  has  been  molested  in  his 
belief  or  in  the  exercise  of  his  mode  of  worship. 
The  Imperial  government  is  determined  to  main¬ 
tain  this  principle  in  its  full  force  and  to  give 
to  it  all  the  extension  that  it  calls  for.”  By 
a  protocol  of  1874  a  qualified  right  to  hold  real 
estate  is  granted  to  American  citizens.  What 
is  known  as  the  Protestant  Charter  regulates 
mission  schools. 

TREB'BIA  (Lat.  Trebia) .  A  river  of  north 
Italy.  It  rises  in  the  Apennines  of  Liguria  and 
after  a  northeasterly  course  of  58  miles  joins 
the  Po  above  the  city  of  Piacenza.  Upon  its 
banks  Hannibal  defeated  the  Romans  under 


TREBELLI 


TREE 


447 


Sempronius  in  218  b.c.  (See  Hannibal.)  In 
the  vicinity  the  Austrians  and  Russians  under 
Suvarov  were  victorious  over  the  French  under 
Macdonald,  June  17-19,  1799. 

TREBELLI,  tra-bel'le,  Zelia  (1838-92).  A 
French  dramatic  and  coloratura  soprano,  born 
in  Paris.  Her  real  name  was  Gillebert.  At  the 
age  of  six  she  began  to  study  the  piano  and  soon 
was  an  excellent  performer.  In  1854-59  she 
studied  singing  under  Wartel  and  made  her 
d6but  as  Rosina  in  Rossini’s  Barbiere  di 
Siviglia  at  Madrid  ( 1859 ) .  The  following  year 
she  sang  with  success  in  Germany  and  in  1862 
in  London.  From  then  until  her  retirement  in 
1889  her  career  was  an  uninterrupted  series 
of  triumphs  in  all  the  European  capitals.  Twice 
she  visited  the  United  States,  in  1878  under 
Mapleson,  and  in  1884  during  the  first  season 
of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  under  Abbey. 
In  1863  she  married  the  tenor  Bettini,  but 
after  a  few  years  the  union  was  dissolved.  Her 
death  occurred  at  Etretat.  She  was  equally 
great  as  a  singer  and  as  a  versatile  actress. 

T  REE  ITS  CH,  traffneh.  A  town  of  Moravia, 
Austria,  40  miles  by  rail  east  of  Briinn  (Map: 
Austria,  D  2 ) .  A  fine  abbey  in  the  transition 
style  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  the  palace 
of  Count  Waldstein  are  worthy  of  notice. 
Woolens,  shoes,  and  malt  are  manufactured,  and 
horses  are  dealt  in.  Pop.,  1900,  10,597;  1910, 

1 1,665. 

TREB'IZOND  (Turk.  Tirabzon;  Lat.  Trape- 
zus ;  Gk.  Tpaire^oiis,  Trapezous,  probably  so  called 
because  founded  on  a  table-land,  from  rpaire^a, 
trapeza,  table).  A  city  of  Asia  Minor,  capital 
of  the  Turkish  Vilayet  of  Trebizond  (Map: 
Turkey  in  Asia,  D  2 ) .  It  is  on  the  Black  Sea 
coast  near  its  east  end,  570  miles  east  of 
Constantinople.  The  city  is  built  on  a  small 
table-land  between  two  deep  parallel  valleys 
which  run  out  to  the  coast.  The  highest  por¬ 
tion  is  crowned  by  an  ancient  castle,  and  the 
city  is  still  surrounded  by  Byzantine  walls. 
The  streets  are  narrow,  but  the  city  has  a 
wide  extent,  nearly  every  house  being  sur¬ 
rounded  by  gardens.  There  are  numerous 
churches  and  mosques,  some  of  the  latter  being 
old  Byzantine  churches.  The  bazars  are  mostly 
situated  outside  of  the  walls  in  the  Christian 
quarters,  the  intramural  portion  being  reserved 
for  the  Mohaanmedan  population.  The  indus¬ 
tries  include  wool,  silk,  and  linen  weaving, 
tanning,  dyeing,  and  filigree  manufactures.  The 
harbor  is  an  exposed  roadstead,  but  the  geo¬ 
graphical  position  of  Trebizond  has  for  many 
centuries  made  it  the  chief  entrepot  for  the 
transit  trade  between  Persia  and  Europe.  It 
is  the  terminus  of  the  main  caravan  route  to 
Persia  via  Erzerum.  It  is  also  the  northern 
port  of  a  road  attaining  the  Persian  Gulf. 
The  transit  trade  has,  however,  greatly  de¬ 
clined  since  the  opening  of  the  Russian  railroad 
to  Batum.  Pop.  (est. ),  about  55,000,  of  whom 
considerably  more  than  half  are  Mohammedans, 
the  rest  being  chiefly  Greek  and  Armenian 
Christians.  Many  Lazi  dwell  also  in  Trebizond 
and  obtain  a  living  as  bakers  or  gardeners. 

Trapezus  was  founded  by  Greeks  about  700 
B.c.  as  a  colony  of  Sinope.  It  was  a  flourish¬ 
ing  city  when  Xenophon  and  his  Ten  Thousand 
reached  it  after  the  famous  retreat.  In  1204, 
after  the  occupation  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Crusaders,  Prince  Alexius  of  the  Comnenian 
family  established  the  Empire  of  Trebizond  and 
made  the  city  his  capital.  This  Empire  lasted 


until  1461,  when  it  was  overthrown  and  the 
city  captured  by  the  Turks.  Trebizond  was 
bombarded  several  times  by  Russian  fleets  in 
the  Great  War  and  in  the  early  part  of  1916 
was  captured  by  combined  operations  of  land  and 
naval  forces.  See  War  in  Europe. 

TREBIZOND,  George  of.  See  George  of 
Trebizond. 

TREBLE,  treb/5l  (OF.  treble,  triple,  from 
Lat.  triplus,  threefold,  from  tres,  three  +  -plus, 
-fold).  The  highest  part  in  harmonized  music, 
which  in  general  contains  the  melody  and  is 
sung  by  a  soprano  voice.  The  treble  or  G  clef 
is  placed  on  the  second  line  of  the 
staff,  indicating  that  the  note  G  oc¬ 
cupies  the  line  encircled  by  its  lower 
curve.  It  is  one  of  the  two  clefs  in 
use  in  music  for  keyed  instruments.  For  the 
history  of  the  sign,  see  Musical  Notation, 
Clefs. 

TREBLE,  Lillian  Massey  (1854-1909).  A 
Canadian  philanthropist,  the  daughter  of  Hart 
Almerni  Massey  (q.v. ).  She  was  born  at  New¬ 
castle,  Ontario,  and  was  educated  there  and  at 
Toronto.  In  1897  she  married  John  Mill  Treble. 
Y\  hile  engaged  in  deaconess  and  mission  work 
in  Toronto  she  organized  classes  in  domestic 
science,  and  her  increasing  interest  therein  led 
to  the  adoption  of  a  complete  curriculum  in 
household  science  in  Toronto  University,  Mani¬ 
toba  University,  and  in  several  women’s  col¬ 
leges.  She  gave  to  Toronto  University  a  hand¬ 
some  and  commodious  structure  called  the  Lil¬ 
lian  Massey  Household  Science  and  Art  Build¬ 
ing,  and  this  was  opened  in  1913.  She  died  in 
California.  In  addition  to  numerous  benefac¬ 
tions  in  her  lifetime  she  bequeathed  the  greater 
part  of  a  large  fortune  to  charitable  institutions. 

TRED'EGfAR.  A  market  town  on  the  north¬ 
west  border  of  Monmouthshire,  England,  18 
miles  northwest  of  Newport  (Map:  England, 
C  5 ) .  Coal  mining  is  the  chief  industry.  The 
formerly  important  iron  and  steel  works  have 
been  abandoned.  The  town  owns  gas  and  water 
works  and  cemeteries.  Pop.,  1901,  18,574;  1911, 
23,601. 

TREE.  A  plant  which  attains  a  considerable 
height  and  has  a  relatively  large  development 
of  woody  tissue.  Trees  differ  from  herbs  in  size 
and  development  of  woody  tissue.  They  differ 
from  shrubs  in  having  a  single  stem,  or  trunk, 
which  branches  out  at  some  distance  from  the 
ground,  while  shrubs  often  have  several  stems 
and  are  of  lower  growth  and  bushy  habit.  Trees 
are  commonly  classed  as  deciduous  or  ever¬ 
green,  depending  on  the  relative  permanence  of 
their  foliage.  (See  Duration;  Forest.)  They 
also  differ  among  themselves  in  the  manner  of 
their  growth,  method  of  branching,  etc.  See 
Stem.  For  descriptions,  see  Ash;  Maple; 
Oak:  Pine;  etc. 

Bibliography.  H.  L.  Keeler,  Our  Native 
Trees  and  Hoio  to  Identify  Them  (New  York, 
1900)  ;  C.  S.  Sargent,  Manual  of  the  Trees  of 
North  America  (Boston,  1905)  ;  G.  B.  Sudworth, 
Forest  Trees  of  the  Pacific  Slope  (Washington, 
1908)  ;  E.  R.  Mosher,  Studies  of  Fruit  and 
Nut-Bearing  Trees  (Syracuse,  1908)  ;  E.  R. 
Mosher,  Studies  of  our  Cone-Bearing  Trees 
(ib.,  1910);  A.  O.  Huntington,  Study  of  Trees 
in  Winter  (Boston,  1910)  ;  F.  S.  Mathews, 
Familiar  Trees  and  their  Leaves  (New  York, 
1911);  S.  B.  Elliott,  Important  Timber  Trees 
of  the  United  States  (Boston,  1912)  ;  F.  S. 
Mathews,  Field  Book  of  American  Trees  and 


TREE 


448  TREE  HOPPER 


Shrubs  (New  York,  1914)  ;  R.  V.  Cole,  Ar¬ 
tistic  Anatomy  of  Trees  (Philadelphia,  1914)  ; 
J.  E.  Rogers,  The  Tree  Book  (Garden  City, 
N.  Y.,  1914)  ;  B.  E.  Fernow,  Trees  and  their  Care 
(New  York,  1915)  ;  G.  E.  Massee,  Diseases  of 
Cultivated  Plants  and  Trees  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1916). 

TREE,  Sir  Herbert  Beerboiim  (1853-1917  ). 
An  English  actor  manager,  born  in  London.  lie 
made  his  debut  in  1877  as  Grimaldi  at  the 
Globe.  In  1884  he  won  great  success  in  The 
Private  Secretary  at  the  Prince  s,  and  three 
years  later  he  undertook  the  management  of  the 
Comedy  Theatre  and  produced  The  Red  Lamp. 
From  1887  to  1896  he  was  manager  of  the 
Haymarket,  where  one  of  his  productions  was 
Trilby.  Tree  opened  the  new  Her  Majesty’s 
(later  His  Majesty’s)  Theatre  with  The  Seats 
of  the  Mighty  (1897),  afterward  producing, 
among  other  plays:  Grundy’s  The  Musketeers, 
Phillips’s  Herod  and  Ulysses,  Fitch’s  The  Last 
of  the  Dandies,  Belasco’s  The  Darling  of  the 
Gods,  Oliver  Twist,  and  The  Beloved  Vagabond. 

But  he  became  best  known  for  his  elaborate 
productions  of  Shakespearean  plays.  In  most 
of  these  he  himself  took  leading  parts.  In  1905 
he  inaugurated  a  Shakespeare  Festival,  which 
was  repeatedly  successful.  With  his  company 
Beerbohm  Tree  visited  Germany  in  1907,  at 
the  invitation  of  Emperor  William,  and  in  1916 
played  in  the  United  States,  presenting  Henry 
VIII  and  The  Merchant  of  Venice.  He  was 
knighted  in  1909.  His  Thoughts  and  After¬ 
thoughts  appeared  in  1913. 

TREE  BOA.  Any  of  various  long,  slender, 
active  South  American  snakes  of  the  boa  family, 
which  spend  their  lives  in  trees  and  have  ac¬ 
quired  a  remarkable  power  of  clinging  to  the 
moving  branches,  even  in  a  high  wind,  without 
coiling  their  bodies  about  any  support.  Ihe 
name  is  also  specifically  given  to  the  large 
ringed  boa  {Epicrates  cenchris) .  See  Boa. 

TREE  CAT.  See  Palm  Civet. 

TREE  CREEPERS,  or  Wood  Hewers.  A 
group  of  birds,  forming  the  family  Dendrocolap- 
tidae,  related  to  the  ant  thrushes  ( Formicariidse  ) 
and  true  ovenbirds  (Furnariidae) ,  with  the  tail 
feathers  stiff  and  sharp-pointed  as  in  the  wood¬ 
peckers  and  similarly  useful  in  climbing  tree 
trunks.  The  bill  is  usually  curved  and  slender 
and  often  is  elongated,  enabling  them  to  pull 
insects  out  of  deep  crevices.  About  400  forms 
are  known,  all  confined  to  tropical  America ;  all 
have  a  similar  style  of  coloration,  some  shade 
of  brown,  with  white  spots  beneath  and  rufous 
on  the  wings.  See  Creeper. 

TREE  CRICKET.  Any  one.  of  a  group  of 
small,  pale-colored  crickets  which  usually  in¬ 
habit  trees  and  shrubs.  They  are  nocturnal  in 
their  habits  and  lay  their  eggs  in  the  twigs  of 
various  plants— a  habit  which,  when  the  insects 
are  numerous,  results  in  damage  to  vineyards 
and  to  raspberry  and  blackberry  plantations. 
The  common  snowy  tree  cricket  ( CEcanthus 
niveus )  is  a  delicate  whitish-green  insect.  The 
young  hatch  about  the  first  of  May  and  feed 
upon  plant  lice  and  the  eggs  of  other  insects. 
When  full-grown  they  feed  upon  vegetation. 

TREE  DUCK.  See  Goose,  Wild  Geese. 

TREE  EISH.  One  of  the  Californian  rock 
fishes  (Sebastodes  sirriceps) ,  about  a  foot  long. 
It  is  dark  olive,  blackish  above  and  yellowish 
beloAv,  with  the  front  of  the  head  coppery  red, 
two  black  bands  downward  and  backward  from 
the  eye,  and  several  oblique  black  crossbands 
on  the  sides.  Black  prominent  ridges  cross  the 


cranium.  See  Rockfish,  and  Plate  of  Rock- 
fish,  etc. 

TREE  FROG,  or  Tr£e  Toad.  A  frog  of  the 
family  Hylidae,  connecting  the  toads  with  the 
typical  frogs  and  of  prevailingly  arboreal  habits. 
Tree  frogs  have  teeth  on  the  upper  jaw  and  vo¬ 
mers  and  in  some  genera  elsewhere  in  the  mouth. 
The  toes  are  invariably  claw-shaped  and  swollen 
at  the  base,  and  each  carries  at  the  tip  a  flat¬ 
tened,  adhesive  cushion,  whose  sticky  secretion 
greatly  aids  the  animal  in  clinging  to  smooth 
surfaces.  Most  of  them  are  of  small  size,  more 
elegant  in  form  than  the  true  frogs,  of  brighter 
colors  and  more  active  habits.  They  feed  on 
insects,  which  they  pursue  on  the  branches  and 
among  the  leaves  of  trees  or  shrubs.  All  have 
loud,  piping  notes  and  are  remarkable  for  their 
power  of  changing  their  colors  to  simulate  the 
tint  of  the  resting  place.  (See  Metachrosis.) 
They  are  also  remarkable  for  the  great  variety 
in  their  methods  of  placing  their  spawn,  and 
the  character  of  their  metamorphoses,  which  are 
severally  described  under  Cricket  Frog,  Fer- 
reiro,  Marsupial  Frog,  etc.  The  principal 
genus  is  Hyla,  which  contains  about  200  species 
scattered  all  over  the  warmer  forested  parts  of 
the  world,  but  especially  numerous  in  tropical 
America.  The  type  is  Hyla  arbor ea,  common 
throughout  all  central  and  southern  Europe  and 
Asia.  Of  the  North  American  species  the  most 
familiar  is  Hyla  versicolor,  which  is  a  green, 
gray,  or  brown  warty  frog,  whose  clear,  loudly 
trilled  rattle  is  an  almost  daily  evening  sound. 
One  of  the  first  notes  heard  in  the  spring  in  the 
eastern  United  States  is  the  piping  of  Hyla  pick- 
eringii,  a  smaller,  more  yellowish  species,  often 
called  the  peeper.  The  cricket  frog  (q.v.)  is 
another  numerous  species.  Various  others  in¬ 
habit  the  Southern  States.  Many  species  of  the 
West  Indies  and  South  America  carry  their 
eggs  about  on  the  back  of  the  females,  glued  to 
or  sunken  into  the  skin,  as  is  notably  the  case 
with  Hyla  goeldii.  Notable  cases  are  described 
in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London  for  1895.  Australia  possesses  several 
species  of  great  interest,  especially  the  familiar 
Hyla  ccerulea,  whose  cry  is  a  sharp  crackling 
bark.  The  whole  group  is  one  of  extraordinary 
variety  and  interest.  Consult  authorities  cited 
under"  Frog.  See  Colored  Plate  accompanying 
Toad. 

TREE  HOPPER.  Any  insect  of  the  homop- 

terous  family  Membracidae,  a  very  strange  group 
comprising  a  variety  of  grotesque  forms.  The 
antennae  are  inserted  in  front  of  and  between 
the  eyes,  and  the  prothorax  is  so  prolonged  that 
it  covers  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  its  curious 
modifications  have  been  developed  in  order  to 
bring  about  a  protective  resemblance  of  these  in¬ 
sects  to  various  plant  structures.  The  tree 
hoppers,  like  other  Homoptera,  have  an  incom¬ 
plete  metamorphosis,  and  the  young  are  active 
and  suck  the  juices  of  plants  by  means  of  their 
beaks.  The  species  are  very  numerous,  and  the 
group  is  one  of  wide  distribution.  The  most 
bizarre  forms  occur  in  tropical  regions,  but 
many  curious  species  are  found  in  the  temperate 
zone.  A  common  form  in  the  United  States  is 
the  little  humpbacked  Telemona  monticola,  which 
sometimes  swarms  on  the  branches  of  the  Vir¬ 
ginia  creeper  in  June.  Another  interesting  form 
(Entillia  sinuata)  is  found  upon  the  leaves  of 
the  sunflower  and  other  annual  plants.  It  lays 
its  eggs  in  the  midrib  of  the  upper  leaves;  the 
mother  insect  broods  over  her  eggs,  and  the 


TREE  KANGAROO 


TREFOIL 


449 


young  from  the  time  of  hatching  until  full- 
grown  are  constantly  attended  by  ants,  which 
are  attracted  by  a  sweet  secretion.  The  buffalo 
tree  hopper  (Ceresa  bubalus) ,  so  called  from  its 
horned  prothorax,  is  a  species  of  considerable 
economic  importance,  which  damages  the  small 
twigs  of  fruit  trees  in  the  act  of  laying  its  eggs. 
Large  holes  are  made  in  the  bark,  in  which  the 
eggs  are  inserted  in  clusters.  Consult  J.  H. 
Comstock,  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects  (8th 
ed.,  Ithaca,  1909),  and  L.  O.  Howard,  The  Insect 
Book  (new  ed.,  New  York,  1914). 

TREE  KANGAROO.  One  of  a  genus  of 
kangaroos  which  in  the  forests  of  northern  Aus¬ 
tralia  and  New  Guinea  inhabit  trees,  although 
they  creep  awkwardly  about  the  branches,  as 
if  not  yet  well  adapted  to  an  arboreal  life.  They 
constitute  the  genus  Dendrolagus  and  embrace 
several  species,  of  which  the  black  one  ( Dendro¬ 
lagus  ur sinus)  of  New  Guinea,  which  is  very 
dark  in  color  except  the  whitish  face,  and  about 
20  inches  long  exclusive  of  the  tail,  is  one  of  the 
best  known.  The  relative  length  of  the  limbs  is 
of  normal  proportions,  unlike  that  of  ordinary 
kangaroos.  See  Plate  of  Kangaroos. 

TREE  LIZARD.  See  Dragon. 

TREE  OF  HEAVEN.  See  Ailanthus. 

TREE  PARTRIDGE.  See  Hill  Partridge. 

TREE  PORCUPINE.  One  of  the  small, 
prehensile-tailed  arboreal  porcupines  of  South 
America  of  the  genus  Sphingurus.  There  are 
eight  or  nine  species,  the  most  common  of  which 
is  the  Brazilian  tree  porcupine  (Sphingurus  pre- 
hensilis).  See  Porcupine,  and  Plate  of  Porcu¬ 
pines  and  Hedgehogs. 

TREE  SHREW,  or  Squirrel  Shrew.  One 
of  the  curious  insectivorous  animals  of  the  fam¬ 
ily  Tupaiidae,  of  the  Oriental  region  and  east¬ 
ward  to  Borneo.  They  are  related  to  the  hedge¬ 
hogs,  but  outwardly  have  almost  exactly  the 
appearance  of  ordinary  squirrels,  except  for  the 
long,  flexible,  shrewlike  nose.  Some  48  forms 
have  been  named,  of  which  the  Malayan  banx- 
ring  ( Tupaia  glis) ,  with  its  several  subspecies, 
is  one  of  the  best  known  and  often  becomes  a 
pet  or  resides,  half  tame,  in  gardens  and  vil¬ 
lage  shade  trees.  The  Madras  tree  shrew  (Tu¬ 
paia,  or  Anafhana,  ellioti )  is  found  throughout 
India.  All  are  much  alike,  feeding  on  both 
insects  and  fruits.  For  the  most  complete  sum¬ 
mary,  consult  M.  W.  Lyon,  “Treeshrews:  An 
Account  of  the  Mammalian  family  Tupaiidse,” 
in  L  nited  States  N ational  Museum,  Proceedings, 
vol.  xlv  (Washington,  1913). 

TREE  SNAKE.  Many  snakes  are  more  or 
less  arboreal  in  habits,  but  some  are  so  dis¬ 
tinctively  so  as  to  merit  the  name  especially. 
Many  of  the  smaller  boas  (see  Tree  Boa)  live 
almost  wholly  in  tree  tops,  as  is  necessary  in 
the  flooded  parts  of  the  Amazonian  region. 
Among  the  colubrine  groups  of  that  region  is  the 
genus  Leptophis,  whose  species  are  very  slender 
with  long  whiplike  tails.  The  best  known 
( Leptophis  liocerus)  is  a  beautiful  creature  6 
feet  long,  the  upper  surface  golden  green,  the 
lower  yellow  or  white;  it  subsists  upon  small 
reptiles  and  birds  and  their  eggs.  An  Oriental 
genus  ( Dendrophis )  has  the  ventral  scales  keeled 
and  notched,  enabling  them  to  take  hold  of  a 
surface  so  securely  that  they  are  able  to  glide 
up  the  branches  of  trees  in  almost  straight 
lines.  A  group  of  tropical  green  tree  snakes 
(Dipsadomorphae)  exists  the  species  of  which 
are  highly  poisonous,  and  in  Africa  are  found 
tree  vipers  (q.v.).  See  Opistiioglypiia. 


TREE  TOAD.  See  Tree  Frog. 

TREE  TOMATO  ( Cyphomandra  betacea) . 
A  semi  woody  South  American  plant  belonging  to 
the  family  Solanaceae,  often  cultivated  for  its 
fruit.  The  plants  are  evergreen,  6  to  10  feet 
in  height,  and  they  bear  on  long  pedicels  numer¬ 
ous  egg-shaped  fruits  about  2  inches  in  diameter. 
In  color  the  smooth-skinned  fruits  are  greenish 
purple,  changing  as  they  ripen  to  reddish  or  yel¬ 
lowish  brown.  In  flavor  and  uses  the  fruit  is 
similar  to  the  ordinary  garden  tomato.  Plants 
begin  to  bear  when  about  two  years  old  from 
seed  and  remain  continuously  in  fruit  for  several 
years.  The  tree  tomato  is  not  hardy  and  can  be 
grown  in  the  North  only  under  glass. 

TREE  VIPER.  A  genus  ( Atheris )  of  rather 
small,  arboreal  vipers  of  Africa.  They  are  of 
bright  green  and  yellow  colors,  so  as  to  be 
readily  concealed  in  foliage.  Their  tails  are 
especially  prehensile,  like  those  of  boas.  Four 
species  are  known. 

TREE  WORSHIP.  See  Nature  Worship. 

TREFFEL,  tre'feF,  Georges  (1873-1914). 
A  Frenchman  of  letters  and  encyclopaedist,  born 
at  Vayrac.  He  studied  at  the  lyc^es  of  Audi, 
Toulouse,  and  Henry  IV  and  became  associated 
with  the  editorial  department  of  the  Nouveau 
Larousse.  He  contributed  also  to  the  Petit 
Larousse,  the  Larousse  pour  tons,  and  the  La¬ 
rousse  Mensuel.  In  addition  to  writing  numer¬ 
ous  and  excellent  biographies  for  these  works, 
he  compiled  the  Atlas  departemental  Larousse. 

TREFFENFELD,  Joachim  Henniges  von. 
See  Henniges  von  Treffenfeld,  Joachim. 

TRE'FOIL.  A  frequent  charge  in  heraldry 
(q.v.),  representing  the  clover  leaf,  which  is  al¬ 
ways  depicted  as  slipped,  i.e.,  furnished  with  a 
stalk. 

TREFOIL  (OF.  trifoil,  trefeul,  Fr.  trefle, 
from  Lat.  trifolium,  trefoil,  three-leaved,  from 
tres,  three  +  folium,  leaf ) ,  Bird’s-Foot  Trefoil 
(Lotus).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Legu- 
minosse.  The  pods  are  cylindrical,  somewhat 
spongy  within  and  imperfectly  divided  into  many 


bird’s-foot  trefoil  (Lotus  corniculatus) . 


cells. 


The  name  “bird’s-foot  trefoil”  is  derived 
from  the  resemblance  of  the  clusters  of  pods  to 
a  bird’s  foot.  The  numerous  species  are  natives 
of  the  temperate  and  colder  regions  of  the  Old 
World.  The  common  bird’s-foot  trefoil  (Lotus 
corniculatus)  is  common  in  European  pastures. 
The  spreading  decumbent  stems,  4  to  16  inches 


THE  FONTANE 


TREITSCHKE 


450 


long,  arise  from  a  short  thick  rhizome  and  bear 
umbel-like  cymes  of  5  to  10  yellow  flowers,  which 
have'  a  rich  honey-like  odor.  The  leaves  have 
three  obovate  leaflets,  and  at  the  base  of  each 
leafstalk  there  are  two  large  •leaflike  ovate  stip¬ 
ules.  The  plant  is  by  some  regarded  as  the 
shamrock  (q.v. )  of  Ireland.  It  is  nutritious  and 
much  liked  while  young  by  all  kinds  of  stock. 
It  is  common  in  the  United  States,  especially 
in  the  South.  A  larger  species,  similar,  with 
stem  nearly  erect,  more  compact  heads  of  smaller 
flowers,  and  smaller  seeds,  is  the  greater  or  nar¬ 
row-leaved  bird’s-foot  trefoil  ( Lotus  major )  of 
much  the  same  range.  Marsh  bird’s-foot  trefoil 
( Lotus  uliginosus)  is  common  in  damp  meadows. 
The  winged  pea  ( Lotus  tetragonolobus) ,  remark¬ 
able  for  four  membranous  wings  which  run  along 
its  pods,  is  a  native  of  southern  Europe,  where 
it  is  grown  for  salads  and  as  an  ornamental 
plant.  It  is  cultivated  in  the  United  States 
mainly  as  a  forage  plant  and  a  winter  crop  for 
plowing  under  in  spring  as  green  manure.  The 
name  “tick  trefoil”  is  given  to  various  species 
of  Desmodium,  and  shrubby  trefoil  is  Ptelea 
trifoliata.  See  Clover. 

THE  FONTANE,  tra  fon-ta'na  (It.,  Three 
Fountains).  The  traditional  scene  of  St.  Paul’s 
martyrdom,  a  spot  outside  of  Rome,  3  miles  from 
the  Porta  San  Paolo.  According  to  the  legend, 
when  the  Apostle’s  head  was  struck  off,  it  made 
three  bounds,  and  at  each  spot  a  spring  gushed 
forth.  Over  the  springs  stands  the  church  of 
St.  Paul  without  the  Walls,  which  contains  the 
column  to  which  St.  Paul  was  bound. 

TREGELLES,  tre-gel'Is,  Samuel  Prideaux 
(1813-75).  An  English  scholar  and  New  Testa¬ 
ment  critic,  born  at  Falmouth,  of  Quaker  parent¬ 
age.  He  attended  the  Falmouth  Classical  School 
for  four  years  (1825-28),  but  was  in  the  main 
self-educated.  Tregelles’  interest  in  biblical 
studies  began  early,  and  from  1838  to  his  death 
he  devoted  himself  assiduously  to  the  study  of 
the  New  Testament  text  and  related  subjects.  In 
1844  he  published  The  Book  of  Revelation  in 
Greek,  Edited  from  Ancient  Authorities  with  a 
New  England  Version.  In  1854  his  valuable  An 
Account  of  the  Printed  Text  of  the  Greek  New 
Testament  appeared.  This  work  was  not  only 
a  history,  but  a  discussion  of  principles  of  tex¬ 
tual  criticism,  and  as  such  is  still  of  value.  His 
next  important  work  was  his  revision  of  the  New 
Testament  part  of  Horne’s  Introduction  under 
the  title,  An  Introduction  to  the  Textual  Criti¬ 
cism  of  the  New  Testament  (1856).  Meanwhile 
he  was  diligently  collecting  material  for  a  new 
critical  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  collating 
manuscripts,  examining  patristic  readings  and 
important  ancient  versions.  The  first  part  of 
Tregelles’s  Greek  New  Testament,  Edited  from 
Ancient  Authorities,  appeared  in  1857.  The  last 
installment  was  published  in  1872,  sent  out  while 
the  author  was  suffering  from  illness  which 
proved  fatal  not  long  after.  Among  other  writ¬ 
ings  not  directly  connected  with  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  text  his  facsimile  edition  of  the  Canon 
Muratorianus  (1860)  and  his  translation  of 
Gesenius’  Hebrew  Lexicon  ( 1847 )  deserve  mention. 
Tregelles’  piety  was  sincere,  his  scholarship  ex¬ 
act  and  painstaking,  and  his  industry  remarkable. 
His  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  ranks  with 
those  of  Tischendorf  and  of  Westcott  and  Hort, 
as  one  of  the  three  great  critical  editions  of  the 
last  century.  His  principles,  clearly  worked  out 
and  consistently  applied,  were  similar  to  those 
of  Lachmann,  but  his  reconstructed  text  was 


based  on  a  wider  and  more  thorough  survey  of 
the  field  of  evidence  than  Lachmann’s.  An  Ap¬ 
pendix  to  Tregelles’  Greek  Testament,  edited  by 
Hort  and  Streane,  from  Tregelles’  own  papers 
was  published  in  1879.  Consult  Scrivener,  A 
Plain  Introduction  to  the  Textual  Criticism  of 
the  New  Testament,  vol.  ii  (4th  ed.,  London, 
1894),  and  Hauck -Herzog,  Realencyklopadie 
fur  protestantische  Theologie,  vol.  xx  (Leipzig, 
1908). 

TRE'HALASE.  See  Enzyme. 

TREITSCHKE,  tritsh'ke,  Heinrich  von 
(1834-96).  A  German  historian  and  political 
writer.  He  was  born  at  Dresden,  Sept.  15,  1834, 
the  son  of  an  officer  in  the  Saxon  army.  His 
father’s  family  was  of  ’Bohemian  descent  (the 
family  name  was  originally  Treschky)  and  had 
emigrated  at  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty 
Years’  War  from  Bohemia  to  Saxony,  An 
illness  in  early  life  impaired  his  hearing  and 
resulted  some  years  later  in  complete  deaf¬ 
ness,  and  young  Treitschke  had  to  give  up 
his  ambitions  of  a  more  active  life  for  one 
of  study.  The  failure  of  the  German  revolu¬ 
tion  in  1848  made  a  deep  impression  on  him, 
and  while  still  a  boy  he  advocated,  to  the 
disgust  of  his  highly  conservative  family,  a  uni¬ 
fication  of  Germany  under  Prussian  leadership. 
He  studied  history,  economics,  and  politics  at 
Bonn  and  Leipzig.  After  first  considering  a 
journalistic  career  Treitschke  in  1858  became  a 
lecturer  in  history  at  the  University  of  Leipzig. 
Popular  as  a  teacher  from  the  beginning,  he 
lectured  before  large  audiences  on  the  constitu¬ 
tional  history  of  Germany.  Political  events  he 
followed  always  with  close  interest.  In  1864 
he  published  an  essay  “Bundesstaat  und  Ein- 
heitsstaat,”  one  of  his  most  important  writings 
and  by  many  considered  his  best  work,  in  which 
he  attacked  the  German  confederacy  and  advo¬ 
cated  a  German  union.  In  1866,  when  Baden 
joined  with  Austria  in  the  Seven  Weeks’  War, 
he  resigned  the  chair  he  then  held  at  Freiburg 
and  became  editor  of  the  Preussische  Jahrbiicher 
in  Berlin.  But  in  the  same  year  he  was  called 
to  the  University  of  Kiel,  in  1867-73  he  was  a 
professor  at  Heidelberg,  and  in  1873  he  accepted 
a  chair  at  Berlin.  After  the  foundation  of  the 
German  Empire  he  was  elected  to  the  Reichstag. 
At  first  a  member  of  the  National  Liberal  party, 
later  he  became  a  conservative.  He  attracted  at¬ 
tention  as  a  parliamentary  orator  and  was  noted 
for  his  speeches  against  the  Ultramontanes 
( q.v. )  and  the  Socialists.  His  strong  stand 
against  modern  conceptions  of  social  problems 
and  their  solution  led  him  into  various  literary 
feuds  with  leading  German  economists  like  Bren- 
tano  and  Schmoller  and  caused  his  resignation 
as  an  editor  of  the  Preussische  Jahrbiicher.  As 
professor  of  history  at  the  University  of  Berlin 
he  attracted  large  and  notable  audiences  because 
of  his  great  powers  as  a  speaker  and  especially 
because  of  his  uncompromising  Germanism.  He 
bitterly  denounced  Catholics,  Jews,  and  Social¬ 
ists,  in  fact  any  one  who  in  his  opinion  was  not 
truly  Prussian  and  German.  He  died  at  Berlin, 
April  28,  1896. 

When  a  young  man  Treitschke  had  planned  a 
history  of  modern  Germany,  but  the  first  volume 
did  not  appear  till  1876,  and  the  work  was  left 
unfinished,  covering  only  the  period  down  to  the 
events  of  1848.  With  the  possible  exception  of 
Mommsen’s  Roman  History,  the  most  brilliant 
work  of  the  kind  in  the  German  language  is 
Treitschke’s  Deutsche  Geschichte  im  neunzehn- 


TREITSCHKE 


45i 


TRELEASE 


ten  J ahrhundert  (5  vols.,  1874-94;  Eng.  trans., 
History  of  Germany  in  the  Nineteenth  Century , 
7  vols.,  New  York,  1915  et  seq. ).  Every  side  of 
national  life  and  thought  is  treated  with  a  knowl- 
edge,  a  \  igor,  and  an  eloquence  that  have  made 
the  book  a  national  possession.  But  its  faults 
are  as  conspicuous  as  its  merits.  It  is  written 
throughout  from  a  Prussian  standpoint,  with  a 
pronounced  antipathy  to  the  smaller  states  and 
without  comprehension  of  the  men  and  move¬ 
ments  that  opposed  the  military  and  bureau¬ 
cratic  regime  of  the  Hohenzollerns.  Treitschke 
was  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  Prussian  school 
which  arose  in  the  years  of  national  depression 
and  contributed  powerfully  to  prepare  the  soil 
for  the  idea  of  a  national  union  of  Germany 
under  Prussian  leadership. 

After  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War  in 
1914  the  discussion  of  Treitschke’s  position  and 
influence  in  the  development  of  modern  political 
thought  in  Germany  was  revived,  and  he  was 
even  attacked  as  one  of  the  spiritual  instigators 
of  the  great  war.  Especially  in  England,  where 
he  was  almost  unknown  during  his  lifetime,  many 
of  his  writings  were  now  read  with  interest,  and 
his  anti-English  utterances  were  held  partially 
responsible  for  the  growing  antagonism  between 
the  countries  in  recent  years.  Originally,  how¬ 
ever,  Treitschke  was  an  admirer  of  England  and 
English  institutions,  although  his  later  judg¬ 
ment  became  more  severe  because  of  England’s 
unfriendly  attitude  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War. 
W  hen  Germany  entered  upon  the  project  of  a 
colonial  empire,  Treitschke  prophesied  an  un¬ 
avoidable  clash  of  interests  with  England,  and 
without  predicting  a  war  he  considered  the 
possibility  of  it. 

Besides  his  greatest  work,  Treitschke’s  writ¬ 
ings  include:  Zehn  Jahre  deutscher  Kdmpfe, 
Schriften  zur  Tagespolitik  (1874;  3d  ed.,  sup¬ 
plemented,  1897)  ;  Der  Sozialismus  und  seine 
Gonner  (1875);  Der  Sozialismus  und  der  Meu- 
chelmord  (1878)  ;  Ein  Wort  iiher  unser  Juden- 
tum  (1880)  ;  Historische  und  politische  Aufsdtze 
(1865;  N.  s.,  1870;  vol.  iv,  1897);  Zwei  Kaiser 
(1888)  ;  and  the  posthumous  volumes  Reden  im 
deutschen  Reichstag  (1896)  and  Politik,  lectures 
(2  vols.,  1897-98).  Selected  writings,  Aus - 
gewahlte  Schriften,  appeared  in  1907  (2  vols.). 
In  early  life  he  published  two  volumes  of  verse, 
Vaterldndische  Gedichte  (1856)  and  Studien 
(1857).  His  letters  to  R.  von  Mohl  and  to  his 
wife  and  his  correspondence  with  Gustav  Freytag 
are  to  be  had  in  German.  Selections  from 
Treitschke’s  Lectures  on  Politics  were  translated 
by  A.  L.  Gowne  (London,  1914),  and  in  1915  a 
collection  in  English  was  made  of  essays  written 
between  1871  and  1895,  under  the  title  Germany, 
France,  Russia,  and  Islam. 

Bibliography.  Theodor  Schiemann,  Heinrich 
von  Treitschkes  Lehr-  und  Wander  jahre  (2d  ed., 
Munich,  1898)  ;  Adolf  Hausrath,  Zur  Erinrierung 
an  Heinrich  von  Treitschke  (Leipzig,  1901)  ; 
Erich  Marcks,  Heinrich  von  Treitschke,  ein 
Gedenkllatt  (Heidelberg,  1906)  ;  H.  von  Peters- 
dorff,  in  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographie  (Leip- 
zig,  1910)  ;  Joseph  McCabe,  Treitschke  and  the 
Great  War  (New  York,  1914)  ;  Antoine  Giul- 
land,  Modern  Germany  and  her  Historians  (Lon¬ 
don,  1915)  ;  M.  A.  Miigge,  Heinrich  von  Treitschke 
(New  York,  1915),  containing  a  bibliography; 
Edmund  McClure,  Germany’s  War  Inspirers: 
Nietzsche  and  Treitschke  (ib.,  1915)  ;  H.  W.  C. 
Davis,  The  Political  Thought  of  Heinrich  von 
Treitschke  (ib.,  1915).  For  life  and  selected 


writings:  Adolf  Hausrath,  Treitschke :  His  Doc¬ 
trines  and  his  Life  (ib.,  1914). 

TRELAWNY,  tre-la'm,  Edward  John  ( 1 792— 
1881).  An  English  author,  known  as  the  friend 
of  Shelley  and  Byron  (qq.v. ).  He  was  born  in 
London.  1  hough  he  was  of  an  ancient  and  fa¬ 
mous  family,  his  education  was  neglected.  En¬ 
tering  the  royal  navy  at  the  age  of  13,  he  served 
in  the  fleet  blockading  Cadiz  (1805).  He  sub¬ 
sequently  deserted  and  passed  through  exciting 
adventures  in  the  East  Indies.  In  January, 
1822,  he  met  Shelley  and  Byron  at  Pisa.  He 
was  the  last  to  see  Shelley’s  boat  disappear  in 
the  fog  on  the  memorable  8th  of  July,  1822; 
he  superintended  the  cremation  of  Shelley’s  body 
at  Yiareggio,  snatching  the  heart  from  the 
flames.  In  1823  he  accompanied  Byron  to 
Greece,  where  he  took  part  in  the  war  of  libera¬ 
tion  and  married,  as  his  second  wife,  the  sister 
of  the  Greek  chieftain  Odysseus.  After  living 
in  Italy  and  traveling  in  the  United  States 
(1833-35),  he  settled  in  England,  becoming  a 
lion  of  London  society.  He  died  at  Sompting  in 
Sussex.  His  body  was  cremated  and  buried  by 
the  side  of  Shelley’s  in  the  Protestant  cemetery 
at  Rome.  Irelawny  charmed  two  generations  by 
his  rich  fund  of  anecdote.  He  was  sought  out  by 
young  men  who  wished  to  meet  the  comrade  of 
Byron  and  Shelly.  He  figures  as  the  old  seaman 
in  Millais’s  “Northwest  Passage.”  Trelawnv 
wrote  his  early  autobiography  under  the  title 
The  Adventures  of  a  Younger  Son  (anonymous, 
1831)  .  How  much  is  truth  and  how  much  fic¬ 
tion  in  this  book  will  probably  never  be  de¬ 
termined.  Trelawny  is  best  known  for  The 
Recollections  of  the  Last  Days  of  Shelley  and 
Byron  (1858),  republished,  with  changes,  as 
Records  of  Shelley,  Byron,  and  the  Author 
(1878).  Both  are  brilliant  books,  the  latter  of 
great  value.  Consult  the  edition  of  The  Adven¬ 
tures  of  a  Younger  Son,  with  memoir  by  E.  Gar¬ 
nett  (London,  1890),  and  Letters  (ed.  by  H.  B. 
Forman,  Oxford,  1910). 

TRELAWNY,  Sir  Jonathan  (1650-1721). 
An  English  bishop  and  third  Baronet  of  Tre¬ 
lawny.  He  was  born  at  Pelynt,  Cornwall,  grad¬ 
uated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1672,  and 
took  priest’s  orders  in  1676.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  suppressing  Monmouth’s  Rebellion  of 
1685  and  was  rewarded  with  the  bishopric  of 
Bristol.  The  appearance  of  the  First  Declara¬ 
tion  of  Indulgence  (see  Declaration  of  Indul¬ 
gence)  alienated  him  from  King  James;  he  re¬ 
fused  to  sign  the  declaration,  and  later  success¬ 
fully  opposed  the  effort  of  the  Earl  of  Bath  to 
control  the  Cornish  elections  in  the  interests  of 
the  crown.  On  May  18,  1683,  he  united  with 
five  other  bishops  and  the  Archbishop  of  Canter¬ 
bury  in  drawing  up  a  petition  against  the  Second 
Declaration  of  Indulgence.  As  a  result  all  seven 
were  in  the  following  month  committed  to  the 
Tower  on  a  charge  of  seditious  libel,  but  were 
acquitted,  and  soon  afterward  King  James  II 
was  driven  from  the  throne.  Trelawny  seems 
not  to  have  united  in  the  invitation  of  William, 
but  after  the  coronation  of  the  new  sovereigns  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Exeter.  Consult  Elizabeth 
Strickland,  Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishops  Com¬ 
mitted  to  the  Tower  in  1688  (London,  1866). 

TRELEASE,  tre-les',  William  (1857-  ). 

An  American  botanist,  born  at  Mount  Vernon, 
N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  Cornell  in  1880,  and, 
after  serving  as  instructor  in  botany  at  Harvard 
and  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  was  profes¬ 
sor  at  Wisconsin  in  1883-85.  In  1885  he  was 


TREMAREC 


TRENCH 


452 


made  Engelmann  professor  of  botany  in  W  asli- 
ington  University  at  St.  Louis,  and  in  1889  be¬ 
came,  in  addition,  director  of  the  famous  Mis¬ 
souri  Botanical  Garden  there.  In  1913  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  botany  at  the  University 
of  Illinois.  He  was  the  first  president  of  the 
Botanical  Society  of  America  ( 1884-85) ,  served 
also  as  president  of  the  American  Society  of 
Naturalists  in  1903,  and  was  elected  to  the  Na¬ 
tional  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1902.  His  chief 
interest  was  the  classification  of  certain  groups 
of  flowering  plants,  especially  the  genus 
Agave  (q.v. ). 

TREMAREC,  Yves  Joseph  de  Kerguelen-. 
See  Kerguelen-Tremarec,  Y.  J.  de. 

TREM'ATO'DA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Gk.  TpT}/jL<xTojdT]s,  trematodes,  having  many  holes, 
porous,  from  rprjya,  trcma,  hole).  A  class  of 
Platyhelminthes,  the  flukes,  characterized  by  the 
possession  of  certain  suctorial  pores  or  openings. 
They  have  soft  roundish  or  flat  bodies,  and 
their  visceral  organs  are  lodged  in  the  paren¬ 
chyma  of  the  body.  Most  of  them  are  her¬ 
maphrodites.  They  seldom  reach  a  large  size 
(at  best  about  5  inches),  but  are  usually  visible 
to  the  naked  eye.  The  color  is  dull  gray,  green, 
or  brown,  sometimes  mottled.  The  reproductive 
organs  are  complicated  and  developed  to  a  re¬ 
markable  degree,  occupying  a  large  part  of  the 
body.  These  worms  are  not  all  parasitic,  nor 
are  the  parasitic  forms  confined  to  a  single  host 
during  the  whole  of  their  existence.  Many  of 
them  have  a  remarkable  life  history,  showing 
an  extraordinary  succession  of  generations,  in 
which  the  young  resemble  not  parents  or  grand¬ 
parents,  but  great-great-grandparents.  The  first 
three  or  four  generations  live  in  the  body  of  some 
invertebrate,  especially  water  snails;  but  the 
next  generation  is  free-swimming,  and  its  off¬ 
spring  are  like  the  original  form  and  parasitic 
within  some  vetebrate. 

The  Trematoda  are  divided  into  two  orders: 

(1)  Ectoparasitica,  trematodes  with  three  or 
more  suckers,  living  on  the  outside  of  their  hosts 
and  with  a  direct  development  from  the  egg; 

(2)  Endoparasitica,  trematodes  with  not  more 
than  two  suckers,  living  in  the  blood  vessels, 
alimentary  canal,  or  other  spaces  of  higher 
animals  and  undergoing  a  complicated  alterna¬ 
tion  of  generations.  This  order  includes  a  large 
number  of  species,  many  of  which  are  dangerous 
to  domestic  animals  and  also  to  man.  See 
Fluke. 

TREMBLAY,  traN'bla',  Francois  Leclerc 
du.  See  Joseph,  Father. 

TREMBLEY,  traN'bl^',  Abraham  (1700- 
84).  A  Swiss  naturalist,  principally  known  for 
his  studies  in  Holland  of  the  hydra,  and  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  its  power  of  regenerating  lost  parts. 
(See  Begexeration.)  His  M6moires  pour  ser- 
vir  a  Vhistoire  d’un  genre  de  polypes  d’eau  douce 
a  bras  en  forme  de  comes  (2  vols.,  1744)  brought 
him  great  fame  and  became  a  classic. 

TREM'OLITE  (from  Tremolo,  an  Alpine 
village,  where  the  mineral  was  discovered).  A 
variety  of  ampliibole  ( q.v. ) ,  consisting  of  cal¬ 
cium  and  magnesium  silicate.  It  is  white  to 
dark  gray  in  color.  It  occurs  usually  in  mono¬ 
clinic  prisms,  although  sometimes  it  is  found 
in  fibrous  aggregates  with  a  silky  lustre. 

TREM'OLO  (It.,  trembling).  In  music,  an 
expression  indicating  that  a  note  or  a  chord  is  to 
be  reiterated  with  great  rapidity  for  an  indefinite 
number  of  times,  so  as  to  produce  a  quavering 
sort  of  effect.  In  singing  the  tremolo  is  highly 


effective  in  dramatic  situations.  But  with  many 
singers  it  is  a  mannerism  arising  from  improper 
control  of  the  breath.  (See  Singing.)  For 
the  stringed  instruments  the  tremolo  is  exten- 

sively  employed  by  composers  and  is  written  ^ 
It  is  produced  by  a  very  rapid  alternation  of  the 
up-and-down  stroke  of  the  bow. 

TREMOUILLE.  See  La  Tremoille. 

TREM'TJLANT.  See  Organ. 

TREMULOUS  POPLAR.  See  Aspen. 

TRENCH,  Herbert  (1865-  ).  A  British 

poet,  born  at  Avoncore,  County  Cork,  Ireland, 
and  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  took  honors, 
and  became  a  fellow  of  All  Souls.  For  a  time 
he  was  senior  examiner  at  the  Board  of  Educa¬ 
tion;  he  traveled  in  many  lands  and  served  also 
as  director  of  the  Haymarket  Theatre.  His 
books  include:  Deirdre  Wedded  (1901),  contain¬ 
ing  19  poems  in  addition  to  that  which  gives  the 
volume  its  title;  The  Questioners  (1907)  ;  Lyrics 
and  Narrative  Poems  (1911)  ;  Ode  from  Italy  in 
Time  of  War  ( 1915 ) . 

TRENCH,  Military  (from  OF.  trencher, 
trancher,  Fr.  tranches,  to  cut,  from  Lat.  trun- 
care,  to  lop,  from  truncus,  trunk,  from  truncus, 
OLat.  troncus,  maimed ) .  An  excavation  of 
varying  dimensions,  the  earth  from  which  is 
placed  directly  in  front  to  form  a  parapet. 
Trenches  are  to  be  found  in  permanent  and  semi¬ 
permanent  fortifications  as  well  as  hasty  in- 
trencliments  (see  Fortification),  their  nature, 
number,  and  methods  of  construction  varying 
with  the  circumstances.  Trenches  are  necessary 
for  both  the  attack  and  the  defense,  modern  con¬ 
ditions  and  future  indications  giving  a  constantly 
increasing  importance  to  their  use  by  an  attack¬ 
ing  force.  Time  is  often  a  great  factor  in  the 
determination  of  the  style  of  trench  to  be 
adopted,  or  the  number  of  men  required  for  its 
construction.  Usually  an  average  of  one  pace 
per  rifle  is  reckoned  for  shelter  trenches,  which 
for  troops  kneeling  would  require  a  depth  of 
about  3  feet,  while  as  a  shelter  for  men  standing 
it  would  be  necessary  to  excavate  to  4  feet,  7 
inches,  the  removed  earth  in  both  cases  being 
sufficient  to  provide  an  upper  parapet  of  about 
3  feet  in  thickness. 

Trenches  have  been  long  advocated  by  mili¬ 
tary  engineers  and  have  been  gaining  greatly 
in  favor  in  general  military  opinion  in  late 
years.  The  tendency  for  a  long  time  to  have 
all  such  work  done  by  the  engineers  is  being 
superseded  by  an  attempt  to  establish  simple 
standard  types  which  shall  be  generally  under¬ 
stood  by  all  troops  so  that  it  shall  only  be  neces¬ 
sary  in  campaign  operations  to  indicate  to 
troops  that  a  lying-down,  or  a  kneeling,  or  a 
standing  trench  is  to  be  constructed  in  a  given 
general  position,  and  the  troops  which  are  to  de¬ 
fend  the  trenches  will  themselves  construct  them, 
under-  only  the  general  supervision  of  the  en¬ 
gineers.  in  the  case  of  occupation  of  the  same 
lines  and  works  for  a  long  time  the  works  are 
more  closely  supervised  by  the  engineers  to  se¬ 
cure  the  best  construction  and  to  avoid  needless 
changes  as  the  commands  occupying  the  lines  are 
changed.  Modern  warfare  is  carried  on  by  enor¬ 
mous  armies  which  occupy  long  fronts  whose  ends 
rest  in  the  sea  or  on  forbidding  mountains.  The 
opposing  lines  therefore  parallel  each  other  for 
miles  during  long  periods  of  time.  Increasing 
attention  is  consequently  focused  on  the  trenches. 
The  tendency  has  been  to  make  the  front  line 
deep  enough  for  standing  and  only  wide  enough 
for  the  passage  of  a  single  file  behind  the  line 


TRENCH 


TRENCK 


453 


of  soldiers  defending  the  trench.  A  bench  or 
berm  is  left  at  the  top  and  front  of  the  trench 
on  which  the  soldier  may  rest  his  elbows  in 
taking  his  aim. 

If  trendies  are  made  deeper  than  as  just  in¬ 
dicated,  a  banquette  or  bench  of  suitable  height 
is  left  against  the  front  face  for  the  soldiers  to 
stand  upon.  To  prevent  them  from  caving  in, 
the  nearly  vertical  faces  of  the  trench  are  ordi¬ 
narily  revetted  with  planks,  woven  brush,  or 
bags  filled  with  earth.  The  horizontal  plan  or 
line  of  trenches  is  given  small  changes  of  di¬ 
rection  and  provided  with  traverses  to  localize 
the  ellects  of  bursting  shells  and  of  enfilade  or 
flanking  fire.  The  front  or  parapet  is  provided 
with  head  cover  of  logs,  sandbags,  or  earth  sup¬ 
ported  on  wooden  roofs.  Frequent  loopholes  for 
firing  are  left  in  this  head  cover. 

In  front  of  the  trenches  the  ground  is  cleared 
to  afford  a  better  view  of  the  enemy  and  to  deny 
him  cover.  Obstructive  barriers  or  obstacles 
largely  of  barbed  wire  are  placed  to  impede  his 
progress  in  the  event  of  a  charge.  Running  for¬ 
ward  from  the  -  front  line  of  trenches  are  gal¬ 
leries  constructed  as  bases  for  mining  operations 
against  the  enemy.  Running  back  from  the 
front  line  of  trenches  are  communicating 
trenches.  These  may  be  dug  lower  and  covered 
over  for  protection  from  fire  and  overhead  view. 
These  lead  to  lines  of  trenches  in  the  rear  and  to 
the  positions  of  the  supports  and  reserves.  Pub¬ 
lished  statements  from  the  European  War  indi¬ 
cated  that  an  increasing  use  was  being  made  of 
subterranean  passages  and  rooms  where  many 
troops  might  rest  during  bombardment  and 
emerge  to  resist  the  subsequent  charge.  Fre¬ 
quent  variations  of  these  details  of  construction 
occur.  In  crossing  low  and  swampy  ground  it 
is  impracticable  to  excavate  and  all  protection 
must  be  afforded  by  higher  parapets.  These  in 
turn  have  the  objection  of  being  visible;  but  a 
choice  must  often  be  made  between  two  defects 
and  the  less  objectionable  accepted.  Great  care 
must  always  be  exercised  to  provide  proper  drain¬ 
age  for  all  trenches,  as  their  value  will  other¬ 
wise  be  decreased  if  not  entirely  sacrificed.  See 
Mines  and  Mining,  Military;  Siege. 

TRENCH,  Richard  Chenevix  (1807-86). 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,  poet,  and  scholar.  He 
was  born  in  Dublin  and  educated  at  Harrow  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  1829  and  was  intimate  with  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Apostles’  Club,  including  Tennyson, 
Hallam,  and  Sterling.  He  was  ordained  deacon 
in  1832  and  became  curate  to  Hugh  James  Rose 
(q.v.)  at  Hadleigh,  identifying  himself  to  a  cer¬ 
tain  extent  with  the  High  Church  party.  He 
was  curate  of  Curdridge  in  Hampshire  from 
1835  to  1841  and  in  1845  was  examining  chap¬ 
lain  to  Bishop  Wilberforce.  From  1846  to  1858 
he  held  a  theological  professorship  at  King’s 
College,  London,  having  meantime  been  appointed 
in  1856  to  the  deanery  of  Westminster.  In  1863 
he  became  Archbishop  of  Dublin  and  took  a  fore¬ 
most  position  in  the  opposition  to  the  disestab¬ 
lishment  of  the  Episcopal  church  in  Ireland,  as 
■well  as  in  the  settlement  of  the  delicate  ques¬ 
tions  which  arose  after  it  had  been  accomplished. 
He  resigned  his  see,  owing  to  infirmity,  in  1884 
and  died  in  London  two  years  later.  Noteworthy 
among  his  theological  works  are:  Notes  on  the 
Parables  (1841)  ;  Notes  on  the  Miracles  (1846)  ; 
Commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Seven 
Churches  ( i 86 1 )  ;  Studies  in  the  Gospels  (1867), 
all  of  which  were  widely  popular  and  influential. 


His  poetical  work  is  graceful,  tender,  and 
thoughtful  as  a  whole.  A  collected  edition  ap¬ 
peared  in  two  volumes  (1885).  His  best-known 
books  in  philology  are  The  Study  of  Words 
(1851);  English,  Past  and  Present  (1855); 
Proverbs  and  their  Lessons  (1905).  To  these 
may  be  added  his  Lectures  on  Mediceval  Church 
History  (  1877).  See  Trench,  Letters  and  Memo¬ 
rials  of  Archbishop  Trench  (London,  1888 )}  and 
J.  Sylvester,  Archbishop  Trench  (ib.,  1891). 

TRENCH  FOOT.  See  Surgery,  Military. 

TRENCH'ARD,  Stephen  Decatur  ( 1818— 
83).  An  American  naval  officer,  born  in  Brook¬ 
lyn,  N.  Y.  He  became  a  midshipman  at  the 
age  of  16,  was  promoted  to  passed  midshipman 
in  July,  1840,  was  wrecked  in  the  Washington 
off  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  in  1845,  was 
attached  to  the  Saratoga  during  the  Mexican 
War,  became  a  lieutenant  in  1847,  and  was 
slightly  wounded  while  serving  under  Tatnall 
when  that  officer  assisted  the  English  in  their 
attack  on  the  Pei-ho  forts  in  China.  During  the 
Civil  War  he  served  on  the  Rhode  Island,  was 
made  commander  in  July,  1862,  and  participated 
in  the  bombardments  of  Fort  Fisher  in  1864  and 
1865.  He  was  promoted  to  be  captain  in  1866, 
commodore  in  1871,  and  rear  admiral  in  1875, 
commanded  the  North  Atlantic  squadron  in 
1876-78,  and  retired  in  1880. 

TRENCK,  Franz  von  der,  Baron  (1711-49). 
An  Austrian  soldier  of  fortune,  born  at  Reggio  in 
Calabria,  the  son  of  a  lieutenant  colonel  in  the 
Austrian  service.  He  became  a  cavalry  officer 
at  17,  distinguished  himself  by  his  mental  ac¬ 
complishments,  his  remarkable  success  in  the 
fields  of  gallantry,  and  his  love  for  dueling  and 
miscellaneous  murder,  which  in  the  end  forced 
him  to  leave  the  army.  He  went  to  Russia, 
where  he  was  made  a  captain  of  hussars,  but  was 
cashiered  not  long  afterward  for  gross  insub¬ 
ordination  and  imprisoned  at  Kiev,  whence  he  re¬ 
turned  to  settle  on  his  estates  in  Slavonia. 
Trenck  armed  and  drilled  1000  of  his  tenants, 
whom  he  called  Pandours,  and  by  their  means 
succeeded  in  restoring  order  on  the  frontier, 
which  was  overrun  with  Turkish  banditti.  In 
1741  he  offered  the  services  of  his  regiment  to 
Maria  Theresa,  and  his  aid  was  accepted.  His 
deeds  of  violence  at  last  led  to  his  trial  before 
a  court-martial  and  condemnation  to  imprison¬ 
ment  for  life.  He  was  confined  at  the  Spielberg, 
near  Briinn,  until  his  death,  caused  by  poisoning 
himself  when  he  found  escape  impossible.  Con¬ 
sult  Hiibner,  Franz  von  der  Trenck  (Stuttgart, 
1788),  and  Trenck’s  own  memoirs,  Merkwiirdiges 
Leben  und  Thaten  des  Freiherrn  Franz  von  der 
Trenck  (Vienna,  1770). 

TRENCK,  Friedrich  von  der,  Baron  (1726- 
94 ) .  A  German  adventurer,  born  at  Konigsberg, 
the  son  of  a  Prussian  general  and  cousin  of  the 
preceding.  At  1*6  he  became  a  cornet  in  the 
guards  and  in  1744  ordnance  officer  to  Frederick 
the  Great.  In  1749  he  became  captain  of  cuiras¬ 
siers  in  the  Austrian  service.  While  in  Danzig 
in  1754  he  was  arrested  by  order  of  Frederick  and 
kept  in  severe  confinement  at  Magdeburg  till 
1763.  After  his  release  he  settled  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  where  he  married  the  burgomaster’s 
daughter,  gave  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  and 
went  into  business  as  a  wine  merchant.  In 
1774-77  he  traveled  in  England  and  France,  and, 
restored  to  the  possession  of  his  Prussian  es¬ 
tates  after  the  death  of  Frederick  II,  lived  at 
Berlin  and  Konigsberg.  In  1791  he  went  to 
Paris  and  became  a  zealous  adherent  of  the 


TRENT 


TRENDELENBURG  454 


Mountain  party.  He  was,  however,  suspected  of 
plotting  with  tfie  foreign  enemy  and  was  guil¬ 
lotined  July  25,  1794.  Consult  the  autobi¬ 

ographical  Friedrich  Trencks  merkwiirdige  Le- 
bensgeschichte  (Berlin,  1787),  which  he  rendered 
into  French  in  1789.  His  collected  writings 
were  published  at  Leipzig  in  eight  volumes 
(1786). 

TRENDELENBURG,  tren'de-len-burK,  Fried¬ 
rich  (1844-  ).  A  German  surgeon,  born  in 

Berlin,  the  son  of  Friedrich  A.  Trendelenburg. 
He  received  his  medical  education  in  Edinburgh, 
Glasgow,  and  Berlin  and  became  professor  of 
surgery  at  Rostock  (1875),  at  Bonn  (1882), 
and  at  Leipzig  (1895),  as  successor  to  Karl 
Thiersch  (q.v.).  He  is  best  known  for  his 
work  in  tracheotomy,  for  his  operation  to  cuie 
varicose  veins,  and  for  improvements  in  pelvic 
operations. 

TRENDELENBURG,  tren'de-len-burK, 
Friedrich  Adolf  (1802—72).  A  German  phi¬ 
losopher,  born  at  Eutin.  He  was  educated  at 
Kiel,  Leipzig,  and  Berlin;  was  appointed  profes¬ 
sor  extraordinary  of  philosophy  in  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Berlin,  1833,  and  full  professor  in  1837. 
In  this  position,  which  he  held  until  his  death, 
Jan.  24,  1872,  he  exercised  very  great  influence 
upon  the  course  of  philosophical  thought.  His 
criticism  of  Hegel  procured  him  great  renown 
and  was  one  of  the  most  effective  forces  that 
broke  the  hold  of  Hegelianism  on  the  German 
mind.  The  foundation  of  his  own  philosophic 
doctrine  is  Aristotelianism,  which,  however,  was 
modified  by  Platonic  elements.  He  held  and  de¬ 
veloped  the  teleological  view  and  maintained  that 
it  is  confirmed  by  empirical  fact.  Mechanical 
causation  he  viewed  as  the  servant  oi  .teleology, 
not  its  enemy.  He  called  his  philosophy  the 
“organic  view  of  the  world.”  His  most  impor¬ 
tant  works  are  Elementa  Logicce  Aristotelicce 
(1836;  9th  ed.,  1892;  Eng.  trans.,  1881); 
Erlduterungen  zu  den  Elementen  der  Aristote- 
lischen  Logik  (1842;  3d  ed.,  1876)  ;  Der  logische 
Frage  in  Ilegels  System  (1843);  Logische  Un- 
tersuchungen  (1840;  3d  ed.,  1870)  ;  Das  Natur- 
recht  auf  dem  Grunde  der  Ethik  (I860;  2d  ed., 
1868);  Liicken  im  Vblkerrecht  (1870).  His 
Historisehe  Beitrage  zur  Philosophic  ( 1846-67  ) 
and  Kleine  Sohiften  (1871)  are  also  valuable 
helps  in  the  study  of  the  history  of  philosophy. 
Consult:  Bonitz,  Zur  Erinnerung  an  Trendelen¬ 
burg  (Berlin,  1872)  ;  Bratuscheck,  Adolf  Tren¬ 
delenburg  (ib.,  1873)  ;  Morris,  in  The  New  Eng¬ 
lander  (Boston,  1874). 

TREN'HOLM,  George  A.  (1806-76).  An 
American  merchant  and  financier,  born  at  Charles¬ 
ton,  S.  C.  He  engaged  in  business  at  Charles¬ 
ton  and  was  very^successful.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  successfully  ran  the  blockade  and  se¬ 
cured  much  needed  supplies  for  the  Confederacy. 
From  June,  1864,  until  the  end  of  the  war  he 
held  the  office  of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of 
the  Confederate  States.  After  being  imprisoned 
until  October,  1865,  he  was  pardoned  by  Presi¬ 
dent  Johnson. 

TRENT.  A  river  rising  on  the  northwest 
border  of  Staffordshire,  England,  about  10  miles 
north  of  Burslem  (Map:  England,  F  3).  It 
flows  first  southeast  to  the  border  of  Derbyshire 
and  afterward,  in  a  generally  northeast  direc¬ 
tion,  through  the  counties  of  Derby,  Nottingham, 
and  Lincoln,  then  it  unites  with  the  Ouse  (q.v.) 
to  form  the  Humber  (q.v.).  It  receives  the  Der¬ 
went,  Idle,  and  Tarn  from  the  west  and  the  Soar 
from’  the  south;  it  is  navigable  for  seagoing 


steamers  to  Gainsborough  and  for  barges,  120 
miles,  to  Burton-upon-Trent.  Length,  170  miles. 

TRENT.  The  outlet  of  the  series  of  bays  be¬ 
tween  Lake  Simcoe  and  the  Bay  of  Quints,  Lake 
Ontario  (Map:  Ontario,  H  5),  flowing  into  the 
latter  body  at  Trenton.  It  issues  from  the 
northeast  end  of  Lake  Rice  as  a  wide  and 
picturesque  river  and  is  about  40  miles  long. 

TRENT  (It.  Trento,  Ger.  Trient) .  A  town 
of  Tirol,  Austria,  76  miles  northwest  of  Venice, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adige  (Map;  Austria,  B 
3) .  It  is  built  largely  in  the  Italian  style  and 
has  some  beautiful  old  palaces.  In  the^  Piazza 
Grande  is  the  celebrated  Fountain  of  Neptune, 
made  of  red  marble.  A  beautiful  bronze  statue 
of  Dante  (by  Zocchie,  1896)  stands  in  the  Piazza 
di  Dante.  The  Romanesque  cathedral,  begun  in 
its  present  form  early  in  the  thirteenth  century 
and  completed  in  the  fifteenth,  constructed  en¬ 
tirely  of  white  marble,  is  the  most  striking  pub¬ 
lic  building.  The  church  of  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore  is  noted  as  the  sitting  place  of  the  Council 
of  Trent  (q.v.),  and  a  column  in  the  square  be¬ 
fore  it  commemorates  the  eveijt.  Among  the 
other  interesting  architectural  features  are  the 
castle  (the  former  residence  of  the  prince  bish¬ 
ops)  and  two  ancient  towers.  The  municipal 
building  contains  a  museum  of  Roman  antiquities 
and  other  objects.  Trent  is  the  chief  town  of 
the  Italian  or  Welsch  division  of  Tirol.  The 
chief  industries  are  silk  weaving,  the  making  of 
salami  (a  kind  of  sausage),  playing  cards,  pot¬ 
tery,  cloth,  and  wines,  and  the  quarrying  of 
marble  and  gypsum.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  a 
bishop.  Pop.;  1900,  24,908;  1910,  30,049.  Trent 
is  the  ancient  Tridentum,  which  was  a  Roman 
colony.  It  was  under  the  rule  of  bishops  from 
the  eleventh  century  to  1803,  when  it  passed  to 
Austria. 

TRENT,  Council  of.  The  most  notable  of 
the  modern  ecumenical  councils  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  held  with  intermissions  from 
1545  to  1563.  It  was  the  culmination  of  the 
Counter-Reformation  ( q.v. ) ,  and  its  decrees  crys¬ 
tallized  the  results  of  that  movement  into  the 
permanent  law  of  the  Church.  For  centuries 
those  who  felt  the  need  of  reform  within  the 
Church  had  appealed  to  a  general  council,  and 
the  long-growing  discontent  with  the  condition 
of  things  after  the  Great  Schism  had  led  to 
the  great  councils  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
Protestant  Reformation  had  taken  many  of 
the  most  ardent  advocates  of  reform  out  of 
the  Church  and  left  the  conservative-minded 
party  in  control.  A  council  was  at  first  desired 
by  Luther  and  his  supporters  as  a  means  of 
closing  the  great  breach.  At  the  Diet  of  Nurem¬ 
berg  ?n  1523  the  German  estates  appealed  to 
Adrian  VI  for  the  summoning  of  a  council 
“within  a  year,  in  concert  with  the  Impel ial 
Majesty  and  in  a  German  city.”  Adrian  died  in 
the  same  year,  and  his  successor,  Clement  VII, 
while  not  refusing  a  council,  did  nothing  towards 
calling  one;  and  the  political  breach  between 
Charles  V  and  the  holy  see  made  the  Emperor’s 
requests  unfruitful.  Thus  it  happened  that  when 
the  design  was  put  into  execution  in  the  pontifi¬ 
cate  of  Paul  III  the  Augsburg  negotiations  ( see 
Reformation  )  had  failed,  the  break  in  Christen¬ 
dom  was  an  accomplished  fact,  and  the  sincere 
but  reactionary  party  was  left  in  control. 

The  council  was  finally  assembled  at  Trent, 
Dec.  13,  1545.  The  Emperor  desired  to  have 
the  discussions  opened  on  points  of  general  agree¬ 
ment,  in  the  hope  of  gaining  the  confidence  of  the 


TRENT 


455  TRENT  AFFAIR 


Protestants;  but  the  party  in  control  brought  to 
the  front  the  questions ‘most  in  dispute— the 
authority  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  Vulgate  text, 
the  right  of  interpretation,  ecclesiastical  tradi¬ 
tion  and  the  doctrine  of  justification,  as  to 
which  the  old  positions  were  maintained. 
Legates  of  the  Pope  presided,  and  approved  of  all 
business  presented  to  the  council.  Certain  ad¬ 
ministrative  reforms  were  early  decreed.  Bish¬ 
ops  were  to  provide  better  schools  in  their 
dioceses  and  were  themselves  to  expound  the 
Va>rd  of  God;  qualifications  for  the  episcopal 
office  were  defined,  and  penalties  imposed  for 
the  neglect  of  duties;  dispensations  and  privi¬ 
leges  were  restricted.  The  Emperor  opposed  the 
course  of  the  council,  and  on  March  11,  1547, 
its  sittings  were  transferred  to  Bologna,  where 
it  was  thought  the  Imperial  influence  would  not 
be  so  much  felt.  In  1549  Paul  III  died  and 
was  succeeded  by  Cardinal  del  Monte  as  Julius 
III.  The  latter  reassembled  the  council  at 
I  rent,  May  1,  1551;  but,  after  the  sixteenth 
session,  the  city  having  become  insecure  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  activity  of  the  Protestant  forces 
under  Maurice  of  Saxony,  the  sittings  were 
again  suspended  for  two  years.  After  the  brief 
reign  of  Marcellus  II,  Cardinal  Caraffa,  one  of 
the  ablest  leaders  of  the  uncompromising  Catho¬ 
lic  party,  came  to  the  papal  throne  as  Paul  IV. 

The  council  now  proceeded  to  carry  out  a 
conservative  reorganization  of  the  ‘  Church, 
though  its  work  was  again  suspended  for  a  time 
owing  to  the  disturbances  of  Paul’s  pontificate. 
Pius  IV,  the  former  Cardinal  Gonzaga,  recon¬ 
vened  it  in  1560.  Ecclesiastical  laws  were  codi¬ 
fied,  questions  which  had  hitherto  been  open 
were  definitely  ruled,  uniformity  of  faith  and 
discipline  was  established.  To  regulate  some  of 
the  abuses  of  the  system  of  indulgences,  it  was 
decreed  that  bishops  should  collect  the  payments 
made  in  connection  with  it,  while  the  power  of 
granting  indulgences  was  affirmed  as  instituted 
by  Christ  and  to  be  retained  as  useful  to  Chris¬ 
tians.  Episcopal  control  of  monastic  orders  was 
provided  for,  though  the  Jesuits  secured  a 
larger  measure  of  freedom.  Several  matters  of 
detail  were  referred  to  the  Pope  for  decision. 
The  decrees  were  read  and  subscribed  by  about 
200  bishops  on  Dec.  3  and  4,  1563,  and  the 
council  finally  adjourned.  The  decrees  were  con¬ 
firmed  by  the  Pope,  Jan.  26,  1564,  and  he  also 
prepaied  a  confession  of  faith  summarizing 
their  doctrinal  features.  (See  Pius  IV,  Creed 
of.)  In  spite  of  opposition  the  work  of  the 
council  was  so  clear,  logical,  and  thorough,  and 
so  well  supported  by  the  hierarchy,  that  it  had 
a  permanent  and  far-reaching  effect,  setting  the 
standard  of  Roman  Catholic  faith  and  practice 
to  the  present  day.  The  only  things  added  have 
been  the  two  definitions  of  the  Immaculate  Con¬ 
ception  and  the  Infallibility  of  the  Pope. 

Bibliography.  The  best  modern  edition  of 
the  documents  relating  to  the  council  is  Triden- 
tinum  Concilium ;  Actorum,  Epistularum,  Trac- 
tatuum  nova  Collectio  (Freiburg,  1901  et  seq.), 
or  Theiner,  Acta  Genuina  Sacri  Concilii  Tri- 
dentini  (Agrarn,  1874).  The  approved  Eng¬ 
lish  translation  is  that  by  J.  Waterworth  (Lon¬ 
don,  1896)  ;  also  A.  von  Druffel,  Monumenta 
tridentina  (Munich,  1884-87),  continued  by  K. 
Brandi  (1897-99).  Works  supplementary  to 
that  of  the  council  itself  were  a  catechism  by  the 
Pope  for  parish  priests  and  preachers,  and  au¬ 
thentic  editions  of  the  Vulgate  Bible,  the  missal, 
and  the  breviary.  A  permanent  tribunal  at 


Rome,  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,  deals 
vith  questions  which  arise  as  to  the  meaning, 
authority,  or  effect  of  the  decrees  and  canons 
or  the  council.  The  contemporary  histories  of 
the  council  were  those  of  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi  (see 
Sarpi  Paolo),  Istoria  del  Concilio  Tridentino 
(  ondon,  1619;  in  Latin,  1620;  Eng.  trans.  by 
Brent,  1676) written  from  a  hostile,  almost  a 
1  rotestant,  point  of  view ;  and  Sforza  Pallavicini 
Istoria  del  Concilio  di  Trento  (Rome,  1656-57  • 
revised  by  the  author,  1666;  ed.,  annotated  by 
Zaccaria,  1833;  Fr.  trans.  by  Migne,  Paris 
1844)  a  friendly  history,  a  reply  to  Sarpi! 
Consult  also:  Joseph  Mendham,  Memoirs  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  (London,  1834-42)  ;  I.  H.  Wes- 
senberg,  Die  grossen  Kirchenversammlungen  des 
funfzehnten  und  sechszehnten  Jahrhunderts 
(Constance,  1840),  a  Roman  Catholic  work; 
Goschl,  C  eschichtliche  Darstellung  des  grossen 
allgemeinen  Concil  s  zu  Trient  ( Regensburo- 
1840);  L.  Maynier  (pseud.),  Etude  historique 
sur  le  concile  de  Trente  (Paris,  1874);  J.  J.  I. 
von  Dollinger,  Sammlung  von  Urkunden  zur  Ge- 
schichte  des  Konzils  von  Trient  (Nordlino-en 
1876 )  ;  W.  Arthur,  The  Pope,  the  Kings,  and  the 
leople  (2  vols.,  London,  1877)  ;  Martin  Philipp- 
son,  Les  origines  du  Catholicisms  moderne  •  La 
contre-revolution  religieuse  au  XVI erne  siecle 
(Pans,  1884)  ;  Charles  Dejob,  De  I’influence  du 
concile  de  Trente  sur  la  litterature  et  les  beaux- 
arts  (ib.,  1884)  ;  R.  F.  Littledale,  History  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  (London,  1888)  ;  J.  A.  Froude, 
Lectures  on  the  Council  of  Trent  (ib.,  1896)  ;  a! 
R.  Pennington,  The  Counter-Reformation  in 
Europe  (ib.,  1901)  ;  Cambridge  Modern  History 

J.0  ‘  Vy  (Yew  York,  1905),  containing  an  exhaus¬ 
tive  bibliography. 

TRENT,  William  Petterfteld  (1862-  ) 

An  American  literary  critic,  born  in  Richmond! 
Va.  tie  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  at  Johns  Hopkins.  From  1888  to 
1900  he  was  professor  of  English  and  historv  in 
the  University  of  the  South  (Sewanee,  Tenn  ) 
and  from  1893  to  1900  was  dean  of  the  academic 
department  of  that  institution.  In  1900  he  be¬ 
came  professor  of  English  literature  at  Colum¬ 
bia.  The  hewanee  Review,  which  he  founded  in 
1892,  was  edited  by  him  until  1900.  In  1904 
lie  turned  his  attention  mainly  to  the  life  of 
Daniel  Defoe  and  to  English  history  and  litera¬ 
ture  of.  the  period  1680-1730.  He  contributed 
the  article  on  Defoe,  as  well  as  articles  on 
American  literature,  to  the  New  International 
Encyclopaedia,  edited  Robinson  Crusoe,  and 
wrote  a  biography  and  bibliography  of  ’Defoe 
in  10  volumes  (in  manuscript  to  1916).  In 
addition  he  edited  various  works  and  pub¬ 
lished  :  William  Gilmore  Simms  (1892);  The 
Authority  of  Critidsm  (1899);  Robert  E.  Lee 
(1899);  John  Milton  (1899);  Progress  of  the 
United  States  during  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(1901);  A  History  of  American  Literature 
(1903);  Greatness  in  Literature,  and  Other 
Papers  (1905);  Longfellow  and  Other  Essays 
(1910);  Great  American  Writers  (1912),  with 
John  Erskine. 

TRENT  AFFAIR,  The.  A  diplomatic  epi¬ 
sode  growing  out  of  the  seizure  by  an  American 
vessel  on  Nov.  8,  1861,  during  the  Civil  War 
in  America,  of  two  Confederate  commissioners 
on  board  a  British  mail  steamer.  In  the  autumn 
of  1861  the  Confederate  government  sent  John 
Slidell  and  James  M.  Mason  (qq.v.)  as  com¬ 
missioners  to  France  and  England  respectively. 
They  embaiked  at  Havana  for  England  on  the 


TRENTE  ET  QUAKANTE 


TRENTON 


456 


British  mail  steamer  Trent.  On  November  8 
Capt.  Charles  Wilkes  (q.v. )  of  the  I  nited  States 
vessel  San  Jacinto  stopped  the  Trent  and  took 
them  as.  prisoners.  This  act  was  applauded  by 
many  people,  but  President  Lincoln  and  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State  Seward  recognized  its  impropriety 
and  disapproved  it,  and  when  a  formal  demand 
was  made  by  the  British  Minister  for  the  sur¬ 
render  of  the  commissioners  it  was  complied  with 
and  an  apology  tendered,  on  the  ground  that  they 
had  been  forcibly  taken  from  a  neutral  vessel 
on  the  high  seas  and  upon  a  voyage  from  one 
neutral  point  to  another.  Consult  T.  L.  Harris, 
The  Trent  Affair  (Indianapolis,  1896),  contain¬ 
ing  a  bibliography,  and  C.  F.  Adams,  The  Trent 
Affair :  An  Historical  Retrospect  (Boston,  1912). 

TRENTE  ET  QUARANTE,  traN'-ta  ka'- 
raNt'.  See  Rouge  et  Noir. 

TREN'TON.  A  town  and  port  of  entry  of 
Hastings  County,  Ontario,  Canada,  on  both  banks 
of  the  Trent,  at  its  outlet  in  the  Bay  of  Quints, 
Lake  Ontario,  and  on  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
Grand  Trunk,  and  Canadian  Northern  railways 
(Map:  Ontario,  H  5).  It  is  the  southern  ter¬ 
minus  of  the  Trent  Valley  Canal  and  has  various 
manufactures.  Pop.,  1901,  4217;  1911,  3988. 

TRENTON.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Grundy  Co.,  Mo.,  83  miles  east  by  north  of  St. 
Joseph,  on  Grand  River,  and  on  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island,  and  Pacific,  and  the  Quincy,  Omaha, 
and  Kansas  City  railroads  (Map:  Missouri,  C 
1).  It  has  the*  Jewett  Norris  Free  Public  Li¬ 
brary  and  the  Wright  Hospital.  Trenton  is 
largely  interested  in  coal  mining.  The  Chicago, 
Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  Railroad  maintains  re¬ 
pair  and  machine  shops  here.  The  chief  manu¬ 
factures  are  ice,  canned  goods,  and  brick  and 
tile.  Large  shipments  of  poultry  are  made. 
Trenton  was  settled  in  1840  and  was  first  in¬ 
corporated  in  1857.  Pop.,  1900,  5396;  1910, 
5656. 

TRENTON.  The  capital  of  New  Jersey  and 
the  county  seat  of  Mercer  County,  situated  at 
the  rapids  on  the  Delaware  River,  head  of  tide¬ 
water  navigation,  and  on  the  Delaware  and  Rari¬ 
tan  Canal,  on  the  main  line  of  the  Pennsylvania 
and  of  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  railroads, 
33  miles  northeast  of  Philadelphia  and  59  miles 
southwest  from  New  York  (Map:  New  Jersey, 
C  3 ) .  Electric  lines  gridiron  the  city  and  the 
southern  portion  of  the  State,  reaching  to  Phila¬ 
delphia,  to  north  Jersey,  and  to  New  York, 
while  there  is  a  large  traffic  on  the  canal  and 
by  steamships  and  barges  on  the  Delaware  to 
the  south.  Bridges  over  the  Delaware  connect 
the  city  with  Morrisville  in  Pennsylvania. . 

As  a  manufacturing  centre  it  is  conspicuous 
among  other  things  for  its  pottery-ware  output. 
In  this  industry  there  are  42  plants,  making  all 
the  way  from  the  commoner  varieties  to  the  finer 
decorated  porcelain  and  china.  The  total  esti¬ 
mated  annual  value  of  these  products  is  about 
$9,000,000,  in  the  making  of  which  6000  persons 
are  employed.  The  ironworks  and  wire  mills, 
said  to  be  the  largest  of  the  kind  in  the  world, 
have  7000  employees  and  turn  out  from  80,000  to 
100,000  gross  tons  of  products  annually.  There 
are  also  vast  manufactures  of  rubber  products, 
brick  and  tile,  electrical  machinery,  castings, 
malt  products,  linoleum,  woolen  goods,  and  many 
miscellaneous  iron,  steel,  and  other^  industries. 
Total  capital  invested  in  manufacturing  (1914), 
$55,535,000;  total  value  of  manufactures  (1914), 
$53,588,000.  The  public  library  contains  73,094 
volumes.  There  are  four  theatres  and  15  mov¬ 


ing-picture  houses.  Educational  facilities  in¬ 
clude  the  State  Normal  and  Model  School,  the 
School  of  Industrial  Arts,  three  private  schools, 
and  a  Catholic  college.  There  were  15,569 
public-school  pupils  enrolled  in  1915  and  5376 
in  other  schools.  1  here  are  also  three  hos¬ 
pitals,  the  State  Home  for  Girls,  a  reforma¬ 
tory,  the  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  and 
the  State  Prison.  Among  the  more  important 
public  buildings  are  the  State  Capitol,  Masonic 
Temple,  and  State  Armory.  Notable,  also,  is 
the  old  stone  barracks,  built  in  1758-59  during 
the  French  and  Indian  War.  There  are  two 
parks,  and  a  large  statue  of  Washington  marks 
the  spot  where  he  planted  his  cannon  at  the 
battle  of  Trenton. 

The  total  assessed  value  of  Trenton  real  estate 
in  1915  was  $69,948,350;  the  funded  debt,  $5,- 
703,796;  and  its  total  annual  expenditures  are 
$1,615,319.  The  annual  outlay  for  schools  is 
$508,594;  for  police,  $177,807;  for  fire  depart¬ 
ment,  $166,748;  and  for  street  lighting,  $75,000. 
In  1911  Trenton  adopted  the  commission  form 
of  city  government.  It  has  five  commissioners 
public  affairs,  revenue  and  finance,  public  safety, 
streets  and  public  improvements,  and  parks  and 
public  property.  Each  commissioner  has  abso¬ 
lute  control  of  his  own  department,  but  is  also 
individually  responsible  to  his  fellow  commis¬ 
sioners  and  to  the  public.  The  mayor  is  director 
of  public  affairs  and  an  adviser  of  the  other 
commissioners. 

Pop.,  1790,  1946;  1810,  3002;  1850,  6461;  1870, 
22,874;  1880,  29,910:  1890,  73,307;  1910,  96,815 
(1915),  103,581;  1920,  119,289.  The  city  has  an 
excellent  municipally  owned  water-supply  service 
and  ample  sewerage.  The  municipality’s  reser¬ 
voirs  have  a  total  capacity  of  120,000,000  gallons. 

First  settled  about  1676,  Trenton  was  generally 
known  as  The  Falls  until  in  1719  it  received  its 
present  name  in  honor  of  W  illiam  Trent,  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Assembly.  It  was  incorporated 
as  a  borough  in  1746,  was  selected  as  the  State 
capital  in  1790,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1792.  In  1776  it  was  occupied  by  the  British 
in  their  pursuit  of  General  Washington.  Late 
in  December,  1776,  Washington  planned  a  move¬ 
ment  against  Trenton  and  Bordentown.  At  the 
former  was  Colonel  Rahl  with  about  1500  Hes¬ 
sians,  and  at  the  latter  General  Donop  with  a 
small  force.  Gen.  James  Ewing  with  about  550 
men  was  to  cross  the  Delaware  just  below  Tren¬ 
ton,  seize  the  Assanpink,  and  thus  sever  com¬ 
munication  between  Donop  and  Rahl;  Col.  John 
Cadwalader  was  to  cross  at  Bristol,  below  Bor¬ 
dentown,  and  attack  Donop  from  the  south ;  and 
General  Putnam  with  about  1000  men  was  to 
cooperate  with  about  1000  men  from  Philadel¬ 
phia.  The  main  movement,  however,  was  to  be 
made  by  Washington  in  person,  who  with  2400 
men  was  to  cross  at  McConkey’s  Ferry,  9  miles 
above  Trenton,  and  assail  Rahl  at  Trenton.  The 
movement  was  set  for  the  night  of  December  25- 
26.  By  reason  of  storms  and  of  the  river  being 
clogged  with  ice,  Ewing  and  Cadwalader  were 
unable  to  effect  a  crossing,  while  Putnam  was 
detained  in  Philadelphia.  Washington,  how¬ 
ever,  with  the  aid  of  Marblehead  fishermen  under 
Glover,  crossed  in  spite  of  all  obstacles  by  three 
o’clock  in  the  morning  of  the  26th,  began  his 
march  to  Trenton  at  about  four  o’clock,  and  at 
about  eight  completely  surprised  the  garrison, 
which,  after  a  night  of  Christmas  festivities,  had 
taken  little  precaution  against  surprise  and  had 
made  little  preparation  for  resistance.  Rahl 


TRENTON  FORMATION 


TRESHAM 


457 


was  soon  forced  to  surrender,  and  Washington 
secured  about  1000  prisoners.  The  American 
loss  was  2  killed  and  3  wounded,  while  the  Hes¬ 
sians  lost  about  40  killed  or  wounded.  Soon 
afterward  Washington  recrossed  the  Delaware 
to  his  former  position.  This  success,  together 
with  that  at  Princeton  on  Jan.  3,  1777,  greatly 
revived  the  spirits  of  the  Americans  and  did 
much  to  prevent  the  threatened  disintegration 
of  Washington’s  army.  Trenton  became  the 
State  capital  in  1790  and  served  as  the  tempo¬ 
rary  capital  of  the  country  in  1784  and  1793. 
Consult:  J.  O.  Raum,  History  of  the  City  of 
Trenton  (Trenton,  1871)  ;  S.  A.  Drake,  The  Cam¬ 
paign  of  Trenton,  1776-77  (Boston,  1895)  ;  Lee, 
History  of  Trenton  (Trenton,  1895);  W.  S. 
Stryker,  The  Battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton 
(Boston,  1898)  ;  J.  M.  Lathrop,  Atlas  of  the 
City  of  Trenton  and  Borough  of  Princeton  (Phil¬ 
adelphia,  1905)  ;  Ernest  Volk,  Archaeology  of  the 
Delaware  Valley,  published  by  the  Peabody  Mu¬ 
seum  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1911). 

TRENTON  FORMATION.  One  of  the  divi¬ 
sions  of  the  Ordovician  system,  consisting  mainly 
of  limestones  and  black  carbonaceous  shales,  so 
named  from  the  type  locality  at  Trenton  Falls  in 
central  New  York.  The  rocks  are  distributed  in 
belts  along  the  eastern,  southern,  and  western 
borders  of  the  Adirondacks;  they  also  occur  on 
the  northern  shores  of  Lake  Ontario  in  Canada, 
in  the  upper  Mississippi  valley,  and  elsewhere 
in  the  Central  West.  In  Ohio  and  Indiana  Tren¬ 
ton  rocks  are  the  source  of  oil  and  gas;  while 
the  limestones  of  the  formation  are  important 
quarry  materials,  being  utilized  for  building 
stone,  lime  manufacture,  and  as  an  ingredient 
of  Portland  cement.  The  black  limestones  are 
sometimes  polished  and  sold  as  black  marble. 
See  Ordovician  System. 

TRE'PANG  (from  Malay  tripang),  or  B£che 
de  Mer.  The  dried  body  of  a  holothurian  ( q.v. ) , 
regarded  as  good  food  by  the  Chinese.  They  are 
usually  8  or  9  inches  long,  but  some  are  2  feet 
in  length.  They  are  often  found  in  the  coral 
sand,  the  tentacles  only  appearing  above  it. 
Large  ones  are  sometimes  speared  in  shallow 
w^ater;  but  most  are  taken  by  divers.  Macassar 
is  the  centre  of  the  trade,  whence  several  hun¬ 
dred  tons  are  annually  sent  to  China.  Trepang 
is  also  gathered  and  prepared  to  some  extent 
in  California.  It  is  gelatinous  and  nutritious, 
though  almost  tasteless,  and  is  an  ingredient 
in  soups. 

TREPHINE,  trS-fin'  or  trS-fen',  TREPHIN¬ 
ING  (Fr.  trephine,  for  *trepine,  dim.  of  tre¬ 
pan,  trepan,  from  ML.  trepanum,  from  Gk.  rpv- 
7T avov,  trypanon,  auger).  The  operation  of  tre¬ 
phining  consists  in  the  perforation  of  a  bone  by 
means  of  a  trephine,  which  is  a  small  cylindrical 
or  circular  saw,  with  a  centre  pin  on  which  it 
works.  The  trephine  produces  a  hole  in  the 
skull  varying  from  W  to  1  inch  or  more  in 
diameter.  It  is  customary  to  make  as  small 
an  opening  as  possible  with  the  trephine,  en¬ 
larging  it  when  necessary  by  means  of  rongeur 
forceps,  the  chisel,  or  some  special  form  of  saw. 
Trephining  is  especially  employed  in  fracture 
of  the  skull  where  the  fragments  of  bone  can¬ 
not  otherwise  be  raised.  In  other  conditions 
the  operation  of  trephining  is  often  a  mere  in¬ 
troductory  step,  giving  a  point  of  entrance  at 
one  or  more  places  from  wrhich  extensive  flaps 
of  bone  are  broken  awav  or  turned  back  for 
free  access  into  the  cranial  cavity. 

TREPORT,  tr5/por',  Le.  A  town  of  the  De¬ 


partment  of  Seine-Inf6rieure,  France,  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Bresle,  under  a  high  clifF  45 
miles  north-northeast  of  Rouen.  Its  proximity 
to  Paris  has  made  it  a  popular  bathing  resort. 
Le  I  report  has  a  sixteenth-century  tower,  now 
used  as  the  town  hall,  the  sixteenth-century 
church  of  Saint- Jacques,  an  old  Renaissance 
timber  house,  and  a  conspicuous  casino.  There 
is  a  considerable  trade.  Sugar  is  the  leading 
export.  I  lie  harbor  is  good,  and  a  canal  ex¬ 
tends  to  Eu.  Pop.,  1901,  4949;  1911,  4958. 

TREPOV,  tra'pof,  Dmitry  Feodorovitcii 
(1855-1906).  Russian  soldier  and  administra¬ 
tor.  He  was  a  son  of  the  chief  of  police  in  St. 
Petersburg  whose  attempted  assassination  by 
^  iera  Zasulitch  (q.v.)  in  1878  constitutes  one 
of  the  earliest  events  of  the  Russian  revolu¬ 
tionary  movement.  Dmitry  entered  the  army 
in  1874,  fought  in  the  Russo-Turlcish  W7ar  of 
1877-78,  and  retired  in  1896  with  the  rank  of 
colonel  to  become  chief  of  police  in  Moscow". 
Because  of  the  brutalities  practiced  by  the  po¬ 
lice  against  the  students,  he  was  removed  in 
January,  1905,  but  after  the  massacre  of  “Red 
Sunday”  in  St.  Petersburg  (Jan.  22,  1905),  he 
came  to  the  capital  and  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  St.  Petersburg  with  extraordinary 
powers.  Later  in  the  year  he  became  Assistant 
Minister  of  the  Interior  with  control  of  the  po¬ 
lice  throughout  the  Empire.  In  December  he 
was  made  commandant  of  the  Imperial  palace. 
He  escaped  assassination  in  July,  1906,  but 
died  a  few  months  later  of  heart' failure.  See 
Russia. 

TRES'COT,  William  Henry  (1822-98).  An 
American  diplomatist,  born  at  Charleston,  S.  C. 
He  graduated  at  Charleston  College  in  1840, 
studied  law  in  Harvard  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1843,  became  Secretary  of  the  United 
States  Legation  in  London  in  1852,  and  wTas 
Assistant  Secretary  of  State  from  June,  1860, 
until  the  secession  of  South  Carolina.  A  part 
of  this  period  he  was  also  the  confidential  agent 
of  his  State.  In  1862-66  he  served  in  the  State 
Legislature  and  was  also  on  the  staff  of  General 
Ripley.  In  1877  he  was  one  of  the  agents  of 
the  United  States  Fishery  Commission  at  Hali¬ 
fax;  in  1880  helped  to  revise  the  treaties  be¬ 
tween  the  United  States  and  China;  in  1881 
was  sent  as  special  envoy  to  Chile,  Bolivia,  and 
Peru,  which  were  then  at  war;  and  in  1882  was 
associated  with  General  Grant  in  negotiating  a 
new  treaty  with  Mexico.  Among  his  published 
works  are:  Diplomacy  of  the  Revolution  (1852)  ; 
An  American  View  of  the  Eastern  Question 
(1854);  Diplomatic  History  of  the  Administra¬ 
tions  of  Washington  and  Adams  (1857). 

TRESGUERRAS,  tr&s-gar'ras,  Francisco 
Eduardo  (1745-1833).  A  Mexican  architect, 
born  at  Celaya.  He  began  his  artistic  career 
as  a  painter  and  a  sculptor  in  wood;  studied 
in  the  Academy  of  San  Carlos  in  Mexico  City  and 
probably  for  a  while  under  Jesuit  teachers,  but 
was  largely  self-taught  as  an  architect.  He 
nevertheless  achieved  remarkable  success  in  the 
designing  of  religious  and  civic  buildings,  as 
in  the  church  of  Nuestra  Senora  del  Carmen  at 
Celaya,  a  theatre  at  San  Luis  Potosi,  the  bridge 
of  La  Laja,  and  conventual  churches  at 
Queretaro,  San  Miguel  de  Allenda,  and  elsewhere. 
He  was  a  successful  painter  and  widely  known 
also  as  a  musician  and  poet. 

TRESHAM,  tresh'am,  Francis  (c.1567-1605)  . 
An  English  conspirator.  He  participated  in  Es¬ 
sex’s  rebellion  in  1601,  for  this  w'as  imprisoned, 


TRESPASS 


TREVELYAN 


458 

and  in  1602  was  implicated  in  Thomas  Winter’s 
mission  to  the  King  of  Spain.  Initiated  into 
the  Gunpowder  Plot  (q.v.),  he  disapproved  of 
the  plans  and  revealed  the  plot  to  Lord  Mont- 
eagle,  his  brother-in-law.  Later  he  was  arrested, 
and  died  in  prison. 

TRESPASS  (Lat.  trans,  across  +  passus, 
pace,  OF.  trespasser,  to  pass  over,  depart).  In 
law,  the  injury  to  person  or  property  resulting 
from  some  wrongful  act  committed  with  force. 
The  term  at  common  law  meant  a  certain  form 
of  action.  In  modern  law  it  includes  several 
kinds  of  torts  and  is  sometimes  used  as  equiva¬ 
lent  to  tort.  Although  trespass  means  either  an 
injury  to  person  or  one  to  property,  it  is  more 
commonly  used  in  regard  to  land.  Assault  and 
battery  and  false  imprisonment  are  examples  of 
trespass  to  the  person.  The  rigidity  of  com¬ 
mon-law  pleading  made  the  distinction  between 
action  in  trespass  and  actions  on  the  case,  e.g., 
negligence,  essential,  but  modern  law  has  done 
away  with  form  and  looks  rather  to  the  matter. 
An  interference  with  the  possession  of  personal 
property  is  a  trespass.  Such  would  be  the 
wrongful  carrying  away  of  property  even  with 
no  intention  of  converting  or  injuring  it. 

Trespass  to  lands  is  an  unauthorized  entry 
thereon.  Although  no  damage  result,  it  is  yet 
trespass.  An  entry  need  not  be  by  person.  It 
may  be  made  by  beasts,  as  driving  or  allowing 
cattle  to  stray  on  another’s  land,  or  by  throw¬ 
ing  something  thereon,  as  in  blasting,  or  at¬ 
taching  anything  thereto,  such  as  the  posting  of 
an  advertisement  on  a  house  or  the  erection  of 
a  building.  In  the  view  of  the  law  every  man’s 
land  is  presumed  to  be  separated  from  that  of 
his  neighbor  by  a  close  or  boundary.  This  may 
be  an  actual  fence,  but  the  law  implies  an  in¬ 
visible  and  effectual  boundary,  and  it  is  the  un¬ 
authorized  crossing  over  this  line  which  con¬ 
stitutes  the  trespass.  The  entry  may  have  been 
at  first  lawful  and  unauthorized,  but  the  person 
entering  may  later  become  a  trespasser.  Thus, 
the  purchaser  of  a  ticket  to  a  theatre  is  licensed 
to  enter,  but  if  he  afterward  create  a  disturbance 
and  is  requested  to  leave  and  refuses,  the  license 
having  been  revoked,  he  is  a  trespasser.  In¬ 
evitable  accident,  or,  e.g.,  where  a  highway  is 
obstructed  and  it  is  necessary  to  pass  over  the 
lands  by  the  side,  is  a  defense  to  an  action. 
Generally,  however,  the  intent  is  immaterial  and 
it  is  the  act  itself.  A  trespass  committed  by 
mistake  is  nevertheless  actionable.  But  when 
the  act  is  willful  or  malicious  the  intent  is  con¬ 
sidered  with  relation  to  the  question  of  dam¬ 
ages,  and  in  some  jurisdictions  statutes  have 
made  certain  acts  criminal  trespass,  allowing  ex¬ 
emplary  damages.  In  New  York  State  treble 
damages  are  authorized  for  entering  another’s 
land  and  cutting  timber  thereon,  in  Missouri  for 
taking  coal.  At  common  law  no  trespass  was 
a  crime  unless  it  amounted  to  a  breach  of  the 
peace.  Even  when  the  owner  or  possessor  has 
put  up  notices  “Trespassers  will  be  prosecuted,” 
it  is  not  a  crime  except  under  statutes  which 
usually  apply  to  inclosed  or  cultivated  land. 

The  entry  must  be  unauthorized.  The  law  im¬ 
plies  a  license  where  necessary  to  exercise  a  pub¬ 
lic  right  or  to  prevent  a  great  public  disaster, 
as  blowing  up  a  building  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  fire.  Authority  from  the  government  may  be 
a  justification  of  an  act  which  would  in  the  ab¬ 
sence  thereof  be  a  trespass.  An  entry  by  com¬ 
missioners  appointed  by  the  State  to  make  plans 
or  ascertain  boundaries  is  an  example,  or  the 


entry  of  an  officer  or  person  assisting  him  in  the 
execution  of  a  search  warrant.  But  the  entry 
of  an  officer  without  the  authority  of  a  wTarrant 
is  a  trespass.  In  general,  the  law  is  that  no 
entry  is  authorized  in  the  execution  of  civil 
process,  as  in  the  service  of  a  subpoena.  The 
maxim  that  “A  man’s  home  is  his  castle”  ex¬ 
presses  the  general  view  of  Anglo-Saxon  law. 
Damages  are  based  on  the  actual  injuries,  al¬ 
though  they  may  be  slight  or  nominal,  such  as 
the  trampling  down  of  grass.  The  owner  may 
use  all  the  force  necessary  to  prevent  a  trespass 
or  to  eject  a  trespasser,  but  if  he  use  more  force 
than  is  necessary  he  becomes  liable  in  tort  for 
assault  and  battery.  There  are  many  circum¬ 
stances  under  which  persons  are  invited  by  im¬ 
plication  to  go  upon  the  property  of  others  and 
so  do  not  become  trespassers.  Thus,  it  is  no  act 
of  trespass  to  enter  the  house  of  a  neighbor  upon 
matters  of  business  or  for  a  social  call ;  so  keep¬ 
ers  of  hotels,  stores,  and  theatres  hold  out  to 
the  public  a  general  invitation  to  enter.  Again, 
it  has  been  held  that  a  person  who  by  contract 
has  become  the  owner  of  property  which  is  on 
the  land  of  the  seller  may  enter  and  take  his 
property  unless  he  is  forbidden  to  do  so.  If  an 
owner  of  land  has  wrongfully  acquired  posses¬ 
sion  of  personalty  and  placed  it  on  his  own  land, 
the  rightful  owner  may  retake  it. 

The  person  who  may  maintain  an  action  may 
be  either  the  owner  or  possessor.  Possession  usu¬ 
ally  gives  the  right,  but  ownership  without  pos¬ 
session  allows  a  right  of  action  for  permanent 
injuries.  A  continuing  or  threatened  trespass 
may  be  restrained  by  injunction. 

Consult:  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of 
English  Law  before  the  Time  of  Edward  I  (2d 
ed.,  2  vols.,  Cambridge,  1903)  ;  J.  N.  Pomeroy, 
Code  Remedies :  Remedies  and  Remedial  Rights 
(4th  ed.,  Boston,  1904)  ;  Sir  Frederick  Pollock, 
The  Law  of  Torts  (8th  ed.,  London,  1908). 

TRES'SURE.  In  heraldry  (q.v.),  a  sub¬ 
ordinary,  half  the  width  of  the  orle  ( q.v. ) . 

TRETJ,  troi,  Georg  D.  C.  (1843-  ).  A 

German  archaeologist,  born  at  St.  Petersburg. 
He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Dorpat 
and  Berlin.  In  1866—73  he  lived  in  St.  Peters¬ 
burg,  and  thereafter  till  1882  he  taught  at  the 
University  of  Berlin.  In  1877—81  he  had  an 
important  part  in  the  excavations  at  Olympia. 
His  publications  include:  Hermes  und  Praxiteles 
(1878);  Ausgrabungen  von  Olympia,  vols.  iii-v 
(1879-81),  with  Curtius,  Adler,  and  Dorpfeld; 
Bildwerke  von  Olympia  in  Stein  und  Ton  (1894- 
97)  ;  C.  Meunier  (1898)  ;  Max  Klingers  Drama- 
gruppe  (1900)  ;  Olympische  Forschungen,  vol.  i 
(1907);  Hellenische  Stimmungen  in  der  Bild- 
liauerei  von  einst  und  jetzt  (1910). 

TREVELYAN,  tre-vel'yan,  Sir  Charles  Ed¬ 
ward  (1807-86).  An  Anglo-Indian  official.  He 
was  born  at  Taunton,  Somersetshire,  received 
his  education  at  the  Charterhouse  and  Hailev- 
burv  College,  entered  the  East  India  Company’s 
civil  service,  and  in  1827  went  to  Delhi  as  assist¬ 
ant  to  Sir  Charles  Theophilus  Metcalfe,  chief 
commissioner.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  As¬ 
sistant  Secretary  to  the  Treasury,  retaining  the 
position  until  1859.  With  Sir  Stafford  North- 
cote  he  prepared  in  1853  a  report  entitled  The 
Organization  of  the  Permanent  Civil  Service, 
which  is  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  civil-service 
legislation.  In  1848  he  was  made  Knight  Com¬ 
mander  of  the  Bath  and  in  1859  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Madras.  He  was  appointed  Finance 
Minister  in  India  in  1862  and  retired  in  1865 


TREVELYAN 


459 


TREVES 


on  account  of  ill  health.  Important  reforms 
were  made  in  the  system  of  accounts  during 
his  financial  administration  and  the  resources 
of  India  developed  by  a  great  expansion  of 
public  works.  He  was  created  Baronet  in  1874. 
Trevelyan  was  the  author  of  several  valuable 
ti  eatises,  some  of  his  better-known  works  being : 
Education  of  the  People  of  India  (1838);  The 
Irish  Crisis  (1848)  ;  Christianity  and  Hinduism 
( 1882 ) . 

TREVELYAN,  George  Macaulay  (1876- 
) .  An  English  historian,  a  son  of  Sir 
George  Otto  Trevelyan  (q.v.),  educated  at  Har¬ 
row  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  His 
writings  comprise  chiefly:  England  in  the  Age 
of  B  y cliff e  (1899);  England  under  the  Stuarts 
(1904);  The  Poetry  and  Philosophy  of  George 
Meredith  (1912);  Garibaldi’s  Defense  of  the 
Roman  Republic  (1907);  Garibaldi  and  the 
Thousand  (1909)  ;  Garibaldi  and  the  Making  of 
Italy  (1911)  ;  The  Life  of  John  Bright  (1913)  ; 
Clio,  a  Muse,  and  Other  Essays  (1913). 

TREVELYAN,  Sir  George w  Otto  (1838- 
) .  An  English  statesman  and  author,  the 
only  son  of  Sir  Charles  Edward  Trevelyan  (q.v.) 
by  his  wife,  Hannah  More  Macaulay,  sister  of 
Lord  Macaulay.  He  was  born  at  Rotliley  Temple, 
Leicestershire,  and  was  educated  at  Harrow  and 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  After  a  short 
period  in  the  East  Indian  civil  service,  he  en¬ 
tered  Parliament  in  the  Liberal  interest  for 
Tynemouth  (1865)  and  for  the  Hawick  Burghs 
(1868).  He  represented  the  Bridgeton  Division 
of  Glasgow  from  1887  to  1897,  when  he  resigned. 
He  was  appointed  Civil  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
under  the  first  Gladstone  administration  (De¬ 
cember,  1868),  but  resigned  (July,  1870)  owing 
to  disagreement  with  the  Premier  on  the  Edu¬ 
cation  Bill.  In  the  second  Gladstone  adminis¬ 
tration  he  became  Parliamentary  Secretary  to 
the  Admiralty  (November,  1880),  Chief  Secre¬ 
tary  for  Ireland  (May,  1882),  and  Chancellor 
of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster  ( 1 884 ) .  At  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  third  Gladstone  administration 
he  was  appointed  Secretary  for  Scotland  (1886), 
but  he  resigned  (March,  *  1886 )  because  of  the 
bill  for  establishing  an  Irish  Parliament.  And 
again  in  the  last  Gladstone  administration  he 
was  Secretary  for  Scotland  (1892-95).  Trevel¬ 
yan  was  a  leader  in  the  abolition  of  the  pur¬ 
chase  of  commissions  in  the  army  and  in  the 
extension  of  household  suffrage  to  the  counties. 
Among  his  publications  are:  The  Competition 
Wallah  ( 1864)  ;  Cawnpore  (1865);  The  Ladies 
in  Parliament,  and  Other  Pieces  (1868);  The 
Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay  (1876)  ;  The 
Early  History  of  Charles  James  Fox  (1880); 
Interludes  in  Prose  and  Verse  (1905);  The 
American  Revolution  (4  vols.,  1899-1909),  a 
notably  valuable  work;  George  III  and  Charles 
James  Fox  (vol.  i,  1912;  vol/ii,  1914). 

His  son  and  heir,  Charles  Philips  Trevel¬ 
yan  was  a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament  after 
1899.  From  1908  to  1914  he  was  Parliamen¬ 
tary  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education,  resign¬ 
ing  because  he  opposed  England’s  participation  in 
the  European  War.  See  also  Trevelyan,  George 
Macaueay. 

TREVEN'A,  John,  pseudonym  of  an  English 
novelist,  Ernest  George  Heniiam  (c.1873-  ). 

Attacked  by  consumption  in  his  seventeenth 
year,  Henham  led  a  wandering  and  often  neces¬ 
sitous  life,  seeking  health  at  home  and  abroad, 
and  finding  it  finally  20  years  later  by  living 
upon  Dartmoor,  the  scene  of  his  most  charac- 
Vol.  XXII.— 30 


teristic  novels.  Those  of  his  books  which  were 
published  under  his  own  name  include:  Meno- 
tali:  A  Tale  of  the  Canadian  North  West  ( 1897)  ; 

??oAn .Man’  and  the  Devil  ^897-)  ;  Trenbrae 
6  Bonanza:  A  Story  of  the  Outside 
(IJOi);  Scud:  The  Story  of  a  Faud  (1902); 
The  Plowshare  and  the  Sword  (1903);  Krum : 
A  Study  of  Consciousness  (1904)  ;  The  Feast  of 
Bacchus:  A  Study  in  Dramatic  Atmosphere 
(1907).  The  books  that  appeared  under  his 
pseudonym  were:  A  Pixy  in  Petticoats  (1906)  ; 
Furze  the  Cruel  (1907),  one  of  his  best  novels; 
Arminel  of  the  West  (1907);  Heather  (1908); 
The  Dartmoor  House  that  Jack  Built  (1909)  ; 
Granite  (1909);  Wintering  Hay  (1912);  Sleep¬ 
ing  Maters  (1913);  Adventures  among  Wild- 
flowers  (1914);  Matrimony  and  Moyle  Church 
Town  (both  1915).  Consult  F.  T.  Cooper,  Some 
English  Story  Tellers  (New  York,  1912). 

TREVES,  trevz  (Ger.  Trier).  A  city  of 
Prussia,  in  the  Rhine  Province,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Moselle,  69  miles  southwest  of 
Coblenz  (Map:  Germany,  B  4).  It  is  situated 
in  a  region  of  hills,  vineyards,  and  woods  and 
presents  a  picturesque  appearance.  The  town 
lies  in  a  compact  form,  surrounded  on  three 
sides  by  promenades  called  allies.  In  the  old 
city  proper  the  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked. 
On  the  north  is  the  Porta  Nigra,  an  enormous 
fortified  gateway— a  splendid  Roman  relic.  In 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  city  stands  the 
cathedral,  one  of  the  oldest  churches  in  Europe. 
The  ancient  edifice  on  whose  site  it  stands  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  been  used  as  a  church  already  in 
Roman  times.  The  building  has  been  repeatedly 
restored  as  the  result  of  wars  and  the  ravages 
of  centuries.  It  is  regarded  as  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  pre-Carolingian  church  in  Germany.  Among 
its  contents  are  an  alleged  nail  from  the  cross 
and  the  famous  seamless  “Holy  Coat.”  There 
are  fine  cloisters  leading  to  the  charming  church 
of  Our  Lady  (Liebfrauenkirche) ,  an  early 
Gothic  structure  said  to  date  from  1143  and  to 
be  the  oldest  Gothic  church  in  Germany. 

.  In  the  southeastern  part  of  Treves  is  the  spa¬ 
cious  Palace  Square,  at  the  north  end  of  which 
stands  a  brick  basilica  dating  probably  from  the 
early  part  of  the  fourth  century,  restored  in 
1846-56  and  now  used  as  q  Protestant  church. 
At  the  south  end  of  the  square  is  the  Roman 
palace,  a  picturesque  mass  of  ruins.  The  valu¬ 
able  provincial  museum  is  near  by.  Among  its 
remarkable  antiquities  are  60  hermse,  torso  of 
Cupid,  torso  of  an  amazon,  a  mosaic  credited  to 
Monnus,  and  the  Roman  tombs  from  Neumagen, 
dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 'era' 
and  representing  the  costumes  and  daily  life 
in  this  region  at  that  period.  A  short  distance 
southeast  of  the  city  is  a  Roman  amphitheatre, 
built  in  Trajan’s  time.  In  the  southwestern 
part  of  Treves,  close  to  the  Moselle,  are  the 
Roman  baths,  a  vast  and  impressive  ruin. 

The  municipal  library,  containing  over  102,500 
volumes  and  manuscripts,  is  connected  with  the 
Gymnasium  and  possesses  rare  works  of  ancient 
date.  Among  them  is  the  illuminated  Codex 
Egberti,  dating  from  the  close  of  the  tenth  cen¬ 
tury.  There  are  also  the  Codex  Aureus  and  the 
Fust  and  Gutenberg  Bible  of  1450.  The  manu¬ 
facturing  interests  are  varied  and  important. 
There  are  tanneries,  iron  foundries,  dye  works, 
furniture  and  piano  factories,  glass-painting 
works,  etc.  The  trade  is  extensive  in  wine,  fruit, 
and  wood.  The  town  possesses  a  school  of  viti¬ 
culture.  There  are  many  mines  in  the  vicinitv 


TREVES 


TREVITHICK 


460 


including  lead,  copper,  and  tin  mines.  Pop., 
1900,  43,324;  1910,  54,827. 

History.  Treves  is  usually  considered  the 
most  ancient  town  of  Germany.  It  was  the 
capital  of  the  Celtic  Treviri,  from  whom  it  took 
its  name  (anciently  Augusta  Trevirorum).  The 
Romans  made  it  a  colony,  and  it  grew  in  impor¬ 
tance.  It  was  an  Imperial  residence  in  the  later 
times  of  the  Roman  Empire,  which  explains  the 
presence  of  the  magnificent  Roman  relics.  Treves 
had  a  bishop  at  a  very  early  date.  It  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Franks  about  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century.  The  see  appears  to  have  been 
erected  into  an  archbishopric  soon  after  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  century.  In  870  the 
city,  after  having  for  a  time  belonged  to  Lor¬ 
raine,  was  permanently  united  with  Germany. 
It  rose  to  great  importance  under  its  archbish¬ 
ops,  who  exercised  temporal  sway  over  a  con¬ 
siderable  district  and  who  held  a  place  among 
the  Imperial  Electors.  After  a  long  struggle 
with  its  ecclesiastical  overlords,  Treves  was 
recognized  as  a  free  city  towards  the  close  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  French  took  Treves 
in  1794,  and  within  a  few  years  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  archiepiscopal  see  was  in  their 
possession.  The  archbishopric  was  abolished. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  (1814-15)  handed  the 
city  and  the  former  see  over  to  Prussia.  Treves 
was  bombarded  by  an  allied  aerial  force  in  the 
great  war  which  began  in  1914.  See  War  in 
Europe.  Consult:  J.  N.  von  Wilmowski,  Der 
Dom  zu  Trier  (Treves,  1874)  ;  E.  A.  Freeman, 
Historical  and  Architectural  Sketches  (London, 
187G)  ;  Woerl,  Fuhrer  durch  die  Stadt  Trier 
(9th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1905). 

TREVES,  Sir  Frederick  (1853-  ).  A 

British  surgeon,  born  in  Dorchester  and  edu¬ 
cated  at  the  Merchant  Taylors’  School.  He  was 
Hunterian  professor  of  anatomy  and  Wilson 
professor  of  pathology  at  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  from  1881  to  1886  and  examiner  in 
surgery  at  Cambridge  in  1891—96.  From  1905 
to  1908  he  served  as  lord  rector  of  Aberdeen 
University.  In  the  South  African  W  ar  (1900) 
he  was  consulting  surgeon  and  served  with  the 
Ladysmith  relief  column.  In  1900-01  he  was 
surgeon  extraordinary  to  Queen  Victoria,  and 
in  1902  he  operated  upon  King  Edward  VII  for 
perityphlitis.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  created 
Baronet.  He  was  especially  successful  in  opera¬ 
tions  for  intestinal  obstruction,  appendicitis,  and 
peritonitis.  Notable  among  his  many  medical 
works  is  System  of  Surgery  (1895).  Treves 
also  published  books  on  travel,  war  experiences, 
etc. 

TREVET,  Nicholas.  See  Trivet,  Nicholas. 

TREVI,  tra've,  Fountain  of.  A  noted 
fountain  in  Rome,  with  which  the  superstition 
is  connected  that  a  traveler’s  return  to  Rome  is 
assured  by  dropping  a  coin  in  its  basin  and 
drinking  its  waters.  It  is  built  against  the 
facade  of  the  Palazzo  Poli  and  was  completed  in 
1762.  The  water  of  the  ancient  Aqua  Virgo 
spouts  from  the  rock  crevices  and  from  the 
nostrils  of  Neptune’s  horses,  above  the  fountain. 

TREVILLE,  Louis  Rene  Vassor,  Viscount 
de  La  Touche-.  See  Touche-Treville,  L. 
R.  V. 

TREVISO,  tra-ve'zo.  The  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Treviso,  Italy,  situated  in  a  fertile 
valley  on  the  Sile,  18  miles  north  by  west  of 
Venice  (Map:  Italy,  D  2).  It  is  connected  with 
the  lagoons  of  Venice  by  a  canal.  The  town  has 
a  mediaeval  appearance  with  its  high  walls 


flanked  with  bastions.  The  imposing  twelfth- 
century  cathedral,  restored  in  the  fifteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  has  five  cupolas.  The  Gothic  church  of 
San  Niccolo  has  a  curious  wooden  roof  and  is 
adorned  with  admirable  frescoes.  The  Borgo 
Cavour  contains  a  library  of  over  50,000  volumes 
and  a  picture  gallery.  Among  the  educational 
institutions  are  a  technical  school,  a  school  of 
navigation,  a  bishop’s  seminary,  and  an  academy 
of  sciences.  The  city  manufactures  silk  and 
woolen  goods,  metal  ware,  machinery,  chemicals, 
and  paper.  Pop.  (commune),  1901,  33,987; 
1911,  40,219.  Treviso,  the  Roman  Tarvisium, 
was  an  important  city  towards  the  end  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  It  figured  among  the  cities 
of  the  Lombard  League.  It  came  under  the  rule 
of  Venice  in  the  fourteenth  century.  In  1797  it 
was  taken  by  the  French  under  Mortier,  who 
received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Treviso. 

TREVISO,  Duke  of.  See  Mortier,  E.  A.  C.  J. 

TREVTTHICK,  Richard  (1771-1833).  A 
British  mechanical  engineer  and  inventor,  dis¬ 
tinguished  for  his  improvements  of  the  steam 
engine  and  as  the  designer  of  the  first  practi¬ 
cable  locomotive.  He  was  born  at  Illogan  in 
Cornwall  and  received  a  common-school  educa¬ 
tion  previous  to  becoming  an  engineer  in  the 
mines  in  his  vicinity.  Engaged  in  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  pumping  and  other  engines,  he  was  asso¬ 
ciated  with  Murdock,  Bull,  and  other  well-known 
engineers  and  was  constantly  experimenting  with 
machinery.  He  effected  various  improvements 
in  pumps  and  designed  a  high-pressure  steam 
engine  in  1800  which  was  soon  in  wide  use  in 
the  mines  of  Cornwall  and  Wales.  Turning  his 
attention  to  the  designing  of  steam  vehicles,  as 
early  as  1796  he  made  a  number  of  models 
on  a  small  scale  and  in  1801  completed  and 
operated  a  full-size  vehicle  for  which  he  received 
a  patent  in  the  following  year.  This  steam  car¬ 
riage  was  so  successful  that  Trevithick  with  the 
assistance  of  Andrew  Vivian  was  led  in  1804  to 
build  a  locomotive  engine  to  operate  on  the 
Merthyr  Tydfil  tram  road.  This  was  the  first 
application  of  steam  to  the  hauling  of  loads  on 
a  railway  and  led  to  the  construction  of  further 
steam  locomotives  operating  on  rails,  including 
one  which  was  exhibited  in  London  in  1808  on  a 
circular  track.  As  Trevithick  understood  that 
the  friction  of  the  wheels  on  the  rails  was  suffi¬ 
cient  for  the  traction  of  cars  on  ordinary  grades 
(in  distinction  from  other  inventors  who  em¬ 
ployed  a  cog  and  rack ) ,  and  as  he  was  the  first 
to  use  a  return  flue  boiler  and  a  steam  jet  in 
the  chimney,  and  to  couple  together  the  wheels 
of  a  locomotive,  he  is  considered  by  many  en¬ 
titled  to  the  credit  of  being  the  real  inventor  of 
the  locomotive  steam  engine.  It  is,  however,  to 
Stephenson  ( q.v. )  that  we  must  look  for  the 
perfection  of  a  practical  application  of  the 
machine.  See  Locomotive;  Railway's. 

In  1816  Trevithick  went  to  Peru,  where  a 
number  of  his  engines  had  been  introduced  into 
the  silver  mines,  and,  after  being  successful  in 
several  undertakings,  lost  his  entire  property 
through  the  outbreak  of  war.  At  Cartagena  in 
1827  he  encountered  Robert  Stephenson  (q.v.), 
who  assisted  him  to  return  to  England.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  further  ex¬ 
periments,  few  of  which  came  to  a  successful 
outcome,  and  he  died  in  poverty.  While  Trevi¬ 
thick  reaped  but  little  material  reward  for  any 
of  his  inventions,  yet  he  made  many  discoveries 
which  wore  of  the  greatest  use  to  other  engineers 
when  practically  applied  and  successfully  de- 


TRIAD 


461  TRIASSIC  SYSTEM 


veloped.  Consult:  Smiles,  Lives  of  Engineers 
(London,  1861);  Francis  Trevithick,  Life  of 
Richard  Trevithick  (ib.,  1872)  ;  E.  K.  Harper, 
A  Cornish  Giant,  Richard  Trevithick:  The 
Father  of  the  Locomotive-Engine  (ib.,  1913). 

TRIAD  (from  Lat.  trios,  from  Gk.  rpias, 
number  three,  triad,  from  rpeis,  treis,  three).  In 
music  a  chord  of  three  tones  built  upon  any  tone 
with  its  third  and  fifth  above.  According  to  the 
character  of  the  intervals  (major,  minor,  aug¬ 
mented  or  diminished)  the  character  of  the  triad 
varies  materially.  See  Harmony,  Chords. 

TRIAL  (OF.  trial,  from  trier,  to  try,  choose, 
thresh,  from  ML.  tritare,  to  thresh,  rub,  fre¬ 
quentative  of  Lat.  terere,  to  rub,  thresh).  A 
regular  and  formal  examination  or  inquiry  into 
the  material  facts  of  a  controversy  in  issue  be¬ 
fore  a  competent  tribunal,  in  order  finally  to 
determine  the  respective  rights  of  the  parties 
thereto.  Trials  may  be  divided  into  two  classes 
—those  by  a  judge  and  jury  and  those  before  a 
judge  without  a  jury.  In  a  legal  action  the 
trial  is  usually  before  a  jury.  (For  the  ordinary 
steps  in  a  jury  trial,  see  Jury.)  In  courts  of 
equity  trials  are  conducted  before  the  chancellor 
or  judge  without  a  jury,  substantially  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  a  jury  trial.  The  codes  of 
reformed  procedure  and  practice  acts  in  most  of 
the  United  States  regulate  the  details  of  trials  in 
their  various  courts.  See  Evidence;  Jury; 
Nolle  Prosequi;  Nonsuit;  Pleading;  Prac¬ 
tice;  etc.;  and  consult  authorities  under  Evi¬ 
dence;  Jury;  Pleading;  etc. 

TRIAL  BY  BATTLE.  See  Battle,  Trial 
by;  Ordeal. 

TRIAL  BY  JURY.  The  first  comic  opera 
by  Gilbert  and  Sullivan  (see  Gilbert,  Sir  W.  S.; 
Sullivan,  Sir  Arthur),  first  produced  in  Lon¬ 
don,  March  25,  1875. 

TRI'ANGLE  (Lat.  triangulus,  three-cor¬ 
nered,  from  tres,  three  +  angulus,  angle).  A 
figure  formed  by  three  intersecting  lines.  The 
sides  of  a  plane  triangle  are  straight  lines,  and 
those  of  a  spherical  triangle  are  geodetic  lines  or 
arcs  of  great  circles.  Triangles  are  called  equi¬ 
lateral,  isosceles,  and  scalene  according  as  three 
sides,  two  sides,  or  no  sides  are  equal,  but  the 
word  “scalene’’  is  rarely  used.  Of  two  angles 
of  a  plane  triangle,  the  one  which  is  opposite 
the  greater  side  is  the  greater,  but  the  angles 
do  not  vary  as  the  sides,  the  ratio  of  two  sides 
being  equal  to  that  of  the  sines  of  the  opposite 
angles.  (See  Trigonometry.)  In  a  spherical 
triangle  the  sines  of  the  sides  are  proportional 
to  the  sines  of  the  opposite  angles.  The  sum  of 
the  angles  of  a  plane  triangle  is  180°  according 
to  Euclidean  geometry  (see  Geometry),  but  in 
the  case  of  a  spherical  triangle  the  sum  varies 
from  0°  to  540°.  The  geometry  of  the  triangle 
is  extensive,  and  a  few  of  the  most  important 
propositions  are  given  under  Concurrence  and 
Collinearity  and  Maxima  and  Minima.  The 
area  of  any  plane  triangle  is  given  by  the  for¬ 
mulas  A  =  ^  and  A  =  Vs  (s  -  a)  (s  -  b )  (s  -  c), 


where  b  is  the  base,  h  the  altitude,  a,  b,  c 
the  sides,  and  s  the  semiperimeter.  In  case 


the  triangle  is  equilateral,  A  = 


a2  V3 


where  a 


is  the  side.  If  one  angle  of  a  plane  triangle  is  a 
right  angle,  the  triangle  is  called  a  right-angled 
triangle,  the  side  opposite  the  right  angle  being 
the  hypotenuse.  In  the  United  States  the  term 


“right 


triangle” 


is  commonly  used  for 


“right- 


angled  triangle.”  The  spherical  triangle  of  one, 
two,  or  three  right  angles  is  called  a  rectangular. 


birectangular,  or 


trirectangular 


triangle  re¬ 


spectively.  The  spherical  triangle  in  which  one, 
two,  or  three  sides  are  quadrants  is  called  a 
quadrantal,  biquadrantal,  or  triquadrantal  tri¬ 
angle  respectively.  The  area  of  a  spherical 

triangle  is  given  by  the  formula  A  =  , 

where  R  is  the  radius  of  the  sphere  and  E  the 
spherical  excess  (q.v.),  or  A  +  B  +  C  —  180°. 
Consult  Catalan,  “Quelques  formules  relatives 
aux  triangles  rectilignes,”  in  the  Memoires  cou- 
rowies  of  the  Brussels  Academy  (1891),  and 
Casey,  Sequel  to  Euclid  (5th  ed.,' Dublin,  1888). 

TRIANGLE.  A  musical  instrument  con¬ 
sisting  of  a  steel  rod  bent  into  a  three-sided 
figure  open  at  one  angle.  It  is  hung  by  a  cord 
at  the  upper  angle  and  attached  to  the  perform¬ 
er’s  left  hand,  to  his  desk,  or  to  his  drums. 
Modern  composers  frequently  use  it  in  marches, 
dances,  and  fantasias.  As  it  is  used  only  for 
rhythmic  figures,  the  music  is  written,  as  for 
drums  and  other  instruments  without  fixed  pitch, 
upon  a  single  line. 


TRIANGLE.  In  architectural  and  engineer¬ 
ing  drafting,  an  instrument  of  wood,  hard  rub¬ 
ber,  or  celluloid  for  drawing  lines  at  given  angles 
to  the  T-square.  There  are  two  forms  commonly 
used,  both  having  one  right  angle  and  two  acute 
angles,  of  45°  in  the  one  form  and,  in  the  other, 
of  30°  and  60°. 

TRIANGLE  OF  FORCES.  See  Mechanics. 

TRIANGLE  SPIDER.  A  spider  ( Hyptiotes 
cavatus)  of  the  family  Uloboridse,  common  in 
the  eastern  United  States.  Its  web  is  usually 
stretched  between  the  twigs  of  dead  branches 
and  at  first  appears  like  the  fragment  of  an  orb 
web.  It  consists  of  four  plain  radiating  lines 
and  a  series  of  double  crosslines.  From  the 
apex  of  the  triangle  a  strong  line  extends  to  the 
supporting  twig.  The  spider  stations  itself  on 
this  line  and  draws  up  a  slack  which  when 
loosened  jars  the  whole  web,  entangling  engaged 
insects  in  the  cross  threads.  Consult  J.  "H. 
Comstock,  The  Spider  Book  (new  ed.,  New  York, 
1914). 

TRIAN'GULAR  NUMBERS.  See  Number. 

TRIAN'GULA'TION.  A  method  used  in 
surveying  when  the  area  to  be  surveyed  is  of  con¬ 
siderable  extent.  It  consists,  as  the  name  indi¬ 
cates,  in  laying  out  a  system  of  triangles  by 
mea,ns  of  which  intermediate  points  are  located. 
See  Geodesy;  Surveying. 

TRIANON,  tre,a'noN/.  The  name  given  to 
two  villas  in  the  Park  of  Versailles.  The  Grand 
Trianon  was  built  in  1685  by  Louis  XIV  for 
Madame  de  Maintenon.  The  Petit  Trianon, 
built  by  Louis  XV  in  1766  for  Madame  Du 
Barry,  was  afterward  a  favorite  resort  of  Marie 
Antoinette.  See  Plate  of  Interior  Decoration. 

TRI'AR'THRUS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tpeis, 
treis,  three  -f-  apOpov,  arthron,  joint).  A  genus 
of  Ordovician  trilobites  with  depressed  convex 
carapace  of  elongate  oval  outline,  of  which  the 
middle  third  is  occupied  by  the  broad  axis.  The 
thorax  has  14  to  16  segments,  in  the  middle  of 
each  of  which  there  is  a  rounded  knob,  and  the 
pygidium  is  small  and  semicircular.  The  best- 
known  species  is  Triarthrus  becki  of  the  Utica 
shale  of  North  America.  See  Trilobita. 

TRIAS'SIC  SYSTEM  (from  Lat.  trios,  num¬ 
ber  three,  triad).  A  group  of  rocks  immediately 
following  the  Carboniferous  and  preceding  the 
Jurassic  system.  It  is  therefore  the  oldest  for- 


TRIBUNE 


462 


TRIASSIC  SYSTEM 

mation  of  the  Mesozoic  era.  The  rocks  of  this 
system  were  at  first  associated  with  the  Permian 
under  the  name  of  the  New  Red  Sandstone 
(q.v.)  /  but  they  were  finally  separated  and 
designated  as  the  Trias  by  German  geologists, 
who  divided  the  system  into  three  series,  the 
Keuper,  Muschelkalk,  and  Buntersandstein.  The 
Rhsetic  clays  and  sandstones  were  subsequently 
added  to  the  system. 

Much  difficulty  has  been  found  in  subdividing 
the  American  Trias  and  still  more  in  correlating 
it  with  the  European  beds.  Indeed,  in  the 
United  States  it  is  often  difficult  to  separate  the 
Triassic  from  the  Jurassic,  and  consequently 
the  plan  adopted  by  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  is  to  designate  them  as  the  Jura-Trias, 
and  consider  the  deposits  as  one  formation. 

The  Pacific  Coast  beds  are  marine,  while  those 
of  the  Atlantic  border  are  estuarine.  In  the 
Eastern  States  the  Triassic  formation  consists 
of  a  series  of  sandstones  and  shales  extending 
more  or  less  unbrokenly  from  the  Connecticut 
valley  to  South  Carolina.  The  rocks  were  de¬ 
posited  in  shallow  water  along  the  continental 
shores.  The  Newark  rocks  are  in  many  places 
faulted  and  intruded  by  igneous  rocks,  the  erup¬ 
tions  having  in  some  cases  occurred  while  the 
deposition  of  sediment  was  still  going  on,  be¬ 
ing  thus  in  the  nature  of  submarine  outbursts. 
The  Palisades  of  the  Hudson  River  and  the  East 
Rock  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  are  formed  of  dia¬ 
base  erupted  during  the  Triassic  period.  Some 
doubt  exists  as  to  whether  the  Triassic  rocks 
of  the  Atlantic  border  were  one  continuous  belt 
or  whether  they  were  deposited  in  separated 
troughs.  In  the  interior  of  the  continent  along 
the  Rocky  Mountains  there  are  extensive  beds  of 
red  sandstone  which  were  deposited  in  an  in¬ 
land  sea,  but  whether  they  belong  to  the  Triassic 
or  Jura-Trias  is  unsettled.  On  the  Pacific  coast 
the  Triassic  rocks  have  a  maximum  thickness  of 
nearly  5000  feet.  Triassic  rocks  are  known  in 
Central  and  South  America,  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Australasia. 

The  plant  life  of  the  Triassic  included  ferns, 
cvcads,  conifers,  and  gigantic  representatives  of 
the  Equiseta,  or  horsetails.  The  accumulated  re¬ 
mains  of  these  plants  contributed  t-o  the  for¬ 
mation  of  important  coal  seams.  Among  the 
vertebrates  fishes  were  fairly  abundant,  the 
dominant  type  being  ganoids ;  but  the  most 
characteristic  class  was  the  Amphibia,  which 
attained  its  greatest  development  in  this  period. 
Of  reptiles  the  ichthyosaurs,  plesiosaurs,  dino¬ 
saurs,  crocodiles,  and  turtles  were  present,  while 
the  earliest  representatives  of  the  Mammalia 
came  into  existence. 

The  Triassic  beds  of  the  Atlantic  border 
formerly  were  quarried  extensively,  yielding  the 
well-known  brownstone  once  so  popular  as  a 
building  material  in  the  Eastern  cities.  De¬ 
posits  of  coal  are  found  in  the  Triassic  of  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  North  Carolina  and  in  parts  of  Eu¬ 
rope,  but  they  are  of  minor  importance  compared 
with  the  great  coal  measures  of  the  Carbonif¬ 
erous  age. 

Bibliography.  Darton,  “The  Relations  of 
the  Traps  of  the  Newark  System  in  the  New 
Jersey  Region,”  United  States  Geological  Sur¬ 
vey,  Bulletin  67  (Washington,  1890)  ;  Russell, 
“The  Newark  System,”  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  Bulletin  85  (ib.,  1892);  Davis,  “The 
Triassic  Formation  of  Connecticut,”  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  18th  Annual  Report, 
part  ii  (ib.,  1898)  ;  Shaler  and  Woodworth, 


“Geology  of  the  Richmond  Basin,  Virginia,”  in 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  Nineteenth 
Annual  Report,  part  ii  (ib.,  1899);  Kiimmel, 
“The  Newark  Rocks  of  New  Jersey  and  New 
York,”  in  Journal  of  Geology,  vii  (Chicago, 
1899)  ;  Lull,  “Triassic  Life  of  the  Connecticut 
Valley,”  in  State  Geological  and  Natural  His¬ 
tory  Survey  of  Connecticut,  Bulletin  21^  (Hart¬ 
ford,  1915).  See  Geology;  Paleontology;  etc. 

TRIBE  (Lat.  tribus,  tribe;  possibly  connected 
with  trabs,  beam,  Lith.  trobd,  building,  0 Welsh, 
OBret.  treb,  habitation,  subdivision  of  the  people, 
OHG.  dorf,  Ger.  Dorf,  Eng.  thorp,  village).  A 
territorial  group  of  varying  size,  embracing  in¬ 
dividuals  linked  together  by  linguistic,  cultural, 
and  perhaps  primarily  political  bonds.  It  is  a 
matter  of  judgment  whether  to  regard  closely 
allied  groups  speaking  mutually  intelligible 
dialects  as  distinct  tribes  or  not.  This  often 
depends  on  the  emphasis  placed  on  political 
independence  as  compared  with,  say,  similarity 
of  speech.  When  the  term  is  applied  to  several 
groups  each  of  which  is  restricted  to  a  part  of 
the  tribal  area,  these  local  subdivisions  may 
be  called  bands  or  hordes.  A  union  of  tribes, 
when  definitely  organized,  is  called  a  league  or 
confederacy,  as  in  the  case  of  the  five  Iroquois 
tribes;  while  Spencer  and  Gillen  have  applied 
the  term  “nation”  to  the  much  vaguer  union 
of  culturally  and  linguistically  related  tribes 
of  central  and  north-central  Australia.  The  es¬ 
sential  thing  is  to  confine  the  term  “tribe”  to 
a  local  unit  as  contradistinguished  from  social 
subdivisions,  such  as  moieties,  clans,  gentes,  or 
castes. 

A  few  concrete  illustrations  may  elucidate 
common  ethnological  usage.  The  Assiniboin 
speak  merely  a  dialect  of  the  Dakota  language 
and  from  this  point  of  view  might  be  classed 
as  one  tribe  with  the  Yanktonnais  Dakota. 
Nevertheless,  they  have  broken  away  so  de¬ 
cidedly  as  a  political  unit  that  no  one  would 
deny  to  them  the  title  of  a  separate  tribe.  The 
Blackfoot  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  single 
tribe,  comprising  as  subdivisions  the  Blood, 
Piegan,  and  Northern  Blackfoot,  while  other 
writers  prefer  to  speak  of  a  union  of  three 
distinct  tribes.  Both  usages  seem  permissible, 
since  here  we  have  certainly  a  great  degree 
of  unity  when  the  Blackfoot  divisions  are  com¬ 
pared  with  alien  groups,  while  at  the  same 
time  each  preserved  an  appreciable  degree  of 
individuality.  In  Africa  the  prominence  of  the 
monarchical  idea  generally  simplifies  the  use 
of  the  term.  There  a  tribe  comprises  usually 
the  entire  following  of  a  certain  ruler,  the  polit¬ 
ical  factor  even  obscuring  the  territorial  prin¬ 
ciple,  i.e.,  if  a  king  for  any  reason  shifts  his 
headquarters  to  those  of  another  ruler,  the 
subjects  of  each  would  remain  distinct  units. 
The  term  “tribe,”  then,  cannot  be  rigidly  de¬ 
fined,  but  in  its  use  the  territorial  and  political 
features  are  clearly  predominant. 

TRI'BONIA'NUS.  A  distinguished  Roman 
jurist  of  the  sixth  century  a.d.  He  was  of 
Macedonian  parentage,  but  was  born  at  Side  in 
Pamphylia,  He  held  under  the  Emperor  Jus¬ 
tinian  (q.v.)  the  offices  of  quaestor,  master  of 
the  Imperial  household,  and  consul.  But  he  is 
famous  chiefly  through  his  labors  in  connection 
with  the  Code  of  Justinian  and  the  pandects 
( q.v. ) .  He  died  in  545. 

TRIB'UNE  ( Lat.  tribunus,  originally  a  tribal 
officer,  from  tribus,  tribe).  In  ancient  Rome 
the  name  “tribune”  was  applied  to  two  distinct 


TRIBUNE 


TRICERATOPS 


functionaries,  the  military  tribunes  ( tribuni 
militum )  and  the  tribunes  of  the  plebs  ( tribuni 
plebis) ,  which  will  be  considered  separately. 
1.  In  the  traditional  organization  of  the  citi¬ 
zens  by  Romulus  (q.v.)  the  leader  of  the  quota 
of  warriors  furnished  by  each  of  the  three  tribes 
was  called  tribu/nus  militum y  and  the  same  was 
true  when  the  tribes  were  increased  to  four  un¬ 
der  Servius  Tullius,  when  we  read  also  of  tri¬ 
buni  aerarii,  whose  duty  it  was  to  collect  and 
pay  into  the  treasury  the  tribal  taxes  (tribute). 

( See  Rome,  Ancient  Rome,  History  of  Rome 
During  the  Earliest  or  Regal  Period.)  Under 
the  Republic  each  legion  was  under  the  com¬ 
mand  of  six  military  tribunes,  at  first  appointed 
by  the  consuls  ( who  were  the  commanders  in 
chief),  afterward  elected  at  the  comitia  tributa. 
(See  Comitia.)  Their  importance  was  greatly 
diminished  at  the  end  of  the  Republic^  when 
the  actual  command  of  the  legion  in  the  field 
was  confided  to  a  skilled  officer  called  legatus 
legionis,  and  the  six  tribuni  militum  were  re¬ 
tained  only  as  an  honorary  staff  of  the  general. 
(See  Legion.)  With  the  formal  development 
of  the  cursus  honorum,  or  regular  sequence  of 
offices  for  men  of  senatorial  rank,  the  military 
tribuneship  took  its  place  in  the  preliminary 
service,  as  a  stepping  stone  by  which  young- 
nobles  might  reach  the  higher  positions.'  Un¬ 
der  the  Empire  the  name  tribuni  was  given  also 
to  the  officers  of  each  cohort  of  the  praetorian 
guard  (q.v.),  city  guards  ( cohortes  urbance) , 
and  night  watch  (vigiles) .  Consult  the  works 
named  at  the  end  of  2,  below ;  J.  Marquardt, 
Romische  Staatsvenvaltung,  vol.  ii  (2d  ed., 
Leipzig,  1884)  ;  G.  H.  Allen,  “The  Advancement 
of  Officers  in  the  Roman  Army,”  in  Supplement¬ 
ary  Papers  of  the  American  School  of  Classi¬ 
cal  Studies  in  Rome,  vol.  ii  (New  York,  1908)  ; 
G.  L.  Cheesman,  The  Auxilia  of  the  Roman  Im¬ 
perial  Army  (Oxford,  1915). 

2.  In  the  early  period  all  the  perquisites  and 
prerogatives  of  government  in  Rome  were  in  the 
hands  of  the  patricians,  while  the  plebs,  the 
bulk  of  the  people,  had  only  the  burdens  of 
taxation  and  military  service.  (See  Rome, 
Ancient  Rome,  History  of  Rome  during  the 
Earliest  or  Regal  Period ;  The  Roman  Re¬ 
public  from  its  Institution  to  the  Abolition  of 
the  Decemvirate,  Internal  History;  From  the 
Abolition  of  the  Decemvirate  to  the  Defeat  of 
the  Samnites,  etc.,  Internal  History.)  This 
galling  condition  is  said  to  have  been  partly 
remedied  by  the  secession  of  the  plebs  in  494 
B.c.,  when  they  secured  the  right  to  have  an¬ 
nual  magistrates,  called  tribuni  plebis,  chosen 
from  their  number  to  look  after  their  especial 
interests  and  needs.  These  were  six  in  num¬ 
ber  (at  first  perhaps  five),  served  for  one 
year,  and  were  reeligible.  They  were  invested 
with  three  important  privileges:  (1)  ius  auxilii, 
the  right  to  defend  a  plebeian  on  any  charge; 
(2)  intercessio,  the  right  of  vetoing  any  meas¬ 
ure  proposed  by  the  Senate  (q.v.)  ;  (3)  per¬ 

sonal  inviolability  during  their  term  of  office. 
After  471  b.c.  the  tribunes  were  regularly  elected 
by  the  popular  comitia  tributa.  (See  Comitia.) 
The  power  and  energy  of  the  plebeian  tribunes 
were  responsible  for  the  gradual  extension  of 
political  rights  to  all  the  people,  and  to  the 
struggle  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians 
that  marks  the  history  of  the  Republic.  They 
caused  the  codification  of  the  laws  (Twelve 
Tables)  in  451  b.c.;  the  recognition  of  the  popu¬ 
lar  decrees  (plebiscita)  as  binding  on  all  alike 


(449)  ;  the  recognition  of  the  right  of  intermar¬ 
riage  between  patricians  and  plebeians  by  the 
lex  Canuleia  (445);  the  successive  opening  up 
of  the  high  offices  to  the  plebeians;  the 
Licinian  Rogations  (q.v.,  367);  and  the  agra¬ 
rian  agitation  of  Tiberius  and  Gaius  Gracchus. 
(See  Agrarian  Laws;  Gracchus.)  Augus¬ 
tus  Caesar  took  to  himself  the  power  and 
rights  of  the  tribunes  ( tribunicia  potestas)  f  and 
hence  under  the  Empire  the  office  lost  its  im¬ 
portance,  becoming  a  function  for  senators  of 
plebeian  rank,  held  between  the  quaestorship  and 
the  praetorship.  Consult  the  article  “Tribunus” 
in  W.  Smith,  A  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Antiquities,  vol.  ii  (3d  ed.,  London,  1891 );  A.  H.  J. 
Greenidge,  Roman  Public  Life  (ib.,  1901)  ;  J.  E. 
Granrud,  Roman  Constitutional  History  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1902)  ;  G.  W.  Botsford,  The  Roman  As¬ 
semblies  (New  York,  1909);  F.  F.  Abbott,  A 
History  and  Description  of  Roman  Political  In¬ 
stitutions  (3d  ed.,  Boston,  1911). 

TRIBUNE.  In  architecture,  a  place  or  struc¬ 
ture  from  which  to  address  an  audience;  a  use 
of  the  term  derived  from  the  Roman  provisions 
for  the  promulgation  of  decrees  of  the  tribunes 
or  magistrates.  The  term  is  variously  applied 
to  {a)  the  apse  of  a  church;  (b)  any  pulpit  or 
platform,  civil  or  ecclesiastical,  and  especially 
the  platform  and  desk  from  which  alone,  in 
the  French  Senate  or  Chamber  of  Deputies,  the 
legislator  is  allowed  to  address  the  chamber; 
(o)  a  balcony  or  gallery  in  a  church  or  hall,  for 
musicians,  as,  e.g.,  those  once  in  the  cathedral 
of  Florence  (now  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo), 
sculptured  by  Donatello  and  Luca  della  Robbia 
with  exquisite  figures  of  children  singing  and 
playing  on  instruments. 

TRIBUT  DE  ZAMORA,  tre'bu'  de  za'mo'ra', 
Le.  An  opera  by  Gounod  ( q.v. ) ,  first  produced  in 
Paris,  April  1,  1881 ;  in  the  United  States,  Jan. 
12,  1888  (New  Orleans). 

TRIB'UTE  (Lat.  tributum,  from  tribuere ,  to 
grant,  pay,  or  assign,  originally  to  a  tribe,  from 
tribus,  a  tribe) .  Money,  commodities  of  value, 
or  services  rendered  by  one  ruler  or  state  to  an¬ 
other  in  token  of  submission,  as  distinguished 
from  taxation,  which  is  the  legal  imposition  of 
financial  burdens  by  a  state  upon  its  own  sub¬ 
jects.  This  distinction  cannot  be  said,  however, 
always  to  have  prevailed,  and,  under  the  feudal 
system  especially,  taxation,  tribute,  and  rent 
were  in  many  cases  identical.  This  was  natural 
under  a  system  where  the  political  superior  was 
at  the  same  time  the  owner  of  the  land,  and 
where  such  land  was  held  largely  by  military 
tenure.  Aids  and  reliefs  were  essentially  of  the 
nature  of  tribute,  as  also  were  the  tolls  and  serv¬ 
ices  levied  upon  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  by 
their  lords,  or  exactions  like  that  of  heriot 
( q.v. ) .  See  Feudalism. 

TRICAR.  See  Cycle  Car;  Side  Car. 
TRICER'ATOPS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  rpeis, 
treis,  three  -j-  sepas,  keras,  horn  -f-  &\p,  ops, 
face).  An  interesting  fossil  reptile,  a  horned 
dinosaur  of  formidable  aspect,  of  which  skele¬ 
tons  are  found  in  the  Upper  Cretaceous  rocks 
of  Colorado,  Dakota,  Wyoming,  and  Montana. 
The  animal  was  about  25  feet  long,  with 
heavily  built  legs  and  powerful  tail.  The  most 
peculiar  feature  is  the  strong  armature  of  the 
massive  head.  The  skull  is  larger  than  that 
of  any  other  known  land  animal,  with  a  length 
of  6  feet  and  a  width  across  the  crest  of  about 
5  feet.  It  is  wedge-shaped  and  narrow  in  front 
of  the  small  orbits  and  expanded  behind  into 


TRICHECHIDiE 


TRICHINIASIS 


464 


a  broad  solid  bony  crest  which  projects  far 
backward  over  the  neck  and  shoulders,  with 
edges  armed  with  a  row  of  sharp  projections 
that  were  covered  by  horn.  On  the  facial  re¬ 
gion  are  three  horns:  a  long  outward  spreading 
pair  over  the  orbits  and  a  small  horn  on  the 
nose.  The  jaws  have  strong  turtle-like  beaks 
on  their  tips  and  series  of  two-rooted  teeth 
placed  in  sockets  in  their  posterior  portions. 
The  brain  of  this  creature  was  smaller  than 
that  of  any  other  known  vertebrate,  with  a 
ratio  to  bulk  of  body  of  two  pounds  to  10  tons. 
The  feet  were  three-toed,  and  the  beast  walked 
on  all  fours  and  fed  on  plants.  Consult:  Zit- 
tel  and  Eastman,  Textbook  of  Palaeontology ,  vol. 
ii  (London  and  New  York,  1902)  ;  Marsh,  “The 
Dinosaurs  of  North  America,”  in  Annual  Re¬ 
ports  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey, 
vol.  xvi,  part  i  (Washington,  1896)  ;  Lucas, 
Animals  of  the  Past  (New  York,  1914),  which 
contains  interesting  observations  on  the  habits 
of  Triceratops.  See  Dinosauria,  and  Plate  of 
Dinosaurs. 

TRICHECHIDiE,  tri-kekT-de.  See  Carniv¬ 
ora;  Pinnipedia. 

TRICHIASIS,  trl-ki'a-sis  (Neo-Lat.,  from 
Gk.  Tpixlaacs,  from  6pi£,  thrix,  rpixos,  trichos, 
hair).  An  inversion  of  one  or  more  eyelashes, 
their  points  rubbing  against  the  globe  of  the 
eye.  It  results  from  cicatricial  contraction  or 
long-continued  inflammation  of  the  eyelids.  The 
symptoms,  like  those  of  entropion  (q.v. ),  are 
caused  by  irritation  of  the  conjunctiva  by  the 
rubbing  "of  the  eyelashes.  The  treatment  con¬ 
sists  in  plucking  out  the  offending  hairs  (if 
they  are  few  in  number)  from  time  to  time. 
Electrolysis  may  be  employed.  In  other  cases 
it  may  be  necessary  to  perform  a  plastic  surgi¬ 
cal  operation  on  the  lid. 

TRICHINA,  trl-kl'na  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
df n'|,  thrix,  hair).  A  peculiar  nematode  worm, 
which  in  its  sexually  immature  state  inhabits 
the  muscles  of  mammals,  usually  the  pig.  It 
was  discovered  in  1835. 

The  young  trichinae,  as  seen  in  human  mus¬ 
cle,  present  the  form  of  spirally  coiled  worms, 
in  the  interior  of  small,  globular,  oval,  or  lemon¬ 
shaped  cysts,  which  appear  as  minute  specks 
scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  cysts 
are  sometimes  altogether  absent  and  hence  must 
be  regarded  as  formations  resulting  from  local 
inflammation  set  up  by  the  presence  of  the 
worm,  which  in  this  larval  condition  measures 
about  a  millimeter  long.  These  larval  worms 
exhibit  a  well-marked  digestive  apparatus  and 
afford  evidence  of  the  presence  of  reproductive 
organs,  which  are  often  sufficiently  developed  to 
enable  the  observer  to  determine  the  sex.  The 
number  of  larval  trichinae  that  may  simultane¬ 
ously  exist  in  the  muscles  of  a  single  man  or 
animal  is  enormous. 

When  an  animal  is  fed  with  flesh  containing 
the  larval  worm  and  is  killed  a  few  days  after¬ 
ward,  a  large  number  of  minute  worms  are 
found  in  the  contents  of  the  small  intestines. 
On  the  second  day  after  their  introduction 
these  intestinal  trichinae  attain  full  sexual  ma¬ 
turity,  and  in  six  days  the  females  contain 
perfectly  developed  and  free  embryos. 

The  female  is  a  slender  round  worm,  varying 
in  length  from  ^  to  |  of  an  inch.  The 
anterior  end  presents  a  beadlike  appearance, 
from  which  the  intestinal  canal  proceeds.  The 
posterior  three-fourths  are  mainly  occupied  by 
the  reproductive  organ,  which  is  filled  partly 


with  free  embryos  and  partly  with  eggs  in  vari¬ 
ous  stages  of  maturity.  The  females  continue 
bringing  forth  young  for  two  or  three  weeks. 
The  embryos  penetrate  the  walls  of  the  intes¬ 
tine  and  pass  either  through  the  body  cavity 
or  by  means  of  the  blood  vessels  into  the  muscles 
of  the  host,  where,  if  conditions  are  favorable, 
they  are  developed  into  the  encysted  form. 
Some  of  them  reach  the  muscles  of  the  ex¬ 
tremities  and  other  distant  parts;  but  the  ma¬ 
jority  remain  in  those  sheathed  muscular  groups 
which  are  the  nearest  to  the  cavity  of  the  body 
(abdomen  and  thorax),  especially  in  those 
which  are  smaller  and  most  supplied  with  con¬ 
nective  tissue.  These  embryos  penetrate  the  in¬ 
terior  of  the  separate  muscle  fibres,  and  in  14 
days  acquire  the  size  and  organization  of 
Trichina  spiralis.  In  the  adult  condition  tri¬ 
chinae  perish  in  cold  water  in  about  an  hour 
and  cannot  survive  the  decease  of  their  host  for 
more  than  six  hours,  but  the  larvae  remain  alive 
in  water  for  a  month  and  will  live  for  a  long 
time  in  flesh  which  has  become  putrid.  In  this 
way  a  carcass  near  a  marsh  or  rivulet  may  com¬ 
municate  the  parasites  to  the  ruminants  that 
drink  the  water  or  to  pigs.  The  formation  of 
the  cysts  is  the  cause  of  more  or  less  serious 
injury  to  the  host,  according  to  the  number 
present.  When  abundant,  the  weakness  is  very 
marked  and  is  often  fatal.  In  man  infection 
occurs  almost  invariably  through  the  eating  of 
raw  or  underdone  pork  containing  the  cysts. 
If  the  meat  is  properly  cooked  the  worms  will  be 
destroyed.  Consult  Max  Braun,  Die  thierischen 
Parasiten  des  Menschen  (3d  ed.,  Wurzburg, 
1903).  See  Parasite,  Animal. 

TRICHINIASIS,  trik'i-nl'a-sis,  or  TRICH¬ 
INOSIS,  -no'sls  (Neo-Lat.,  from  trichina,  tri¬ 
china).  A  disease  caused  by  the  ingestion  of 
meat  (pork  or  sausage)  containing  trichina 
(q.v.),  characterized  by  a  number  of  diverse 
symptoms.  In  1831  Hilton  Warmald  first 
noted  the  characteristic  specks  while  dissecting; 
but  the  trichina  was  demonstrated  by  Paget 
and  the  naturalist  Sir  Richard  Owen  in  1835. 
Zenker  first  demonstrated,  in  1860,  that  tri- 
chiniasis  caused  death,  and  Virchow  (q.v.) 
first  propagated  the  nematode  in  an  animal  and 
demonstrated  its  presence  in  the  intestine  in 
1859.  Leuckart  in  the  following  year  pre¬ 
sented  a  full,  lucid,  and  complete  solution  of 
the  whole  question.  After  being  swallowed,  the 
trichina  worms  traverse  the  connective  tissue 
and  gain  access  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  They 
are  found  in  the  muscles  of  the  trunk  and 
head  as  well  as  in  the  extremities,  and  thickly 
placed  in  the  diaphragm,  the  intercostals,  the 
muscles  of  the  neck  and  of  the  eyes.  The  in¬ 
testinal  canal  shows  catarrhal  changes,  and 
the  trichina  may  be  found  in  the  intestinal  mu¬ 
cosa.  The  mesenteric  glands  are  swollen.  The 
heart  muscle  is  almost  invariably  free  from 
invasion. 

The  parasite  occurs  in  two  forms — one,  a 
sexually  mature  form  (intestinal  trichina),  the 
other  an  immature  form  (muscle  trichina). 
The  intestinal  worm  is  small  and  hairlike,  the 
male  being  ^  of  an  inch  long,  the  female .  | 
of  an  inch  long.  Muscle  trichina  develops  its 
sexual  apparatus  after  invading  the  intestinal 
canal,  and  the  embryos  at  once  migrate  from 
the  intestines  to  the  muscular  system  of  the 
victim,  where  they  set  up  an  inflammatory  re¬ 
action  and  become  encapsulated  in  a  fibrous  en¬ 
velope,  where  they  lie  coiled.  Lime  salts  are 


TRICHINOPOLI 


4^5  TRICOLOR 


gradually,  deposited  about  the  capsule  and  in 
the  parasite  itself.  Development  is  very  rapid ; 
within  two  da}Ts  after  infected  pork  enters  the 
digestive  tract  the  muscle  larvae  mature;  em¬ 
bryos  are  born  six  days  later,  and  in  about 
two  weeks  migration  to  the  muscle  is  completed. 
1  he  mortality  of  trichiniasis  varies  between  20 
and  50  per  cent. 

I  he  early  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  nausea, 
vomiting,  colic,  and  diarrhoea.  The  muscles 
become  weak,  and  great  weariness  is  experi¬ 
enced.  Between  the  tenth  day  and  the  sixth 
week  the  muscles  become  stiff  and  tender.  This 
condition  is  most  noticeable  in  the  flexors  of  the 
extremities,  and  occasionally  the  knees  or  el¬ 
bows  will  be  bent  and  rigid.  (Edema  is  charac¬ 
teristic  and  appears  about  the  seventh  day,  first 
in  the  eyelids  and  the  face,  next  in  the  ex¬ 
tremities,  and  is  probably  due  to  toxins  ex¬ 
creted  by  the  parasites.  Profuse  sweating  is 
characteristic;  insomnia  is  a  common  symptom 
together  with  headache.  In  the  blood  the 
eosinophile  cells  are  greatly  increased.  Swine 
suffer  principally,  among  the  lower  animals; 
but  rats,  mice,  rabbits,  and  guinea  pigs  are 
easily  infected.  Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and 
dogs  are  infected  less  readily.  It  has  been 
stated  that  rats  carry  the  parasites  to  swine. 
Cats  are  occasionally  victims  of  trichiniasis. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  parasite  gained  ac¬ 
cess  into  Europe  through  the  introduction  of 
the  Chinese  pig  early  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  disease  was  epidemic  in  Syria  in  1881  and 
has  appeared  in  Algiers,  in  South  America,  in 
the  West  and  Massachusetts  in  the  United 
States,  in  France,  in  Basel,  Switzerland,  in  Mal- 
aga,  Spain,  in  Russia,  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
Denmark,  in  England  in  1871,  in  North  Ger¬ 
many  since  1849,  an  epidemic  occurring  in 
Hettstedt  in  1863. 

Prophylaxis  consists  in  the  careful  inspec¬ 
tion  of  swine,  after  slaughtering,  by  competent 
microscopists,  who  take  sections  from  the  mus¬ 
cles  of  mastication,  the  laryngeal  and  abdominal 
muscles,  and  the  diaphragm.  There  is  no  treat¬ 
ment  for  the  disease,  and  in  all  probability  many 
nonfatal  cases  occur  which  are  diagnosed  as 
rheumatism  or  some  acute  fever,  as  well  as  some 
cases,  of  pneumonia  in  which  the  trichina  para¬ 
site  is  the  unidentified  cause.  Consult  an  ar¬ 
ticle  by  C.  W.  Stiles,  in  William  Osier,  Modem 
Medicine  (New  York,  1914). 

TRICHINOPOLI,  trich'i-nop'6-li.  The  cap¬ 
ital  of  a  district  of  Madras,  British  India,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Kaveri,  below  the  island 
of  Srirangam  (q.v. ),  56  miles  from  the  sea  and 
190  miles  by  rail  southwest  of  Madras  (Map: 
India,  C  7).  The  old  town,  now  inclosed  by 
boulevards,  stands  at  the  base  and  on  the  rugged 
slope  of  a  granite  rock,  273  feet  high,  crowned 
by  a  temple,  a  much-frequented  pilgrimage 
shrine.  The  native  town  is  inhabited  by  a  dense 
population  dwelling  in  low,  closely  packed  huts. 
The  chief  building  is  the  former  Nawab’s  pal¬ 
ace,  now  restored  and  used  as  government  offices. 
There  are  several  Protestant  missions  and  a 
college  and  also  a  Jesuit  college  and  a  fine  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  cathedral.  Beyond  the  boulevards 
is  St.  John's  Anglican  Church,  containing  the 
tomb  of  Bishop  Heber,  who  died  here  in  1826; 
to  the  south  near  Golden  Rock,  a  hill  about 
100  feet  high,  is  the  central  jail,  one  of  the 
largest  buildings  of  its  kind  in  Madras.  Che¬ 
roots  are  manufactured  in  large  quantities  from 
excellent  tobacco  grown  in  the  vicinity.  Weav¬ 


ing  and  the  manufacture  of  hardware,  cutlery, 
jewelry,  gold  chains,  harness,  and  saddlery  are 
extensively  carried  on.  Tric-hinopoli  was  gov¬ 
erned  by  a  line  of  rajahs  that  died  out  in  1732 
when  it  came  under  the  rule  of  the  Nawab  of 
Arcot.  It  came  under  British  control  in  1801 
with  the  rest  of  the  region.  Pop.,  1901  104- 

721;  1911,  123,512. 

TRICHINOSIS,  trik'l-no'sls.  See  Trichi¬ 
niasis. 

TRICHLO  RQMETH'ANE.  See  Chloro¬ 
form. 

TRICHOGYNE,  trik'6-jin  (from  Gk.  6pL£, 
thrix,  hair  -f-  yvrrj,  gyne,  woman,  female).  One 
of  the  cells  of  the  female  organ  (procarp)  of 
the  red  algae  (see  Alg,e),  appearing  as  a  hair¬ 
like  extension  of  the  female  cell.  Against  it  the 
male  cells  lodge,  and  into  it  they  discharge  their 
contents,  which  pass  into  the  female  cell. 

TRI'CHOME  ( from  Gk.  rpix^ya,  trichoma, 
growth  of  hair,  from  rpixovr,  trichoun,  to  fur¬ 
nish  with  hair,  from  0/n'£,  thrix ,  hair).  A  hair- 
like  outgrowth  from  the  epidermis  of  plants, 
usually  arising  from  a  single  cell.  These  struc¬ 
tures  are  known  variously  as  hairs,  glands,  bris¬ 
tles,  bladders,  scales,  prickles,  warts,  etc.,  and 
may  be  one  or  many  celled.  The  long  hairs 
on  the  seeds  of  cotton  are  simple  and  unicel¬ 
lular.  The  filaments  on  the  stamens  of  the 
spider  lily  (Tradescantia)  are  multicellular  and 
simple.  Branched  unicellular  hairs  may  be 
found  on  the  common  shepherd’s  purse  \Cap- 
sella)  and  branched  multicellular  hairs  on  mul¬ 
lein.  Hairs  with  flattened  expansions  at  the 
top  are  called  scales.  Glandular  hairs  are 
widely  distributed  among  plants,  being  usually 
unbranched  and  with  a  knob  at  the  apex, 
which  secretes  such  substances  as  resins,  gums, 
ethereal  oils,  mucilage,  and  sugar.  When  the 
substance  is  secreted  in  a  liquid  form  it  mois¬ 
tens  the  surface,  but  when  volatile  it  is  recog¬ 
nized  as  an  odor.  Root  hairs  are  hairlike  out¬ 
growths  from  the  epidermal  cells  of  the  root. 
They  greatly  increase  the  surface  of  exposure 
for  the  intake  of  soil  water.  Many  plants  and 
organs  which  bear  hairs  during  early  stages 
of  development  become  smooth  as  they  grow 
older.  Environment  also  affects  the  hairiness  of 
a  structure.  A  plant  growing  in  a  very  dry 
situation  may  be  hairy,  while  another  individ¬ 
ual  of  the  same  species  growing  in  a  wet  situa¬ 
tion  may  be  much  less  hairy  or  even  entirely 
smooth.  Systematists  have  made  large  use  of 
the  trichome  in  describing  plants  and  have  de¬ 
veloped  a  large  number  of  descriptive  terms. 

TRICHOPTERA,  tri-kop'te-ra  (Neo-Lat. 
nom.  pi.,  from  Gk.  6pL£,  thrix,  rpix-,  trich-,  hair 
+  7 rrepov,  pteron,  wing).  An  order  of  insects 
containing  the  caddis  fly  (q.v.). 

TRI'CHROISM.  See  Dichroism. 
TRICLIN'IC  SYSTEM.  See  Crystallog¬ 
raphy  and  Plate  of  Crystal  Forms. 

TRICLINUS,  Demetrius.  See  Demetrius 
Triclinus. 

TRI'COL'OR  (Fr.  tricolor,  from  Lat.  tres, 
three  +  color,  color).  Literally  a  flag  in  three 
colors,  which  is  the  case  in  almost  every  national 
ensign,  but  usually  restricted  in  sense  to  flags 
having  three’  colors  in  equal  masses.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  tricolor  ensigns  are  those  of  France — blue, 
white,  and  red,  divided  vertically;  Germany — • 
black,  white,  and  red,  divided  horizontally;  Rus¬ 
sia — white,  blue,  and  red,  divided  horizontally; 
Italy — green,  white,  and  red:  Belgium — black, 
yellow,  and  fed;  and  Mexico — green,  white,  and 


TRICTRAC 


triforium 


466 


red;  the  last  three  all  divided  vertically.  The 
French  tricolor  took  its  use  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution  of  1789,  as  the  badge  of  the 
National  Guard.  The  red  and  blue  were  selected 
as  the  arms  of  Paris,  and  the  white  was  added 
as  the  color  of  the  army,  to  show  the  intimate 
union  which  should  subsist  between  the  people 
and  the  national  defenders. 

TRICTRAC.  A  variety  of  backgammon  (q.v.) . 

TRI'DENT  (Lat.  tridens,  three-toothed,  from 
tres,  three  -f-  dens,  tooth ) .  In  classic  mythol¬ 
ogy,  the  attribute  of  Poseidon  (see  Neptune), 
god  of  the  sea.  It  consists  of  a  staff,  armed  at 
one  end  with  three  short  prongs,  with  double 
barbs  at  the  points. 

TRIDOLIN,  tre'do'laN'.  See  Fridolin. 

TRID'YMITE  (from  Gk.  rpiSvyos,  tridymos, 
threefold,  from  rpels,  treis,  three;  so  called  from 
its  frequent  crystallization  in  groups  of  three). 
A  mineral  silicon  dioxide  crystallized  •  in  the 
hexagonal  system.  It  resembles  quartz,  from 
which  it  differs,  however,  in  having  a  lower 
specific  gravity.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  acidic  vol¬ 
canic  rocks  and  was  originally  discovered  in 
1868  in  the  trachyte  of  San  Cristobal  in  Mexico. 
It  has  been  prepared  artificially  by  dissolving  a 
silicate  in  a  bead  of  phosphorus  salt. 

TRIEN'NTAL  ACT.  A  British  statute  of 
the  reign  of  William  III  (1694),  directing  that 
no  Parliament  should  last  longer  than  three 
years.  This  period  was  made  seven  years  by  the 
Septennial  Act  of  George  I  (1716)  and  reduced 
to  five  in  1911.  The  session  of  the  1911-16 
Parliament  was  extended,  by  a  special  bill,  to 
Jan.  31,  1917. 

TRIER,  trer.  The  German  name  for  Treves. 

TRIEST,  tre-est',  or  TRIESTE.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  seaport  of  Austria-Hungary,,  situated  at 
the  northeast  extremity  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Triest,  367  miles  by  rail  southwest 
of  Vienna  (Map:  Austria,  C  4).  Triest  and 
the  adjoining  district  form  an  Austrian  crown- 
land,  and  the  city  is  the  general  administrative 
seat  of  the  Austrian  Kiistenland  (q.v.).  The 
city,  which  is  strongly  fortified,  extends  some¬ 
what  in  the  manner  of  an  amphitheatre  along 
the  acclivity  of  the  Karst  (q.v.).  The  old 
town,  with  its  narrow,  crooked,  and  steep  streets, 
lies  at  the  base  of  the  Castle  Hill  and  between 
it  and  the  gulf.  In  its  northwestern  corner, 
close  to  the  water,  is  the  Tergesteo,  a  huge  edi¬ 
fice,  whose  cruciform  arcades,  roofed  with  glass, 
are  used  for  the  exchange  and  for  various  shops 
and  offices.  Near  by  are  the  two  leading 
squares,  the  Piazza  della  Borsa  and  the  Piazza 
Grande.’  From  this  vicinity  the  Corso,  the  prin¬ 
cipal  street,  extends  eastward,  separating  the 
old  town  from  the  new  quarter,  where  broad 
avenues  lead  up  towards  the  inclosing  hills.  On 
the  west  side  of  the  Castle  Hill,  in  the  old  town, 
the  cathedral  of  San  Giusto  occupies  a  conspicu¬ 
ous  site  where  a  Roman  temple  once  stood.  It 
is  a  composite  structure,  dating  from  the  four¬ 
teenth  century.  It  was  formed  by  joining  three 
ecclesiastical  edifices,  which  had  stood  there 
since  the  sixth  century.  On  the  Piazza  Grande 
are  the  splendid  new  municipal  buildings. 
Triest  has  a  Museo  Lapidario,  an  open-air  mus¬ 
eum  of  Roman  antiquities,  occupyihg  a  disused 
cemetery.  The  town  has  a  nautical  academy  con¬ 
taining"  the  municipal  museum,  with  Roman 
antiquities,  and  the  Ferdinand-Maximilian  Mu¬ 
seum,  with  its  collection  of  Adriatic  fauna. 

Towards  the  southern  end  of  the  city  is  the 
Museo  Civico  Revoltella  in  the  palace  of  that 


name.  Near  by  stands  the  fine  bronze  monu¬ 
ment  to  Maximilian  of  Mexico  by  Schilling. 
From  this  point  leading  south  and  following  the 
curve  of  the  gulf  extends  the  Passeggio  di 
Sant’  Andrea,  affording  fine  views  for  more 
than  3  miles,  and  reaching  the  vast  wharves 
of  the  Lloyd  Company.  The  public  gardens 
are  in  the  northeast  of  the  city.  Among  the 
attractions  of  Triest  is  the  famous  chateau  of 
Miramar,  situated  on  the  sea  to  the  northwest, 
which  belonged  to  Maximilian.  It  has  a  lovely 
park  and  offers  beautiful  sea  views.  The  city 
contains  a  Greek  church  with  rich  decorations, 
a  Jesuit  church,  and  a  Capuchin  convent.  There 
are  a  commercial  academy,  an  astronomical  and 
meteorological  observatory,  a  public  library  with 
over  120,000  volumes,  and  museums  of  natural 
history  and  antiquities. 

The  harbor,  the  main  attraction  of  Triest 
proper,  has  been  greatly  extended  and  improved. 
There  are  a  number  of  moles  and  an  immense 
breakwater.  The  Canal  Grande  (only  400  yards 
long)  penetrates  the  city  north  of  the  Corso 
and  permits  vessels  to  load  and  unload  at  the 
warehouses.  Triest  has  a  naval  arsenal  and  is 
the  storehouse  for  the  Austro-Hungarian .  navy. 
Triest  has  of  late  years  found  a  rival  in  the 
Hungarian  port  of  Fiume,  but  its  commercial 
preeminence  is  vigorously  supported  by  the 
Austrian  government.  In  1913  there  were  en¬ 
tered  at  the  port  14,231  vessels,  of  5,480,074 
tons,  and  cleared  14,186,  of  5,475,445  tons. 
There  is  a  very  large  trade  in  grain,  oil,  wine, 
and  many  other  products.  The  local  mercantile 
fleet  is  large.  At  the  Austrian  Lloyd  shops  many 
vessels  are  annually  constructed.  Triest  builds 
ships  of  all  varieties  and  manufactures  marine 
steam  engines,  cables,  furniture,  silks  and  cot¬ 
tons,  clothing,  liquors,  wax  lights,  soap,  etc. 

Pop.,  1910  (city),  160,993;  crownland,  229,510. 
The  crownland  consists  of  the  city  and  outlying 
territory;  its  total  area  is  only  36.9  square 
miles.  In  the  crownland  the  percentage  of 
persons  whose  vernacular  was  Italian  was  62.3; 
Slovene,  29.8;  German,  6.2.  Of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  crownland,  94.9  per  cent  were  returned  as 
Roman  Catholic,  2.4  Jewish,  and  1.1  Evangelical. 

History.  Triest  is  the  Roman  Tergeste.  Since 
1382  it  has  been  a  part  of  Austria,  except  in  1797— 
1805  and  1809-13.  It  was  made  a  free  port  in 
1719  by  Charles  VI,  which  date  marks  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  its  importance.  It  finally  became  the 
commercial  rival  of  Venice.  With  its  territory 
it  was  constituted  a  separate  crownland  in  1867. 
Triest  was  the  objective  of  an  Italian  campaign 
in  the  great  war.  It  was  attacked  by  aerial 
forces  several  times.  See  War  in  Europe.  Con¬ 
sult:  J.  Lbwenthal,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Triest 
(Triest,  1857-59)  ;  Scussa,  Storia  cronogrcifica 
di  Trieste  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1885-86)  ;  F.  H.  Jack- 
son,  Shores  of  the  Adriatic:  The  Austrian  Side 
(New  York,  1908). 

TRIFAIL,  tre'fil.  A  town  in  Styria,  Aus¬ 
tria,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Save,  66  miles 
southwest  of  Marburg.  Trifail  has  one  of  the 
most  productive  mines  of  lignite  in  Austria. 
There  are  large  cement,  chemical,  and  glass 
works.  Pop.,  1900,  10,851;  1910,  11,578. 

TRIFO'LIUM.  See  Clover. 

TRIFO'RIUM  (ML.,  from  Lat.  tres,  three 
+  foris,  door,  opening),  or  Triforium  Gal¬ 
lery.  The  arcade  opened  up  in  the  wall  of 
the  nave  of  a  mediaeval  church  immediately 
above  the  pier  arches  and  under  the  clearstory 
windows.  The  name  was  derived  from  the  cus- 


TRIGGER  FISH 


TRIGONOMETRY 


467 


tom  of  dividing  each  bay  of  this  gallery  into 
three  arches,  though  this  was  by  no  means 
the  constant  rule,  early  galleries  having  often 
a  single  arch  and  later  ones  having  two,  four, 
or  more  arches  in  each  bay.  The  triforium, 
whose  origin  is  probably  the  open  gallery  above 
the  side  aisle  in  Byzantine  and  Romanesque 
churches,  was  in  many  Gothic  churches  in- 
serted  between  the  summit  of  the  aisle  vault 
and  the  top  of  its  slanting  roof,  though  in 
developed  Gothic  the  roof  line  was  often  changed 
so  as  to  let  light  into  the  gallery.  The  earlier 
churches  had  higher  galleries,  especially  in  Eng¬ 
lish  Norman  churches;  but  during  the  thirteenth 
century  the  French  Gothic  builders  diminished 
their  size  and  usefulness,  retaining  them  mainly 
for  decorative  purposes  and  as  blind  or  semiblind 
galleries,  not  intended  to  be  used  by  the  congre¬ 
gation. 

TRIGGER  FISH.  One  of  the  fishes  of  the 
plectognath  family  Balistidae,  characterized  by 
an  ovate  body  covered  with  large  rough  scales, 
and  the  fact  that  the  first  spine  of  the  anterior 
of  the  two  dorsal  fins  is  high  and  strong  and 
may  be  lifted,  when  it  is  locked  erect  by  the 
spine  behind  it;  whence  the  name.  About  50 
species  are  known,  mainly  in  Indo-Pacific  re¬ 
gions,  where  they  become  rather  large  and  re¬ 
main  near  shore;  some  are  herbivorous,  others 
carnivorous.  Their  flesh  is  rarely  eaten,  as  it 
is  reputed  poisonous.  Several  species  of  the 
genus  Balistes  inhabit  the  American  tropics,  of 
which  one,  the  cicuyo,  or  leather  jacket  ( Balis¬ 
tes  carolinensis) ,  is  common  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  on  the  South  Atlantic  coast,  and 
also  in  the  Mediterranean.  See  Plate  of  Plec¬ 
tognath  Fishes. 

TRI'GLYPH  (Lat.  triglyphus,  from  Gk. 
rply\v<pos,  three  grooved,  from  rpels ,  treis,  three 
-f-  y \v(peu/,  glyphein,  to  carve).  In  the  Doric 
frieze,  the  projecting  block  between  the  metopes 
(q.v. ).  It  is  supposed  to  represent  the  ends  of 
the  beams  in  the  original  structure  of  wood  and 
crude  brick.  Its  face  regularly  contains  two 
triangular  vertical  furrows,  and  the  edges  are 
chamfered.  Consult  Allan  Marquand,  Greek 
Architecture  (New  York,  1909). 

TRIG'ONAL  SYSTEM.  See  Crystallog¬ 
raphy  and  Plate  of  Crystal  Forms. 

TRIG'ONEI/LINE.  See  Alkaloids. 

TRIGO'NIA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk. 
rpiywvos,  trigonos,  triangular,  from  rpels,  treis , 
three  -f-  yuvla,  gonia,  angle).  This  genus,  rep¬ 
resented  at  the  present  time  by  only  five  species 
living  in  the  Australian  seas,  was  one  of  the 
most  important  types  of  lamellibranchs  in  the 
Mesozoic  seas  of  Europe.  Trigonia  appeared 
first  in  the  Liassic,  became  very  abundant  in 
the  Middle  and  Upper  Jura  and  the  Middle  Cre¬ 
taceous,  and  then  in  the  Tertiary  declined  in 
number  of  species  to  the  present  time.  The 
Mesozoic  species,  some  of  which  are  four  or  five 
times  the  size  of  the  living  species,  are  arranged 
into  groups  according  to  the  markings  of  their 
shells,  which  are  often  elaborately  sculptured. 
Consult  Louis  Agassiz,  Etudes  critiques  sur  les 
mollu-sques  fossiles:  M6moire  sur  les  trigonies 
(Neuchfttel,  1840),  and  John  Lycett,  “A  Mono¬ 
graph  of  the  British  Fossil  Trigonias,”  in  Talce- 
ontographical  Society  Monographs  (London, 
1872-79). 

TRIG'ONOCAR'PUS  (Neo-Lat.,  .  from  Gk. 
rpiywvos,  trigonos,  triangular  +  Kapiros,  karpos, 
fruit).  Fossil  seed  pods  and  fruits,  probably 
of  various  kinds  of  plants,  which  in  cross  sec¬ 


tion  have  a  triangular  form.  See  Carpolith; 

CONIFER.E  ;  CORDAITES ;  PALEOBOTANY. 

TRIG'ONOMET'RIC  SERIES.  See  Series. 

TRIG'ONOM'ETRY  (from  Gk.  rpiyuvov, 
trigonon,  triangle,  from  rpels,  treis,  three 
ywvia,  gonia,  angle  +  -perpla,  -metria,  measure¬ 
ment,  from  perpov,  metron,  measure,  from  pe- 
rpelv,'  metrein,  to  measure) .  Originally  the  study 
of  triangles,  especially  the  theory  of  the  measure¬ 
ment  of  their  sides,  angles,  and  areas;  now  the 
measure  of  triangles  is  merely  a  part  of  the 
general  subject.  That  portion  of  the  subject 
which  deals  with  the  measurement  of  figures  in 
a  plane  is  called  plane  trigonometry,  and  that 
which  deals  with  figures  on  the  surface  of  a 
sphere  is  called  spherical  trigonometry.  That 
branch  of  the  subject  which  deals  with  the  circu¬ 
lar  functions  of  angles  is  called  goniometry.  The 
pure  theory  of  trigonometric  functions,'  apart 
from  their  application  to  problems  of  measure- 


B 


ment,  is  called  analytic  trigonometry.  Elemen¬ 
tary  trigonometry  has  many  useful  applications, 
as  in  the  measurement  of  areas,  heights,  and  dis¬ 
tances.  It  is  indispensable  to  the  study  of  as¬ 
tronomy,  physics,  and  the  various  branches  of 
engineering. 

The  common  functions  of  trigonometry  may  be 
defined  as  ratios  of  certain  sides  of  a  right  tri¬ 
angle.  Thus,  in  the  figure,  the  ratio  -  is  called 

c 

the  sine  of  the  angle  9,  commonly  written  sin  6 

-.  The  ratio  -  is  called  the  cosine  of 
c  c  b 

the  angle  6,  written  cos  9  —  The  other  func- 

c 

tions  are  tangent  of  9,  symbolically  written 

tan  9  =  cotangent  of  9,  or  cot  9  —  -;  secant 
0  c  a 

of  9,  or  sec  9  =  and  cosecant  of  9  or  esc  9 

( cosec  9)  =  There  are  also  used  the  functions 

a  h 

versine  of  9,  or  vers  9  —  1  —  cos  9  —  1  —  -;  and 

c  a 

coversine  of  9,  or  covers  9  —  1  —  sin  9  —  1 - . 

c 

Of  these  functions,  the  most  important  are  sin  9, 
cos  9,  tan  9,  and  cot  9.  These  admit  of  easy  ma¬ 
nipulation  by  means  of  logarithms  (q.v.).  Since 

sec  9  —  -  ^  and  esc  9  =  -J— ,  and  since  it  is 
cos  9  sin  9 


as  easy  to  find  -  and  — —  by  logarithms  as 

cos  9  sm  9  J  0 

to  find  cos  9  and  sin  9,  it  is  evident  that  sec  9 
and  esc  9  are  of  relatively  little  importance  when 
logarithms  are  used.  As  to  vers  9  and  covers  9, 
they  do  not  admit  of  easy  treatment  by  loga¬ 
rithms,  and  so  they,  like  sec  9  and  esc  9,  have  been 
little  used  since  the  invention  of  these  aids  to 
computation.  The  propriety  of  calling  these 
ratios  functions  of  the  angle  9  consists  in  this, 
that  the  value  of  any  ratio  depends  upon  the 


TRIGONOMETRY 


TRIGONOMETRY 


468 


value  of  #.  That  is,  in  any  right-angled  triangle 
AB'C',  having  an  acute  angle  #,  the  correspond¬ 
ing  ratios  ^  (Fig.  2)  are  equal  to  the 

c  c  0 

ratios  and  in  aav  right-angled  triangle 

c  c  b 

in  which  the  acute  angle  #'  is  not  equal  to  #  the 
corresponding  ratios  are  not  equal  to  those  for  #. 

C' 


right  of  the  vertical  diameter,  as  OM,  are  called 
positive,  and  those  to  the  left,  as  OM1}  negative; 
lines  measured  upward,  as  BtM,  from  the  hori¬ 
zontal  diameter  are  called  positive,  and  those 
downward,  as  M4Bif  negative;  the  revolving  ra¬ 
dius  OB  is  always  positive.  Thus  ( see  Fig.  4 ) , 
the  signs  of  the  fimctions  of  an  angle  not  ex¬ 
ceeding  90°  are  all  plus.  The  versine  and  cover- 
sine  are  evidently  always  positive.  The  sine  and 
cosecant  are  positive  in  the  first  and  second 
quadrants  and  negative  in  the  third  and  fourth. 
The  cosine  and  the  secant  are  positive  in  the  first 
and  fourth  quadrants  and  negative  in  the  second 
and  third.  The  tangent  and  cotangent  are  posi¬ 
tive  in  the  first  and  third  quadrants  and  negative 
in  the  second  and  fourth.  We  have,  therefore, 
the  following  relations: 

sin  (  —  a )  =  —  sin  a 
cos  (  —  a)  —  cos  a 
tan  (  —  a )  =  —  tan  a 
cot  (  —  a )  =  —  cot  a 


The  trigonometric  functions  as  defined  by  the 
above  ratios  are  evidently  limited  to  angles  less 
than  90°,  since  a  triangle  contains  but  one  right 
angle.  However,  the  definition  may  be  extended 
to  angles  of  any  size  and  the  functions  may  be 
expressed  by  line  segments. 


For  the  definition  of  a  negative  angle,  see 
Angle. 

A  given  value  of  a  function  does  not,  however, 
uniquely  determine  the  angle,  as  will  appear 
from  the  following  table  of  relations : 

FIRST  QUADRANT 


P'  Q  P 


In  Fig.  3  the  radius  0  A  ( =  OB )  may  be  re¬ 
garded  as  the  unit  of  length,  hence  the  ratio 

=  B2M1  and  sin  AOBx  =  B 1M.  Similarly 

OBz 

cos  AOB,  —  OM,  tan  AOB ,  =  AT,  cot  AOB,  ~ 
JJQ,  sec  AOB,  —  OT,  esc  AOB,  —  OP,  vers  AOB, 
—  MA,  and  covers  AOB ,  —  QR.  If  the  angle  is 


Fig.  4. 


obtuse  as  AOB2,  or  reflex  as  AOB3,  AOB 4,  the 
functions  are  represented  by  the  corresponding 
lines.  For  example,  sin  AOBz  —  B3M„  tan  AOBt 
=  AT'.  The  following  convention  of  signs  (see 
Fig.  4 ) ,  however,  serves  to  associate  these  values 
with  the  proper  angle:  Lines  measured  to  the 


sin  (90°  —  9)  —  cos  #  tan  (90°  —  #)  =  cot  # 
cos  (90°  —  9)  =  sin  #  cot  (90°  —  9)  —  tan  # 


SECOND  QUADRANT 


sin  (180°  —  9)  —  sin  # 
cos  (180°  —  9)  =  —  cos  9 
tan (180°  —  9)  = — tan# 
cot  ( 180°  —  9)  —  —  cot  9 


sin  (90°  4 -  8)  —  cos  9 
cos  (90°  -(-#)  =  —  sin  9 
tan  (90°  4 ~  9  )  =  —  cot  9 
cot  (90°  9  )  —  —  tan# 


THIRD  QUADRANT 


sin  ( 180°  4-  #)  =  —  sin  # 
cos  (180°-}-#)  =  —  cos  # 
tan  ( 180°  4- #)  =  tan# 
cot  ( 180°  -f-  #)  =  cot# 


sin  (270°  —  #)  =  —  cos  9 
cos  (270°  —  #)  =  —  sin  # 
tan  (270° — 9)—  cot# 
cot  (270°—  9)—  tan# 


FOURTH  QUADRANT 


sin  (360°  —  #)  =  —  sin  # 
cos  ( 360°  —  #)  =  cos# 
tan  ( 360  0  —  # )  =  —  tan  # 
cot  (360°  —  #)  =—  cot# 


sin  (270°  -(-#)  —  —  cos# 
cos  (270°  4-  #)  =  sin# 
tan  ( 270°  -f-  #)  =  —  cot# 
cot  (270°  #)  =  —  tan# 


Thus,  to  express  the  trigonometric  functions  of 
angles  greater  than  90°  in  terms  of  those  of 
angles  less  than  90°,  determine  first  the  sign  of 
the  function  to  be  so  expressed,  next  subtract 
from  the  angle  whatever  multiple  of  90  is  neces¬ 
sary  to  make  it  less  than  90°.  If  an  even 
multiple  of  90°  is  subtracted  the  name  of  the 
original  function  is  retained,  but  if  an  odd  mul¬ 
tiple  is  subtracted  the  original  function  is  re¬ 
placed  by  the  conamed  function.  For  example, 
to  express  cos  (270°  —  #)  in  terms  of  a  function 
of  #.  This  angle  is  in  the  third  quadrant  and 
therefore  its  cosine  is  negative.  To  make  the 
angle  270°  —  #  less  than  90°  we  must  subtract 
180°  and  we  have  cos  (270  —  9)  —  —  cos  (90° 
—  9\.  But  cos  (90°  —9)  =  sin  #,  and  we  have 
cos  (270°  —  #)  —  —  sin  #. 

The  increasing  of  an  angle  by  360°  or  any  mul¬ 
tiple  of  360°  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the  trig¬ 
onometric  functions  of  that  angle.  (See  Func¬ 
tion.)  It  appears  from  the  geometric  represen¬ 
tation  of  the  functions  that  the  values  of  the 


TRIGONOMETRY 


TRIGONOMETRY 


469 


sines  and  cosines  of  all  real  angles  lie  within  the 
interval  — |—  1,  —  1 ;  the  values  of  the  tangents 
and  cotangents  of  all  real  angles  lie  within  the 
interval  -f-  00  and  —  00 ;  those  of  the  secants 
and  cosecants  without  the  interval  +1,  —  1,  as 
is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


FUNCTION 

0° 

90° 

180° 

270° 

360° 

Sine . 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

Cosecant . 

00 

1 

—  1 

0 

Cosine . 

1 

1 

0 

00 

0 

00 

—  1 
—  1 

0 

-  00 

1 

1 

0 

00 

Secant . 

Tangent . 

Cotangent . 

00 

0 

-  00 

0 

The  variations  of  the  functions  are  best  ex¬ 
hibited  by  means  of  graphs.  In,  the  figures  the 
arcs  are  laid  off  as  abscissas  and  the  functions 
as  ordinates.  See  Coordinates. 


GRAPH  OF  SIN  0. 


From  the  definition  of  the  trigonometric  func¬ 
tions,  it  is  evident  that  they  bear  certain  rela¬ 
tions  one  to  another.  Some  of  the  fundamental 


ones  are,  sin2  9  +  cos2  9  =  1,  sin  9  esc  9  —  1, 
cos  9  sec  9  =  1,  tan  9  cot  9  —  1,  tan  =  sin  0/cos  9, 
I  +  tan2  9  =  sec2  9,  1  -|-  cot2  9  —  esc2  9,  from 


which  many  others  readily  follow.  Besides  these 
relations  existing  between  the  functions  of  a 
single  angle,  there  are  those  connecting  the  func¬ 
tions  of  several  angles.  Thus, 


sin  ( A  =t=  B )  =  sin  A  cos  B  d =  cos  A  sin  B, 
cos  ( A  =fc  B )  =  cos  A  cos  B  =p  sin  A  sin  B, 


tan  (i±/f) 


tan  A  ±  tan  B 
1  =f  tan  A  tan  B ’ 


cot  ( A  d=  B ) 


cot  A  cot  B  =p  1 
cot  A  d=  cot  B  ’ 


and  sin  2  A 


sin2  A,  tan  2  A  = 


2  sin  A  cos  A,  cos  2  A  =  cos2  A  — 
2  tan  A 


and  cot  2  A  = 


cot2  A  -  1  ,  .  ,  1  -  tan2  A 

2  cot  A —  ’  w  llc  1  are  easily  derived  from  the 


corresponding  formulas  for  A  +  B  by  putting 
A  —  B.  Some  of  the  formulas  for  functions  of 


half  an  angle  are:  sin^A  =  =hy/^  cosA^  cos^ 
=  ±  +2C°sy  tan  U  =  *  f  T 


—  cos  A 
+  cos  A’ 


and  cot  }A  =  d=  +  008  A  ,  Bv  reapplying 

V  1  —  cos  A  J 

these  formulas  it  is  evident  that  functions  of  3 A, 
4 A,  .  .  .  .  nA  may  be  expressed  as  functions  of  A 
and  also  as  functions  of  various  fractional  parts 
of  A.  1 


To  every  function  there  is  an  inverse  function 
or  antifunction,  just  as  to  every  logarithm  there 
is  an  antilogarithm.  The  formula  to  express  the 
angle  whose  sine  is  x  is  sin-1  x  =  9,  read  “9 
is  the  angle  whose  sine  is  x.”  ;In  most  European 
countries  this  is  indicated  by  the  symbol  arc 
sin  a?  =  9,  read  “0  is  the  arc  (angle)  whose  sine 
is  x,”  or  merely  “arc  sine  x  is  equal  to  6.”  Simi¬ 
larly  tan_1i/  =  6  is  read,  “9  is  the  angle  whose 
tangent  is  y,”  or  antitangent  of  y  equals  9,  and 
this  is  also  written  arc  tan  x  —  6.  All  inverse 
functions  admit  of  translation  into  the  direct 
formulas.  Thus,  sin-1  x  =  6  reduces  to  sin  d 
=  x,  and  tan-1  —  y  —  9  to  tan  6  =  y.  All  in¬ 
verse  or  antifunctions  can  be  expressed  in 
series,  as  in  the  case  of  the  functions.  ( See 
Series.  )  The  following  will  serve  as  examples : 
sin-1  a?  = 


£  1  aj3  1  •  3  z6  . 

sino1  x  =  — - - . - b 

1  ^2  3  '2-4  5  ‘ 


2-2W+1 

2n+  1 


tan  =  —  — 


•+ 

x3 


1*3 - (2n  — 1) 

2-4 - 2n 


x° 


+  5~ 


+  (-  D” 


X 


2n-l 


+ 


2n  —  1 

The  values  of  the  func¬ 
tions  of  certain  angles 
may  be  calculated  by  ref¬ 
erence  to  geometric  fig¬ 
ures,  but  "the  tables  of 
such  values  for  all  angles 
have  been  calculated  to 
a  close  degree  of  approxi¬ 
mation  by  means  of  the 
trigonometric  series.  The 
equilateral  triangle  serves 
to  exhibit  the  values 
of  the  functions  of  60° 
and  30°.  If  the  side  is 
taken  as  1,  the  figure 
shows  that  sin  60°  = 

y2  V3,  cos  60°  =  y2, 

tan  00°  =  V%  and  so  on. 
Similarly  the  functions  of  45  °,  as  sin  45  0  =  cos  45  ° 

=  —  Vj  V^2,  may  be  obtained  from  the 


square. 

The  following  problems  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  use  of  trigonometry  in  practical  mensura¬ 
tion:  (1)  Required  the  height  of  a  hill  above 
the  horizontal  plane  of  an  observer,  the  distance 
of  the  observer  from  the  point  below  the  summit 
being  5000  feet  and  the  angle  of  elevation  10°  30'. 
The  height  of  the  hill,  represented  by  BC  in  the 
figure,  is  given  by  the  equation  BC  =  tan  10°  30' 


TRIGONOMETRY 


TRIGONOMETRY 


470 


5000  feet  =  0.1853  X  5000  feet  =  926.5  feet, 
tan  10°  30'  being  taken  from  a  table  of  natural 
tangents.  (2)  Required  the  distance  between 


C 


two  points  A  and  B  separated  by  an  impassable 
swamp,  the  line  AC,  as  represented  in  the  figure, 
being  15  chain  lengths,  the  angle  A  40°  15',  and 


B 


the  angle  C  110°  32'.  The  length  of  the  line  AB 

.  .  ,  ,,  ACsin  110°  32' 

is  given  by  the  equation  AB  —  7 —  0  y7"/ — 

1  r  a  QQ/>r  Sill  -LOU  a/ 

_io  u.  00  _  28  5  the  sines  of  the  angles  being 

“  0.4881 

taken  from  a  table  of  natural  sines.  Therefore 
AB  is  28.5  chain  lengths. 

From  the  expressions  of  ex,  sin  a?,  cos  a? (see 
Series  ) ,  it  follows  that  eix  =  cos  a?  -j-  i  sin  a? 
(see  Complex  Number),  and  that  —  cos  x 
—  i  sin ;  whence  by  adding  and  subtracting, 
eix  _p  e-u  .  eix  _  e-ix 

—  1  sin  x  — - — - .  Similarly 


cos  x  — 


2  ’  -  2  i 

the  other  functions  may  be  expressed  in  terms 
of  €ftx}  e-tx.  These  are  the  exponential  expres¬ 
sions  for  the  circular  functions  of  x.  If  i  is 
omitted  from  these  exponentials,  the  resulting 
functions  are  called  the  hyperbolic  cosine,  hyper¬ 
bolic  sine  of  the  angle  x.  Hyperbolic  functions 
are  so  called  because  they  have  geometric  rela¬ 
tions  with  the  equilateral  hyperbola  analogous 
to  those  between  the  circular  functions  and  the 
circle.  The  common  notation  for  such  functions 
is  sinh  9,  cosh  9,  tanh  9,  corresponding  to  the 
circular  function  sin  9,  cos  9,  tan  9.  The  values 
of  these  functions  have  been  tabulated  and  are 


of  service  in  analytic  trigonometry. 

The  spherical  triangle,  like  the  plane  triangle, 
has  six  elements,  the  three  sides  a ,  ft,  c,  and  the 
angles  A,  B,  C.  But  the  three  sides  of  the 
spherical  triangle  are  angular  as  well  as  linear 
magnitudes.  The  triangle  is  completely  deter¬ 
mined  when  any  three  of  its  six  elements  are 
given,  since  there  exist  relations  between  the 
given  and  the  sought  parts  by  means  of  which 
the  latter  may  be  found.  In  the  right-angled 
or  quadrantal*  triangle,  however,  as  in  the  case 


of  the  right-angled  plane  triangle,  only  two  ele¬ 
ments  are  necessary  to  determine  the  remaining 
parts.  Thus,  given  c,  A,  in  the  right-angled 


B 


triangle,  ABC,  the  remaining  parts  are  given  by 
the  formulas  sin  a  =  sin  c,  sin  A,  tan  5  = 
tan  c,  cos  A,  cot  B  =  cos  c,  tan  A.  The  cor¬ 
responding  formulas  when  any  other  two  parts 
are  given  may  be  obtained  by  Napier’s  rules 
concerning  the  relations  of  the  five  circular 
parts  (q.v.),  viz.,  a,  b,  complement  of  A,  comple¬ 
ment  of  B,  complement  of  c.  In  the  case  of 
oblique  triangles  no  simple  rules  have  been 


c 


found,  but  each  case  is  dependent  upon  the 

appropriate  formula.  Thus  in  the  oblique 

triangle  ABC,  given  a,  b,  and  A,  the  formulas 

,  , .  .  .  ,  .  „  sin  A  sin b 

ror  the  remaining  parts  are  sin  B  =  - 7 - -> 

0  r  sin  a 


tan  \c 
cot 


,  w  M  sin  +  B) 

-  tan2(a  &)-gini(A  _  By 


It  is  evident  in  spherical  trigonometry,  as 
well  as  in  plane,  that  three  elements  taken  at 
random  may  not  satisfy  the  conditions  for  a 
triangle,  or  they  may  satisfy  the  conditions  for 
more  than  one.  The  treatment  of  the  ambiguous 
cases  in  spherical  trigonometry  is  quite  formi¬ 
dable,  since  every  line  intersects  every  other 
line  in  two  points  and  multiplies  the  cases  to  be 
considered.  The  measurement  of  spherical  poly¬ 
gons  may  be  made  to  depend  upon  that  of  the 
triangle.  For  if,  by  drawing  diagonals,  the 
polygons  can  be  divided  into  triangles  each  of 
which  contains  three  known  or  obtainable  ele¬ 
ments,  then  all  the  parts  of  the  polygon  can 
be  determined.  Since  the  elements  of  the 
spherical  polygon  measure  the  elements  of  the 
polyhedral  angle  whose  vertex  is  at  the  centre 
of  the  sphere,  the  formulas  of  spherical  trigo¬ 
nometry  apply  to  problems  involving  the  rela¬ 
tions  of  the  parts  of  such  figures.  For  example, 
given  two  face  angles  and  the  included  dihedral 
angle  of  a  trihedral  angle,  the  remaining  face 
and  dihedral  angle  may  be  determined  by  the 
same  formulas  as  apply  to  the  corresponding 
case  of  the  spherical  triangle.  By  aid  of  the 


TRIGONOMETRY 


TRIKOUPIS 


471 


formulas  of  spherical  trigonometry  the  theories 
of  transversals,  coaxal  circles,  poles  and  polars, 
may  be  developed  for  the  figures  of  the  sphere. 
Spherical  trigonometry  is  of  great  importance 
also  in  the  theory  of  power  circles,  stereographic 
projection,  and  geodesy.  It  is  also  the  basis  of 
the  chief  calculations  of  astronomy,  e.g.,  the 
solution  of  the  so-called  astronomical  triangle 
is  involved  in  finding  the  latitude  and  longitude 
of  a  place,  the  time  of  day,  the  azimuth  of  a 
star,  and  various  other  data. 

Some  traces  of  trigonometry  exist  in  the 
earliest-known  writings  on  mathematics.  In 
the  Papyrus  of  Ahmes  (see  Aiimes)  a  ratio  is 
mentioned  called  a  seqt,  and  because  of  its  rela¬ 
tion  to  the  methods  of  measuring  the  pyramids, 
this  ratio  seems  to  correspond  to  the  cosine  or 
the  tangent  of  an  angle.  But  to  the  Greeks 
are  due  the  first  scientific  trigonometric  in¬ 
vestigations.  The  sexagesimal  division  of  the 
circle  was  imperfectly  known  to  the  Babylonians, 
but  Hipparchus  was  the  first  to  complete  a 
table  of  chords.  Heron  (q.v. )  computed  the 

O  IT 

values  of  cot  — ,  for  n  —  3,  4,  ...  .  11,  12, 
n 

and  calculated  the  areas  of  regular  polygons. 
Thirteen  books  of  Ptolemy’s  Almagest  were 
given  to  trigonometry  and  astronomy.  The 
Hindus,  beginning  with  Aryabhatta  (q.v.)  and 
including  Brahmagupta  and  Bhaskara  (qq.v.), 
contributed  an  important  advance  by  intro¬ 
ducing  the  half  chord  for  the  whole  chord  as 
used  in  the  Greek  calculations.  They  were 
familiar  with  the  sine  and  calculated  ratios 
corresponding  to  the  versine  and  cosine.  The 
sine,  however,  first  appears  with  a  special  name 
( jaib )  in  the  works  of  the  Arab  A1  Battani 
( q.v. ) ,  and  to  his  influence  is  due  the  final 
substitution  of  the  half  for  the  whole  chord. 
A1  Battani  knew  the  theory  of  the  right-angled 
triangle  and  gave  the  relation  cos  a  =  cos  5 
cos  c  +  sin  6  sin  c  cos  A  for  the  spherical  tri¬ 
angle.  With  another  Arab  writer,  Abul  Wefa 
(940-998),  begins  the  first  systematic  arrange¬ 
ment  of  the  theorems  and  proofs  of  trigonometry, 
the  use  of  the  unit  radius,  and  the  use  of  the 
secant.  Nasir  Eddin  (born  1201)  wrote  the 
first  work  in  which  plane  and  spherical  trigo¬ 
nometry  appears  as  a  science  by  itself,  distinct 
from  astronomy.  The  celebrated  astronomer 
Jabir  ibn  Aflah,  or  Geber,  eleventh  century, 
wrote  a  work  confined  chiefly  to  spherical  trigo¬ 
nometry  and  rigorous  in  its  proofs,  which  was 
translated  into  Latin  by  Gherardo  of  Cremona. 
Regiomontanus  (1436-76)  wrote  a  complete 
plane  and  spherical  trigonometry,  the  De  tri- 
angulis  Omnimodis  Libri  quinque  (first  printed 
at  Nuremberg  in  1533),  a  work  which  had 
very  great  influence  upon  the  study  of  the  sub¬ 
ject.  Vieta  (1540-1603)  made  an  important 
advance  by  the  introduction  of  the  idea  of  the 
reciprocal  spherical  triangle.  Rhaeticus  (1514- 
76)  made  a  great  advance  by  considering  the 
functions  as  ratios  instead  of  lines.  To  Napier 
are  due  the  formulas  since  called  the  analogies. 
Gunter  introduced  the  term  “cosine,”  and  Finck 
(1583)  introduced  “secant”  and  “tangent.” 
Growing  out  of  the  desire  to  construct  more  ac¬ 
curate  tables  and  to  simplify  the  methods  of  cal¬ 
culation  for  astronomical  purposes,  there  was 
evolved  by  Napier  and  Biirgi  or  Bvrgius  (q.v.)  the 
idea  of  the  logarithm  (q.v.).  To  Euler  much  is 
due  for  simplifying  and  classifying  the  treatment 
of  the  whole  subject.  Lagrange,  Legendre, 
Carnot,  Gauss,  and  others  expanded  the  theory 


of  polygonometry  and  polyhedrometry.  The 
nineteenth  century  has  contributed  the  so-called 
projective  formulas  and  made  further  generaliza¬ 
tion  of  formulas  known  before. 

Bibliography.  Augustus  De  Morgan,  Trigo¬ 
nometry  and  Double  Algebra  (London,  1849)  ; 
William  Chauvenet,  A  Treatise  on  Plane  and 
Spherical  Trigonometry  (9th  ed.,  Philadelphia, 
1881)  ;  IT.  S.  Carslaw,  Plane  Trigonometry :  An 
Elementary  Text-Book  (London,  1909);  W.  A. 
Granville,  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry 
(Boston,  1909;  Teachers’  ed.,  ib.,  1912);  Hail 
and  Frink,  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry 
(New  York,  1910)  ;  E.  W.  Hobson,  Treatise  on 
Plane  Geometry  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1912)  ;  R.  E.  Mo¬ 
ritz,  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry  (ib., 
1913)  ;  H.  W.  Marsh,  Technical  Trigonometry 
(ib.,  1914)  ;  Palmer  and  Leigh,  Plane  Trigonom¬ 
etry  (ib.,  1914)  ;  BOcher  and  Gaylord,  Trigonom¬ 
etry,  with  the  Theory  and  Use  of  Logarithms 
(ib.,  1914)  ;  Wentworth  and  Smith,  Plane  and 
Spherical  Trigonometry  and  Tables  (Boston, 
1915).  For  the  history  of  the  subject:  Anton 
von  Braunmiihl,  Beitrcige  zur  Geschichte  der 
Trigonometrie  (Halle,  1897),  and  id.,  Vorles- 
ungen  uber  Geschichte  der  Trigonometrie  (2 
vols.,  Leipzig,  1900-08).  For  reference  to  tables, 
see  Logarithms. 

TRII'ODOMETH/ANE.  See  Iodoform. 

TRIISODON,  tri'I'so-don  (Neo-Lat.,  from 
Gk.  rpas,  treis,  three,  -f-  i'tros,  isos,  equal,  -f- 
o8ovs,  odous,  tooth).  A  fossil  creodont  mammal 
from  the  Puerco  beds  of  New  Mexico.  The 
skull  is  the  oldest  known  mammalian  skull. 
Consult  Matthew,  “Additional  Observations  on 
the  Creodonta,”  in  Bulletin  of  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  vol.  xiv  (New  York,  1901). 
See  Creodonta;  Mammalia. 

TRIKALA,  tre-ka'la,  or  TRIKKALA.  A 
town  of  Greece,  capital  of  the  Nomarchy  of  Tri- 
kala,  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Peneus,  on 
the  Trikkalinos  River,  37  miles  west  of  Larissa 
and  on  the  Volos-Kalabaka  Railway  (Map: 
Greece,  C  4 ) .  It  manufactures  cotton,  woolen 
stuffs,  leather,  and  dye  products.  Pop.,  18,000. 
Trikala  is  the  Homeric  Trikka,  which  was  cele¬ 
brated  for  its  temple  of  iEsculapius. 

TRIKOUPIS,  tre-koo'pis,  Charilaos  ( 1832- 
96).  A  Greek  statesman,  son  of  Spiridon  Tri- 
koupis,  born  at  Nauplia.  He  studied  jurispru¬ 
dence  in  Athens  and  Paris  and  in  1852  entered 
the  diplomatic  service  as  attache  to  the  Lega¬ 
tion  at  London,  where  in  1863  he  became 
charge  d’affaires.  In  1865  he  conducted  the 
negotiations  with  Great  Britain  regarding  the 
cession  of  the  Ionian  Islands.  Elected  to  the 
Boule  in  the  same  year,  he  became  an  adher¬ 
ent  of  the  radical  party,  was  in  1866  appointed 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  became  Premier  in 
1875,  was  once  more  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
under  Canaris,  in  the  coalition  ministry  of 
1877,  and  Premier  again  in  1880,  1882-85, 
1886—90,  1891-93,  and  1893-95,  when,  owing 
to  the  financial  embarrassment  of  the  govern- 
ment,  he  met  with  a  crushing  defeat,  losing 
even  the  seat  in  the  Boul6  which  he  had  held 
for  30  years.  While  on  his  deathbed  he  was  re¬ 
elected  by  the  District  of  Valtos.  He  died  at 
Cannes,  France,  April  11,  1896.  A  volume  of 
his  speeches,  A0701  ttoXltlkoi,  appeared  at  Athens 
in  1888.  Consult  Tsokapoulos,  Bioypacpia  Xapi- 
Xaov  Tpucoviri]  (Athens,  1896). 

TRIKOUPIS,  Spiridon  (1788-1873).  A 
Greek  author  and  statesman,  born  at  Misso- 
longhi.  He  studied  in  France  and  England, 


TRILBY 


TRILOBITA 


472 


became  secretary  of  the  Earl  of  Guilford  during 
his  occupancy  of  the  position  of  Governor  of 
the  Itnian  islands,  and  played  an  important 
part  in  the  war  for  independence.  After  1821 
lie  was  employed  in  administrative  and  diplo¬ 
matic  business,  being  a  member  of  the  provi¬ 
sional  government  in  1826  and  of  the  National 
Convention  at  Troezen  in  1827.  He  was  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Council  and  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs  in  1832,  was  thrice  sent  to  London 
(1835-38,  1841-43,  and  1850-61)  as  Ambassa¬ 
dor,  was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  of 
Public  Instruction  in  1843,  Vice  President  of 
the  Senate  (1844-49),  and  Envoy  Extraordi¬ 
nary  to  Paris  (1850)  on  the  occasion  of  the 
blockade  of  the  ports  of  Greece  by  England. 
His  funeral  oration  on  his  friend  Lord  Bvron, 
delivered  in  the  cathedral  of  Missolonghi  just 
after  the  poet’s  death,  was  translated  into  many 
languages.  Other  orations,  partly  religious  and 
partly  political,  were  collected  and  published 
(Paris,  1836).  His  masterpiece  is  the  history 
of  the  Greek  revolution,  'laropia  rijs  'EWgrucrjs 
’E iravaGTo-aeois  (London,  1853—57). 

TRIL'BY.  1.  A  romance  by  Charles  Nodier 
(1822).  2.  A  novel  by  George  du  Maurier 

(1895),  and  its  chief  character,  a  beautiful  art¬ 
ist’s  model.  The  novel  was  very  popular. 

TRILL  (Fr.  triller,  It.,  ML.  trillare,  to  trill, 
probably  onomatapoetic) .  In  music,  an  em¬ 
bellishment  produced  by  the  continued  and 
rapid  repetition  of  one  note  alternately  with 
another,  either  a  whole  tone  or  semitone  above 
it.  Its  sign  is  tr  placed  over  or  under  the  prin¬ 
cipal,  note.  The  trill  was  known  and  used  at  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  but  its  name  was 
added  considerably  later. 

TRIL'LIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  tres,  three, 


common  wake-robin  ( TriUium  erectum). 


the  three  outer  and  three  inner  segments).  A 
genus  of  about  a  dozen  species  of  North  Ameri¬ 
can  perennial  herbs  of  the  lily  family,  growing 
in  moist  and  shady  (not  marshy)  grounds  from 
Maine  to  Florida.  They  have  a  naked  stem,  4 


to  15  inches  high,  terminated  by  three  ovate, 
pointed,  broad,  beautifully  netted-veined  leaves. 
Trillium  grandiflomim,  also  called  wake-robin,  is 
a  pretty  wild  flower,  growing  in  rich  woods  from 
Vermont  to  Kentucky,  Wisconsin,  and  north¬ 
ward.  The  flowers,  which  appear  in  spring,  are 
at  first  nearly  white,  but  change  with  age  to 
rose  color.  They  are  borne  on  a  peduncle  from 
2  to  3  inches  long.  Trillium  erectum  has 
brownish-purple,  sometimes  white  or  pink  pe¬ 
dunculate  flowers.  Trillium  sessile  has  brownish- 
purple  sessile  flowers.  Trillium  nivale,  a  smal¬ 
ler  plant,  has  white  flowers  that  appear  very 
early  in  spring. 

TRI'LOBI'TA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk. 
rpeis,  treis,  three  +  Ao/ 3os,  lobos,  lobe).  An 
important  group  of  extinct  marine  crablike  ani¬ 
mals,  whose  fossil  body  shields  are  found  in 
rocks  of  Paleozoic  age  in  most  parts  of  the 
world.  The  trilobites  constitute  a  subclass  of 
Crustacea,  of  which  class  they  are  very  primi¬ 
tive  members.  The  trilobite  body  was  covered 
by  a  hard,  calcareous  dorsal  shield  and  a  thin 
ventral  integument.  The  dorsal  shield  or  cara¬ 
pace  is  of  elliptical  or  oval  outline  and  is  di¬ 
vided  by  two  dorsal  furrows  into  three  longi¬ 
tudinal  lobes,  the  median  axis  and  two  lateral 
pleural  lobes.  This  trilobate  division,  which 
characterizes  this  class  of  animals,  gave  the 
group  its  name.  The  shield  is  also  divided  into 
three  transverse  parts:  the  anterior  head  shield 
or  ceplialon,  the  median  thorax  consisting  of 
several  movable  segments,  and  the  posterior 
abdominal  shield  or  pygidium.  The  cephalon 
is  generally  of  semicircular  outline,  and  the  pos¬ 
terior  lateral  corners,  known  as  the  genal  an¬ 
gles,  are  often  produced  into  spines.  The  more 
elevated  median  portion  of  the  cephalon  is 
the  glabella,  and  this  is  separated  from  the 
cheeks  or  lateral  portions  by  the  usually  well- 
marked  dorsal  furrows.  The  surface  of  the 
glabella  is  broken  up  into  a  series  of  lobes  by 
three  pairs  of  transverse  furrows,  called  the  lat- 
eral  furrows.  The  paired  lobes  are  called  the 
lateral  lobes,  and  the  unpaired  anterior  lobe, 
which  is  often  very  prominently  developed,  is 
known  as  the  frontal  lobe  of  the  glabella.  The 
cheeks  are  traversed  in  most  trilobites  by  a 
sinuous  line,  the  facial  suture,  along  which  the 
lateral  portions  or  free  cheeks  break  away  from 
the  fixed  cheeks. 

The  trilobites  possess  lateral  or  compound 
eyes  and  median  or  parietal  eyes.  The  lateral 
eyes,  which  in  most  trilobites  are  of  reniform 
shape,  are  situated  upon  the  cheeks.  In  some 
species  (as  Acidaspis  mira )  these  eyes  are 
placed  at  the  summits  of  high  immovable  pe¬ 
duncles;  in  certain  genera  (as  Agnostus,  Eodis- 
cus,  and  Ampyx)  the  lateral  eyes  become  atro¬ 
phied;  and  other  genera  (as  Trinucleus)  have 
lateral  eye  spots  in  their  young  stages  and 
only  median  ocelli  when  adult.  Two  types  of 
lateral  eyes  are  present — compound,  situated 


REPRESENTATIVE  TRILOBITES 

1.  Dorsal  view  of  a  trilobite  ( Triarthrus  becki),  a  species  whose  perfect  specimens,  preserved  in  the  Utica  slate  (Or¬ 
dovician),  near  Rome,  N.  Y.,  have  yielded  most  of  the  known  facts  as  to  the  external  structure  and  appearance  of  these 
animals.  2.  Ventral  view  of  the  same.  3.  Cephalic  shield  (cephalon)  of  Dalmanites  hausmanni  (Devonian):  Z,  limb  or 
border;  m.f.,  marginal  furrow;  g.s.,  genal  spines:  gl.,  glabella;  f.l.,  frontal  lobe,  beneath  which  are  seen  the  “side  lobes” 
and  “side  furrows”  of  the  glabella;  n.f.,  occipital  furrow;  n.r.,  occipital  ring;  f.s.,  facial  suture;  e,  visual  surface  of  eye; 
p.l.,  palpebral  lobe.  4.  Median  antero-posterior  vertical  section  of  a  trilobite  ( Ceraurus  pleurexanthemus) ;  c,  cephalon,  with 
hypostoma  below  it;  p,  test  of  the  abdomen  (pygidium);  m,  mouth;  v.m.,  ventral  membrane;  i.c.,  intestinal  canal.  5. 
A  trilobite  ( Phacops  latifrons:  Devonian),  rolled  up;  gl,  glabella;  e,  eye.  6.  Development  (ontogeny)  of  a  trilobite  ( Sao 
hirsuta;  Cambrian);  1,  1st  larval  stage  (protaspis);  2-6,  successive  nepionic  stages  of  development.  7.  Ampyx  nasuta 
(Ordovician).  8.  Deiphon  forbesi  (Silurian).  9.  Proetus  bohemicus  (Silurian).  10.  Eoharpes  ungula  (Ordovician).  _  11. 
Cryptolithus  goldfussi  (Ordovician).  12.  Profile  view  of  Sphcerexochus  mirus  (Silurian).  13.  Cheirurus  insignis  (Silurian), 
14.  Megalaspis  extenuata  (Ordovician).  15.  Conocoryphe  sulzeri  (Cambrian)  without  the  free  cheeks.  (After  Zittel.) 


REPRESENTATIVE  TRILOBITES 


For  names  and  description,  see  text. 


THE  U3RARY 

C*'  '  •  - 

UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


TRILOBITA 


TRILOBITA 


473 


i: 


. 


on  the  free  cheeks,  and  simple  eye  spots,  ocelli 
or  stemmata.  The  compound  eyes  are  made  up 
of  lenses,  which  may  vary  in  number  from  14 
in  Trimeroceplialus  to  15,000  in  Remopleurides. 
The  median  or  parietal  eyes  consist  of  an 
ocellus  with  or  without  lens  situated  on  the  apex 
of  the  glabella.  It  is  most  prominent  in  the 
earlier  growth  stages,  in  Ordovician  forms  and 
in  trilobites  with  atrophied  lateral  eyes  (“blind” 
trilobites).  The  facial  suture  varies  largely  in 
its  course  across  the  cephalon,  not  only  in  the 
different  species  and  genera,  but  also  in  the 
individuals  that  represent  different  stages  of 
development  of  a  single  species.  Its  position 
in  the  adult  furnishes  an  excellent  diagnostic 
character.  It  is  absent  in  the  earliest  Cambrian 
trilobites.  In  most  trilobites  a  groove,  the  oc¬ 
cipital  furrow,  runs  near  to  and  parallel  with 
the  posterior  margin  of  the  cephalon,  and  cuts 
off  the  occipital  lobe  from  the  glabella. 

The  thorax  is  made  up  of  several  transverse 
segments  which  articulate  with  one  another  in 
such  manner  that  some  trilobites  were  able  to 
roll  themselves  into  a  ball  like  the  armadillo. 
The  number  of  segments  of  the  thorax  is  usually 
constant  in  the  adults  of  each  genus,  but  it 
varies  within  the  subclass  from  two  in  Agnostus 
to  42  in  Menomonia.  The  pygidium,  or  caudal 
shield,  is  a  solid  plate  formed  by  union  of  several 
segments,  of  which  traces  are  still  evident  in 
the  ribs  of  its  convex  dorsal  surface.  The  axis 
and  the  pleural  ribs  are  usually  present,  but 
in  some  species  of  Asaphus  and  lllcenus  they 
are  almost  entirely  suppressed.  The  trilobite 
carapace  is  generally  ornamented  by  small 
tubercles.  Many  genera  have  smooth  or  punc¬ 
tate  tests ;.  others  have  the  test  marked  by  con¬ 
centric  wrinkles ;  and  in  other  genera  spines  are 
developed. 

Ventral  Surface.  As  a  rule  the  ventral  sur-, 
face  of  the  trilobite  body  is  so  closely  united 
with  the  rock  matrix  that  it  is  only  through 
exceptionally  favorable  modes  of  fossilization 
that  anything  at  all  has  been  learned  about  the 
nature  of  the  ventral  integument  and  the  ap¬ 
pendages.  The  principal  organ  on  the  underside 
of  the  head  is  a  rather  prominent  plate,  the 
upper  lip  or  hypostome,  which  articulates  with 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  cephalon,  and  which 
protects  tiie  small  mouth  opening  at  its  pos¬ 
terior  end.  Each  segment  of  the  carapace,  ex¬ 
cepting  the  hindermost  anal  segment,  bears  a 
pair  of  appendages.  The  foremost  pair,  arising 
near  the  sides  of  the  hypostome,  are  simple 
slender  whiplike  antennae,  much  like  those  of 
the  higher  Crustacea.  All  the  other  appendages 
are  biramous;  their  endopodites  are  six- jointed 
crawling  legs,  and  their  exopodites  are  many- 
jointed  feathery  organs  that  probably  served 
both  for  swimming  and  respiration.  The  basal 
joints  of  the  cephalic  limbs  form  jawlike  organs 
about  the  mouth. 

Development.  The  ontogeny  of  several  genera 
of  trilobites  is  known.  Small  rounded  bodies 
supposed  to  be  the  eggs  of  trilobites  have  been 
found.  Those  species  of  which  continuous  series 
of  growth  stages  have  been  studied  are  found 
to  originate  in  a  minute  protaspis  stage  and 
to  attain  their  adult  shape  through  a  series  of 
progressive  changes  expressed  in  the  successive 
molts,  in  much  the  same  manner  as  do  the 
crabs,  and  other  Crustacea.  The  protaspis  is  a 
circular  or  ovate  shield,  generally  less  than  one 
millimeter  in  length,  with  a  slightly  segmented 
median  axis  and  an  indistinctly  marked  abdomi¬ 


nal  portion.  Growth  of  the  animal  takes  place 
by  increase  in  the  number  of  segments  and 
through  increase  in  size  in  the  successive  molts, 
and  each  new  segment  is  intercalated  between 
the  cephalon  or  the  last-formed  segment  and 
the  anterior  edge  of  the  pygidium. 

Classification.  The  form  and  mode  of  de¬ 
velopment  of  the  free  cheeks  are  made  the  princi¬ 
pal  features  of  the  classification  proposed  by 
Beecher,  who  divides  the  subclass  into  three 
orders:  Hypoparia,  the  most  primitive  forms 
of  trilobites,  mostly  small  in  size,  without  com¬ 
pound  eyes,  and  with  simple  eye  spots  in  the 
higher  genera.  This. order  has  lately  been  shown 
to  be  based  on  a  misconception  and  the  genera 
distributed  among  the  other  two  orders.  In 
its  place  a  new  order,  Protoparia,  has  been 
erected  for  the  Marellidse,  which  still  lack  the 
facial  suture  (genera  Marella  and  Nathorstia) 
and  link  the  trilobites  to  the  branchiopods  and 
merostomes.  Opisthoparia,  with  free  cheeks 
dorsal,  separate  and  carrying  the  genal  angles. 
This  group  includes  a  large  number  of  genera 
ranging  from  Cambrian  to  Carboniferous,  but 
the  majority  of  them  are  found  in  the  Cambrian 
and  Ordovician  rocks.  The  Opisthoparia  are 
divided  into  the  suborders  Mesonacida,  Cono- 
coryphida,  Trinucleida,  and  Odontopleurida. 
The  Mesonacida  comprise  the  families  Meson- 
acidse,  Paradoxidae,  and  Zacanthoidse.  The  Me- 
sonacidse  contain  th6  most  primitive  true  trilo¬ 
bites:.  in  them  facial  sutures  are  not  yet  dis¬ 
tinguishable,  segments  are  very  numerous,  and 
the  pygidium  very  small.  The  Conocoryphida 
embrace  the  main  body  of  the  Opisthoparia, 
viz.,  the  families  Prcetidae,  Olenidae,  Oryctocepha- 
lidae,  Ptychoparidae,  Dikellocephalidse,  Bath- 
yuridae,  Asaphidae,  Illaenidae,  Calvmenidae,  and 
Homalonotidae.  The  suborder  Trinucleida  con¬ 
tains  the  families  Harpedidae,  Trinucleidae, 
Rhaphiophoridae,  Ellipsocephalidae,  iEglinidae, 
Shumardidae.  The  last  suborder  of  the  Opistho¬ 
paria,  the  Odontopleurida,  contains  the  families 
Odontopleuridae,  Bronteidae,  and  Lichadidae.  The 
last-named  family  has  among  its  representatives 
some  of  the  most  specialized  as  well  as  the 
largest  trilobites.  The  Odontopleuridae,  with 
species  ranging  from  the  Ordovician  to  the 
Devonian,  are  remarkable  because  of  excessive 
development  of  the  spines.  In  the  order  Pro- 
paria  the  free  cheeks  do  not  carry  the  genal 
angles  and  they  are  often  united  in  front  of 
the  glabella.  The  other  orders  had  their  origin 
in  pre-Cambrian  time,  for  they  appear  in  the 
early  Cambrian  with  their  diagnostic  features 
fully  differentiated  and  with  a  considerable  de¬ 
gree  of  evolution,  but  the  Proparia  originated 
during  the  late  Cambrian  and  were  initiated  in 
the  early  Ordovician.  The  order  reached  its 
maximum  evolution  during  the  Ordovician  and 
declined  during  the  Silurian  and  Devonian. 
The  members  of  the  family  Encrinuridae  recall 
in  the  form  of  their  cephalon  the  more  primitive 
members  of  the  Opisthoparia,  and  like  them  they 
have  narrow  marginal  free  cheeks,  which  do 
not,  however,  include  the  genal  angles.  The 
principal  genera  are  Erwrinurus  (Ordovician 
to  Silurian),  Placoparia,  Cybele,  and  Dindymene 
(Ordovician).  Cheiruridae  is  an  interesting 
family  that  begins  in  the  Ordovician  and  ranges 
into  the  Devonian  and  is  represented  by  a 
number  of  species.  The  principal  genera  are:  - 
Amphion  (Ordovician),  Ceraurv^s,  Rpfuerexochns, 
Staurocephalus  (Ordovician  to  Silurian),  Dei- 
phon,  and  Onycopyge  (Silurian).  Phacopidae 


TRILOBITA 


TRIMMER 


474 


is  a  large  family  containing  perhaps  the  most 
highly  organized  members  of  the  subclass.  The 
frontal  lobe  of  the  glabella  is  large  in  all 
genera,  and  in  the  successive  species  in  each 
race  there  is  a  general  tendency  towards 
coalescence  or  obsolescence  of  the  lateral  lobes 
of  the  glabella,  and  an  increased  prominence 
of  the  frontal  lobe.  The  eyes  are  well  developed 
and  have  large  distinct  facets.  The  family  in¬ 
cludes  Phacops  (Silurian  to  Upper  Devonian), 
Pterygometopus  (Ordovician),  Acaste  and  Chas- 
mops  ( Ordovician  to  Silurian ) ,  T rimer oceplialus 
(Silurian  to  Devonian),  Dalmanites  (Ordovician 
to  Devonian),  and  a  number  of  subgenera.  Here 
also  belong  the  Cambrian  Burlingidae  and  prob¬ 
ably  the  blind  primitive  Agnostidse,  also  of  Cam¬ 
brian  age. 

Habits.  Trilobites  appear  to  have  been  en¬ 
tirely  marine  with  various  modes  of  existence. 
Some  were  bottom  crawlers,  as  Dalmanites; 
others  buried  themselves  in  the  mud  of  the  bot¬ 
tom,  thereby  losing  their  eyesight,  and  develop¬ 
ing  a  broad  brim  (as  Harpes,  Cryptolithus,  and 
Trinucleus)  ;  and  still  others  were  free  swim¬ 
mers  with  big  eyes,  as  HDglina,  or  crawled  about 
coral  and  hydroid  masses,  like  the  modern 
isopods.  The  remains  of  trilobites  are  usually 
found  in  dismembered  condition,  and  entire 
carapaces  are  rare.  This  is  probably  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  majority  of  specimens  are 
the  discarded  molts,  broken  in  the  process  of 
shedding.  Trilobites  abound  in  all  the  Cam¬ 
brian  formations,  during  which  period  they 
were  in  fact  dominant  forms  of  life,  and  they 
are  abundant  in  some  horizons  of  the  Ordovician 
and  Silurian.  During  the  Devonian  they  de¬ 
clined  rapidly,  and  only  a  few  genera,  repre¬ 
sented  by  rare  specimens,  continued  into  the 
Carboniferous.  They  are  entirely  absent  from 
all  Mesozoic  rocks,  and  they  have  no  near  rela¬ 
tives  at  the  present  day.  They  are  one  of  the 
most  important  groups  of  fossil  animals  for 
purposes  of  correlation.  In  all  about  2000  spe¬ 
cies  and  over  200  genera  have  been  described, 
the  majority  of  them  from  the  Cambrian  and 
Ordovician  rock.  See  Acidaspis  ;  Harpes. 

Bibliography.  Hermann  Burmeister,  The 
Organization  of  Trilobites  Deduced  from  their 
Living  Affinities,  edited  for  the  Ray  Society  by 
Bell  and  Forbes  (London,  1846)  ;  J.  W.  Salter, 
“Monograph  of  the  British  Trilobites,”  in  Mono¬ 
graphs  of  the  Palaeontological  Society  (ib.,  1864- 
83 )  ;  Henry  Woods,  “Trilobita,”  in  Cambridge 
Natural  Bistory,  vol.  iv  (ib.,  1909)  ;  Zittel  and 
Eastman,  Textbook  of  Palaeontology,  vol.  i 
(2d  ed.,  ib.,  1913)  ;  also  Hall  and  Clarke, 
Palaeontology  of  New  York,  vol.  vii  (Albany, 
1888)  ;  Bernard,  “The  Systematic  Position  of 
the  Trilobites,”  in  Quarterly  Journal  of  the 
Geological  Society,  vols.  c  and  ci  (London, 
1894-95)  ;  Beecher,  in  American  Geologist,  vols. 
xiii;  xv,  xvi  (Minneapolis,  1894-95)  ;  id.,  in 
American  Journal  of  Science,  3d  series,  vols. 
xcvi,  xcvii,  and  4th  series,  vol.  i  (New  Haven, 
1893-95);  Beecher,  “The  Ventral  Integument 
of  Trilobites,”  in  American  Journal  of  Science, 
4th  series,  vol.  xiii  (ib.,  1902)  ;  Jaekel,  “Beitrage 
zur  Beurtheilung  der  Trilobiten,”  in  Zeitschrift 
der  deutschen  geologischen  Gesellschaft,  vols.  liii 
and  liv  (Berlin,  1901-02)  ;  Reed,  “Lower  Palaeo¬ 
zoic  Trilobites  of  the  Girvan  District,”  in  Mono¬ 
graphs  of  the  Pal-ceonto graphical  Society  (Lon¬ 
don,  1903-06)  ;  Raymond,  “The  Trilobites  of 
the  Chazy  Limestone,”  in  Annals  of  the  Carnegie 
Museum,  vols.  iii,  vii  (Pittsburgh,  1905,  1910)  ; 


Lake,  “Monograph  of  British  Cambrian  Trilo¬ 
bites,”  in  Monographs  of  the  Palceonto graphical 
Society  (London,  1906-13)  ;  Weller,  “Palaeontol¬ 
ogy  of  the  Niagaran  Limestone  in  the  Chicago 
Area,”  in  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences,  Bulletin 
IV  (Chicago,  1907);  C.  D.  Walcott,  “Cambrian 
Trilobites,”  in  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Col¬ 
lections,  vols.  liii-lxiv  (Washington,  1908  et 
seq. )  ;  Swinnerton,  “A  Revised  Classification  of 
Trilobites,”  in  Geological  Magazine,  Decade  VI, 
vol.  ii  (London,  1915);  Ruedemann,  “On  the 
Presence  of  Median  or  Parietal  Eyes  in  Trilo¬ 
bites,”  in  New  York  State  Museum  Bulletin 
(Albany,  1916)  ;  also  Dollo,  La  Paleontologie 
Ethnologique  (Brussels,  1910). 

TRII/QGY  (from  Gk.  rpthoyia,  trilogia, 
group  of  three  dramas,  from  rpeis,  treis,  three 
+  \6yos,  logos,  word).  The  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  to  a  group  of  three  tragedies,  often  con¬ 
nected  by  a  common  subject  and  representing 
different  stages  or  phases  of  the  same  story. 
A  satyric  drama  was  customarily  added  as  a 
termination,  whence  the  whole  was  sometimes 
termed  a  tetralogy.  A  tragic  poet  who  wished 
to  take  part  in  one  of  the  Athenian  poetic 
contests  had  to  produce  a  trilogy  along  with 
a  satyric  drama  at  the  great  Dionysiac,  Lenaean, 
or  Anthesteriac  festival.  We  possess  only  one 
perfect  specimen  of  the  classic  trilogy — the 
Oresteia  of  HCschylus,  which  embraces  the 
Agamemnon,  the  Choephorce,  and  the  Eumen- 
ides.  Consult:  Welcker,  Die  Aeschyleische 
Trilogie,  etc.  (Darmstadt,  1824)  ;  Franz,  Des 
Aeschylus  Oresteia  (Leipzig,  1846)  ;  Campbell, 
The  Oresteia  of  AEschylus,  translation  and 
introduction  (London,  1893). 

TRIM,  Corporal.  The  devoted  companion  of 
Uncle  Toby  in  Sterne’s  Tristram  Shandy. 

TRIMBLE,  trim'bl,  Robert  (1777-1828).  An 
American  jurist,  born  in  Berkeley  Co.,  Va. 
(now  W.  Va.).  He  was  admitted  to  the  Ken¬ 
tucky  bar  in  1803  and  subsequently  was  elected 
to  the  Legislature.  In  1808  he  wTas  appointed 
second  judge  of  the  Court  of  Appeals,  in  1810 
Chief  Justice  of  Kentucky,  and  in  1813  United 
States  district  attorney.  From  1816  to  1826 
he  was  district  judge  of  Kentucky,  and  from 
1826  until  his  death  a  justice  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court. 

TRIMETH'YLAM'INE  (from  tri-  +  methyl 
-f-  amine),  (CH,)3N.  An  organic  base  with  a 
powerful  and  disagreeable  fishy  odor.  It  is 
obtained  as  a  colorless  gas,  readily  soluble  in 
water,  and,  in  aqueous  solution,  acting  as  a 
strong  alkali.  With  acids  it  forms  soluble  salts. 
It  is  obtained  by  distillation  from  ergot  of 
rye,  from  guano,  from  the  juice  of  the  leaves 
of  red  beet  root,  and  from  putrid  yeast.  It 
may  be  formed  artificially  by  the  action  of 
methyl  iodide  on  dimethylamine,  but  the 
source  from  which  it  is  most  readily  derived 
is  herring  brine.  See  Amixes. 

TRIM'MER,  Mrs.  Sarah  (1741-1810).  An 
English  author.  Settling  with  her  parents  in 
London,  she  became  one  of  the  pioneers  in  found¬ 
ing  Sunday  schools.  Her  first  schools  were 
opened  at  Brentford  in  1786  and  were  so  suc¬ 
cessful  that  she  was  summoned  by  the  Queen 
to  Windsor  to  help  start  others  there.  In  1787 
she  also  established  at  Brentford  a  school  of 
industry  for  girls.  Later  she  introduced  into 
the  Sunday  school  the  plan  of  teaching  by 
prints.  Among  her  books  are:  Easy  Introduc¬ 
tion  to  the  Knowledge  of  Nature  (1782;  11th 
ed.,  1802)  ;  the  books  with  pictures  and  ex- 


TRIMORPHISM 


TRINIDAD 


475 


planations  which  after  a  large  circulation  were 
issued  as  New  and  Comprehensive  Lessons 
(1814;  5th  ed.,  1830);  Abridgments  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  which,  issued  sepa¬ 
rately  by  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge  in  1793,  circulated  a  quarter  of  a 
million  copies. 

TRIMOR'PHISM.  See  Pollination. 

TRIMOR'PHOS.  See  Isomorphism. 

TRIMURTI,  tre-mobr'te  ( Skt.  tri-miirti , 
triple  form ) .  The  name  of  the  Hindu  trinity, 
consisting  of  the  gods  Brahma  (q.v.),  Vishnu 
( q.v. ) ,  and  Siva  (q.v.),  when  regarded  as  an 
inseparable  unity  of  creation,  preservation,  and 
destruction,  though  three  in  form.  The  concept 
is  relatively  late  and  cannot  be  older  than  the 
fifth  or  sixth  century  a.d.  It  is  probable  that 
the  gods  Vishnu  and  Siva  were  first  associated 
as  representatives  of  the  two  great  Hindu  sects 
(see  Saivas;  Vaishnavas)  and  that  Brahma 
was  added  at  a  later  time,  as  he  was  a  later 
philosophical  concept.  In  Indian  art  the  Tri- 
murti  is  one  body  with  three  heads,  and  its 
symbol  is  the  mystic  syllable  dm  ( q.v. ) .  Con¬ 
sult  E.  W.  Hopkins,  Religions  of  India  (Boston, 
1895). 

TRIN'COMALEE',  or  TRINCOMALI,  trin'- 

ko-mafie.  A  seaport  town  and  former  naval 
station  on  the  northeast  coast  of  Ceylon,  99 
miles  northeast  of  Kandy  (Map:  India,  D  8). 
It  is  situated  on  an  elevated  and  precipitous 
peninsula  on  the  north  side  of  the  fine  harbor 
of  Trincomalee,  the  best  in  Ceylon.  The  temple 
of  the  Thousand  Columns,  now  in  ruins,  was 
erected  by  the  Malabars  and  destroyed  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1622.  It  is  still  a  famous  place 
of  pilgrimage  of  the  Hindus.  Near  the  ruins 
rises  Fort  Frederick,  which  was  built  by  the 
Portuguese  from  the  old  material  of  the  temple. 
Pop.,  1901,  13,000;  1911,  11,067.  Trincomalee 
was  one  of  the  last  towns  to  surrender  to 
European  authority.  It  was  held  successively 
by  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  French  and  sur¬ 
rendered  to  the  British  forces  after  a  naval 
siege  of  three  weeks  in  1795.  Consult  H.  W. 
Cave,  The  Ruined  Cities  of  Ceylon  (London, 
1900). 

TRINE,  Ralph  Waldo  (1866-  ).  An 

American  author.  He  was  born  at  Mount 
Morris,  Ill.,  graduated  at  Knox  College  in  1891, 
and  later  studied  political  and  social  science 
at  Johns  Hopkins.  For  a  time  he  taught  school, 
lectured,  and  worked  as  a  bank  cashier  and 
special  newspaper  correspondent;  but  later  he 
devoted  his  time  to  writing  on  topics  related 
to  ethical  improvement  and  especially  to  New 
Thought  (q.v.).  He  removed  to  Croton-on-Hud- 
son,  where  he  engaged  also  in  fruit  culture. 
His  publications,  some  of  which  have  been 
widely  translated,  include:  What  All  the  World’s 
a-Seeking  (1896;  21st  ed.,  1915)  ;  In  Tune  with 
the  Infinite  (1898),  which  reached  a  large  cir¬ 
culation;  The  Land  of  Living  Men  (1910); 
The  Neio  Alinement  of  Life  (1913);  and  book¬ 
lets  on  similar  subjects. 

TRINTDAD'.  An  island  lying  off  the  South 
American  coast  (Map:  West  Indies,  G  5).  To 
the  northeast  is  the  island  of  Tobago;  together 
they  constitute  the  British  Colony  of  Trinidad 
and  Tobago.  The  area  of  the  colony  is  1868 
square  miles,  Tobago  covering  114  square  miles 
and  Trinidad  1754  square  miles.  Trinidad  has 
only  one  good  natural  harbor,  at  Chaguaramas 
on  the  west  coast,  but  the  whole  Gulf  of  Paria 
is  safe  for  anchorage;  the  north  coast  is  rock- 
Vol.  XXII.— 31 


bound,  the  south  coast  steep,  and  the  east 
coast  exposed  to  heavy  surf.  At  Chaguaramas 
are  a  government  floating  dock  and  workshops 
for  ship  repairs.  Trinidad  is  traversed,  roughly 
from  east  to  west,  by  three  ranges  of  hills, 
two  being  parallel  with  the  north  and  south 
coasts  and  the  third  crossing  the  middle  of 
the  island.  In  the  northwest  Mount  Tucuche 
reaches  an  altitude  of  3100  feet.  The  mineral 
resources  are  becoming  important,  the  minerals 
now  worked  being  asphalt,  manjak,  and  petro¬ 
leum.  In  the  southwest  is  the  famous  Pitch 
Lake,  near  the  Gulf  of  Paria  and  in  La  Brea 
ward;  this  lake,  yielding  large  quantities  of 
asphalt  for  export  (206,400  tons  in  1913), 
covers  114  acres.  Trinidad  has  numerous 

streams  and  a  well-watered,  fertile  soil  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  many  tropical  products;  agri¬ 
culturally  the  island  is  one  of  the  most  success¬ 
ful  of  the  British  West  Indian  possessions.  The 
staple  products  are  sugar  (1913  export,  653,- 
098  hundredweights),  cacao  (482,534  hundred¬ 
weights),  and  coconuts  (16,391,000).  Commer¬ 
cially  the  colony  ranks  first  in  the  British 
West  Indies;  imports  and  exports  in  1913  were 
valued  at  £4,968,350  and  £5,205,673  respectively. 
Values  of  leading  exports  in  1913:  cacao,  £1,- 
403,379;  sugar,  £418,067;  asphalt,  £230,565; 
coconuts,  £85,369;  petroleum,  £75,020.  The 
trade  is  mainly  with  the  United  Kingdom,  the 
United  States,  Venezuela,  and  France.  The 
trade  of  the  United  States  with  Trinidad  was  in 
1915:  imports  from  Trinidad  $6,739,000,  exports 
thereto,  $3,971,000.  Imports  were  chiefly  cacao, 
fruits  and  nuts,  chemicals,  and  asphalt;  exports, 
flour,  coal,  meats,  mineral  oil,  and  miscellaneous 
merchandise.  Trinidad  has  95  miles  of  railway. 
The  colony  is  administered  by  a  governor,  who  is 
assisted  by  an  executive  and  a  legislative  council, 
all  members  being  appointed.  The  revenue  and 
expenditure  in  1913-14  were  £970,789  and  £951,- 
982  (customs  receipts,  £467,374)  ;  public  debt  in 
1913,  £1,476,614.  Education  is  largely  subsidized 
by  the  government;  the  total  school  enrollment 
is  upward  of  51,000.  Pop.,  1901,  273,899;  1911, 
333,552  (312,803  in  Trinidad,  20,749  in  Tobago). 
The  white  population  is  small,  principally  Eng¬ 
lish,  French,  and  Spanish;  a  large  number  of 
inhabitants  are  of  mixed  European  and  African 
blood,  speaking  a  French  patois.  There  are  up¬ 
ward  of  110,000  East  Indian  coolies  whose  immi¬ 
gration  is  under  government  control.  Port  of 
Spain,  capital  of  the  colony,  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  Trinidad,  has  over  60,000  inhabitants 
and  is  one  of  the  finest  towns  in  the  West  Indies. 
Other  towns  are  San  Fernando  (pop.,  8667), 
Princess  Town  (4497),  and  Arima  (4020). 

Trinidad  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  July 
31,  1498.  A  governor  was  appointed  in  1532, 
but  for  many  years  the  Spanish  colonists  made 
little  progress.  San  Jos6,  the  capital,  was 
burned  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1595.  In  1640 
and  1677  Trinidad  was  raided  by  the  Dutch  and 
in  1690  by  the  French.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  there  was  a  considerable 
immigration,  encouraged  by  the  Spanish  gov¬ 
ernment  and  augmented  bv  manv  French  fam- 
ilies  driven  from  Haiti  and  other  islands.  In 
February,  1797,  Trinidad  capitulated  to  a  Brit¬ 
ish  force  and  in  1802  was  finally  ceded  to  Great 
Britain  by  the  Treaty  of  Amiens. 

Bibliography.  Sir  L.  A.  A.  De  Verteuil, 
Trinidad:  Its  Geography,  Natural  Resources,  Ad¬ 
ministration  .  .  .  ( 2d  ed.,  London,  1884)  ;  Fraser, 
History  of  Trinidad  (ib.,  1894)  ;  J.  H.  Stark, 


TRINIDAD 


TRINITY 


1 


476 


Guide-Boolc  and  History  of  Trinidad  (ib.,  1898)  ; 
F.  Eversley,  The  Trinidad  Reviewer  (ib.,  1900)  ; 
R.  L.  J.  Guppy,  “The  Growth  of  Trinidad,” 
with  geological  bibliography,  in  Transactions  of 
the  Canadian  Institute  (Toronto,  1905)  ;  Wil¬ 
helm  Gommersbach,  Geschichte,  Geologie,  und 
Bedeutung  der  Insel  Trinidad  ( Bonn,  1907 ) , 
containing  a  bibliography;  L.  W.  Bates,  The 
Path  of  the  Conquist adores :  Trinidad  and  Vene¬ 
zuelan  Guiana  (Boston,  1912). 

TRINIDAD.  A  small,  rocky,  and  uninhab¬ 
ited  island  situated  in  the  South  Atlantic 
Ocean  in  lat.  20°  31'  S.,  long.  29°  20'  W., 
about  750  miles  east  by  north  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
(Map:  World,  Western  Hemisphere,  M  18).  It 
now  belongs  to  Brazil. 

TRINIDAD.  A  town  in  Cuba,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Santa  Clara,  situated  about  45  miles 
southeast  of  Cienfuegos  and  5  miles  from  its 
port,  Casilda  (Map:  Cuba,  E  5).  It  is  within 
easy  reach  of  three  ports  and  is  of  considerable 
commercial  importance.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
healthful  places  on  the  island.  Coffee,  formerly 
the  chief  article  of  export,  is  gradually  giving 
place  to  sugar.  Trinidad  was  founded  by  Ve¬ 
lazquez  in  1514  and  on  account  of  the  repeated 
attacks  by  buccaneers  was  removed  from  the 
coast  to  its  present  site.  Pop.,  1907,  11,197. 

TRINIDAD.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Las  Animas  Co.,  Colo.,  90  miles  by  rail  south 
of  Pueblo,  on  the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande,  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe,  the  Colorado 
and  Wyoming,  and  the  Colorado  and  Southern 
railroads  ( Map :  Colorado,  E  4 ) .  It  has  a  pub¬ 
lic  library,  St.  Joseph’s  Academy,  and  St. 
Raphael’s  Hospital.  Trinidad  is  the  centre  of 
large  cattle  and  sheep  raising  and  farming 
interests  and  is  extensively  engaged  in  coal 
mining  and  coke  manufacture.  There  are  also 
railway  shops,  bottling  works,  and  a  powder 
mill.  'Pop.,  1900,  5345;  1910,  10,204;  1915 

(U.  S.  est.),  13,337;  1920,  10,900. 

TRINIL  (tre'nil)  MAN.  See  Man,  Science 
of,  Ancient  Types. 

TRIN'ITA'RIANS  (from  trinity,  Lat.  trini- 
tas,  number  three,  trinity,  from  trinus,  three¬ 
fold,  from  tres,  three).  The  name  most  com¬ 
monly  applied  in  English  to  the  members  of  the 
Order  of  the  Holy  Trinity  for  the  Redemption  of 
Captives,  a  Roman  Catholic  religious  society 
founded  by  St.  John  de  Matha  (1160—1213) 
and  St.  Felix  of  Valois  (1127-1212).  Devoted 
to  the  work  of  freeing  Christian  captives  among 
the  infidels,  they  soon  received  the  approbation 
of  Pope  Innocent  III  (1198)  and  the  permission 
of  Philip  Augustus  to  settle  in  France.  The 
headquarters  of  the  order  were  at  Cerfroid, 
near  La  Fert4  Milon,  in  the  present  Department 
of  Aisne,  and  the  Pope  gave  them  a  second 
convent  in  Rome.  Their  first  journey  resulted 
in  the  liberation  of  186  captives,  who  wTere 
brought  to  Paris  amid  great  rejoicings.  While 
Felix  remained  at  home,  caring  for  the  order’s 
development,  John  made  numerous  journeys  to 
north  Africa  and  the  coast  of  Spain.  Later  the 
Trinitarians  erected  houses  for  the  care  of 
penniless  captives  after  their  release,  and 
some  of  them  accompanied  the  Crusaders  to  min¬ 
ister  to  their  spiritual  needs;  they  penetrated 
even  to  India  and  Tartarv  in  search  of  the 
objects  of  their  charity.  It  is  estimated  that 
in  six  centuries  at  least  900,000  prisoners  re¬ 
covered  their  freedom  through  the  work  of 
this  order. 

The  order  spread  rapidly,  first  through  France 


and  Spain,  until  in  the  fifteenth  century  it 
counted  880  houses;  the  number  diminished 
from  various  causes  until  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century  there  were  only  250. 
The  present  members  are  chiefly  occupied  with 
other  works  of  mercy,  especially  the  care  of  the 
sick,  although  in  the  nineteenth  century  they 
devoted  considerable  labor  to  the  work  for  negro 
slaves.  Besides  several  branches,  due  to  various 
reforms,  among  the  male  Trinitarians,  there 
were  also  two  female  branches,  and  a  third 
order  of  associates  who  labored  for  the  cause 
and  under  a  simple  rule  lived  in  the  world. 
Consult:  Carlier,  Les  trinitaires  de  la  redemp¬ 
tion  (Lille,  1866)  ;  Pere  Calixte  de  la  Provi¬ 
dence,  Vie  de  Saint  Felix  de  Valois  (3d  ed., 
Paris,  1878)  ;  id.,  Vie  de  Saint  Jean  de  Matha 
(2d  ed.,  ib.,  1884)  ;  id.,  Corsaires  et  redempteurs 
(Lille,  1884)  ;  Deslandres,  L’Ordre  des  trini - 

//11  r»  /  n  viQ  1  Q  (~l  Q  \ 

TRINI'TROTOL'UENES.  Nitrosubstitution 
compounds  produced  by  the  substitution  of  nitro 
(NOo)  groups  for  hydrogen  atoms  in  toluene 
(C6H5-CH3).  Toluene  is  also  known  as  methyl 
benzene.  Because  hydrogen  atoms  can  be  replaced 
not  only  in  the  C6H5  group  but  also  in  the  CH, 
group,  it  becomes  possible,  through  the  different 
positions  these  three  N02  groups  may  occupy  in 
the  molecule  as  regards  one  another,  to  produce 
12  different  trinitrotoluenes,  each  of  which  ex¬ 
hibits  its  individual  characteristics,  such  as 
melting  point,  boiling  point,  specific  gravity, 
solubility,  sensitiveness  to  detonation,  and  the 
like.  All  are  produced  by  nitration  of  the 
hydrocarbon  or  its  products  or  by  indirect  reac¬ 
tions.  Trotyl,  known  also  as  T.  N.  T.,  is  that 
trinitrotoluene  which,  as  obtained  in  reaction,  is 
at  ordinary  temperatures  a  white  to  pale-yellow 
crystalline  solid  having  a  melting  point  of  80.6°  C. 
It  is  now  widely  adopted  as  the  bursting  charge 
for  armor-piercing  projectiles  and  for  torpedoes 
and  mines.  It  is  a  very  stable  body,  does  not 
attack  metals,  is  nonhygroscopic,  and  practically 
insoluble  in  water.  Lender  the  influence  of  det¬ 
onating  mercury  fulminate  it  explodes  with 
great  violence.  It  is  loaded  in  shells  in  the 
molten  condition  and  by  cooling  under  pressure 
attains  a  density  of  1.7.  Its  detonation  arouses 
a  higher  activity  in  detonating  explosives,  such 
as  the  dynamites  and  permissible  explosives, 
than  mercury  fulminate  does;  hence  it  is  coming 
into  use  in  detonators  and  fuse.  A  form  of  the 
latter  known  as  cordeau  detonant  is  formed  by 
filling  a  lead  tube  with  molten  trotyl.  The  tube 
is  drawn  through  a  draw  plate  until  it  is 
so  reduced  in  size  as  to  fit  easily  into  the  copper 
capsules  of  the  commercial  detonators  or  blast¬ 
ing  caps.  The  detonation  of  the  Detonator 
causes  the  detonation  of  the  T.  N.  T.  in  the  lead 
tube,  which  is  thus  communicated  at  the  rate 
of  4000  meters  per  second  to  other  detonators 
or  charges  of  explosives.  By  its  use  separated 
charges  of  explosive  may  be  fired  practically 
simultaneously. 

TRIN'ITY.  A  port  of  entry  on  Trinity  Bay, 
Newfoundland,  the  capital  of  Trinity  District, 
61  miles  northwest  direct  of  St.  John’s  (Map: 
Newfoundland,  G  4).  It  has  important  fishing 
industries  and  a  fine  harbor.  The  bay  is  the 
landing  point  of  the  Atlantic  cables.  Pop.,  1901, 
1459;  1911,  1604. 

TRINITY,  Doctrine  of  the.  A  doctrine  of 
theology  which  declares  that  there  are  three 
persons  in  the  Godhead,  or  divine  nature — the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost — and  that 


TRINITY 


477 


“these  three  are  one  true  eternal  God,  the  same 
in  substance,  equal  in  power  and  glory — al- 
though  distinguished  by  their  personal  proper¬ 
ties.  ’  The  most  elaborate  statement  of  the 
doctrine  is  to  be  found  in  the  Athanasian  Creed, 
which  asserts  that  “the  Catholic  faith  is  this: 
That  we  worship  one  God  in  Trinity,  and  Trinity 
in  Unity — neither  confounding  the  persons  nor 
di\  iding  the  substance — for  there  is  one  person 
of  the  Father,  another  of  the  Son,  and  another 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.’  But  the  Godhead  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
is  all  one;  the  glory  equal;  the  majesty 
coeternal.” 

The  doctrine  is  not  found  in  its  fully  developed 
form  in  the  Scriptures.  Modern  theology  does 
not  seek  to  find  it  in  the  Old  Testament.  In 
the  New  Testament  the  elements  out  of  which 
it  has  been  constructed  are  sought  in  the  Trin¬ 
itarian  formula  of  baptism,  the  general  char¬ 
acter  of  the  claims  and  prerogatives  of  Jesus 
Christ  by  which  his  deity  is  established,  and  in 
the  functions  attributed  to  the  Holy  Spirit. 
It  is  generally  conceded,  however,  that  the  Chris¬ 
tians  of  the  second  and  even  of  the  third  cen¬ 
tury  were  content  for  the  most  part  to  use 
scriptural  expressions  in  speaking  of  the  Father 
and  the  Son  and  the  Spirit,  without  defining 
articulately  their  relation  to  one  another.  The 
term  Trinitas  was  first  used  by  Tertullian, 
but  the  concept  took  form  only  in  the  debates 
of  christology  (q.v.).  It  was  not  until  the 
progress  of  opposing  parties  sought,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  degrade  the  divine  dignity  of  Christ 
(Ebionitism  in, its  various  forms  and  Arianism) , 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  to  confound  the  person¬ 
ality  of  Christ  with  God  the  Father  (see  Mo- 
narchians  ) ,  that  the  Church  was  led  to  define 
in  the  Nicene  Creed  the  relation  of  the  Son  to 
the  Father,  and  further,  in  the  Nicano-Constanti- 
nopolitan  Creed,  the  relation  of  the  Spirit  to 
the  Father.  This  creed  (see  Nicene  Creed; 
Filioque)  was  specially  directed  against  the 
opinions  of  Arius  (q.v.).  There  was  never  much 
discussion  regarding  the  place  and  nature  of  the 
Spirit. 

At  the  time  of  the  Reformation  the  Protes¬ 
tant  church  took  over  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
without  serious  examination.  The  only  excep¬ 
tion  in  modern  times  to  the  reception  of  the 
doctrine  is  in  the  case  of  the  Socinians  or 
Unitarians  (see  Socinus),  who  occupy  in  their 
teaching  very  much  the  position  of  the  ancient 
Humanitarians  ( Ebionites ) . 

Bibliography.  F.  C.  Baur,  Die  christliche 
Lelire  von  der  Dreieinigkeit  (3  vols.,  Tubingen, 
1841-43)  ;  I.  A.  Dorner,  The  History  of  the  De¬ 
velopment  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of 
Christ  (Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1861-63):  id., 
History  of  Protestant  Theology  (ib.,  1871);  P. 
H.  Steenstra,  The  Being  of  God  as  Unity  and 
Trinity  (Boston,  1891);  L.  L.  Paine,  Critical 
History  of  the  Evolution  of  Trinitarianism 
(ib.,  1900)  ;  R.  F.  Horton,  The  Trinity  (London, 
1901);  Jonathan  Edwards,  An  Unpublished  Es¬ 
say  ...  on  the  Trinity,  with  Remarks  on  Ed¬ 
wards  and  his  Theology  by  G.  P.  Fisher  (New 
\  ork,  1903)  ;  J.  R.  Illingworth,  Doctrine  of 
Trinity  (ib.,  1907)  ;  W.  S.  Bishop,  The  Develop¬ 
ment  of  Trinitarian  Doctrine  in  the  Nicene  and 
Athanasian  Creeds  (ib.,  1910).  Anti-Trinita¬ 
rian  side:  A.  Norton,  A  Statement  of  Reasons  for 
not  Believing  the  Doctrines  of  Trinitarians  (10th 
ed.,  Boston,  1877);  J.  F.  Clarke,  Orthodoxy: 
Its  Truths  and  Errors  (4th  ed.,  ib.,  1880). 


TRINITY  COLLEGE 


TRINITY  CHURCH.  The  name  of  a  great 
number  of  churches  in  France,  England,  and  the 
United  States.  I  he  most  famous  of  these  are: 
in  France,  that  built  by  Matilda  of  Normandv 
at  Caen,  commonly  called  l’Abbaye  aux  Dames 
(c.1046  a.d.  )  ;  in  England  the  cathedrals  of 
Bristol,  Chichester,  Gloucester,  and  Norwich, 
and  the  parish  churches  of  Hull  and  Stratford- 

°^"^rVOn’  *n  ^ie  ^nited  States,  parish  churches 
at  New  York  by  Upjohn  (1843)  and  at  Boston 
by  Gambrill  and  Richardson  (1876). 

TRINITY  COLLEGE.  A  college  at  Cam- 
b ridge,  England,  the  largest  and  most  splendid 
collegiate  foundation  in  the  realm.  It  was 
founded  by  Henry  VIII  in  1546  by  the  consolida¬ 
tion  of  several  earlier  foundations,  with  consid¬ 
erable  additional  endowments  from  other  sources 
for  a  master  and  60  fellows  and  scholars.  Ed¬ 
ward  VI  issued  the  statutes,  Mary  added  20 
scholars  and  increased  the  endowment,  and  Eliza¬ 
beth  interested  herself  in  the  college.  It  is 
governed  by  a  council,  consisting  of  the  master 
and  four  other  ex-officio  members,  and  eight 
elective  members.  The  buildings  are  large  and 
imposing;  the  great  court  is  the  largest  in  either 
university,  comprising  over  two  acres.  The  gate¬ 
way  is  striking  and  characteristic,  the  Hall  one 
of  the  finest  in  England.  The  chapel,  though 
of  great  size,  is  not  so  fine  as  that  of  King’s. 
The  library  is  a  large  and  important  collection. 
Among  Trinity  worthies  may  be  mentioned  Ba¬ 
con,  Newton,  Barrow,  Coke,  Dryden,  Cowley, 
Byron,  Tennyson,  Edward  FitzGerald,  Thack¬ 
eray,  Macaulay,  Richard  Person,  and  Peacock. 
Some  distinguished  masters  were  William  Bill, 
John  Whitgift,  Thomas  Neville,  Barrow,  Bentley, 
and  William  Whewell.  The  master  of  Trinity 
is  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  the  college 
has  apartments  for  the  occupancy  of  royalty 
when  on  a  visit  to  Cambridge  as  well  as  for  the 
judges  on  assize.  There  were  in  1913-14  in  the 
college  70  fellows,  72  scholars,  and  672  other 
students.  Consult  Mullinger,  History  of  Cam¬ 
bridge  University  (Cambridge,  1884),  and  Bou- 
ghey  and  Clark,  Trinity  College  (London,  1900). 

TRINITY  COLLEGE.  See  Dublin,  Univer¬ 
sity  of. 

TRINITY  COLLEGE.  A  college  at  Oxford, 
England,  founded  in  1554  by  Sir  Thomas  Pope, 
Privy  Councilor  to  Henry  VIII  and  Queen 
Mary.  The  college  occupied  the  site  and  build¬ 
ings  of  a  Benedictine  mansion  called  Durham 
College,  which  had  been  founded  in  1290  by 
Richard  de  Hoton,  Prior  of  Durham,  for  the 
education  of  the  monks  of  that  diocese.  At  the 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries  this  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  newly  constituted  chapter  of 
Durham  and  thence  to  Sir  Thomas  Pope.  Trin¬ 
ity  College  was  the  first  college  founded  by  a 
layman  since  Balliol  and  consisted  at  first  of 
a  president,  12  fellows,  and  12  scholars.  Pope 
was  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  his  charter  was  ob¬ 
tained  from  Philip  and  Mary.  By  the  changes 
made  in  17  and  18  \  ict.,  the  college  consists  of 
a  president,  12  fellowships,  of  which  nine  are 
occupied,  several  honorary  fellows  and  lectur¬ 
ers,  a  chaplain,  college  officers,  30  scholars  and  ex- 
h  ibitioners,  and  in  all  about  200  undergraduates. 
The  buildings  are  of  various  dates  and  are  ar¬ 
ranged  in  a  most  attractive  open  quadrangle. 
The  college  presents  to  10  livings.  Among  the 
distinguished  men  who  have  been  connected^with 
Trinity  may  be  mentioned  Archbishop  Sheldon, 
Bishop  Seth  Ward,  Ludlow  and  Ireton  of  Civil 
War  fame,  Thomas  Warton  the  poet  and  critic, 


TRINITY  COLLEGE 


TRINUCLEUS 


478 


Cardinal  Newman,  the  elder  Pitt,  Lord  North, 
Landor,  Stubbs,  Freeman,  George  Rawlinson, 
and  Bryce.  Consult  H.  E.  D.  Blakiston,  Trinity 
College  (London,  1898). 

TRINITY  COLLEGE.  An  institution  at 
Hartford,  Conn.,  founded  by  members  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  church  in  1823  as  Wash¬ 
ington  College,  the  present  name  being  assumed 
in  1845.  The  college  offers  two  courses,  leading 
to  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  B.S.  It  also  offers 
graduate  courses  leading  to  the  degrees  of  M.A. 
and  M.S.  There  is  a  system  of  alternative  and 
elective  studies,  most  of  the  work  of  the  last 
three  years  being  elective.  It  has  no  professional 
schools,  but  offers  courses  in  civil  engineering. 
The  productive  endowment  in  1916  was  $1,- 
232,000  with  a  gross  income  from  endowment 
and  students’  fees  of  $75,000.  The  library  in 
that  year  contained  about  80,000  volumes  and 
about  40,000  pamphlets.  The  students  num¬ 
bered  237  and  the  faculty  25.  The  total  value 
of  buildings  and  grounds  is  about  $1,250,000. 
The  president  in  1916  was  Rev.  Flavel  S. 
Luther,  LL.D. 

TRINITY  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for 
higher  education  founded  as  Normal  College  in 
Randolph  Co.,  N.  C.,  in  1851.  It  passed  under 
the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
South  in  1856  and  in  1859  took  the  name  of 
Trinity  College.  In  1891  the  college  was  re¬ 
moved  to  Durham  and  opened  its  first  session 
in  1892.  In  1897  the  trustees  authorized  the 
admission  of  women  as  students  to  all  the  de¬ 
partments.  A  new  charter  was  granted  to  the 
college  in  1903.  The  college  confers  the  de¬ 
grees  B.A.  and  M.A.,  and  its  curriculum  includes 
the  regular  college  departments.  A  school  of 
education  was  established  in  1910,  and  there  is 
also  a  department  of  law  established  in  1904. 
The  enrollment  in  all  departments  of  the  college 
in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  653,  and  the  faculty 
numbered  45.  A  campaign  for  an  endowment 
fund  carried  on  in  1912-13  resulted  in  contri¬ 
butions  ( in  addition  to  $800,000  and  $200,000 
for  buildings,  given  by  Messrs.  N.  and  James  B. 
Duke,  and  $150,000  given  by  the  general  educa¬ 
tion  board)  of  $268,146,  making  a  total  of 
$1,418,146.  The  library  contains  about  48,000 
volumes.  The  president  in  1916  was  William  P. 
Few,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

TRINITY  HALL.  A  college  at  Cambridge, 
England.  It  was  founded  in  1350  by  William 
Bateman,  Bishop  of  Norwich  and  cofounder  of 
Gonville  and  Caius  College,  under  the  name  of 
the  College  of  the  Scholars  of  the  Holy  Trinity 
of  Norwich,  for  a  master  and  30  scholars,  de¬ 
voted  to  the  canon  and  civil  law.  It  continues 
to  be  the  peculiarly  legal  college  of  the  univer¬ 
sity.  By  the  new  statutes  in  force  since  1882 
the  college  consists  of  a  master  and  18  fellows. 
There  are  also  college  officials,  two  law  students, 
12  scholars  and  exhibitioners,  and,  in  all,  about 
150  undergraduates.  The  college  presents  to 
seven  livings.  Among  the  distinguished  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  college  have  been  Bishop  Stephen 
Gardiner  (Master),  Glisson  the  anatomist.  Lord 
Howard  of  Effingham,  Chesterfield,  Thomas 
Bilney,  and  Chief  Justice  Cockburn.  Consult 
H.  E.  Malden,  Trinity  Hall  (London,  1902). 

TRINITY  HOUSE,  Corporation  of.  A 
British  corporation  which  controls  the  greater 
part  of  the  important  lighthouses,  light  ves¬ 
sels,  and  fog  signals  on  the  English  coast,  the 
others  being  under  the  supervision  of  the  Ad¬ 
miralty,  the  Mersey  Docks  and  Harbor  Board, 


and  various  local  marine  authorities.  The  head¬ 
quarters  of  the  corporation  are  in  London,  and 
among  its  chief  duties  are  the  lighting  and 
buoyage  of  the  Thames  and  adjacent  coast. 
Other  companies,  bearing  the  same  name  but 
with  less  important  duties,  exist  in  some,  other 
ports.  The  London  corporation  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  Scottish  or  Irish  coast,  the  former 
being  under  the  Northern  Lighthouse  Commis¬ 
sioners  and  the  Clyde  Lighthouse  Trustees,  and 
the  latter  under  the  Irish  Lights  Commissioners. 
The  London  corporation,  the  original  Trinity 
House,  had  previously  existed  as  a  religious  fra¬ 
ternity  which  took  upon  itself  certain  duties 
connected  with  pilotage  and  the  safety  of  mar¬ 
iners.  It  was  incorporated  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII  and  gradually  extended  its  work. 
It  is  managed  by  a  board  called  the  Elder  Breth¬ 
ren,  of  which  two  are  selected  from  the  navy 
and  1 1  from  the  merchant  service.  Consult 
Mayo,  Trinity  House,  London  Past  and  Present 
(London,  1905).  See  Lighthouse. 

TRINITY  RIVER,.  A  river  of  Texas,  formed 
by  a  network  of  small  streams  in  Montague, 
Jack,  Wise,  Denton,  and  Parker  counties,  Tex. 
Above  Dallas  the  stream  frequently  runs  dry 
(Map:  Texas,  E  4).  It  flows  southeast  through 
a  fertile  and  well-timbered  region  and  empties 
into  Galveston  Bay  about  40  miles  north  of  the 
city  of  Galveston.  It  is  over  550  miles  long  and 
navigable  at  high  water  for  300  miles. 

TRINITY  SUNDAY.  The  Sunday  immedi¬ 
ately  following  Whitsunday,  so  called  as  being 
set  aside  for  the  special  honor  of  the  Trinity. 
No  such  festival  was  known  to  the  early  cen¬ 
turies  ;  the  general  establishment  of  Trinity  Sun¬ 
day  as  a  common  festival  of  the  whole  Western 
Church  dates  from  a  decree  of  John  XXII,  who 
died  in  1334.  Nevertheless,  the  mass  and  office 
peculiar  to  the  day  are  of  much  greater  an¬ 
tiquity  and  may  be  traced,  at  least  in  part,  in 
several  liturgical  books  of  the  earlier  centuries. 

TRINO'DA  NECES'SITAS  (ML.,  threefold 
necessity).  Three  forms  of  assessment  of  lands 
for  public  purposes  during  the  Anglo-Saxon  era. 
No  lands,  either  in  secular  or  religious  hands, 
were  exempt  from  these  three  duties,  which  were 
known  as  bridge  bot,  for  the  maintenance  of 
bridges  and  highways;  burg  bot,  for  the  erection 
of  and  keeping  fortresses  in  repair ;  and  fyrd, 
for  the  support  of  the  King’s  military  and  naval 
forces.  Blackstone  mentions  that  in  the  time 
of  Henry  II  no  less  than  1115  castles  were  in 
existence  as  a  result  of  the  tax  for  the  estab¬ 
lishment  and  maintenance  of  strongholds.  Con¬ 
sult  Blackstone,  Commentaries. 

TRINUCLEUS,  tri'niFkle-us  (Neo-Lat.,  from 
Lat.  tres,  three  -f-  nucleus,  little  nut,  kernel, 
nucleus) .  A  genus  of  trilobites  characteristic 
of  the  middle  and  upper  Ordovician  rocks  of 
North  America  and  Europe.  The  body  is  small, 
seldom  exceeding  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  rela¬ 
tively  large  and  broad  horseshoe-shaped  head 
shield.  The  glabella  is  convex  and  consists  of  a 
prominent  median  and  two  less  elevated  lateral 
lobes,  and  the  head  is  bordered  by  a  wide  pitted 
margin  and  provided  with  long,  sometimes  bifur¬ 
cated,  genal  spines.  In  some  forms  the  young 
were  provided  with  simple  eyes  (ocelli)  on  the 
cheeks,  and  compound  eyes,  such  as  are  seen  in 
most  trilobites,  are  entirely  absent,  while  prob¬ 
ably  all  had  a  -median  eye.  The  thorax  has  six 
segments  with  narrow  axis,  and  the  pygidium  is 
small  and  of  broadly  triangular  form.  See 
Trilobita. 


TRINUMMUS 


TRIPLE  ALLIANCE 


479 


TRINUM'MUS.  A  comedy  by  Plautus 
(about  194  b.c. ) ,  founded  on  Philemon’s  The- 
sauros. 

TRIO,  tre'6  or  tri'o  (It.,  musical  composition 
in  three  parts).  In  music,  in  a  general  sense,  a 
composition  for  three  voices  or  for  three  instru¬ 
ments.  In  instrumental  music  a  trio  is  usually 
understood  to  mean  a  composition  written  for 
piano,  cello,  and  violin.  But  it  is  better  to 
apply  the  name  “piano  trio.”  A  string  trio  is 
generally  written  for  violin,  viola,  and  cello,  or 
two  violins  and  cello.  In  a  specific  sense  the 
term  "trio”  is  used  to  denote  a  middle  section 
in  minuets,  marches,  or  scherzi.  It  derived  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  older  composers  em¬ 
ployed  three-part  writing  in  this  middle  section. 

TRIOLEIN,  tri-o'le-m.  See  Olein. 

TRI'O NAL  (CH3)  (C2H5)C(S02C2H5)2.  A 
white  crystalline  compound  used  as  a  hypnotic. 
It  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  methyl-ethyl 
ketone  (a  substance  similar  to  acetone)  upon 
mercaptan  (q.v. )  and  the  oxidation  of  the  re¬ 
sulting  product  by  permanganate  of  potassium. 
It  melts  at  76°  C.  (169°  F.)  and  is  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol,  but  sparingly  in  water.  It 
is  an  excellent  and  harmless  hypnotic,  and,  if 
used  judiciously  and  administered  in  connection 
with  a  mild  purgative,  is  believed  to  have  no  in¬ 
jurious  effects.  Like  sulphonal  (q.v.),  it  is 
best  administered  with  hot  milk.  It  is  prompter 
in  its  action  and  safer  than  sulphonal. 

TRIOSON,  Anne  Louis  Girodet-.  See  Giro- 
det-Trioson,  A.  L. 

TRIPAL'MITIN.  See  Palmitin. 
TRIPHENYL-METHYL,  (C6H5)3C  (?).  A 
remarkable  substance  discovered  by  Gomberg  in 
1901,  one  of  the  carbon  atoms  in  its  molecule 
appearing  to  be  trivalent  (instead  of  quadri¬ 
valent,  as  carbon  usually  is).  It  may  be  pre¬ 
pared  by  the  action  of  metals  (say,  silver) 
upon  chloro-triphenyl-methane,  (C6H5)3C.C1.  It 
forms  a  colorless  crystalline  solid  that  melts  at 
145°  C.  (293°  F.)  and  dissolves  in  various  sol¬ 
vents  with  an  orange-yellow  color.  It  acts  as 
a  highly  unsaturated  compound,  giving  a  per¬ 
oxide  by  direct  union  with  oxygen,  an  iodide 
with  iodine,  etc.  When  dissolved  in  liquid 
sulphur  dioxide,  it  conducts  the  electric  current. 
Molecular  weight  determinations  show  it  to  be 
made  up  mostly  of  double  molecules,  [  (CcH5)3C]2, 
the  color  of  its  solutions  being  undoubtedly  due 
to  the  quinoid  structure  of  these  double  "mole¬ 
cules;  but  there  is  now  little  doubt  left  but 
that  single  molecules  of  triphenyl-methyl  exist, 
in  dynamic  equilibrium  with  the  double  mole¬ 
cules.  Triphenyl-methyl  is,  obviously,  a  deriva¬ 
tive  of  the  radicle  methyl,  CH3,  which  can  only 
exist  as  part  of  a  molecule,  but  not  independ¬ 
ently.  See  Methyl;  Sciiorlemmer. 

TRIPIT'AKA.  See  Pitaka. 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE.  The  name  given  to 
the  alliance  between  Germanv,  Austria,  and 
Italy  formed  in  1882.  Bismarck  was  primarily 
responsible  for  the  system  of  alliances  which 
shaped  European  diplomacy  during  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  order  to 
assure  the  isolation  of  France  after  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  of  1871  and  prevent  any  effort 
to  regain  the  territory  of  Alsace  Lorraine,  Bis¬ 
marck  sought  to ’bring  about  a  closer  understand¬ 
ing  between  Germany,  Russia,  and  Austria.  In 
September,  1872,  the  Czar  Alexander  II  and  the 
Austrian  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  visited  Ber¬ 
lin,  and  the  chancellors  of  the  three  empires 
exchanged  notes  whereby  they  agreed  to  work  to¬ 


gether  for  the  following  purposes:  the  mainte¬ 
nance  of  the  territorial  boundaries  recently  laid 
down,  the  settlement  of  questions  arising  from 
the  Eastern  Question,  and  the  repression  of  revo¬ 
lutionary  movements  in  Europe.  This  was  the 
so-called  Three  Emperors  League.  This  league, 
however,  lacked  solidarity.  Two  of  its  members, 
Russia  and  Austria,  had  conflicting  interests  in 
the  Balkans,  and  when  at  the  Congress  of  Ber¬ 
lin,  in  1878,  Bismarck  supported  Austria  in  her 
determination  to  limit  Russian  influence  in  the 
Balkans,  the  alliance  was  broken.  The  with¬ 
drawal  of  Russia  led  to  a  closer  union  of  the 
two  central  Powers.  Bismarck  and  Count  An- 
drassy  came  to  an  understanding  in  an  inter¬ 
view  at  Gastein,  Aug.  27-28,  1879.  It  was  not 
until  Nov.  5,  1887,  that  the  terms  of  this  treaty 
were  made  known,  when  they  were  published  in 
the  London  Times.  The  compact  provides  that, 
if  either  Germany  or  Austria  shall  be  attacked 
by  Russia,  each  Power  must  assist  its  neighbor 
with  all  its  forces.  If,  however,  the  attack  shall 
come  from  any  other  Power,  the  ally  is  pledged 
merely  to  observe  neutrality.  Bismarck  did  not 
abandon  his  policy  of  maintaining  friendly  re¬ 
lations  with  his  eastern  neighbor,  and  in  1884, 
at  a  second  meeting  of  the  three  emperors,  he 
succeeded  in  renewing  the  old  understanding. 
He  also  negotiated  a  secret  “reinsurance  com¬ 
pact”  with  Russia  for  mutual  friendly  neutral¬ 
ity  in  case  either  were  attacked  by  a  third 
Power.  When  Bismarck  retired  from  office  in 
1890,  Emperor  William  II  abandoned  that  part 
of  the  former  Chancellor’s  policy  which  called 
for  a  close  understanding  with  Russia.  He  re¬ 
fused  to  renew  the  reinsurance  compact  and 
turned  his  attention  to  welding  more  solidly  the 
alliance  of  the  Teutonic  Powrers. 

Italy’s  alliance  with  the  Teutonic  Powers  was 
largely  due  to  her  resentment  against  France 
because  of  the  latter’s  acquisition  of  Tunis  in 
1881.  This  territory  was  regarded  by  Italy  as 
a  field  for  her  colonial  expansion.  Checkmated 
by  France,  Italy  turned  to  the  Germanic  Powers, 
and  on  May  20,  1882,  treaties  were  signed  which 
bound  Italy  to  the  central  Powers  for  a  term  of 
five  years.  Italy’s  position  in  the  Triple  Al¬ 
liance  was  from  the  beginning  an  unnatural  one. 
Bound  to  Austria,  a  country  which  had  consist¬ 
ently  opposed  the  movement  for  Italian  unity 
and  which  still  held  provinces  which  Italy  felt 
should  be  a  part  of  the  Italian  nation,  any  real 
sympathy  between  these  Powers  was  difficult  to 
maintain.  Moreover,  the  interests  of  these  Pow¬ 
ers  clashed  in  the  Balkans.  Italy  resented  the 
acquisition  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  by  Aus¬ 
tria,  and  the  extension  of  Austrian  influence 
along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  was 
regarded  as  a  menace  by  Italy.  While  the  treaty 
was  renewed  at  five-year  intervals  until  1902  and 
was  then  extended  for  12  years,  it  was  evident 
that  Italy’s  allegiance  rested  on  none  too  solid 
grounds.  Evidence  of  her  weakening  support  of 
the  Teutonic  Powers  appeared  at  the  Algeciras 
Conference  in  1906,  which  attempted  to  settle  the 
dispute  over  Morocco.  A  still  more  serious  blow 
was  given  to  the  Alliance  when  Italy  in  1911 
seized  Tripoli  and  declared  war  on  Turkey,  which 
Power  had  come  to  be  considered  a  member  of 
the  Triple  Alliance.  It  did  not  cause  surprise, 
therefore,  when,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War  in  1914,  Italy  refused  to  join  Germany 
and  Austria,  claiming  that  it  was  not  a  defen¬ 
sive  war  contemplated  by  the  Treaty  of  Alliance. 
The  terms  of  the  treaty  were  not  published,  but 


TRIPLE  ENTENTE 


TRIPOLI 


480 


during  the  early  months  of  the  war  Italy  stated 
that  under  the  treaty  she  was  entitled  to  “com- 
pensations”  as  a  result  of  Austria’s  occupation 
of  Servian  territory.  After  several  months  of 
fruitless  negotiations  Italy,  on  May  3,  1915, 
formally  withdrew  from  the  Triple  Alliance. 
Consult:  F.  H.  Geffcken,  Frankreich,  Russland, 
und  den  Dreibund :  geschichtliche  Riickblicke  fiir 
die  Gegenwart  (Berlin,  1893)  ;  Vincent  Bene- 
detti,  Studies  in  Diplomacy  (Eng.  trans.,  New 
York,  1896)  ;  Francesco  Crispi,  Memoirs  of 
Francesco  Crispi  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1912—14).  See 
Triple  Entente;  War  in  Europe. 

TRIPLE  ENTENTE.  The  name  given  to  a 
number  of  agreements  or  “understandings”  con¬ 
cluded  between  the  governments  of  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Russia. 

The  effect  of  the  formation  of  the  Triple  Al¬ 
liance  (q.v.)  between  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Italy  in  1882  was  to  draw  the  other  two  great 
continental  powers,  France  and  Russia,  together. 
This  rapprochement  at  first  took  the  form  of 
large  loans  of  money  by  France  to  Russia. 
These  loans  enabled  Russia  to  consolidate  her 
debt  on  easier  terms,  to  build  strategic  railroads, 
and  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  her  army  and 
navy.  In  July,  1891,  the  French  Channel  fleet 
visited  Cronstadt,  and  it  is  probable  that  at  this 
time  military  and  naval  understandings  between 
the  two  Powers  were  drawn  up  to  serve  as  bases 
for  common  action.  It  was  not  until  1895  that 
the  alliance  was  definitely  avowed.  The  terms 
of  the  treaty  were  not  disclosed.  An  unofficial 
version  stated  that  if  either  nation  were  attacked 
the  other  would  come  to  its  aid  with  the  whole 
of  its  military  and  naval  forces. 

Although  England  had  always  been  included  in 
the  concert  of  European  powers,  she  avoided 
limiting  her  freedom  of  action  by  declining  to 
enter  a  fixed  alliance  with  any  of  the  great 
continental  powers.  Her  unique  geographical 
position  aYid  her  control  of  the  seas  gave  her 
great  influence  in  maintaining  the  balance  of 
power  on  the  Continent.  The  grouping  of  the 
great  continental  powers  into  two  opposing  mili¬ 
tary  alliances  made  it  more  difficult  for  Great 
Britain  to  maintain  her  policy  of  “splendid  iso¬ 
lation.”  Moreover,  Germany’s  frank  adoption 
of  naval  policy  in  competition  with  Great  Britain 
made  the  latter  consider  the '  dangers  of  her 
isolated  position.  There  were,  however,  serious 
difficulties  which  had  to  be  overcome,  apart 
from  the  abandonment  of  her  policy  of  aloof¬ 
ness,  before  England  was  able  to  join  one  of  the 
European  alliances.  France  and  Russia  were  by 
long  tradition  hostile  to  England.  With  France 
England  had  serious  disputes  in  regard  to  the 
partition  of  north  Africa,  about  the  boundaries 
of  Siam,  and  about  the  Newfoundland  fisheries. 
The  two  Powers  nearly  reached  a  break  in  1898, 
when  a  French  force  tried  to  take  possession  of 
the  upper  waters  of  the  Nile.  (See  Kodok.) 
Negotiations,  however,  led  to  a  final  understand¬ 
ing  in  1904,  by  which  England  was  conceded  a 
predominant  position  in  Egypt,  and  France  a 
similar  position  in  Morocco. 

With  Russia,  Great  Britain’s  causes  of  fric¬ 
tion  were  chiefly  two.  In  the  first  place  England 
opposed  the  extension  of  Russian  influence  in 
the  Balkans,  and  secondly  England  opposed  the 
Russian  advance  towards  the  British  possessions 
in  India.  The  first  of  these  causes  of  dispute 
was  gradually  removed  as  public  feeling  in  Eng¬ 
land  turned  against  the  Turks  in  favor  of  the 
subject  races  in  the  Balkans  which  had  been 


protected  by  Russia.  The  special  point  of  diffi¬ 
culty  in  Asia  was  Persia.  This  country  was  in 
a  state  of  chronic  confusion  and  disorder,  which 
was  an  invitation  to  two  powerful  nations, 
Great  Britain  and  Russia,  to  intervene  in  its 
internal  affairs.  Each  of  these  Powrers  was  in¬ 
triguing  to  prevent  the  other  from  gaining  any 
advantage  in  this  region.  In  1907  Sir  Edward 
Grey  entered  upon  negotiations  with  the  Rus¬ 
sian  government  to  settle  these  and  other  out¬ 
standing  difficulties  between  the  two  Powers. 
There  resulted  a  series  of  agreements  respect¬ 
ing  the  countries  of  Tibet,  Afghanistan,  and 
Persia,  which  bordered  the  territorial  possessions 
of  the  two  Powers. 

The  way  had  thus  been  cleared  for  a  close  un¬ 
derstanding  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Russia.  The  precise  nature  of  this  understand¬ 
ing  was  indefinite.  There  was  no  treaty  agree¬ 
ment  specifying  its  scope.  Some  light  was 
thrown  upon  it  in  a  speech  made  by  Sir  Edward 
Grey  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  Aug.  3,  1914. 
He  said  that  the  Triple  Entente  was  not  an  al¬ 
liance,  but  a  “diplomatic  group.”  As  to  Eng¬ 
land’s  relations  with  France,  he  said  that  at 
the  time  of  the  Moroccan  crisis  in  1906  he  had 
stated  to  the  representatives  of  Germany  and 
France  that  if  war  were  forced  on  France  because 
of  the  Moroccan  dispute,  “in  my  view  public 
opinion  in  this  country  would  have  rallied  to  the 
material  support  of  France.”  In  view  of  such 
a  contingency  the  French  Minister  suggested 
that,  in  order  to  make  any  cooperation  effective, 
conversations  should,  be  held  between  the  mili¬ 
tary  and  naval  experts  of  the  two  countries.  To 
this  Sir  Edward  Grey  agreed  on  the  distinct 
understanding  that  nothing  which  passed  between 
the  military  and  naval  experts  should  be  binding 
on  either  government.  In  1912,  following  the 
second  Moroccan  crisis,  the  British  cabinet  de¬ 
cided  that  it  would  be  well  to  have  an  under¬ 
standing  in  writing  that  these  conversations  were 
not  binding  upon  the  freedom  of  either  govern¬ 
ment.  Accordingly  Sir  Edward  Grey  wrote  to 
M.  Cambon,  the  French  Ambassador,  stating 
clearly  that  the  military  conversations  were  not 
binding,  but  at  the  same  time  he  agreed  that  in 
case  either  country  were  attacked  by  a  third 
Power  “it  should  immediately  discuss"  with  the 
other  whether  both  governments  should  act  to¬ 
gether  to  prevent  aggression  and  to  preserve 
peace.” 

In  regard  to  England’s  relations  to  Russia 
Sir  Edward  Grey  stated,  “We  are  not  parties 
to  Franco-Russian  alliance.  We  do  not  even 
know  the  terms  of  that  alliance.” 

With  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War  in 
1914,  this  rather  vague  and  loose  Entente  was 
made  more  binding,  when  on  Sept.  5,  1914,  the 
representatives  of  the  three  Powers  agreed  not  to 
conclude  a  separate  peace  with  Germany  and 
Austria,  and  secondly  that  wfien  the  terms  of 
peace  should  be  discussed  no  one  of  the  allies 
should  demand  conditions  of  peace  without 
previous  agreement  with  the  other  allies.  See 
War  in  Europe. 

TRIPLET  (from  triple,  Fr.  triple,  from  Lat. 
triplus,  threefold).  In  music,  a  group  of  three 
equal  notes,  to  be  performed  in  the  time  of  two 
of  like  value  in  the  regular  rhythm.  For  in¬ 
stance,  when  a  quarter  note  is  divided  into  three 
eighth  notes,  the  group  is  called  a  triplet,  and  it 
is  usual  to  place  the  figure  3  over  it. 

TRIPOLI,  trip'6-ll.  Formerly  a  vilayet  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire.  The  name  is  now  often 


TRIPOLI 


TRIPOLI 


481 


applied  to  the  Italian  possession  of  Libya,  situ¬ 
ated  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  between  the 
Libyan  Desert  on  the  east  and  Tunis  on  the 
west  ( Map :  Africa,  F  2 ) .  The  southern  part 
of  the  country  is  Fezzan,  which  has  the  French 
Sahara  on  the  west.  The  country  is  divided  into 
two  governments — the  one,  Tripolitania,  cor¬ 
responding  to  the  old  Vilayet  of  Tripoli,  and  the 
other,  Cyrenaica,  corresponding  to  the  former 
Mutessarifat  of  Bengazi  (Barca).  The  bounda¬ 
ries  in  the  desert  are  only  approximate,  and 
the  area  of  Libya  cannot  be  accurately  stated. 
rJ  he  estimate  in  the  Annuario  statistico  italiano, 
published  in  1915,  is  1,000,000  to  1,500,000  square 
kilometers  (1  square  kilometer  =  0.3861  square 
mile).  Pop.,  according  to  a  census  taken  in 
1911,  523,176  natives  and  about  6000  Europeans. 

The  interior  of  Tripoli  is  elevated  and  sandy, 
with  fertile  spots  along  the  wadies.  The  country 
is  exposed  to  the  clouds  of  sand  from  the  deserts. 
The  coasts  are  mostly  low  and  sandy,  with  the 
exception  of  the  northeastern  part,  where  some 
of  the  mountains  attain  an  altitude  of  nearly 
2000  feet.  Tripoli  has  no  permanent  rivers,  but 
there  are  a  considerable  number  of  springs,  and 
the  dry  river  courses  fill  up  during  the  rainy  sea¬ 
son.  The  climate  is  hot  during  the  summer,  but 
it  has  more  of  a  Mediterranean  than  an  African 
character.  In  its  flora  and  fauna  Tripoli  re¬ 
sembles  the  rest  of  the  countries  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  pro¬ 
ductive  land  and  its  small  population,  Tripoli 
is  very  little  developed. 

Agriculture  is  carried  on  only  to  a  limited 
extent.  More  attention  is  paid  to  stock  raising. 
The  chief  agricultural  products  are  wheat,  dates, 
grapes,  and  olives.  Sheep  are  raised  on  a  large 
scale,  and  cattle  are  also  to  some  extent.  Some 
sulphur  and  salt  are  obtained  near  the  coast,  and 
there  are  small  sponge  fisheries.  The  commerce 
was  formerly  very  considerable,  and  the  port  of 
Tripoli  was  once  an  important  outlet  for  the 
products  of  the  interior,  with  which  it  is  con¬ 
nected  by  numerous  caravan  routes.  The  chief 
exports  are  hides,  sponges,  and  henna,  besides 
various  articles  from  the  interior  of  Africa,  as 
gold,  ostrich  feathers,  ivory,  rubber,  and  a  few 
other  products.  The  imports  from  Europe  con¬ 
sist  chiefly  of  manufactures  and  food  substances. 
The  centre  of  foreign  commerce  is  the  city  of 
Tripoli  (q.v.).  Imports  in  1912  were  reported 
at  27,782,000  lire,  and  exports  at  4,029,000  lire. 

The  Italian  Governor  of  Tripolitania  resides 
at  the.  city  of  Tripoli,  and  the  Governor  of 
Cyrenaica  at  the  city  of  Bengazi.  The  popula¬ 
tion  consists  largely  of  Berbers  and  Moors,  the 
latter  living  mostly  in  the  cities.  The  Turkish 
element  is  very  limited.  Italian  is  the  official 
language,  but  Arabic  is  commonly  spoken. 

History.  Tripoli  appears  early  to  have 
formed  a  portion  of  the  territory  of  the  Cartha¬ 
ginians.  It  next  passed  to  the  Romans,  who 
included  it  within  the  Province  of  Africa  and 
gave  it  the  name  of  Regio  Syrtica.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  third  century  a.d.  it  became 
known  as  the  Regio  Tripolitana  (on  account  of 
its  three  principal  cities,  CEa,  Sabrata,  and 
Leptis,  which  were  leagued  together;  whence  its 
present  name  Tripoli),  and  was  probably  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  separate  province  by  Septimius 
Severus,  who  was  a  native  of  Leptis.  Later  it 
passed  into  possession  of  the  Vandals  and 
Greeks.  In  the  seventh  century  it  was  con¬ 
quered  by  the  Arabs  (see  Barbary  States),  and 
the  feeble  Christianity  of  the  natives  was  sup¬ 


planted  by  a  vigorous  and  fanatical  Mohamme¬ 
danism.  In  1510  the  city  of  Tripoli  was  cap¬ 
tured  by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  from  1530  to 
1551  it  was  in  possession  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
John.  Since  1551  the  country  had  formed  part 
of  the  Turkish  Empire,  though  the  authority  of 
the  Sultan,  down  to  1835,  had  been  virtually  at 
zero  for  more  than  a  century.  During  this  pe¬ 
riod  Tripoli  was  a  piratical  stronghold.  In 
consequence  it  was  attacked  by  successive  expe¬ 
ditions  of  the  English  and  the  French.  In  1801- 
05  it  was  involved  in  an  unsuccessful  war  with 
the  United  States,  and  in  1815  an  American  ex¬ 
pedition  exacted  reparation  for  injuries  done  to 
American  commerce.  (See  Barbary  Powers, 
Wars  with  the.)  In  1835  an  expedition  was 
dispatched  from  Constantinople;  the  ruling  bey, 
Karamanli  ( in  whose  family  the  sovereignty  had 
continued  uninterrupted  since  1714),  was  over¬ 
thrown  and  imprisoned;  a  new  Turkish  pasha, 
with  vice-regal  powers,  was  appointed,  and  the 
state  made  a  vilayet  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 
Several  rebellions  have  since  taken  place  (nota¬ 
bly  in  1842  and  1844),  but  they  have  always 
been  suppressed.  In  1911  a  war  broke  out  be¬ 
tween  Italy  and  Turkey.  By  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Lausanne  Italian  sovereignty  was 
recognized  in  Tripoli,  although  Italy  accepted  a 
clause  which  permitted  the  Caliph  to  exercise 
religious  authority. 

Bibliography.  General:  Fournel,  La  Tripoli- 
taine  (Paris,  1887);  Borsari,  Geografia  della 
Tripolitania  (Naples,  1888)  ;  Thompson,  Life  in 
Tripoli  (Liverpool,  1894)  ;  Jago,  “Report  on  Ag¬ 
riculture  and  Other  Natural  Resources  of  the 
Vilayet  of  Tripoli,”  in  Great  Britain  Diplomatic 
and  Consular  Reports,  Series  527  (ib.,  1900)  ; 
C.  W.  Furlong,  The  Gateway  to  the  Sahara 
(New  York,  1909);  M.  L.  Todd,  Tripoli  the 
Mysterious  (Boston,  1912).  Antiquities:  H.  S. 
Cowper,  The  Hill  of  the  Graces  (London,  1897). 
History:  G.  F.  Abbott,  The  Holy  War  in  Tripoli 
(ib.,  1912)  ;  Lapworth  and  Zimmern,  Tripoli  and 
Young  Italy  (ib.,  1912),  containing  a  bibli¬ 
ography;  Alan  Ostler,  The  Arabs  in  Tripoli  (ib., 
1912)  ;  Arturo  Labriola,  La  guerra  di  Tripoli  e 
V  opinione  socialiste  (Naples,  1912);  Federico 
Minutilli,  La  Tripolitania  (2d  ed.,  Turin,  1912). 

TRIPOLI.  The  capital  of  Tripolitania,  in 
Africa,  on  a  promontory  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  which  forms  a  small  bay.  The  Sahara  ap-‘ 
proaches  within  a  short  distance  (Map:  Africa, 
FI).  The  town,  whose  high  walls  are  dilapi¬ 
dated,  lies  in  a  fertile  plain.  It  is  typically 
Oriental  with  its  slender  minarets  and  domed 
mosques.  The  castle  of  the  beys  is  handsome. 
There  is  a  splendid  Roman  triumphal  arch, 
erected  to  Marcus  Aurelius.  Tripoli  owes  its 
importance  as  the  commercial  centre  of  the  coun¬ 
try  to  the  three  historic  caravan  routes  of  which 
it  is  the  terminus.  The  first  of  these  runs  south 
across  the  Desert  of  Sahara  to  Lake  Chad;  the 
second,  southwest  to  Timbuktu;  and  the  third, 
south  by  east  to  Wadai  and  points  in  Darfur.’ 
The  city  manufactures  carpets,  scarfs,  and  Span¬ 
ish  leather.  The  harbor  varies  in  depth  from 
15  to  24  feet.  The  trade  is  mostly  in  the  hands 
of  the  Jews,  who  are  congregated  in  a  quarter 
of  the  town  called  Harra.  Tripoli,  one  of  the 
oldest  cities  of  Africa,  is  the  CEa  of  the  Phoeni¬ 
cians.  In  February,  1804,  the  harbor  was  the 
scene  of  Lieutenant  Decatur’s  brave  exploit  of 
recapturing  and  burning  the  American  frigate 
Philadelphia.  Pop.,  29,761. 

TRIPOLI,  trlp'6-li,  TRIPOLIS,  trip'6-lis 


TRIPOLIS 


TRIREME 


(the  classical  name),  or  TARABTJLTJS,  ta-ra' 
bu-lys.  A  town  in  Syria,  Asiatic  Turkey,  the 
capital  of  a  liwa  in  the  Vilayet  of  Beirut,  two 
and  a  half  miles  from  El  Mina,  its  port,  and  40 
miles  north-northeast  of  Beirut  (Map:  Turkey 
in  Asia,  C  3 ) .  The  streets  are  well  paved  and 
covered  in  some  places  by  arcades.  The  houses 
are  built  of  a  porous  conglomerate,  giving  the 
town  a  picturesque  Oriental  aspect.  There  are 
14  churches,  nearly  equally  divided  between  the 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Maronite  sects,  an  American 
mission  station  and  girls’  school,  an  orphanage 
and  girls’  home  of  the  French  Sisters  of  Charity, 
a  synagogue,  14  mosques,  a  monastery  of  danc¬ 
ing  dervishes,  a  castle,  and  several  large  khans. 
Tripoli  is  famous  for  its  silk  sashes.  Silk,  sugar 
cane,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  wool,  and  sponges 
are  exported.  Mulberry  trees  are  extensively 
cultivated  for  the  silkworms.  The  hills  east  of 
the  town  contain  numerous  tobacco  plantations. 
There  is  a  large  overland  trade  by  camels  with 
Aleppo.  Pop.,  30,000,  including  El  Mina.  Of 
the  inhabitants,  24,000  are  Moslems,  4500  Ortho¬ 
dox  Greeks,  1500  Maronites.  Tripoli  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Phoenician  League.  At  that  time  it 
lay  on  the  coast.  In  450  and  in  550  it  was  de¬ 
stroyed  by  earthquakes.  The  Saracens  took  it  in 
638.  It  was  several  times  captured  by  the 

Greeks.  The  Romans  erected  many  fine  build¬ 

ings.  After  a  siege  of  several  years  it  was  taken 
in  1109  by  the  Crusaders,  under  whom  it  enjoyed 
great  prosperity.  Destroyed  by  the  Egyptian 
Sultan,  Kalaun,  in  1289,  it  was  rebuilt  on  its 
present  site. 

TRIPOLIS.  See  Tripolitza;  Tripoli. 

TRIP'OLITE,  or  TRIPOLI  (-11)  (from 

Tripoli,  in  Africa).  A  name  sometimes  applied 
to  diatomaceous  earth  (q.v. ),  but  belonging 
properly  to  certain  highly  siliceous  rocks, 

used  chiefly  for  abrasive  purposes.  The  best 
known,  or  Missouri  tripoli,  is  a  light,  porous 
siliceous  rock,  of  very  fine  texture  and  contain¬ 
ing  over  98  per  cent  silica.  Consult  Ries,  Eco¬ 
nomic  Geology  (3d  ed.,  New  York,  1910),  and 
Parr  and  Williams,  Journal  of  Industrial  and 
Engineering  Chemistry,  vol.  i,  p.  692  (Easton, 
Pa.,  1909). 

TRIPOLITZA,  tre'po-lye'tsa,  or  TRIP'- 
OLIS.  The  capital  of  the  Nomarchy  of  Arcadia, 
Greece,  34  miles  southwest  of  Argos,  on  the 
Argos-Kalamata  Railway  (Map:  Greece,  D  6). 
It  is  on  a  plain,  2000  feet  above  sea  level,  near 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Tegea  and  Mantinea. 
Tapestries  and  leather  goods  are  manufactured. 
Pop.,  11,000.  Tripolitza  is  a  modern  city  and 
under  the  Turkish  pashas  was  the  capital  of  the 
Morea.  It  was  captured  and  burned  by  the 
Greek  patriot  Kolokotronis  (q.v.),  Oct.  5,  1821. 
In  1825  it  was  taken  by  Ibrahim  Pasha  and 
completely  destroyed  by  him  in  1828. 

TRI'POS  (from  Lat.  tripus,  from  Gk.  rplnovs, 
tripous,  tripod).  A  term  peculiar  to  Cambridge 
University,  denoting  the  three  honor  classes 
composed  of  successful  candidates  in  the  final 
examinations  in  the  various  departments.  In 
mathematics  the  first-honor  men  are  known  as 
senior  and  junior  wranglers.  The  term  is  also 
used  of  the  examination  itself. 

TRIP'PANT.  In  heraldry  (q.v.),  a  term 
used  of  a  beast  of  chase  represented  as  walking. 

TRIPTOL'EMTJS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  TpnrroXe- 
p,os ) .  A  Greek  legend,  the  bestower  of  grain 
upon  mankind.  In  the  Homeric  Hymn  to  Deme¬ 
ter,  Triptolemus  is  merely  one  of  the  princes  of 
Eleusis  (q.v.)  to  whom  Demeter  (see  Ceres) 


teaches  her  sacred  rites  when  she  finally  leaves 
her  temple  for  Olympus.  Later,  however,  tradition 
made  him  the  son  of  King  Celeus  and  Meteneira, 
and  a  special  favorite  of  Demeter,  who  gave  him 
a  winged  chariot,  or  one  drawn  by  winged  drag¬ 
ons,  and  sent  him  forth  to  bear  the  knowledge 
of  her  gift  of  grain  among  mankind.  This  scene 
is  frequently  represented  on  Attic  vases  of  the 
fifth  century  and  later.  Triptolemus  had  a  tem¬ 
ple  at  Eleusis  and  was  honored  in  Athens  also 
in  connection  with  the  two  goddesses  Demeter 
and  Kore.  Attic  belief  also  made  him  one  of  the 
judges  in  the  lower  world,  apparently  in  place 
of  Minos,  who  held  an  unfavorable  place  in  local 
legends.  The  Greek  type  of  Triptolemus  was 
used  by  the  Romans  for  Bonus  Eventus,  who 
seems  to  have  had  much  resemblance  to  the  Eleu- 
sinian  hero. 

TRIP  TO  SCARBOROUGH,  A.  A  comedy 
by  Sheridan  (1777),  altered  from  Vanbrugh's 
Relapse  ( q.v. ) . 

#  TRIPTYCH,  trip'tik  (from  Gk.  tpUtvxos, 
triptyclios,  folded  thrice,  from  rpels,  treis,  three 
+  TTTvxy,  ptyche,  fold,  from  irrvaaeiv,  ptyssein, 
to  fold).  An  altarpiece  of  three  wings,  each 
painted  or  carved  with  a  distinct  subject,  but 
joined  together  by  hinges  and  capable  of  being 
folded  so  as  to  present  a  new  face  when  closed. 
During  the  early  Middle  Age  and  especially  the 
high  Gothic  period  small  ivory  triptychs,  exquis¬ 
itely  carved,  were  frequently  used  in  private 
devotions.  During  the  late  Gothic  and  early 
Renaissance  the  triptych  was  commonly  employed 
as  an  important  devotional  altarpiece  in  the 
churches  of  both  northern  and  southern  Europe. 
The  panels  were  of  wood,  often  with  architec¬ 
tural  framework,  and  were  decorated  with  paint¬ 
ings.  This  was  especially  the  case  in  Flanders 
and  in  Germany,  where  painting  was  combined 
with  elaborate  wood  carving  in  the  decorations 
of  altarpieces. 

TRUREME  (Lat.  triremis,  galley  with  three 
banks  of  oars,  from  tres,  three  -f-  remus,  oar ) . 
In  ancient  times,  a  galley  with  three  banks  of 
oars;  the  common  form  of  the  ancient  ship  of 
war  in  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries  b.c.  The 
credit  of  the  invention  was  given  to  the  Corin¬ 
thians,  who  were  said  to  have  used  triremes  in 
their  war  with  Corcyra  in  the  seventh  century 
B.c.  The  details  of  the  structure  of  the  Athenian 
trireme  are  still  uncertain,  as  the  statements  of 
the  ancient  writers  leave  many  points  obscure, 
and  the  testimony  of  works  of  art  is  likewise  full 
of  uncertainties.  It  seems  clear  that  the  banks 
of  oars  were  arranged  one  above  the  other, 
though  not  perpendicularly;  that  there  was  only 
one  man  to  an  oar;  and  that  all  the  oars  could 
be,  and  in  battle  were,  used  at  the  same  time. 
For  ordinary  purposes  the  crew  was,  of  course, 
divided  into  watches.  The  ancient  trireme  was 
of  light  draft  and  could  be  easily  hauled  on 
shore,  so  that  a  high  freeboard  seems  improbable, 
for  reasons  of  stability;  while  the  difficulty  of 
keeping  an  effective  stroke  with  oars  of  widely 
different  lengths  also  speaks  against  any  such 
mode  of  construction.  The  trireme  was  provided 
with  a  mainmast  which  carried  a  large  square 
sail,  that  was  lowered  with  its  yard,  or,  if  pos¬ 
sible,  left  on  shore,  before  going  into  action.  In 
the  latter  case  the  mast  also  was  unstepped  and 
laid  along  the  deck.  There  was  also  a  small 
foremast,  which  seems  to  have  projected  some¬ 
what  like  a  bowsprit  and  likewise  carried  a 
square  sail.  The  Attic  trireme  of  the  fourth  cen¬ 
tury  carried  170  oars,  but  probably  not  over  150 


TBISAGION 


were  actually  used,  the  rest  being  a  reserve 
equipment.  Officers,  sailors,  and  10  or  12  hop- 
lites  brought  the  total  crew  up  to  about  200 
men.  The  ship  was  steered  by  large  paddles  on 
either  side  of  the  stern,  connected  inboard  so 
that  they  could  be  handled  by  a  single  man.  The 
time  was  given  to  the  rowers  by  a  special  officer, 
the  keleustes.  The  lowest  rank  of  rowers  was 
called  tlialamitae,  the  second  zeugitae,  and  the 
uppermost  thranitse;  the  thranitse  received  the 
highest  pay,  as  handling  the  longest  oars.  In 
the  early  battles,  such  as  that  at  Salamis,  the 
chief  endeavor  was  to  lay  the  ships  aboard  and 
fight  from  the  decks,  trusting  little  to  manoeu¬ 
vring,  in  which  the  Greeks  seem  to  have  felt 
themselves  inferior.  Later  the  Athenians  devel¬ 
oped  a  high  degree  of  skill  in  handling  their  long 
light  vessels  and  preferred  to  regard  the  trireme 
as  the  weapon  and  to  aim  at  disabling  or  sinking 
the  enemy  by  the  use  of  the  ram,  which  projected 
at  the  water  line  or  below.  The  attack  was 
aimed  at  the  quarter  or  side  of  the  hostile  ship, 
and  to  meet  bows  on  was  held  unskillful  and 
even  dangerous,  as  the  bow  was  not  strongly 
built.  Against  the  Carthaginians  the  Romans 
used  boarding  bridges  in  order  to  neutralize  the 
seamanship  of  their  opponents  and  bring  about 
a  conflict  of  soldiers. 

Bibliography.  Bernhard  Graser,  De  Veterum 
Re  N avali  (Berlin,  1864)  ;  Paul  Serre,  Les  ma¬ 
rines  de  guerre  de  I’antiquite  et  du  moyen-dge 
(2  parts,  Paris,  1885—91);  Arthur  Breusing, 
Die  Nautik  der  Alten  (Bremen,  1886)  ;  id.,  Die 
Lasting  des  Trier enrdtsels  (ib.,  1889)  ;  Assmann, 
“Seewesen,”  in  K.  A.  Baumeister,  Denkmdler  des 
Jdassischen  Altertums  (Munich,  1888)  ;  E.  Lue- 
beck,  Das  Seewesen  der  Griechen  und  Romer 
(2  parts,  Hamburg,  1890-91);  the  article 
A  avis  ’  in  William  Smith,  A  Dictionary  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities,  vol.  ii  (3d  ed., 
London,  1891)  ;  Cecil  Torr,  Ancient  Ships  (Cam¬ 
bridge,  1894).  * 

TILISAGION,  tris-ag'i-on  or  -a'gl-on.  See 
Doxology. 

TBXSEC'TION  OF  AN  ANGLE  (from  tri¬ 
sect,  from  Lat.  ires,  three  -(-  sectus,  p.p.  of 
secure,  to  cut).  One  of  the  three  famous  prob¬ 
lems  of  antiquity,  the  others  being  the  duplica¬ 
tion  of  the  cube  (q.v. )  and  the  squaring  of  the 
circle.  (See  Circle;  Quadrature.)  This  prob¬ 
lem,  like  the  quadrature  of  the  circle,  is  almost 
as  old  as  geometry  itself,  but  first  received 
thorough  investigation  at  the  hands  of  the  Soph¬ 
ists  (400  b.c.).  Hippias  of  this  school  invented 
the  quadratrix  (see  Quadrature),  by  which  any 
angle  may  be  trisected.  In  the  figure  BD  is  a 
quadrant  of  a  circle,  BG  is  an  arc  of  the  quad¬ 
ratrix,  and  the  construction  involves  the  re- 
DB  BA 

lation  - = - .  Hence,  by  dividing  BA  into 

FD  EII 

segments  having  any  given  ratio,  the  quadrant 
or  any  arc  BD  can  be  divided  into  arcs  having 
the  same  ratio.  If  the  arc  is  to  be  trisected 
the  line  corresponding  to  BA  is  trisected. '  The 
trisection  of  an  angle  is  also  accomplished  by 
means  of  the  conchoid  (q.v.)  of  Nicomedes 
(180  B.c. ) .  If  AOB  in  the  figure  is  the  angle 
to  be  trisected,  C  any  point  on  OB,  CM  is  JL 
to  OA  and  CP  is  [  |  to  OA,  it  is  easily  seen  that, 
if  P  can  be  found  so  that  PN  —  2 CO,  then  PO  is 
a  trisection  line  of  angle  AOB.  But  the  tram¬ 
mel  of  the  conchoid  with  its  directrix  resting 
on  CM,  parameter  AM  =  CB  —  2 CO,  its  pole  at 
0,  will  describe  a  curve  cutting  CP  in  the  re¬ 


483  TEJSECTION  OF  AN  ANGLE 


quired  point.  Many  other  methods  have  been 
devised  for  the  solution  of  this  problem.  Viete 
(1591)  showed  its  relation  to  the  solution  of  the 


cubic  equation.  Gauss  (1801)  showed  its  re¬ 
lation  to  cyclotomic  equations.  Other  mathe¬ 
maticians  of  the  nineteenth  century  have  de¬ 
clared  its  solution  impossible  by  means  of  the 


straight  edge  and  compasses  (i.e.,  by  the  postu¬ 
lates  of  Euclidean  geometry).  But  the  real 
reason  for  the  failure  of  this  method  to  solve  the 
problem  and  also  its  associates  was  set  forth  by 
Klein. 


The  argument  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 
( 1 )  According  to  the  formula  of  De  Moivre 
( q.v. )  the  roots  of  the  equation  ad  —  cos  cp  -f-  i  sin  (p 


cis  (p,  are  X\  =  cis^,  x2  =  cis 

O 


0  +  ' 


-jIT, 


Xz  =  CIS 


<p~\-4:l 

3 


(2)  These  roots  are  represented  geometrically 


TRISMEGISTUS 


TRISTAN  DA  CUNHA 


484 


by  the  vertices  of  an  equilateral  triangle  in¬ 
scribed  in  the  unit  circle  with  its  centre  at  the 
origin.  The  figure  shows  that  to  the  root  x± 


corresponds  the  argument 

o 


Hence  the  equa¬ 


tion  x3  —  cos  0  +  i  sin  0  is  the  analytic  expres¬ 
sion  of  the  problem  of  the  trisection  of  the 
angle.  No  root  of  the  equation  can  be  expressed 
as  a  rational  function  of  cos  0  and  sin  0.  That 
is,  the  equation  is  irreducible  and  can  be  solved 
by  the  aid  of  a  finite  number  of  square  roots 
only  for  special  values  of  0.  Hence  the  tri¬ 
section  of  an  arbitrary  angle  cannot  be  ef¬ 
fected  with  straight  edge  and  compasses.  Con¬ 
sult:  Felix  Klein,  Famous  Problems  of  Elemen¬ 
tary  Geometry  (Eng.  trans.,  Boston,  1897); 
Dickson,  “Constructions  with  Ruler  and  Com¬ 
passes,”  in  J.  W.  A.  Young,  Monographs  on 
Topics  of  Modern  Mathematics  (New  York, 
1911);  Arthur  Mitzscherling,  Das  Problem  der 
Kreisteilung  (Leipzig,  1913). 

TRIS'MEGIS'TUS.  See  Hermetic. 

TRXS'MUS  NASCEN'TIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  lock¬ 
jaw  of  the  new  born).  A  form  of  lockjaw  occur¬ 
ring  in  newly  born  children  a  few  days  after 
birth  and  usually  fatal.  In  some  cases  the  at¬ 
tack  comes  in  8  or  10  days  after  birth.  The 
cause  is  infection  of  the  umbilical  stump  with 
tetanus  bacilli.  See  Tetanus. 

TRISSINO,  tres'se'no,  Giovanni  Giorgio 
(1478-1550).  An  Italian  critic  and  author, 
born  at  Vicenza.  Excluded  for  Imperialistic  af¬ 
filiations  from  his  native  territory  by  the  Sig- 
noria  of  Venice  in  1509,  he  spent  some  time  in 
Germany,  at  Ferrara,  and  at  Florence,  and  in 
1514  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  received  with 
favor  by  Pope  Leo  X,  who  sent  him  on  missions 
to  the  Emperor  Maximilian  and  to  the  Signoria 
of  Venice.  At  the  instance  of  Leo  X  the  ban  of 
proscription  was  taken  off.  He  enjoyed  the  es- 
teeip  of  Popes  Clement  VII  and  Paul  III  and 
passed  some  time  at  Venice  as  Nuncio  of  the 
former  pontiff.  Between  1532  and  1545  he  lived 
at  Venice  and  Padua,  maintaining  a  splendid 
literary  hospitality  in  his  villa  at  Cricoli.  In 
1545  he  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  died. 
Trissino,  a  man  of  less  than  ordinary  artistic 
vision,  is  an  immensely  important  figure  in  liter¬ 
ary  history.  His  conversations  in  Florence 
(1514)  gave  rise  to  Machiavelli’s  Dialogo  in- 
torno  alia  lingua  and  thereafter  to  the  violent 
polemics  of  the  following  decades  on  the  “ques¬ 
tion  of  the  Italian  language.”  ( See  Italian 
Language.)  His  Epistola  to  Clement  VII 
(1527),  his  Grammatichetta  and  Dubbj  gram¬ 
matical!  (1529)  advocated  an  orthographical  re¬ 
form  of  the  Italian  language  (Gk.  e  =  It.  open 
e,  u  —  It.  close  0,  f  =  It.  sonant  z,  c  —  It.  sonant 
s,  etc.),  which  he  applied  to  the  printing  of  his 
own  works.  By  his  (the  first)  edition  of  Dante’s 
De  vulgari  eloquentia  (1523)  and  in  his  dia¬ 
logue  II  castellano  (1528)  he  propounded  the 
theory  of  the  “Italian  Language,”  before  then 
referred  to  as  “Tuscan,”  “Florentine,”  or  simply 
“vulgar,”  which  aimed  at  the  construction  of  an 
Italian  dictionary  and  grammar  based  on  a 
synthesis  of  the  Italian  dialects.  This  theory 
triumphed  in  northern  Italy,  where  Trissino’s 
principal  follower  was  Girolamo  Muzio. 

In  literary  theory  Trissino  was  an  enthu¬ 
siastic  follower  of  neo-Aristotelian  doctrine  and 
an  illustrator  of  the  methods  of  its  application 
to  creative  work.  So  his  Italia  liberata  dai 
Goti  (1547-48)  is  the  first  “regular”  epic  poem, 
and  his  Sofonisba  (1515)  the  first  regular 


tragedy  in  modern  literature,  though  not  even 
this  sole  distinction  of  priority  clings  to  his 
Simillimi,  based  on  the  Mencechmi  of  Plautus. 
These  works  illustrate  the  Renaissance  principles 
of  the  unities  of  time,  place,  and  action,  the  re¬ 
lations  of  the  episodic  to  the  main  themes,  the 
use  of  the  supernatural,  of  realism  in  manners 
and  customs,  etc.  Trissino’s  selection  of  the 
unrhymed  liendecasyllabic  verse  for  epic  and 
tragedy  was  a  permanent  acquisition  for  the 
Italian  classic  stage;  though  in  the  epic  it  was 
crowded  out  by  the  popular  Italian  octave  stanza 
used  by  Pulci,  Boiardo,  Ariosto,  and  Tasso. 
Only  an  erudite  curiosity  attaches  to  Trissino’s 
ideas  and  experiments  in  the  adaptation  of  Greek 
and  Latin  metres  to  Italian  lyric  verse.  Con¬ 
sult:  Tuttle  le  opere  di  Giovanni  Giorgio  Tris¬ 
sino  (Verona,  1729)  ;  Ciampolini,  La  prima  tra- 
gedia  regolare  nella  letteratura  italiana  (Lucca, 
1884);  Ermini,  L’ Italia  liberata  dai  Goti  di 
G.  G.  T.  (Rome,  1893)  ;  Morsolin,  Giangiorgio 
Trissino,  monografia  di  un  gentiluomo  letterato 
del  secolo  XVI  (2d  ed.,  Florence,  1894)  ;  Tra- 
balza,  Storia  della  grammatica  italiana  (Milan, 
1908). 

TRIST,  Nicholas  Philip  (1800-74).  An 
American  lawyer  and  diplomatic  agent,  born  at 
Charlottesville,  Va.  He  was  educated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy,  but  did  not 
graduate.  He  studied  law  under  direction  of 
Thomas  Jefferson,  whose  granddaughter  he  mar¬ 
ried  and  of  whose  household  he  was  a  member, 
but  became  a  clerk  in  the  United  States  Treas¬ 
ury  Department  in  1824  and  was  private  secre¬ 
tary  to  President  Jackson  in  1829.  He  was 
United  States  Consul  at  Havana  (1834-36)  and 
chief  clerk  in  the  Department  of  State  (1845). 
During  the  Mexican  War,  after  American  suc¬ 
cesses  at  Buena  Vista  and  Vera  Cruz,  President 
Polk,  in  April,  1847,  appointed  Trist  special 
agent  to  negotiate  for  peace,  but  without  notify¬ 
ing  General  Scott.  On  the  arrival  of  Trist  a 
quarrel  ensued  between  him  and  Scott.  Nego¬ 
tiations  were  fruitless  until  after  the  capture 
of  the  city  of  Mexico  and  the  resignation  of 
Santa  Anna  as  President.  The  succeeding  gov¬ 
ernment  desired  peace,  and  Trist,  though  his 
powers  had  been  withdrawn,  feeling  that  the  wish 
for  peace  in  the  United  States  would  excuse  the 
irregularity,  proceeded  with  the  negotiations,  by 
the  advice  of  General  Scott,  now  his  friend.  The 
Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  was  signed  Feb. 
2,  1848,  and  was  ratified  by  the  United  States 
Senate.  Trist  afterward  practiced  law  and  in 
1870  was  appointed  postmaster  at  Alexandria, 
Va. 

TRIS'TAN.  See  Tristram. 

TRISTAN  DA  CUNHA,  tris-tan'  da  koon'va. 
A  group  of  three  small  volcanic  islands  in  the 
South  Atlantic  Ocean,  1500  miles  south-south¬ 
west  of  St.  Helena  and  nearly  midway  between 
Cape  Town  and  Buenos  Aires  (Map:  World, 
Eastern  Hemisphere,  N  20).  Total  area,  44 
square  miles.  The  largest  and  only  inhabited 
island  consists  of  an  extinct  volcano  8500  feet 
high.  The  •  climate  is  equable  and  healthful. 
The  inhabitants  numbered  102  in  1914.  They  are 
chiefly  the  descendants  of  the  British  soldiers 
stationed  there  during  Napoleon’s  captivity  at 
St.  Helena  and  of  settlers  from  whaling  ships. 
They  are  supported  by  agriculture  and  have  a 
considerable  number  of  cattle.  They  are  also 
remarkable  in  having  no  organized  form  of  gov¬ 
ernment.  Access  to  the  outer  world  is  main¬ 
tained  by  the  annual  visit  of  a  British  warship. 


TRISTRAM 


TRISTAN  UND  ISOLDE 


485 


The  islands  were  discovered  in  1506  by  the 
Portuguese  navigator  Tristan  da  Cunha  and 
were  taken  by  Great  Britain  in  1816. 

TRISTAN  (tnVtan)  UND  ISOLDE,  e-z61'de. 
An  opera  by  Wagner  (q.v.),  first  produced  in 
Munich,  June  10,  1865;  in  the  United  States, 
Dec.  1,  1886  (New  York). 

TRISTE'ARIN.  See  Stearin. 

TRXS'TIA  (Lat.,  laments).  Five  books  of 
short  poems,  in  the  elegiac  metre,  written  by 
Ovid  between  9  and  12  a.d.  during  his  banish¬ 
ment  at  Tomi. 

TRIS'TRAM,  TRISTREM,  or  TRISTAN. 

rJ  he  hero  of  a  Welsh  or  Armorican  romance  origi¬ 
nally  distinct  from  the  Arthurian  cycle,  but  early 
incorporated  with  it.  Tristram  was  the  son  of 
Roland  of  Ermonie  (or,  according  to  other  ver¬ 
sions,  of  Rivalen  of  north  Britain)  by  Blanche- 
fleur,  sister  to  King  Mark  of  Cornwall.  His 
father  slain,  his  mother  dead  of  grief  (which 
she  expressed  in  the  child’s  very  name),  Tris¬ 
tram  was  reared  by  a  faithful  steward.  At  the 
age  of  15  he  drifted  to  the  court  of  his  uncle. 
King  Mark,  whose  favor  he  won  by  his  skill  in 
the  chase  and  in  minstrelsy.  He  siew  in  mortal 
combat  Moraunt,  or  Morolt,  brother  of  the 
Queen  of  Ireland,  who  had  come  to  demand 
tribute  from  King  Mark.  After  suffering  for 
three  years  from  severe  wounds  he  sailed  to 
Ireland,  where  they  were  healed  by  Iseult  (vari¬ 
ously  spelled),  daughter  of  the  Queen.  On  his 
return  to  Cornwall,  Tristram  told  his  uncle  of  the 
marvelous  beauty  of  the  Irish  princess  and  was 
sent  back  to  Ireland  to  ask  her  hand  in  marriage 
for  the  King.  On  the  voyage  from  Ireland  to 
Cornwall,  Tristram  and  Iseult  drank  of  a  love 
potion  intended  for  King  Mark  and  ever  after 
loved  each  other.  Iseult  married  Mark,  but  con¬ 
trived,  with  the  aid  of  her  clever  maid,  to  have 
many  secret  interviews  with  Tristram.  At 
length  the  lovers  were  discovered,  and  Tristram 
fled  to  Wales,  and  later  to  Brittany,  where  he 
married  another  Iseult,  the  White-handed,  daugh¬ 
ter  to  Duke  Florentine;  but  he  never  forgot 
Iseult  of  Ireland.  Desperately  wounded,  he  sent 
a  messenger  to  Cornwall  to  summon  her  to  heal 
him  once  more.  He  directed  the  messenger  to 
hoist  a  white  sail  on  the  return  voyage  if  the 
princess  were  on  board;  if  not,  a  black  sail.  The 
Queen  of  Cornwall  hastened  to  save  her  lover. 
As  the  vessel  neared  the  shores  of  Brittany, 
Iseult  of  the  White  Hand  saw  the  white  sail; 
but,  fired  with  jealous  hate  for  her  rival,  she 
told  her  husband  that  the  sail  was  black.  Tris¬ 
tram  sank  back  and  died.  Iseult  of  Ireland  fell 
prostrate  over  the  body  of  Tristram  and  died 
of  a  broken  heart.  King  Mark  subsequently 
learned  the  story  of  the  love  potion  and  buried 
the  lovers  in  one  grave,  planting  over  Iseult  a 
rose  and  over  Tristram  a  vine,  growing  so  inter- 
wined  that  no  one  could  separate  them. 

This  passionate  story,  probably  originating, 
according  to  Miss  Schoepperle,  in  a  Celtic  elope¬ 
ment  myth,  got  into  literature  in  the  twelfth 
century  and  spread  through  western  Europe. 
Professor  B6dier  argues  that  the  various  ver¬ 
sions  preserved  to  us  were  all  derived  from  one 
poem  probably  composed  in  England  by  an  Anglo- 
Norman  monk.  This  poem,  of  which  all  traces 
are  now  lost,  was  of  such  beauty  that  it  gave 
definite  form  to  the  Tristram  legend.  Though 
this  ingenious  theory  has  been  the  subject  of 
controversy,  it  is  now  becoming  more  universally 
accepted.  The  later  versions  may,  however,  be 
traced  back  t-o  a  poem,  now  existing  only  in 


fragments,  by  an  Anglo-Norman  trouvere  named 
B^roul  (about  1150).  A  little  later  than  this 
(about  1160)  the  theme  was  treated  by  Chrestien 
de  Troyes  (q.v.)  in  a  poem  now  lost.  So  far 
as  has  been  determined,  the  source  of  the  many 
later  Tristrams  is  a  very  prolix  poem  by  an 
Anglo-Norman  named  Thomas  (about  1170). 
Before  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century  Tristram 
and  Iseult  were  among  the  favorite  themes  of 
the  troubadours.  From  the  French  the  romance 
passed  into  the  German  Ti'istrant  (about  1175) 
by  Eilhard  of  Oberge  and  the  Tristant  und  Isolde 
(between  1200  and  1225)  by  Gottfried  of  Strass- 
burg.  Gottfried’s  poem,  extending  to  19,573 
lines,  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  early  versions. 
Left  incomplete,  it  was  continued  by  Ulric  of 
Turheim  and  by  Henry  of  Freiburg.  The  great 
popularity  of  the  romance  in  Germany  is  fur¬ 
ther  attested  by  numerous  chapbooks.  To  the 
year  1226  belongs  a  Scandinavian  version,  Tris¬ 
tram  Saga  ok  Isondar,  and  this  in  turn  was  put 
into  Icelandic  prose.  The  earliest  extant  Eng¬ 
lish  version  is  known  as  Sir  Tristrem.  The  only 
extant  manuscript  belongs  to  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  It  was  composed  in  the  last 
part  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  has  been 
ascribed  to  Thomas  the  Rhymer  (q.v.).  In  1469 
was  published  at  Rouen  an  immense  prose  Tris¬ 
tram  in  French,  which  was  translated  into  Ger¬ 
man,  Spanish,  and  Italian.  It  was  also  used  by 
Sir  Thomas  Malory  (q.v.)  for  his  Morte  d’ Arthur 
(1485).  In  the  nineteenth  century  Tristram 
and  Iseult  became  a  favorite  theme  in  England 
and  Germany.  Following  Malory,  Tennyson 
wove  the  story  into  the  Idylls  of  the  King  (‘‘‘The 
Last  Tournament  ’).  In  his  noble  Tristram  and 
Iseult  Matthew  Arnold  awakened  pity  for 
Iseult  of  Brittany.  But  Swinburne  in  his  Tris¬ 
tram  of  Lyonesse  best  expressed  the  tremendous 
passion  of  the  mediaeval  tale.  The  theme  was 
treated  splendidly  by  Wagner  in  his  operatic 
poem  Tristan  und  Isolde  (1859).  Consult  the 
English  Sir  Tristrem  as  edited  by  G.  P.  McNeill 
for  the  Scottish  Text  Society  (Edinburgh,  1886), 
and  by  E.  Kolbing  in  Die  nordische  und  die 
englische  Version  der  Tristansage  (Heilbronn, 
1878-82)  ;  Golther,  Tristan  und  Isolde  (L  eipzig, 
1907)  ;  M.  W.  Austin,  Tristram  and  Iseult  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1905).  A  charming  version  of  the  Tris¬ 
tram  story  is  that  of  J.  Bedier,  he  roman  de 
Tristan  et  Iseut  (5th  ed.,  Paris,  1902;  Eng. 
trans.  by  Florence  Simmonds,  London,  1910,  and 
by  Hilaire  Belloc,  New  York,  1914).  Other 
works  of  importance  are  E.  Muret,  Le  roman  de 
Tristan  par  Beroul  (Paris,  1903);  Piquet, 
L’Originalit6  de  Gottfried  de  Strassbourg  dans 
Tristan  et  Isolde  (Lille,  1905)  ;  J.  Bedier,  Le 
roman  de  Tristan  par  Thornes  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1902-05)  ;  id.,  Les  deux  poemes  de  La  folie  Tris¬ 
tan  ( ib.,  1907 )  ;  W.  Hertz,  Tristan  und  Isolde 
(Stuttgart,  1907);  Gertrude  Schoepperle,  Tris¬ 
tan  and  Isolt  (2  vols.,  London,  1913)  ;  Passerini, 
II  romanzo  di  Tristano  e  Isotta  bionda  (Milan, 
1914). 

TRISTRAM,  Henry  Baker  (1822-1906). 
An  English  clergyman,  traveler,  and  author,  born 
at  Eglingham,  Northumberland.  He  graduated 
at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in  1844  and  in  1880 
became  rural  dean  of  Durham.  He  traveled  ex¬ 
tensively  in  biblical  lands  and  elsewhere  and 
published,  among  other  works:  The  Great  Sahara 
(1860);  Land  of  Israel  (1865;  2d  ed.,  1882); 
Natural  History  of  the  Bible  (1867;  5th  ed., 
1880)  ;  Bible  Places,  or  Topography  of  the  Holy 
Land  (1872-97);  Land  of  Moab  (l873;  2d  ed., 


TRISTRAM  SHANDY  486  TRIUMVIRATE 


1874)  ;  Pathways  of  Palestine  (2  vols.,  1882)  ; 
Fauna  and  Flora  of  Palestine  (18S4);  Eastern 
Customs  in  Bible  Lands  (1894). 

TRISTRAM  SHANDY,  The  Life  and 
Opinions  of.  A  novel  by  Laurence  Sterne  in 
nine  volumes  (1759— G7).  The  chief  interest  of 
the  work  is  in  its  characters:  Walter;  Captain 
Shandy  (Uncle  Toby),  the  real  hero  of  the 
storv;  Corporal  Trim;  and  Yorick. 

TRITHE'MIUS,  Johannes  (1462-1516).  A 
German  Catholic  theologian  and  historian.  His 
name  was  Heidenberg,  but  he  was  called  Tritheim 
or  Trithemius  from  his  birthplace,  Trittenheim. 
In  1482  he  entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  at 
Sponheim,  near  Kreuznach,  and  in  1483  became 
its  abbot.  Here  he  collected  a  library  which 
made  the  house  famous.  His  rule  was  strict, 
and  his  monks  resented  his  long  absence  in  the 
neighboring  country;  so  in  1506  he  exchanged 
Sponheim  for  the  Scottish  monastery  of  St. 
James  at  Wurzburg,  where  he  died.  His  writ¬ 
ings  are  very  numerous;  his  sermons  to  monks 
were  published  in  1576,  and  his  letters  in  1536. 
He  was  also  a  pioneer  author  in  German  Church 
history  and  invented  a  popular  system  of  short¬ 
hand,  Steganographia  (Frankfort,  1606;  new 
ed.,  1635),  for  which  see  Bailey,  John  Dee  and 
the  Steganographia  of  Trithemius  (London, 
1879).  Consult:  J.  Silbernagel,  J.  Trithemius 
(2d  ed.,  Landshut,  1868)  ;  W.  Schneegans,  Abt 
Johannes  Trithemius  und  Kloster  Sponheim 
(Kreuznach,  1882)  ;  Johannes  Janssen,  History 
of  the  German  People  at  the  Close  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  vol.  i  (Eng.  trans.  by  A.  M.  Christie,  Lon¬ 
don,  1896). 


TRFTHING.  See  Riding. 

TEUTON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tplrwv).  In  Greek 
mythology,  a  son  of  Poseidon  and  Amphitrite, 
who  dwells  with  his  parents  in  a  golden  palace 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  He  seems  especially 
connected  with  Boeotia  and  was  perhaps  origi¬ 
nally  a  local  divinity  of  Alalcomenae  or  Tanagra. 
In  this  region  took  place  the  conflict  of  Hercules 
with  Triton,  which  was  a  favorite  subject  in 
early  works  of  art.  In  the  fourth  century  b.c. 
and  later,  we  find  a  whole  race  of  Tritons,  to  be 
compared  with  Panes,  Sileni,  and  similar  multi¬ 
plications.  In  art  they  are  at  first  human  to  the 
breast  or  waist,  ending  in  the  tail  of  a  sea  ser¬ 
pent  or  fish.  In  later  art  we  find  the  legs  re¬ 
placed  by  fishes’  tails,  or  else  the  figure  that  of 
a  sea  centaur,  with  the  head  and  trunk  of  a 
man,  the  forelegs  and  body  of  a  horse,  and 
passing  into  a  serpent  with  a  fish  tail.  Char¬ 
acteristic  is  Triton’s  conch  shell,  on  which  he  is 
represented  as  blowing  stormily  or  gently. 


TRITON.  1.  A 

genus  of  aquatic  am¬ 
phibians,  the  newts. 
( See  Newt.  )  2.  Any 
of  several  large  gas¬ 
tropod  shells,  espe¬ 
cially  a  large  species 
( Triton  tritonis) , 
having  a  spiral  shell 
more  than  a  foot 
long,  which  is  used  as  a  war  trumpet  by  natives 
of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  the  example  illustrated 
being  one  from  the  Admiralty  Islands. 

TRI'TONE  (from  Gk.  rplrovos,  tritonos,  hav¬ 
ing  three  tones,  from  rpels,  treis,  three  +  tovos, 
tonos,  tone,  sound,  tension,  strength,  cord).  In 
music,  a  term  denoting  the  augmented  fourth 
which  is  a  succession  of  three  whole  tones, 
as  F — B.  A  progression  by  the  interval  of 


TRITON  CONVERTED  INTO  A 
WAR  TRUMPET. 


the  tritone  was  strictly  forbidden  by  the  older 
theorists. 

TRUTONID.  A  sea  slug.  See  Nudibranchi- 
ata  and  accompanying  Colored  Plate. 

TRITYL'ODON  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  rpeis, 
treis,  three  -f-  tv\os,  tylos,  knob,  knot,  callus  -f- 
68ovs,  odous,  tooth ) .  A  primitive  multitubercu- 
late  mammal  from  the  lower  Jurassic  beds  of 
South  Africa.  In  some  points  it  seems  to  resem¬ 
ble  the  cynodont  reptiles  and  has  been  placed 
by  some  authorities  in  that  group. 

TRUUMPH  (Lat.  triumplius,  OLat.  triumpus , 
triumph,  victory,  shout  of  joy;  of  uncertain 
etymology ) .  The  name  given  in  ancient  Rome 
to  the  highest  public  honor  bestowed  on  a  gen¬ 
eral  who  had  been  successful  in  war.  The  victor, 
after  having  pronounced  a  eulogy  on  the  brav¬ 
ery  of  his  soldiers,  ascended  his  triumphal  car 
and  passed  through  the  Porta  Triumphalis 
(which  probably  stood  on  the  Campus  Martius), 
where  the  Senate  met  him,  and  the  procession 
was  organized  and  entered  the  city,  passing  by 
the  Via  Sacra  to  the  Capitol.  First  marched 
the  Senate,  headed  by  the  magistrates;  next 
came  a  body  of  trumpeters;  then  a  train  of  car¬ 
riages  and  frames  laden  with  the  spoils  of  the 
vanquished;  then  a  body  of  flute  players,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  the  oxen  to  be  sacrificed  and  the  sacri¬ 
ficing  priests;  then  the  distinguished  captives 
with  bands  of  inferior  prisoners  in  chains;  after 
them  walked  the  lictors  of  the  imperator,  having 
the  fasces  wreathed  with  laurel.  Next  came  the 
hero  of  the  day — the  imperator — in  a  chariot. 
He  was  attired  in  an  embroidered  robe  and  flow¬ 
ered  tunic  (the  toga  picta  and  the  tunica  palm- 
ata;  see  Toga).  He  bore  in  his  right  hand  a 
laurel  bough,  in  his  left  a  sceptre,  and  had  his 
brows  garlanded  with  Delphic  laurel.  He  was 
accompanied  by  his  children  and  his  intimate 
friends.  His  grown-up  sons,  the  legates,  trib¬ 
unes,  and  equites,  rode  behind;  behind  came  the 
rest  of  the  soldiery,  singing  or  jesting  at  their 
pleasure,  for  it  was  a  day  of  carnival  and  license. 
When  the  procession  had  reached  the  foot  of  the 
Capitoline  Hill,  some  of  the  captive  chiefs  were 
put  to  death;  the  procession,  after  waiting  to 
hear  their  death  announced,  mounted  to  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  where  the  oxen 
were  sacrificed  and  the  laurel  wreath  was  placed 
in  the  lap  of  Jupiter.  In  the  evening  the  im¬ 
perator  was  publicly  feasted,  and  it  was  cus¬ 
tomary  to  provide  him  a  site  for  a  house  at  the 
public  expense.  Under  the  Empire  generals  serv¬ 
ing  abroad  were  considered  to  be  the  Emperor's 
lieutenants,  and  therefore,  however  successful 
in  their  wars,  they  had  no  claim  to  a  triumph. 
They  received  instead  triumphal  decorations 
and  other  rewards. 

The  ovation,  or  lesser  triumph  (Lat.  ovatio) , 
differed  from  the  greater  chiefly  in  that  the 
imperator  entered  the  city  on  foot,  clad  in  the 
simple  toga  prcetexta  of  a  magistrate,  and  wear¬ 
ing  a  wreath,  not  of  laurel,  but  of  myrtle;  that 
he  bore  no  sceptre,  was  not  preceded  by  the 
Senate  and  flourish  of  trumpets,  nor  followed  by 
his  victorious  troops,  but  only  by  the  equites 
and  the  populace,  and  that  the  ceremonies  were 
concluded  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  sheep  instead  of  a 
bull,  whence,  doubtless,  the  name  ovatio  (from 
ovis,  a  sheep).  Some  variations  of  these  cere¬ 
monies  are  found  in  various  authorities  and  on 
various  monuments. 

TRIUMPHAL  ARCH.  See  Arch,  Tri- 

UMBHAL  OR  MEMORIAL. 

TRIUM'VIRATE  (Lat.  triumviratus,  union 


TRIVANDRUM  487  TROCHOSPHERE 


of  three  men,  from  triumvir,  one  of  a  board  of 
three  men  associated  in  a  public  office,  from 
trium ,  gen.  pi.  of  tres,  three  +  vir,  man).  The 
name  given  in  Roman  history  to  the  private 
league  entered  into  between  Pompey,  Csesar,  and 
Crassus — the  three  most  powerful  men  of  their 
time.  This  compact  was  not  a  triumvirate  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  since  it  had  no 
legally  constituted  existence.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  division  of  government  between 
Octavian  (Augustus),  Antonius,  and  Lepidus  in 
the  civil  wars  that  followed  the  murder  of 
Caesar — an  arrangement  sanctioned  by  the  Sen¬ 
ate.  The  former  is  usually  called  the  first,  the 
latter  the  second  triumvirate.  Consult  Charles 
Merivale,  The  Roman  Triumvirates  (new  ed.. 
New  York,  1889). 

TRIVAN'DRUM.  A  military  cantonment 
and  the  capital  of  the  native  state  of  Travancore 
(q.v. ),  Madras,  India,  53  miles  southwest  of 
dinnevelli  and  about  2  miles  from  the  Arabian 
Sea  (Map:  India,  C  8).  Among  the  features  are 
the  fort  with  its  Maharaja  palaces,  the  temple  to 
Vishnu,  the  observatory,  and  the  Napier  Mu¬ 
seum.  The  Maharaja  College  here  is  one  of  the 
leading  institutions  for  higher  education  in 
India.  There  are  also  a  Sanskrit  college  and 
art  and  medical  schools.  Wood  carving  is  the 
principal  industry.  Pop.,  1911,  including  can¬ 
tonment,  63,561. 

TRIV'ET  (or  TREVET),  Nicholas  (c.1258- 
1328).  An  English  historian,  belonging  prob¬ 
ably  to  a  Somerset  family.  He  is  said  to  have 
studied  at  Oxford  and  at  Paris  and  to  have  been 
a  Dominican  friar  in  London,  becoming  even¬ 
tually  the  prior  of  his  house.  He  wrote  exten¬ 
sively  on  theology  and  Latin  literature,  but  he 
is  chiefly  known  for  his  Annales  Sex  Regum  An- 
glice  qui  a  Comitibus  Andegavensibus  Originem 
Traxerunt  (ed.  by  T.  Hog  for  the  English  His¬ 
torical  Society,  1845).  This  chronicle  history 
of  the  Angevins  is  particularly  valuable  for  the 
reign  of  Edward  I,  the  period  in  which  the 
author  flourished.  The  entire  period  covered  by 
the  Annales  is  from  1136  to  1307. 

TRIVTUM  (Lat.,  meeting  of  three  roads). 
In  the  curriculum  of  the  early  universities,  the 
first  three  of  the  seven  liberal  arts,  which  em¬ 
braced  grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric.  See 
Quadrivium. 

TRO'AD.  The  name  of  the  district  in  Mysia, 
Asia  Minor,  controlled  by  Troy  (q.v.),  Priam’s 
city. 

TRQADES,  tro'a-dez  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  T pxddes, 
the  Trojan  Women).  A  play  by  Euripides ‘ (455 
B.c.),  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  at  Troy  in  the 
Grecian  camp,  where  the  captured  were  allotted 
to  their  conquerors. 

TROBRIAND,  tro'bre'aN',  (Philippe)  Regis 
(de  Keredern)  de  (1816-97)  .  A  Franco- Amer¬ 
ican  soldier  and  writer.  He  was  born  near 
Tours,  France;  was  educated  in  Paris,  Rouen, 
Tours,  and  Poictiers;  and  in  1841  traveled  in 
America.  In  1843  he  married  an  American  wife 
and  for  10  years  lived  part  of  the  time  in  the 
United  States  and  part  in  Paris.  From  1854  to 
1861  he  was  joint  editor  of  the  Courrier  des 
Etats-Unis.  He  entered  the  Federal  army  as 
colonel  of  the  Fifty-fifth  New  York  Volunteers 
(Guard  Lafayette,  a  French  troop)  in  1861; 
took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battles  of  Fred¬ 
ericksburg,  Chancellorsville,  and  Gettysburg; 
became  a  brigadier  general  of  volunteers  in 
January,  1864;  and  commanded  a  division  in 
Grant’s  campaign  against  Lee.  He  was  brevetted 


major  general  of  volunteers  in  April,  1865;  was 
commissioned  colonel  of  the  Thirty-first  Infantry 
in  the  regular  army  in  1866;  was  brevetted 
brigadier  general  of  the  United  States  army  in 
1867,  and  afterward  commanded  the  districts  of 
Dakota,  Montana,  and  Green  River.  In  Jan- 
uary,  1875,  he  put  under  arrest  the  Louisiana 
Legislature  in  Governor  William  P.  Kellogg’s 
(q.v.)  attempt  to  keep  possession  of  the  State 
government.  (See  Louisiana,  History.)  In 
1879  he  retired  from  active  service.  He  pub¬ 
lished  Les  gentilshommes  de  Vouest,  a  novel  of 
the  insurrection  of  1832  (1841),  and  Quatre 
ans  de  campagnes  a  Varmee  du  Potomac  (1868), 
which  was  translated  into  English  in  1889  by 
Dauchy.  Consult  The  Life  and  Memoirs  of 
Comte  Regis  de  Trobriand  (New  York,  1910), 
by  his  daughter,  M.  C.  Post. 

TROCADERO,  tro'ka/da'rd'.  An  elevation 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  opposite  the  Pont 
d’lena,  named  after  a  Spanish  fort  near  Cadiz 
taken  by  the  French  in  1823.  The  ground  was 
laid  out  in  terraces  for  the  exhibition  of  1867, 
and  for  that  of  1878  the  present  Palais  du  Troca- 
dero  was  erected.  The  building,  by  Davioud,  an 
immense  structure  in  Oriental  style,  consists  of 
a  central  portion  flanked  by  curving  wings  each 
220  yards  in  length.  It  contains  an  immense 
concert  hall,  seating  6000;  two  towers  or  belve¬ 
deres;  and  in  the  wings  a  fine  museum  of  casts 
of  French  sculpture. 

TROCHEE,  tro'ke  (Lat.  trochceus,  from  Gk. 
rpoxaios,  trochaios,  trochee,  tribrach,  running, 
from  rpoxos,  trochos,  a  running,  from  rptyet*/, 
trechein,  to  run).  The  name  of  a  foot,  or  meas¬ 
ure,  in  Greek  and  Latin  verse,  consisting  of  a 
long  and  a  short  syllable  ( —  w  ).  This  rapid 
measure  was  employed  both  in  tragedy  and  in 
comedy.  By  analogy  the  term  is  used  in  modern 
verse  to  designate  a  dissyllabic  measure  consist¬ 
ing  of  a  stressed  and  an  unstressed  syllable,  e.g. : 

When'  shall  we'  three  meet'  again'  ? 

See  Versification. 

TROCHEL’M  XNTIIES,  trok'el-min'thez 
(Wheel  Animalcules).  A  phylum  composed 
of  the  Rotifera,  the  Dinophilea,  and  the  Gastro- 
tricha,  characterized  by  having  the  larva  in  the 
form  of  a  trochosphere  ( q.v. ) . 

TROCHES,  tro'kgz.  Troches,  also  called  pas¬ 
tilles  or  lozenges,  are  small,  flattened  cakes,  con¬ 
sisting  of  medicinal  substances  mixed  with  sugar 
and  mucilage  and  agreeably  flavored.  They  are 
intended  to  be  dissolved  in  the  mouth  and  act 
locally  upon  inflammatory  conditions  of  that 
cavity  or  the  throat.  There  are  nine  official 
troches  in  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia,  as 
follows :  those  of  tannic  acid,  ammonium  chloride, 
cubeb,  gambir,  liquorice  and  opium,  krameria, 
potassium  chlorate,  santonin,  and  sodium  bi¬ 
carbonate. 

TROCHILID^E,  tro-klFi-dS.  The  family  of 
the  hummingbirds  (q.v.). 

TROCHILUS,  trf/ki-lus.  1.  The  typical 
genus  of  hummingbirds  (q.v.),  now  being  sup¬ 
planted  by  the  name  Archilochus.  2.  The  an¬ 
cient  name  of  a  certain  plover.  See  Crocodile 
Bird. 

TROCHOID,  trd'koid.  See  Cycloid. 

TROCHOSPHERE,  trok'o-sfer  (from  Gk. 
rpoxos,  trochos,  wheel  +  <r cpaipa,  spliaira,  ball, 
sphere),  or  Trochosphore.  A  larval  form  com¬ 
mon  to  many  of  the  lower  invertebrates,  which 
consists  of  an  oval  or  pearlike  body  of  micro¬ 
scopic  minuteness,  with  a  broader  and  a  nar- 


TROCHTJ 


TROGLODYTES 


488 


rower  end  and  a  distinct  bilateral  symmetry. 
The  body  is  encircled  by  a  double  zone  of  * 
strong  cilia.  The  mouth,  just  behind  this  cir¬ 
clet,  leads  into  an  alimentary  canal  extending 
towards  the  small  end,  where  an  anal  aper¬ 
ture  opens.  The  broader  end  exhibits  sense 
organs  varying  in  different  species  in  number 
and  character.  From  this  kind  of  larva  the 
adult  forms  of  the  higher  groups  (many  worms, 
polyzoans,  mollusks,  etc.)  are  developed  by  some 
sort  of  true  metamorphosis,  resulting  in  an  ani¬ 
mal  utterly  different;  but  in  certain  very  lowly 
groups,  such  as  the  wheel  animalcules  (Rotifera) 
and  certain  closely  allied  microscopic  aquatic 
forms,  no  metamorphosis  occurs,  and  the  adult 
may  be  looked  upon  as  a  somewhat  modified 
trochospliere.  These  groups  have  therefore  been 
associated  bv  some  zoologists  into  a  phylum 
termed  Trochelminthes.  Consult  Parker  and 
Haswell,  Text-Book  of  Zoology  (New  York, 
1910). 

TROCHU,  trO'shu',  Louis  Jules  (1815-96). 

A  French  general,  born  at  Palais,  in  the  De¬ 
partment  of  Morbihan.  After  studying  in  the 
General  Staff  Academy  he  fought,  after  1846, 
with  great  distinction  in  Algeria  and  in  1851  be¬ 
came  head  of  a  bureau  in  the  Ministry  of  War. 
During  the  Crimean  War  he  served  as  aid  to 
Saint- Arnaud  and  Canrobert,  was  made  a  general 
of  brigade,  and  at  Sebastopol  distinguished  him¬ 
self  in  the  storming  of  the  Malakov  bastion, 
Sept.  8,  1855.  As  general  of  division  during  the 
Austro-Italian  War  of  1859  he  did  excellent  serv¬ 
ice  at  Solferino,  assuming,  after  the  conclusion  of 
peace,  an  important  post  in  the  War  Department. 
In  1867  he  published  anonymously  L’Armee  fran- 
gaise  en  1867,  in  which  he  criticized  severely  the 
defects  in  the  French  army  organization,  thereby 
losing  favor  at  court.  After  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  with  Germany  he  became  (August,  1870) 
Governor  of  Paris  and  on  the  downfall  of  the 
Second  Empire,  after  Sedan,  was  made  head  of 
the  Government  of  National  Defense,  remaining 
at  the  same  time  in  command  of  the  military 
forces  of  the  city.  His  half-hearted  defense  of 
the  capital  subjected  him  to  bitter  criticism, 
and,  when  further  resistance  to  the  besieging 
forces  had  become  impossible,  he  laid  down 
the  office  of  Governor,  Jan.  22,  1871,  a  week 
before  the  capitulation  of  the  city.  In  1873 
he  resigned  from  the  army  and  retired  to  private 
life.  In  defense  of  his  conduct  during  the  siege 
of  Paris  he  published  L’Empire  et  la  defense 
de  Paris  devant  le  jury  de  la  Seine  ^(1872)  ; 
Pour  la  verite  et  pour  la  justice  (1873)  ;  La 
politique  et  le  siege  de  Paris  (1874). 

TROELS-LTTND,  trols-lund,  Troels  Fred- 
erik  (1840-1921  ).  A  Danish  historian,  born  in 
Copenhagen.  He  took  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  at 
Copenhagen  University  in  1871  and  for  several 
years  was  connected  with  the  Royal  Archives. 
He  was  professor  at  the  Military  School  of 
Frederiksberg  (1874-1900).  His  publications 
include  an  important  work  on  Scandinavian  his¬ 
tory,  Danmarks  og  Norges  Historic  i  Slutningen 
af  det  16te  Aarliundrede  (History  of  Denmark 
and  Norway  at  the  End  of  the  Sixteenth  Cen¬ 
tury)  (14  vols.,  1879-1901;  in  part  trans.  into 
Ger.)  ;  Sundhedsbegreberne  i  Norden  i  16 de 
Aarhundrede  (1900)  ;  De  tre  nordiske  Brodrefolk 
(1906);  Peder  Oxe  (1906);  Historiske  Fortal- 
linger,  Tider  og  Tanker  (8  vols.).  Troels-Lund’s 
writings,  notable  for  a  brilliant  narrative  style, 
brought  him  a  reputation  not  only  as  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  figures  among  Dan¬ 


ish  writers  of  his  time,  but  as  an  author 
of  international  importance. 

TROELSTRA,  trool'stra,  Pieter  Jelles 
(1860-  ).  A  Dutch  Socialist  leader  and  edi¬ 

tor,  born  at  Leeuwarden.  He  graduated  a  doc¬ 
tor  of  laws  from  the  University  of  Groningen 
in  1888  and  became  an  attorney  in  his  native 
citv.  After  he  had  been  employed  in  various 
lawsuits  in  behalf  of  striking  workers,  he  be¬ 
came  editor  in  1892  of  De  Sneeker  Gourant , 
which  in  1893  was  removed  to  Amsterdam  under 
the  name  De  X ieuwe  Tijd.  De  Baanbreker, 
founded  by  Troelstra  at  Utrecht  in  1893,  became, 
as  De  Soeiaaldemocrata,  the  official  organ  of  the 
Dutch  Social  Democratic  Workers’  party. 
When  this  party  established  its  daily  paper, 
Het  Volk,  in  1900,  Troelstra  was  made  its  chief 
editor.  Later  he  practiced  law  at  Haarlem,  but 
in  1915  retired  because  of  ill  health.  He  wrote: 
De  Sociaaldemokratische  arbeiderspartij  in 
Xederland  (1896;  2d  ed.,  1899);  Het  kiesrecht 
en  de  soeiaaldemokratie  (1894);  I  an  leed  en 
strijd  (1898;  2d  ed.,  1899);  Woorden  van 
vrouwen  (1898)  ;  Het  legerwetschandaal  (1901)  ; 
Sociaal  Christendom  (1902);  Tlieorie  en  beweg- 
ing  (1902);  Inzake  partijleiding  (1906);  Het 
kindje  (1909). 

TRCE'ZEN  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tpoitfv,  Troizen) . 
An  ancient  city  of  Greece  in  Argolis,  about  2 
miles  from  the  Saronic  Gulf,  nearly  opposite 
Calauria.  It  played  some  part  in  Greek  legend, 
being  closely  associated  with  Attica,  as  the 
birthplace  of  Theseus  (q.v.),  whose  mother, 
^Ethra,  was  daughter  of  King  Pittheus.  Here 
also  was  localized  the  story  of  the  fatal  love 
of  Phaedra  (q.v.)  for  her  stepson  Hippolytus 
(q.v.).  In  historic  times  it  was  a  Dorian  city. 
During  the  invasion  of  Xerxes  it  took  a  promi¬ 
nent  part  in  the  defense  of  Greece,  sending  ships 
to  the  Greek  fleet  and  receiving  with  great  kind¬ 
ness  the  Athenian  women  and  children  when 
driven  from  their  city  by  the  Persian  advance. 
It  was  later  a  faithful  ally  of  Sparta  during 
the  Peloponnesian  and  Corinthian  wars.  Under 
the  Macedonian  supremacy  it  changed  masters 
frequently,  now  being  in  the  hands  of  Macedon, 
again  under  Sparta,  and  again  brought  by 
Aratus  into  the  Achaean  League.  In  Roman 
times  it  seems  to  have  continued  to  flourish,  for 
Pausanias  (q.v.)  gives  a  somewhat  detailed  ac¬ 
count  of  the  objects  of  interest  in  the  place. 
The  site  near  the  modern  village  of  Damala  is 
marked  by  few  ruins,  and  excavations  under¬ 
taken  by  the  French  school  at  Athens  have 
brought* to  light  little  beyond  the  foundations 
of  some  large  buildings  of  rather  uncertain  use. 

TROGLODYTES,  trogffO-dlts  (Lat.  troglo- 
dyta,  from  Gk.  rpojyXodvrys,  troglodytes,  cave 
dweller,  one  who  creeps  into  holes,  from  rpwyXy, 
trogle,  cave,  hole  +  dveiv,  dyein,  to  enter, _  creep 
into  ) .  The  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  tribes  or 
races  of  uncivilized  men,  who  dwrelt  either  in  nat¬ 
ural  caverns  or  in  holes  which  they  had  dug  for 
themselves  in  the  earth.  They  are  mentioned  by 
Strabo  as  existing  as  far  west  as  Mauretania  and 
as  far  east  as  the  Caucasus.  Perhaps  the  best- 
known  troglodytes  of  ancient  times  were  those 
of  southern  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  where  a  consid¬ 
erable  extent  of  country  was  called  Regio  Trog- 
lodytica.  According  to  the  Greek  accounts  they 
could  not  speak  articulately,  but  shrieked  or 
screamed  like  the  lower  animals.  Their  chief 
occupation  was  herding  cattle,  and  their  habits 
were  rude  and  debased.  They  are  said  to  have 
had  a  community  of  wives  and  to  have  put  to 


TROGON,  HOOPOE,  ETC. 


1.  GREEN  TROGON  or  QUETZAL  (Pharomacrus 

mocinno). 

2.  LESSER  HONEY-GUIDE  (indicator  minor). 


3.  YELLOW-THROATED  BARBET  (Caplto  Richardsonl). 

4.  CAYENNE  PUFF-BIRD  ^Bucco  Ordi). 

5.  MADAGASCAR  HOOPOE  (Upupa  marginata). 


THE  Ur-ARY 

gf  t;:e 

UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


TROGLODYTES 


TROJAN  WAR 


489 


death  the  aged  and  infirm.  The  name  is  occa¬ 
sionally  applied  loosely  to  any  class  of  cave 
dwellers  ( q.v. ) . 

TROGLODYTES.  See  Chimpanzee. 

TRO'GON  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  rpcjyuv,  pres.  p. 
of  Tpibyeiv,  trogein,  to  gnaw).  A  bird  of  the 
family  Trogonidae,  including  about  50  species 
remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  plumage, 
which  is  soft,  full,  and  brightly  colored.  The 
bill  is  short,  strong,  with  a  wide  gape;  the  tail 
generally  long,  in  some  species  very  long;  the 
feet  small,  and  frequently  feathered  almost  to  the 
toes.  The  toes  are  two  in  front  and  two  behind, 
but,  unlike  all  other  zygod&ctylous  birds,  the 
reversed  toes  are  the  first  and  second  instead  of 
the  first  and  fourth.  They  are  tropical,  abound¬ 
ing  in  South  America,  but  some  occur  in  Asia  and 
a  few  in  Africa.  One  species,  the~copper-tailed 
trogon  (Trogon  ambiguus) ,  is  found  as  far  north 
as  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande.  It  is  11  inches 
long,  bright  metallic  golden  green,  throat  white, 
breast  and  belly  carmine,  middle  tail  feathers 
coppery  green,  the  rest  of  the  tail  white  and 
black.  The  most  gorgeous  is  the  quetzal  (q.v.). 
Trogons  are  usually  seen  singly  or  in  small 
flocks  and  are  unsuspicious.  They  remain  most 
of  the  time  in  the  thick  forest,  resting  during 
the  heat  of  the  day.  The  Old  World  species  feed 
principally  on  insects,  but  American  trogons  eat 
fruit  and  also  catch  insects,  crabs,  crayfish, 
small  lizards,  snails,  etc.,  getting  most  of  this 
on  the  wing  or  by  clinging  to  branches  of  trees 
like  woodpeckers.  Their  notes  are  loud,  rather 
discordant  cries,  varied  by  clucking,  whistling, 
and  other  strange  notes.  No  nest  is  made,  the 
round  whitish  eggs  being  laid  in  a  hole  excavated 
in  a  rotting  tree  stub.  The  group  is  ancient,  as 
is  known  by  fossil  examples,  and  sufficiently  dis¬ 
tinct  to  be  ranked  as  a  suborder.  Extended  ac¬ 
counts  of  the  American  trogons  are  given  by 
Sclater  and  Salvin  in  Biologia  Centrali- Ameri¬ 
cana,  vol.  iii  (London,  1896).  See  Plate  of 
Trogon,  Hoopoe,  etc. 

TRO'GUS  POMPE'TUS.  A  Roman  historian 
of  Gallic  origin  who  lived  during  the  reign  of 
Augustus,  son  of  one  of  Caesar’s  secretaries.  He 
was  the  author  of  Historice  Philippicce  ( in  44 
books),  a  universal  history  from  the  time  of  Ni- 
nus,  King  of  Assyria,  down  to  5  a.d.  The  origi¬ 
nal  work,  which  was  drawn  from  some  of  the 
best  Greek  historical  writers,  is  lost,  but  an  epit¬ 
ome  of  it  by  Justin  (q.v.)  is  still  extant.  In 
addition  to  the  historical  narrative  the  Avork  is 
said  to  have  contained  interesting  accounts  re¬ 
lating  to  geography,  ethnography,  and  natural 
science.  Trogus  is  said  to  have  written  several 
zoological  and  botanical  works,  based  largely 
on  Aristotle  and  Theophrastus.  Consult:  A.  H. 
L.  Heeren,  Gommentationes  de  Trogi  Pompeii 
ejusque  Epitomatoris  Justini  Fontibus  et  Auc- 
toritate,  printed  in  C.  H.  Frotscher’s  edition  of 
Justinus  (Leipzig,  1827-30)  ;  Crohn,  De  Trogi 
apnd  Antiquos  Auctoritate  (Strassburg,  1882)  ; 
Martin  Schanz,  Geschichte  der  romischen  Lit- 
teratur,  vol.  i,  part  i  (3d  ed.,  Munich,  1911). 

TRO'ILTJS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  TpouAos).  A  son 
of  Priam,  or  of  Apollo,  who  was  slain  by  Achilles. 

TROILUS  AND  CRES'SIDA.  A  drama  by 
Shakespeare,  probably  originally  written  about 
1602  and  revised  before  1609,  when  it  was  printed 
in  two  editions.  The  sources  were  probably 
Chaucer,  Le  Fevre’s  Recuyel  of  the  Histories  of 
Trope,  Lydgate’s  Troy-Book,  and  perhaps  Chap¬ 
man’s  Homer,  partlv  translated  in  1597. 

TROIS  MOTJSQTTET  AIRES,  trwa  mys'ke- 


tar',  Les  (Fr.,  The  Three  Musketeers).  A  ro¬ 
mance  by  Dumas  (1844).  The  scene  is  laid 
in  the  time  of  Richelieu,  in  whose  affairs  the 
three  famous  guardsmen  Athos,  Porthos,  and 
Aramis  and  their  companion  D’Artagnan  take 
part. 

TROITSK,  tro'Itsk.  A  town  in  the  Govern¬ 
ment  of  Orenburg,  Russia,  on  the  Uya,  394  miles 
northeast  of  Orenburg  (Map:  Russia,  K  4).  It 
has  a  barter  court,  where  an  extensive  barter 
trade  with  the  Kirghizes  and  other  tribes  is 
transacted.  Pop.,  1910,  36,830. 

TRO'JAN  WAR.  A  famous  legendary  war, 
generally  placed  about  the  beginning  of  the 
tAvelfth  century  b.c.;  undertaken  by  the  Greeks 
for  the  recovery  of  Helen,  wife  of"  King  Mene- 
laus  of  Sparta,  who  had  been  carried  off  by 
Paris,  son  of  the  Trojan  King,  Priam.  At  the 
marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  Eris  (Discord), 
who  alone  of  the  gods  had  not  been  invited  to 
the  wedding,  flung  among  the  guests  a  golden 
apple  inscribed  “For  the  Fairest.”  This  was 
claimed  by  Juno,  Minerva,  and  Venus.  When 
the  goddesses  referred  the  decision  as  to  which 
of  them  was  the  fairest  to  Paris,  he  decided  in 
favor  of  Aphrodite,  thereby  securing  Helen  by 
her  favor  and  bringing  down  on  the  Trojans  the 
lasting  wrath  of  the  slighted  Juno  and  Minerva. 
The  expedition  to  avenge  the  injury  to  Menelaus 
was  placed  under  the  command  of  Agamemnon, 
King  of  Argos,  and  was  joined  by  the  Greek 
heroes,  including  Achilles,  Patroclus,  the  two 
Ajaxes,  Teucer,  Nestor,  Odysseus,  Diomedes,  and 
Idomeneus.  They  assembled  at  Aulis  with  100,- 
000  men  and  1186  ships  and  proceeded  to  Troy, 
where  their  demand  for  the  return  of  Helen  was 
refused.  The  siege  was  then  begun.  It  lasted, 
according  to  the  usual  interpretation,  10  years 
and  was  terminated  only  by  treachery,  when  the 
Greek  warriors  were  introduced  into  the  city 
in  the  interior  of  a  great  wooden  horse.  The 
.sack  and  burning  of  Troy  follow,  with  the  es¬ 
cape  of  iEneas,  whose  progeny  were  to  be  the- 
founders  of  Rome.  For  a  very  different  theory, 
that  the  war  was  in  fact  a  short  war,  consult  B 
O.  Foster,  “The  Trojan  War  Again,”  in  Ameri¬ 
can  Journal  of  Philology,  vol.  xxxvi  (Baltimore, 
1915). 

The  story  of  the  war  is  told  in  various  classi¬ 
cal  epic  poems,  of  which  the  Iliad  is  the  most 
famous.  ( See  Homer.  )  It  terminates  with  the 
death  of  Hector,  the  principal  hero  of  the  Tro¬ 
jans.  The  Little  Iliad,  ascribed  to  Lesches  of 
Lesbos,  was  composed  about  660  b.c.  (See 
Cyclic  Poets.)  In  four  books  it  gave  the  story 
of  the  contest  of  Odysseus  and  Ajax,  son  of 
Telamon,  for  the  armor  of  Achilles,  the  deaths 
of  Ajax,  Paris,  and  Eurypylus,  the  stealing  of 
the  Palladium,  and  the  construction  of  the 
wooden  horse.  At  this  point  the  legend  was 
taken  up  by  the  Iliou  Persis  or  Sack  of  Troy,  by 
Arctinus,  in  two  books,  ending  with  the  escape 
of  Polyxena  at  the  tomb  of  Achilles.  The  Nostoi 
(Returns),  attributed  to  Agias  of  Troezen,  in 
five  books,  told  of  the  wanderings  of  Menelaus, 
Calchas,  and  Neoptolemus  and  the  murder  of 
Agamemnon.  The  Telegonia,  by  Eugammon  of 
Cyrene,  related  various  adventures  of  Odysseus 
after  the  slaying  of  the  suitors,  his  death  at  the 
hands  of  his  son  Telegonus  (q.v.),  and  the  lat¬ 
ter’s  marriage  to  Penelope. 

The  legendary  history  of  Troy  before  the  Tro¬ 
jan  War,  like  other  Greek  myths,  varied  much 
in  details.  It  was  said  that  the  place  owed  its 
name  to  Ilus,  son  of  Tros,  son  of  Dardanus.  Its 


TROLLE 


490 


TROLLOPE 


walls  were  built  by  Poseidon  for  Laomedon,  who, 
however,  cheated  the  god  of  his  promised  reward. 
Hercules  rescued  Hesione,  the  daughter  of  Lao¬ 
medon,  from  the  sea  monster  to  which  she  had 
been  exposed,  but  was  likewise  cheated  by  the 
King,  whereupon  he  and  Telamon  attacked  and 
captured  the  city. 

The  Trojan  legend  was  very  popular  in  the 
Middle  Ages  and  formed,  with  the  Charlemagne 
story  and  the  Arthurian  traditions,  one  of  the 
three  great  divisions  into  which  the  work  of  the 
French  romance  writers  falls.  Celtic  legends 
tell  of  a  certain  Brutus  who,  driven  from  Troy, 
founded  Brutannia  or  Britannia.  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth  calls  him  a  great-grandson  of  AEneas. 

( See  Brutus  or  Brute,  The  Trojan.  )  The 
spread  of  the  legend  is  due  mainly  to  Benoit  de 
Sainte-More.  The  gist  of  the  Iliad  was  used 
in  the  Latin  of  Dictys  of  Crete  and  by  Dares 
the  Phrygian.  Benoit  knew  both  Dictys  and 
Dares,  but  preferred  the  drier  account  of  the 
latter,  in  which  the  people  of  the  West  were  re¬ 
ported  to  descend  from  the  Trojans.  This  was 
used  about  1200  by  Herbart  von  Fritzlar  and 
about  1250  by  Konrad  von  Wurzburg;  before 
1288  Guido  della  Colonna  had  recast  it  in  Latin 
prose.  Benoit’s  version  may  also  be  traced  in 
Boccaccio’s  Filostrato  (1344).  This  is  the  main 
source  of  Chaucer’s  Troylus  and  Cryseyde 
(c.1369 ) ,  as  that  is  of  Shakespeare’s  play.  Con¬ 
sult  :  Dunger,  Die  Sage  vom  trojanischen  Kriege 
in  den  Bearbeitungen  des  Mittelalters  (Dresden, 
1869)  ;  G.  E.  B.  Saintsbury,  The  Flourishing  of 
Romance  and  the  Rise  of  Allegory  (London, 
1897).  Consult  the  article  “Troi'ka,”  in  Fried¬ 
rich  Liibker,  Reallexikon  des  klassischen  Alter- 
tums,  vol.  ii  (8th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914).  See  Troy. 

TROLLE,  troFle,  Herluf  (1516-65).  A 
Danish  statesman  and  admiral,  born  on  the 
island  of  Lillo.  During  the  early  part  of  his 
career  he  was  a  statesman  and  diplomat.  He 
possessed  the  trust  and  confidence  of  the  King, 
and  in  1559  was  appointed  inspector  of  the  fleet 
with  the  rank  of  admiral.  He  applied  himself 
to  his  new  duties  with  zeal  and  energy  and 
greatly  improved  the  condition  of  the  navy.  In 
1563  he  succeeded  Admiral  Peder  Skram  (q.v.) 
as  commander  in  chief.  In  May  of  that  year, 
with  an  inferior  force,  he  defeated  a  powerful 
Swedish  fleet  off  Oland  and  captured  the  Swedish 
admiral.  In  August,  in  an  indecisive  action,  he 
met  a  second  Swedish  force  under  the  celebrated 
Swedish  admiral  Klas  Horn,  and  in  June,  1565, 
he  again  fought  Horn  at  Femern  without  either 
side  achieving  a  victory.  Trolle,  however,  was 
severely  wounded  and  died  soon  after.  When 
studying  at  Wittenberg,  he  became  a  close  friend 
of  Melanchthon.  His  estate,  Herlufsholm,  he 
turned  into  a  school  and  home  for  children  of 
nobles  and  nonnobles  alike, 

TROLLEY  (from  troll,  from  OF.  troller,  trau- 
ler,  troler,  Fr.  trdler,  to  ramble,  stroll,  drag 
about,  probably  from  MHG.,  Ger.  trollen,  to  roll, 
run ) .  A  word  first  coined  in  England  and 
there  used  in  the  sense  of  a  handcart  and  then 
of  a  truck.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada 
it  means  a  sort  of  grooved  metallic  sheave  or 
pulley  in  contact  with  an  overhead  electrically 
charged  wire  and  connected  with  a  rod  or  flexible 
conductor  to  an  electric  motor  on  some  moving 
vehicle,  such  as  an  electric  locomotive  or  street 
car,  so  that  the  actuating  current  from  the 
power  house  may  be  transmitted,  as  the  trolley 
rolls  on  the  charged  wire.  See  Electric  Rail¬ 
ways. 


TROLLING,  troFlng.  A  form  of  angling. 
Some  trolling  is  from  a  moving  boat;  others 
troll  from  the  river  or  lake  bank,  winding  in 
the  bait  with  the  reel  or  moving  it  with  the  rod, 
and  still  others  troll  in  the  surf,  where  the  cur¬ 
rent  of  tides  or  undertow  of  the  sea  carries 
the  bait.  If  a  spinning  artificial  frog  or  fish 
is  used,  the  connection  with  the  line  should  be 
made  by  means  of  a  swivel,  to  prevent  the  line 
from  twisting.  This  is  not  necessary  if  the  lure 
is  a  spoon  which  revolves  without  moving  the 
bait.  The  heaviest  fish  trolled  for  in  fresh 
water  is  the  maskinonge,  the  standard  bait  for 
which  is  a  frog  alive  or  imitation,  but  an  effective 
one  is  the  spoon,  preferably  showing  a  golden 
hue,  size  No.  8,  the  feathers  at  the  head  of 
which  should  be  bright  scarlet,  and  a  single 
hook.  The  bluefish  is  taken  by  trolling  from  a 
boat  in  motion  or  from  a  stationary  boat  into  the 
waters  around  which  have  been  thrown  small 
pieces  of  menhaden.  The  Spanish  mackerel  is 
taken  by  trolling,  and  many  other  fish  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  and  of  the  Gulf.  Off  the 
Florida  coast  and  in  the  Gulf  the  tarpon  is 
taken  by  trolling  from  a  slowly  rowed  boat.  On 
the  California  coast  the  tuna,  the  yellowtail,  and 
barracuda  have  been  taken  on  hook.  See 
Angling;  Bait  Fishing;  Fly  Casting;  Tar¬ 
pon  Fishing. 

TROL'LIUS.  See  Globe  Flower. 

TROLLOPE,  trol'lup,  Anthony  (1815y82). 
An  English  novelist,  born  in  London,  April  24, 
1815,  son  of  Frances  Trollope  (q.v.).  Educated 
at  Winchester  and  at  Harrow,  he  proved  a  dull 
scholar,  and  his  poverty  made  his  school  days 
most  unhappy.  In  1834  he  obtained  an  official 
position  in  the  General  Post  Office  in  London. 
While  there  he  found  time  to  amuse  the  public 
with  a  series  of  novels  of  remarkable  merit. 
His  first  work  to  attract  attention,  The  Warden 
(1855),  was  followed  by  a  continuation  entitled 
B archester  Towers  (1857),  perhaps  the  most 
widely  read  of  all  his  books.  In  rapid  succes¬ 
sion  came  Dr.  Thorne  (1858)  ;  The  Three  Clerks 
(1858)  ;  The  Bertrams  (1859)  ;  Castle  Richmond 
(I860)  ;  Framley  Parsonage  (1861)  ;  Orley  Farm 
(1862)  ;  The  Small  House  at  Allington  (1864)  ; 
Can  you  Forgive  her?  (1864-65);  The  Last 
Chronicle  of  Bar  set  (1867);  Phineas  Finn 
(1869);  The  Eustace  Diamonds  (1873);  Phineas 
Redux  (1874)  ;  The  Way  we  Live  now  (1875)  ; 
Is  he  Popenjoy ?  (1878);  and  others.  Trollope 
also  published  volumes  of  travel,  among  them 
being  North  America  (1862),  Australia  and  New 
Zealand  (1871-72),  and  South  Africa  (1878). 
In  biography  he  wrote  a  Life  of  Csesar  (1870) 
and  one  of  Cicero  (1880),  besides  sketches  of 
Thackeray  (1879)  and  Palmerston  (1882).  His 
Autobiography  appeared  in  1875-76.  He  died 
at  Harting,  Sussex,  Dec.  6,  1882. 

Trollope  is  one  of  the  most  admirable  of 
English  realists.  He  delineates  the  English  so¬ 
ciety  of  his  time  with  wonderful  penetration 
and  with  an  equal  command  of  humor  and  of 
pathos.  He  particularly  excels  in  depicting  life 
in  the  cathedral  towns,  and  his  portraits  of 
bishops,  archdeacons,  and  the  minor  clergy  are 
remarkable  for  their  truth  and  humor.  His  Mrs. 
Proudie  in  Barchester  Towers  and  again  in  The 
Last  Chronicle  of  Barset  is  perhaps  the  best  of 
the  shrewish  type  since  Shakespeare’s  Katherine. 
Very  attractive,  too,  are  his  young  girls,  as  Lily 
Dale,  Mary  Thorne,  and  Grace  Crawley.  Trol¬ 
lope  did  not  himself  lay  any  especial  claim  to 
psychological  insight,  yet  it  would  be  hard  to 


TROLLOPE 


TROMBONE 


491 


find  in  English  fiction  anything  more  true  and 
delicate  than  his  analysis  of  the  conscience  of 
Septimus  Harding  in  The  Warden,  or  anything 
more  poignant  than  his  study  of  jealousy  in  He 
Knew  he  Was  Right.  Trollope’s  snobs,  his  rus¬ 
tics,  and  his  husband-hunting  young  women  are 
all  draAvn  with  surprising  vividness.  On  the 
whole,  his  best  work  is  contained  in  The  Chroni¬ 
cles  of  Barsetshire  (13  vols.,  New  York,  1892)  ; 
yet  many  of  his  less  read  novels,  such  as  The  Way 
we  Live  now,  The  American  Senator  (  1877),  and 
The  Claverings  (1867)  are  very  little  inferior. 
Curious  facts  concerning  his  life  and  methods 
of  composition  may  be  found  in  his  Autobiogra¬ 
phy  (New  York,  1883).  Consult  also:  Henry 
James  in  Partial  Portraits  (New  York,  1899)  ;  Id. 
T.  Peck’s  Introduction  to  vol.  i  of  the  Royal 
Edition  of  Trollope’s  best-known  novels  (Phil¬ 
adelphia,  1900)  ;  James  Bryce,  Studies  in  Con¬ 
temporary  Biography  (New  York,  1903)  ;  W.  L. 
Cross,  Development  of  the  English  Kovel  (new 
ed.,  ib.,  1905)  ;  and  for  combined  criticism  and 
biography,  T.  H.  S.  Escott,  Anthony  Trollope 
(ib.,  1913). 

TROLLOPE,  Edward  (1817-93).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  clergyman  and  antiquary,  educated  at 
Eton  and  Oxford,  graduating  B.A.  from  St.  Mary 
Hall  in  1839.  Ordained  priest  in  the  Anglican 
church  (1841),  he  held  various  preferments,  be¬ 
coming  Bishop  of  Nottingham  in  1877.  As  secre¬ 
tary  and  as  president  of  the  Associated  Archi¬ 
tectural  Societies,  he  took  an  active  and  judicious 
part  in  the  work  of  Church  restoration.  Among 
his  works  are:  Illustrations  of  Ancient  Art, 
Selected  from  Objects  Discovered  at  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum  (1854);  Life  of  Pope  Adrian  IV 
(1856)  ;  Handbook  of  the  Paintings  and  Engrav¬ 
ings  Exhibited  at  Nottingham,  Illustrating  the 
Caroline  Civil  War  (1864)  ;  Notices  of  Ancient 
and  Medieeval  Labyrinths  (1866). 

TROLLOPE,  Mrs.  Frances  (1780-1863). 
An  English  novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
and  mother  of  Anthony  Trollope  (q.v.),  born 
at  Stapleton,  near  Bristol,  March  10,  1780. 
Her  father,  William  Milton,  was  subsequently 
vicar  of  Heckfield  in  Hampshire.  In  1809  she 
was  married  to  Thomas  Anthony  Trollope,  a 
barrister.  In  1827  she  went  to  America  and  dur¬ 
ing  a  three  years’  residence  in  the  United  States 
gathered  the  materials  of  her  first  book,  Domes¬ 
tic  Manners  of  the  Americans  (1832).  This 
work  attracted  great  attention,  and  the  severity 
of  certain  of  its  strictures  was  much  resented 
in  the  United  States,  as  was  natural  where  the 
author’s  tendency  towards  broad  humor  magni¬ 
fied  vulgarity  and  left  a  picture  not  entirely 
authentic.  Indeed,  in  1833  appeared  a  pamphlet 
entitled  American  Criticisms.  After  the  death 
of  her  husband  (1835)  Mrs.  Trollope  had  to  turn 
to  literature  for  a  living.  For  20  years  book 
after  book  came  from  her  pen.  Of  her  novels 
perhaps  the  best  were:  The  Vicar  of  I Vrexhill 
(1837);  The  Widow  Barnaby  (1838),  and  the 
sequels  of  the  latter,  The  I  Widow  Married  (1840) 
and  The  Barnaby s  in  America  (1843).  Mrs. 
Trollope’s  last  years  were  passed  in  Florence 
with  her  eldest  son,  Thomas  Adolphus  Trollope 
(q.v.).  She  died  at  Florence,  Oct.  6,  1863. 
The  Domestic  Manners  of  the  Americans  was 
edited  by  H.  T.  Peck  (New  York,  1896).  Con¬ 
sult  Frances  Trollope,  by  her  daughter-in-law, 
Frances  Eleanor  Trollope  (London,  1895). 

TROLLOPE,  Frances  Eleanor.  See  Trol¬ 
lope,  Thomas  Adolphus. 

TROLLOPE,  Thomas  Adolphus  (1810-92). 
Vol.  XXII.— 32 


An  English  author,  born  in  London,  April  29, 
1810.  His  mother  was  Frances  Trollope  (q.v.), 
and  Anthony  Trollope  (q.v.)  was  a  younger 
brother.  He  was  educated  at  Winchester  and 
at  Oxford.  In  1843  he  settled  at  Florence,  where 
his  house  on  the  Piazza  Maria  Antonia  became 
the  gathering  place  of  English  and  American 
authors  traveling  in  Italy.  To  his  hospitable 
wife  Landor  addressed  the  lines,  “To  Theodosia.” 
Like  his  mother  and  brother,  Trollope  wielded 
a  ready  pen.  Not  reckoning  a  prodigious  num¬ 
ber  of  articles  contributed  to  newspapers  and 
other  periodicals,  he  published  fully  60  volumes; 
and,  it  is  said,  he  was  always  interesting.  His 
most  conspicuous  works  were  connected  with 
Italy.  Among  them  are:  Impressions  of  a  Wan¬ 
derer  in  Italy,  etc.  (1850);  The  Girlhood  of 
Catherine  de’  Medici  (1856)  ;  A  Decade  of  Ital¬ 
ian  Women  (1859)  ;  Filippo  Strozzi :  A  History 
of  the  Last  Days  of  the  Old  Italian  Liberty 
(1860);  A  Lenten  Journey  in  Umbria  and  the 
Marches  of  Ancona  (1862);  A  History  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  Florence  to  the  Fall  of  the 
Republic  in  1531  (1865)  ;  The  Story  of  the  Life 
of  Pius  IX  (1877).  Trollope  also  wrote  many 
novels.  His  last  years  were  passed  in  England. 
He  died  at  Clifton,  Nov.  11,  1892. 

His  second  wife,  Frances  Eleanor  Trollope, 
wrote  Black  Spirits  and  White  (1877);  That 
Unfortunate  Marriage  (1888)  ;  Frances  Trollope: 
Her  Life  and  Literary  Work  (2  vols.,  1895). 
Consult  Trollope’s  reminiscences  under  the  titles 
What  I  Remembered  (2  vols.,  London,  1887)  and 
Further  Reminiscences  (ib.,  1889). 

TROLLS  (Icel.,  Swed.  troll,  troll;  connected 
with  Ger.  Droll,  Troll,  troll,  Eng.  droll).  In 
mythology,  misshapen  dwarfs.  They  inhabited 
hills  and  mounds,  had  abnormal  thieving  pro¬ 
pensities,  stole  children  and  substituted  their 
own  offspring.  They  were  peculiarly  sensitive 
to  noise,  which  was  their  especial  aversion, 
as  it  reminded  them  of  the  hammer  of  Thor, 
which  he  was  accustomed  to  throw  after  them. 
They  were  called  “the  hill  people.”  Though 
strong,  they  were  easily  outwitted  by  men. 
They  had  the  power  to  make  themselves  invisible, 
to  confer  health  and  prosperity,  and  to  foresee 
the  future. 

TROM'BONE  (It.  trombone,  augmentative  of 
tromha,  trumpet,  probably  from  OHG.  trumba, 
trumpa,  Ger.  Trommel,  drum;  ultimately  con¬ 
nected  with  Eng.  drum ) .  A  musical  instrument 
of  the  trumpet  family,  the  tones  of  which  are 
produced  by  means  of  a  slide  mechanispj.  In 
its  present  form  it  was  known  as  early  as  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  To-day  the 
trombone  is  made  in  four  different  sizes,  known 
as  the  alto,  tenor,  bass,  and  contrabass  trom¬ 
bone.  The  compass  of  the  alto  trombone  is 
from  A  to  efc>2,  that  of  the  tenor  trombone  from 
E  to  bb1,  that  of  the  bass  trombone  from  jB  to 
f1,  and  that  of  the  contrabass  trombone  from 
iE  to  d1.  Besides  this  regular  compass  eacli 
trombone  is  capable  of  producing  seven  pedal 
tones,  descending  chromatically  and  beginning 
a  tritone  (q.v.)  below  the  lowest  tone  of  the 
compass  of  the  instrument.  The  intermediate 
tones  between  the  highest  pedal  tone  and  the 
lowest  regular  tone  are  wanting.  The  trombones 
are  nontransposing  instruments,  and  the  notes 
all  sound  as  written.  Recently  trombones  have 
been  constructed  in  which  the  sliding  mechanism 
is  replaced  by  piston  or  rotary  valves.  These 
instruments  permit  more  rapid  execution  than 
the  sliding  trombones,  but  are  much  inferior 


TROPACOCAINE 


492 


TEOMP 

to  the  latter  in  purity  of  intonation.  See  Or¬ 
chestra. 

TEOMP,  tromp,  Cornelis  (1629-91).  A 
Dutch  admiral,  second  son  of  Martin  Tromp. 
He  was  born  at  Rotterdam.  As  a  youth  he  led 
a  squadron  against  the  Barbary  pirates.  He 
became  rear  admiral  in  1653.  With  Opdam  he 
commanded  the  Dutch  forces  in  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Lowestoft  (June  13,  1665)  and  in  the 
rout  succeeded  in  saving  a  part  of  the  fleet. 
In  June,  1666,  he  was  with  De  Ruyter  in  a  des¬ 
perate  four  days’  battle  in  the  Downs  against 
an  English  fleet  under  Monk  and  Prince  Rupert, 
the  combat  resulting  in  victory  for  neither  side. 
In  August  his  conduct  in  the  battle  of  Dunkirk 
led  De  Ruyter  to  prefer  charges  against  him 
which  caused  his  removal.  When  war  broke 
out  in  1672  between  Holland  and  the  allied 
English  and  French,  Tromp  was  restored  to 
his  command  and  fought  with  consummate  brav¬ 
ery  on  June  7  and  14,  1673,  against  the  com¬ 
bined  English  and  French  fleets,  under  Prince 
Rupert  and  D’Estrees,  driving  the  enemy  into 
the  Thames.  On  August  21  a  third  great  bat¬ 
tle  was  fought  near  the  Zealand  coast.  After  the 
conclusion  of  peace  Charles  II  made  Tromp 
Baron  (1675).  Tromp  subsequently  fought  in 
the  employ  of  the  Danes  against  the  Swedes 
and  after  De  Ruyter’s  death  was  made  com¬ 
mander  in  chief  of  the  naval  forces  of  the 
Dutch.  He  died  May  29,  1691,  and  was  buried 
at  Delft  by  his  father’s  side. 

TROMP,  Martin  Harpertzoon  (incorrectly 
Van  Tromp)  (1597-1653).  A  celebrated  Dutch 
admiral,  born  at  Brielle.  He  went  to  sea  at  a 
very  early  age,  was  made  prisoner  in  an  engage¬ 
ment  with  an  English  frigate,  in  which  his 
father  was  killed,  and  for  more  than  two  years 
was  held  in  confinement  on  board  an  English 
vessel.  For  some  time  after  this  his  history 
is  obscure,  but  in  1624  he  appears  as  captain  of 
a  frigate  in  the  Dutch  navy,  and  in  1637  was 
made  vice  admiral.  In  1639  he  won  a  brilliant 
victory  over  a  Spanish  fleet  off  Gravelines  in  the 
Strait  of  Dover,  destroying  49  of  the  enemy’s 
ships  with  the  loss  of  only  one  vessel.  His 
greatest  fame,  however,  was  gained  in  the  war 
against  England  which  broke  out  in  1652.  In 
May  of  that  year  he  was  worsted  by  Blake  and 
was  compelled  to  yield  the  command  to  De 
Ruyter,  but,  restored  to  his  post  in  November, 
he  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on  Blake  off  the 
Goodwin  Sands  and  for  a  time  was  master  of  the 
Channel.  In  February,  1653,  while  convoying 
a  large  merchant  fleet  through  the  Channel,  he 
made  a  gallant  running  fight  against  a  superior 
English  fleet  under  Blake,  Penn,  and  Monk.  In 
June  he  encountered  the  English  in  the  Channel 
and  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  the  Texel, 
after  losing  17  of  his  ships.  In  the  first  days 
of  August  he  once  more  took  to  the  sea,  and  in 
a  battle  against  the  English  fleet,  under  Monk, 
off  Ter  Heyde,  which  raged  from  August  8  to 
August  10,  he  lost  26  of  his  ships  and  his  life. 
He  was  buried  at  Delft,  and  a  splendid  monu¬ 
ment  marks  the  grave  of  the  victor  in  33  naval 
combats. 

TROMPETER  VON  SAKKINGEN,  tr6m- 

pfi'ter  fon  zek'Ing-en,  Der.  An  opera  by  Nessler 
(q.v. ),  first  produced  in  Leipzig,  May  4,  1884; 
in  the  United  States,  Nov.  23,  1887  (New 
York) . 

TROMPETER  VON  SAKKINGEN,  Der 

(Ger.,  The  Trumpeter  of  Sakkingen).  An  ex¬ 
traordinarily  popular  poem  by  Joseph  Viktor 


von  Scheffel  (1853).  The  story  is  a  legend  con¬ 
nected  with  a  seventeenth-century  tombstone  in 
the  churchyard  of  Sakkingen  which  records  the 
death  of  Werner  Kirchhofer,  a  musician,  and 
Maria  Ursula,  daughter  of  the  Baron  of 
Sakkingen. 

TROMSO,  troms'e.  A  citv  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  Norway,  in  Tromso  Amt  (county), 
and  an  episcopal  city  in  Tromso  Stift  (diocese) 
(Map:  Norway,  F  2).  Beautifully  located  on  a 
fertile  island,  it  has  magnificent  surroundings 
of  well-formed,  snow-clad  mountains.  Owing 
to  the  mildness  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  sweeps 
the  coast  of  Norway,  its  mean  temperature  is 
36.4°  F.  The  vegetation  of  the  island  is  re¬ 
markably  luxuriant,  and  it  raises  barley  and 
potatoes.  It  has  a  town  hall,  fire  department, 
water  works,  electric  lighting,  three  hospitals, 
schools,  a  seminary  for  teachers,  a  navigation 
school,  a  school  for  machinists,  an  Arctic  mu¬ 
seum,  boat  and  ship  building  establishments, 
fish-oil  refineries,  net  and  rope  factories,  and 
dairies.  All  coast  steamers  call.  It  engages  in 
very  productive  fisheries  in  the  Atlantic  (near 
Iceland)  and  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Imports 
are  grain,  flour,  coal,  textiles,  and  salt.  The 
coast  scenery,  with  numerous  islands  and  snow- 
clad  mountains,  is  wild  and  beautiful.  Tromso 
dates  from  about  1250.  Pop.,  1910,  7633. 

TRONDHJEM,  trOnd'yem,  THRONDHJEM 
(DRONTHEIM).  A  city  of  Norway,  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Nid  River,  on  the  south 
shore  of  the  Trondhjem  Fiord,  240  miles  north 
of  Christiania  (Map:  Norway,  D  5).  Although 
it  is  so  far  north,  its  climate  is  remarkably 
mild,  and  the  fiord  never  freezes.  On  one  of 
the  surrounding  picturesque  hills  stands  the 
fortress  of  Christianssten.  Another  fort  is  on 
the  small  island  of  Munkholm  in  the  fiord  op¬ 
posite  the  city,  celebrated  as  the  place  of  impris¬ 
onment  of  the  Danish  Minister  Griffenfeld  (q.v.). 
The  town  is  regularly  laid  out  with  wide 
streets.  Many  of  the  houses  are  built  of  wood. 
The  principal  building  is  the  large  cathedral, 
probably  the  finest  church  in  Scandinavia.  It 
was  founded  in  the  eleventh  century  over  the 
tomb  of  St.  Olaf  and  consists  of  a  Gothic  nave 
and  choir  with  a  Romanesque  transept.  It  has 
latterly  been  restored.  Noteworthy  also  are  the 
arsenal  in  the  old  Kongsgaard,  the  fisheries  mu¬ 
seum,  the  leading  library,  the  Stiftsgaard,  the 
theatre,  the  Art  Industry  Museum,  the  museum 
of  the  Society  of  Sciences.  The  industries  are 
represented  by  saw  mills,  wood-pulp  factories, 
fish-curing  establishments,  machine  shops,  and 
shipyards.  The  commerce  is  very  considerable. 
It  amounts  to  over  $19,315,000  annually,  while 
the  shipping  in  1913  amounted  to  832,400  tons. 
The  chief  exports  are  copper  ore  from  the  Roros 
mines,  also  iron  and  pyrites,  timber,  wood  pulp, 
and  fish.  Pop.,  1901,  38,156;  1910,  44,996. 

Trondhjem  was  founded  by  Olaf  Tryggvason,  who 
built  a  palace  there  in  997.  Its  early  name  was 
Nidaros.  During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  an  im¬ 
portant  city  and  a  goal  of  pilgrimage. 

TRONEGE,  Hagen  von.  See  Hagen,  or 
Hagen  von  Tronege. 

TROOP.  See  Army  Organization  ;  Squadron. 

TROOP'IAL  (Fr.  troupial,  from  troupe, 
troop ) .  A  book  name  for  the  American  hang- 
nests  and  blackbirds  of  the  family  Icteridae. 

TROOST'ITE.  See  Metallography,  Heat 
Treatment;  Willemite. 

TRO'PACO'CAINE.  A  drug  having  the  gen¬ 
eral  anaesthetic  and  mydriatic  qualities  of  co« 


TROPJEOLIN 


493  TROPICAL  BIG  LEG 


caine.  It  is  an  alkaloid  and  is  extracted  from 
a  small-leaved  variety  of  coca  growing  in  Java. 
It  is  used  as  tropacocaine  hydrochloride,  and  it 
is  said  to  be  more  active  and  less  toxic  than 
cocaine. 

TROPAS'OLIN.  See  Coal-Tar  Colors. 

TROPAUOLUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  rpoiraios, 
tropaios,  relating  to  turning  or  change,  from 
TpoTn],  trope,  a  turning,  from  rpeireiv,  trepein, 
to  turn),  Nasturtium,  Indian  Cress,  Yellow 
Larkspur.  A  genus  of  the  family  Tropseolaceae, 
containing  about  50  South  American  species  of 
beautiful  twining  or  spreading  annuals  and  per¬ 
ennials,  producing  orange-yellow  and  sometimes 


very  dark  purple  or  blue  flowers  in  summer. 
Many  are  cultivated  for  ornament  upon  arbors 
and  trellises.  The  pickled  fruits  are  sometimes 
employed  as  a  substitute  for  capers,  and  the 
fleshy  rootstock  of  several  species  as  a  human 
food.  The  best-known  species  is  TropcEolwm 
majus,  a  climbing  or  trailing  annual  in  northern 
climates,  long  known  in  the  United  States  as  an 
ornamental  plant.  Dwarf  varieties  of  this  are 
commonly  grown  in  beds  and  borders.  Tropoeolum 
minus  resembles  the  foregoing,  but  is  of  weaker 
growth  and  produces  smaller  flowers.  Tropceo- 
lum  lobbianum,  a  native  of  Colombia,  is  a  vig¬ 
orous  clrmbing  species,  of  which  several  beauti¬ 
ful  varieties  are  in  cultivation.  Tropceolum  pere- 
grinum,  sometimes  called  canary-bird  flower,  is 
grown  as  an  annual  in  outdoor  culture  and  as  a 
perennial  in  conservatories.  Tropccolum  tube- 
rosuln,  which  produces  scarlet  and  yellow  flow¬ 
ers  in  the  late  summer,  yields  edible  tubers, 
which  are  used  as  food  in  Peru.  In  northern 
climates  the  tubers  are  taken  up  in  the  fall  and 
kept  in  a  dry  place  during  the  winter.  The  an¬ 
nual  species  are  grown  from  seeds  sown  in  the 
spring  in  ordinary  garden  soil.  The  perennial 
species  are  propagated  by  the  tubers  or  by  cut¬ 
tings  of  the  young  shoots  grown  under  glass  or 
by  seeds.  The  perennials  need  rich  soil  and 
plenty  of  moisture. 

TROPE,  tr6p.  A  figure  of  speech.  See  Rhet¬ 
oric,  Figures  of. 

TROPEO'NIUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  UpocpdjvLos) . 


An  ancient  god  of  the  earth,  worshiped  at 
Livadia  in  Boeotia,  where  he  had  a  famous  ora¬ 
cle  in  a  subterranean  cavern.  He  who  wished 
to  consult  the  oracle  prepared  himself  by  fast¬ 
ing,  sacrifices,  and  purifications  in  a  building 
dedicated  to  Tyche  (Fortune)  and  Agathodae- 
mon  (Good  Luck).  A -sheep  was  sacrificed  to 
Agamedes,  brother  of  Trophonius;  water  from 
two  springs,  Forgetfulness  and  Memory,  was 
drunk;  and  the  consulter  descended  by  a  ladder 
to  a  vault  opening.  Through  this  the  feet  were 
inserted,  a  honey  cake  to  appease  the  spirits 
was  grasped  in  each  hand,  and  then  some  hidden 
force  swept  the  visitor  into  the  inner  recesses, 
where  he  saw  visions  or  heard  voices,  and  finally 
returned  feet  foremost  through  the  same  open¬ 
ing.  He  was  then  seated  on  the  stone  of  Re¬ 
membrance  and  questioned  by  the  priests,  who 
interpreted  his  visions.  Legend  also  told  how 
Agamedes  and  Trophonius  (sons  of  Erginos  and 
famous  early  architects)  built  the  temple  at 
Delphi,  a  treasury  for  King  Hyrieus  of  Hyria 
in  Boeotia,  and  other  buildings.  According  to 
the  story,  they  left  a  stone  loose  in  the  treasury 
and  thus  availed  themselves  of  the  King’s  riches 
at  their  pleasure.  At  length  Agamedes  was 
caught  in  a  trap,  whereupon  Trophonius  cut 
off  his  brother’s  head  and  escaped,  but  at  Liva¬ 
dia  was  swallowed  up  by  the  earth.  Another 
version  laid  the  scene  with  King  Augeas  in 
Elis  and  represented  Agamedes  as  the  father  of 
Trophonius  and  Cercyon.  Trophonius  cut  off 
his  father’s  head  to  escape  detection  and,  while 
Cercyon  went  to  Athens,  retired  to  Boeotia, 
where  he  built  himself  an  underground  chamber. 
The  same  story  is  told  by  Herodotus  of  King 
Rhampsinitus  in  Egypt  and  is  a  widely  dif¬ 
fused  folk  tale. 

TROPHY  (OF.  trophee,  Fr.  trophee,  from 
Lat.  trophceum,  tropceum,  from  Gk.  Tpoiraiov, 
tropaion,  monument  of  an  enemy’s  defeat,  neut. 
sing,  of  Tpoiralos.  tropaios ,  relating  to  turning  or 
change).  A  memorial  of  victory  erected  on  the 
spot  where  the  enemy  had  been  turned  to  flight. 
Among  the  Greeks  (with  the  exception  of  the 
Macedonians,  who  erected  no  trophies)  one  or 
two  shields  and  helmets  of  the  routed  enemy, 
placed  upon  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  served  as  the 
sign  and  memorial  of  victory.  After  a  sea  fight 
the  trophy  consisted  of  the  beaks  and  stern  or¬ 
naments  of  the  captured  vessels,  set  up  on  the 
nearest  coast.  It  was  considered  wrong  to  de¬ 
stroy  such  a  trophy  and  equally  wrong  to  repair 
it,  when  it  had  fallen  down  through  time,  for 
animosity  ought  not  to  be  perpetual. 

TROPIC  (from  Lat.  tropicus,  from  Gk.  Tpoiri- 
kos,  tropikos,  relating  to  a  turn  or  change,  or 
to  the  solstice,  from  rpoirr),  trope,  a  turning) . 
One  of  two  parallels  of  latitude  on  the  terrestrial 
globe,  passing  through  the  most  northerly  and 
southerly  points  on  the  earth’s  surface  at  which 
the  sun  can  ever  be  directed  overhead.  The 
tropic  north  of  the  equator  is  called  the  tropic 
of  Cancer,  because  the  sun  at  the  summer  sol¬ 
stice  (at  which  time  it  is  vertically  over  the 
tropic)  enters  the  constellation  of  Cancer;  and 
the  southern  one  is,  for  a  similar  reason,  denom¬ 
inated  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  The  distance  of 
the  tropics  from  the  equator,  corresponding  to 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  is  about  23%  de¬ 
grees^  They  are  not  absolutely  fixed  at  a  uni¬ 
form  distance  from  the  equator,  but  the  limits 
of  their  variation  are  extremely  narrow.  See 
Perturbations. 

TROPICAL  BIG  LEG.  See  Barbados  Leg. 


TROPIC  BIRD 


TROPISM 


TROPIC  BIRD,  or  Boatswain  Bird.  A  sea¬ 
bird  of  the  family  Phaethontidae,  related  to  the 
gannets,  having  long  wings  and  the  two  central 
tail  quills  long  and  slender.  Only  three  species 
are  known,  all  tropical,  often  wandering  hun¬ 
dreds  of  miles  from  land  to  hover  about  vessels. 
Their  flight  is  graceful;  and  they  capture  fish 
by  plunging  in  the  water,  often  from  a  great 
height.  They  breed  upon  rocky  cliffs,  making  no 
nests  and  laying  a  single  pale-brown,  spotted 
egg.  They  are  nearly  helpless  on  land,  and  are 
often  caught  at  their  breeding  places  and  robbed 
of  their  long  tail  feathers,  prized  among  savages 
as  decorations.  The  yellow-billed  tropic  bird 
( Phdethon  flavirostris)  breeds  in  the  Bermudas 
and  West  Indies  and  is  white,  with  black  on  the 
wings.  The  other  species  belong  mainly  to  the 
Indian  and  South  Pacific  oceans.  See  Plate  of 
Fishing  Birds. 

TROPISM  ( from  trope,  from  Gk.  Tporrri,  trope, 
a  turning).  The  act  of  turning  towards  or  be¬ 
ing  oriented  by  the  stimulus  of  light,  gravity, 
wind,  food,  and  so  on.  Thus,  heliotropism,  the 
first  to  be  used  of  the  many  terms  ending  in 
tropism,  means  turning  to  the  light.  At  first 
the  term  was  restricted  to  such  plants  as  the 
sunflower,  which  turns  after  or  follows  the  sun, 
owing  to  the  stimulus  of  the  sun’s  rays.  It  was 
then  found  that  animals  were  heliotropic,  and 
further  studies  on  the  acts  of  animals  in  response 
to  different  physical  stimuli  have  resulted  in  a 
somewhat  extensive  nomenclature.  Tropism  may 
be  positive  or  negative.  Certain  plants,  as 
plasmodia,  and  animals,  as  the  sea  cucumber, 
the  starfish,  and  even  the  lady  beetle,  which  are 
positively  geotropic,  are  forced  when  on  vertical 
surfaces  to  crawl  upward;  this  is  negative  geot- 
ropism.  The  investigation  of  tropism  has  most 
important  bearings  on  comparative  psychology 
and  the  explanation  of  instinctive  acts. 

Anemotropism.  An  orientation  of  the  body 
with  respect  to  the  wind,  seen  in  flies  (Bibio 
ophyra,  etc.),  which  poise  in  swarms  in  the  air, 
heading  directly  towards  the  wind,  all  the 
swarms  of  a  given  locality  oriented  in  the  same 
direction  like  weathercocks.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  locusts  move  with  the  wind  and  head  away 
from  it,  i.e.,  they  are  negatively  anemotropic. 

( Wheeler. ) 

Chemotropism.  The  orientation  of  an  organ¬ 
ism  by  molecules  emanating  from  a  centre  of 
diffusion.  As  the  name  indicates,  it  means  re¬ 
sponse  to  odors  or  tastes  emanating  from  food, 
decaying  substances,  and  other  matters.  Thus, 
the  maggot  of  the  flesh  and  other  flies  are  posi¬ 
tively  chemotropic  towards  certain  chemical  sub¬ 
stances  formed  in  decaying  meat  and  cheese. 
The  female  fly  is  led  not  so  much  by  a  special 
instinct  to  these  substances  as  by  the  stimulus 
of  the  rank  smelling  meat.  As  soon,  says  Loeb, 
as  the  fly  is  seated  on  the  meat  chemical  stimuli 
seem  to  throw  into  activity  the  muscles  con¬ 
cerned  in  egg  laying  and  the  eggs  are  deposited 
on  the  meat.  Negative  chemotropism  is  forcibly 
illustrated  by  the  use  of  the  oil  of  pennyroyal, 
of  tobacco  smoke,  or  kerosene  oil  in  driving  away 
flies  and  mosquitoes.  For  the  botanical  aspect 
of  this  tropism,  see  Chemotropism. 

Galvanotropism.  When  certain  shrimps, 
crayfish,  and  salamanders  are  subjected  to  the 
effect  of  a  galvanic  current,  such  charges  of 
tension  take  place  in  the  muscles  of  the  appen¬ 
dages  that  movement  towards  the  anode  be¬ 
comes  easier  and  towards  the  cathode  more  diffi¬ 
cult.  The  result  is,  says  Loeb,  that  if  the  cur- 


494 

rent  is  continued  long  enough  all  the  animals 
collect  at  the  positive  pole.  It  differs  from 
heliotropism  chiefly  in  that  the  curves  of  the 
current  take  the  place  of  the  rays  of  light. 

Geotropism.  As  the  result  of  the  action  of 
gravity,  plants  and  certain  animals  tend  to  de¬ 
scend  into  or  towards  the  earth.  The  act  of 
righting  in  a  starfish  or  sea  urchin,  or  in  a 
polyp  (sea  anemone),  is  the  result  of  geotropic 
irritability,  i.e.,  of  positive  geotropism.  The 
effects  of  geotropism  are  seen  in  any  moth  or 
butterfly  which  has  just  emerged  from  the  pupa 
case.  It  is  restless  till  it  finds  a  perpendicular 
surface  on  which  to  support  itself  with  its  abdo¬ 
men  hanging  down  until  the  wings  are  fully  ex¬ 
panded.  A  fly  orients  its  body  head  downward, 
a  position  assumed  by  many  web-weaving  spiders. 
Geotropism  plays  a  part  in  the  depth  migrations 
of  pelagic  animals.  See  also  Geotropism  in 
Plants. 

Heliotropism  or  Phototropism.  Originally 
applied  to  the  property  certain  plants  possess  of 
turning  to  the  light.  It  has  been  found  that 
many  animals  also  are  oriented  towards  the 
light.  Loeb  claims  that  in  the  case  of  animals 
which  possess  nerves  “the  movements  of  orienta¬ 
tion  towards  light  are  governed  by  exactly  the 
same  external  conditions  and  depend  in  the  same 
way  upon  the  external  form  of  the  body,  as  in 
the  case  of  plants  which  possess  no  nerves.” 
Many  young  or  larval  pelagic  animals  undergo 
periodic  depth  migrations.  They  begin  to  mi¬ 
grate  vertically  upward  towards  the  surface  of 
the  ocean  in  the  evening,  descending  in  the  morn¬ 
ing,  but  since  they  never  sink  beyond  a  depth 
of  about  1200  feet  below,  where  light  does  not 
penetrate,  this  fact  suggests  that  the  light  is 
the  controlling  power  in  their  depth  migrations. 
Loeb  finds  that  the  free-swimming  animals  at 
the  surface  of  the  sea  are  all  permanently  or 
for  a  short  period  positively  heliotropic.  There 
is  a  negative  as  well  as  a  positive  heliotropism. 
If  light  strikes  one  side  of  a  positively  heliotropic 
animal,  an  increase  takes  place  in  the  tension 
of  those  muscles  which  turn  the  head  to  the 
source  of  light,  while  in  the  negatively  heliotropic 
animal  under  the  influence  of  one-sided  illu¬ 
mination  a  decrease  takes  place  in  the  tension 
of  the  same  muscles,  with  the  result  that  the 
negatively  lieliotropic  animal  is  forced  to  move 
away  from  the  source  of  light.  The  flight  of 
moths  towards  a  light  is  a  case  of  heliotropism. 
Being  a  rapid  flyer,  the  moth  gets  into  the 
flame  before  the  heat  can  check  it.  See  Photo¬ 
taxis.  For  heliotropism  in  plants,  see  Helio¬ 
tropism. 

Paraheliotropism.  This  is  defined  by  Dar¬ 
win  as  the  movement  by  which  some  leases  tem¬ 
porarily  direct  their  edges  to  the  source  of 
light.  See  Paraheliotropism. 

Hydrotropism.  If  a  king  crab  is  placed  on 
shore  a  few  feet  from  the  water’s  edge,  it  will 
seek  the  water,  perhaps  oriented  by  the  moisture 
not  far  away.  Ants  exhibit  a  reaction  to  heat 
(thermotropism)  and  also  hydrotropism,  in  the 
care  with  which  they  move  the  eggs,  young,  and 
old  larvae  and  pupae,  as  the  nest  becomes  too 
warm  or  cold,  moist  or  dry,  at  different  times. 
For  the  influence  of  water  on  plants,  see  Hy¬ 
drotropism. 

Rheotropism.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  ac¬ 
tion  of  fish  in  heading  up  stream  and  by  tlfe 
slime  protozoan  in  creeping  against  the  current. 
For  its  botanical  aspects,  see  Rheotropism. 

Stereotropism  or  Thigmotropism.  This 


TROPPAU  405  TROTTING 


form  of  tropism  is  contact  irritability,  which 
forces  the  animal  to  bring  the  ventral  side  of  the 
body  in  contact  with  solid  bodies.  Thus,  the 
ventral  side  of  the  starfish  is  positively  stereo¬ 
tropic;  in  other  words,  the  starfish,  off" the  bot¬ 
tom,  becomes  restless  if  its  ambulacral  feet  are 
not  in  contact  with  solid  bodies.  If  earthworms 
are  placed  in  a  transparent  closed  vessel,  they 
appear  to  be  positively  stereotropic.  As  soon, 
says  Loeb,  as  they  reach  an  angle  in  the  aqua¬ 
rium  they  remain  there,  crawling  along  where 
the  glass  can  touch  them  on  two  sides.  This 
form  of  tropism  plays,  says  Loeb,  a  very  impor¬ 
tant  part  in  the  processes  of  pairing  and  in  the 
formation  of  organs.  The  tendency  of  many  ani¬ 
mals  to  creep  into  cracks  and  crevices  has,  he 
claims,  ‘'nothing  to  do  with  self-concealment,  but 
only  with  the  necessity  of  bringing  the  body  on 
every  side  in  contact  with  solid  bodies.”  The 
eel  is  positively  stereotropic.  It  is  forced  to 
bring  every  part  of  its  body,  as  far  as  possible, 
in  contact  with  solid  bodies.  All  the  surface  of 
the  eel’s  body  is  stereotropic,  and  if  touched 
with  the  finger  on  one  side  there  result  positively 
stereotropic  curvatures  towards  the  finger. 
There  is  in  such  an  act  no  more  consciousness 
than  in  the  boring  of  a  root  in  the  sand.  (Loeb.) 
Stereotropism  is  called  tliigmotropism  or  thig- 
motaxis  by  some  authors.  Another  form  of 
tropism  is  traumatotropism. 

Consult  Jacques  Loeb,  Introduction  to  Com¬ 
parative  Physiology  of  the  Brain  and  Compara¬ 
tive  Psychology  (New  York,  1000)  ;  also 
Wheeler,  “Anemotropism  and  Other  Tropisms  in 
Insects,”  in  Archiv  fur  Entivickelungsmechanik 
der  Organismen,  vol.  viii  (Leipzig,  1899). 

TROPPAU,  trop'pou.  The  capital  of  Austrian 
Silesia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Oppa,  37  miles 
northeast  of  Olmiitz  (Map:  Austria,  F  2).  It 
has  a  Gothic  church,  a  castle,  a  library  of  43,000 
volumes,  and  a  museum  of  natural  history  and 
antiquities;  also  the  Franz-Josef  Museum  of  art 
and  industry,  the  provincial  insane  asylum,  etc. 
Troppau  manufactures  large  quantities  of  cloth 
for  army  use;  also  stoves,  machines,  jute,  etc. 
It  was  founded  in  the  thirteenth  century.  At 
Troppau,  in  the  fall  and  winter  of  1820,  a  con¬ 
gress  of  European  monarchs  assembled  for  the 
purpose  of  dealing  with  the  revolutionary  dis¬ 
turbances  in  Italy.  It  was  one  of  the  series  of 
European  congresses  which  under  the  inspiration 
of  Metternich  (q.v.)  sought  to  check  the  spread 
of  liberal  ideas  and  to  carry  out  the  policy  of 
the  Holy  Alliance  (q.v.).  Pop.,  1910,  30,762. 

TROSSACHS,  tros'uks.  A  picturesque  and 
well-wrooded  valley  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  be¬ 
tween  Lochs  Acray  and  Katrine,  amid  hills  rising 
from  1851  feet  to  2390  feet  in  height  (Map: 
Scotland,  D  3 ) .  It  has  been  a  great  tourist  resort 
since  its  immortalization  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  in 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake  and  Fob  Roy. 

TROTSKY,  Leon.  See  Bolshevism  and  Vol¬ 
ume  XXIV. 

TROTTING  (from  trot,  from  OF.,  Fr.  trot¬ 
ter,  probably  from  OHG.  trotton,  to  tread,  MHG. 
trotten,  to  run,  frequentative  of  OHG.  tretan, 
Ger.  treten,  to  tread,  step).  A  gait  of  the  horse. 
Notwithstanding  that  the  foundation  of  Amer¬ 
ica’s  trotting  stock  came  from  England,  and 
that  in  Russia  there  are  the  celebrated  Orloff 
trotters  and  another  breed  in  Norway,  the  trot¬ 
ting  racer  of  to-day  is  distinctly  the  product  of 
America.  The  gait  was  known  to  the  ancients, 
but  was  abominated  by  them.  Trotting  was  a 
favorite  gait  among  the  English  sportsmen  of 


Suffolk  and  Lincolnshire  at  the  end  of  the  eight¬ 
eenth  century,  and  a  special  breed  there  per¬ 
formed  wonders;  Locksmith’s  Gray  trotted  72 
miles  in  6  hours  in  1762.  Ten  years  later, 
a  Lincolnshire  horse  trotted  30  miles  in  2h. 
10m.,  with  a  rider  weighing  220  pounds,  and 
Phenomenon  17  miles  in  53m.  Yet  as  an  his¬ 
torical  fact  American  trotters  owe  nothing  to 
these  fast  English  trotters,  but  everything  to 
the  thoroughbred.  The  modern  trotter  may  be 
traced  back  to  Messenger,  who  was  imported 
in  1788  by  Thomas  Benger,  of  Bristol,  Pa.  His 
father  was  Blaze,  his  grandsire  Flying  Childers, 
his  great-grandsire  the  Darley  Barb.  Ilis  moth¬ 
er’s  father  was  Turf,  who  was  directly  descended 
from  the  Godolphin  Barb.  So  on  both  sides  of 
his  pedigree  Messenger  brought  the  most  select 
thoroughbred  blood  into  America.  He  was  a 
running-bred  horse,  yet  from  him  the  American 
trotter  derives  its  dominant  characteristics — the 
grit  of  the  Arab,  the  gentleness  of  the  Barb,  and 
the  hardy  endurance  of  the  English  thorough¬ 
bred.  The  Hambletonians,  comprising  90  per 
cent  of  the  American  trotters,  are  derived  from 
Messenger  on  both  sides  through  Rysdyk’s 
Hambletonian,  Abdallah,  and  Mambrino  Messen¬ 
ger.  Hambletonian’s  dam  was  the  Charles  Kent 
mare,  the  daughter  of  One  Eye,  and  granddaugh¬ 
ter  of  Silver  Tail,  who  was  the  daughter  of  Mes¬ 
senger.  Hambletonian’s  family  includes  Dex¬ 
ter,  2m.  17V>&-;  Goldsmith’s  Maid,  2m.  14s.; 
Rarus,  2m.  13%s.;  Saint-Julien,  2m.  ll%s.; 
Jay  Eye  See,  2m.  10s.;  Maud  S.,  2m.  8%s.; 
Sunol,  2m.  8i4s. ;  Nancy  Hanks,  2m.  4s.;  Alix, 
2m.  3%s. ;  and  Directum,  2m.  5*48.  The  second 
great  trotting  family,  the  Mambrinos,  great 
for  racing  quality  and  beauty,  is  derived  on 
the  father’s  side  from  Messenger  and  on  the 
mother’s  side  from  imported  Paymaster.  The 
mingling  of  the  blood  of  the  Hambletonians  and 
Mambrino  Chief  has  resulted  in  such  ideal 
trotters  as  Azota,  2m.  4%s.,  and  Cresceus,  2m. 
2i4s.  The  founder  of  the  Clay  family  was 
Young  Bashaw,  by  Grand  Bashaw,  an  imported 
Barb,  but  on  the  female  side  are  Messenger’s 
progeny.  The  Star  family,  too,  on  the  mother’s 
side  came  from  the  same  horse. 

In  the  early  trotting  days  colts  were  never 
trained;  only  matured  horses  raced,  and  they 
were  capable  of  feats  of  endurance  which  no 
modern  horse  is  or  could  be  called  upon  to 
perform.  Fanny  Jenks  in  1845  trotted  101 
miles  in  9h.  57m.,  drawing  a  sulky  weighing 
150  pounds.  Lady  Suffolk  beat  Dutchman  two 
three-mile  heats  in  lm.  40V>s.  and  7m.  56s. 
respectively,  and  she  trotted  her  fastest  mile 
when  12  years  old.  Goldsmith’s  Maid  trotted 
a  mile  in  2m.  14V>s.  when  she  was  17  years  old. 
She  started  118  times  and  beat  2m.  30s.  in  115 
of  them,  and  Maud  S.  made  her  then  world’s 
record,  2m.  8%s.,  when  she  was  11  years  old. 
These  times,  too,  were  all  before  the  days  of  the 
kite-shaped  tracks,  banked  and  rolled  with  scien¬ 
tific  nicety,  and  long  before  the  rubber-tired 
wheel  sulky,  both  of  which  inventions  have 
helped  to  reduce  the  mile  record.  On  Aug.  17, 
1903,  at  the  Brighton  Beach  (N.  Y. )  track, 
the  trotting  record  was  reduced  by  J.  K.  Bill¬ 
ings’s  Lou  Dillon  to  2m.,  but  in  October  of  the 
same  year  Lou  Dillon  still  further ''reduced  the 
record  to  lm.  58Y>s.  Weather  conditions  were 
unfavorable,  but  the  mare  had  the  advantage  of 
two  pacemakers,  one  drawing  a  wire-net  guard 
acting  as  a  wind  shield.  This  form  of  record 
making  is  protested  by  many  authorities,  who 


trotwood 


TROUBADOURS 


496 


claim  that  such  time  should  be  recorded  sepa¬ 
rately.  In  1916  the  world’s  record  for  trotting 
1  mile  was  lm.  58s.,  done  (against  time)  by 
Uhlan  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  Oct.  8,  1912. 

For  pleasure  driving  and  friendly  road  com¬ 
petitions  a  light  wagon  was  in  use  as  early  as 
1786,  but  not  until  after  that  did  the  trotter  as 
a  racer  become  prominent.  In  that  year  Boston 
Blue  trotted  a  mile  in  little  less  than  3m.  By 
1825  the  New  York  Trotting  Club  was  formed, 
and  dashes  of  speed  were  daily  indulged  in  on 
what  is  now  Third  Avenue,  from  the  Bull’s 
Head  to  Harlem.  Up  to  1898,  however,  the 
great  bulk  of  the  trotting  of  the  country  was 
done  on  tracks,  2000  of  which  were  scattered 
over  the  continent.  These  tracks  on  which  regu¬ 
lar  races  are  held  are  either  exactly  1  mile 
or  mile  from  start  to  finish,  and  a  horse 
must  win  two  heats  to  win  the  race.  The  courses 
are  in  the  main  elliptical,  though  some,  built 
after  1890,  are  kite-shaped. 

Since  1898  a  great  impetus  has  been  given  to 
trotting  competitions  by  the  creation  of  civic 
speedways,  the  first  of  which  was  constructed  by 
the  municipality  of  New  York,  along  the  banks 
of  the  Harlem  River,  from  155th  Street  to  Fort 
George.  Many  great  cities  throughout  the  coun¬ 
try  have  followed  the  example.  For  bibliography, 
see  references  under  Horse  Racing. 

TROTWOOD,  Betsy.  In  Dickens’s  David 
Copperfield,  the  hero’s  great-aunt,  eccentric  but 
good-hearted. 

TROTYL.  See  Trinitrotoluenes. 

TRQTZENDORF,  trots'en-dorf,  Valentin. 
See  Friedland,  Valentin. 

TROUBADOURS,  troo'ba-ddorz  (Fr.  trouba¬ 
dour,  from  Prov.  trobador,  troubadour,  from 
trobar,  OF.  trover,  trouver,  Fr.  trouver,  to  find, 
compose).  The  mediaeval  poets  of  southern 
France  from  about  1100  to  about  1400,  singers 
of  war  and  love,  whose  wandering  lives,  full  of 
passion  and  adventure,  have  made  them  typi¬ 
cal  romantic  figures  of  their  age.  The  feudal 
conditions  of  the  region  to  which  they  belonged 
were  favorable  to  the  development  of  the 
wandering  minstrel.  Society  was  divided  into 
three  classes,  commons,  clergy,  and  nobles,  the 
nobles  alone  possessing  either  means  or  desire  lib¬ 
erally  to  reward  literary  and  musical  skill.  The 
nobility,  moreover,  consisted  of  many  petty  inde¬ 
pendent  barons,  who  tended  to  attach  themselves 
to  powerful  local  houses,  such  as  that  of  the  counts 
of  Toulouse.  There  were,  therefore,  many  courts, 
not  too  far  distant  from  each  other,  to  which 
troubadours  could  resort.  Another  social  con¬ 
dition  which  had  an  important  influence  upon 
the  character  of  Provencal  poetry  was  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  noble  ladies.  They  received  fiefs  (by 
inheritance  or  as  dowry),  and  they  even  gov¬ 
erned  and  presided  over  a  court.  Usually  mar¬ 
ried  young  and  for  social  and  political  reasons 
rather  than  for  love,  they  became  queens  of 
society,  objects  of  fervent  passion  or  conven¬ 
tional  adoration. 

With  the  accumulation  of  wealth  and  the  prog¬ 
ress  of  refinement,  delight  in  life  became  con¬ 
spicuous.  The  love  of  splendor  manifested  it¬ 
self  in  gorgeousness  of  dress  and  magnificence 
of  entertainments.  Prodigality  was  the  fashion. 
The  ideal  prince  was  he  who  bestowed  gifts 
lavishly.  In  addition  to  the  chase  and^  the 
tourney,  a  favorite  amusement  was  song — sup¬ 
plied  by  the  jongleurs  and  troubadours.  The 
jongleurs  ( joculatores )  were  the  successors  of 
the  Latin  mimi.  They  wandered  from  town  to 


town,  from  castle  to  castle,  supplying  amusement 
to  the  commons  at  fairs  and  in  market  places 
and  to  the  higher  classes  at  their  feasts.  The 
meaner  kind  not  only  recited,  sang,  and  played 
on  musical  instruments,  but  performed  as  jug¬ 
glers,  dancers,  acrobats,  and  exhibitors  of  trained 
animals.  Members  of  this  class  were  also  to  be 
found  in  the  following  of  every  great  lord,  among 
his  permanent  domestic  servants  or  minis- 
teriales.  They  were  court  minstrels  and  enter¬ 
tainers. 

From  such  singers  sprang  the  troubadours. 
It  may  be  said  that  the  jongleur  was  one  who 
made  a  trade  of  poetry  and  music;  the  trouba¬ 
dour  one  who  devoted  himself  to  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  artistic  court  poetry,  whether  for  gain 
or  not.  The  jongleurs  were  therefore  always 
poor,  either  by  origin  or  by  fate,  whereas  the 
troubadours,  though  largely  belonging  to  the 
humble  or  the  middle  class,  included  knights, 
barons,  counts,  and  even  kings. 

The  troubadours  led  a  wandering  life,  though 
they  often  lingered  for  years  at  the  court  of 
some  patron,  praising  the  mistress  in  extrava¬ 
gant  terms  and  supporting  the  policy  of  the  mas¬ 
ter  by  vigorous  exhortations  to  his  friends  or 
by  bitter  denunciation  of  his  enemies.  War 
and  courtly  service  were  their  chief  themes. 
(See  Provencal  Literature.)  Conventional  as 
this  poetry  was,  there  were  no  schools  in  which 
the  art  was  taught.  Each  troubadour  learned 
from  his  predecessors  and  handed  down  the 
tradition.  Even  the  art  of  writing  was  not 
necessary,  for  the  pieces  were  prepared  chiefly 
for  hearers.  They  were  usually  sung  by  the  com¬ 
poser  to  his  own  accompaniment,  but  those  who 
could  not  sing  taught  words  and  music  to  their 
jongleurs.  By  this  method  a  wider  audience 
was  reached  than  the  individual  author  could 
obtain.  Whenever  a  lyric  was  sent  to  some 
friend  at  a  distance  it  was  not  intrusted  to 
writing,  but  to  the  voice  of  a  messenger.  This 
poetry,  therefore,  required  a  pleasure-loving  ar¬ 
istocracy  for  its  audience  and  wealthy  and 
generous  patrons  for  its  support.  It  mirrored 
the  soul  of  chivalry,  an  ideal  of  heroism,  gen¬ 
erosity,  courtesy,  and  love.  For  flattering  the 
vanity  of  the  nobles  and  lending  his  talent  to 
their  taste  for  pleasure,  the  singer  was  re¬ 
warded  with  gifts  of  money,  weapons,  horses, 
or  garments.  Generosity  was  naturally  praised 
as  the  chief  of  princely  virtues,  and  growing 
avarice  was  a  sign  of  the  hopeless  degeneracy  of 
the  times.  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  was  consid¬ 
ered  the  mirror  of  knighthood,  and  the  prac¬ 
tical  statesmanship  of  Philip  Augustus  of 
France  was  judged  low  and  unworthy.  With 
the  disappearance  of  the  society  they  repre¬ 
sented,  the  troubadours  vanished. 

The  first  troubadour  whose  lyrics  have  been 
preserved  was  William  IX,  Count  of  Poitou  and 
Duke  of  Aquitaine,  but  he  must  have  had  a 
long  line  of  humble  forerunners.  His  grand¬ 
daughter,  Eleanor,  the  quick-witted  but  licen¬ 
tious  wife  of  Louis  VII  and  Henry  Plantagenet, 
was  the  theme  of  the  impassioned  songs  of 
Bernart  de  Ventadour.  Ermengarde  of  Nar- 
bonne  was  another  celebrated  patroness  of  po¬ 
etry,  with  many  adorers  in  verse — this  was 
their  flourishing  period.  Among  their  chief  pa¬ 
trons  were  the  counts  of  Provence,  the  counts 
of  Toulouse,  and  several  kings  of  Aragon  and 
Castile,  the  most  notable  of  whom  was  Alfonso 
II  of  Aragon.  In  Italy  the  lords  of  Este  and 
the  Emperor  Frederick  II  harbored  the  singers 


TROUBAT 


497 


TROUP 


of  Languedoc.  At  these  courts  minstrels  were 
kindly  received  and  lavishly  rewarded,  taking 
part  apparently  in  the  social  pleasures  mir¬ 
rored  in  their  songs. 

Much  of  the  romantic  interest  that  has  gath¬ 
ered  about  the  careers  of  these  poets  is  derived 
from  the  Provencal  biographies  and  razos  which 
are  found  in  some  of  the  manuscripts  containing 
their  works.  Many  of  these  are  merely  imagina¬ 
tive  tales  in  which  elements  of  folklore,  com¬ 
bined  with  a  fanciful  interpretation  of  the 
poems,  have  been  set  down  as  fact.  Growing 
up  among  the  later  jongleurs  and  other  lovers 
of  poetry,  they  represent  the  conception  which 
the  succeeding  age  had  formed  of  the  heroes 
of  Provengal  song.  Another  fact  has  tended 
to  give  a  romantic  coloring  to  the  lives  of  the 
troubadours:  the  fact  that  their  poems  deal  so 
largely  with  the  subject  of  love.  This  love 
was,  it  is  true,  chiefly  factitious  and  conven¬ 
tional  rather  than  personal,  and  the  formulas 
in  which  it  was  expressed  are  exceedingly  mo¬ 
notonous;  but  the  modern  imagination  has  built 
up  for  these  wandering  minstrels  a  sort  of 
butterfly  existence  of  poetry  and  passion,  with 
the  added  excitement  of  constant  adventures. 

Bibliography.  Eugene  Baret,  Les  trouba¬ 
dours  et  leur  influence  sur  la  literature  du  midi 
de  V Europe  (3d  ed.,  Paris,  18G7);  Paul  Meyer, 
Les  derniers  troubadours  de  la  Provence  (ib., 
1871);  John  Rutherford,  The  Troubadours: 
Their  Loves  and  their  Lyrics  (London,  1873)  ; 
Francis  Hueffer,  The  Troubadours :  A  History 
of  Provencal  Life  and  Literature  in  the  Middle 
Ages  (ib.,  1878)  ;  Manuel  Mils,  y  Fontanels, 
De  los  trovadores  en  Espaha  (2d  ed.,  Barcelona, 
1889)  ;  Jules  Arnoux,  Les  troubadours  et  les 
felibres  du  midi  (Paris,  1889)  ;  J.  F.  Row- 
botham,  The  Troubadours  and  the  Courts  of 
Love,  in  “Social  England”  series  (London, 

1895)  ;  Ida  Farnell,  Lives  of  the  Troubadours , 
Translated  from  the  Mediceval  Provengal  (ib., 

1896)  ;  J.  H.  Smith,  The  Troubadours  at  Home 
(2  vols.,  New  York,  1899);  Joseph  Anglade, 
Les  troubadours :  Leurs  vies,  leurs  oeuvres,  leur 
influence  (Paris,  1908)  ;  LI.  J.  Chaytor,  The 
Troubadour,  in  “Cambridge  Manuals  of  Science 
and  Literature”  (Cambridge,  1912)  ;  Giulio  Ber- 
toni,  I  trovatori  d’  Italia:  biografici,  esti,  trad- 
uzioni,  note  (Modena,  1915),  containing  a  bibli¬ 
ography;  also  H.  J.  Chaytor,  The  Troubadours 
of  Dante:  Being  Selections  from  the  Works  of 
the  Provengal  Poets  Quoted  by  Dante  (Oxford, 
1902)  ;  and  for  the  music:  Pierre  Aubry, 
Trouveres  et  troubadours  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1910), 
with  music;  J.  B.  Beck,  La  musique  des  trouba¬ 
dours  (ib.,  1910)  ;  also  references  under  Pro¬ 
vencal  Literature. 

TROUBAT,  troo'ba/,  Jules  Simon  (1836- 
1914).  A  French  litterateur,  born  at  Mont¬ 
pellier.  He  was  the  last  secretary  of  Sainte- 
Beuve  (q.v. ),  one  of  his  testamentary  executors, 
and  his  legatee.  He  published  a  number  of 
posthumous  works  of  Sainte-Beuve,  such  as  his 
Correspondence,  an  unfinished  monograph  on 
Proudhon,  and  three  volumes  of  articles  origi¬ 
nally  contributed  to  the  Premiers  lundis.  Trou- 
bat  himself  wrote:  Souvenirs  et  indiscretions 
(1875)  ;  Notes  et  pensees  (1888)  ;  Souvenirs  du 
dernier  secretaire  de  Sainte-Beuve  (1890);  Es- 
sais  critiques  (1902);  Sainte-Beuve  intime  et 
familier  (1903);  Souvenirs  sur  Champfleury  et 
le  realisms  ( 1905 ) . 

TROUBETZ'KOY,  Amalie  Rives,  Princess. 
See  Rives,  Amalie. 


TROUBETZKOY,  Prince  Paul  (1866-  ). 

A*  Russian  sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Intra, 
Lago  Maggiore,  Italy,  son  of  a  Russian  nobleman 
who  had  married  an  American  (Miss  Winans). 
After  desultory  study  under  Ernesto  Bazzaro,  at 
the  Brera  in  Milan,  he  worked  independently, 
and  in  1894  won  recognition  with  his  “Indian 
Scout  now  in  the  Gallery  of  Modern  Art, 
Rome.  In  1897  he  removed  to  Moscow,  where 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  sculpture  at  the 
Academy,  and  where  he  modeled  several  busts 
of  Russian  notables,  an  equestrian  portrait  of 
Tolstoy  (1899,  Luxembourg  Museum,  Paris),  a 
seated  figure  of  Prince  Leon  Golitzin,  and 
statuettes  of  Grand  Duchess  Serge,  Grand  Duke 
Andre  Vladimirovitch,  and  Count  Witte.  From 
1905  Troubetzkoy  lived  in  Paris.  His  art  is 
very  modern  in  treatment  and  technique,  with 
a  decided  impressionistic  effect.  The  subject 
matter  is  handled  with  originality  and  refresh¬ 
ing  spontaneity;  but  the  surfaces  are  sketchy 
and  unfinished.  Troubetzkoy  is  represented  in 
many  European  galleries,  and  in  that  of  San 
Francisco.  His  later  works  include:  portraits 
of  Giovanni  Segantini  ( Berlin  Museum ) ,  Au¬ 
guste  Rodin,  Joaquin  Sorolla  (Hispanic  Society, 
New  York),  George  Bernard  Shaw,  Anatole 
France,  Signor  Giulio  Savarese,  and  Paul  ILel- 
leu;  the  equestrian  monument  to  Alexander  III 
(1909,  St.  Petersburg),  and  the  “Daughter  of 
Prince  Scipione  Borghese  on  Horseback”  (1908). 
He  also  executed  many  charming  genre  stat¬ 
uette  groups  of  children,  dogs,  etc.  Among 
other  honors,  he  was  awarded  gold  medals  at 
Rome,  Dresden,  Paris  (1900),  and  Berlin.  A 
representative  exhibition  of  his  sculptures  was 
held  at  the  Hispanic  Society  in  New  York  in 
1911.  His  brother,  Prince  Pierre  Troubetz¬ 
koy,  made  New  York  his  residence  and  became 
known  as  a  portrait  painter. 

TROUESSART,  troo'e-sar',  Edouard  Louis 
( 1842—  ) .  A  French  zoologist,  born  at 

Angers,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Paris 
(M.D.,  1870).  He  was  a  surgeon  in  the  French 
army  (  1870-71);  professor  at  Angers  (1882); 
director  of  the  Natural  History  Museum  of  An¬ 
gers  (1882-85),  and  thereafter  professor  of 
zoology  at  the  Natural  History  Museum  in 
Paris.  He  published  Sur  les  mamrn i feres  vivants 
et  fossiles  (1879-1907)  ;  M&m oires  sur  les  Acari- 
ens  parasites  et  les  Acariens  marins  ( 1880-1907 )  ; 
Les  microbes,  les  ferments,  et  les  moisissures 
(1886;  Eng.  trans.,  1886);  La  Geographic 
zoologique  (1890);  Faune  des  mammiferes  de 
France  (1885);  Les  parasites  des  habitations 
humaines  et  des  denrees  alimentaires  (1895); 
Catalogue  des  mammiferes  vivants  et  fossiles 
(1898-1904).  Trouessart  also  collaborated  on 
La  Grande  Encyclopedic  (1885-1899).  He  was 
laureate  of  the  Societe  entomologique  (1895). 

TROUP,  troop,  George  McIntosh  (1780- 
1856).  An  American  politician,  born  in  the 
present  Washington  County,  Ala.  Lie  graduated 
at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton)  in 
1797,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1800,  and  prac¬ 
ticed  in  Savannah.  From  1801  to  1804  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Georgia  Legislature;  was  a 
member  of  the  United  States  blouse  of  Represent¬ 
atives  from  1807  to  1815;  was  chairman  of  the 
Military  Committee  during  the  War  of  1812, 
and  opposed  vigorously  the  Yazoo  compromise. 
From  1816  to  1818  lie  was  in  the  United  States 
Senate,  and  from  1823  to  1827  was  Governor 
of  Georgia.  During  the  dispute  which  arose 
between  the  agents  of  the  general  government 


TROUPIAL 


TROUT 


498 


and  the  State  in  regard  to  the  extinguishment 
of  the  Creek  title  to  lands  in  Georgia,  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  defy  the  Federal  government. 
From  1820  to  1833  he  was  again  a  member  of 
the  United  States  Senate.  He  was  a  strong 
defender  of  States’  rights,  and  in  1833  presided 
over  the  Georgia  States’  Rights  Convention. 

TROUPIAL,  troop'i-al.  See  Oriole. 

TROUS-DE-LOUP,  trbo'de-lbo,  or  Military 
Pits.  Excavations  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted 
truncated  cone  or  pyramid,  with  a  pointed  stake 
in  the  bottom.  They  should  not  be  so  deep  as  to 
afford  cover  to  the  enemy’s  skirmisher.  Two 
and  one-lialf  feet  or  less  is  a  suitable  depth. 
They  are  usually  dug  in  3  or  5  rows  and  the 
earth  thrown  to  the  front  to  form  a  glacis.  The 
rear  row  is  dug  first  and  then  the  next  in  front, 
and  so  on,  so  that  no  earth  is  cast  over  the  fin¬ 
ished  pits.  An  excellent  arrangement  is  to  dig 
the  pits  in  a  checkerboard  plan,  leaving  alternate 
squares  and  placing  a  stake  in  each  of  them 
to  form  a  wire  entanglement.  One  man  can 
make  5  pits  on  a  2-hour  relief.  Such  pits,  placed 
as  obstacles  in  front  of  defensive  positions,  may 
interfere  seriously  with  the  advance  of  infantry, 
and  are  not  susceptible  of  destruction  by  artil¬ 
lery  fire.  Consult  Engineer  Field  Manual  United 
States  Army  (Washington,  Government  Printing 
Office,  1909). 

TROUSSEAU,  troo'so',  Armand  (1801-67). 

A  French  physician,  born  at  Tours.  He  became 

M.D.  at  Paris  in  1825,  and  after  holding  other 

similar  posts  became  professor  at  the  Hotel 

Dieu  in  1852.  Four  vears  later  he  was  elected 

«/ 

a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine.  Trous¬ 
seau  is  best  known  through  his  use  of  tracheot¬ 
omy  in  croup:  Nouvelles  recherches  sur  la  tra- 
cheotomie  pratique  dans  la  pcriode  extreme  du 
croup  (1851).  Among  his  works  are  best 
known:  Traite  de  th4rapeutique  et  de  matiere 
medicale  (1826-37;  8th  ed.,  1870;  Eng.  trans., 
1842),  with  H.  Pidoux;  and  Traits  pratique  de 
leu  phthisie  laryng6e  (1837;  Eng.  trans.,  1839), 
for  which  classical  work  he  received  the  grand 
prize  of  the  Academy  of  Medicine. 

TROUT  (AS.  truht,  from  OF.  truite,  from 
Lat.  tructa,  tructus,  from  Gk.  rpurrys,  troktes, 
sort  of  sea  fish,  from  rp&yeiv,  trogein,  to  gnaw). 
Any  of  many  fishes  of  the  family  Salmonidse. 
(See  Salmon.)  Some  are  partly  anadromous, 
but  most  of  the  species  live  exclusively  in  fresh 
waters,  and  occur  in  most  of  the  lakes  and 
streams  of  northern  regions.  They  are  all  vora¬ 
cious  and  more  or  less  gamy.  Their  food  con¬ 
sists  of  almost  any  sort  of  fresh  animal  matter 
— smaller  fishes,  crustaceans,  insect  larvae,  and 
the  like.  The  trout,  like  the  salmon,  spawn  dur¬ 
ing  the  colder  months  of  the  year,  varying  with 
the  latitude  and  the  species. 

Trout  may  be  classed  into  two  main  groups. 
The  one  group,  belonging  to  the  genus  Salmo, 
has  a  flat  vomer,  supplied  with  teeth,  the  body 
with  larger  scales  than  the  other  group,  which 
has  a  boat-shaped  vomer,  the  shaft  destitute  of 
teeth.  The  latter  group  is  more  perfectly  re¬ 
stricted  to  fresh  waters  than  the  former.  The 
former  group  includes  the  salmon  trout,  and 
the  latter  the  chars,  such  as  the  book  trout. 
The  salmon  trout  of  European  waters  ( Sal-mo 
'  trutta )  resides  in  salt  water,  and  enters  the 
rivers  to  spawn.  Its  fresh-water  variety,  the 
brown  trout  ( Sal-mo  fario) ,  occurs  in  the  lakes 
of  Europe,  and  has  been  extensively  domesti¬ 
cated  in  English  and  North  American  waters. 
In  consequence  of  its  greater  adaptability,  it  is 


now  replacing  the  native  brook  trout  in  many 
localities,  much  to  the  disgust  of  the  sportsman. 
Another  Scottish  variety,  the  Lochleven  trout, 
differs  from  the  brown  trout  in  the  greater 
growth  of  the  pectoral  and  caudal  fins,  in  the 
greater  number  of  csecal  appendages,  and  in 
other  minor  characters. 

The  American  salmon  trout  (Salmo  gaird- 
neri )  is  a  large  trout,  abundant  in  the  Columbia 
and  other  rivers  flowing  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
( See  Steelhead.  )  A  variety  of  it,  the  Kamloops 
trout,  or  “stit-tse,”  occupies  the  lakes  of  Brit¬ 
ish  Columbia  and  northern  Washington. 

The  rainbow  or  Coast  Range  trout  (Salmo 
irideus )  is  smaller  than  the  preceding,  has 
larger  scales  and  brighter  colors.  It  is  native 
in  the  mountain  streams  of  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  probably  enters  the  sea.  It  is  very  vari¬ 
able,  presents  many  geographical  varieties,  such 
as  the  brook  trout  of  western  Nevada,  the  trout 
of  Mt.  Shasta,  golden  trout  of  Mt.  Whitney,  the 
McCloud  River  trout,  and  others.  It  has  been 
transplanted  successfully  into  the  mountain 
streams  of  the  eastern  United  States,  and  has 
been  domesticated  to  some  degree.  The  “cut¬ 
throat”  or  Rocky  Mountain  trout  (Salmo  my- 
kiss)  is  a  common  trout  of  very  wide  distribution 
in  all  the  clear  streams  of  the  Rocky  Moun¬ 
tains  and  Sierra  Nevada,  from  Kamchatka  and 
Alaska  to  northern  Mexico.  Its  scales  are 
smaller  than  in  the  nearly  related  species,  hy¬ 
oid  teeth  are  usually  present,  and  it  is  very 
closely  related  to  Salmo  gairdneri.  This  species 
often  enters  the  sea,  and  is  very  variable,  many 
geographical  races  being  recognized,  one  of 
which,  “Clarke’s  trout”  of  the  Columbia  River, 
is  illustrated  on  the  Plate  of  Salmon. 

The  Great  Lakes  trout,  “longe,”  “togue,”  or 
“namaycush,”  differs  from  Salmo  in  the  absence 
of  teeth  on  the  shaft  of  the  vomer,  and  from 
the  brook  trout  in  its  larger  size  and  well-de¬ 
veloped  teeth  on  the  hyoid  bone.  It  inhabits 
all  the  larger  lakes  of  eastern  North  America, 
and  is  one  of  the  more  important  food  fishes 
of  the  Great  Lakes  region.  The  variety  “sis- 
cowet,”  found  only  in  the  deep  water  of  Lake 
Superior,  has  excessively  fat  flesh,  and  is  not 
prized  as  food.  See  Namaycush. 

The  principal  chars  of  American  waters  are 
the  common  brook  or  speckled  trout,  the  Dolly 
Varden,  the  oquassa,  and  the  European  brook 
trout.  The  brook  trout  ( Salvelinus  fontinalis ) 
is  the  best  known,  abundant  in  all  clear,  cold 
streams  of  eastern  North  America  south  to 
the  headwaters  of  the  Savannah.  It  differs 
from  the  other  species  of  the  genus  in  its  back 
being  strongly  marbled  with  olive  and  black. 
It  has  been  introduced  into  the  Western 
streams;  and  many  hybrids  between  this  and 
the  rainbow  trout  and  other  species  exist.  Its 
extreme  length  may  be  18  inches,  but  it  is 
usually  much  smaller.  It  is  a  favorite  for  its 
gamy  qualities  and  for  its  flavor.  See  Colored 
Plate  of  Game  Fishes. 

The  Dolly  Varden  trout  (q.v.),  or  malma,  is 
a  native  of  northwestern  America,  and  has  red 
spots  on  both  back  and  sides.  The  oquassa 
trout  ( Salvelinus  oquassa),  “quasky”  or  “blue- 
back,”  is  a  small  trout  of  the  Rangely  group  of 
lakes  in  western  Maine,  dark  blue,  with  small 
red  spots,  usually  confined  to  the  sides.  Sim¬ 
ilar  and  still  smaller  varieties  of  this  most 
beautiful  of  the  trout  exist  in  the  lakes  of 
Quebec  and  in  those  of  subarctic  America. 

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1.  MICHIGAN  GRAYLING  (Thymallus  tricolor). 

2.  OQUASSA  TROUT  (Salvelinus  oquassa). 

3.  DOLLY  VARDEN  TROUT  (Salvelinus  malma). 


4.  NAMAYCUSH  (Cristivomer  namaycush). 

5.  RAINBOW  TROUT  (Salmo  irideus). 

6.  SUNAPEE  TROUT  (Salvelinus  alplnus,  var.  aureolus). 


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TROWARD 


TROUT  FISHING 


499 


pinus)  has  the  red  spots  only  on  the  sides,  and 
the  mouth  is  rather  smaller  than  in  the  preced- 
It  occurs  in  the  cold  lakes  and  mountain 
streams  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia,  and  in 
northeastern  North  America.  It  is  variable  and 
is  represented  by  several  varieties — such  as  the 
Greenland,  char,  the  long-finned  char,  and  the 
sunapee  or  golden  trout.  The  last  named  is 
very  local  in  its  distribution,  having  been  taken 
in  Sunapee  Lake  and  a  few  other  lakes  in 
New  Hampshire  and  Maine.  It  is  highly  prized 
because  of  its  brilliant  colors  and  graceful  form. 
Much  uncertainty  remains  as  to  its  origin  and 
relationship.  It  has  strong  affinities  with  the 
European  form  and  by  some  is  considered  to 
have  been  introduced  from  there.  Much  pains 
is  being  taken  to  increase  this  species  by  arti¬ 
ficial  propagation  and  transplantation.  See 
Fish  Culture. 

There  are  other  species  of  trout  of  minor  im¬ 
portance  both  in  America  and  Europe  and  Asia; 
and  many  fishes  not  truly  trout  are  locally  so 
called.  Compare  Salmon;  Grayling.  Consult: 
U.  S.  Jordan,  Fishes  (New  York,  1908)  ;  Jordan 
and  Everinann,  American  Food  and  Game 
Fishes  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1914)  ;  Ernest  Phillips, 
Trout  in  Lakes  and  Reservoirs:  A  Practical 
Guide  to  Managing,  Stocking,  and  Fishing  (ib., 
1914)  ;  Louis  Rhead,  American  Trout  Stream 
Insects  (ib.,  1916);  also  references  under  Ang¬ 
ling;  Fish;  Salmon. 

TROUT  FISHING.  With  the  possible  ex¬ 
ception  of  the  black  bass,  there  is  no  fish  that 
affords  more  sport  to  the  angler  or  that  is  found 
over  a  greater  range  of  country  than  the  brook 
trout.  It  may  be  taken  with  the  fly  or  with 
bait,  but  the  former  method  is  considered  gen¬ 
erally  the  more  sportsmanlike.  In  bait  fishing, 
the  trout  is  likely  to  be  killed  or  badly  injured, 
whereas .  in  fly  fishing  the  fish  generally  is 
hooked  in  the  lip  and  can  be  returned  to  the 
"  ater  unharmed.  In  lakes  and  ponds  in  sum¬ 
mer  time,  when  the  surface  of  the  water  be¬ 
comes  warm,  trout  make  for  deep  water,  and 
bait  must  be  used.  It  is  impossible  to  do  more 
than  give  the  general  rules  controlling  the  se¬ 
lection  of  flies:  In  size,  the  fly  should  be  se¬ 
lected  to  meet  the  condition  of  the  water  rather 
than  the  size  of  the  fish;  thus,  if  late  in  the 
season  and  the  water  of  a  clear  stream  is  low, 
sober -colored  flies  on  No.  10  or  12  hooks  are 
usually  the  best.  See  FIshing;  Fly-Casting. 

TROUT  PERCH.  One  of  the  small  fishes 
of  the  North  American  family  Percopsid®,  rep¬ 
resented  abundantly  in  the  Great  Lakes  by 
the  “sand  roller”  ( Percopsis  guttatus)  and  by  a 
second  genus  and  species  in  Oregon.  This  fam¬ 
ily  constitutes  the  suborder  Salmopercae ;  the 
form  of  the  body  and  the  head  and  mouth  are 
perchlike,  while  the  fins  are  salmon-like.  These 
fishes  are  of  particular  interest  because  of  their 
relationship  with  generalized  archaic  forms,  of 
which  they  seem  to  be  the  survivors.  Consult 
Jordan  and  Evermann,  Fishes  of  North  and  Mid¬ 
dle  America  (Washington,  1896). 

TROUVERE,  trbo'var'  (Fr.,  from  trouver,  to 
find,  compose).  The  Northern  French  term  an¬ 
swering  to  the  Provencal  troubadour  (q.v. ),  ap¬ 
plied  usually  to  the  original  poets  who  com¬ 
posed  the  works  which  the  jongleur  performed. 
The  distinction,  however,  is  not  absolute,  as 
there  are  instances  of  trouveres  who  performed 
their  own  works,  and  occasionally  of  jongleurs 
who  aspired  to  composition.  The  trouvere  was 
usually  a  man  of  some  rank  and  standing,  either 


priest  or  knight.  See  French  Literature* 
Jongleur. 

TROUVILLE,  troo'vel'.  A  fishing  town  and 
seaside  resort  of  the  Department  of  Calvados, 
France,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Touques,  136  miles 
by  rail  west-northwest  of  Paris,  and  9  miles 
south  of  Havre  (Map:  France,  N.,  F  3).  It 
has  risen  from  the  humble  fishing  village  to 
the  rank  of  the  most  fashionable  watering  place 
in  France.  Its  equable  climate,  agreeable  situ¬ 
ation,  remarkably  fine  beach,  and  many  hand¬ 
some  villas  make  it  an  ideal  resort  during  the 
summer  and  autumn  months.  There  are  a  Louis 
XIII  Hotel  de  \  ille  and  a  large  well-appointed 
casino.  The  harbor  is  thronged  with  fishing 
boats,  and  there  is  some  trade.  Pop.  19oT 
6137;  1911,  6901.  The  port  is  shared  with 
Deauv  ille,  a  small  but  well-known  sea-bathing 
resort,  a  short  distance  southwest,  with  a  ca^ 
ino.  The  August  races  here  are  attended  by 
the  leading  circles  of  Parisian  society. 

TROVATORE,  IL,  el  tro'via-to'ra  (It.,  The 
Troubadour).  An  opera  by  Verdi  (q.v.),  first 
produced  in  Rome,  Jan.  19,  1853;  in  the  United 
States,  May  2,  1855  (New  York). 

TRO'VER  (OF.  trover,  trouver,  to  find,  com¬ 
pose).  One  of  the  old  forms  of  action  in  com¬ 
mon-law  pleading,  employed  to  recover  dam¬ 
ages  for  the  wrongful  conversion  of  personal 
property.  The  action  was  a  development  of 
the  action  of  trespass  on  the  case.  It  is  based 
upon  a  fiction  that  the  plaintiff  lias  lost  his 
chattels  and  that  the  defendant  has  casually 
found  them,  but  refuses  to  deliver  them  to 
the  plaintiff.  Although  this  fictitious  state¬ 
ment  must  be  made  in  the  declaration,  it  need 
not  be  proved,  and  could  not  be  traversed  or 
denied ;  and  the  plaintiff  may  recover  dam¬ 
ages  on  proof  of  a  conversion  of  his  property. 
Any  interest  which  will  entitle  a  person  to  the 
possession  of  goods  is  sufficient  to  maintain  this 
action.  See  Common  Forms;  Conversion; 
Forms  of  Action. 

TROWARD,  trb'ard,  Thomas  (  1847-1916). 
A  British  philosopher.  He  was  born  at  Bel- 
gaum  in  the  southern  Maharatta  country,  India, 
and  was  educated  at  Victoria  College  Jersey! 
He  prepared  for  the  Indian  Civil  SerVice  and 
was  appointed  to  a  junior  magistracy  in  the 
Punjab.  Eventually  he  retired' with  the  rank 
of  divisional  judge.  Returning  to  England,  he 
lectured  in  Edinburgh,  London,  and  other  cities 
on  topics  relating  to  Mental  Science  and  New 
Thought  ( qq.v. ) .  For  this  work  he  was  well 
fitted  by  experience  and  scholarship.  Thirty 
years’  residence  in  India,  during  which  period 
he  decided  cases  according  to  Hindu,  Sikh,  and 
Mohammedan  law,  and  also  studied  the  differ¬ 
ent  religious  and  philosophical  systems,  had 
familiarized  him  with  the  best  thought  of  the 
Orient,  practical  as  well  as  speculative.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  western  point  of  view  was  his 
by  inheritance.  Troward  contended  that  the 
basic  spiritual  principles  underlying  all  re¬ 
ligions  were  so  developed  in  the  Bible  as  to  make 
it  entirely  authoritative  as  a  guide  to  thought 
and  action.  Moreover  he  found  spiritual  prin¬ 
ciples  to  be  paralleled  by  the  laws  of  nature 
as  revealed  by  modern  science,  thus  indicating 
a  unity  of  the  visible  and  invisible.  Judge 
Troward’s  system  has  the  practical  aim  of  help¬ 
ing  the  individual  to  recognize  his  spiritual 
freedom  by  showing  that  mental  attitude  con¬ 
trols  material  conditions.  His  widely  read 
writings,  important  in  their  field,  include: 


TROWBRIDGE 


500 


TROY 


Edinburgh  Lectures  on  Mental.  Science  (1906)  ; 
Bible  Mystery  and  Bible  Meaning  (1907); 
Dor6  Lectures  (1909);  The  Creative  Process 
in  the  Individual  (1911). 

TRQW'BRIDGE.  A  market  town  in  Wilt¬ 
shire,  England,  on  a  rocky  eminence  in  the  val¬ 
ley  of  the  Biss,  97  miles  by  rail  west  of  London. 
Cassimeres,  kerseys,  tweeds,  and  woolen  cloths 
of  the  best  qualities  are  manufactured.  The 
parish  church  of  St.  James,  which  dates  from 
the  fourteenth  century,  contains  the  remains  of 
Crabbe,  the  poet,  who  officiated  as  clergyman 
from  1814  to  1832.  There  are  a  fine  modern 
town  hall  and  many  handsome  villas,  the  resi¬ 
dences  of  wealthy  manufacturers.  The  town 
owes  its  origin  to  an  ancient  castle,  built  on 
the  mound  called  Courthill,  which  held  out 
for  Matilda  against  Stephen.  It  was  demol¬ 
ished  before  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII,  and  all 
traces  of  it  have  disappeared.  Pop.,  1901,  11,- 
562;  1911,  11,815. 

TROWBRIDGE,  Edmund  (1709-93).  An 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Newton,  Mass.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1728,  and  soon  rose 
to  eminence  as  a  lawyer.  He  became  Attorney- 
General  of  the  State  in  1749,  was  for  several 
years  a  member  of  the  council,  and  in  1767  was 
appointed  a  justice  of  the  Massachusetts  Su¬ 
preme  Court,  presiding  with  great  ability  and 
fairness  at  the  trial  of  Captain  Preston  and  his 
men  after  the  Boston  massacre.  In  1772  he 
retired  to  private  life.  Though  not  in  full  sym¬ 
pathy  with  the  Patriot  party,  he  was  strongly 
opposed  to  the  policy  of  the  British  ministry. 

TROWBRIDGE,  John  (1843-  ).  An 

American  physicist.  He  was  born  in  1843  and 
was  educated'  at  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School, 
Harvard,  graduating  in  1866  and  then  serving 
for  three  'years  as  tutor.  After  occupying  a 
chair  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech¬ 
nology,  he  returned  to  Harvard  in  1880,  was 
made"  professor  of  experimental  physics,  di¬ 
rector  of  the  Jefferson  Physical  Laboratory 
(1884),  and  Rumford  professor  of  the  applica¬ 
tion  of  science  to  the  useful  arts  (1888).  He 
established  a  laboratory  course  in  physics  and 
was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  introducing  labora¬ 
tory  work  as  an  essential  part  of  instruction 
in  elementary  science.  Trowbridge  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  various  international  electrical  con¬ 
gresses,  was  elected  to  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1878,  and  became  president  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 
He  carried  on  many  important  investigations 
in  physics,  particularly  in  electricity,  and  later 
investigated  the  various  phenomena  connected 
with  the  Rbntgen  rays.  Many  of  his  communi¬ 
cations  were  issued  under  the  title  of  Contri¬ 
butions  from  the  Physical  Laboratory  of  Har¬ 
vard  College.  Besides  these  he  wrote:  The  New 
Physics  (1884);  What  is  Electricity?  (1896; 
new  ed.,  1903);  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  (1901). 
Papers  of  importance  include  “The  Longitudi¬ 
nal  Magnetic  Field  and  the  Cathode  Rays,” 
in  Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  vol.  xliii  (1908),  and  “Re¬ 
search  in  Physics,”  in  Harvard  Graduates’  Mag¬ 
azine  (1911). 

TROWBRIDGE,  John  Townsend  (1827- 
1916).  An  American  novelist,  juvenile  writer, 
and  poet,  born  at  Ogden,  N.  Y.  After  a  com¬ 
mon-school  education  Trowbridge  taught  for 
a  year  in  Illinois  and  afterward  was  a  jour¬ 
nalist  in  New  York  and  Boston,  where  he  settled 
in  1848.  His  Neighbor  Jackwood  (1857)  was 


one  of  the  first  realistic  novels  of  New  England 
life.  The  more  noteworthy  of  his  many 
stories,  largely  for  boys  and  ranking  with  the 
best  of  their  kind,  are:  Father  Brighthopes 
(1853);  The  Drummer  Boy  (1863);  Cudjo’s 
Cave  (1863)  ;  The  Three  Scouts  (1864)  ;  Neigh¬ 
bors’  Wives  ( 1867 )  ;  Coupon  Bonds  and  Other 
Stories  (1872);  The  Silver  Medal  (1908);  .4 
Pair  of  Madcaps  (1909);  The  Jack  Hazard 
Series ;  The  Toby  Trafford  Series ;  The  Start  in 
Life  Series;  The  Tide  Mill  Series.  Trowbridge 
also  wrote  verse,  his  “Darius  Green  and  his 
Flying  Machine”  being  especially  well  known. 

A  collected  edition,  Poetical  Works,  appeared 
in  1903.  His  autobiography,  My  Oum  Story 
(1903),  throws  some  interesting  sidelights  on 
American  literature  during  the  second  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century. 

TROWBRIDGE,  S(amuel)  Breck  Park- 
man  (1862-  ).  An  American  architect, 

born  in  New  York  City.  He  graduated  from 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  in  1883,  and  from 
the  School  of  Architecture  at  Columbia  in  1886, 
and  then  had  charge  of  the  erection  of  the 
building  of  the  American  School  of  Classical 
Studies  at  Athens,  Greece.  After  studying  at 
the  Beaux-Arts  in  Paris,  he  returned  to  New 
York,  where  he  was  employed  in  the  office  of 
George  B.  Post  (q.v.)  for  four  years.  Later 
he  became  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Trowbridge 
and  Livingston,  which  built  many  residences, 
business  structures,  and  public  buildings.  In 
1910  Trowbridge  was  appointed  Chevalier  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  in  1915  lie  was  elected 
to  the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters. 

TROWBRIDGE,  William  Petit  (1828-92). 
An  American  engineer,  born  in  Oakland  Co., 
Mich.  He  graduated,  first  in  his  class,  at  West 
Point  in  1848;  was  assigned  to  the  Corps  of 
Engineers  as  a  brevet  second  lieutenant;  was 
engaged  in  astronomical  observations  at  the 
Military  Academy  Observatory  in  1848-50  and 
performed  important  work  from  1850  to  1856, 
when  he  resigned  from  the  army,  on  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey.  In  1856-57  he  was  pro¬ 
fessor  of  mathematics  at  the  University  of 
Michigan  and  in  1857-61  was  scientific  secre¬ 
tary  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was 
in  charge  of' the  Engineer  Agency  at  New  York 
City.  He  was  professor  of  dynamic  engineering 
in  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  Col¬ 
lege  (1870-77),  was  adjutant  general  of  the 
State  of  Connecticut  (1872-76),  and  from  1877 
until  his  death  was  professor  of  engineering  in 
the  Columbia  School  of  Mines.  He  is  credited 
by  some  with  having  first  suggested  the  idea  of 
the  cantilever  bridge.  Besides  numerous  maga¬ 
zine  articles,  he  published  Heat  as  a  Source  of 
Power  (1874). 

TROY  (Lat.  Troia,  from  Gk.  Tpoia).  The 
most  famous  city  of  Greek  legend.  It  was 
in  the  northwest  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  on  a 
small  plain  through  which  flows  to  the  Helles¬ 
pont  the  ancient  Scamander  (now  Mendere), 
entered  near  its  mouth  by  a  small  stream  from 
the  east,  the  ancient  Simois  (now  Dumbrek  Su). 
In  the  angle  once  formed  by  these  streams  (the 
modern  courses  have  greatly  altered)  lies  a  low 
hill,  jutting  from  the  range  of  Mount  Ida,  which 
was  known  in  Roman  times  as  Ilium  Novum , 
and  was  regarded  by  many  as  the  successor 
of  the  Homeric  Troy.  Near  by  is  the  modern 
village  of  Hissarlik.  The  claims  of  this  site 
had  always  found  defenders,  but  since  the  work 


TROY 


501 


TROY 


L 


of  Le  Chevalier  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury  there  had  been  a  strong  trend  of  scholarly 
opinion  in  favor  of  the  ruins  near  Bunarbashi 
on  the  Bali  Dagh,  a  steep  cliff  above  the  Sca- 
mander,  south  of  its  entrance  to  the  plain.  The 
presence  of  warm  springs  near  by  served  to 
strengthen  this  identification.  The  site,  as  well 
as  the  summit  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  val- 
ley,  was  certainly  fortified  in  early  times  as  a 
protection  against  incursions  from  the  south, 
but  excavation  has  shown  conclusively  that  the 
capital  of  the  district  lay  on  the  hill  of  Hissar- 
lik,  less  than  4  miles  from  both  the  iEgean 
and  the  Hellespont,  and  corresponding  far  more 
closely  than  could  have  been  reasonably  ex¬ 
pected  with  topographical  indications  in  the 
Iliad.  The  credit  for  the  exploration  of  this 
site  belongs  to  Heinrich  Schliemann  ( q.v. ) ,  who 
began  excavations  in  1870,  and  in  the  three 
following  years  had  laid  bare  enough  to  show 
that  underneath  the  Roman  and  later  Greek 
ruins  which  crowned  the  hill  were  remains  of  a 
settlement  of  unknown  antiquity,  even  though 
the  names  “Scaean  Gate”  and  “Priam’s  Pal¬ 
ace”  seemed  extravagant.  In  1878-79  another 
campaign  with  scientific  coadjutors  led  to  more 
definite  results,  which  were  still  further  in¬ 
creased  by  excavations  in  1882  by  Schliemann 
and  Dbrpfeld.  Another  visit  (1890)  led  to  fur¬ 
ther  important  modifications  of  previous  re¬ 
sults,  and,  though  the  death  of  Schliemann  in 
Decemlier,  1890,  prevented  immediate  continu¬ 
ation  of  the  work,  it  was  resumed  in  1893  bv 
Dbrpfeld. 

the  history  of  the  hill  as  read  in  the  excava¬ 
tions  and  later  writers  is  that  of  a  series  of  at 
least  nine  successive  settlements,  many  only 
small  collections  of  wretched  huts,  though  a 
convenient  terminology  has  dignified  them  all 
as  “cities.’  The  first  (1)  settlement  is  a 
small  group  of  dwellings  surrounded  by  a  wall, 
belonging  to  the  end  of  the  Neolithic  period. 
The  second  (2)  city,  held  by  Schliemann  to  be 
the  Homeric  Troy,  was  defended  by  a  strong 
wall  of  rough  stone,  topped  by  crude  brick, 
and  seems  to  have  extended  its  circuit  twice, 
the  second  time  with  marked  alterations  in 
the  situation  of  the  gates.  Within  were  sev¬ 
eral  houses,  consisting  of  a  great  hall  and  vesti¬ 
bule,  of  the  type  found  later  in  Mycenae  and 
Tiryns,  and  apparently  described  in  the  Homeric 
poems.  The  civilization  indicated  by  the  pot¬ 
tery  and  lesser  finds  shows  that  the  inhabitants 
were  at  the  beginning  of  the  Bronze  age,  be¬ 
longing  to  the  period  of  the  so-called  “Island” 
civilization.  (See  Archaeology.)  The  rulers 
were  evidently  of  some  wealth  and  power,  but 
their  identity  seems  lost  forever.  The  con¬ 
tinuity  of  tradition  in  the  pottery  and  general 
type  of  building,  and  the  similarity  with  much 
found  in  Phrygia,  seem  to  warrant  the  belief 
that  there  was  no  change  of  race  from  the  sec¬ 
ond  to  the  sixth  city,  and  that  this  people  were 
kindred  of  the  Indo-European  Phrygians.  Yet 
they  were  not  at  peace  with  their  neighbors, 
as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  second  city 
was  burned,  and  the  site  left  desolate.  The 
place  was  resettled,  however,  and  the  houses 
of  the  third  (3)  city  were  built  on  the  rub¬ 
bish  which  concealed  their  predecessors;  the 
wall  also  was  repaired,  and  the  gates  narrowed 
for  greater  security.  This  city,  too,  was  de¬ 
stroyed,  or  perhaps  abandoned,  but  was  again 
resettled  (4),  as  an  open  village.  To  this 
succeeded  (5)  another  village  of  little  huts,  de¬ 


fended  by  a  wall  of  no  great  strength.  The  next 
city  (6)  was,  however,  different.  It  was  de¬ 
fended  by  a  strong  wall  of  smoothed  stone,  of 
far  greater  circuit  than  that  of  city  No.  2,  and 
of  such  workmanship  that  a  bit  discovered  by 
Schliemann  was  attributed  to  the  Hellenistic 
period.  rJ  his  wall  was  pierced  by  gates,  pro¬ 
vided  with  strong  flanking  towers.  Within 
were  houses  of  considerable  size,  but  of  the 
same  simple  plan  as  those  in  the  second  city. 
Owing  to  a  great  terrace  built  by  the  Romans, 
which  cut  down  the  top  of  the  hill,  the  remains 
of  this  city  are  preserved  only  around  the  edge, 
while  the  centre,  which  doubtless  contained  the 
royal  palace,  has  vanished.  As  Schliemann's 
excavations  were  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
centre  of  the  hill,  it  was  possible  for  him  to 
miss  this  city,  which  belonged  to  the  Mycenaean 
period,  and  certainly  corresponds  to  the  Homeric 
Troy.  It  seems  clear,  from  the  objqcts  found, 
that  the  kings  of  Troy  ruled  over  a  people  not 
advanced  in  artistic  work,  the  old  plain  pottery 
continuing  in  general  use.  After  no  very  long 
period  another  settlement  (7)  covered  the  hill. 
Mycenaean  vases  have  been  found  in  its  lower 
strata,  but  whether  the  inhabitants  were  sur¬ 
vivors  of  the  Trojans,  or  the  first  wave  of  Greek 
settlers,  cannot  certainly  be  determined.  It  is 
clear  that  the  Cimmerian  invasion  in  the  eighth 
century  b.c.  reached  this  hill,  and  after  destroy* 
ing  the  inhabitants,  either  Treres  or  Cimmerians 
took  up  their  abode  on  the  site,  till  in  the 
seventh  century  they  were  driven  forth  and 
Troja  or  Ilion  was  occupied  by  Greeks  ( 8 ) .  The 
settlers  seem  to  have  been  a  small  band  of 
HColian  colonists,  who  were  cut  off  from  the 
sea  by  other  Greek  towns,  and  seem  to  have 
lived  with  little  to  recall  the  ancient  glory  of 
the  place.  The  prosperity  of  the  place  (9)*  be¬ 
gan  with  the  visit  of  Alexander  in  334  b.c.,  and 
the  temple  of  Athena  Ilias  became  after  his 
death  the  centre  of  a  league  of  free  cities  of  the 
Troad.  Near  the  end  of  the  fourth  century 
Lysimachus  fortified  it  with  a  Avail  some  0 
miles  in  circumference,  and  also  built  on  the 
hill  a  marble  temple  of  Athena.  Later  the 
town  was  under  the  control  of  Seleucus,  but  its 
history  during  this  time  is  obscure.  It  passed 
under  the  Roman  protection  (189  b.c.)  and  A\Tas 
honored  as  the  city  of  Aeneas,  and  thus  the 
parent  of  Rome.  In  the  first  civil  war,  about 
85  b.c.,  it  Avas  stormed  and  sacked  by  the 
Marian  general  Fimbria.  NeAv  prosperity  'came 
Avith  Julius  Caesar,  for  the  Julian  family  traced 
their  descent  from  Ascanius,  and  Augustus  re¬ 
built  the  temple  of  Athena  and  surrounded  it 
with  courts  and  porticoes.  Later  emperors  fa¬ 
vored  it,  and  Constantine  planned  to  make  it 
the  seat  of  his  neAV  capital.  It  Avas  for  a  long 
time  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  but  Avas  plundered 
about  1306  by  the  Turks  and  since  then  has 
lain  in  ruins. 

For  the  legendary  history  of  Troy,  see  Trojan 
War. 

Bibliography.  The  excavations  of  Schlie¬ 
mann  and  Dbrpfeld  are  recorded  by  them  in 
Trojan  Antiquities  (London,  1874),"  Ilios,  the 
City  and  Country  of  the  Trojans  (ib.,  1881), 
Troja:  The  Results  of  the  Latest  Researches  and 
Discoveries  on  the  Site  of  Homers  Troy  (ib., 
1884),  Bericht  uher  die  Ausgrahungen  in  Troja 
im  Jahre  1890  (Leipzig,  1891);  also  C.  Schu- 
chardt,  Schliemann’s  Excavations  (trans.  by 
Eugenie  Sellers  (London,  1891);  W.  Dbrpfeld, 
Troja,  1893  (ib.,  1894);  W.  Dbrpfeld  and 


TROY 


TROY  502 


others,  Troja  und  Mon  (2  vols.,  1902);  Walter 
Leaf,  Troy:  A  Study  in  Homeric  Geography  (New 
York,  1912);  id.,  Homer  and  Histwy  (London, 
1915)  ;  K.  Baedeker,  Konst  ant  inop  el,  Balkan- 
staaten,  Kleinasien,  Archipel,  Cypern  (2d  ed., 
Leipzig,  1914).  See  also  Homer, 

TROY.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Pike 
Co.,  Ala.,  52  miles  by  rail  south  by  east 
of  Montgomery,  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  and 
the  Central  of  Georgia  railroads  (Map:  Ala¬ 
bama,  D  4) .  It  is  the  seat  of  a  State  normal 
school,  and  has  a  Carnegie  library.  Troy  is 
the  shipping  centre  for  large  cotton  interests, 
and  has  some  manufactures,  of  which  fertilizers 
are  the  most  important.  Troy  was  settled  in 
1843  and  incorporated  the  same  year.  Pop., 
1900,  4097;  1910,  4961. 

TROY.  An  important  manufacturing  city 
and  the  county  seat  of  Rensselaer  Co.,  N.  Y., 
situated  at  the  head  of  navigation  of  the 
Hudson  River,  6  miles  north  of  Albany  and 
149  miles  north  of  New  \ork  (Map:  New 
York,  G  5).  It  is  the  western  terminus  of  the 
Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  and  is  also  on  the 
New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River,  Delaware 
and  Hudson,  and  Rutland  railroads,  and  five 
interurban  trolley  systems.  Additional  tians- 
portation  facilities  are  afforded  by  the  Hudson 
River  and  the  new  State  Barge  Canal .  (  q.v.) . 
On  the  west  side  of  the  river  lie  the  cities  of 
Cohoes  and  Watervliet  and  the  villages  of  Green 
Island  and  Waterford,  all  connected  with  Troy 
by  bridges  and  commercially  a  part  of  it,  mak¬ 
ing  a  contiguous  urban  population  exceeding 
130,000. 

Troy  is  situated  on  the  level  ground  along 
the  river  front  and  extends  over  the  hills 
directly  eastward.  The  water  front  is  seven 
miles  in  length  and  is  occupied  by  large  fac¬ 
tories  and  mercantile  establishments.  There  are 
100  acres  in  the  parks,  the  largest  being  Pros¬ 
pect  Park,  a  well-developed  pleasure  ground 
overlooking  the  lower  sections  of  the  city  and 
affording  a  view  of  the  vicinity  for  miles 
around.  The  Soldiers’  and  Sailors  Monument 
is  in  Washington  Square.  Oakwood  Cemetery 
is  of  interest  for  its  natural  beauty;  it  con¬ 
tains  many  notable  monuments  and  the  Earl 
Memorial  Chapel.  Among  edifices  of  note  are 
the  courthouse,  post  office,  the  savings-bank 
building  with  the  music  hall,  and  the  Hart 
Memorial  Library,  a  fine  example  of  Italian 
Renaissance  architecture.  Prominent  among 
the  city’s  features  is  the  Samaritan  Hospital, 
constructed  in  1914  at  a  cost  of  more  than  $600,- 
000.  There  are  two  other  hospitals,  four  or¬ 
phan  asylums,  four  homes  for  the  aged,  a 
Young  Men’s  Christian  Association,  a  Young 
Women’s  Christian  Association,  and  Boys’  and 
Girls’  clubs. 

Industrially  Troy  ranks  fifth  among  the  cities 
of  the  State,  while  in  the  volume  of  its  com¬ 
merce  it  stands  fourth.  Nearly  $60,000,000  is 
invested  in  its  manufacturing  enterprises  and 
their  products  have  a  yearly  value  of  over 
$40,000,000.  The  annual  payroll  of  its  21,000 
employees  exceeds  $18,000,000.  It  enjoys  ex¬ 
ceptional  water-power  facilities  from  the  State 
dam  across  the  Hudson  at  the  north  end  of  the 
city  and  from  two  tributary  streams  which  drop 
more  than  200  feet  within  the  city  limits.  Troy 
is  the  world  centre  for  the  manufacture  of 
shirts,  collars,  and  cuffs,  producing  89  per  cent 
of  the  collars  and  cuffs  made  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  the  leading  city  of  the  country 


also  in  the  production  of  laundry  machinery, 
valves,  horseshoes,  engineering  instruments,  and 
bells.  Its  brush,  stove,  ventilator,  firebrick, 
paper-box,  hosiery,  knit-goods,  and  malleable- 
iron  factories  are  also  important. 

Among  the  educational  institutions  are  the 
Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  (q.v.),  and  the 
Emma  Willard  Seminary,  the  pioneer  school  in 
America  for  the  higher  education  of  women 
(founded  in  1815).  "There  are  also  two  musi¬ 
cal  conservatories  with  a  combined  enrollment 
of  900  pupils. 

The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor  and 
common  council,  elected  every  two  years,  and 
in  various  administrative  departments.  More 
than  $1,250,000  is  spent  annually  by  the  city 
for  maintenance  and  operation.  The  water 
works,  which  represent  an  outlay  of  $4,620,710, 
are  the  property  of  the  municipality.  The  net 
debt  of  the  city  in  1916  was  $4,743,047.92;  the 
assessed  valuation  of  real  and  personal  property, 
$60  313,860.  The  population,  in  1800,  was  4296; 
in  1850,  28,785;  in  1900,  60,651;  in  1910,  76,- 
813;  and,  according  to  the  State  census  of 
1915,  75,480;  1920,  72,013. 

The  site  now  occupied  by  Troy  was  visited 
by  members  of  the  crew  of  Henry  Hudson  s  Half 
Moon  in  1609,  but  it  was  not  until  1659  that 
Jan  Barentsen  Wemp,  the  first  settler,  arrived. 
He  purchased  land  from  the  Indians  by  the  con¬ 
sent  of  the  patroon,  this  being  part  of  the  Van 
Rensselaer  grant  of  1629.  Derick  van  der  Hey- 
den  bought  a  large  farm  here  in  1707  and  his 
descendants  laid  out  a  town  along  the  river 
eighty  years  later  to  accommodate  a  stream  of 
emigrants  from  Connecticut.  The  settlement, 
known  first  as  Van  der  Hey den  s  or  Ashley  s 
Ferry,  was  named  Troy  in  1789.  Two  years 
later  a  town  government  was  formed  and  in 
1794  Troy  was  incorporated  as  a  village.  It 
became  a  city  in  1816.  The  annexation  of 
Lansingburg  in  1901  gave  it  an  area  of  9.62 
square  miles.  In  1916  its  centennial  was  cele¬ 
brated  with  appropriate  ceremonies.  Consult: 
A.  J.  Weise,  History  of  the  City  of  Troy  (Troy, 
1876)  ;  id.,  City  of  Troy  and  its  Vicinity  (ib., 
1886)  ;  id.,  Troy’s  One  Hundred  Years  (ib., 
1891)  ;  G.  B.  Anderson,  Landmarks  of  Rensse¬ 
laer  County  (Syracuse,  1897)  ;  New  Troy,  a 
pamphlet  issued  by  the  Troy  Chamber  of  Com¬ 
merce  (Troy,  1913). 

TROY.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Miami 
County,  Ohio,  83  miles  by  rail  north  by  east  of 
Cincinnati,  on  the  Cincinnati,  Hamilton,^  and 
Dayton,  and  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago, 
and  St.  Louis  railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  B  5). 
Farming  is  the  leading  industry  of  the  sur¬ 
rounding  country.  There  are  manufactures  of 
carriages,  wagons,  electric  coffee  mills,  hard¬ 
ware,  wind  shields,  automobile  bodies,  tile, 
bricks,  bentwood,  dashboards,  and  iron  and  lum¬ 
ber  products.  Pop.,  1900,  5881;  1910,  6122. 

TROY,  trwa,  Jean  Francois  de  (1679-1752). 
A  French  decorative  and  genre  painter.  He 
was  born  in  Paris  and  was  the  son  and  pupil 
of  the  portrait  painter  Frangois  de  Troy  (1654— 
1730).  He  also  studied  for  several  years  in 
Italy  and  on  his  return  to  Paris  was  received 
at  the  Academy  (1708).  Many  important  com¬ 
missions  for  mural  decoration  were  executed  by 
him,  among  the  finest  being  the  “Plague  at 
Marseilles”  (excellentlv  engraved  by  Thomas- 
sin),  and  the  “First  Chapter  of  the  Order  of 
the  Holy  Ghost”  (Louvre).  They  are  well  com¬ 
posed  and  display  a  vigorous  style.  He  also 


TROYON 

OXEN  GOING  TO  WORK,”  FROM  THE  PAINTING  IN  THE  LOUVRE 


THE  V.  r;ARY 
.  OF  The 

US 


TROYENS 


TRUBNER 


503 


painted  many  small  canvases  in  the  style  of 
Lancret,  such  as  “The  Oyster  Breakfast”  (Chan¬ 
tilly),  “The  Hunt  Breakfast”  (Wallace  col¬ 
lection,  London),  and  “The  Surprise”  (Soutli 
Kensington  Museum).  In  1738  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  director  of  the  French  Academy  at 
Koine,  and  about  this  time  designed  his  cele¬ 
brated  series  from  rhe  histories  of  “Esther,” 
“Medea,”  and  “Jason”  for  the  Gobelins  tapestries. 

TROYENS,  Les,  la  trwa/yaN'.  An  opera  in 
two  parts  by  Berlioz  (q.v.).  1.  La  prise  de 

Troie  (The  Capture  of  Troy),  first  produced  in 
Karlsruhe,  Dec.  7,  1890;  2.  Les  Troyens  d 

Carthage  (The  Trojans  at  Carthage),  first  pro¬ 
duced  in  Paris,  Nov.  4,  1863.  The  first  com¬ 
plete  production  of  the  entire  work  (both  parts) 
was  the  one  at  Karlsruhe,  Dec.  7,  8,  1890.  In 
the  United  States  only  fragments  have  been  pro¬ 
duced  in  concert  form  (1877,  1887,  New  York). 

TROYES,  trwa.  The  capital  of  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Aube,  France,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Seine,  104  miles  by  rail  east-southeast  of  Paris 
(Map:  France,  N.,  J  4).  It  presents  a  quaint, 
mediaeval  appearance.  The  fine  Cathedral  of 
Saint-Pierre  (thirteenth  to  sixteenth  century, 
with  a  splendid  rose  window)  is  in  the  Flam¬ 
boyant  style.  The  small  Church  of  Saint-Ur- 
bain,  founded  by  Pope  Urban  IV,  is  a  charming 
example  of  the  thirteenth-century  Gothic.  La 
Madeleine  has  a  superb  rood  screen.  Saint-Jean 
( fourteenth  to  sixteenth  century )  is  noteworthy 
for  its  stained  glass  and  its  two  paintings  by 
Mignard.  Saint-Nicolas  and  Saint-Pantaleon 
are  both  in  the  Gothic  style  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  In  the  old  Abbey  of  Saint-Lupus  are 
the  public  library  (136,000  volumes  and  15,095 
manuscripts)  and  an  interesting  museum.  The 
monument  to  the  children  of  Aube,  in  commemo¬ 
ration  of  the  Franco-German  War,  was  erected 
in  1900.  The  chief  industry  is  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  stockings.  There 
is  a  school  of  history.  The  Seine  is  canalized 
here  and  divides  into  several  arms  in  the  city. 
Pop.,  1911,  55,486. 

The  capital  of  the  Celtic  Tricasses,  Troyes  was 
the  Roman  Augustohona  (later  Trecce) .  The 
town  was  the  capital  of  the  counts  of  Cham¬ 
pagne,  and  early  rose  to  importance  as  a  centre 
of  trade.  The  treaty  of  1420,  which  provided 
for  the  succession  of  Henry  V  of  England  to  the 
French  throne,  was  signed  here.  Jeanne  d’Arc 
took  the  town  in  1429,  and  a  century  later  it 
was  partly  destroyed  by  Charles  V.  The  revo¬ 
cation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  reduced  the  popu¬ 
lation,  which  was  largely  Protestant,  to  less 
than  one-fourth  of  its  former  numbers.  Con¬ 
sult  J.  T.  Boutiot,  Histoire  de  la  ville  de  Troyes 
et  de  la  champagne  meridionale  (4  vols.,  Paris, 
1870-74),  and  A.  Prevost,  Histoire  du  diocese  de 
Troyes  pendant  la  revolution  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1908- 
09). 

TRO'YLUS  AND  CRY'SEYDE.  A  poem  by 
Chaucer,  written  about  1380,  probably  largely 
a  translation  of  Boccaccio’s  Filostrato,  though 
Chaucer  may  have  drawn  directly  from  Benoit 
de  Sainte-More’s  Roman  de  Troyes  of  the  twelfth 
century,  in  which  the  episode  is  first  introduced, 
or  from  Guido  della  Colonna’s  prose  novel  based 
on  it. 

TROYON,  trwa'yoN',  Constant  (1810-65). 
A  French  animal  and  landscape  painter.  He 
was  born  at  Sevres,  Aug.  25,  1810,  and  early 
worked  there  as  a  decorator  in  the  porcelain 
factory,  receiving  meanwhile  lessons  in  design 
from  Rioceux  and  later  from  Poupart.  His 


first  Salon  pictures,  exhibited  in  1833,  were 
mediocre  in  character,  but  a  fortunate  acquaint¬ 
ance  with  the  Romanticist  Roqueplan  modified 
his  style.  Later  he  became  associated  with 
Rousseau,  Diaz,  and  Dupre  of  the  Barbizon 
group  and  he  soon  became  known  as  a  success¬ 
ful  landscape  painter.  Of  greatest  importance 
for  his  career  was  his  visit,  in  1847,  to  Holland. 
Here  his  observation  of  the  rich  animal  life 
of  the  fields,  together  with  his  study  of  Dutch 
art,  especially  the  animal  painters  Potter  and 
Cuyp,  turned  his  attention  to  animal  painting, 
to  which  thenceforth  he  devoted  himself.  Suc¬ 
cess  and  fortune  came  to  him  early;  he  received 
first-class  medals  in  1846,  1852,  and  1855,  and 
the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1849. 
When  orders  multiplied,  his  rapidity  of  execu¬ 
tion  occasionally  resulted  in  inferior  workman¬ 
ship.  I11  consequence  of  overwork  he  lost  his 
reason  in  1863,  and  he  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  21, 
1865. 

Troyon  is  the  principal  animal  painter  of 
France,  if  not  of  modern  times.  No  man  has 
succeeded  better  in  portraying  the  character  of 
animals — the  stolid  indifference  of  the  ox,  the 
helplessness  of  the  sheep.  His  animals,  how¬ 
ever,  were  never  detached  studies,  but  an  in¬ 
tegral  part  of  the  landscape.  More  than  any 
other  cattle  painter  he  is  a  consummate  mas¬ 
ter  of  landscape,  which  he  portrays  with  an 
epic  simplicity  equaled  only  by  Rousseau.  At 
first  rather  heavy,  his  execution  speedily  be¬ 
came  broad  and  impressive;  his  color  is  rich  and 
glowing.  The  poetic  treatment  of  his  subject, 
especially  in  the  handling  of  light  and  shadow, 
classifies  him  with  the  Barbizon  group.  His  pic¬ 
tures  often  bear  no  distinctive  names  beyond  the 
general  designation  of  “Landscape  with  Cattle.” 
In  the  Louvre  are  31  examples,  including  18  of 
the  Chauchard  collection.  Among  the  most 
celebrated  of  these  are :  “Return  from  the 

Farm”;  “Oxen  Going  to  Work”;  “The  Goose 
Girl”;  “White  Cow  Scratching  Herself.”  He 
is  also  well  represented  in  French  provincial 
museums,  and  in  the  public  collections  of  the 
United  States.  In  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
including  the  Vanderbilt  collection,  are  six 

examples,  of  which  the  finest  are  “Holland 
Cattle”;  “On  the  Road,”  a  marvel  of  bright 
color;  and  “Autumn  Woods  with  Cattle.” 

The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago  possesses  seven 
examples,  including  “The  Return  from  Market,” 
“Cattle  Scene,”  and  “Landscape  with  Cattle”; 
and  he  is  also  represented  in  the  Wilstach  col¬ 
lection,  Philadelphia,  the  Brooklyn  Institute 

Museum,  the  Corcoran  Gallery,  Washington,  and 
the  San  Francisco  Art  Museum.  Consult: 

Henri  Dumesnil,  Troyon:  Souvenirs  intimes 
(Paris,  1888)  ;  A.  Hustin,  Constant  Troyon  (ib., 
1893)  ;  J.  C.  Van  Dyke,  Modern  French  Masters 
(New  York,  1896)  ;  Walther  Gensel,  Corot  und 
Troyon  (Bielefeld,  1906)  ;  and  for  a  list  of  his 
works,  Louis  Soullie,  Les  grands  peinires  aux 
rentes  publiques  (Paris,  1900). 

TROY  WEIGHT.  See  Weights  and  Meas¬ 
ures. 

TRUBNER,  trub'ner,  Nicholas  (Nikolaus) 
(1817-1884).  A  London  publisher,  born  in 
Heidelberg,  Germany.  After  learning  the  book¬ 
seller’s  trade  he  went  to  London  in  1843  and 
was  employed  by  the  Longmans.  In  1851  he 
entered  into  partnership  with  Thomas  Delf  and 
afterward  with  David  Nutt,  and  soon  became 
the  head  of  the  flourishing  publishing  house  of 
Triibner  &  Co.  One  of  his  successful  enterprises 


TRUCE 


504 


TRUE 


was  a  development  of  the  American  trade.  In 
1855  he  published  the  admirable  Bibliographi¬ 
cal  Guide  to  American  Literature,  which  was 
greatly  enlarged  in  1859.  He  found  time  to 
study  Sanskrit,  Hebrew,  and  Basque,  and  wrote 
several  learned  books.  He  performed  great 
services  to  scholarship  by  issuing  works  shunned 
by  ordinary  publishers.  Two  remarkable  series 
of  such  works  were  Triibner’s  Oriental  Series 
and  the  British  and  Foreign  Philosophical  Li¬ 
brary.  He  was  also  the  publisher  of  the  Early 
English  Text  and  other  societies. 

TRUCE  (plur.  of  obsolete  Eng.  true,  truce, 
true,  AS.  trcowe,  tryioe,  Goth,  triggws ,  Ger. 
treu,  true;  connected  with  OPruss.  druwis, 
faith ) .  In  warfare,  a  truce  closely  resembles  an 
armistice  (q.v.),  the  two  terms  being  frequently 
used  as  synonyms.  Practically  the  truce  is  a 
prelude  to  or  the  interval  necessary  to  arrange 
for  an  armistice.  In  either  case  it  is  but  a  tem¬ 
porary  cessation  of  hostilities,  and  may  be 
merely  local,  arranged  to  afford  safe  conduct  for 
the  bearer  of  a  message,  or  to  permit  the  com¬ 
batants  to  bury  their  dead;  or,  if  general,  to 
admit  of  peace  pourparlers.  International 
agreement  as  well  as  the  unwritten  law  of  the 
battlefield  forbids  either  side  taking  advantage 
of  a  period  of  truce  to  improve  their  strategic 
advantage  by  changes  of  position,  disposition  of 
troops,  bringing  up  of  reserves,  or  other  rein¬ 
forcements.  A  general  truce  is  only  made  by 
the  rulers  or  governments  concerned,  while  a 
local  truce  may  be  arranged  by  the  local  com¬ 
manders.  During  a  truce  a  definite  arrange¬ 
ment  is  made  detailing  the  liberties  permitted 
each  combatant.  It  is  understood,  however, 
that  each  side  is  at  liberty  to  carry  out  such 
operations  as  would  have  been  possible  during 
actual  hostilities.  Violation  of  a  truce  by  either 
party,  or  any  form  of  treachery  regarding  it, 
instantly  terminates  the  truce.  See  Armistice; 
Flag  of  Truce;  War. 

TRUCE,  Flag  of.  See  Parley. 

TRUCE  OF  GOD  (ME.  treuga  Dei).  In  the 
Middle  Ages  private  warfare  was  very  common, 
and  the  Church  synods,  in  order  to  limit  what 
they  could  not  wholly  repress  (see  Peace  of 
God),  in  the  eleventh  century  and  later,  fre¬ 
quently  passed  decrees  that  there  should  be  no 
v  such  warfare  during  certain  holy  seasons  and 
on  certain  days.  The  seasons  during  which 
peace  was  observed  extended  from  Advent  to 
Epiphany,  and  from  Septuagesima  to  one  week 
after  Pentecost.  In  addition  the  time  from 
Wednesday  night  to  Monday  morning  of  each 
week  and  all  saints’  days  were  included.  By  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century  only  about  eighty 
days  in  the  year  were  left  free  for  private  war¬ 
fare,  but  most  of  these  days  came  in  summer 
when  the  fighting  would  naturally  be  most  com¬ 
mon.  These  decrees  of  the  councils,  although 
frequently  repeated,  had  little  effect.  Some¬ 
times  the  King,  too,  lent  the  truce  the  weight  of 
his  authority  and  thus  made  it  a  peace  of  the 
land.  Consult:  August  Kluckhohn,  Geschichte 
des  Gottesfriedens  (Leipzig,  1857)  ;  Ludwig  Hu- 
berti,  Studien  zur  Rechtsgeschichte  der  Got- 
tesfrieden  und  Landfrieden  (Ansbach,  1892)  ; 
Ernest  Lavisse,  Histoire  de  France,  vol.  ii,  part  ii 
(Paris,  1901). 

TRUCKEE  (truk'e)  RIVER.  See  Great 

American  Desert. 

TRUCK  FARMING.  See  Agriculture; 
United  States. 

TRUDELIN,  tru'de-laN'.  See  Fridolin. 


TRUDEAU,  troo'do,  Edward  Livingston 
(1848-1915).  An  American  physician,  noted  as 
an  authority  on  tuberculosis,  to  the  study  of 
which  he  devoted  his  life.  He  was  born  in  New 
York  City  and  graduated  from  the  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  there  in  1871.  After 
a  brief  period  of  practice  in  New  York  he  was 
obliged  by  pulmonary  disease,  contracted 
through  nursing  his  brother,  to  go  to  the  Adiron¬ 
dack  Mountains.  There  he  remained  from  1873 
to  the  end  of  his  life.  In  1884  the  guides  and 
residents  of  Saranac  Lake  gave  money  and  land 
enough  to  enable  Trudeau  to  found  his  famous 
sanitarium  for  the  treatment  and  cure  of  in¬ 
cipient  tuberculosis  in  working  men  and  women. 
This  was  the  first  American  institution  to  at¬ 
tempt  the  climatic  and  open-air  method  of  treat¬ 
ment  of  the  disease.  In  1894  Trudeau  founded 
the  Saranac  Laboratory  for  the  study  of  tuber¬ 
culosis,  the  first  of  its  kind  in  America.  One 
of  his  most  noted  patients  wTas  Robert  Louis 
Stevenson.  Trudeau  contributed  a  vast  number 
of  articles  to  medical  publications.  His  success 
in  fighting  the  great  white  plague  received  rec¬ 
ognition  at  home  and  abroad;  in  1905  he  was 
president  of  *the  Association  of  American  Phy¬ 
sicians,  in  1910  president  of  the  Congress  of 
American  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and  he  was 
also  the  first  president  of  the  National  Associa¬ 
tion  for  the  Study  and  Prevention  of  Tubercu¬ 
losis.  Consult  his  Autobiography  (Philadelphia 
and  New  York,  1916)  ;  Stephen  Chalmers,  The 
Beloved  Physician  (Boston,  1916). 

TRUE,  Alfred  Charles  (1853-  ).  An 

American  educator  and  agriculturist,  a  son  of 
Charles  K.  True  (q.v.).  Born  at  Middletown, 
Conn.,  he  graduated  at  Wesleyan  University  in 
1873.  After  teaching  in  the  State  normal 
school  at  Westfield,  Mass.,  for  several  years, 
lie  studied  at  Harvard  in  1882-84.  In  1884- 
88  he  was  an  instructor  at  Wesleyan.  After¬ 
ward  in  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri¬ 
culture,  he  was  successively  editor,  vice  director, 
and  from  1893  to  1915  director  of  the  Office 
of  Experiment  Stations,  and  in  1915  he  became 
director  of  the  States  Relations  Service.  He 
instituted  agricultural  investigations  in  Alaska, 
Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and  Guam,  and  for  many 
years  supervised  investigations  on  human  nutri¬ 
tion,  irrigation,  and  drainage.  He  gave  special 
personal  attention  to  studies  of  agricultural 
education  and  was  largely  instrumental  in  its 
improvement  and  extension.  In  1902  he  was 
dean  of  the  first  graduate  school  of  agriculture  in 
the  United  States,  held  at  Ohio  State  University, 
and  thereafter  of  several  such  schools  in  other 
States,  and  in  1914  was  president  of  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and 
Experiment  Stations.  Later  he  had  general  su¬ 
pervision  of  the  cooperative  extension  work  in 
agriculture  and  home  economics  under  the  Smith- 
Lever  Extension  Act.  For  many  years  he  was 
editor  in  chief  of  the  Experiment  Station  Record 
and  of  Experiment  Station  Work ;  he  also  pre¬ 
pared  numerous  bulletins,  and  contributed  to  the 
New  International  Encyclopaedia  and  the 
New  International  Year  Book. 

TRUE,  Charles  Kittredge  (1809-78).  An 
American  Methodist  Episcopal  clergyman,  edu¬ 
cator,  and  author.  He  was  born  in  Portland, 
Me.,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1832  and  the 
next  year  entered  the  New  England  conference. 
Subsequently  he  was  agent  of  the  New  England 
Education  Society,  principal  of  Amenia  Semi¬ 
nary,  professor  of  intellectual  and  moral  science 


TRUE 


TRUFFLE 


in  Wesleyan  University  ( 1849-60  U  and  finan¬ 
cial  agent  of  Wesleyan  ( 1 870-73 ) .  He  published : 
The  Elements  of  Logic  (1840);  Shawmut ;  or, 
the  Settlement  of  Boston  by  the  Puritan  Pil¬ 
grims  (1845);  John  Winthrop  and  the  Great 
Colony  (1875)  ;  The  Life  and  Times  of  Sir  Wal¬ 
ter  Raleigh  (1877)  ;  The  Life  and  Times  of  John 
Knox  (1878);  Memoirs  of  John  Howard 
(1878);  The  Thirty  Years’  War  (1878);  He¬ 
roes  of  Holland  (1882);  Life  of  Captain  John 
Smith  (1882). 

TRUE,  Frederick  William  (1858-  ). 

An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Middletown, 
Conn.,  and  educated  at  New  York  University 
(B.S.,  1878;  M.S.,  1881).  Becoming  connected 
with  the  department  of  biology  of  the  National 
Museum  in  1881,  he  was  head  curator  from 
1897  to  1911,  and  thereafter  served  as  Assist¬ 
ant  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
He  was  the  United  States  delegate  to  the  Seventh 
International  Zoological  Congress  in  1907.  In 
his  scientific  work  he  made  a  specialty  of  the 
study  of  whales,  his  writings  including:  Review 
of  the  Family  Delphinidce  (1889);  The  Whale¬ 
bone  Whales  of  the  Western  North  Atlantic 
(1904);  An  Account  of  the  Beaked  Whales  of 
the  Family  Ziphiidec  (1910);  Observations  on 
Living  White  Whales  (1911). 

TRUE,  Rodney  Howard  (1866-  ).  An 

American  botanist  and  physiologist,  born  at 
Greenfield,  Sauk  Co.,  Wis.  He  graduated  from 
the  State  university  in  1890  and  studied  also 
at  Leipzig  (Ph.D.,  1895).  He  taught  school 
for  two  years,  served  as  principal  of  the  Wis¬ 
consin  Academy  at  Madison  in  1892-93,  and 
was  instructor  and  assistant  professor  of  phar¬ 
macognosy  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  in 
1895-99.  He  lectured  on  botany  at  Harvard 
from  1899  to  1901,  when  he  became  physiolo¬ 
gist  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri¬ 
culture.  His  publications  comprise  government 
bulletins  and  contributions  to  the  Annals  of 
Botany,  Botanisches  Centralblatt,  and  other 
scientific  journals. 

TRUEBA  Y  COSIO,  troo-a'ua  e  ko-se'6, 
Telesforo  de  (1798-1835).  A  Spanish  and 
English  author,  born  at  Santander  and  edu¬ 
cated  in  a  Catholic  college  in  England.  His 
studies  for  a  diplomatic  career  he  made  in  Lon¬ 
don  and  in  Paris,  where  he  afterward  served  as 
attache  to  the  Spanish  Legation  until  1822.  Af¬ 
ter  his  return  to  Spain  he  founded  an  academy 
uniting  the  entire  younger  generation  of  poets 
and  presided  over  by  Alberto  Lista.  The  two 
comedies,  El  veleta  and  Casarse  con  60,000  duros, 
which  he  wrote  about  this  time,  entitle  him  to 
be  ranked  with  the  best  Spanish  dramatists. 
In  politics  an  ardent  champion  of  the  consti¬ 
tutional  party,  he  took  refuge  in  London  on  the 
restoration  of  the  absolute  regime  and  presently 
earned  wide  reputation  as  an  English  writer. 
Besides  the  novels  Gomez  Arias  (1828)  and  The 
Castilian  (1829),  in  imitation  of  Walter  Scott, 
he  published  a  Life  of  Hernan  Cortes  (1830)  ; 
Histoi'y  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru  (1830)  ;  The 
Romance  of  History  (1830);  The  Exquisites, 
Salvador  de  Guerilla,  The  Incognito  (1831); 
produced  the  comedies  Call  Again  Tomorrow 
(1832),  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pringle,  The  Man  of 
Pleasure  (1832),  and  the  historical  drama 
The  Royal  Fugitive  (1834)  ;  but  won  his  great- 
*  est  success  with  the  descriptive  picture  of  man¬ 
ners,  Paris  and  London  (1831).  Returning 
to  Spain  in  1834,  he  was  elected  to  the  Cortes 
and  Secretary  of  the  Second  Chamber.  He  died 


in  Paris.  Consult  Marcelino  Menendez  y  Pelayo, 
E  studios  criticos  sobre  escritores  montaheses 
(Santander,  1876). 

TRUEBA  Y  LA  QUINTANA,  e  la  ken-ta'- 
na,  Antonio  de  (?1819-89).  A  Spanish  poet 
and  novelist,  born  in  the  Basque  region,  of 
peasant  stock.  He  went  to  Madrid,  where  he 
entered  business,  but  devoted  his  leisure  hours 
to  study,  and  even  succeeded  in  obtaining  a 
university  degree.  He  was  made  by  Isabella  II 
historiographer  of  Biscay,  but  was  deprived  of 
his  post  of  historiographer  when  the  Queen  was 
banished  in  1868.  His  verse,  contained  in  the 
two  collections  El  libro  de  los  cantares  (1852) 
and  El  libro  de  las  montahas  (1868),  is  marked 
throughout  by  a  tender  melancholy  natural  to 
liis  native  Basque  region,  of  which  he  sings. 
His  historical  novels,  such  as  El  Cid  Campeador 
and  Las  hijas  del  Cid,  are  dreary  performances. 
In  the  short  tale  of  manners,  descriptive  of  his 
beloved  Basque  district,  he  succeeded.  There 
are  various  collections  of  these  tales,  e.g.,  the 
Cuentos  de  color  de  rosa,  the  Cuentos  cam- 
pesinos,  the  Cuentos  de  varios  colores,  the  Nar- 
raciones  populares,  the  Cuentos  de  madres  6 
hi)  os. 

TRUE  BILL.  See  Indictment. 

TRUE  INSPIRATION  CONGREGATION. 

See  Communism;  Amana. 

TRUFFLE,  truf'T  or  trnPf’l  (OF.  trufle, 
trufe,  truffe,  Fr.  truffe,  truffle,  perhaps  from 
Lat.  tubera,  neut.  pi.,  but  taken  as  fern.  sing,  of 
tuber,  swelling,  tumor,  tuber),  Tuber.  A  genus 
of  ascomycetous  fungi,  globose,  or  nearly  so,  of 
a  fleshy  substance,  with  a  distinct  skin,  the 
whole  substance  pervaded  by  a  network  of  ser¬ 
pentine  threads  ( hymenium )  which  bear  the 
spore  cases  in  minute  cavities.  The  species, 
which  are  not  numerous,  are  found  in  central 
and  southern  Europe;  they  are  subterranean, 
found  frequently  in  groups  of  10  to  20  a  foot 
or  more  below  the  surface  soil.  They  generally 
grow  under  deciduous  trees,  some  species  being 
found  only  under  oaks.  Some  of  them  are 
among  the  most  highly  valued  of  esculent  fungi. 
The  common  truffle  ( Tuber  cibarium )  is  black 
and  has  a  roughened  surface.  Its  size  varies 
from  that  of  a  large  plum  to  a  large  potato. 
From  its  agreeable  flavor,  it  is  used  in  the 
preparation  of  many 
dishes.  It  is  common 

in  the  central  and  south¬ 
ern  parts  of  Europe, 

chiefly  in  loose  soils,  in 
■woods  and  pastures,  as  in 
the  pine,  oak,  and  chest¬ 
nut  woods  of  France  and 
Italy.  Other  species,  as 
Tuber  cestivum,  Tuber  brumale,  and  Tuber  me- 
lanosporum,  are  found  in  some  parts  of  France, 
Italy,  and  other  countries  of  Europe,  and  are 
sought  and  used  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
common  truffle.  Dogs  and  pigs  are  trained 

to  seek  them,  and  readily  discover  their  under¬ 

ground  location  by  the  scent.  Stirring  of  the 
soil  in  gathering  them  seems  to  increase  pro¬ 
ductiveness.  The  white  truffle  (Terfezia  leonis) , 
a  species  of  a  nearly  allied  genus,  also  found  in 
many  places,  grows  half  aboveground,  is  pink¬ 
ish,  and  generally  as  large  as  a  walnut.  It  is 
less  aromatic,  but  is  used  like  the  common  truffle. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the  cul¬ 
ture  of  truffles  in  parts  of  the  United  States 
where  the  edible  species  are  little  known  See 
Ascomycetes. 


TRUFFLE. 


TRUJILLO 


TRUMBULL 


506 


TRUJILLO,  troo-Hel'yo  (formerly  Truxillo, 
from  Lat.  Turns  Julii) .  A  town  of  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Cdceres,  Spain,  in  Estremadura,  24  miles 
east  of  the  city  of  C&ceres  on  the  main  highway 
from  Madrid  "to  Portugal  (Map:  Spain,  C  3). 
The  surrounding  country  is  mountainous,  but 
produces  wheat,  wines,  oil,  and  fruits;  live  stock 
is  raised.  The  principal  manufactures  are  choc¬ 
olate,  leather  goods,  pottery,  and  delftware. 
There  are  valuable  forests  in  the  vicinity.  The 
town  contains  many  convents  and  churches,  of 
which  the  most  famous  is  that  of  Santa  Maria 
de  la  Concepcion,  which  holds  the  tomb  of  Fran¬ 
cisco  Pizarro  (q.v. ).  The  so-called  _Tower  of 
Julius  and  other  Roman  ruins  are  found  in 
the  vicinitv.  Pop.,  1900,  9304;  1910,  11,530. 

TRUJILLO,  or  TRUXILLO.  An  Atlantic 
seaport  of  Honduras,  situated  on  the  Bay  of 
Truxillo,  137  miles  northeast  of  Tegucigalpa 
(Map:  Central  America,  E  2).  Formerly  the 
most  important  port  of  northern  Honduras,  it 
has  within  recent  years  again  become  noted  for 
its  banana  shipments.  Pop.  (est. ),  2000.  Tru¬ 
jillo  was  founded  in  1523  and  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  Republic.  Here  the  Ameri¬ 
can  filibuster  Walker  was  captured  and  exe¬ 
cuted  in  1858. 

TRUJILLO,  or  TRUXILLO.  A  Peruvian 
city,  capital  of  the  Province  of  Libertad,  situ¬ 
ated  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Moche,  320 
miles  northwest  of  Callao,  and  connected  by 
rail  with  its  port,  Salaverry  ( Map :  Peru,  B  5 ) . 
The  town  is  still  surrounded  by  walls  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  It  contains  a  cathedral, 
a  university,  and  a  theological  seminary.  It 
was  formerly  an  important  commercial  centre. 
It  produces  sugar,  rum,  alcohol,  tobacco,  and 
coffee.  Near  it  lie  the  ruins  of  the  Inca  city 
Gran  Chimu.  Trujillo  was  founded  by  Pizarro 
in  1535,  and  named  in  honor  of  his  birthplace. 
It  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1619. 
Pop.  (est.),  15,000. 

TRUL'LAU  SYNOD.  See  Quinisext. 

TRUM'BULL,  Henry  Clay  ( 1830-1903 ) .  An 
American  clergyman  and  author,  born  at  Ston- 
ington,  Conn.,  and  educated  at  Williston  Semi¬ 
nary,  at  Yale,  and  at  the  University  of  New 
York.  He  was  ordained  a  Congregational  min¬ 
ister,  served  as  chaplain  of  the  Tenth  Connecti¬ 
cut  Regiment  in  1862-65,  and  was  in  several 
Confederate  prisons.  In  1875  he  became  edi¬ 
tor  of  the  Sunday  School  Times.  He  wrote: 
The  Knightly  Soldier  (1865);  Kadesh-Barnea 
(1883);  Principles  and  Practice  (1889); 
Studies  in  Oriental  Social  Life  (1894);  War 
Memories  of  an  Army  Chaplain  (1898);  Old- 
Time  Student  Volunteers  (1902).  Personal 
Prayer  was  posthumously  published  (1915). 
Consult  P.  E.  Howard,  Life  Story  of  Henry  Clay 
Trumbull  (Philadelphia,  1906). 

TRUMBULL,  James  Hammond  (1821-97). 
An  eminent  American  philologist,  born  in  Ston- 
ington,  Conn.,  and  educated  at  Yale.  Feeble 
health  prevented  the  completion  of  his  college 
work  as  well  as  his  entering  upon  active  pro¬ 
fessional  life.  After  1847  he  was  a  resident 
of  Hartford.  He  was  Assistant  Secretary  of 
State  (1847-52),  and  again  (1858-61),  and  in 
1861-65  was  Secretary  of  State  of  Connecticut. 
He  was  well  versed  in  American  philology  and 
a  writer  on  historical  subjects.  He  also  made 
a  thorough  study  of  the  Indian  tongues  and 
prepared  a  glossary  of  Eliot’s  Indian  Bible. 
Trumbull  was  State  librarian  in  1854-56,  and 
from  1863  until  his  death  was  librarian  of  the 


Watkinson  Library  of  Hartford;  secretary  of 
the  Connecticut  Historical  Society  (1849-63), 
and  its  president  from  1863  until  his  death. 
In  1874  he  served  as  president  of  the  American 
Philological  Association.  He  was  one  of  the 
editors  of  the  Colonial  Records  of  Connecticut 
(15  vols.,  1850-90)  ;  he  also  edited  the  Memorial 
History  of  Hartford  County  (1886);  and  he 
prepared  an  edition  of  T.  Lechford’s  Plain  Deal¬ 
ing  (1867)  and  of  Roger  Williams’s  Key  into  the 
Indian  Language  (1866).  His  own  publications 
include:  The  Composition  of  Indian  Geographi¬ 
cal  Karnes  (1870)  ;  The  Best  Method  of  Studying 
the  Indian  Languages  (1871);  Historical  Kotes 
on  the  Constitution  of  Connecticut  (1872)  ;  The 
True  Blue  Laws  of  Connecticut,  and  the  False 
Blue  Laws  Invented  by  Rev.  Samuel  Peters 
(1876)  ;  Indian  Karnes  of  Places  in  and  on  the 
Borders  of  Connecticut,  with  Interpretations 
(1881);  List  of  Books  Printed  in  Connecticut 
1109-1800  (Hartford,  1904).  He  wrote  numer¬ 
ous  articles  in  his  particular  fields  of  study, 
and  also  prepared  the  catalogue  of  George  Brin- 
ley’s  library  (1878-97). 

'TRUMBULL,  John  (1750-1831).  An  Amer¬ 
ican  judge  and  poet,  born  in  Westbury,  now 
Watertown,  Conn.  Precocious  in  childhood,  he 
passed  his  examinations  for  Yale  at  the  age 
of  seven,  but  spent  six  further  years  in  prepara¬ 
tory  study,  and  was  not  graduated  until  1767. 
In  1771  he  became  tutor  at  Yale,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1773,  having  al¬ 
ready  signalized  his  satiric  powers  in  The  Prog¬ 
ress  of  Dullness  (1772).  To  this  he  added  a 
second  and  third  part  in  1773,  and  in  that  year 
entered  the  law  office  of  John  Adams  in  Boston. 
At  New  Haven  in  1774  he  composed  the  first 
portion  of  his  most  famous  satire,  McFingal,  a 
mock  epic  after  the  fashion  of  Hudibras.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  Revolutionary  War  he  lived  in  Westbury 
and  Hartford,  where  he  completed  McFingal 
(1782).  This  work  became  very  popular,  no 
less  than  thirty  pirated  editions  being  known 
to  collectors.  His  political  writing  after  the 
Revolution  was  Federalist  in  spirit.  His  poet¬ 
ical  works  were  collected  in  1820.  He  cooper¬ 
ated  with  the  famous  Hartford  Wits  in  the 
Anarchiad,  and  was  State  attorney  (1789),  leg¬ 
islator  (1792,  1800),  and  Superior  Court  judge 
from  1801  to  1819,  when  he  moved  to  Detroit, 
where  he  died. 

TRUMBULL,  John  (1756-1843).  An  Amer¬ 
ican  historical  and  portrait  painter.  The  son 
of  Jonathan  Trumbull,  Governor  of  Connecticut, 
he  was  born  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  June  6,  1756, 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1773,  and  two  years 
later  entered  the  Continental  army.  Having 
made  for  Washington  a  plan  of  the  British 
works  before  Boston  Neck,  he  was  appointed 
an  aid-de-camp,  and  the  following  year  a  dep¬ 
uty  adjutant  general  under  Gates.  He  retired 
from  the  army  in  1777,  but  in  1778  he  took 
part  as  a  volunteer  in  General  Sullivan’s  expe¬ 
dition  to  Rhode  Island;  and  in  1780  he  be¬ 
came  a  pupil  of  Benjamin  West,  in  London. 
The  news  of  Andre’s  execution  fastened  upon 
him  the  suspicion  of  being  a  spy,  and  he  was 
imprisoned  for  eight  months.  In  1782  he  re¬ 
turned  to  America  and  remained  until  1784, 
when  he  went  back  to  London  to  continue  his 
studies  under  West.  Here  he  painted  “Battle 
of  Bunker  Hill”  (1786),  and  “Death  of  General 
Montgomery”  (1786),  now  in  the  Yale  Univer¬ 
sity  Art  Gallery.  The  four  pictures,  “The  Sign¬ 
ing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,”  “Sur- 


TRUMBULL 


render  of  Burgoyne,”  “Surrender  of  Cornwallis,” 
“Resignation  of  Washington  at  Annapolis,”  in 
the  Capitol  at  Washington,  were  finished  in 
1824  after  eight  years  of  labor.  Most  of  his 
pictures  he  presented  to  Yale  in  return  for  an 
annuity  of  $1000.  Among  the  principal  ones, 
besides  those  mentioned  above,  are,  “Battle  of 
Princeton”  (1795),  “Battle  of  Trenton,”  and 
portraits  of  Washington,  Hamilton,  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  and  others.  In  the  City  Hall, 
Kew  York,  are  ten  portraits  by  him,  including 
those  of  Washington,  George  Clinton,  John  Jay, 
and  Alexander  Hamilton.  The  Metropolitan 
Museum  possesses  a  portrait  of  Alexander 
Hamilton,  and  one  of  Robert  Lenox  is  in  the 
New  York  Public  Library.  Others  include  Gen¬ 
eral  and  Mrs.  Washington,  in  the  National  Mu¬ 
seum,  Washington;  John  Adams,  Jonathan 
Trumbull  (John  Trumbull’s  father),  and  Rufus 
King.  His  work  is  good  in  composition  and 
color,  and  is  pervaded  by  a  healthy  realism,  but 
it  deteriorated.  In  1789  he  returned  to  America 
and  f i  om  1/94  he  served  for  seven  years  under 
Jay  as  Secretary  of  Legation  in  England.  From 
181G  to  1825  he  was  president  of  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  in  New  York,  in  which  city  he 
died,  Nov.  10,  1843.  Consult  his  Autobiography 
(New  \ork,  1841)  and  Samuel  Isham,  History 
of  American  Painting  (new  ed..  New  York 
1915 ) . 

TRUMBULL,  Jonathan  (1710-85).  An 
American  patriot  and  political  leader,  born  at 
Lebanon,  Conn.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1727,  studied  for  the  ministry,  and  held  a  pas¬ 
torate  at  Colchester,  Conn.,  but  in  1731  joined 
his  father  in  mercantile  pursuits.  Meanwhile 
he  began  to  study  law,  and  in  1733  was  sent 
to  the  General  Assembly,  becoming  Speaker  in 
1739.  In  1740  he  was  appointed  Governor’s 
assistant,  holding  this  position  many  years;  from 
1766  to  1769  he  was  Deputy  Governor,  and  as 
such  ex  officio  Chief  Justice  of  the  Superior 
Court  of  Connecticut.  From  1769  to  1783  he 
was  Governor,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revo¬ 
lutionary  War  was  the  only  one  of  the  Colonial 
Governors  who  gave  unqualified  support  to  the 
Patriot  party.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was 
prominent  as  an  advocate  of  a  strong  federal 
government.  According  to  a  long-accepted  tra¬ 
dition  he  was  called  by  Washington  “Brother 
Jonathan,”  a  phrase  which  later  came  into  gen¬ 
eral  use  to  personify  the  United  States.  The 
story,  however,  seems  to  be  without  foundation. 
See  National  Nicknames. 

TRUMBULL,  Jonathan  (1740-1809).  An 
American  political  leader,  the  son  of  Jonathan 
Trumbull  (1710-85),  born  at  Lebanon,  Conn. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard,  1759;  was  for  several 
ylars  in  the  State  Legislature;  was  paymaster- 
general  of  the  Northern  Department  from  July, 
1775,  to  July,  1778;  and  was  military  secretary 
to  General  Washington,  with  the  rank  of  lieu¬ 
tenant  colonel,  in  1781-83.  He  was  a  Federalist 
member  of  Congress  from  1789  to  1795,  being 
Speaker  of  the  House  in  1791-95;  was  a  member 
of  the  United  States  Senate  in  1795-96;  was 
Lieutenant  Governor  of  Connecticut  in  1796-98; 
and  was  Governor  from  1798  to  1809. 

TRUMBULL,  Joseph  (1782-1861).  An 
American  lawyer,  grandson  of  Jonathan  Trum¬ 
bull  (1710-8.J-).  He  was  born  at  Lebanon,  Conn. 
After  graduating  at  Yale  in  1801,  he  studied 
law  and  from  1804  to  1828  practiced  at  Hart¬ 
ford.  In  the  latter  year  he  became  president 
of  the  Hartford  bank.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
*  Vol.  XXII.— 33 


507  TRUMPETER  FISH 

Legislature  from  1832  to  1848  and  in  1851.  In 
1834-35,  on  appointment,  he  served  in  Congress 
as  a  Whig,  and  again  in  1839-43  was  a  member 
of  that  body.  In  1849-50  he  was  Governor  of 
Connecticut.  He  was  actively  interested  in  pub¬ 
lic  internal  improvements  and  in  educational 
matters. 

TEUMBULL,  Lyman  (1813—96).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  jurist  and  politician,  born  at  Colchester, 
Conn.  He  received  an  academic  education, 
taught  school  in  Georgia,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1837.  He  removed  to  Belleville,  Ill., 
and  in  1840  was  elected  to  the  Legislature  as  a 
Democrat.  In  1841—42  he  was  Secretary  of 
State,  and  from  1848—53  was  a  justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court.  From  1855  to  1873  he  was  a 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate.  He  early 
joined  the  Republican  party',  was  chairman  of 
the  Judiciary  Committee  after  1861,  supported 
the  Emancipation  Proclamation  and  suspension 
of  habeas  corpus,  and  drafted  the  Thirteenth 
Amendment  to  the  United  States  Constitution. 
After  the  war  he  was  one  of  the  seven  Repub¬ 
lican  Senators  who  refused  to  vote  for  the 
impeachment  of  President  Johnson,  and  there¬ 
after  acted  with  the  Democrats.  In  1873  he 
returned  to  the  practice  of  law  in  Chicago.  In 
1880  he  was  the  unsuccessful  Democratic  can¬ 
didate  for  Governor  of  Illinois.  He  joined  the 
Populists  in  1894,  and  defended  the  leaders  of 
the  great  railway  strike  in  Chicago  in  that  vear. 

TRUMPET  (OF.,  Fr.  trompette,  It.  trom- 
betta,  trumpet,  diminutive  of  Fr.,  OF.  trompe, 
It.  tromba,  trumpet,  probably  from  OHG.  trumba, 
trumpa,  Ger.  Trommel,  drum).  A  musical  in¬ 
strument  of  great  antiquity,  which,  in  its 
present  form,  consists  of  a  tube  8  feet  long,  less 
in  diameter  than  the  horn,  doubled  up  in  the 
form  of  a  parabola,  and  sounded  by  a  mouth¬ 
piece.  By  means  of  crooks  the  instrument  can 
be  adjusted  to  any  degree  of  the  chromatic  scale. 
With  the  exception  of  the  one  in  C,  all  trum¬ 
pets  are  transposing  instruments.  The  music 
is  always  written  in  the  treble  clef.  The  sound 
is  bright  and  penetrating.  The  older  composers, 
including  Beethoven,  had  to  be  careful  in  the 
selection  of  the  trumpets  for  a  particular  com¬ 
position,  and  even  then  it  was  not  always  pos¬ 
sible  to  have  the  trumpet  play  all  the  notes 
desired.  To  remedy  this  defect  the  instruments 
were  provided  with  valves,  enabling  them  to 
produce  all  chromatic  intervals  from  g  to  g2. 

TRUMPET,  Speaking.  See  Speaking  Trum¬ 
pet. 

TRUMPET  CALLS.  See  Bugle  and  Trum¬ 
pet  Calls. 

TRUMPETER  (so  called  from  its  note),  or 
Agami.  One  of  the  birds  of  the  family  Pso- 
phiidse,  allied  to  the  cranes,  and  natives  of  South 
America.  They  have  the  plumage  of  the  head 
and  neck  short  and  velvety,  while  that  of  the 
rump  is  long  and  loose,  and  possesses  the  re¬ 
markable  character  of  having  a  series  of  sub¬ 
orbital  bones  as  in  reptiles.  The  best-known 
species  is  Psophia  crepitans,  which  occurs  in 
large  flocks  north  of  the  Amazon,  especially  in 
the  forests  of  British  Guiana.  These  birds,  of 
which  several  species  exist,  have  little  power  of 
flight.  The  flesh  is  palatable,  and  they  are  do¬ 
mesticated  by  the  Indians.  Another  species 
( Psophia  leucoptera )  is  termed  “corcovoda.” 
See  Plate  of  Cranes,  etc. 

TRUMPETER  FISH.  An  important  com¬ 
mercial  food  fish  of  New  Zealand,  Latris  neca- 
tia,  often  reaching  a  weight  of  50  pounds.  It 


TRUMPETER  HORNBILL 


TRUSS 


is  a  member  of  the  longfin  family  Cir- 
rhitidte,  related  to  the  sea  breams  (Sparidte), 
which  furnishes  many  valuable  food  fishes 
throughout  the  Indo-Pacific  region.  One  species 
(Chilodactylus  macropterus)  is  highly  prized 
both  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  Australia, 
and  reaches  a  weight  of  25  pounds.  These  fishes 
are  called  “long  fins”  on  account  of  a  prolonga¬ 
tion  of  one  of  the  rays  of  the  pectoral  fins.  See 
Longfin. 

TRUMPETER  HORNBILL.  See  Hornbill. 

TRUMPET  FISH.  See  Snipefish. 

TRUMPET  FLOWER  (so  called  from  the 
shape  of  the  flower).  The  popular  name  of 
the  genus  Tecoma  (family  Bignoniaceas) ,  com¬ 
prising  over  100  species  of  Asiatic,  Australian, 
African,  and  North  American  mostly  climbing 
and  twining  shrubs'  without  tendrils,  producing 
large  flowers  with  a  long  tubular  corolla  which 
suggested  the  common  name.  The  trumpet 


trumpet  creeper  ( Tecoma  radicans). 


creeper,  or  trumpet  vine  (Tecoma  radicans),  is 
a  beautiful  North  American  hardy  species  which 
climbs  by  means  of  aerial  rootlets  and  has 
large  attractive  funnel-shaped  orange-yellow 
and  scarlet  flowers.  Tecoma  australis  is  an 
ornamental  Australian  climber.  Tecoma  jas- 
minoides,  another  Australian  species,  is  often 
grown  in  greenhouses  in  cold  climates.  Tecoma 
capensis  is  a  South  African  climbing  shrub  with 
clustered  racemes  of  orange-scarlet  flowers.  Te¬ 
coma  grandiflora,  a  rather  tender  Chinese  and 
Japanese  species,  is  in  common  cultivation.  Te¬ 
coma  stans,  a  yellow-flo\yered  Texan  species,  is 
an  erect  shrub.'  The  plants  are  propagated  by 
seeds,  layers,  cuttings  of  well-developed  shoots, 
and  most  commonly  by  root  cuttings.  Species 
of  the  closely  related  genus  Bignonia  are  some¬ 
times  also  called  trumpet  flower. 

TRUMPET  HONEYSUCKLE.  See  Honey¬ 
suckle. 

TRUMPET  WOOD.  See  Cecropia. 

TRUNK-BACK  TURTLE.  The  leather¬ 
back  (q.v. ). 

TRUNKFISH  (so  called  from  its  incase¬ 
ment,  which  resembles  a  trunk),  or  Boxfish. 
A  fish  of  the  order  Ostracodermi,  and  family 
Ostraciidse,  with  a  short,  cuboid  body,  covered 
by  a  carapace  formed  of  firmly  united  polygonal 
bony  scutes,  the  jaws,  bases  of  the  fins,  and 
caudal  peduncle  free  and  covered  by  smooth  skin. 


508 

They  swim  by  means  of  a  curious  sculling  motion 
of  the  small  dorsal  fins  and  anal  fins,  the  tail 
acting  as  a  rudder,  while  the  pectoral  fins  fan 
water  into  the  gills.  There  are  about  thirty 
species,  all  of  tropical  seas,  and  dwelling  near 
the  bottom,  feeding  on  minute  animals.  The 
common  trunkfishes,  such  as  the  West  Indian 
Lactophrys  trigonus,  have  the  carapace  or 
“box”  three-angled.  A  somewhat  different  one 
( Lactophrys  tricornis)  is  the  “cowfish”  or  “toro” 
of  Florida  and  Cuba,  distinguished  by  the 
stout  spines  that  form  three  “horns”  on  the 
head.  It  ranges  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
reaches  18  inches  in  length,  and  makes  good 
food  when  baked  in  its  shell.  See  Ostraco- 
dermi,  and  Plate  of  Plectognath  Fishes. 

TRUN'NXON,  Commodore.  In  Smollett’s 
Peregrine  Pickle,  a  retired  sailor. 

TRU'RO.  A  city  in  Cornwall,  England,  8 
miles  north  of  Falmouth,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Allen  and  the  Kenwyn  with  an  inlet  of  the 
sea  called  the  Truro  River  ( Map :  England,  B 
G ) .  Truro  is  the  centre  of  a  mining  district, 
and  trades  in  tin  and  copper  ore.  Its  modern 
cathedral,  an  early  English  structure  in  gran¬ 
ite,  consecrated  in  1887,  ingeniously  incorporates 
St.  Mary’s  Church,  a  Perpendicular  edifice  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  The  grammar  school 
dates  from  1546.  Anciently  called  Truera  and 
Truruburgli,  Truro  was  the  seat  of  the  Stannary 
Parliaments  of  Cornwall,  and  was  a  privileged 
tin  coinage  town.  Pop.,  1901,  11,562;  1911, 

11,325.  . 

TRURO.  A  town  and  the  county  seat  of 
Colchester  Co.,  Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific  and  Intercolonial  railways,  on 
the  Bay  of  Fundy,  61  miles  by  rail  north-north¬ 
east  of  Plalifax  (Map:  Nova  Scotia,  G  6).  It 
contains  the  Provincial  Normal  College,  the 
Nova  Scotia  College  of  Agriculture,  Truro  Acad¬ 
emy,  and  nearby  there  is  a  1000-acre  park. 
There  are  various  manufactures.  Pop.,  1901, 
5993;  1911,  6107. 

TRURO,  Thomas  Wilde,  Baron  (1782-1855). 
An  English  jurist  and  Lord  Chancellor.  He  was 
born  in  London,  was  educated  at  St.  Paul’s 
School,  and  was  trained  as  a  lawyer.  In  1805 
he  was  admitted  as  attorney  and  for  some  years 
practiced  as  such,  but  in  1817  was  called  to  the 
bar  as  barrister,  and  in  1820  made  himself  cele¬ 
brated  by  his  defense  of  Queen  Caroline.  In 
1831  he  entered  Parliament  in  the  Whig  interest 
and  gradually  won  for  himself  as  great  dis¬ 
tinction  there  as  he  had  won  in  the  courts.  In 
1839  he  became  Solicitor-General,  and  in  1841 
became  Attorney-General,  but  held  the  office 
only  a  few  months.  In  1843  he  introduced 
Rowland  Hill’s  plan  for  postal  reforms  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  in  1846  was  again  mad*e 
Attorney-General  on  the  resumption  of  office 
by  Lord  John  Russell,  and  a  few  days  later 
was  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas.  In  1850  he  was  made  Lord 
Chancellor  and  created  Baron  Truro  of  Bowes, 
but  he  resigned  on  the  defeat  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  in  1852. 

TRUSS  (OF.,  Fr.  trousse,  from  trousser,  to 
pack,  bind,  tie,  It.  torciare,  to  twist,  wrap,  tie, 
from  Lat.  tortus,  p.p.  of  torquere,  to  twist). 
An  instrument  employed  in  the  relief  of  hernia, 
with  the  view  of  preventing  its  descent  or  of 
effecting  a  cure.  It  consists  essentially  of  a 
pad  or  cushion  attached  to  a  metallic  spring, 
with  straps  so  arranged  that  its  position  may 
be  retained  during  varied  movements  of  the 


TRUSS 


TRUST 


509 


l)ody.  The  necessity  of  having  recourse  to  a 
suitable  truss  the  moment  that  slight  protru¬ 
sion  shows  itself  in  any  part  liable  to  hernia 
cannot  be  too  strongly  urged.  Many  varieties 
of  trusses  have  been  devised.  The  instrument 
required  in  any  particular  case  should  be  left 
to  the  surgeon.  See  Hernia. 

TRUSS.  In  engineering  and  architecture,  a 
device  for  spanning  a  space  between  supports 
by  means  of  a  number  of  pieces  framed  to¬ 
gether  trusses  are  employed  when  the  space 
is  too  great  to  be  conveniently  spanned  by  a 
single  beam  or  girder.  The  various  pieces  or 
members,  of  wood  or  metal,  are  so  proportioned 
and  disposed  as  to  resist  most  effectively  the 
particular  strain  or  stress  of  tension  or  com- 
piession  to  which  each  is  subjected.  See 
Bridge;  Roof. 

TRUST  (ME.  trust,  trost,  trist,  tryst,  Goth. 
trausti,  covenant,  treaty,  OHG.  trost,  Ger.  Trost, 
trust,  protection).  In  its  broadest  sense,  a 
legal  relation  existing*  between  two  or  more 
persons  such  that  a  court  of  equity  will  com¬ 
pel  one  to  hold  property  or  an  interest  in  prop¬ 
erty  of  which  he  has  the  legal  title  for  the 
benefit  of  the  other  or  others.  The  person  so 
holding  the  legal  interest  in  property  is  called 
the  trustee,  and  the  person  entitled  to  the  bene¬ 
fit,  or,  as  is  sometimes  said,  “equitable  interest’’ 
in  the  property,  is  known  as  the  beneficiary  of 
the  trust,  or  the  cestui  que  trust.  The  fidei- 
commissum  (q.v.)  of  the  Roman  law,  which  was 
a  form  of  trust  created  by  will,  has  been  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  been  the  model  of  uses,  the  early 
form  of  trust  introduced  into  England  by  the 
clergy  as  a  means  of  avoiding  the  operation  of 
the  mortmain  statutes  ( q.v. ) .  Another  anal¬ 
ogy  has  been  found  in  the  Roman  idea  of  usu - 
fructus,  or  the  right  of  temporary  enjoyment 
Oi  a  tiling  as  distinct  from  the  legal  ownership 
of  it.  The  analogy,  however,  between  uses  or 
trusts  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  fideicommissum 
and  the  usufructus  on  the  other,  fails  in  many 
important  particulars,  and  it  seems  most  prob¬ 
able  that  the  use  is  an  independent  product  of 
English  jurisprudence,  although  its  development 
was  greatly  aided  by  the  doctrines  of  the  Ro¬ 
man  law  with  which  the  clergy  were  familiar. 

The  practice  of  conveying  land  to  uses,  that 
is,  the  granting  of  land  to  one  to  be  held  by 
him  for  the  benefit  of  another,  seems  to  have 
existed  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
Such  grants  were  made  by  debtors  to  avoid 
levy  of  execution  by  creditors,  and  by  disseisors 
to  avoid  the  claims  of  rightful  owners  of  the 
land.  By  thus  conveying  land  to  another  to 
the  use  of  the  grantor,  the  grantor  retained 
all  the  benefits  of  a  .purely  legal  ownership, 
while  he  divested  himself  of  all  its  burdens. 
First,  the  obligation  of  the  grantee  to  uses  to 
hold  land  to  the  use  of  his  grantor  seems  to 
have  had  only  a  moral  or  religious  sanction, 
and,  resting  as  it  did  upon  conscience  and  good 
faith,  was  a  proper  subject  for  the  then  rapidly 
growing  jurisdiction  of  the  Court  of  Chancery. 
(See  Chancery.)  There  is  some  evidence  that 
the  Chancellor  took  jurisdiction  to  enforce  such 
obligations  upon  equitable  grounds  in  the  reign 
of  Richard  II,  and  the  jurisdiction  became  well 
established  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VI  and 
Edward  IV.  By  virtue  of  the  Chancellor’s 
power  to  command  things  to  be  done,  he  could 
compel  the  feoffee  to  uses  to  carry  out  fully 
the  equitable  obligations  imposed  upon  him  by 
the  grantor,  and  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV  we 


find  the  Chancellor  imposing  the  same  obliga¬ 
tions  upon  those  who  acquired  the  legal  title 
from  the  feoffee  by  inheritance  or  by  pur¬ 
chase,  if  the  purchaser  had  notice  of  the  claim 
of  the  cestui  que  use.  Equity  also  came  to  rec¬ 
ognize  the  right  or  interest  of  the  cestui  as  an¬ 
alogous  to  a  legal  interest  in  the  land  which 
might  be  freely  conveyed  or  assigned  and  which 
might  be  inherited.  Thus,  in  addition  to  the 
power  of  the  legal  owner  of  land  to  divest  him¬ 
self  of  the  burdens  of  legal  ownership  by  the 
conveyance  to  uses,  he  was  also  enabled  to 
giant  the  use  in  ways  not  permitted  at  common 
law,  as,  e.g.,  the  grant  of  the  use  of  property 
by  the  husband  to  his  wife. 

At  this  period  (Edward  IV)  there  were  three 
recognized  methods  of  creating  a  use  or  trust  in 
lands:  (1)  By  feoffment  or  transmutation  of 
jjosscssion,  as  already  mentioned.  Analogous 
to  this  was  the  practice  of  enfeoffing  another  to 
the  uses  to  be  declared  in  the  feoffor’s  will. 
Equity  in  such  cases  compelled  the  feoffor  or 
trustee  to  hold  the  property  for  the  benefit 
of  those  named  in  the  feoffor’s  will.  (2)  By 
bargain  and  sale.  When  the  legal  owner  en¬ 
tered  into  a  legal  contract  for  the  sale  of  land 
in  which  the  buyer  paid,  or  agreed  to  pay,  the 
vendee  for  the  land,  a  court  of  equity  treated 
the  vendor  as  a  trustee  and  compelled  him  to 
hold  the  land  for  the  use  or  benefit  of  the 
buyer.  (3)  By  covenant  to  stand  seized.  This 
was  a  covenant  by  which  the  legal  owner  of 
land  covenanted  to  stand  seized  or  possessed 
of  the  land  to  the  use  or  for  the  benefit  of  a 
blood  relative.  Courts  of  equity  treated  such 
an  instrument  as  a  valid  declaration  of  trust, 
enforceable  against  the  covenantor  for  the  bene¬ 
fit  of  the  relative  named  in  the  covenant. 

The  use  of  the  trust  as  a  means  of  evading 
the  obligation  of  legal  ownership  led  to  the 
enactment  of  the  Statute  of  Uses,  27  Henry 
VIII,  chap.  10.  Its  purpose  was  to  abolish  the 
practice  of  creating  uses  or  trusts  of  land,  and 
its  effect  was  to  declare  that,  by  operation  of 
law,  the  legal  title  should  be  deemed  vested 
in  the  beneficiary  or  cestui  que  use.  Upon  its 
face  the  statute  was  effectual  to  serve  this 
purpose,  and  its  immediate  effect  was.  to  per¬ 
mit  the  creation  and  transfer  of  legal  estates 
in  the  same  manner  as  uses  or  equitable  es¬ 
tates  had  been  created  and  transferred  before 
the  statute,  and  incidentally  to  permit  the  con¬ 
veyance  of  a  legal  interest  in  land  by  mere  deed 
of  bargain  and  sale  without  feoffment  as  at 
common  law.  (See  Conveyance;  Uses.)  In¬ 
fluenced,  however,  by  the  same  powerful  mo¬ 
tives  which  were  responsible  for  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  system  of  uses,  the  early  lawyers, 
by  a  method  of  reasoning  now  difficult  to  un¬ 
derstand,  ultimately  gave  to  the  statute  a  mean¬ 
ing  and  effect  the  exact  opposite  of  that  in¬ 
tended.  It  was  held  that  when  land  was  granted 
to  A  for  the  use  of  B,  the  efficiency  "of  the 
statute  to  vest  the  grantee  to  uses  with  the 
legal  title  was  exhausted,  so  that  if  the  grant 
was  made  to  A  for  the  use  of  B  for  the  use  of  C, 
then  B,  who  acquired  the  legal  title  by  opera¬ 
tion  of  the  statute,  would  hold  it  for  the  bene¬ 
fit  of  C.  It  was  also  held  that  when  an  active 
duty  was  imposed  upon  the  grantee  to  uses  or 
trustee,  as  by  a  grant  of  real  estate  to  A  to 
collect  and  pay  over  the  rents  to  B,  the  use 
was  not  executed  by  the  statute  by  making  B 
the  legal  owner,  but  was  enforceable  by  Chan¬ 
cery  as  before  the  statute.  The  result,  there- 


TRUST 


TRUST 


5io 


fore,  was  that  the  system  of  trusts  was  pre¬ 
served  and  its  development  stimulated  rather 
than  hindered  by  the  statute.  In  both  Eng¬ 
land  and  the  United  States  there  is  a  complete 
system  of  trusts  of  both  real  and  personal 
property,  either  as  developed  by  courts  of 
equity  or  modified  by  statutes. 

In  order  to  create  a  trust  all  that  is  now 
necessary  is  that  one  should  convey  or  grant, 
either  by  will  or  by  grant  inter  vivos,  specific 
property  to  one  in  trust  for  another,  01  that 
one  having  the  legal  title  to  such  property 
should  declare  that  he  holds  it  in  trust  for 
another.  No  consideration  is  necessary  to  cre¬ 
ate  a  trust,  and  no  writing  or  other  formal 
document  is  required,  except  that  trusts  of  1  cal 
estate  are  required  by  the  Statutes  of  F.r  auds 
to  be  evidenced  by  writing.  No  particular 
words  are  necessary,  but  the  intention  of  the 
person  creating  the  trust  must  be  clear.  Any 
legal  person  or  a  corporation  if  within  its 
corporate  powers  may  become  a  trustee.  For¬ 
merly  the  legal  title  held  by  the  trustee,  accord¬ 
ing  as  it  was  real  or  personal  property,  passed 
upon  his  death  to  his  heirs  or  next  of  kin,  whom 
equity  would  compel  to  hold  the  property  for 
the  benefit  of  the  beneficiaries  under  the  trust, 
but  generally  by  modern  statutes  provision  is 
made  in  case  of  the  death  or  misconduct  of  a 
trustee  for  the  appointment  by  the  court  of 
a  new  trustee,  who  acquires  the  title  of  the  first 
trustee.  Any  legal  person  may  be  a  cestui  que 
trust,  but  it  has  been  held  upon  somewhat  un¬ 
satisfactory  reasoning  that  trusts  for  the  bene¬ 
fit  of  unascertained  beneficiaries  or  for  the 
benefit  of  inanimate  objects  were  invalid,  even 
though  the  trustee  was  able  and  willing  to  carry 
out  the  trust.  This  rule  has  been  greatly  modi¬ 
fied  by  statute,  however,  thus  making  it  possible 
both  in  England  and  in  many  of  the  United 
States  to  create  a  valid  trust  for  indefinite 
beneficiaries,  where  the  purposes  of  the  trust 
are  charitable.  Such  is  the  case  of  a  gift  to 
trustees  to  apply  the  income  for  the  benefit 
of  the  poor  of  a  certain  parish.  In  general, 
also,  all  the  rules  governing  and  determining 
the  illegality  of  agreements  are  applied  by 
courts  of  equity  in  determining  the  validity 
of  trusts. 

Trusts  have  been  classified  with  reference  to 
the  manner  of  their  creation  as  Express,  Im¬ 
plied,  Resulting,  and  Constructive.  .  ( 1 )  The  ex¬ 
press  trust  is  one  created  by  the  intent  of  the 
person  creating  or  declaring  the  trust,  expressed 
in  written  or  spoken  language,  such  as  the  trust 
created  by  express  clauses  in  a  will  or  by  a  for¬ 
mal  declaration  of  trust.  (2)  The  term  “im¬ 
plied  trusts,”  which  has  been  sometimes  applied 
to  constructive  trusts,  denotes  trusts  created 
by  the  intent  of  the  person  creating  or  de¬ 
claring  it,  when  his  conduct  or  language,  either 
written  or  spoken,  is  such  that  the  couit  infcis 
or  implies  the  intention  to  create  the  trust. 
(3)  Resulting  trusts  are  trusts  which  are  not 
created  as  a  consequence  of  actual  intention, 
but  which  courts  of  equity  in  certain  instances 
treat  as  trusts  intended  to  be  created.  As  it 
is  said,  under  certain  circumstances,  the  in¬ 
tention  to  create  a  trust  is  presumed.  Thus, 
if  the  purchaser  of  real  estate .  pays  the  pur¬ 
chase  price,  but  takes  the  title  in  the  name  of 
a  third  person,  the  courts  of  equity  hold  that 
a  resulting  trust  is  created  in  favor  of  the 
purchaser,  or  when  one  conveys  property  to 
a  trustee  upon  a  trust  which  fails  or  is  illegal, 


a  resulting  trust  is  deemed  to  be  created  in 
favor  of  the  grantor,  and  in  many  cases  when 
voluntary  conveyances  or  conveyances  without 
consideration  are  made  a  resulting  trust  is  im¬ 
plied  in  favor  of  the  grantor.  In  some  States, 
notably  New  York,  the  rules  applicable  to  the 
creation  of  resulting  trusts  have  been  modified 
by  statute.  (4)  Constructive  trusts  include  all 
those  cases  not  included  in  the  preceding  classes 
in  which  courts  of  equity  upon  some  equitable 
ground  will  compel  the  person  having  the  legal 
title  or  interest  in  property  to  hold  it  for  the 
benefit  of  another.  Like  resulting  trusts,  they 
differ  from  express  and  implied  trusts  in  that 
they  are  not  created  as  a  consequence  of  in¬ 
tention  of  the  interested  parties.  Thus,  when¬ 
ever  the  legal  title  of  property  has  been  wrong¬ 
fully  acquired  by  fraud,  the  person  guilty  of 
the '  fraud,  or  any  person  claiming  under  him 
who  is  not  a  bona-fide  purchaser  of  the  prop¬ 
erty  for  value,  will  be  treated  as  a  trustee  and 
compelled  to  turn  the  property  over  to  the 
person  defrauded  who  is  a  constructive  cestui 
que  trust.  Equity  acts  in  a  similar  manner  in 
enforcing  equitable  liens  (q.v. )  by  compelling 
the  lienee  to  hold  the  property  subject  to  the 


claim  of  the  lienor. 

The  so-called  doctrine  of  tracing  trust  funds 
is  a  special  application  of  the  doctrine  of  con¬ 
structive  trusts.  Not  only  will  equity  follow 
property  acquired  by  fraud  or  breach  of  trust 
into  the  hands  of  any  person  who  is  not  a  pur¬ 
chaser  in  good  faith  for  value,  but  it  may  com¬ 
pel  any  such  constructive  trustee  who  has  dis¬ 
posed  of  the  property  to  account  for  its  pro¬ 
ceeds  in  his  hands,  even  though  the  proceeds 
have  in  time  been  converted  into  other  prop¬ 
erty.  As  neither  resulting  nor  constructive 
trusts  are  created  by.  intention  of  the  inter¬ 
ested  parties,  neither  is  within  the  Statute  o 
Frauds  requiring  the  trust  to  be  evidenced  by 
writing.  The  trustee  is,  strictly  speaking,  the 
le°al  owner  of  the  property,  with  all  the  lights 
and  obligations  of  legal  ownership,  subject  only 
to  the  rioht  of  the  cestui  que  trust  to  compel 
with  the  kid  of  a  court  of  equity  performance 
of  the  trust.  The  trustee  may  sue  and  be  sued 
with  reference  to  the  trust  property  without 
joining  the  cestui  que  trust.  He  may  convey 
it  civing  a  complete  legal  title,  although  he 
mav  act  in  violation  of  the  trust.  W  ith  ref¬ 
erence  to  the  cestui  que  trust,  however,  he  must 
perform  completely  the  terms  of  the  trust,  and 
he  cannot  delegate  his  authority.  He  must  act 
in  o-ood  faith  and  with  due  care  in  administer- 
ing  his  trust,  and  for  failure  to  do  this  he  must 
account  to  his  cestui.  When  he  has  funds  in 
hand  he  must  keep  them  properly  invested.  In 
many  States  the  investments  which  a  trustee  may 
make  are  regulated  by.  statute  or  by  settled 
practice.  Aside  from  his  fees  allowed  by  law 
or  specificallv  granted  by  the  terms  of  the  trust, 
he  cannot  ikake  any  gain  or  profit  from  his 
position  as  trustee.  In  several  of  the  United 
States,  notably  in  New  York,  statutes  have  been 
passed  defining  and  generally  regulating  trusts 
and  attempting  to  some  extent  to  limit  the 
doctrine  of  trusts  as  developed  by  the  English 
Court  of  Chancery.  It  may  be  said,  however, 
that  neither  by  legislation  nor  otherwise  has 
there  been  any  material  modification  of  the  no¬ 
tion  of  a  legal  interest  vested  in  one  person  and 
held  by  him  for  the  benefit  of  another,  the  ob¬ 
ligation  to  so  hold  the  property  being  enforced 
by  courts  having  equity  powers.  More  changes 


TRUST 


TRUST  COMPANIES 


5ii 


have  been  made  in  the  direction  of  substituting 
one  trustee  for  another  with  facility  in  case 
of  death  or  misconduct  of  a  trustee,  and  in 
providing  for  the  accounting  of  trustees  and 
regulating  their  acts.  Breach  of  trust  or  mis¬ 
appropriation  of  trust  funds  was  not  a  crime 
at  common  law.  It  is  now  generally  made  a 
crime,  being  punishable  as  one  of  the  statutory 
forms  of  embezzlement.  In  New  York  mis?.' 
propriation  of  trust  funds  falls  within  the  suit-, 
utory  definition  of  larceny  and  is  punisl  .  .  ;>h 
as  such. 

Consult:  T.  A.  Romer,  The  Judicial  T.  v^e  s 
Guide  (London,  1898)  ;  Thomas  Lewin.  >:*•  cal 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Trusts  (11  ib., 

1904)  ;  Robbins  and  Maw,  Treatise  ..•»  U  o  Law 
Relating  to  the  Devolution  of  R  /■  R--  late  on 
Death  (4th  ed.,  ib.,  1908);  J.  Y  .  IV  ry,  Trea¬ 
tise  on  the  Law  of  Trusts  and  T  u  *  ( 6th  ed., 
2  vols.,  Boston,  1911)  ;  also  the  statutes  of  the 
various  States.  See  Chance  a  quity;  Fidu¬ 
ciary;  Fraud. 

TRUST,  Charitablf  ee  Charitable 
Trusts. 

TRUST  COMP  AN'  Institutions  char¬ 

tered  by  the  several  S1  A  of  the  United  States 
for  the  purpose  of  >  ming,  as  corporations, 
the  general  acts  a:.  turning  the  general  re¬ 
sponsibilities  ir  upon  individuals  under 

the  law  of  trvis  The  trust  company  in  the 
United  State  a  in  various  forms,  and  com¬ 

bines  with  it-.  istee  business  numerous  other 
lines  of  1  g;  as,  e.g.,  the  private  savings 
ban!  br,  sine--  in  certain  States,  chiefly  in  the 
West  •  ’o  gage  investment  in  nearly  all 
Sta'  ’  ie  guarantee  and  other  insurance; 
and  cent  years  a  general  banking  business 

sin  . .  In  most  respects  to  that  of  the  ordinary 
de  bank. 

growth  and  extension  of  trust  companies 
ii  1  .  United  States  has  been  noteworthy  in 
t  country’s  recent  financial  history.  The 
(  troller  of  the  Currency,  in  his  annual  re¬ 
summarizing  the  various  banking  institu- 
i  in  the  United  States,  had  returns  in  1898 
)'(  i  246  institutions  of  this  class,  which  num- 
•i  >  had  on  June  1,  1905,  risen  to  683.  In  1905, 
ording  to  the  same  report,  the  assets  of  the 

3  companies  aggregated  $2,865,976,479.  In 

15  there  were  1660  companies  reporting,  with 
isets  of  $5,873,120,341.  On  Jan.  1,  1899,  there 
bad  been  incorporated  in  New  York  State  49 
trust  companies,  having  aggregate  resources  of 
$579,205,442.  In  June,  1905,  there  were  79 
such  institutions  in  existence;  with  total  as¬ 
sets  of  $1,487,424,480,  and  in  September,  1914, 
81  companies  with  total  resources  of  $1,714,- 
953,823.  On  Jan.  1,  1898,  the  deposits  of  the 
New  York  trust  companies  aggregated  $383,328,- 
24.  At  the  opening  of  1907  their  total  was 
•1,084,376,517.  In  1914  it  was  $1,404,809,646. 
The  loan  account,  which  amounted  at  the  open¬ 
ing  of  1898  to  $261,765,000,  had  risen  in  June, 
1905,  to  $929,640,957.  In  1914  it  was  $787,040,- 
!09.  At  the  opening  of  1898  investments  by  trust 

Sipanies  in  stocks  aggregated  in  New  York 
/te  $113,525,797;  in  June,  1905,  such  invest- 
nts  had  risen  to  $341,661,738.  In  1914 
estments  in  stocks  and  bonds  aggregated 
>7,774,567. 

Tie  trust  companies  have  occupied  public  in- 
cst  and  discussion  chiefly  because  of  the  ex- 
tional  increase  of  deposits  since  1896-97 — 
result  partly  of  the  general  practice  main- 
ned  by  these  companies  of  offering  interest  on 


d  /C  -its,  which  has  been  generally  abandoned 
b  banks  in  the  larger  cities.  The  trust  corn- 
pan  in  New  York  City  offer  interest  on  all 
deposits  at  a  rate  varying  from  2  to  4  per  cent, 
aceord'ng  to  agreement  as  to  permanency  of  the 
deposi  In  addition  to  the  amount  of  deposits 
b  attracted,  the  immense  credit  fund  in  the 
ri  ds  of  the  trust  companies  for  loaning  pur- 
p  ,es  has  made  possible  the  increase  of  their 
•deposits,  through  the  making  of  such  loans,  at 
a  more  rapid  rate  than  heretofore. 

The  trust  companies  of  New  York  State  may 
be  taken  as  typical  in  a  study  of  the  problem. 
The  important  point  to  notice  in  these  companies 
is  that  the  law  which  created  them  is  acknowl¬ 
edged  not  to  have  contemplated  the  doing  of 
business  on  precisely  the  lines  now  followed  by 
many  of  the  institutions.  Seventeen  trust  com¬ 
panies  in  New  York  State  were  chartered  by 
special  act  of  the  Legislature  between  1822  and 
1887.  In  the  latter  year  the  general  trust  com¬ 
pany  law  was  passed,  which,  as  subsequently 
amended,  is  now  the  basis  of  authorization  for 
the  business  of  the  60  subsequently  incorporated 
companies.  The  purpose  of  the  law,  as  clearly 
shown  in  these  various  enactments,  was  to  cre¬ 
ate  a  class  of  institutions  which  in  their  pow¬ 
ers,  duties,  and  responsibilities  should  be  able 
to  act  as  substitute  for  the  individual  trustee. 
The  general  trust  company  law  of  New  York 
State  as  it  now  stands  authorizes  the  companies 
to  perform  the  following  functions :  ( 1 )  To  act 
as  the  fiscal  agent  or  transfer  agent  of  any 
State,  municipality,  body  politic,  or  corpora¬ 
tion,  etc.  (2)  To  receive  deposits  of  trust 
moneys,  securities,  and  other  personal  property 
from  any  person  or  corporation,  and  to  loan 
money  on  real  or  personal  securities.  (3)  To 
lease,  hold,  purchase,  and  convey  any  and 
all  real  property  necessary  in  the  transaction 
of  its  business,  or  which  the  purposes  of 
the  corporation  may  require,  or  which  it 
shall  acquire  in  satisfaction  or  partial  satis¬ 
faction  of  debts.  (4)  To  act  as  trustee  under 
any  mortgage  bond  issued  by  any  munici¬ 
pality,  body  politic,  or  corporation.  (5) To  ac¬ 
cept  trusts  from  and  execute  trusts  for  married 
women,  in  respect  to  their  separate  property, 
and  to  be  their  agent  in  the  management  of 
such  property.  (6)  To  act  under  the  order  or 
appointment  of  any  court  of  record  as  guardian, 
receiver,  or  trustee  of  the  estate  of  minors.  (7) 
To  take,  accept,  and  execute  any  and  all  such 
legal  trusts,  duties,  and  powers  in  regard  to  the 
holding,  management,  and  disposition  of  any 
estate,  real  or  personal,  and  the  rents  and  profits 
thereof,  or  the  sale  thereof,  as  may  be  granted 
or  confided  to  it  by  any  court  of  record,  or  by 
any  person,  corporation,  municipality,  or  other 
authority.  (8)  To  take,  accept,  and  execute 
any  and  all  such  trusts  and  powers  of  whatever 
nature  or  description  as  may  be  conferred  upon 
or  intrusted  or  committed  to  it  by  any  person 
or  persons,  or  any  body  politic,  corporation,  or 
other  authority.  (9)  To  purchase,  invest  in, 
and  sell  stocks,  bills  of  exchange,  bonds  and 
mortgages,  and  other  securities.  (10)  To  be 
appointed  and  to  accept  the  appointment  of  ex¬ 
ecutor  or  of  trustee  under  the  last  will  and 
testament,  or  administrator  with  or  without  the 
will  annexed,  of  the  estate  of  any  deceased  per¬ 
son,  and  to  be  appointed  and  to  act  as  the  com¬ 
mittee  of  the  estates  of  lunatics,  idiots,  persons 
of  unsound  mind,  and  habitual  drunkards. 

These  functions  make  plain  both  the  nature 


TRUST  COMPANIES 


512 


CRUST-FUND  DOCTRINE 


of  the  trust  company’s  business  as  contemplated 
by  the  legislators,  and  its  difference  from  'the 
banking  business  as  conducted  by. an  ordinary 
deposit  bank.  It  will  be  observed  that  the /act 
above  quoted  does  not  specifically  in  any  place 
authorize  the  trust  company  to  transact  a  gen¬ 
eral  deposit  banking  business.  But  the  statute- 
does  not  deny  such  powers,  and  in  section  8  iu 
provides  that  a  company  incorporated  under  the 
act  may  accept  “any  and  all  such  trusts  and 
powers,  of  whatever  nature  or  description,  as 
may  be  conferred  upon  or  intrusted  or  committed 
to  it  by  any  person  or  persons.”  This  is  a  suf¬ 
ficiently  sweeping  proviso  to  cover  the  doing  of 
banking  business  in  any  deposits  intrusted  to 
the  company  by  individuals,  and  on  that  basis 
a  great  part  of  the  trust  company  business  as 
nowadays  understood  has  been  built  up. 

The  question  whether  the  cash  deposited  with 
the  banks  was  a  legitimate  reserve  for  all  pur¬ 
poses  has  been  the  bone  of  contention.  The 
banks  have  contended  that  it  is  not  and  that 
the  trust  companies  should  be  required  to  main¬ 
tain  in  cash  an  adequate  reserve.  The  trust 
companies  have  in  general  answered  that  the 
funds  deposited  by  them  with  the  banks,  if  they 
are  properly  secured  by  the  bank’s  own  reserve, 
should  be  a  sufficient  guarantee  against  any  sud¬ 
den  demands  by  the  trust  companies’  depositors. 
In  the  early  part  of  1902  this  controversy  be¬ 
came  acute.  At  that  time  27  trust  companies  in 
Greater  New  York  used  by  arrangement  the 
facilities  of  the  New  York  Clearing  House,  for 
the  purpose  of  exchanging  and  redeeming 
checks  paid  into  them.  Such  checks  were  de¬ 
livered  by  the  trust  company  to  a  bank  specified 
as  its  clearing-house  agent,  and  by  that  agent 
were  properly  exchanged  in  the  daily  clearings. 
On  April  29,  1902,  the  New  York  Clearing  House 
adopted  the  following  resolution :  “Every  in¬ 
stitution  which  hereafter  may  be  granted  per¬ 
mission  to  clear  through  a  member  of  this 
association  shall  be  required  to  keep  in  its 
vaults  such  cash  reserve  to  its  deposits  as  the 
clearing-house  committee  may  determine.  The 
percentage  of  such  reserve,  however,  is  not  to 
exceed  that  required  of  banks,  members  of  the 
Clearing  House  Association.”  The  rule  did  not 
apply  to  any  of  the  numerous  trust  companies 
at  that  time  actually*  using  the  clearing-house 
facilities.  A  year  later,  on  Feb.  8,  1903,  the 
following  more  drastic  resolution  was  adopted 
by  the  clearing  house:  “Every  nonmember  in¬ 
stitution  (not  a  bank  required  by  law  to  main¬ 
tain  a  specified  reserve)  now  or  hereafter  send¬ 
ing  its  exchanges  through  a  member  of  the 
association  shall  on  and  after  June  1,  1903,  keep 
in  its  vaults  a  cash  reserve  equal  to  5  per  cent 
of  its  deposits;  and  on  and  after  Feb.  1,  1904, 
such  cash  reserve  shall  be  at  least  7%  per 
cent  of  its  deposits,  and  on  and  after  June  1, 
1904,  such  cash  reserve  shall  be  such  percent¬ 
age  as  shall  from  time  to  time  be  fixed  by  the 
clearing-house  committee,  but  not  less  than  10 
nor  more  than  15  per  cent  of  its  deposits.  The 
reserve  hereby  required  shall  be  an  average  re¬ 
serve  as  against  the  average  deposits  as  shown 
upon  its  weekly  statements.” 

A  vigorous  controversy  arose  as  to  whether 
the  trust  companies  should  submit  to  this  regu¬ 
lation.  It  was  pointed  out  that  for  many  of 
them  the  clearing-house  facilities  were  not  in¬ 
dispensable,  and  that  they  could  arrange  indi¬ 
vidually  for  the  redemption  of  checks  paid  in 
to  them.  On  the  basis  of  this  reasoning  10  trust 


companies,  including  several  of  the  largest  in¬ 
stitutions  of  the  kind  in  New  York  City,  formally 
withdrew  from  the  clearing  house.  Those  which 
remained,  numbering  17,  acceded  to  the  clearing¬ 
house  rule  and  began  to  build  up  a  cash  reserve 
in  accordance  with  its  requirements. 

Bibliography.  W.  TI.  Hull,  editor,  Practical 
Problems  in  Banking  and  Currency  (New  York, 
1907);  Kirkbride  and  Sterrett,  The  Modern 
Trust  Company  (ib.,  1908),  containing  a  bibliog¬ 
raphy;  B.  J.  Downer,  Compilation  of  Laws  Relat¬ 
ing  to  the  Trust  Companies  of  the  United  States 
(il\.,  1909);  G.  E.  Barnett,  State  Banks  and 
Truest  Companies  since  the  Passage  of  the  A  a- 
tionai  Bank  Act  (Washington,  1911);  H.  W. 
Magee, .  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  'National  State 
Banks,  Including  the  Clearing  House  and  Trust 
Companies^  (2d  ed.,  Albany,  1914)  ;  Clay  Herrick, 
Trust  Companies :  Their  Organization,  Growth 
and  Management  (2d  ed.,  New  York,  1915). 

TRUSTEE.  A  person,  natural  or  artificial, 
acting  in  a  fiduciary  capacity  towards  property, 
the  beneficial  ownership  of  which  is  in  another, 
generally  called  the  oestui  que  trust.  See  Trust 
and  authorities  there  referred  to. 

TRUSTEE  PROCESS.  A  legal  process  used 
in  Massachusetts  and  sevt~al  other  New  England 
States,  corresponding  to  the  garnishee  process 
in  use  in  most  jurisdictions.  In  New  York 
there  are  two  methods  by  which  a  judgment 
creditor  may  reach  the  income  of  a  beneficiary 
under  a  trust:  by  use  of  the  isual  garnishee 
process  which  is  made  expressly  applicable  to 
this  situation,  but  by  which  only  a  small  per¬ 
centage  of  the  income  may  be  taksn ;  and  by 
a  creditor’s  bill  to  apply  surplus  income  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  judgment,  i.e.,  so  much 
of  the  income  as  is  not  necessary  for  the  living 
expenses  of  the  beneficiary  according  to  his  sta¬ 
tion  in  life.  See  Attachment  and  Garnishment, 
and  consult  the  authorities  there  referred  to. 

TRUST-FUND  DOCTRINE.  A  theory 
adopted  at  one  time  by  the  courts  of  the  United 
States.  This  doctrine  regarded  the  entire  capi¬ 
tal  stock  of  a  corporation  as  a  trust  fund,  h  eld 
by  the  directors  of  the  same  for  the  benefit 
of  creditors  of  the  corporation.  Based  upen 
this  doctrine  numerous  decisions  both  of  tl.ie 
United  States  courts  and  of  almost  all  the 
State  courts  in  the  Union  were  written  which 
held  that  unpaid  stock  subscriptions  could  not 
be  evaded  by  the  execution  of  releases  by  the 
original  subscribers  or  by  cancellation  by  the 
corporation  itself  or  by  a  transfer  to  third 
persons  made  for  the  purpose  of  evading  pay¬ 
ment.  Under  these  decisions  corporation  cred¬ 
itors  could  recover  the  difference  between  the 
actual  value  of  property  transferred  to  a  cor¬ 
poration  in  return  for  stock  and  the  par  value 
of  the  stock  which  the  corporation  issued  for 
the  property,  which  stock  is  generally  referred 
to  as  watered.  Other  results  of  the  applica¬ 
tion  of  this  theory  were  the  prohibition  of  a 
corporation  employing  its  own  capital  for  the 
purchase  of  outstanding  shares  of  its  capital 
stock  and  the  illegality  of  paying  dividends  out 
of  its  capital  stock. 

The  extremes  to  which  this  theory  was  carried 
in  its  application  to  corporation  finance  eventi-  . 
ally  brought  about  a  limitation  of  the  doctr fie. 
In  1893  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  Stiles 
questioned  its  soundness  and  decided  that  if 
the  capital  stock  constituted  a  trust  fund  at 
all,  it  could  be  regarded  as  such  only  after  he 
corporation  had  become  insolvent  and  jurisdicton 


TRUSTS 


513 


TRUSTS 


of  its  assets  had  been  acquired  by  the  courts 
through  receiverships.  In  the  administration  of 
the  bankrupt  corporation’s  estate  the  application 
of  the  doctrine  was  reaffirmed. 

1  he  law  as  to  stock  subscriptions,  watered 
stock,  the  purchase  by  the  corporation  of  its 
own  stock  and  payment  of  dividends  out  of 
capital  remains  as  it  was  before  the  doctrine 
was  criticized.  Ihe  only  effect  which  the  judi¬ 
cial  change  of  attitude  towards  the  original 
doctrine  has  had  is  that  the  basis  of  the  reason¬ 
ing  arriving  at  the  same  conclusions  has  been 
shifted  from  the  concept  of  trust  relationship. 

The  consideration  underlying  the  decisions 
which  have  practically  nullified  the  effects  of 
the  trust  theory  is  that  a  corporation,  as  an 
entity  entirely  distinct  from  its  stockholders, 
holds  its  property  absolutely  and  that  its  title 
cannot  be  qualified  by  the  actions  of  these 
individual  stockholders  or  creditors.  The  prin¬ 
ciple  of  corporate  ownership  requires  that  equi¬ 
table  or  trust  rights  should  not  encumber  its 
possession  and  disposition  of  corporate  prop¬ 
erty.  However,  upon  insolvency,  the  rights  of 
creditors  require  the  application  of  the  trust 
doctrine  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  its  estate  after  possession  by  the  courts. 
See  Equity  and  the  authorities  there  referred 
to.  See  also  Trusts. 

TRUSTS.  The  word  “trusts”  in  this  article 
is  used  of  large  corporations  or  associations  of 
corporations  or  of  individuals  mostly  engaged 
in  manufacturing,  which  possess  sufficient  power 
to  fix  the  prices  of  their  products,  in  part  at 
least,  on  the  principle  of  monopoly.  It  does  not 
include  railways  or  combinations  of  railways,  or 
trusts  in  the  technically  legal  sense. 

Industrial  Conditions  Reading  to  Forma¬ 
tion  of  Trusts.  The  trusts  are  a  late  develop¬ 
ment,  since,  until  late  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
industrial  conditions  were  not  favorable  for 
their  formation.  In  earlier  times  organiza¬ 
tions  possessing  monopolistic  power  were  either 
created  by  law  or  secured  their  power  through 
the  possession  of  some  natural  advantage,  such 
as  the  exclusive  possession  of  certain  natural 
resources,  as  mines,  etc.,  or  through  the  ad¬ 
vantage  which  comes  from  the  exclusive  occu¬ 
pancy  of  positions  of  advantage  in  doing  their 
work — railroads,  telegraphs,  etc.  In  the  modern 
trust  we  often  find  combined  with  the  ad¬ 
vantages  of  great  capital  and  perfected  business 
organization  also  some  of  these  natural  ad¬ 
vantages,  but  they  are  not  the  essence  of  the 
trust  advantage.  The  chief  causes,  from  the 
industrial  point  of  view,  which  have  led  to 
the  organization  of  trusts  are:  (1)  The  exist¬ 
ence  of  competition  which  was  practically  ruin¬ 
ous  in  its  nature,  brought  about  in  part  by 
the  ease  of  intercourse  between  persons  in 
different  localities  and  by  the  difficulty  of  with¬ 
drawing  readily  capital  once  invested  in  fixed 
plants.  Such  competition  almost  of  necessity  at 
times  will  become  so  fierce  that  all  parties  con¬ 
cerned  will  fail  of  making  any  profit.  (2) 
The  possibility  of  saving  industrially  many  of 
the  wastes  which  come  from  the  competitive 
system,  provided  the  interests  of  the  various 
competitors  are  harmonized.  Without  discuss¬ 
ing  in  detail  these  wastes  of  competition,  there 
may  properly  be  mentioned  the  salaries  of 
traveling  salesmen,  the  expense  of  keeping  up 
expensive  show  windows,  the  cost  of  competitive 
advertising,  the  loss  from  undue  extension  of 
credits,  the  loss  of  custom  which  comes  from 


carrying  only  a  partial  instead  of  a  complete 
stock,  the  loss  from  the  payment  of  cross 
freights,  the  loss  from  running  manufacturing 
plants  to  only  part  of  their  capacity  or  part 
of  the  time.  There  may  be  mentioned  also  as 
a  gain  from  combination  the  saving  from  stand¬ 
ardizing  the  machinery  and  from  prevention  of 
the  waste  of  time  due  to  stopping  and  changing 
machinery,  the  saving  from  the  most  efficient 
organization  of  laborers  and  from  managing 
all  plants  in  an  enterprise  by  the  most  skinful 
men  instead  of  having  part  of  them  directed  by 
men  of  meagre  ability,  the  certainty  of  a  regular 
supply  of  raw  material,  and  the  most  efficient 
use  of  by-products. 

Other  Influences  as  Causes.  Aside  from 
the  industrial  conditions  that  have  led  to  the 
oiganization  of  trusts,  certain  other  influences 
are  to  be  noted :  ( 1 )  The  promoters  of  the 

large  enterprises  have  in  many  cases  succeeded 
in  making  very  large  profits  from  the  organiza¬ 
tion.  Likewise  the  financiers  who  have  under¬ 
written  the  stock  have  been  able  to  exact  very 
large  payment  for  the  risks  which  they  have 
taken.  The  immediate  personal  interest' of  the 
promoter  and  financier  has  thus  been  a  very 
powerful  factor — sometimes  even  the  most  pow¬ 
erful  factor — in  bringing  about  the  combinations. 
(2)  Governmental  favors  of  various  kinds  have 
sometimes  tended  in  the  same  direction.  Al¬ 
though  the  protective  tariff  can  scarcely  be  men¬ 
tioned  as  a  direct  cause  of  the  organization  of 
industrial  combinations,  it  is  doubtless  true 
that  when  an  industry  which  otherwise  would 
not  have  prospered  has  been  first  made  very 
profitable  by  a  protective  tariff,  so  that  numer¬ 
ous  rival  establishments  have  invested  large 
sums  of  money  in  it,  the  consequent  rivalry  has 
led  to  the  formation  of  combinations.  It  is 
also  probable  that  in  certain  instances  the 
protective  tariff,  by  lessening  foreign  competi¬ 
tion,  has  promised  to  the  promoters  of  a  com¬ 
bination  the  opportunity  for  greater  profits 
than  could  have  been  anticipated  without  the 
existence  of  the  tariff.  In  this  indirect  way, 
therefore,  we  may  well  consider  the  legislative 
favor  of  the  protective  tariff  under  certain 
circumstances  as  an  indirect  cause  of  the  trust. 
Similarly  the  monopoly  granted  by  the  patent 
laws,  by  copyrights,  by  trade-marks,  and  other 
legislative  benefits  has  led  to  the  organization 
of  some  of  the  great  combinations. 

Extent  of  Combination  Movement.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  Report  on  Manufactures  of  the 
census  of  1900  there  were  in  the  United  States 
185  combinations  with  2040  plants.  The  total 
capitalization  was  $1,436,625,910.  The  total 
cost  of  materials  used  was  $1,089,666,334  and 
the  value  of  the  products  $1,667,350,949.  The 
total  gross  value  of  all  manufactured  products 
enumerated  in  the  census  was  $13,004,400,143. 
For  the  purpose  of  comparison  there  should  be 
subtracted  from  this  total  the  value  of  the 
products  of  the  hand  trades  or  the  mechanical 
and  neighborhood  industries,  since  these  are  not 
adaptable  to  the  form  of  management  known  as 
the  industrial  combination.  There  remains  a 
total  gross  product  of  industries  susceptible 
of  combination  into  trusts  of  $11,820,784,665. 
Comparing  this  with  the  product  of  the  indus¬ 
trial  combinations,  it  seems  that  in  1900  the 
trusts  produced  nearly  14.1  per  cent  of  the 
total  gross  product  of  the  manufacturing  in¬ 
dustries  of  the  country,  as  enumerated  by  the 
census. 


TRUSTS 


514 


TRUSTS 


Between  1900  and  1907  occurred  a  much  more 
powerful  movement  towards  concentration  than 
any  that  had  appeared  earlier,  and,  although 
the  movement  was  checked  by  the  crisis  of  1907- 
OS,  it  would  still  appear  that  the  volume  of 
consolidated  industry  and  its  proportionate 
share  in  the  manufacture  of  the  country  have 
increased.  But  in  consequence  of  the  doubt  cast 
upon  the  legality  of  the  various  forms  under 
which  trusts  are  organized  and  the  adverse 
decisions  in  the  Standard  Oil  and  Tobacco 
Trust  cases,  it  was  deemed  impossible  in  later 
censuses  to  secure  figures  on  combinations.  Un¬ 
official  estimates,  moreover,  are  of  no  value 
because  of  the  discrepancies  among  authorities 
as  to  the  forms  of  organization  to  be  included. 

Monopoly  Character  of  the  Trusts.  Many 
of  the  trusts  are  closely  connected  with  natural 
monopolies  which  give  them  a  decided  ad¬ 
vantage  over  their  competitors.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  Standard  Oil  combination  in 
its  earlier  days  derived  great  advantage  from 
the  special  rebates  which  it  received  from  the 
railroads.  There  is  also  reason  to  believe  that 
many  other  of  the  later  combinations  received 
somewhat  similar  favors.  Ownership  of  pipe 
lines  also  played  an  important  part  in  building 
up  the  power  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company.  The 
United  States  Steel  Corporation,  as  well  as  some 
of  its  constituent  companies,  has  made  it  evi¬ 
dent  that  one  of  the  great  advantages  possessed 
by  these  organizations  is  the  ownership  of  mines 
from  which  they  derive  a  large  part  of  their  raw 
material.  Through  this  ownership  of  a  large 
percentage  of  all  the  available  raw  material  in 
the  country  they  are  able  to  put  their  rivals  at 
a  decided  disadvantage.  Certain  trusts  also 
may  in  certain  localities  control  so  large  a  per¬ 
centage  of  the  raw  material  that  they  may 
readily  crush  their  rivals  in  those  localities,  as, 
e.g.,  the  salt  combination  in  its  control  of 
salt  wells  and  mines.  The  extent  to  which  a 
trust  therefore  may  in  itself  be  a  monopoly 
depends  often  to  a  great  degree  upon  the  extent 
to  which  it  has  a  monopoly  of  the  raw  material 
of  the  industry  which  it  seeks  to  control.  The 
effects  of  the  trusts  upon  prices  and  their  legal 
and  social  status  in  the  community  may  in 
many  cases  depend  upon  this  one  factor. 

Promoting  and  Financing.  If,  as  is  often 
the  case,  the  promoter  organizes  a  new  com¬ 
pany  to  take  over  the  various  plants  which  he 
is  intending  to  combine  under  one  management, 
or  to  develop  some  new  patent,  it  has  been 
the  common  practice  for  him  to  issue  stock  far 
beyond  the  actual  cash  value  of  the  plants  under 
consideration ;  then  to  pay  for  these  plants  with 
as  much  of  the  stock  of  the  new  company  as 
was  necessary  to  secure  them,  retaining  the  bal¬ 
ance  for  his  own  services.  In  other  cases,  when 
the  company  is  organized,  the  distribution  of 
the  stock  among  the  different  parties  in  interest 
is  agreed  upon  jointly,  and  the  promoter  re¬ 
ceives  a  certain  percentage  of  the  entire  amount 
as  his  reward.  Inasmuch  as  he  in  many  cases 
takes  considerable  risk,  and  as  the  success  of 
the  enterprise  is  practically  due  largely  if  not 
entirely  to  his  initiative,  it  has  at  times  been 
possible  for  him  to  secure  for  his  reward  as 
high  as  20  per  cent  of  the  capital  of  the  organ¬ 
ization,  paid  to  him  in  common  stock.  \\  ith 
such  large  rewards  as  are  often  hoped  for  and 
sometimes  obtained,  it  is  evident  that  the  in¬ 
terest  of  the  promoter  may  become  a  very  direct 
cause  for  the  formation  of  the  trusts. 


Scarcely  less  prominent  than  the  promoter  in 
this  regard  is  the  financier.  When  either  a 
new  enterprise  is  to  be  started  or  a  combination 
of  existing  establishments  is  to  be  made,  it  is 
usually  necessary  to  raise  a  considerable  amount 
in  cash  in  order  that  the  new  institution  may 
start  with  capital  in  hand.  Frequently  also 
many  of  the  plants  purchased  need  to  be  paid 
for  in  cash.  The  stock  of  the  new  company  is 
ordinarily  the  source  from  which  it  is  desired 
that  such  cash  should  come.  Inasmuch,  how¬ 
ever,  as  the  general  public  is  not  likely  to 
take  the  stock"  immediately  and  pay  for  it  in 
cash,  it  is  desirable  that  some  one  be  found 
who  will  underwrite  it,  i.e.,  who  will  take  the 
stock  and  agree  to  furnish  in  exchange  therefor 
an  agreed-upon  sum  in  cash  at  a  certain  fixed 
date  in  the  future.  For  this  service,  so  specula¬ 
tive  in  its  nature,  the  financier  ordinarily  de¬ 
mands  and  frequently  receives  very  high  com¬ 
pensation.  In  certain  instances,  which  were 
cited  before  the  United  States  Industrial  Com¬ 
mission,  for  each  $100,000  in  cash  furnished,  the 
promoter  received  $150,000  in  common  stock, 
while  the  underwriter,  the  capitalist,  received 
$150,000  of  common  stock  and  in  addition 
thereto  $100,000  in  perferred. 

Capitalization  and  Overcapitalization.  In 
the  trusts  organized  especially  around  the  year 
1900  excessive  capitalization  was  a  prominent 
feature.  At  that  time  both  the  economies  of 
consolidation  and  the  possibilities  of  monopoly 
profit  were  greatly  overestimated  by  the  in¬ 
vesting  public.  Thus,  the  Carnegie  Company, 
having  in  1899  assets  valued  at  $75,000,000,  was 
taken  by  the  promoters  of  the  Steel  Corporation 
at  a  valuation  of  $492,000,000.  Other  prop¬ 
erties  taken  by  the  corporation  presented  a 
still  wider  discrepancy  between  independent 
valuation  and  valuation  for  purposes  of  con¬ 
solidation.  Yet  the  Steel  Corporation  was,  on 
the  whole,  one  of  the  more  conservatively  capi¬ 
talized  corporations  of  that  era. 

The  disadvantages  of  excessive  capitaliza¬ 
tion  appear  to  have  fallen  chiefly  to  the  unwary 
investor.  Quite  conceivably  a  corporation  heavily 
overcapitalized  will  take  a  shortsighted  view 
of  market  possibilities  and  charge  excessive 
prices  in  order  to  pay  dividends.  But  the 
weight  of  opinion  appears  to  be  that  capitaliza¬ 
tion  policy  has  had  very  little  to  do  with  price 
policy.  Prices  have  been  kept  at  a  high  level 
or  have  remained  at  a  low  level  according  to 
estimates  of  what  the  traffic  would  bear. 

The  abler  trust  managers  have  regarded  over- 
capitalization  as  a  weakness  and  have  pursued 
a  policy  of  ‘‘squeezing  out  water”  by  putting 
profits  back  into  the  corporation  without  in¬ 
crease  in  capital.  Thus  the  Steel  Corporation, 
which  in  1902  had  water  in  its  stock  to  the 
extent  of  $625,000,000,  had  by  1910  reinvested 
surplus  profits  to  such  an  extent  as  to  reduce 
water  to  $281,000,000.  The  practice  has  been 
continued,  and  by  1916  the  water  had  practically 
disappeared. 

Forms  of  Organization  and  Management. 
While  the  form  of  organization  of  the  trust 
may  often  not  have  any  material  effect  upon  its 
economic  influence,  it  is  still  very  frequently 
true  that  the  form  is  determined  to  a  con¬ 
siderable  extent  by  the  legal  institutions  of  the 
country,  and  sometimes  the  form  of  organization 
is  of  significance  not  merely  from  the  legal  point 
of  view,  but  also  from  the  economic.  In  the 
eighties  and  nineties  of  the  last  century,  when 


TRUSTS 


TRUSTS 


515 


the  pressure  of  competition  arising  from  the 
large  amount  of  capital  for  investment  in  the 
United  States  had  tended  to  lessen  the  profits 
of  manufactures,  the  first  effort  to  lessen  this 
competition  naturally  resulted  in  agreements 
upon  prices  or  in  agreements  among  different 
manufacturers  to  divide  the  selling  territory 
among  themselves,  or  in  some  other  similar  form 
of  agreement  which  left  to  each  establishment 
complete  autonomy  as  regards  its  own  manage¬ 
ment,  but  which  brought  about  some  form  of 
an  alliance  to  lessen  the  competition.  Such 
agreements  were  usually  and  more  or  less  ac¬ 
curately  called  pools.  (See  Pooling.)  This 
form  of  agreement  (Kartell)  is  the  usual  form 
of  agreement  in  Germany,  where  the  courts 
uphold  such  contracts.  In  recent  years  the  Ger¬ 
man  government  has  even  taken  an  active  part 
in  encouraging  the  formation  of  Kartells.  The 
potash  Kartell,  e.g.,  was  formed  under  govern¬ 
ment  pressure  and  its  export  policy  largely 
determined  by  government.  In  Austria  similar 
conditions  obtain.  The  sugar  Kartell  is  essen¬ 
tially  a  quasi-public  institution.  In  the  United 
States,  on  the  other  hand,  the  courts  have  very 
generally  held  that  such  agreements  were  in  un¬ 
reasonable  restraint  of  trade,  and  in  consequence 
void,  as  contrary  to  public  policy.  The  parties 
to  the  pools  therefore,  knowing  that  they  could 
not  be  legally  bound,  frequently  violated  the 
terms  of  the  agreements  by  increasing  their 
output  beyond  the  amount  agreed  upon,  by  cut¬ 
ting  prices,  and  by  other  similar  means.  To  over¬ 
come  these  difficulties  the  form  of  the  trust 
was  at  length  invented  and  put  in  practice — in 
the  first  place  by  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
in  1882.  Under  this  form  of  organization  the 
stockholders  of  each  of  the  separate  companies 
assigned  their  stock  to  a  few  trustees,  giving 
thus  an  irrevocable  power  of  attorney.  In  lieu 
of  the  stock  assigned  the  trustees  issued  trust 
certificates  to  the  stockholders  of  the  separate 
companies,  and  upon  these  trust  certificates 
profits  were  divided.  All  of  the  earnings 
from  the  different  members  of  the  com¬ 
pany  were  pooled,  and  each  manufacturer  re¬ 
ceived  his  due  share  as  evidenced  by  the  cer¬ 
tificates  regardless  of  the  question  whether  his 
establishment  were  running  or  closed.  The 
trustees,  having  in  their  hands  the  voting  power 
of  all  the  stockholders,  elected  whatever  persons 
seemed  to  them  best  as  officers  of  the  separate 
companies.  In  this  way  the  management  was 
absolutely  unified  and*  the  interests  of  all 
parties  concerned  became  one.  The  courts  finally 
holding  that  this  trust  agreement  was  illegal, 
the  plan  was  later  adopted  of  organizing  a  new 
company  which  should  buy  up  all  of  the  sepa¬ 
rate  plants  of  the  different  companies  entering 
the  combination,  so  that  in  this  way  a  unified 
management  was  secured  that  was  believed  to  be 
within  the  law. 

In  order  that  a  more  convenient  form  of 
handling  the  properties  of  the  different  com¬ 
panies  might  be  secured,  and  that  under  certain 
circumstances  somewhat  greater  flexibility  of 
management  could  be  attained,  a  third  form  of 
organization  was  later  adopted  which  was  in 
many  respects  quite  like  that  of  the  earlier 
trusts.  In  this  form  a  new  company  was  or¬ 
ganized  as  a  stockholding  company.  This  com¬ 
pany  then  bought  up  all  or  a  large  proportion 
of  the  stocks  of  each  of  the  companies  coming 
into  the  organization,  and  held  these  stocks, 
ike  officers  of  the  central  organization  were  thus 


m  a  position,  by  voting  the  stocks  of  the  dif¬ 
ferent  companies,  to  elect  the  directors  and 
officers  of  those  companies  and  thus  control 
their  policy.  By  the  decisions  of  the  Supreme 
Court  in  the  Standard  Oil  Case  (May  15,  1911) 
and  the  Tobacco  Trust  Case  (May  29,  1911), 
the  power  of  the  government  to  dissolve  such 
forms  of  organization  was  established.  The 
foim,  nevertheless,  is. employed  by  most  existing 
trusts,  but  only  in  default  of  action  by  the 
Department  of  Justice. 

Prices.  Competitive  prices,  it  is  frequently 
,assumed,  v\  ill  in  the  long  run  be  fixed  mainly 
by  the  cost  of  production  of  that  part  of  the 
stock  which  is  produced  at  the  greatest  disad¬ 
vantage.  Monopoly  price,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
fixed  ac  that  point  which  will  secure  to  the 
monopolist  the  greatest  net  return.  If  greater 
return  will  be  secured  by  lowering  the  price,  and 
increasing  the  sales,  the  price  will  be  lowered. 
If  the  net  returns  will  be  greater  by  increasing 
the  price,  even  though  the  number  of  sales  be 
lessened,  that  policy  will  be  adopted.  In  tech¬ 
nical  _  discussions  regarding  prices  the  assump¬ 
tion  is  usually  made  of  either  a  regime  of  free 
competition  or  of  what  is  substantially  monop¬ 
oly.  In  a  practical  discussion  of  the  effects  of 
trusts  upon  prices  we  must  recognize  that  there 
may  be  certain  monopolistic  powers  which  may 
enable  prices  to  be  raised  somewhat  above  the 
competitive  rate,  but  which  are  still  not  suf¬ 
ficient  to  enable  the  trust  to  fix  prices  entirely 
regardless  of. a  potential  competition.  So,  also, 
this  monopolistic  power  may  vary  in  degree  in 
different  industries  or  in  the  same  industry  at 
different  times. 

If  the  economies  of  industrial  combination 
spoken  of  before  are  great,  it  is  evident  that 
without  lessening  profits  prices  of  the  finished 
product  might  be  placed  somewhat  lower  than 
those  under  the  competitive  regime,  or  prices 
of  the  raw  materials  used  might  be  raised  above 
those  prevailing  under  the  competitive  regime 
without  lessening  profits.  We  see,  therefore, 
that  it  is  within  the  power  of  the  managers  of 
the  trusts,  provided  the  trust  has  been  care¬ 
fully  organized  in  an  industry  adapted  for  com¬ 
bination  to  put  prices  below  the  competitive 
rates  in  order  to  drive  out  competitors,  and 
then  if  they  have  secured  monopolistic  power 
thereby,  to  put  prices,  within  certain  limits  at 
any  rate,  above  competitive  rates. 

Whatever  may  be  the  theoretic  possibilities, 
however,  under  the  trust  system,  it  is  essential 
to  note  what  has  in  fact  been  the  result,  inas¬ 
much  as,  in  addition  to  the  technical  economic 
powers  that  have  been  suggested,  the  psycholog¬ 
ical  factors  of  public  opinion,  of  demands  of 
laborers,  of  the  boldness  of  the  managers,  etc., 
may  all  enter  into  the  problem  as  factors  in 
price  determination.  It  is  impossible  to  make 
any  valid  general  statement  as  to  the  effect  of 
trusts  upon  prices.  In  some  cases  they  have 
raised  prices  and  in  other  cases  have  reduced 
them.  While  the  trust  was  still  comparatively 
new  the  Industrial  Commission  proved  conclu¬ 
sively  that  in  many  cases  the  margin  between 
the  price  of  finished  product  and  the  cost  of 
raw  material  had  been  raised — a  fact  indicating 
that  profits  had  been  increased  at  the  expense 
of  either  the  consumer  or  the  producer  of  raw 
materials.  But  in  their  later  history  many  of 
the  trusts  appear  to  have  become  more  moderate 
in  their  price  policy.  Possibly  on  account  of 
their  strengthened  financial  position  through  the 


TRUSTS 


TRUSTS 


5i6 


accumulation  of  reserves,  they  have  taken  a 
broader  view  of  the  possibilities  of  developing 
markets.  It  is  certain  that  the  fears  generally 
entertained  in  the  early  years  of  the  twentieth 
century  of  monopolistic  extortion  have  not  been 
justified  by  experience. 

Wages.  As  indicated  in  the  discussion,  on 
prices,  so  far  as  the  trusts  really  make  savings 
through  their  new  method, of  organization,  they 
have  a  surplus  fund  which  could  be  used  in  some 
way.  The  United  States  Steel  Corporation  raised 
the  average  wages  of  its  employees  nearly  20 
per  cent  in  the  10  years  1902—11.  The  Standard 
Oil  Company  lias  usually  pursued  a  policy  of 
liberal  wages,  and  the  same  thing  is  true  of 
many  of  the  other  strong  consolidations.  It  is, 
however,  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  great 
aggregations  of  capital  have  it  in  their  power 
to  play  one  body  of  workers  against  another, 
and  so  of  fixing  wages  and  conditions  of  em¬ 
ployment  more  or  less  arbitrarily.  The  Steel 
Corporation  has  never  recognized  unionism,  and 
is  generally  believed  to  exert  its  power  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  rise  of  labor  organizations. 

Social  Effects.  It  has  often  been  charged 
that  the  great  corporations  and  trusts  exert 
a  corrupting  influence  upon  legislatures  and  the 
courts.  It  is  probable  that  in  individual  cases 
this  charge  is  true.  On  the  other  hand,  legis¬ 
latures  have  not  been  free  from  such  charges 
under  the  competitive  system,  and  it  probably 
would  be  difficult  to  prove  absolutely  that  condi¬ 
tions  are  worse  now  than  they  were  before  the 
great  industrial  corporations  were  formed,  the 
remedy  for  such  an  evil  would  seem  to  be 
chiefly  in  improving  the  character  of  our  legis¬ 
latures. 

A  more  significant  consideration  is  whether 
the  trust,  by  bringing  so  many  individuals  under 
one  centralized  management,  destroys  to  any 
material  extent  the  powers  of  self-reliance  and 
of  self-direction  on  the  part  of  individuals  which 
are  naturally  developed  by .  the  struggles  of 
the  competitive  system.  Opinions  differ  to  a 
considerable  extent  on  this  subject,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that,  although  the  opportunities 
for  a  man  to  start  an  independent  business  in 
certain  lines  of  industry  are  lessened, .  on  the 
other  hand  the  competition  for  promotion  and 
for  positions  of  responsibility  within  the  com¬ 
bination  itself  is  severer  in  the  case  of  the  great 
corporation  than  in  the  case  of  the  private  busi¬ 
ness  or  partnership.  When  a  group  of  two  or 
three  partners  are  managing  a  business,  they 
may  readily  give  preference  to  their  sons  or 
friends  even  when  the  business  ability  of  such 
persons  is  not  of  the  highest  type.  When  the 
interests  of  thousands  of  stockholders  must  be 
considered,  and  there  are  large  boards  of  di¬ 
rectors,  each  feeling  that  his  position  depends 
to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  success  of  the 
business,  favoritism  cannot  he  shown  to  any 
very  great  extent. 

Legal  Position.  When  a  trust  or  combina¬ 
tion  is  organized,  its  rights  and  powers  are  de¬ 
termined  by  the  ordinary  rules  of  common  and 
statute  law  applicable  to  the  particular  form 
of  organization  adopted.  That  is,  if  the  com¬ 
bination  is  a  trust,  its  rights  and  powers  are 
determined  by  the  ordinary  rules  of  law  gov¬ 
erning  trusts;  or  if  the  combination  is  effected 
by  one  of  the  methods  of  corporate  combination, 
its  rights  and  powers  are  determined  by  the 
general  law  of  corporations.  Aside  from  these 
questions  of  the  methods  of  organizing  combina¬ 


tions,  the  trusts  raise  no  peculiar  legal  issues 
except  that  as  to  their  legality  when  organized. 

In  ascertaining  whether  a  combination  is  un¬ 
lawful  at  common  law,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  mere  combination  or  cooperation  of 
several  individuals  is  not  in  itself  unlawful, 
and  in  the  case  of  partnerships  and  corporations 
combination  of  individuals  is  encouraged  by 
the  law.  Combination  by  corporations,  however, 
as  has  already  been  indicated,  when  not  au¬ 
thorized  by  statute,  may  be  such  an  abandon¬ 
ment  or  misuse  of  their  corporate  franchises  as 
to  be  illegal  under  the  general  law  of  corpora¬ 
tions.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  com¬ 
binations  are  unlawful  per  se  only  when  the 
purpose  of  the  combination  is  unlawful  or 
against  public  policy,  or  when  the  means  adopted 
by  the  combination  for  effecting  its  purposes  are 
unlawful  or  against  public  policy. 

The  grounds  upon  which  combinations  have 
been  held  to  be  unlawful  at  common  law  may 
be  somewhat  roughly  classified  as  follows :  ( 1 ) 
That  the  contract  (when  the  combination  has 
been  effected  by  contract)  is  illegal  and  void  at 
common  law  because  in  restraint  of  trade.  (2) 
That  the  combination  is  an  unlawful  conspiracy, 
either  civil  or  criminal.  (See  Conspiracy.) 
Technically  the  second  class  includes  the  first, 
since  there  can  be  no  combination  without  two 
or  more  parties  to  it  who  are  technically  guilty 
of  conspiracy  where  the  purpose  is  to  enter  into 
an  illegal  contract.  Since,  however,  each  is 
recognized  as  a  distinct  ground  for  declaring 
combinations  illegal,  the  classification  may  be 
adopted  as  both  convenient  and  practical.  In 
the  Standard  Oil  Case  the  Supreme  Court  held 
that  the  intent  of  the  Anti-Trust  Law  was  to 
prohibit  monopolization,  or  attempts  at  monop¬ 
oly,  of  interstate  or  foreign  trade,  and  that 
the  powers  of  the  court  under  the  law  were 
broad  enough  to  reach  such  monopolization 
under  whatever  form  it  might  assume.  For 
a  full  discussion  of  the  legal  doctrines  relating 
to  restraint  of  trade  and  conspiracy,  reference 
should  be  made  to  those  topics.  ( See  also 
Monopoly;  Engrossing;  Forestalling;  IIe- 
grating.)  With  reference  to  conspiracy,  it  may 
be  said  that  combinations  are  conspiracies,  and 
therefore  unlawful,  when  the  purpose  of  the 
agreement  or  combination  is  either  to  do  some- 

o  # 

thing  unlawful  or  to  do  something  lawful  in 
an  unlawful  manner.  In  general,  combinations 
are  held  to  be  illegal  because  of  their  purposes 
and  methods  when  they  restrain  fair  competition 
or  create  oppressive  monopolies. 

At  common  law  the  remedies  of  individuals 
against  acts  of  illegal  combination  are  limited 
to  the  recovery  of  any  damage  suffered  because 
of  the  unlawful  conspiracy  involved  in  the  com¬ 
bination  or  to  the  securing  of  an  injunction  re¬ 
straining  those  joined  in  the  combination  from 
doing  some  threatened  injury  to  the  plaintiff. 
In  either  case  it  is  necessary  for  the  plaintiff 
to  show  actual  damage  suffered  by  him  or  that 
the  defendant  threatened  to  do  some  act  caus¬ 
ing  such  damage.  When  the  combination  is  in 
the  corporate  form  and  is  acting  outside  its 
corporate  powers,  or  its  constituent  corporations 
have  ceased  to  act  as  separate  corporations  so 
as  to  amount  to  an  abandonment  of  their  char¬ 
ters,  the  State  may  proceed  against  the  cor¬ 
porate  combination  or  any  of  the  constituent 
corporations  to  compel  a  forfeiture  of  its  char¬ 
ter  by  quo  warranto.  There  is,  however,  no 
other  method  at  common  law  by  which  either 


TRUSTS 


TRUSTS 


the  State  or  a  private  individual  could  proceed 
against  a  combination  on  the  ground  that  it  is 
illegal  and  is  working  a  public  injury.  As  a 
result  of  agitation  upon  the  subject  of  trusts, 
almost  all  of  the  United  States  have  adopted 
statutes  or  clauses  in  their  State  constitutions 
restraining  or  prohibiting  all  contracts,  agree¬ 
ments,  undertakings,  or  combinations  in”  re¬ 
straint  of  trade  or  tending  to  create  monopolies, 
whether  such  restraint  would  have  been  unlaw¬ 
ful  at  common  law  or  not.  In  general  the  courts 
have  held  that  these  statutes  are  constitutional 
undei  both  State  and  Federal  constitutions, 
and  not  in  violation  of  the  constitutional  provi¬ 
sions  against  abridging  the  freedom  of  contract, 
depriving  citizens  of  liberty  or  property  without 
due  process  of  law,  or  denying  them  equal  pro¬ 
tection  of  the  laws.  In  the  interpretation  of 
these  statutes,  however,  the  courts  have  justly 
regarded  them  as  an  innovation  upon  the  com¬ 
mon  law  to  be  interpreted  with  strictness  and 
caution.  Moreover,  the  difficulty  of  giving  such 
legislation  its  proper  effect  without  making  it 
subversive  of  established  rights  of  property  has 
to  some  extent  prevented  all  these  restraining 
acts  from  having  the  effect  intended.  It  may 
be  said  that  the  principal  test  to  be  applied 
in  determining  whether  statutes  of  this  class 
aie  violated  is  whether  the  act  or  agreement 
complained  of  was  done  with  intent  to  control 
prices  or  whether  such  would  be  a  natural 
result  of  the  act  or  agreement.  They  usually 
provide  that  contracts  made  in  connection  with 
such  an  act  or  agreement  shall  be  void,  and 
attach  penalties  for  their  violation.  In  some 
States  parties  injured  by  such  violations  of  an¬ 
timonopoly  statutes  are  given  rights  of  action 
to  recover  damages  for  the  injury  suffered. 

A  far  more  effective  agency  for  restricting  the 
growth  of  monopoly  is  the  exercise  of  the  power 
of  the  several  States  to  control  all  corporate 
enterprises  within  their  respective  territories. 
A  State  may  grant  to  a  corporation  its  charter 
and  power  to  do  business  upon  such  terms  as 
the  Legislature  may  choose,  and  it  is  also  within 
the  constitutional  power  of  a  State  to  impose 
any  terms,  however  exacting,  as  a  condition  to 
which  corporations  created  under  the  laws  of 
other  States  must  conform  if  doing  business 
within  its  limits,  provided  such  conditions  do 
not  interfere  with  interstate  commerce,  the 
power  of  regulation  and  control  of  which  is 
by  the  United  States  Constitution  lodged  with 
the  Federal  government. 

A  State  may  thus  limit  the  amount  of  capital 
of  a  corporation  organized  under  its  laws;  and 
it  may  by  its  charter  or  general  laws  existing 
at  the  time  of  its  creation  limit  or  regulate 
its  business.  In  the  same  manner  a  State  may 
impose  similar  or  even  additional  conditions 
upon  all  foreign  corporations  wishing  to  do  busi¬ 
ness  that  is  not  interstate  commerce  within 
the  State.  In  this  connection,  hoAvever,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  charter  or  other 
legislative  authority  to  a  corporation  to  do 
business  once  granted  is  deemed  to  be  a  contract, 
and  that  the  State  is  forbidden  by  the  United 
States  Constitution  to  impair  the  obligation  of 
contract.  See  Corporation  ;  Charter  ;  Dart¬ 
mouth  College  Case. 

Tt  will  be  seen  that  the  powers  of  restriction 
just  referred  to  are  limited  to  corporations  and 
have  no  application  to  natural  persons  or  part¬ 
nerships.  rlhe  important  above-mentioned  limi¬ 
tations  upon  the  power  of  the  States  to  control 


517 

corporations,  coupled  with  the  fact  that  it  has 
been  the  policy  of  many,  of  the  States  to  grant 
to  corporations  organized  under  their  laws  prac¬ 
tically  unlimited  power,  have  in  effect  seriously 
interfered  with  any  effective  statutory  restric¬ 
tion  of  monopolies  by  the  several  States. 

The  Federal  government  may  to  some  extent 
restrain  monopoly  under  cover  of  its  constitu¬ 
tional  power  to  regulate  interstate  and  inter¬ 
national  commerce.  Its  power  in  this  respect 
has  been  deemed  to  be  practically  absolute.  It 
cannot,  however,  be  said  at  this'  time  that  the 
power  of  Congress  to  control  or  restrain  the  busi¬ 
ness  of  individuals,  or  corporations,  by  enact¬ 
ments  that  are  not  intended  primarily  for  the 
purpose  of  controlling  or  regulating  interstate 
commerce,  but  for  the  purpose  of  restricting,  or 
making  unlawful,  or  assuming  control  over,  a 
business  which  is  lawful  and  unrestricted  in 
the  several  States,  is  without  limitation,  since 
that  question  has  not  been  definitely  and  finally 
determined  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  Acting  under  its  power  to  regulate 
commerce,  Congress  in  1887  enacted  the  Inter¬ 
state  Commerce  Act,  having  for  its  purpose 
the  control  and  regulation  of  business  carried 
on  by  common  carriers  engaged  in  interstate 
commerce.  Its  particular  object  was  the  pre¬ 
vention  of  unlawful  discrimination  in  rates  by 
common  carriers  engaged  in  interstate  com¬ 
merce,  which  had  contributed  in  a  large  degree 
to  the  growth  of  monopolistic  enterprises.  This 
was.  followed  in  1890  by  a  statute  for  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  interstate  and  international  trade, 
commonly  known  as  the  Sherman  Act  (26 
United  States  Statutes  at  Large,  209 ) . 

this  statute  provides  that  all  contracts,  com¬ 
binations  in  form  of  trusts  or  otherwise,  or 
conspiracies  in  restraint  of  interstate  or  inter¬ 
national  commerce  are  illegal,  and  that  all  per¬ 
sons  participating  in  such  agreement,  combina¬ 
tion,  or  conspiracy  are  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor 
and  subject  to  a  penalty  for  violation  of  the 
act.  The  statute  also  provides  that  all  goods 
in  transportation  in  violation  of  the  act  may  be 
seized,  and  their  forfeiture  compelled  by  a  pro¬ 
ceeding  brought  in  behalf  of  the  government, 
and  that  proceeding  may  be  brought  by  the 
Attorney-General  enjoining  all  acts  in  violation 
of  the  statute  and  for  the  dissolution  of  con¬ 
tracts  entered  into  in  violation  of  it. 

It  has  been  held  by  the  courts  that  this  act 
does  not  apply  to  monopolies  created  and  au¬ 
thorized  by  a  State,  but  that  it  is  intended  to 
apply  to  all  direct  restraints  of  trade  by  in¬ 
dividuals  or  corporations,  whether  such  re¬ 
straints  would  have  been  deemed  reasonable  or 
unreasonable  at  common  law.  The  restraint  or 
monopoly  need  not  be  complete.  The  statute  is 
violated  if  the  contract  or  combination  tends  to 
such  monopoly.  As  a  consequence  of  a  general 
belief  in  the  inefficiency  of  the  Sherman  Law  to 
cope  with  the  trusts,  two  complementary  meas¬ 
ures  were  enacted  in  1914,  known  as  the  Clayton 
Law  and  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  Act. 
The  Clayton  Law  is  chiefly  significant  because  it 
prohibits  various  practices,  such  as  price  cutting 
and  tying  contracts,  which  appear  by  economic 
analysis  to  facilitate  the  destruction  of  competi¬ 
tion  by  the  consolidated  concern.  The  Federal 
trade  Commission  Law  created  a  commission, 
more  or  less  after  the  pattern  of  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission,  with  powers  of  investiga¬ 
tion  and  with  extensive  authority  to  prohibit 
all  forms  of  unfair  competition. 


TRUSTS 


TRUSTS 


5i8 


Antitrust  laws  were  enacted  by  Kansas, 
Maine,  and  Michigan  -in  1889.  Other  States 
soon  enacted  similar  measures,  and  at  present 
some  30  States  have  laws  prohibiting  combina¬ 
tions  in  the  form  of  trusts.  In  some  States,  as, 
e.g.,  in  Ohio  and  Missouri,  these  laws  are  very 
sweeping.  In  the  latter  State  persons  or  cor¬ 
porations  convicted  under  the  law  are  deprived 
of  the  right  to  use  the  State  courts  in  the  col¬ 
lection  of  debts.  Such  State  laws  have,  of 
course,  no  application  to  the  acts  of  a  single 
corporation,  and,  as  most  trusts  are  organized 
under  that  form,  are  of  limited  efficacy.  In  a 
number  of  cases  the  State  courts  have,  after  long- 
continued  prosecutions,  succeeded  in  proving  the 
existence  of  unlawful  combinations.  Thus  in 
1906  the  Attorney-General  of  the  State  of  Mis¬ 
souri  was  successful  in  compelling  the  president 
of  the  Standard  Oil  Company  to  admit  that 
that  company  controlled  certain  concerns  doing 
business  in  the  State  of  Missouri,  apparently  in 
competition  with  the  Standard  Oil  Company. 
While  existing  as  quasi-independent  corpora¬ 
tions  under  the  control  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company,  these  concerns  were  operating  in 
violation  of  the  Missouri  Antitrust  Law,  but 
no  such  violation  would  appear  when  they 
openly  became  constituent  parts  of  the  Standard 
Oil  Company.  In  1909  the  Texas  courts  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  convicting  the  Waters  Pierce  Oil  Com¬ 
pany,  as  a  subsidiary  of  the  Standard  Oil 
Company,  of  violation  of  the  State  antitrust 
law  and  forced  the  dissolution  of  the  company 
under  the  then  existing  form.  The  principal 
effect  of  such  State  laws  is  to  bring  about 
changes  in  the  form,  but  not  in  the  essential 
features,  of  so-called  trusts. 

It  is  of  course  possible  for  a  State  to  exclude 
from  business  within  its  boundaries  a  corpora¬ 
tion  chartered  in  another  State;  but  since  no 
State  can  prevent  the  shipping  of  the  goods  of 
such  a  corporation  across  its  boundaries,  the 
advantage  of  such  exclusion  is  illusory. 

In  1905  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  State  of 
Kansas  to  prevent  the  Standard  Oil  Company 
from  controlling  the  output  of  the  Kansas  oil 
fields.  Three  laws  were  enacted,  one  declaring 
pipe  lines  common  carriers — a  principle  intro¬ 
duced  into  Federal  law  by  the  amended  Inter¬ 
state  Commerce  Act  of  1906 — a  second  prohibit¬ 
ing  discriminations  on  pipe  lines  and  railways, 
and  a  third  providing  for  establishing  a  branch 
penitentiary  in  the  oil  fields,  to  be  used  in  refin¬ 
ing  oil.  The  last  measure  was  subsequently  de¬ 
clared  unconstitutional  by  the  State  Supreme 
Court.  Proceedings  to  oust  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  from  the  State  under  the  State  anti¬ 
trust  laws  were  instituted,  but  were  eventually 
dropped. 

In  1913  the  Legislature  of  New  Jersey  passed 
seven  corporation  bills,  known  as  the  seven  sis¬ 
ters,  which  had  the  hearty  indorsement  of  Wood- 
row  Wilson,  then  Governor  of  the  State.  New 
Jersey  had  long  been  known  not  only  for  its 
tolerance  of  monopolistic  corporations,  but  for 
laws  which  offered  inducements  to  them.  The 
result  was  that  many  great  trusts,  against  which 
New  York  State  had  legislated,  moved  across 
the  Hudson  and  took  out  incorporation  papers 
in  New  Jersey.  At  the  beginning  of  1913  the 
corporations  incorporated  in  that  State  were 
capitalized  at  $7,861,499,369.  Of  course  no 
contemplated  measure  could  be  retroactive,  and 
Governor  Wilson  said:  “Every  established  busi¬ 
ness  can  go  on  without  interruption  as  hereto¬ 


fore,  but  cannot  hereafter  expand  by  the  acquisi¬ 
tion  of  the  stocks  and  bonds  of  other  corpora¬ 
tions  for  the  purpose  of  controlling  them,  and 
no  corporation  can  in  the  future  be  organized 
to  take  over,  hold,  or  control  other  corpora¬ 
tions.”  (New  Jersey  had  been  distinguished  for 
the  number  of  its  “holding”  companies.)  The 
bills  passed  in  1913  endeavored  to  fix  personal 
responsibility  for  the  violation  of  the  law  upon 
the  directors  of  offending  corporations,  and  pro¬ 
vided  that  violation  should  constitute  a  mis¬ 
demeanor,  i.e.,  be  punishable  by  imprisonment 
not  exceeding  three  years  or  a  fine  not  exceeding 
$1000,  or  both.  It  was  sought  thus,  to  overcome 
the  difficulty  that  had  been  encountered  when  a 
trust  sheltered  itself  by  the  plea  that  it  was  not 
a  person,  could  not  do  wrong,  and  could  not  be 
punished. 

The  English  government  has  gone  no  further 
in  the  way  of  antimonopoly  legislation  than 
the  old  provisions  of  the  common  law  against 
monopoly  and  the  somewhat  rigid  provisions  of 
their  corporation  act  regarding  publicity  in  the 
promotion  and  management  of  companies. 

In  France  the  status  of  the  law  seems  not 
to  be  definitely  fixed,  for  although  there  are 
statutes  existing  against  combinations  to  influ¬ 
ence  prices,  and  although  there  have  been  certain 
successful  prosecutions  under  this  law,  notably 
in  the  case  of  the  Copper  Syndicate,  still  indus¬ 
trial  combinations  in  the  form  of  joint  selling 
bureaus  do  exist  without  apparent  legal  opposi¬ 
tion. 

In  Germany,  contracts  for  fixing  prices,  con¬ 
trolling  output,  or  in  other  ways  tending  to¬ 
wards  the  prevention  of  destructive  competition 
have  been  upheld  by  the  courts  as  reasonable, 
and  the  restriction  of  such  combinations  is 
apparently  limited  to  those  that  can  be  shown 
to  be  contrary  to  public  policy.  In  Austria 
the  government  has  made  efforts  to  put  the 
combinations  under  somewhat  more  rigid  super¬ 
vision,  especially  for  financial  reasons,  but  al¬ 
though  there  has  been  considerable  feeling 
against  the  trusts,  as  yet  comparatively  little  has 
been  done  by  either  the  legislature  or  the 
courts,  and  some  very  strong  combinations  have 
been  in  existence  there  for  several  years.  Both 
in  Austria  and  in  Germany,  however,  govern¬ 
ment  commissions  have  been  studying  the  sub¬ 
ject  with  reference  to  further  legislation,  and, 
so  far  as  their  recommendations  go,  the  in¬ 
clination  is  to  recognize  the  combinations  as 
proper,  provided  they  place  themselves  suf¬ 
ficiently  under  government  supervision  and  con¬ 
duct  their  business  so  that  it  will  not  be  con¬ 
sidered  by  the  government  officials  as  contrary 
to  public  policy. 

Bibliography.  Arnold  Steinmann-Bucher, 
Wesen  und  Bedeutung  der  geioerblichen  Kartelle 
(Leipzig,  1891)  ;  Ernst  von  Halle,  Trusts  or 
Industrial  Combinations  or  Coalitions  in  the 
United  States  (New  York,  1895)  ;  Ludwig  Pohle, 
Die  Kartelle  der  gewerblichen  Unternehmer 
(Leipzig,  1898)  ;  Paul  de  Rousiers,  Les  in¬ 
dustries  monopolisees  (Paris,  1898);  W.  M. 
Collier,  The  Trusts  (New  York,  1900);  J.  W. 
Jenks,  “Trusts  and  Industrial  Combinations,” 
in  United  States  Department  of  Labor,  Bulletin 
No.  29  (Washington,  1900)  ;  J.  E.  Le  Rossignol, 
Monopolies,  Past  and  Present  (New  York,  1901)  ; 
Arthur  Raffalovich,  Les  trusts,  cartels,  et  syn- 
dicats  (2d  rev.  ed.,  Paris,  1903);  John  Moody, 
The  Truth  about  Trusts  (New  York,  1904)  ;V 
F.  W.  Hirst,  Monopolies,  Trusts,  and  Kartells 


t 


TRTJXILLO 


TRYON 


519 


(ih.,  1906)  ;  J.  W.  Jenks,  The  Trust  Problem 
(new  ed.,  1909)  ;  E.  S.  Meade,  Trust  Finance: 
A  Study  of  the  Genesis,  Organization,  and  Man¬ 
agement  of  Industrial  Combinations  (new  ed., 
ib.,  1909)  ;  Robert  Liefmann,  Kartelle  und 
Trusts  und  die  Weiterbildung  der  Volksicirt- 
schaftlichen  Organisation  (2d  ed.,  Stuttgart, 
1910)  ;  H.  R.  Seager,  ‘‘The  Recent  Trust  Deci¬ 
sions,  in  Political  Science  Quarterly ,  vol.  xxvi 
(New  York,  1911);  I.  M.  Tarbell,  History  of 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  (new  ed.,  2  vols., 
it).,  1911);  R.  T.  Ely,  Monopolies  and  Trusts 
(new  ed.,  ib.,  1912)  ;  C.  R.  Van  Hise,  Concentra¬ 
tion  and  Control  (ib.,  1912);  J.  B.  and  J.  M. 
Clark,  The  Control  of  Trusts  (ib.,  1912)  ;  L.  H. 
Haney,  Business  Organization  and  Combination 
(ib.,  1914)  ;  W.  H.  Taft,  The  Anti-Trust  Act 
and  the  Supreme  Court  (ib.,  1914);  L.  D. 
Brandeis,  Business  a  Profession  ( Cambridge, 
Mass.,  1914)  ;  E.  D.  Durand,  The  Trust  Problem 
( ib.,  1915)  ;  J.  F.  Crowell,  Trusts  and  Competi¬ 
tion  (Chicago,  1915);  A.  J.  Eddy,  New  Com¬ 
petition  (4th  ed.,  ib.,  1915)  ;  W.  J.  Brown, 
Prevention  and  Control  of  Monopolies  (New 
York,  1915)  ;  W.  Z.  Ripley  (ed.),  Trusts,  Pools, 
and  Corporations  (new  ed.,  Boston,  1916). 
TRTJXILLO,  troo-Hel'yo.  See  Trujillo. 
TRUX'TUN,  Thomas  (1755-1822).  An 
American  naval  officer,  born  at  Jamaica,  L.  I. 
Going  to  sea  at  the  age  of  12,  he  was  first 
an  apprentice  on  an  English  packet,  was  sub¬ 
sequently  impressed  for  service  on  an  English 
frigate,  and  finally  entered  the  merchant  marine. 
Coming  to  Philadelphia  late  in  1775,  he  was 
made  captain  of  the  Congress,  the  first  American 
privateer  sent  out  during  the  Revolution.  In 
command  successively  of  this  vessel,  the  Inde¬ 
pendence,  the  Andrew  Caldwell,  the  Mars,  the 
St.  James,  and  the  Commerce,  he  captured  nu¬ 
merous  prizes,  and  overcame  many  vessels  more 
powerful  than  his  own.  After  engaging  for  a 
time  in  the  East  Indian  service,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  captain  in  the  newly  organized  United 
States  navy,  1795,  and  was  put  in  command 
of  the  Constellation.  On  Feb.  9,  1799,  during 
the  short  naval  war  with  France,  he  captured, 
with  the  loss  of  only  two  killed  and  three 
wounded,  the  French  frigate  Insurgente.  In  the 
following  year  (February  1)  he  likewise  de¬ 
feated  the  Vengeance,  which,  however,  after  sur¬ 
rendering,  managed  to  escape.  The  French  loss 
in  killed  and  wounded  was  160,  the  American  39. 
Subsequently  he  was  put  in  command  of  the 
West  India  squadron  with  the  rank  of  commo¬ 
dore.  Retiring  from  the  navy  in  1802,  he  lived 
for  a  time  in  New  Jersey,  and  then  removed  to 
Philadelphia,  where  he  was  sheriff,  1819-1821. 
He  published  Remarks,  Instructions,  and  Ex¬ 
amples  Relating  to  Latitude  and  Longitude,  also 
the  Variation  of  the  Compass  (1794).  Consult 
Barnes,  Naval  Actions  of  the  War  of  1812  (New 
York,  1896). 

TRYON,  trg'oN',  Charles  Forbes  de.  See 
Mont alembert,  Count. 

TRY'ON,  Dwight  William  (1849-  ). 

An  American  landscape  painter.  He  was 
born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  studied  under 
C.  Daubigny,  Jacquesson  de  la  Chevreuse,  and 
Guillemet  in  Paris.  Upon  his  return  to  the 
United  States  he  became  director  of  the  Hart¬ 
ford  School  of  Art  in  1886,  later  professor  of 
art  at  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass.,  and 
finally  settled  in  New  York  City,  spending  his 
summers  in  Massachusetts.  His  New  England 
landscapes,  simple  in  composition  and  somewhat 


restricted  in  subject,  but  with  a  very  personal 
and  poetic  interpretation,  are  frequently  shim¬ 
mering  misty  effects,  with  delicate  color  and 
fine  tonalities.  Good  examples  of  his  works  are 
to  be  found  in  all  the  important  public  collec¬ 
tions  in  America,  including  27  oil  paintings  and 
several  water  colors  and  pastels  in  the  Freer 
collection  (National  Gallery,  Washington),  and 
a  Moonlight  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York.  Among  numerous  prizes  he  received 
gold  medals  from  the  American  Art  Association 
(1886,  1887),  at  Munich  (1892),  the  Carnegie 
Institute,  Pittsburgh  (1898),  Buffalo  (1901), 
and  St.  Louis  (1904),  and  a  silver  medal  at 
San  Francisco  (1915).  In  1891  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design. 

TRYON,  Sir  George  (1832-93).  An  English 
admiral,  born  at  Bulwick  Park,  Northampton¬ 
shire.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  entered 
the  navy  in  1848.  In  1860  he  was  promoted  to 
commander,  and  in  1866  to  captain.  In  the 
following  year  he  showed  considerable  talent  for 
organization  and  foresight  as  director  of  trans¬ 
ports  for  the  Abyssinian  expedition.  In  1874- 
i  7  he  was  in  command  of  a  ship  in  the  flving 
squadron,  and  from  that  time  till  1887  served 
with  the  Mediterranean  fleet.  In  1884  he  be¬ 
came  rear  admiral,  and  in  1889  vice  admiral. 
His  appointment  in  1891  to  the  command  of  the 
Mediterranean  station  was  a  popular  one,  but 
there  on  June  22,  1893,  off  Tripoli,  he  was 
responsible  for  one  of  the  most  terrible  naval 
accidents  of  modern  times.  During  some  ma¬ 
noeuvres  he  ordered  the  battleships  Camperdown 
and  Victoria,  which  were  proceeding  in  parallel 
lines,  to  turn  inward,  thus  causing  the  former 
to  ram  and  sink  the  latter  with  great  loss 
of  life.  He  went  down  with  the  Victoria.  Con¬ 
sult  C.  C.  Penrose-Fitzgerald,  Life  (London, 
1897). 

TRYON,  Thomas  (1634-1703).  An  English 
zealot,  known  as  the  Pythag’orean.  He  was  born 
near  Cirencester  in  Gloucestershire,  England. 
He  was  taken  from  school  before  he  had  learned 
to  read  and  put  to  spinning  and  carding  (1643- 
46),  and  thereafter ‘till  his  eighteenth  year  he 
tended  his  father’s  sheep.  He  then  drifted  to 
London  and  joined  the  Anabaptists,  but  after¬ 
ward  renounced  their  doctrines,  through  the 
influence  of  the  mystical  writings  of  Jakob 
Bohme  (q.v.).  At  the  age  of  48  he  began  a 
long  series  of  pamphlets,  in  which  he  recom¬ 
mended  for  drink  only  water,  and  for  food 
only  bread  and  fruit,  with  some  liberty  in 
the  use  of  butter  and  cheese.  His  book  on  this 
theme  is  known  as  The  Way  to  Health  (1691), 
published  originally  in  1682  as  Health’s  Grand 
Preservative.  It  may  be  said  by  the  way  that 
Benjamin  Franklin,  in  his  youth,  was  much 
impressed  by  The  Way  to  Health,  and  for  a 
time  became  a  Tryonist. 

TRYON,  William  (c.1725-88).  A  British 
colonial  governor,  born  in  Ireland.  He  secured 
a  commission  as  captain  in  the  British  army 
in  1751,  and  became  lieutenant  colonel  in  1758. 
Through  his  marriage  to  Miss  Wake,  a  relative 
of  the  Earl  of  Hillsborough,  First  Commissioner 
of  Trade  and  Plantations,  he  was  appointed 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  North  Carolina,  June  27, 

1764,  and  succeeded  to  the  governorship,  July  20, 

1765.  Between  1767  and  1771  occurred  the 
insurrection  of  the  Regulators  (q.v.),  which 
he  suppressed  with  severity.  In  July,  1771, 
he  was  transferred  to  New  York,  where  he 
greatly  strengthened  the  militia.  He  made  a 


TRYPANOSOMIASIS 


TSCHEEMAK  VON  SEYSENEGG 


large  grant  of  land  to  Kings  College  (Colum¬ 
bia).  He  visited  England  in  1774,  and  on  his 
return  in  June,  1775,  found  the  Colony  in  rebel¬ 
lion.  In  October  he  took  refuge  on  shipboard 
and  remained  in  the  harbor  until  Howe's  entry 
in  September,  1776.  In  1777  he  took  active 
command  of  some  Loyalist  troops,  and  in  June, 
1778,-  was  promoted  major  general  in  America. 
In  1780  he  made  a  raid  into  Connecticut.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  winter  of  1779—80  he  was  in  command 
of  the  New  York  District,  but  returned  to  Eng¬ 
land  in  1780,  and  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  general  in  November,  1782. 

TRYP'ANOSQMX'ASIS.  See  Sleeping  Sick¬ 
ness. 

TRYP'SIN  (from  Gk.  rpveiv,  tryein,  to  rub). 
One  of  the  ferments-  or  enzymes  found  in  the 
pancreatic  juice.  Its  action  is  proteolytic,  i.e., 
it  acts  on  the  proteids,  converting  them  into 
peptones.  It  is  most  active  in  an  alkaline 
medium.  About  1906  trypsin  enjoyed  a  brief 
vogue  as  a  cure  for  cancer,  but  it  was  soon  dis¬ 
carded.  It  has  also  been  used  in  tuberculosis, 
and  as  a  spray  to  dissolve  the  membrane  in 
diphtheritic  croup.  See  Digestion,  Organs  and 
Process  of,  in  Man ;  Enzyme. 

TRY'SA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tpvaa,  now  called 
GeuJ-Bashi) .  An  ancient  town,  situated  on 
a  plateau  (2475  feet  high)  in  southern  Lycia, 
a  short  distance  west  of  Myra.  The  site  is 
of  interest  only  from  the  Heroon  erected  near 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century  b.c.  by  a  native 
prince.  This  is  a  quadrangular  inclosure  about 
60  by  75  feet,  with  a  door  in  the  south  wall. 
In  the  northeast  corner  stood  the  large  sar¬ 
cophagus,  and  in  the  southeast  the  small  booths 
for  the  guard  and  the  funeral  feasts.  The  im¬ 
portance  of  the  monument  is  in  its  sculptured 
decorations.  Around  the  inner  wall  near  the 
top  are  two  rows  of  sculptured  frieze,  and  a 
similar  decoration  adorns  the  outside  of  the 
south  wall.  Only  the  sculptures  around  the 
door  show  any  trace  of  Oriental  influence; 
the  rest  are  evidently  derived  from  good  Greek 
models.  On  the  outside  are  represented  the  ex¬ 
pedition  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  a  battle 
between  Greeks  and  Trojans  on  the  right  of  the 
door,  and  on  the  left  battles  of  the  Greeks  with 
Amazons  and  centaurs.  Inside,  on  the  south 
wall,  on  the  right  are  Odysseus  slaying  the 
suitors  and  the  Calydonian  Hunt,  on  the  left 
a  banquet  and  dance  of  youths  and  maidens.  On 
the  east  wall  can  be  traced  the  deeds  of  Theseus, 
a  battle  with  centaurs,  and  a  banquet.  The 
north  wall  contains  the  Dioscuri  carrying  away 
the  daughters  of  Leucippus,  a  hunting  scene, 
and  the  conflict  of  the  Lapithae  and  centaurs. 
The  west  wall  contains  the  battle  of  Greeks  and 
Trojans  between  the  city  and  the  ships,  the 
storming  of  the  city  of  Troy,  and  the  battle 
of  Achilles  with  the  Amazon.  Apparently  the 
artist  was  influenced  by  the  great  painters  of 
the  fifth  century.  The  ruins  were  excavated 
between  1881  and  1883  by  an  Austrian  expedi¬ 
tion,  and  the  sculptures  brought  to  Vienna. 
Consult  Benndorf  and  Niemann,  Das  Heroon 
von  Gjolbaschi-Trysa  (Vienna,  1889). 

TS’AIDAM,  or  CH’AIDAM,  chi'dam.  See 
Tibet. 

TSAI-FENG,  tsi'-fimg'  (Prince  Chun) 

(  ?-  ) .  A  Chinese  prince  regent,  brother  of 

Kwang-sii  (q.v. )  and  father  of  Pu-yi  (Hsuan- 
tung,  q.v.),  the  tenth  and  last  Manchu  Emperor 
of  China.  He  was  sent  to  Germany  in  1901  as 
China’s  representative  to  apologize  for  the 


520 

murder  of  Minister  von  Kettcler  during  the 
Boxer  Rebellion.  In  1908  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Commission  of  Constitutional  Reform  and  the 
Government  Council.  On  the  death  of  Kwang- 
sii,  Nov.  14,  1908,  Prince  Chun  was  appointed 
She  Chang-wang  (Prince  Regent),  to  act  during 
the  minority  of  his  son,  who  now  succeeded  as 
the  Emperor  Hsuan-tung.  One  of  the  first  de¬ 
crees  of  the  Prince  Regent  dismissed  Yuan 
Shih-kai  (q.v.)  from  all  of  his  offices  and  sent 
him  into  retirement,  as  retaliation  for  his 
share  in  the  overthrow  of  Kwang-su’s  reforms 
in  1898.  While  in  office,  Prince  Chun  was  liber¬ 
ally  inclined  and  popular,  and  on  Nov.  26,  1911, 
took  the  oath  to  observe  the  constitution.  But 
his  fairly  enlightened  policy  of  reform  failed 
to  stave  off  the  growing  revolt  against  the 
Manchus,  and  on  Dec.  6,  1911,  he  resigned  as 
Prince  Regent.  His  duties  were  taken  over 
by  the  then  Empress  Dowager,  and  Yuan  Shih- 
kai  was  recalled  from  retirement  as  a  last  des¬ 
perate  effort  to  save  the  monarchy.  After  the 
abdication  of  Hsuan-tung  as  Emperor,  Feb.  12, 
1912,  Prince  Chun  retired  to  Kiaochau  (Tsing- 
tau ) .  See  China,  M odern  History. 

TSAI  T’XEN,  tsP  tyem'.  See  Kwang-su. 
TSANA,  Lake.  See  Tzana. 

TSAR.  See  Czar. 

TSARITSYN,  tsa-re'tsm.  A  district  capital 
and  one  of  the  most  important  ports  on  the 
Volga,  situated  in  the  Government  of  Saratov, 
Russia  (Map:  Russia,  F  5).  Connected  by  rail 
and  water  with  the  interior  of  Russia,  Tsaritsyn 
is  the  natural  outlet  for  the  region  of  the  lower 
Volga,  and  to  some  extent  of  the  region  of  the 
Don.  The  chief  articles  of  commerce  are  fish, 
salt,  petroleum,  grain,  lumber,  wool,  and  mus¬ 
tard.  The  local  manufactures  are  spirits,  beer, 
and  machinery.  A  large  gun  factory  was  estab¬ 
lished  there  in  1914.  The  town  is  poorly  built. 
There  is  a  fine  Lutheran  church.  Pop.,  1910, 
100,817. 

TSARSKOYE  SELO,  tsar'sko-ye  sye-16'  (the 
Tsar’s  village).  A  district  town  and  the  sum¬ 
mer  residence  of  the  Russian  Emperor,  situated 
in  the  Government  of  St.  Petersburg,  about  15 
miles  south  of  the  capital  (Map:  Russia,  D  3). 
It  is  a  pretty  town  with  extensive  parks  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  royal  residences  and  villas  of  the 
court  aristocracy.  The  Old  Palace  is  character¬ 
ized  by  great  splendor  and  contains  a  fine  pic¬ 
ture  gallery  and  the  celebrated  amber  room. 
The  Palace  of  Alexander,  built  by  Catharine 
II,  is  less  pretentious.  Tsarskoye  Selo  was 
formerly  the  seat  of  the  Alexander  lycee,  where 
many  of  the  most  prominent  literary  men  (in¬ 
cluding  Pushkin)  and  statesmen  of  Russia 
were  educated.  Pop.,  1911,  30,881.  The  rail¬ 
way  line  from  Tsarskoye  Selo  to  St.  Petersburg, 
constructed  in  1838,  was  the  first  railway  in 
Russia. 

TSCHAIKOWSKY.  See  Tchaikovsky. 
TSCHEEMAK  VON  SEYSENEGG,  cher'- 

mak,  Gustav  von  ( 1836-  ) .  An  Austrian 

mineralogist.  He  was  born  at  Littau,  Moravia: 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Vienna;  and 
in  1868  was  appointed  a  professor  in  the  uni¬ 
versity  and  director  of  the  Royal  Mineralogical 
Cabinet.  In  1906  he  retired.  His  contributions 
to  the  proceedings  of  the  Vienna  Academy  are 
numerous,  and  treat  for  the  most  part  subjects 
of  crystallography  and  petrography.  He  is  also 
a  prominent  authority  on  meteorites.  In  1871 
he  established  at  Vienna  the  Mineralogische  Mit- 
teilungen,  published  since  1878  as  the  Mineral- 


TSCHIRNHAUSEN  : 

ogische  und  petrographic che  Mitteilungen.  His 
publications  include:  Die  Porpliyrgesteine 
Oesterreichs  (1869);  Die  mikroslcopische  Be- 
schaff  enheit  der  Meteoriten  (1883);  Lehrbuch 
der  Mineralogie  (1884;  6th  ed.,  1905). 

TSCHIRNHAUSEN,  chern'hou-zen,  Ehren- 
fried  V  alter,  Count  (1651—1708).  A  German 
scientist  and  mathematician.  He  Avas  born  and 
educated  at  Leyden.  He  traveled  considerably 
in  France,  Italy,  and  Switzerland,  and  served 
in  the  army  of  Holland  (1672-73).  Tschirn- 
hausen  erected  large  glassworks  in  Saxony, 
Avhere  he  constructed  burning  glasses  of  unusual 
perfection  and  carried  on  his  experiments 
(1687—88).  To  him  are  due  some  valuable  dis- 
coveries  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain.  His 
Medicina  Mentis  (1687)  testifies  to  the  philo¬ 
sophic  tendency  of  his  thought.  In  mathematics 
Tschirnhausen  is  knoAvn  as  the  founder  of  the 
theory  of  catacaustics,  or  caustics  by  reflection. 
The  original  articles  appeared  in  the  Acta 
Eruditorum  from  1682  to  1698.  These  publica¬ 
tions  contain  also  his  work  on  equations  and 
quadratics.  In  connection  with  the  latter  he 
invented  the  quadratrix  ( see  Quadrature  ) 
known  by  his  name.  Consult  Weissenborn, 
Lebensbeschreibung  des  Tschirnhausen  (Eisenach. 
1866). 

TSCHISTGPOL.  See  Tchistopol. 

TSCHUDI,  chob'de,  HCgidius  or  Gilg  (1505- 
72).  A  Swiss  chronicler,  known  as  the  father 
of  Swiss  history.  He  was  born  at  Glarus,  stud¬ 
ied  at  Basel,  Vienna,  and  Paris,  and  after  hold¬ 
ing  several  administrative  offices  entered  the 
French  army  in  1536,  serving  till  1544.  Once 
more  he  held  office  in  various  cantons  and  be¬ 
came,  in  1558,  chief  magistrate  of  Glarus.  He 
was  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Reformation  and 
sought  to  check  the  spread  of  the  new  doc¬ 
trines  by  arms.  This  brought  him  great  un¬ 
popularity  and  necessitated  his  temporary 
absence  from  ^he  canton.  During  his  last 
years  he  took  little  share  in  political  affairs, 
and  devoted  his  time  to  a  study  of  the  amount 
of  historical  material  which  he  had  gathered 
from  the  public  archives  and  the  libraries  of 
monasteries.  His  Die  uralt  wahrhaftig  alpisch 
Rhetia  Avas  published  at  Basel  in  1538,  but  his 
great  Avorks,  the  Schweizerchronik,  or  Chroni- 
con  Helveticum,  and  the  Gallia  Comata,  did 
not  appear  till  more  than  one  hundred  and 
sixty  years  after  the  author’s  death.  The 
Schweizerchronik  covers  the  period  1100-1470, 
and  is  valuable  for  the  large  number  of  ori¬ 
ginal  documents  incorporated  in  the  text.  The 
S chioeizerchronik  has  remained  a  great  source 
for  Swiss  history.  The  Gallia  Comata  is  in 
nature  antiquarian,  and  aatis  intended  as  an 
introduction  to  the  Ghronicon  Helveticum. 

TSCHUDI,  Clara  (1856—  ).  A  Norwe¬ 

gian  author,  bora  at  Tbnsberg.  Intending  to 
become  a  dramatic  singer,  she  studied  at  Dres¬ 
den  and  Berlin,  but  presently  turned  her  at¬ 
tention  to  literature,  and  after  publishing  some 
Avorks  bearing  on  women's  rights,  such  as 
Kvindebevwgelsen  (1885)  and  Tre  Nutiskvinder 
(1887),  became  knoAvn  through  the  historical 
portraits  Eugenie  Keiserinde  af  Frankrig 
(1889;  neAAr  ed.,  1906),  Keiseidnde  Augusta, 
Bkildringer  fra  Hoflivet  i  Berlin  (1892),  Marie 
Antoinettes  XJngdom  (1894);  Marie  Antoinette 
og  Revolutionen  (1895-96);  Napoleon’s  Moder, 
Silhouetter ,  Reiseminder,  og  Bkizzer  (all  1898)  ; 
En  Sommerfest  i  Trianon  (1903)  ;  En  Forglemt 
Jleltinde  ( 1904)  ;  Ludwig  II  of  Bayern  ( 1905-06) . 


TSENG  KUO-EAN 

TSCHUDI,  Friedrich  von  (1820-86).  A 
Swiss  scholar,  brother  of  Johann  Jakob  von 
Tschudi.  He  studied  theology  first  at  Schaff- 
hausen,  then  at  Basel,  Bonn,  and  Berlin;  and 
was  made  pastor  of  Lichtensteig  in  1843,  but  re¬ 
signed  in  1847.  He  settled  in  Saint-Gall,  where 
he  Avrote,  under  the  pseudonym  of  C.  Weber, 
Der  Sonderbiind  und  seine  Au  fid  sung  (1848)' 
&ml  under  his  ovvrn  name  sev7eral  agricultural 
studies  and  the  often  reedited  and  frequently 
translated  Das  Tierleben  der  Alpenwelt  (1853; 
11th  ed.,  1890).  He  held  several  official  posts, 
and  AAras  distinguished  for  his  services  to  edu¬ 
cation. 

TSCHUDI,  Johann  Jakob  (1818-89).  A 
Swiss  naturalist,  born  at  Glarus.  He  studied 
at  SAviss,  French,  and  German  universities,  and 
then  traveled  extensively  in  South  America 
visiting  Peru  (1838-43),  and  Brazil,  the  Plata 
States,  Chile,  and  Bolivia  (1857-59).  From 
1860  to  1862  he  was  Swiss  Ambassador  to  Brazil, 
and  in  1866  became  diplomatic  representative; 
at  the  court  of  Vienna,  retiring  in  1S83.  He 
published:  System  der  Batrachier  (1838);  Vn- 
tersuchungen  iiber  die  Fauna  peruana  (1844- 
47);  Peru,  Reiseskizzen  (1846);  Die  Kechua- 
sprache  (1853);  Antiguedades  peruanas  (1851), 
with  Don  Mariano  de  Rivero;  Reisen  durch 
Biidamerika  (1866—69)  ;  Ollanta,  an  ancient 
Peruvian  drama  out  of  the  Quichua  languaoe 
(1875).  & 

Ilis  son  Hugo  (1851-1911),  born  at  Jakobs- 
hof,  Austria,  studied  in  Vienna  jurisprudence 
and  art  history,  and  after  extensive  travels 
through  Europe  became  connected  with  the  royal 
museums  in  Berlin  in  1884  and  was  appointed 
director  of  the  National  Gallery  in  1896.  Be¬ 
sides  numerous  important  essays  in  various  art 
periodicals,  he  published,  in  collaboration  with 
Pulszky,  the  text  to  Die  Landes-Gemdldegal- 
lerie  in  Budapest  (1883),  and  with  Bode,  Be- 
schreibung  der  Bildwerke  der  christliohen  Epoche 
in  den  kdniglichen  Museen  zu  Berlin  (1883). 
After  1894  he  edited  the  Reportorium  fur  Kunst- 
wissenschaft  ( Stuttgart,  1875  et  seq.),  conjointlv 
with  Thode. 

TSENANFU.  See  Tsinanfu. 

TSENG  KI-TSEH,  tsung'  ke'tseh'  (1837- 
90).  A  Chinese  statesman  and  diplomat,  bet¬ 
ter  known  as  the  Marquis  Tseng,  born  in  Hu¬ 
nan.  .  He  served  under  his  father  as  secretary, 
and  in  1877  succeeded  to  the  paternal  title,  in 
the  following  year  he  aatis  appointed  Minister 
to  Great  Britain  and  France.  In  1880  he  was 
further  intrusted  with  an  embassy  at  St.  Peters¬ 
burg  (Petrograd),  and  there  negotiated  the 
treaty  by  which  Kulja  was  restored  to  China. 
In  1881  he  was  created  Vice  Director  of  the 
Imperial  Clan  Court,  and  Vice  President  of  the 
Board  of  War,  and  in  1885  arranged  a  conven¬ 
tion  with  Great  Britain  in  regard  to  the  opium 
traffic,  and  was  appointed  Assistant  Director  of 
the  newly  established  Admiralty  Board.  In 
1886  he  returned  to  Peking,  became  a  member 
of  the  Tsung-li  Yamen  (q.v.)  (now  the  Waich- 
iaopu),  and  in  1887  Vice  President  of  the  Board 
of  Revenue.  He  was  director  of  the  Tung  Wen 
Kwan,  or  Peking  School  of  Languages  (1889- 
DO). 

TSENG  KUO-FAN,  tsung'  kwo'fan'  (1811- 
72).  A  Chinese  soldier  and  statesman,  de¬ 
scendant  of  the  philosopher  Tseng  (Cincius),  and 
born  in  the  Province  of  Hunan.  In  1843  he 
became  chief  literary  examiner,  and  later  was 


TSERKLAES 


TSITSIHAR 


522 


appointed  military  examiner.  In  1850  lie  built 
a  fleet  of  war  junks  with  which  he  attacked 
the  Taiping  rebels.  He  made  a  brave  defense 
of  Changsha,  and  the  rebels  lost  80  days  in 
vainly  trying  to  capture  the  city.  Later  Tseng 
captured  Wuchang  and  Hanyang,  and  in  re¬ 
ward  for  this  was  made  Vice  President  of  the 
Board  of  War.  He  won  other  military  suc¬ 
cesses,  cleared  Kiangsu  of  the  rebels,  and  in 
1857  received  chief  command  in  Chekiang. 
Three  years  later  he  was  made  Viceroy  of  the 
two  Kiang  provinces  and  Imperial  War  Com¬ 
missioner.  In  1864. he  captured  Nanking,  and 
was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  Hou,  or  Mar¬ 
quis.  He  was  less  successful  in  the  suppression 
of  the  Nienfei  Rebellion  and  was  succeeded  in 
the  chief  command  by  Li  Hung  Chang  (q.v.), 
who  had  been  one  of  his  lieutenants.  Tseng  was 
Viceroy  of  Chihli  at  the  time  of  the  Tientsin 
massacre  in  1870.  His  collected  writings  of  156 
books  were  edited  by  Li  Hung  Chang  in  1876. 
Tseng’s  son,  Tseng  Ki-tseh  (died  1890),  was  the 
first  Chinese  Minister  to  Great  Britain. 

TSERKLAES,  tser'klas,  Johann.  See  Tilly. 

TSETSE  (tset'se)  FLY  (South  African  name) . 
A  biting  fly  (G-lossina  morsitans )  of  the  family 
Muscidae,  related  to  the  common  stable  fly 
(q.v.),  which  occurs  in  portions  of  Africa.  The 
tsetse  fly  bites  all  warm-blooded  animals,  but 
seems  particularly  attracted  to  cattle  and 
horses.  Its  bite  was  formerly  considered  poi¬ 
sonous,  and  apparently  produced  death  in 
beasts  of  burden  coming  from  regions  where 
the  fly  does  not  occur.  The  disease  produced 
by  the  bite  is  called  nagana.  Animals  which 
have  once  recovered  appear  to  be  immune,  or 
“salted.”  It  has  been  determined  that  the  bite 
of  the  tsetse  fly  is  not  specifically  poisonous, 
but  that  the  insect  acts  as  the  carrier  of  a 
hamiatozoan  parasite,  taking  it  with  the  blood 
of  diseased  animals  and  carrying  it  to  non- 
immunes.  The  tsetse  fly  does  not  lay  eggs, 
but  multiplies  by  producing,  one  at  a  time,  full- 
grown  larvae  which  immediately  change  to 
pupae,  just  as  do  the  so-called  pupiparous  Dip- 
tera.  It  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  the 
tsetse  fly  would  form  a  serious  obstacle  to  the 
settlement  of  Africa,  but  this  is  not  the  case. 
Only  certain  animals  are  affected,  and  the  fly 
acts  simply  as  a  carrier;  moreover,  cattle  be¬ 
came  immune  after  residence  in  infected  regions. 

TSETSE-FLY  DISEASE.  See  Sleeping 
Sickness. 

TSHI,  tshe,  or  CHWI.  A  negro  people  on 
the  African  Gold  Coast.  See  Sudan. 

TSIMSCHIAN,  TSIMSHIAN.  See  Ciiim- 

ESYAN. 

TSINANFTT,  che'na'foo',  TSENANFOO,  or 
TSINAN.  A  city  of  China,  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Shantung.  It  lies  in  a  large  fertile 
plain,  3%  miles  south  of  the  Yellow  River,  245 
southeast  of  Peking  (Map:  China,  L  4).  The 
walls  of  the  city  proper  have  a  circuit  of  12 
miles  and  are  well  built,  but  there  is  a  large 
extramural  population  protected  by  a  great  en¬ 
circling  mud  rampart.  The  principal  streets 
are  comparatively  clean,  and  are  lined  with 
good  shops.  The  city  is  noted  especially  for  its 
silk  brocades,  its  trade  in  precious  stones,  and 
the  varied  glass  and  other  products  of  Poshan- 
hien,  the  chief  city  of  the  “black  country”  of 
Shantung.  It  has  a  drum  tower,  a  great  ex¬ 
amination  hall  capable  of  accommodating  over 
10,000  candidates,  many  fine  temples,  a  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  besides  the  Yamens,  or  of¬ 


fices  of  the  Governor  and  the  high  officers  of 
the  province.  In  the  western  part  of  the  city 
are  several  geyser-like  springs  said  to  be  con¬ 
nected  with  similar  springs  in  Taishan  (q.v.), 
some  60  miles  distant.  A  splendid  highway 
connects  the  city  with  the  Hoang-ho,  4  miles 
to  the  north.  A  few  miles  east  of  the  city 
are  several  important  iron  mines.  Pop.,  300,- 
000,  including  2000  Mohammedan  families. 
Tsinan  is  on  the  railway  line  projected  by  the 
Germans  from  Kiaocliow  (Tsingtau)  through 
Shantung  Province,  and  this  railway  was 
taken  over  by  the  Japanese  with  the  capture 
of  Kiaocliow.  The  foreign  settlement  is  beau¬ 
tiful  and  well  kept,  and  contains  some  flourish¬ 
ing  business  firms,  mainly  German. 

TSINGTAO,  tsing'tou',  or  TSING-TAU,  a 
city  in  China.  See  Kiaochow. 

TS’ING-TTJ,  or  JODO.  The  Chinese  and  the 
Japanese  names  respectively  of  “The  Land  of 
Bliss,”  sometimes  called  the  “Paradise  of  the 
West,”  presided  over  by  Amitabha  (or  Amida) 
Buddha,  rebirth  in  which  is  promised  to  all 
who  put  their  faith  in  Amida.  Life  is  there 
practically  eternal,  free  from  pain  and  misery, 
and  as  it  can  be  reached  without  the  perform¬ 
ance  of  works,  its  attainment  has  become  the 
aim  of  the  adherents  of  the  Ts’ing-tu  sect  of 
Buddhists  in  China,  and  the  Jodo  and  Shin- 
shiu  sects  of  Japan.  Nirvana  is  too  difficult. 
Consult  J.  Edkins,  Chinese  Buddhism  (London, 
1880). 

TSITSIHAR,  che'che'har'.  The  largest,  the 
most  northerly,  and  the  most  thinly  populated 
of  the  three  provinces  of  Manchuria  (q.v.), 
known  to  the  Chinese  as  Heilungkiang,  and 
containing  about  190,000  square  miles  (Map: 
China,  N  2).  It  is  generally  mountainous,  cov¬ 
ered  with  forests,  and  abounds  in  both  large 
and  small  game,  and  hunting  and  trapping  are 
extensively  carried  on.  In  the  southwest  are 
great  prairies  occupied  by  tl^g  Mongols,  who 
maintain  large  herds  of  cattle,  horses,  etc., 
upon  them.  The  climate  is  severe,  the  mer¬ 
cury  falling  in  winter  to  40°  F.  below  zero, 
and  lower.  In  summer  it  sometimes  rises  to 
90°  F.  and  95°  F.  Agriculture  is  chiefly  con¬ 
fined  to  the  river  valleys,  where  are  produced 
pulse,  maize,  millet,  tobacco,  wheat,  sesamum, 
and  the  poppy.  The  drainage  is  to  the  north 
through  the  Sungari.  Gold  is  found  in  the  north¬ 
west,  north,  and  east,  and  is  mined  at  Moho. 
Much  soda  is  produced  and  exported  to  China. 
The  province  is  crossed  by  the  Trans-Manchu¬ 
rian  branch  of  the  Russian  Trans-Baikal  Rail¬ 
way,  which  connects  at  Harbin  with  the  Jap¬ 
anese  Railway  that  runs  south-southwest  to 
Port  Arthur  and  Dalny.  The  population,  esti¬ 
mated  at  1,500,000,  consists  of  Manchus,  Kor- 
cliin  Mongols,  Solons,  Yakuts  from  Siberia,  6600 
families  of  whom  settled  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nonni  in  1687,  and  Chinese,  chiefly  from  the 
northern  provinces.  The  government  is  mili¬ 
tary,  but  there  are  two  civil  officials  in  as 
many  localities  where  the  population  is  largely 
Chinese.  Besides  the  Bannermen  a  force  of 
7000  foreign-drilled  Chinese  troops  is  main¬ 
tained.  Tsitsihar  has  long  been  a  penal  colony, 
and  there  is  much  brigandage.  The  capital, 
Tsitsihar,  on  the  Nonni,  was  built  in  1692  in 
order  to  overawe  the  neighboring  tribes.  It  is 
a  few  miles  north  of  the  Trans-Manchurian 
Railway,  and  is  a  dirty,  poorly  built  city  with 
a  population  of  between  30,000  and  40,000. 
It  has  a  great  trade  in  cattle,  and  the  cattle 


TSONEKAN 


523 


TSUSHIMA 


fairs  draw  thousands  of  Mongols  to  the  city, 
at  which  time  the  population  is  almost  doubled. 
See  China;  Manchuria. 

TSONEKAN,  ts<Yna-kan,  or  TZONECA,  also 
Chonek.  A  name  sometimes  applied  to  the 
1  atagonian  natives.  The  term  Tsonekan  is  now 
used  to  designate  the  linguistic  stock  to  which 
the  Tehuelches  (q.v.)  belong.  See  Indians, 
Linguistic  Map. 

TSONG  KHA-PA,  tsong'  k’ha'pa',  TSONG- 
K  A-PA,  or  TSON-K’A-PA  (the  man  from 
Isong-k’a)  ;  generally  spoken  of  as  Je-rim-po-ch’e 
( c. 1355— 1419 ) .  A  noted  Tibetan  reformer  of 
Lamaism  (q.v.).  He  was  born  at  Tsong-k’a,  in 
the  Province  of  Amdo,  near  the  Chinese  frontier, 
and  while  still  a  child  he  was  devoted  by  his 
parents  to  a  religious  life.  At  16  he  began 
theological  studies  and  a  year  later  proceeded 
to  central  Tibet.  In  southern  Tibet -he  spent 
eight  years  as  a  hermit  and  became  convinced  of 
the  need  of  reform.  Identifying  himself  with 
the  Kah-dam-pa,  “The  Sect  bound  by  the  Orders” 
(of  the  T  inaya,  or  “Books  of  Discipline”),  which 
had  been  purified  and  reformed  by  the  Indian 
monk  Atfsha  in  the  eleventh  century,  he  reor¬ 
ganized  it,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Ge-lug-pa, 
“The  Followers  of  the  Virtuous  Order.”  In 
1409  he  built  the  great  monastery  of  Gah-ldan 
(“Paradise”),  25  miles  from  Lhasa  (q.v.  )„• 
where  he  preached  regularly,  and  by  the  time 
of  his  death  his  followers  numbered  over  30,000 
in  Lhasa  alone.  His  reforms  consisted  in  a 
stricter  observance  of  the  235  rules  of  the 
^  inaya,  or  “Discipline,”  a  life  of  ethical  purity, 
strict  celibacy,  simplicity  in  dress,,  the  aban¬ 
donment  of  the  red  robes  which  had  become 
common,  and  the  readoption  of  the  yellow  hat 
and  the  patched  yellow  robe3  worn  and  pre¬ 
scribed  by  the  Buddha.  He  also  reinstated  the 
fortnightly  “disburdenment,”  or  rehearsal  of 
the  Pratimoksa  Sutra  in  regular  assemblies  of 
the  order  at  Lhasa,  and  restored  the  custom  of 
retiring  yearly  for  meditation.  Tsong  Klia-pa 
was  buried  in  the  Gah-ldan,  where  his  em¬ 
balmed  remains  form  the  chief  object  of  vener¬ 
ation. 

TSO  TSUNG-T’ANG,  tso'  tsung/t’-ang/  ( 1812- 
85).  A  Chinese  general  and  administrator. 
He  was  born  at  Hiangyin,  in  Hunan,  secured 
his  second  or  master’s  degree  in  1832,  and  during 
the  earlier  years  of  the  Taiping  Rebellion  served 
in  Hunan  and  Hupeh.  In  1861  he  had  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  army  operating  in  Chekiang,  and  in 
the  following  year  was  also  made  Governor  of 
that  province.  In  1863  he  was  also  appointed 
Governor-General  of  the  combined  provinces  of 
Chekiang  and  Fukien,  and  by  October,  1864, 
he  had  entirely  recovered  Chekiang  and  was 
rewarded  with  an  earldom.  When  the  rebellion 
ended  in  1865  he  was  also  in  command  of 
Kiangsi  and  Kwangtung.  Appointed  in  1866 
Governor-General  of  Shensi  and  Kansu,  then  in 
the  hands  of  the  Mohammedan  rebels,  he  first 
turned  his  attention  to  the  Nienfei  insurgents, 
drove  them  from  the  neighborhood  of  Hankow, 
entered  Shepsi  and  defeated  them  there  in  1867, 
and  utterly  routed  them  near  Tientsin  in  August, 
1868.  He  returned  to  Shensi,  pacified  that  prov¬ 
ince  in  1869,  drove  the  rebels  beyond  the  Great 
Wall,  and  captured  Suchow  in  Kansu  in  1873. 
In  1875  he  was  appointed  Imperial  Commissioner 
for  lurkestan,  and  in  April,  1876,  he  advanced 
with  the  main  body  of  his  army  beyond  the  Great 
Wall,  crossed  the  desert  of  Hami,  and  by  Oct.  10, 
1877,  had  captured  in  succession  Urumtsi,  Tihua, 
Vol.  XXII.— 34 


Manas,  Pidjan,  Turfan,  and  Kuche,  north  of  the 
Tian-Shan  ;  and  by  Jan.  2,  1878,  Harashar,  Aksu, 
Kashgar,  \arkand,  Yengishar,  and  Khotan — all 
in  eastern  Turkestan,  south  of  the  Tian-Shan— 
had  been  reconquered,  and  the  campaign  brought 
to  a  close.  Iso  was  made  a  marquis  and  re¬ 
ceived  many  other  honors.  On  his  return  to 
Peking  in  1881  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Isung-li  \ amen  (now  the  Waichiaopu),  and  im¬ 
mediately  succeeded  in  having  all  the  Chinese 
students  in  the  United  States  recalled.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  transferred  to  Nanking  as 
Governor-General  of  Hunan  and  Hupeh,  whence 
in  1884,  on  the  outbreak  of  French  hostilities 
in  connection  with  the  Tongking  affair,  he  was 
ordered  to  Fuchow  to  direct  the  military  opera¬ 
tions,  and  died  there  in  the  following  year. 

TSOWHIEN,  tsou'hyen'.  A  small  district 
or  prefectural  city  of  Shantung,  China,  noted 
as  the  birthplace  of  Mencius  (q.v.)  and  the  home 
of  his  descendant  and  representative.  It  is 
about  15  miles  east  of  Kiuhfow  (q.v.),  the  birth¬ 
place  of  Confucius,  and  in  a  region  of  great 
historic  interest,  hallowed  to  followers  of  these 
two  early  sages.  There  is  a  temple  in  honor  of 
Mencius,  and  south  of  the  city  is  his  tomb, 
approached  by  a  fine  avenue  of  cypress  and  yew. 

TSU,  tsoo.  The  capital  of  the  Prefecture  of 
Miye,  central  Hondo,  Japan,  situated  on  the 
east  coast,  4/  miles  south-southwest  of  Nagoya 
(Map:  Japan,  E  6).  It  has  a  number  of  fine 
temples,  of  which  that  of  K0-110  Amida  attracts 
many  pilgrims.  Pop.,  1898,  33,287;  1908, 

41,229. 

TSUNG-LI  YAMEN  (or  Yamun),  tsoong' 
le'  ya'mun'  (Chin.,  general  managing  office). 
The  office  or  bureau  through  which  the  foreign 
ministers  in  China  until  recently  communicated 
with  the  throne  and  the  six  departments  of 
government.  It  was  established  in  1861  as  one 
of  the  conditions  of  peace  with  the  Powers,  and 
was  organized  by  Prince  Kung  (who  became  its 
first  president)  in  conference  with  Sir  Frederick 
Bruce,  the  first  British  Minister,  and  comprised 
between  8  and  12  members.  In  1901  it  was 
superseded  by  the  Wai  Wu  Pu,  or  Department 
of  Foreign  Affairs,  which  was  later  known  as 
the  Waichiaopu. 

TSURUGA,  tsoo'ru-ga.  A  seaport  of  the 
Province  of  Echizen,  Japan,  about  50  miles  north 
of  Kioto,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail 
( Map :  J apan,  D  6 ) .  It  stands  at  the  head  of  a 
deep  bay,  and  is  well  situated  for  trade  with 
Korea  and  Manchuria.  Its  harbor  is  protected 
by  a  breakwater  and  a  lighthouse,  and  is  the 
best  on  the  northwest  coast  of  the  main  island. 
Junk  building  is  the  chief  industry.  It  contains 
one  of  the  oldest  Shinto  temples  of  the  country. 
Pop.,  about  1700. 

TSURUOKA,  tsoo'roo-o'ka,  or  TSURU- 
GAOKO.  A  town  in  the  Prefecture  of  Yama- 
gata,  north  Hondo,  Japan,  75  miles  north-north¬ 
east  of  Niigata  (Map:  Japan,  F  4).  It  was 
formerly  a  castle  town.  Pop.,  1908,  21,056. 

TSUSHIMA,  tseo'she-ma.  An  island  of 
Japan,  commanding  the  south  entrance  to  the 
Sea  of  Japan,  less  than  50  miles  south  of  Korea, 
and  separated  from  the  island  of  Kiushu  by 
Krusenstern  Channel  (Map:  Japan,  A  6).  It 
is  penetrated  by  a  deep  inlet  on  the  west,  which 
at  its  narrowest  is  only  16  yards  wide.  At  high 
water  the  narrow  connecting  spit  is  overflowed, 
forming  two  unequal  islands.  They  are  both 
mountainous,  with  peaks  ranging  from  1128  to 
2130  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Area,  266 


TUA 


TUATAEA 


524 


square  miles.  The  northern  or  larger  island  is 
indented  with  many  fine  bays,  and  the  chief 
coast  town  is  Waniura.  Fishing  is  the  chief 
industry  and  dried  cuttlefish  the  chief  export. 
The  chief  city,  Idzunoliara  or  Fuchu,  on  the 
south  island,  has  a  population  of  about  10,000. 
Pop.,  39,000.  Korean  blood  is  very  noticeable 
among  the  inhabitants.  Near  Tsushima  Admiral 
Togo  destroyed  the  Russian  fleet  under  Admiral 
Rozhdestvensky,  May  27—28,  1905.  See  Russo- 
Japanese  War. 

TUA,  tob'a,  Teresina  (1867-  ).  An 

Italian  violinist,  born  in  Turin.  Her  principal 
teacher  was  Massart  of  the  Paris  Conservatory, 
under  whom  she  made  such  rapid  progress  that 
in  1880  she  won  the  first  prize.  She  was  uni¬ 
formly  successful  from  the  beginning  of  her 
artistic  career.  In  1891  she  retired  from  the 
concert  platform  owing  to  her  marriage  with 
Count  Franchi-Verney  della  Valetta,  but  in  the 
autumn  of  1895  she  again  took  up  her  concert 
work  and  made  very  successful  European  tours. 

TUAILLON,  tu'a'yoN',  Louis  (1862-  ). 

A  German  sculptor.  ‘  He  was  born  in  Berlin 
and  studied  there  at  the  Academy  and  under 
Begas.  After  visiting  Vienna  lie  spent  17  years 
in  Rome  (1885-1902),  and  after  his  return  to 
Berlin  was  appointed  director  of  a  master  studio 
at  the  Academy  (1906).  Tuaillon  revived  the 
half-nude  statue  of  the  Roman  classical  age 
and  achieved  great  success  with  his  austerely 
beautiful  bronze  “Amazon  on  Horseback,”  now 
before  the  National  Gallery,  Berlin  (replicas  in 
the  .Thiergarten,  Berlin,  and  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York).  Other  works  in  the  same 
style  are  “The  Horse  Trainer”  (Bremen),  “The 
Victor”  (Wannsee),  and  the  half-nude  eques¬ 
trian  statue  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  ( Bremen ) . 
He  received  gold  medals  at  Berlin  (1899),  Dres¬ 
den  (1889),  and  Paris  (1900). 

TUAMOTU,  tbb'a-mo'too,  PAUMOTU,  pii'u- 
mo'tob  (Low  or  Dangerous  Archipelago).  A 
group  of  low  coral  islands  in  Oceanica,  lying  east 
of  the  Society  Islands  (Map:  World,  L  7).  It 
consists  of  80  islets,  of  which  42  are  inhabited, 
with  a  total  area  of  over  335  square  miles,  of 
which  270  square  miles  may  be  cultivated  at 
least  to  the  extent  of  groAving  coconuts.  OAving 
to  the  coral  surface  and  scarcity  of  Avater  the 
vegetation  is  scanty.  In  the  western  islands  are 
found  the  breadfruit  tree,  banana,  and  pineapple. 
The  chief  products  of  the  group  are  copra,  tre- 
pang,  coconut  oil,  and  pearls,  and  the  trade  is 
chiefly  with  Tahiti.  The  inhabitants  are  Poly¬ 
nesians,  and  mostly  Roman  Catholic  Christian, 
and  in  1911  numbered  3715.  The  principal  port 
and  seat  of  administration  is  Fakarava,  on  the 
Avestern  island  of  Fakarava.  The  group  was  dis¬ 
covered  by  the  Spaniard  Quiros  in  1606  and 
visited  by  many  explorers,  including  Cook 
(1769).  it  came  under  the  protection  of  France 
in  1844,  and  AAras  officially  annexed  in  1881. 
Consult  Friederici,  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Kenntniss 
der  Tuamotu-Inseln. 

TUAREGS,  too-a'regz.  Berber  nomads  in  the 
Middle  Sahara,  numbering  some  300,000,  and 
perhaps  descendants  of  the  ancient  Gsetulians. 
(See  G.etulia.)  In  various  places  they  have 
mixed  with  negroes.  They  are  tall,  Avith  slender 
figures  and  regular  features,  dark  in  complexion, 
Avith  an  occasional  blond,  and,  OAving  to  their 
frugal  diet,  are  long  lived.  The  costume  A’aries 
Avith  location,  but  a  common  article  of  dress  is 
the  litham,  a  cloth  Avrapped  about  the  face  to 
protect  the  eyes  and  breathing  organs  from 


the  dust  of  the  desert.  The  Amoshagh  or  Noble 
Tuaregs  AA7ear  a  black  litham  and  the  Imghad 
or  servile  a  Avhite  one,  Avhich  grces  rise  to  the 
epithets  Black  Tuaregs  and  White  iuaregs. 
Their  weapons  are  a  long,  straight  SAVord,  a  dag¬ 
ger,  a  spear  6  feet  long,  and  occasionally  a  gun. 
They  Avere  monogamists  until  the  Mohammedan 
conquest,  Avhen  they  began  to  vary  someAvhat  in 
this  respect.  The  Avomen  have  freedom,  go  un¬ 
veiled,  and  take  part  in  public  affairs. 

Bibliography.  Emile  Masquerav,  Diction- 
naire  frangais-touareg  (Paris,  1893—95);  V.  J. 
H.  King,  Search  for  the  Masked  Taicareks  (Lon¬ 
don,  1903)  ;  M.  Cortier,  D’une  rive  a  Fautre  du 
Sahara  (Paris,  1908)  ;  Jean  Camille,  Les  Touareg 
du  Sud-Est  (ib.,  1909)  ;  C.  Aymard,  Les  Tcmareg 
(ib.,  1911);  M.  Delafosse,  II aut-Sentgal -Niger 
(ib.,  1912);  F.  De  Zeltner,  “Les  Touaregs  du 
Sud,”  in  Journal  of  Royal  Anthropological  In¬ 
stitute  (London,  1914).  See  Niger,  Military 
Territory  of  the. 

TUAT,  too-at'.  A  group  of  oases  in  Algerian 
Sahara,  north  Africa,  comprising  the  oases  of 
Gurara  and  Tidikelt.  It  is  a  comparatively  ivell- 
settled  region  and  abounds  in  date  palms.  It  is 
watered  principally  by  the  Wadi  Saura  or  Mzaud 
and  also  by  some  subterranean  watercourses. 
The  largest  lake  is  the  Sebkha  Gurara.  Pop., 
1906,  49,873,  of  Avhom  134  were  Europeans,  the 
remainder  being  Tuaregs,  negroes,  and  Arabs. 
Tuat  Avas  formerly  regarded  as  a  dependency  of 
Morocco,  but  with  its  occupation  by  French 
troops  in  1900  has  practically  become  a  part  of 
the  French  sphere  of  influence.  It  was  con¬ 
nected  by  road  with  the  Algerian  railway  system 
in  1903  and  by  rail  in  1912. 

TUATAEA,  tbo'a-ta'ra  (Maori,  spiny).  A 
reptile  of  New  Zealand  ( Sphenodon  or  Hatteria 
punctatus ),  which  looks  like  a  large  stout  lizard, 
but  Avhose  structure  sIioavs  it  to  be  the  sole  sur¬ 
viving  representative  of  a  primitive  group,  the 
Rhynclio cep li a li,  otherivise  extinct  in  the  Trias- 
sic  age.  Large  males  reach  a  length  of  2V>  feet, 
are  dark  olive  green,  and  have  a  toav  of  short, 
yelloAvish,  horn-sheatlied  spines  along  the  verte¬ 
bral  line.  The  skin  is  granular,  except  on  the 
belly,  where  it  is  scaly.  All  its  anatomy  dis¬ 
tinguishes  this  animal  from  lizards  and  allies 
it  Avith  the  ancient  Prosauria — the  carpus,  e.g., 
has  the  primitive  number  of  10  bones,  all  sepa¬ 
rate;  and  there  is  an  entire  absence  of  external 
copulatorv  organs. 

The  tuataras  Avere  once  numerous  through 
New  Zealand,  but  have  been  killed  by  civilization 
and  bush  fires,  until  noAv  they  inhabit  only  some 
small  parts  of  the  North  Island.  They  dwell  in 
burrows  of  their  oaati  digging,  which  they  share 
with  sundry  petrels.  They  are  fond  of  water, 
and  are  able  to  remain  submerged  for  hours 
Avithout  breathing.  During  the  day  they  sleep, 
but  at  night  hunt  for  food,  Avhich  consists  of  in¬ 
sects  and  worms  in  the  interior  and  on  the  coast 
of  small  fishes,  crustaceans,  etc. ;  all  food  is 
taken  alive.  They  move  very  slowly  and  lazily, 
but  are  fierce  fighters  Avhen  called  upon  to  de¬ 
fend  themselves.  They  lay  in  summer  about  10 
eggs,  elongated  and  hard-shelled,  which  are  buried 
in  warm  sand  and  left  to  hatch;  but  this  does 
not  happen  until  about  13  months  later,  al¬ 
though  the  embryos  groAv  to  nearly  their  full 
size  in  half  that  time  or  less,  and  then  seem  to 
aestivate.  Consult:  Transactions  of  the  New 
Zealand  Institute,  vols.  x,  xiv  (Wellington, 
1878,  1881)  ;  Hans  Gadow,  “Amphibia  and  Repy 
tiles,”  in  Cambridge  Natural  History,  vol.  viii 


TUATHADEDANAAN  , 

(New  ’N  ork,  1001);  E.  G.  Boulanger,  Reptiles 
wnd  Batrachians  (ib.,  1914)  ;  Newman,  in 

T  ransactions  Zoological  Society,  vol.  xv  (Lon¬ 
don,  1897). 

TUATHADEDANAAN,  too-a'tha-da-da-nan' 
(Ir.,  Race  or  Tribe  of  Danaan).  A  prehistoric 
people  of  tall  stature  and  blond  type,  who, 
according  to  the  ancient  annals  of  Ireland,  in¬ 
vaded  .the  island  from  the  north  several  cen¬ 
turies  before  the  C  hristian  era,  and  by  defeating 
the  I  irbolgs  (q.v. )  in  the  battle  of  Moytura  be¬ 
came  masters  of  the  country  until  in  turn  over¬ 
come  by  the  Milesians  (q.v.).  They  were  prob¬ 
ably  of  Scandinavian  origin. 

TU'BA  (Lat.,  trumpet).  A  name  given  to 
the  bass  instruments  of  the  saxhorn  family,  also' 
called  bombardons.  Tubas  are  made  in'  many 
keys,  and,  as  they  are  played  from  the  notes  as 
written,  they  require  no  special  transposition. 

I  hey  are  the  lowest  of  the  bass  instruments  and 
their  range  is  from  jBb  to  f1.  Their  tone  is  full 
and  majestic;  the  most  usual  sizes  are  the  bass 
tuba  in  Bj?  and  the  contrabass  tuba  in  JBb- 
Their  introduction  into  the  orchestra  is  due  to 
Wagner,  who  obtained  fine  effects  through  them. 
The  tuba  has  since  then  become  a  fixture  in  the 
orchestra,  being  used  as  the  bass  of  the  trombone 
choir.  As  such  it  has  entirely  superseded  the 
ophicleide  (q.v.).  The  instrument  is  built  in 
two  forms,  oblong  and  round.  See  Helicon. 

TtPBAL-CAUNF.  According  to  the  narrative 
in  Gen.  iv.  22,  the  son  of  Lantech  and  Zillali  and 
the  instructor  of  all  artificers  in  brass  and  iron. 

TUBE  NOSE.  A  tube-nosed  or  harpy  bat 
(q.v.) ,  a  small  East  Indian  fruit  bat  of  the  genus 
Harpy ia,  remarkable  for  the  fact  that  the  nos¬ 
trils  are  in  the  form  of  two  extended  and  some¬ 
what  divergent  tubes  projecting  above  the  upper 
lip. 

TU'BER  (Lat.,  swelling,  tumor,  knob  on 
plants).  A  thickened  and  shortened  branch  from 
a  subterranean  stem.  The  leaves  are  usually 
reduced  to  minute  scales  with  buds  in  the  axils, 
forming  in  the  potato  the  so-called  eyes.  It 
serves  as  a  food  reservoir,  and  also  gives  rise 
to  new  plants  much  more  rapidly  than  do  seeds. 
See  Stem. 

TU'BERCLE  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  tubercu- 
lum,  little  swelling,  pimple,  tubercle,  diminu¬ 
tive  of  tuber,  swelling,  tumor,  knob  on  plants). 

A  round,  solid  nodule  on  the  skin,  mucous  mem¬ 
brane,  or  surface  of  an  organ,  as  in  leprosy  or 
tuberculosis.  In  anatomy  a  rough  elevation  for 
attachment  of  muscle  or  ligament.  See  Bac¬ 
teria;  Disease,  Germ  Theory  of;  Leprosy; 
Serum  Therapy;  Tuberculosis. 

TUBER/CULIN,  Kocii’s  Lymph,  or  Parato- 
loid.  A  glycerin  extract  of  pure  cultures  of  the 
Bacillus  tuberculosis,  first  prepared  in  1891  by 
Robert  Koch  (q.v.).  Several  preparations  of 
tuberculin  are  made.  Old  tuberculin  (Koch’s 
original  preparation,  T.  O.),  a  filtered  glycerin 
extract  of  tubercle  bacilli,  is  a  clear,  amber 
fluid.  Tuberculin  filtrate,  known  also  as  “tu¬ 
berculin  Denys”  (B.  F.)  or  bouillon  filtrate,  is 
made  from  bouillon  cultures  of  the  human  bacil¬ 
lus  filtered  through  porcelain.  New  tuberculin 
(T.  R.)  is  a  glycerinated  saline  suspension  of 
the  major  part  remaining  after  centrifugalizing 
desiccated  and  pulverized  tubercle  bacillL  Puri” 
fied  extract  is  a  filtered  culture  of  human  bacilli 
in  50  per  cent  glycerin.  Tubercle  bacillus  emul¬ 
sion,  or  bacillary  emulsion,  is  a  glycerinated 
suspension  of  devitalized  tubercle  bacilli.  Dix¬ 
on’s  tubercle  extract,  or  fluid  of  Dixon,  is  an 


25  TUBERCULOSIS 

extract  of  bacilli  dissolved  in  normal  saline 
solution.  Dixon’s  suspension  of  dead  bacilli  is 
a  saline  suspension  of  killed  bacilli  which  have 
been  subjected  to  prolonged  treatment  with  al¬ 
cohol  and  ether.  Spengler’s  Perlsucht  is  pre- 
Pared  from  bovine  tubercle  bacilli  in  the  same 
way  as  Koch’s  old  tuberculin.  It  is  but  slightly 
toxic  for  human  beings. 

When  injected  into  the  tissues  of  a  healthy 
( nontuberculous )  person  no  reaction  follows; 
but  in  the  presence  of  tuberculosis,  wherever 
situated,  both  a  local  and  general  febrile  reac¬ 
tion  is  observed.  The  general  symptoms  are 
fever  and  chills;  locally  it  affects  the  skin,  which 
becomes  red  and  swollen.  A  better  serum  was 
introduced  by  Koch  in  1897,  and  efforts  in  the 
same  direction  were  made  by  Klebs  in  Germany 
and  Hunter  in  England,  the  earlier  product  hav¬ 
ing  been  found  to  contain  substances  very  toxic 
to  man.  On  its  first  appearance  Koch’s  lymph, 
as  it  was  called,  was  hailed  as  a  specific  and 
widely  used  by  unskilled  observers  in  unsuitable 
cases  and  in  excessive  doses.  The  results  were 
disappointing  and  the  remedy  fell  into  disrepute. 
Y\  ith  the  production  of  purer  serums,  the  ac¬ 
quirement  of  experience,  and  the  use  of  smaller 
doses,  treatment  has  been  more  successful  and 
tuberculin  is  now  recognized  as  a  valuable  thera¬ 
peutic  aid.  Tuberculin  is  reliable  as  a  diagnos¬ 
tic  agent  both  in  the  human  subject  and  in  cattle, 
and  is  largely  used  to  guard  against  the  con¬ 
sumption  of  infected  milk  and  meat. 

For  diagnostic  purposes  tuberculin  may  be 
employed  in  several  ways.  The  cutaneous  test 
of  Von  Pirquet  (q.v.)  consists  in  scarifying  the 
skin  as  in  vaccination  and  dropping  undiluted 
tuberculin  upon  the  raw  surface.  A  reaction 
may  be  expected  in  about  48  hours.  According 
to  the  technique  of  Calmette  and  Wolff-Eisner 
( the  ophthalmo-reaction )  tuberculin  is  dropped 
into  the  canthus  of  the  eye.  Moro’s  inunction 
test  is  performed  by  rubbing  a  50  per  cent  lano¬ 
lin  ointment  into  the  skin  of  the  abdomen  or 
chest.  Consult  Bandelier  and  Roepke,  Tuber¬ 
culin  in  Diagnosis  and  Treatment  (New  York, 
1913),  and  Cochrane  and  Sprawson,  Guide  to 
the  Use  of  Tuberculin  (ib.,  1915).  See  Tuber¬ 
culosis. 

TUBER'CULO'SIS  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  tu¬ 
ber  culum,  little  swelling,  pimple,  tubercle,  di¬ 
minutive  of  tuber,  swelling,  tumor,  knob  on 
plants),  or  Consumption.  An  infectious  dis¬ 
ease,  caused  by  the  Bacillus  tuberculosis,  char¬ 
acterized  by  the  formation,  in  the  tissues,  of 
nodular  bodies,  called  tubercles,  and  manifested 
symptomatically  by  fever,  cough,  dyspnoea,  and 
progressive  loss  of  strength.  The  disease  is 
widespread  and  causes  about  one-seventh  of  the 
deaths  throughout  the  world.  Its  clinical  fea¬ 
tures  were  recognized  many  centuries  ago,  and 
Hippocrates  and  Galen  described  them  very  accu¬ 
rately;  but  it  was  not  until  the  growth  of 
anatomical  study  in  the  seventeenth  and  eight¬ 
eenth  centuries  that  the  characteristic  lesions 
(tubercles)  were  recognized  and  associated  with 
the.  disease.  Important  additions  to  the  patho¬ 
logical  knowledge  of  tuberculosis  were  made  in 
the  nineteenth  century.  Virchow’s  work  in  cellu¬ 
lar  pathology  and  finally  Koch’s  brilliant  dis¬ 
covery  of  the  causative  liacillus  in  1882  settled 
all  doubts  as  to  the  genesis  and  pathology  of  the 
disease,  and  since  then  nothing  essential  has 
been  added  to  our  knowledge  concerning  it. 

Consumption  prevails  in  all  latitudes.  Towards 
the  poles  and  in  very  high  altitudes  the  mor- 


TUBERCULOSIS  526 


TUBERCULOSIS 


talitv  is  somewhat  lower.  No  race  is  exempt, 
but  negroes  and  Indians,  and  other  laces  to 
whom  the  disease  is  comparatively  new,  are 
especially  susceptible.  In  rare  instances  the 
disease  is  congenital,  derived  from  the  motliei  ; 
there  has  been  found  no  proof  of  paternal  trans¬ 
mission  either  in  man  or  animals.  Hereditary 
predisposition  has  been  thought  to  play  an  ini- 
portant  role  in  determining  the  disease  in  in¬ 
dividuals.  Children  of  tuberculous  parents  are 
believed  to  be  more  liable  than  others  to  con¬ 
tract  consumption.  A  predisposition  to  tuber- 
culosis  is  acquired  under  conditions  that  seri¬ 
ously  lower  vital  resistance.  Among  those  are 
overcrowding,  deficient  ventilation,  poor  food, 
prolonged  and  exhausting  disease,  pregnancy  and 
lactation,  and  unhealthful  occupations,  such  as 
olass  blowing,  coal  mining,  street  sweeping,  ex¬ 
posure  to  cold  and  damp,  and  the  excessive  use 
of  alcohol.  The  pulmonary  complications  fol¬ 
lowing  measles  and  whooping  cough  in  children 
are  often  forerunners  of  a  tuberculous  deposit 
in  the  lungs. 

The  direct  medium  of  contagion  is  the  sputum 
of  the  tuberculous  patient.  The  number  of 
bacilli  thrown  off  in  this  manner  is  enormous. 
The  sputum  becomes  dry  and  desiccated,  the 
bacilli  are  distributed  by  the  dust  and  obtain 
entrance  to  the  body  again  through  the  respira¬ 
tory  tract.  The  flesh  or  milk  of  tuberculous 
cattle  is  capable  of  transmitting  the  disease 
both  to  man  and  to  other  animals.  Many  cases 
of  intestinal  and  mesenteric  tuberculosis  in  chil¬ 
dren  are  attributable  to  this  source.  Finally, 
infection  can  be  brought  about  by  direct  in¬ 
oculation. 

When  the  tubercle  bacilli  have  once  definitely 
invaded  the  lungs  the  disease  may  be  fatal  in 
three  or  four  months,  or  from  10  to  15  years 
may  elapse  between  infection  and  death.  During 
this  time  it  may  be  quiescent  for  months  or  a 
year  or  more.  Two  types  are  usually  recognized. 
The  rapid  form  (galloping  consumption)  begins 
after  a  cold  or  exposure,  with  rapidly  rising 
temperature,  pain  in  the  side,  difficult  breath¬ 
ing,  rust-colored  sputum  and  consolidation  of  one 
or  more  lobes  of  a  lung:  in  other  words,  like 
an  attack  of  pneumonia.  Instead,  however,  of 
improving  at  the  end  of  the  tenth  day,  the  symp¬ 
toms  become  graver,  the  fever  continues  high, 
the  lung  is  rapidly  softened  and  destroyed,  and 
the  patient  rapidly  succumbs.  The  second  type, 
sometimes  called  chronic  ulcerative  tuberculosis, 
comes  on  more  slowly  and  runs  a  longer  course 
and  includes  the  majority  of  cases  of  pulmonary 
tuberculosis.  The  disease  begins  with  a  slight 
but  annoying  and  unproductive  cough,  a  slight 
afternoon  temperature,  loss  of  appetite,  and 
gradually  increasing  weakness.  As  the  trouble 
progresses,  the  cough  becomes  severe  and  con¬ 
stant,  with  yellow  or  whitish  expectoration, 
containing  usually  multitudes  of  bacilli,  and 
sometimes  tinged  with  blood.  Fever  is  higher 
in  the  afternoon  and  evening  and  the  tempera¬ 
ture  rarely  drops  to  normal.  Night  sweats, 
pains  in  the  chest,  steadily  progressing  weak¬ 
ness,  dyspnoea,  and  wasting  are  now  present. 
Occasionally  quantities  of  blood  are  brought  up 
(haemoptysis)  during  a  paroxysm  of  coughing. 
It  is  bright  red,  frothy,  and  due  to  the  ulceration 
of  an  artery  of  some  size.  The  course  is  not 
always  fatal;  the  disease  may  be  arrested  at 
any  stage,  and  partial  or  complete  healing  take 
place,  leaving  scars  or  cavities  in  the  lung. 
Improvement  may  be  only  temporary  and  the 


process  start  up  again  under  favorable  condi¬ 
tions.  In  fatal  cases  the  last  stage  is  marked 
bv  an  exhausting  diarrhoea,  and  swelling  of  the 
lower  extremities.  Death  may  take  place  sud¬ 
denly  from  hemorrhage  or  gradually  from  ex¬ 
haustion  and  profound  toxamia.  Examination 
of  the  chest  shows  a  deficient  expansion  of  the 
ribs,  rapid  heart  action,  exaggerated  voice 
sounds,  irregular  and  high-pitched  respiration, 
and  different  varieties  of  rales,  depending  on  the 
stage  of  the  morbid  process.  Diagnosis  of  the 
disease  depends  on  these  symptoms  and  physical 
signs,  and  on  finding  tubercle  bacilli  in  the  spu¬ 
tum.  The  X-ray  photograph  is  a  reliable  means 
of  distinguishing  lesions  in  the  lungs,  peribron¬ 
chial  glands,  and  bones.  Tuberculin  (q.v.)  is 
even  more  widely  applicable  in  diagnosis,  but 
the  reaction  is  apt  to  occur  in  patients  with 
healed  lesions  as  well  as  in  those  with  active 
processes. 

The  prevention  of  tuberculosis  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  problems  with  which  the  sani¬ 
tarian  has  to  grapple,  the  disease  being  so 
widely  disseminated,  and  so  insidious  in  its 
approaches.  Efforts  in  this  direction  are  mainly 
directed  to  destroying  tuberculous  cattle,  segre¬ 
gation  of  tuberculous  individuals,  and  destruc¬ 
tion  of  their  sputum.  Municipal  ordinances 
against  spitting  in  public  places  have  been 
passed  in  many  cities.  Tuberculous  persons 
should  always  use  for  their  sputum  special  re¬ 
ceptacles,  which  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected 
and  burned.  Boards  of  health  in  the  larger  cities 
require  physicians  to  report  cases  in  private 
life  and  see  that  precautions  against  contagion 
are  observed. 

Individuals  predisposed  to  consumption  should 
lead  an  exceptionally  careful  life  in  an  equable 
climate  and  out  of  'doors.  Particular  attention 
should  be  given  to  keeping  the  upper  respiratory 
passages  in  a  healthy  condition  and  guarding 
against  colds.  Tuberculosis  is  a  curable  disease 
in  its  earlier  stages.  Spontaneous  cure  is  an 
everyday  phenomenon,  and  a  large  proportion 
of  individuals  dying  of  other  diseases  are  found 
on  autopsy  to  possess  healed  tuberculous  lesions 
in  the  lungs. 

There  is  no  successful  specific  treatment. 
Koch’s  tuberculin  and  its  various  modifications 
and  the  different  antitoxins  and  antitubercle 
serums  are  being  used,  but  have  to  be  adminis¬ 
tered  with  great  circumspection.  The  treatment 
of  consumption  is  in  most  cases  best  carried  out 
in  well-regulated  sanatoria,  where  the  patient’s 
life  and  habits  are  under  expert  surveillance. 
The  main  objects  in  view  are  to  place  the  suf¬ 
ferer  in  an  environment  favorable  for  the  attain¬ 
ment  of  the  best  possible  nutrition,  to  relieve 
the  cough,  sweats,  and  other  wearing  symptoms, 
and  to  give  medicines  that  tend  to  check  the 
progress  of  the  disease.  Fresh  air  is  an  essen¬ 
tial"  consideration,  whether  treatment  is  carried 
on  in  sanatoria  or  at  home.  In  general,  a  dry, 
germ-free,  bracing  atmosphere,  with  an  equable 
temperature  and  plenty  of  sunlight,  where  the 
patient  can  live  out  of  doors,  should  be  selected. 
There  is  no  advantage  in  sending  patients  with 
inevitably  fatal  lesions  away  from  home.  The 
patient  should  sleep  out  of  doors,  even  in  stormy 
weather,  if  sheltered.  Exercise  should  stop  short 
of  fatigue.  The  mental  condition  of  the  patient 
is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  cheerful  sur¬ 
roundings  and  occupation  should  be  chosen  where 
possible.  Thus  sanatoria  for  the  tuberculous 
have  been  established  on  the  seashore,  in  the 


TUBERCULOSIS 


527 


TUBERCULOSIS 


desert,  and  in  the  mountains,  often  supported  by 
private  charity,  a  municipality,  or  State,  by 
unions  of  workingmen  or  by  employers,  in  which 
the  treatment  consists  in  living  in  the  open  air, 
with  exercise  and  nourishing  food,  with  or  with¬ 
out  tuberculin,  under  medical  supervision.  Simi¬ 
lar  sanatoria  have  been  opened  for  tuberculous 
children,  and  a  special  treatment  developed  in 
Switzerland  has  been  accepted  in  Europe  and  the 
L  nited  States.  It  is  given  in  sanatoria,  situated 
in  sheltered  localities  in  great  altitudes,  and 
consists  in  exposing  the  whole  body  of  the  tuber¬ 
culous  child  in  the  open,  even  in  snow  at  a. 
temperature  below  freezing  point,  to  the  rays 
of  the  sun  for  a  period  ranging  from  a  few 
minutes  to  an  hour.  Astonishingly  good  results 
have  been  reported. 

Of  drugs,  the  creosote  group,  cod-liver  oil,  and 
the  calcium  salts  are  valuable.  Cod-liver  oil 
improves  the  nutrition,  acting  better  in  children 
than  in  adults,  and  better  in  glandular  and  bone 
tuberculosis  than  in  pulmonary.  The  emulsified 
fats  or  cream  are  good  substitutes  wfiien  cod-liver 
oil  cannot  be  taken.  Iron,  arsenic,  strychnine, 
and  similar  tonics  are  given  according  to  indica¬ 
tions.  Fever  is  combated  by  rest,  fresh  air,  and 
small  doses  of  quinine;  severe  cough  by  opiates; 
night  sweats  by  belladonna,  strychnine,  and  the 
mineral  acids;  hemorrhage  by  complete  rest, 
large  doses  of  morphine,  and  suprarenal  extract, 
with  ice  over  the  point  of  bleeding  when  it  can 
be  located.  Vomiting,  headache,  indigestion, 
diarrhoea,  etc.,  must  be  managed  as  in  other 
diseases. 

In  1906  Behring  (q.v. )  announced  that  after 
extracting  certain  substances  from  the  tubercle 
bacilli  with  salt  water  and  then  with  alcohol 
and  ether,  he  powdered  the  bacilli  and  injected 
them  subcutaneously  with  success.  Practically 
the  same  method  has  been  pursued  by  Von 
Ruck,  of  Asheville,  N.  C.,  since  1897. 

Attempts  to  treat  the  disease  locally  by  means 
of  inhalation  of  antiseptic  vapors,  and  ozonized 
air,  and  later  by  the  X  ray  and  concentrated  sun¬ 
light,  have  had  a  small  measure  of  success. 

Surgical  treatment  of  tuberculosis  of.  the 
lungs  consists  in  producing  temporary  collapse 
of  the  affected  lung  by  nitrogen  displacement, 
the  lung  being  flattened  against  the  mediastinum 
and  a  pneumothorax  established.  If  such  tem¬ 
porary  collapse  is  impossible  on  account  of  the 
adherence  of  the  two  layers  of  the  pleura,  perma¬ 
nent  solidification  of  the  lung  is  effected  by 
resection.  Success  has  been  reported  of  such 
surgical  treatment  of  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs 
in  those  cases  in  which  (1)  the  disease  is  pro¬ 
gressive,  despite  a  two  or  three  months’  trial 
of  sanatorium  and  tuberculin  treatment,  (2) 
the  disease  is  complicated  by  marked  secondary 
infection  of  tuberculous  cavities,  (3)  severe  and 
repeated  spitting  of  blood  occurs. 

Tuberculosis  attacks,  primarily  or  secondarily, 
the  lymph  glands,  bones,  joints,  intestines,  peri¬ 
toneum,  brain,  kidneys,  bladder,  spleen,  liver, 
pleurae,  lungs,  pericardium,  heart,  generative 
organs,  eye,  and  skin.  Its  manifestations  in 
these  situations  are  described  in  the  articles  on 
Adenitis;  Bladder;  Brtght’s  Disease;  Lupus; 
Meningitis  ;  Pericarditis  ;  Peritonitis  ;  Pleu¬ 
risy  ;  Pyelitis  ;  Scrofula  ;  etc. 

Pathology  and  Bacteriology.  Tuberculosis 
is  invariably  due  to  the  presence  in  the  body 
and  to  the  action  upon  the  body  tissues  of  a 
specific  microorganism  known  as  the  tubercle 
bacillus. 


The  organism  is  a  thin  bacillus  from  three 
to  four  micromillimeters  long,  i.e.,  about  one-half 
the  diameter  of  a  red  blood  cell.  It  is  often 
slightly  curved  and  there  is  a  marked  tendency 
of  the  bacilli  to  hang  together,  two  often  lying  in 
the  shape  of  a  letter  V.  The  bacillus  grows  on 
ordinary  culture  media  at  body  temperature,  but 
the  growth  is  extremely  slow.  Thus,  cultures  on 
blood  serum  or  on  nutrient  agar  rarely  show  anv 
signs  of  growth  earlier  than  two  weeks,  when 
thin  grayish  dry  scales  begin  to  appear  on  the 
surface  of  the  medium.  Cultures  grow  best  in 
the  dark ;  in  fact,  the  bacillus  is  killed  by  expo¬ 
sure  for  a  few  hours  to  the  direct  Tays*  of  the 
sun.  From  a  pure  culture  successive  cultures 
may  be  made  indefinitely.  Such  cultures  show  a 
gradual  loss  of  virulence,  but  no  changes  in 
morphology.  See  Plate  of  Disease  Germs. 

The  bacillus  stains  with  difficulty  with  the 
aniline  dyes,  but  when  once  stained  retains  the 
dye  with  great  tenacity.  This  process  consists 
in  treating  a  suspected  specimen  with  a  strong 
solution  of  a  red  dye  known  as  fuchsin,  to  which 
carbolic  acid  has  been  added  to  increase  its  pene¬ 
trating  powers.  After  staining,  the  specimen  is 
washed  in  dilute  acid,  which  extracts  the  stain 
from  all  other  bacteria.  The  tubercle  bacilli 
retain  the  red  stain  in  spite  of  the  action  of  the 
acid  and  may  thus  be  differentiated.  Three 
types  of  tubercle  bacilli  are  recognizable  by  their 
individual  characters,  the  human,  bovine,  and 
avian  types.  The  human  type,  although  so 
named,  is  not  the  only  one  found  in  man;  it  is 
the  organism  present  in  the  majority  of  cases,  but 
in  some  cases  of  the  human  disease  the  bacilli 
are  of  the  bovine  type.  The  human  bacillus 
produces  a  fatal  tuberculosis  in  guinea  pigs, 
chimpanzees,  and  monkeys,  but  only  slight  in 
cattle,  goats,  and  pigs.  The  bovine  tubercle 
bacillus  produces  a  fatal  tuberculosis  in  cattle, 
rabbits,  guinea  pigs,  chimpanzees,  monkeys, 
goats,  and  pigs.  Fowls  are  very  susceptible  to 
the  avian  bacillus,  but  among  the  mammals 
only  the  rabbit  and  the  mouse  are  affected,  while 
in  the  other  experimental  mammals  the  bacillus 
never  produces  tuberculosis.  The  differentiation 
of  the  three  types  of  bacilli  is  rather  difficult 
and  the  differences  are  not  permanent  and  stable. 

The  changes  which  the  tubercle  bacillus  causes 
in  the  body  tissues  are  various.  Thus  it  may 
stimulate  the  passage  of  serum  and  white  blood 
cells  from  the  blood  vessels  into  the  tissues, 
causing  an  exudative  inflammation;  or  it  may 
stimulate  the  production  of  new  connective  tis¬ 
sue,  causing  what  is  known  as  a  productive 
inflammation;  or  its  effects  may  be  more  severe 
and  lead  to  death  of  tissue  or  necrotic  inflamma¬ 
tion.  Any  one  of  these  effects  may  be  produced 
separately,  or,  as  is  commonly  the  case,  they 
are  combined.  The  most  distinctive  feature  of 
the  action  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  in  the  body 
is  the  production  of  tubercles  or  tubercle  tissue. 
This  tubercle  tissue  may  occur  either  as  the 
nodular  tubercle  or  as  diffuse  tubercle  tissue. 
In  the  production  of  the  tubercle  the  bacilli,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  extensive  researches  of  Baum- 
garten,  first  cause  a  proliferation  of  the  connec¬ 
tive  tissue  elements  with  the  production  of  epi¬ 
thelioid  and  giant  cells.  Following  this  is  an  in¬ 
flammatory  reaction  with  the  exudation  of  serum 
and  white  blood  cells.  The  tubercle,  which  is 
now  fully  developed,  may  next  undergo  degenera¬ 
tive  changes  consisting  of  either  caseation  or 
sclerosis.  Caseation  begins  in  the  centre  of  the 
growth  and  consists  in  a  degeneration  of  the  cells 


TUBERCULOSIS 


TUBERCULOSIS 


523 

and  their  reduction  to  a  homogeneous,  struc¬ 


tureless  mass.  Coincident  with  the  caseation  or 
following  it  is  a  sclerosis  by  which  the  tubercle 
is  converted  into  a  firm,  hard  substance  com¬ 
posed,  of  connective  tissue  rich  in  fibres. 

Small  tuberculous  nodules  are  called  miliary 
tubercles.  Seen  with  the  naked  eye  the  nodular 
tubercle  is  a  small  white,  gray,  or  yellowish 
body,  the  smallest  not  visible  without  a  micro¬ 
scope.  Microscopically  these  tubercles  show 
around  their  edges  proliferated  connective  tissue 
and  endothelial  cells,  with  often  some  giant  cells, 
while  the  centre  is  composed  of  tissue  under¬ 
going  caseation  or  coagulation  necrosis.  Tu¬ 
bercle  bacilli  may  be  few  or  numerous. 

Diffuse  tubercle  tissue  usually  results  from  a 
rather  extensive  local  infection  resulting  in 
many  small  foci  near  together.  From  these 
tubercles  start  to  grow,  and  these  coalescing 
form  considerable  areas  of  tubercle  tissue.  In . 
addition  to  the  formation  of  tubercles  the  bacilli 
or  the  presence  of  the  tubercle  tissue  may  set 
up  secondary  inflammatory  processes. 

Suppuration  in  connection  with  tuberculous 
inflammation  frequently  occurs.  In  the  so-called 
cold  abscess,  however,  the  fluid  is  not,  properly 
speaking,  pus,  but  the  products  of  breaking  down 
of  the  tubercles.  True  suppuration  in  tuber¬ 
culous  conditions  is  due  to  what  is  known  as 
mixed  infection,  i.e.,  the  presence  of  pyogenic 
cocci  as  well  as  tubercle  bacilli. 

Acute  general  miliary  tuberculosis  is  charac¬ 
terized  by  a  rapid  development  of  tubercles,  usu¬ 
ally  of  small  size,  in  many  parts  of  the  body  at 
about  the  same  time.  The  number  of  tubercles 
is  frequently  very  large.  One  of  the  explanations 
offered  for  such  sudden  general  diffusion  of  tu¬ 
bercles  is  that  the  infection  is  secondary  to  tu¬ 
bercles  located  in  the  walls  of  some  of  the  small 
blood  vessels  or  lymphatics. 

Pulmonary  tuberculosis,  tuberculosis  of  the 
lungs,  lung  consumption,  or  most  commonly 
called  simply  consumption,  is  a  form  of  tuber¬ 
culous  infection  in  which  the  only  or  the  most 
prominent  lesions  are  in  the  lungs.  The  bacilli 
usually  gain  entrance  by  being  taken  into  the 
lungs  with  the  inspired  air.  Less  commonly  in¬ 
fection  of  the  lung  may  occur  through  bacteria 
brought  to  them  by  means  of  the  blood  or  lymph 
channels  from  tubercular  foci  in  other  parts 
of  the  body.  Several  factors  must  be  consid¬ 
ered  as  determining  the  character  of  the  in¬ 
flammation  which  the  tubercle  bacillus  may  in¬ 
duce  in  the  lungs.  Among  these  may  be  men¬ 
tioned  the  number  of  bacilli  introduced,  their 
virulence,  the  manner  in  which  they  enter  the 
lungs,  whether  in  respiration  or  by  means  of  the 
blood  or  lymph,  the  susceptibility  of  the  indi¬ 
vidual,  etc.  As  a  result  of  variation  in  these 
factors  we  find  a  variation  in  the  character  of 
the  inflammation  set  up.  Thus  there  may  result 
an  exudative  inflammation  in  which  the  air 
spaces  of  the  lung  and  the  smaller  bronchi  are 
filled  with  serum,  leucocytes,  fibrin,  and  cast-off 
epithelium.  Such  reaction  is  quite  similar  to 
that  induced  by  the  pneumococcus  in  pneumonia. 
On  the  other  hand,  instead  of  an  exudative  in¬ 
flammation,  the  tubercle  bacillus  may  bring 
about  the  production  of  new  tissue,  i.e.,  a  pro¬ 
ductive  inflammation.  This  new  tissue  is  com¬ 
posed  of  small  round  cells  and  epithelioid  cells, 
such  as  have  been  described  above  as  tubercle 
tissue. 

While  it  is  common  for  these  different  lung- 
tissue  reactions  to  tuberculous  infection  to  be 


associated,  the  predominance  of  one  or  another 
allows  us  to  differentiate  several  quite  distinct 
types  of  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs. 

Acute  Miliary  Tuberculosis  of  the  Lungs. 
This  occurs  usually  as  a  part  of  a  general 
miliary  tuberculosis,  although  it  may  be  difficult 
to  find  lesions  in  other  organs.  The  tubercles 
are  found  in  both  lungs,  lying  in  the  lung  tissue 
proper,  in  the  walls  of  the  vessels  and  bronchi, 
or  in  the  connective-tissue  septa.  These  tubercles 
may  go  on  to  suppuration.  They  may  coalesce 
to  form  larger  tubercles.  On  the  other  hand,  in¬ 
stead  of  breaking  down,  the  tissue  is  sometimes 
converted  into  masses  with  or  without  calcified 
centres.  These  are  known  as  healed  tubercles, 
and  may  or  may  not  contain  tubercle  bacilli. 

Tuberculous  Broncho-Pneumonia.  In  this 
form  of  tuberculous  infection  of  the  lungs,  the 
tuberculous  areas  occur  in  the  walls  of  the 
smaller  bronchi  and  in  the  contiguous  lung 
tissue.  In  its  early  stages  the  inflammation  is 
mostly  catarrhal,  there  being  a  more  or  less 
extensive  exudate  into  the  affected  bronchi.  As 
more  and  more  bronchi  are  affected,  there  is 
frequently  a  coalescence  of  adjacent  areas,  with 
the  formation  of  quite  large  masses  of  consolida¬ 
tion.  These  breaking  down  form  cavities. 

The  term  “phthisis”  is  sometimes  applied  to 
this  form  and  to  diffuse  exudative  tuberculous 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  which  may  be  either 
acute  or  chronic.  In  the  acute  form  extensive 
areas  of  lung  tissues  may  be  involved,  become 
consolidated,  and,  undergoing  necrosis,  result  in 
the  formation  of  large  cavities.  In  the  chronic 
form  there  is  a  slower  involvement  of  the  lung 
tissues,  and  there  is  apt  to  be  more  fibrous  tis¬ 
sue,  especially  in  the  walls  of  cavities.  This 
fibrous  tissue  lining  often  contains  enormous 
numbers  of  tubercle  bacilli,  which  are  cast  off  in 
the  sputum.  It  also  furnishes  a  lodging  place 
for  pyogenic  cocci,  which  cause  suppuration  of 
the  membrane,  and  it  is  not  at  all  improbable 
that  these  pyogenic  cocci  are  very  largely  con¬ 
cerned  in  the  formation  of  the  cavities  them¬ 
selves.  This  secondary  infection  is  also  largely 
responsible  for  the  bronchitis  and  yellow  or 
greenish  expectoration  which  so  usually  accom¬ 
panies  phthisis.  Blood  vessels  stretch  across 
these  cavities  or  lie  exposed  in  their  walls,  to  be 
broken  either  by  an  extension  of  the  disease  it¬ 
self  or  from  a  strain  too  sudden  for  their  weak¬ 
ened  walls.  In  this  way  may  be  caused  the 
hemorrhages  so  frequently  associated  with 
phthisis. 

The  most  frequent  site  of  tubercles  in  the 
adult  lung  is  the  apex,  although  the  initial  lesion 
may  occur  in  any  part  of  the  organ.  In  children 
the  bronchial  lymph  nodes  are  usually  first  af¬ 
fected.  Healed  tubercles  of  the  apex  are  found 
in  a  large  proportion  of  autopsies. 

Tuberculosis  of  Serous  Membranes.  Tuber¬ 
culous  pleurisy  may  be  secondary  to  pulmonary 
disease,  or  may  occur  independently  of  any 
lesion  in  the  lung  proper.  Tuberculous  peri¬ 
tonitis  may  be  primary,  but  is  more  frequently 
associated  with  tuberculous  disease  of  some  adja¬ 
cent  organs.  In  some  cases  minute  tubercles  are 
scattered  over  a  part  or  all  of  the  peritoneum 
and  are  usually  accompanied  by  a  serous  or 
serofibrinous  exudate.  Tuberculous  pericarditis 
may  be  primary  or  secondary,  acute  or  chronic. 
In  the  acute  miliary  form  the  membrane  is 
studded  with  tubercles  and  there  is  usually  some 
serofibrinous  exudate.  In  chronic  cases  the 
membrane  is  thickened,  adherent,  and.  usually 


TUBERCULOSIS 


529  TUBERCULOSIS 


shows  several  cheesy  tubercular  masses.  The 
bronchial  and  mediastinal  lymph  nodes  are  regu¬ 
larly  involved. 

Tuberculosis  occurs  in  bones,  periosteum,  and 
joints.  Abscesses  are  sometimes  formed,  and  the 
adjacent  joints  are  frequently  involved.  The 
spongy  parts  of  the  bone  are  more  susceptible 
than  the  hard  parts.  The  vertebrae,  carpal  and 
tarsal  bones  are  most  commonly  affected.  The 
chronic,  purulent  periostitis  of  poorly  nourished 
children  is  frequently  tuberculous.  For  descrip¬ 
tion  of  the  lesion  in  tuberculous  arthritis,  see 
Synovitis. 

Genitourinary  System.  Tuberculosis  of  the 
kidney  may  be  primary  or  secondary.  There 
may  be  small  nodules  in  the  kidney  proper,  or 
in  the  pelvis;  or  there  may  be  quite  large  areas 
of  tubercular  tissue  with  necrosis.  These  may 
occur  in  only  one  kidney  or  in  both  kidneys. 
\\  ith  much  destruction  of  kidney  tissue,  cavities 
or  cysts  are  formed,  in  some  cases  the  kidney 
being  almost  wholly  replaced  by  cysts  of  various 
size.  There  is  apt  to  be  thickening  of  the  pelvis 
and  tubercle  tissue  in  its  walls.  Tuberculosis 
of  the  ureter  and  bladder  is  almost  always 
secondary,  especially  to  disease  of  the  kidney 
pelvis.  Small  tubercles  or  patches  of  tubercle 
tissue  are  present  in  the  ureter  or  bladder  walls. 

1  uberculosis  of  the  testes  and  epididymis  occurs 
as  a  primary  lesion  or,  more  frequently,  sec¬ 
ondary  to  lesions  elsewhere.  In  tuberculosis  of 
the  Fallopian  tubes,  the  tubes  are  enlarged, 
their  walls  thickened,  and  the  lumen  usually 
filled  with  cheesy  matter.  Both  tubes  are  fre¬ 
quently  involved.  Adhesions  and  the  formation 
of  abscesses  are  common  results. 

Liver.  Miliary  tubercles  of  the  liver  are  quite 
common  as  a  part  of  a  general  miliary  tubercu¬ 
losis.  Sometimes  the  tubercles  are  among  the 
liver  cells,  in  other  cases  they  develop  in  the 
walls  of  the  smaller  bile  vessels,  forming  ab¬ 
scesses.  Large  tuberculous  patches  having  a 
diameter  of  an  inch  or  more  are  sometimes  found. 
In  connection  with  the  tuberculous  process  there 
may  be  a  marked  increase  in  the  connective  tissue 
of  the  liver,  constituting  what  is  known  as  a 
tuberculous  cirrhosis. 

Lips,  Mouth,  etc.  In  tuberculosis  of  the  lips, 
which  is  a  rare  disease,  there  develops  on  the 
lip  an  extremely  sensitive  ulcer.  This  ulcer  has 
much  the  appearance  of  an  epithelioma  or  a 
chancre.  Tuberculous  laryngitis  is  most  fre¬ 
quently  secondary  to  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs. 
Miliary  tubercles  form  in  the  submucosa  and 
are  accompanied  by  a  catarrhal  inflammation  of 
the  mucous  membrane.  With  necrosis  of  the 
tubercles,  ulcers  are  formed.  These  ulcers  often 
run  together,  involve  adjacent  parts,  and  deter¬ 
mine  extensive  destruction  of  tissue.  Tubercu¬ 
losis  of  the  tongue  is  marked  by  the  appearance 
of  small  nodules  on  the  upper  surface  or  edge 
of  the  organ.  These  open  on  the  surface  and 
become  ulcers.  It  is  a  rare  condition  except 
when  associated  with  tuberculosis  of  other  parts. 
Tuberculosis  also  occurs  in  the  palate,  tonsils, 
pharynx,  oesophagus,  and  stomach.  The  lesions 
are  similar  to  those  described  in  other  mucous 
membranes,  i.e.,  the  formation  of  nodules,  a 
catarrhal  inflammation,  and  necrosis  with  the 
formation  of  ulcers. 

Intestines.  In  tuberculosis  of  the  intestines 
there  is  involvement  of  Pever’s  patches  and  of 
the  solitary  lymph  nodules' as  well  as  ulcers  of 
the  mucous  membrane  between  the  patches.  As 
a  primary  lesion  it  is  extremely  rare  in  adults, 


much  less  rare  in  children,  where  there  is  apt  to 
be  involvement  of  the  mesenteric  glands  or  a 
tubercular  peritonitis.  In  the  secondary  form  of 
the  disease  in  adults  the  lungs  are  the  usual  seat 
of  the  primary  lesion.  The  ulcers  occur  chieflv 
in  the  colon,  caecum,  and  ileum.  They  may  be 
'ery  extensive,  affecting  the  greater  portion  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  both  large  and  small 
intestines.  1  he  ulcers  are  irregular  in  shape, 
rough  in  outline,  their  long  axes  transverse  to 
the  lumen  of  the  gut.  They  usually  involve  not 
only  the  mucous  membrane,  but  also  the  sub¬ 
mucosa  and  muscular  coats.  They  rarely  per¬ 
forate.  With  healing  of  the  ulcers,  extensive 
scar  tissues  may  form,  so  contracting  the  bowel 
as  to  cause  stenosis.  Not  uncommonly  tubercles 
are  present  on  the  peritoneum  adjacent  to  the 
intestinal  ulcers.  Tuberculosis  of  the  rectum  is 
quite  frequently  associated  with  fistula,  the 
fistula  being  of  the  nature  of  a  tuberculous 
ulcer. 

Tuberculous  lesions  may  occur  in  the  brain 
as  part  of  a  general  process.  In  such  cases  it 
affects  the  meninges,  causing  meningitis,  usually 
associated  with  an  increase  in  the  fluid  within 
the  ventricles  (acute  hydrocephalus).  In 
chronic  tuberculosis  of  the  brain  the  lesion  is  a 
meningoencephalitis,  the  tubercles  affecting  both 
meninges  and  brain  tissue  proper.  The '  lesiQn 
is  usually  localized  and  there  are  in  most  cases 
several  nodules,  usually  attached  to  the  pia 
mater  and  extending  from  the  surface  into  the 
brain.  The  nodules  may  interfere  with  cere- 
in  al  circulation,  causing  softening,  or  may  in¬ 
cite  an  acute  meningitis.  The  pia  is  apt  to  be 
thickened  and  adherent  to  the  brain  surface. 
Instead  of  several  nodules  there  may  be  one 
large  solitary  tubercle.  Lesions  similar  to  those 
described  for  the  brain  may  occur  in  the  cord 
either  with  or  without  brain  lesions.  See  the 
articles  Bacteria;  Disease,  Germ  Theory  of. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  twentieth  century  an 
active  fight  was  waged  in  the  United  States 
against  this  scourge.  According  to  the  National 
Association  for  the  Study  and  Prevention  of 
Tuberculosis,  there  was  spent  in  1915  over  $22,- 
000,000  for  antituberculosis  work  in  the  United 
States;  over  100,000  people  were  employed  in  the 
campaign  against  this  disease;  there  were  800 
open-air  schools,  fresh-air  classes,  and  special  in¬ 
stitutions  for  tuberculous  and  amemic  children; 
450  tuberculosis  dispensaries  and  clinics  which 
treated  annually  over  100,000  cases;  600  sana¬ 
toria,  hospitals,  and  day  camps,  having  a  total 
bed  capacity  of  over  35,000 ;  1500  antituberculosis 
associations  and  committees,  including  50  State 
organizations.  The  death  rate  from  pulmonary 
tuberculosis  in  the  registration  area  for  1913 
was  127.7  per  100,000  population. 

Bibliography.  J.  B.  Huber,  Consumption : 
Its  Relation  to  Man  and  his  Civilization  (Phil¬ 
adelphia,  1906)  ;  Arthur  Latham,  Diagnosis  and 
Modern  Treatment  of  Pulmonary  Consumption 
(3d  ed.,  ib.,  1907);  T.  N.  Kelynack,  editor. 
Tuberculosis  in  Infancy  and  Childhood  (ib., 
1908)  ;  Arthur  Newsholme,  Prevention  of  Tuber¬ 
culosis  (New  York,  1908)  ;  F.  W.  Burton-Fan¬ 
ning,  Open-Air  Treatment  of  Pulmonary  Tuber¬ 
culosis  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1909)  ;  L.  B.  Lockard,  Tuber¬ 
culosis  of  the  Nose  and  Throat  (St.  Louis,  1909)  ; 

S.  G.  Bonney,  Pulmonary  Tuberculosis  and  its 
Complications  (2d  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1910)  ;  W. 
W.  Cheyne,  Tuberculous  Disease  of  the  Bones 
and  Joints  (Oxford,  1911)  ;  Report  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  Tuberculosis  (London,  191  i )  - 


TUBERCULOSIS 


TUBEROSE 


530 


William  Osier,  in  Practice  of  Modern  Medicine 
(new  ed.,  New  York,  1912);  W.  Weinberg,  Die 
Kinder  der  Tuberculosen  (Leipzig,  1913)  ;  W.  E. 
Cooke,  Position  of  the  X  Rays  in  the  Diagnosis 
and  Prognosis  of  Pulmonary  Tuberculosis  (Glas¬ 
gow,  1914)  ;  F.  Sylvan,  Consumption  and  its 
Cure  by  Physical  Exercises  (London,  1915)  ;  H. 
Vallow,  The  Care  and  After  Care  of  Consump¬ 
tion  (ib.,  1915)  ;  Arthur  Ransome,  Campaign 
against  Tuberculosis  (New  \ork,  1915). 

TUBERCULOSIS,  in  Animals.  This  disease 
in  the  lower  animals  is  now  recognized  as  caused 
by  three  types  of  the  Bacillus  tuberculosis  dis¬ 
tinct  from" the  human  type,  viz.,  the  bovine  and 
avian  types  and  the  type  occurring  in  cold¬ 
blooded  animals.  Horses,  sheep,  goats,  and  dogs 
are  rarely  affected;  poultry  and  parrots  fre¬ 
quently;  "cattle  and  hogs  most  commonly.  The 
annual  loss  in  the  United  States  due  to  tuber¬ 
culosis  in  farm  animals  was  estimated  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  in  1915  as  no  less  than 
$25,000,000  and  was  surpassed  only  by  the  loss 
from  hog  cholera  and  from  Texas  fever  and  the 
cattle  tick.  In  order  to  emphasize  the  impor¬ 
tance  of  this  affection  from  the  public-health 
standpoint  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  the 
bovine  type  when  ingested  in  milk  by  children 
may  produce  tuberculosis — forms  other  than 
phthisis.  As  a  result  of  investigations  and 
statistical  studies,  Park  and  Krumwiede,  well- 
known  authorities,  have  found  that  from  6  to 
10  per  cent  of  all  deaths  of  young  children  due 
to  tuberculosis  are  caused  by  the  bovine  type. 
The  cases  of  tuberculous  adenitis  and  abdominal 
tuberculosis  of  children  were  indeed  found  to  be 
more  often  caused  by  the  bovine  than  by  the  hu¬ 
man  type.  It  is  known  that  the  avian  type  may 
be  transmitted  to  other  farm  stock,  particularly 
the  pig.  Both  the  bovine  and  human  types  may 
cause  the  disease  in  parrots,  the  bovine  being 
the  more  virulent.  Other  birds  of  domestication 
possess  considerable  resistance  to  infection  with 
tubercle  bacilli  of  the  mammalian  types. 

European  and  American  statistics  from  tuber¬ 
culin  tests  and  from  meat  inspection  indicate 
that  from  5  to  50  per  cent  of  the  cattle  are 
affected.  Tubercles  may  be  found  locally  or 
generally  distributed  in  the  respiratory,  alimen¬ 
tary,  and  lymphatic  structures  and  in  the  bones 
of  the  animal  examined.  For  the  detection  of  in¬ 
cipient  cases  of  tuberculosis  in  cattle  tuberculin 
is  usually  employed.  This  substance  contains 
what  is  called  the  toxin  produced  during  the 
growth  of  the  bacillus,  but  does  not  contain  the 
living  organism.  When  subcutaneously  injected 
into  healthy  cattle  tuberculin  produces  no  re¬ 
action,  but  in  more  than  99  per  cent  of  affected 
cattle  an  elevation  of  from  1.5  to  3°  or  more 
of  body  temperature  and  a  slight  swelling  at  the 
point  of  injection  are  looked  for.  Animals  which 
show  these  symptoms  are  tuberculous  and  should 
be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  herd.  The 
tuberculin  may  also  be  applied  in  several  other 
ways,  which  are  known  as  the  ophthalmic,  der¬ 
mal,  and  intradermal  tuberculin  tests. 

Treatment  of  the  disease  in  the  domestic  ani¬ 
mals  is  not  seriously  considered  by  any  authori¬ 
ties  at  the  present  time.  In  suppressing  the  dis¬ 
ease  animals  reacting  to  the  tuberculin  test  are 
slaughtered.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease 
much  of  the  meat  may  be  saved  for  food.  Sev¬ 
eral  other  methods  of  procedure  have  been  sug¬ 
gested  for  use  with  valuable  breeding  animals 
that  are  affected.  Of  these,  the  method  of  Bang 
has  been  the  most  widely  employed,  especially  in 


Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway.  This  consists 
in  the  destruction  of  animals  in  which  the  dis¬ 
ease  can  be  detected  without  the  aid  of  the 
tuberculin  test,  and  the  separation  and  isolation 
of  other  animals  that  react  to  the  test.  Since 
calves  reared  from  affected  animals  are  usually 
born  healthy,  they  may  be  removed  at  birth 
from  the  isolated  cows  and  be  brought  up  by 
hand  or  upon  healthy  cows.  The  milk  of  react¬ 
ing  cows  may  be  used  if  it  is  first  boiled  or 
pasteurized.  Preventive  measures  are  cleanli¬ 
ness,  airy  quarters,  pure  water  and  food,  and 
free  range  upon  good,  well-managed  pastures. 

Bibliography.  James  Law,  Text  Book  of 
Veterinary  Medicine,  vol.  iv  (  2d  ed.,  Ithaca,  N.  T ., 
1905)  ;  Park  and  Krumwiede,  “The  Relative 
Importance  of  the  Bovine  and  Human  Types  of 
Tubercle  Bacilli  in  the  Different  Forms  of  Tu¬ 
berculosis,”  in  Journal  of  Medical  Research, 
vols.  xxiii,  xxv,.  xxvii  (Boston,  1910-12);  Bris¬ 
coe  and  MacNeal,  “Tuberculosis  of  Farm  Ani¬ 
mals,”  in  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin 
No.  lJf9  (Urbana,  1911)’;  Hutyra  and  Marek, 
Special  Pathology  and  Therapeutics  of  the  Dis¬ 
eases  of  Domestic  Animals,  vol.  i  (Chicago, 
1912)  ;  “Tuberculosis,”  in  United  States  De¬ 
partment  of  Agriculture,  Farmers’  Bulletin,  lfl3 
(Washington,  1912)  ;  V.  A.  Moore,  Bovine  Tuber¬ 
culosis  and  its  Control  (Ithaca,  1913)  ;  Van  Es 
and  Schalk,  “Avian  Tuberculosis,”  in  North 
Dakota  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  108 
(Bismarck,  1914)  ;  United  States  Bureau  of  Ani¬ 
mal  Industry,  Special  Report  on  Diseases  of 
Cattle  (rev.  ed.,  Washington,  1912). 


tuberose  ( Polianthes  tuber osa) . 


TUBEROSE,  tub'ros'  or  tu'ber-os'  (from  Lat. 
tuberosa,  fern.  sing,  of  tuberosus,  tuberous,  from 
tuber,  swelling,  tumor,  knob  on  plants ;  asso¬ 
ciated  by  popular  etymology  with  Eng.  tube 


TUBES 


531  TUBINGEN  SCHOOL 


rose) ,  Polianthes  tuberosa ■.  The  only  species 
of  its  genus,  which  belongs  to  the  family  Amaryl- 
lidaceoe.  The  plant,  which  is  a  native  of  Mexico, 
has  a  tall  stem  with  long  leaves  at  the  base  and 
shoi  ter  ones  towards  the  top  of  the  several- 
flowered  spike  of  very  fragrant  white  blossoms. 
The  plant  grows  well  in  mild  climates,  but  it 
bears  the  open  air  in  northern  countries  only 
during  the  summer.  Near  Grasse,  in  southern 
France,  the  tuberose  is  largely  grown  as  a 
source  of  perfume.  The  popularity  of  a  double- 
flowered  form  has  suffered  from  its  too  exten¬ 
sive  use  in  funeral  designs,  etc.  In  outdoor  cul¬ 
ture  in  mild  climates  the  plants  are  not  dis¬ 
turbed  during  the  winter,  but  in  northern  cli¬ 
mates  the  tuberous  rootstocks  are  taken  up  and 
stored  in  a  dry,  frost-proof  place.  In  the  colder 
regions  where  the  bulbs  fail  to  mature  completely 
they  are  imported  usually  towards  the  end  of  the 
year,  planted  in  pots,  and  given  bottom  heat. 
Y\  lien  danger  of  frost  has  passed  they  are  set 
in  light,  moist,  and  rich  soil  and  kept  well  sup¬ 
plied  with  water. 

TUBES.  See  Pipe. 

TLTBES  OF  FORCE.  See  Electkicity. 

TUBES  OF.  INDUCTION,  TUBES  OF 
MAGNETIC  FORCE.  See  Magnetism. 

TUBEUF,  tu'bef',  Karl,  Baron  von  (1862- 
) .  A  German  botanist,  born  at  Amorbach. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Munich,  where 
he  taught  from  1885,  becoming  professor  of  the 
anatomy,  physiology,  and  pathology  of  plants 
in  1902.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Im¬ 
perial  Board  of  Health  in  1899,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  director  of  its  biological  section  in 
1901.  He  founded  and  edited  several  scientific 
journals,  and  published:  Samen,  Friichte,  und 
Keimlinge  der  in  Deutschland  heimischen  oder 
eingefuhrten  forstlichen  Kulturpflanzen  (1891)  ; 
Pflanzenkrankheiten,  durch  kryptogame  Para- 
siten  verursacht  (1895;  Eng.  trans.,  Diseases  of 
Plants  Induced  by  Gryptogamic  Parasites,  1897)  ; 
Die  Nadelholzer  (1897);  Studien  iiber  die 
Brandkrankheiten  des  Getreides  (1901);  Wand- 
tafeln  iiber  Bauholzzerstorer  (1910). 

TUBE  WEAVER.  Any  one  of  the  tube¬ 
building  spiders  of  the  families  Drassidae  and 
Clubionidae.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  dark-colored 
spiders,  which  spin  no  web,  but  wander  about  at 
night  in  search  of  prey  and  hide  during  the  day¬ 
time.  They  make  silken  tubes  in  which  they 
hide  in  the  winter  and  while  molting  or  laying 
eggs.  See  Spider. 

^^BIERES,  tu'byar',  Anne  Claude  Philippe 
de.  See  Caylus,  Count  de. 

TUBIGON,  too'Be-gon'.  A  town  of  Bohol, 
Philippines,  situated  about  28  miles  northeast 
of  Tagbilaran  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  E  6). 
Pop.,  1903,  15,168. 

TUBINGEN,  tiFbing-en.  A  town  of  Wiirt- 
temberg,  Germany,  crowning  a  hill  on  the  upper 
Neckar,  18  miles  south-southwest  of  Stuttgart, 
on  the  edge  of  the  Black  Forest  (Map:  Germany, 

C  4).  It  owes  its  celebrity  chiefly  to  the  ancient 
university.  (See  Tubingen,  University  of.) 
The  antique  houses  and  narrow  streets  of  the  old 
part  of  the  town  give  it  a  quaint  appearance. 
St.  Georges  Church  ( Stiftskirche)  contains  a 
beautiful  choir,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
is  a  superb  edifice.  The  town  hall  is  an  inter¬ 
esting  timber-built  structure,  recently  restored. 
The  poet  Uhland,  who  was  born  in  Tubingen, 
is  commemorated  by  a  fine  statue.  On  a  "hill 
above  the  city  stands  the  interesting  Renaissance 


castle,  Hohentubingen,  completed  in  1540.  It 
affords  a  magnificent  view.  The  university  li¬ 
brary  and  observatory  are  here.  North  of  Tu¬ 
bingen  is  the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Beben- 
hausen  (1185),  an  exceptionally  fine  example  of 
Gothic  architecture.  It  has  beautiful  cloisters 
and  an  art  collection.  The  Protestant  seminary, 
dating  from  1536,  became  noted  under  Baur, 
who  founded  the  Tubingen  school  of  theology’ 
(See  Tubingen  School.)  There  is  also  a  Ro¬ 
man  Catholic  seminary.  Both  of  these  institu¬ 
tions  possess  good  libraries.  The  town  has  a 
suigical  clinic,  a  woman’s  hospital,  and  a  hospi¬ 
tal  for  the  insane.  The  manufacture  of  surgical 
and  scientific  instruments,  book  printing,  and 
the  cultivation  of  hops  and  the  vine  are  the 
leading  industries.  Pop.,  1900,  15,338;  1910 
16,809,  nearly  all  Protestants. 

Consult  K.  Fink,  Tubingen  (Zurich,  1891), 
and  Kliipfel  and  Eifert,  Geschichte  und  Beschrei- 
bung  der  Stadt  und  Universitdt  Tubingen  (2 
vols.,  Tubingen,  1894). 

TUBINGEN,  University  of.  A  German  uni¬ 
versity,  founded  in  14/  /  by  Count  Eberhard  im 
Bart  of  Wiirttemberg.  It  was  organized  with 
the  usual  four  faculties.  Reuchlin,  Melanehthon 
and  Heinrich  Bebel  taught  there  at  various 
times.  Under  Dukes  L  lrich  and  Christopher,  the 
university  took  an  active  part  in  the  Reforma¬ 
tion.  What  made  the  university  famous  in  its 
early  days  and  since  is  the  Protestant  seminary 
established  in  1536  for  the  education  of  evange¬ 
lical  ministers,  which  is  directly  under  the  Min¬ 
ister  of  Public  Worship  and  Education.  It  thus 
became  the  leading  theological  university  in 
Germany.  The  institution  maintained  a  steady 
growth  until  the  establishment  of  the  Karls- 
schule  by  Duke  Charles  Eugene,  when  it  suffered 
a  temporary  decline.  King  Frederick  took  away 
from  the  university  in  1811  most  of  its  rights 
and  privileges.  In  1817  the  Catholic  university 
founded  at  Ellwangen  in  1812  was  united  with 
Tubingen,  and  a  Roman  Catholic  theoloo-ical 
faculty  was  added ;  at  the  same  time  the  faculty 
of  political  science  was  created,  and  in  1863  was 
added  the  natural  science  faculty.  In  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century  the  institution  experienced  a  vig¬ 
orous  growth,  due  chiefly  to  the  great  theolo¬ 
gians,  such  as  Baur,  the  head  of  the  Tubingen 
school  of  criticism,  Strauss,  and  many  others. 
Since  1832  the  whole  university  has  practically 
been  rebuilt.  The  university  consists  of  the 
following  faculties:  (1)  Evangelical-theologi¬ 
cal;  (2)  Catholic-theological;  (3)  law;  (4) 
medicine ;  J5)  natural  science;  (6)  philosophy; 
(7)  _  political  science.  It  includes  numerous 
seminaries,  laboratories,  and  clinics.  The  library 
now  contains  over  550,000  volumes  and  nearly 
4213  manuscripts.  The  attendance  in  1913  was 
2329.  Consult  references  under  Tubingen 
TUBINGEN  SCHOOL.  A  term  applied  to 
a  modern  theological  movement  which  had  its 
origin  in  the  teachings  of  Ferdinand  Christian 
Baur  (q.v.),  of  the  University  of  Tubingen 
Though  he  was  unwilling  to  admit  that  he  was 
a  disciple  of  Hegel,  Baur’s  distinctive  and  guid¬ 
ing  principles  were  those  of  the  Hegelian  phi¬ 
losophy.  It  was  his  aim  to  reconstruct  the  his¬ 
tory  of  early  Christianity  so  that  it  would  be 
seen  to  be  in  harmony  with  the  laws  which 
everywhere  govern  historical  evolution.  He  be¬ 
gan  his  critical  work  with  the  Apostolic  a^e. 

In  1831  he  published  his  essay  Die  Christuspartei 
in  der  korinthischen  Gemeinde,  der  Gegensatz 
des  paulinischen  und  petrinischen  Christentums 


TUBINGEN  SCHOOL 


TUCKER, 


in  der  dltesten  Kirche,  der  Apostel  Petrus  in 
Rom.  In  this  were  foreshadowed  all  his  later 
critical  results.  His  position  was  that  the  early 
Apostolic  church  was  split  into  two  hostile 
factions,  Pauline  (Gentile)  and  Petrine  (Jew¬ 
ish),  between  which  there  was  a  bitter  conflict. 
Although  an  element  of  Jewish  Christianity  (the 
Ebionites)  remained  unreconciled  to  the  last, 
the  Pauline  party  (mainly  after  Paul’s  death) 
made  concessions,  and  thus  brought  about  a  re¬ 
conciliation  which  resulted  in  the  establishment 
of  the  Old  Catholic  church.  These  views  were 
elaborated  and  fully  stated  in  the  works:  TJeber 
die  sogenannten  Pastoralbriefe  (1835,  the  same 
year  in  which  Strauss’s  Leben  Jesu  appeared)  ; 
Paulas  der  Apostle  Jesu  Christi,  sein  Leben  and 
Wirken,  seine  Brief e  and  seine  LeJire  (1845;  2d 
ed.,  18G6)  ;  Die  kanonischen  Evangelien  (1847)  ; 
and  Das  Christentum  and  die  christliche  Kirche 
der  drei  ersten  Jahrhunderte  (1853).  Baur’s 
position  led  him  necessarily  into  a  thorough  re¬ 
construction  of  the  history  of  the  origin  of  the 
New  Testament  literature.  His  theory  demanded 
that  the  New  Testament  books  in  which  the  evi¬ 
dences  of  the  conflict  were  most  patent,  or  in 
which  either  of  the  two  conflicting  views  was 
positively  stated,  should  be  considered  earliest 
in  date.  Therefore,  Paul’s  four  genuine  letters 
(Rom.,  1  and  2  Cor.,  and  Gal.)  of  the  Pauline 
wing,  and  the  Apocalypse  by  John,  with  the  early 
Hebrew  form  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  of  the 
Petrine  or  Jewish  wing,  were  named  as  the 
earliest  productions  of  the  Apostolic  church. 
The  other  books  were  dated  according  to  the 
exigencies  of  the  general  theory — Mark,  as  al¬ 
together  neutral,  being  set  down  as  the  latest  of 
the  Synoptics,  and  with  our  Greek  Matthew, 
Luke,  Acts,  John,  and  the  Pastoral  Epistles 
placed  very  late,  altogether  outside  of  the  Apos¬ 
tolic  age.  In  Acts,  in  particular,  the  desire 
to  reconcile  the  two  parties,  even  at  the  ex¬ 
pense  of  genuine  Paulinism,  was  said  to  be  quite 
manifest.  This  criticism,  based  on  the  supposed 
tendency  ( Tendenz )  of  the  New  Testament  docu¬ 
ments  and  now  known  as  “tendency  criticism” 
(Tendenzkritik) ,  was  thoroughly  under  the  con¬ 
trol  of  the  Hegelian  conception  of  the  history, 
in  accordance  with  which  it  moves  from  unity 
through  conflict  into  reunity,  embodying,  as 
Hegel  formulated  it,  the  principles  of  “thesis, 
antithesis,  and  synthesis.”  Baur’s  theory,  prac¬ 
tically  unaltered,  was  advocated  with  great  bril¬ 
liancy  by  E.  Zeller  in  the  organ  of  the  school, 
the  Theologische  Jahrbucher  (from  1842  on), 
and  in  Die  Apostelgeschichte  nach  ihrem  Inhalt 
and  Ursprung  (1856),  by  A.  Schwegler  in  Das 
nachapostolische  Zeitalter  (1846),  and  by  Karl 
Planck  and  Karl  Kostlin  in  various  publications. 
Others  of  the  school  differed  from  the  master 
in  important  details,  though  fully  accepting 
his  main  principle.  Of  these  Volkmar  in  Swit¬ 
zerland,  Hilgenfeld  and  Holsten  in  Germany, 
Scholten  in  Holland,  S.  Davidson  in  England, 
may  be  cited  as  representatives.  David  F. 
Strauss  (1808-1874)  and  Bruno  Bauer  (1809- 
1882)  are  often  spoken  of  as  representatives  of 
the  Tubingen  School.  This,  however,  is  not 
strictly  correct  as  far  as  Strauss  is  concerned. 
He  was  influenced  both  by  Hegel  and  by  Baur 
in  his  early  years,  but  that  was  before  Baur  him- 
self  had  fully  formulated  his  views,  though  Bruno 
Bauer  wrote  under  the  full  influence  of  the 
movement.  In  fact,  the  position  of  Strauss 
and  of  Bruno  Bauer  was,  if  anything,  hostile  to 
that  of  the  Tubingen  School,  carrying  the  natu- 


532 

ralistic  principles  of  the  school  out  to  their  logi¬ 
cal  results,  and  saying,  in  the  case  of  Strauss, 
that  on  this  basis  there  was  no  outcome  short 
of  a  mythical  history,  and,  in  the  case  of  Bauer, 
that  on  this  basis  there  was  no  issue  but  an 
unhistorical  literature. 

The  most  important  defection  in  the  ranks  of 
Baur’s  disciples  was  that  of  Albrecht  Ritschl 
(q.v.),  who  in  the  second  edition  of  his  Die 
Entstehung  der  altkatholischen  Kirche  (  1857) 
asserted  that  it  was  a  mistake  to  explain  the 
origin  of  Old  Catholic  Christianity  as  a  union 
of  early  Jewish,  or  Petrine,  Christianity  and 
modified  Paulinism.  His  trenchant  criticism 
and  that  of  others  gradually  showed  the  base¬ 
lessness  of  many  of  Baur’s  positions.  At  his 
death  in  1858  it  was  already  evident  that  the 
dates  he  assigned  to  New  Testament  books  could 
no  longer  be  defended.  The  wdiole  theory,  in 
fact,  as  originally  formulated  by  Baur,  has  no 
advocates  at  the  present  time,  although  some 
scholars,  while  independent  of  any  formal  ad¬ 
hesion  to  Baur’s  theory,  are  at  one  with  the 
great  Tubingen  professor  on  important  points. 

Bibliography.  Besides  the  writings  noted 
above,  consult  I.  A.  Dorner,  History  of  Protestant 
Theology  (Eng.  trans.,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1871)  ; 

R.  M.  Mackay,  Tlve  Tubingen  School  and  its  Ad¬ 
herents  (London,  1863)  ;  E.  Reuss,  Geschichte 
der  heiligen  Schriften  des  Neuen  Testaments 
(2d  ed.,  Brunswick,  1890)  ;  Otto  Pfleiderer,  De¬ 
velopment  of  Theology  in  Germany  since  Kant 
(London,  1890)  ;  A.  C.  Zenos,  The  Elements  of 
the  Higher  Criticism  (New  York,  1895)  ;  H. 

S.  Nash,  The  History  of  the  Higher  Criticism  of 
the  New  Testament  (ib.,  1906)  ;  E.  C.  Moore, 
An  Outline  of  the  History  of  Christian  Thought 
since  Kant  (1912). 

TU'BULAE  BRIDGE.  See  Bridge. 
TU'BULIFLO'RZE.  One  of  the  great  divi¬ 
sions  of  Composite  (q.v.),  including  the  forms  in 
which  the  corolla  of  all  the  perfect  flowers  is 
tubular.  When  ray  flowers  are  present  they 
are  either  pistillate  or  neutral.  The  genera 
Eupatorium,  Aster,  and  Helianthus  (sunflower) 
are  good  representatives  of  this  series.  The  con¬ 
trasting  division  is  Liguliflorse,  in  which  all  the 
flowers  are  ligulate,  as  in  Taraxacum  (dande¬ 
lion  ) . 

TUBTJEAN,  tob'Bbo-ran'.  A  town  of  Cebu, 
Philippines,  situated  on  the  west  coast,  32  miles 
north  of  Cebu  (Map:  Philippine  Islands,  D  5). 
Pop.,  1903,  19,158. 

TUBUS.  A  Nigritian  people.  See  Tibbus. 
TUCANO,  too-ka'nd.  A  tribe  residing  upon 
the  Uaupes  River,  on  the  Brazil-Colombia  bor¬ 
der,  and  supposed  to  be  remotely  of  Arawakan 
stock  ( q.v. ) .  They  take  their  name  from  the 
toucan  bird.  They  tattoo  three  lines  upon  each 
cheek,  build  circular  houses  of  poles  covered 
with  palm  leaves,  are  good  canoemen,  and  are 
noted  for  their  skill  with  the  blowgun. 

TUCK,  Friar.  The  jolly  chaplain  and  boon 
•companion  of  Robin  Hood  and  his  men. 

TU CKAHOE,  tuk'a-ho'.  A  village  in  West¬ 
chester  Co.,  N.  Y.,  4  miles  from  New  York  City’s 
northern  limits,  on  the  New  York  Central  Rail¬ 
road  (Map:  New  York,  B  2).  It  is  the  seat  of 
Concordia  College.  There  are  lime  and  marble- 
dust  works,  marble  quarries,  and  manufactories 
of  rubber  goods,  wire,  furniture,  grease  guns,  and 
cabinets.  Pop. ,1910,  2722;  1915  (State  census), 
2753. 

TUCK'ER,  Abraham  (1705-74).  An  English 
moralist,  born  in  London.  He  studied  at  Merton 


TUCKER 


TUCKER 


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College,  Oxford,  and  was  entered  at  the  Inner 
.Temple,  but  never  called  to  the  bar.  Inheriting 
a  fortune  from  his  father,  he  purchased  in  1727 
Betchworth  Castle  and  estate,  near  Dorking, 
in  Surrey.  During  his  last  years  he  was  blind. 
Tucker’s  great  work  is  entitled  The  Light  of 
Nature  Pursued  (1768—78).  It  was  begun  in 
1/56,  and  occupied  most  of  his  remaining  years. 
It  extended  to  seven  volumes,  four  of  which 
were  published  in  the  author's  lifetime,  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Edward  Search.  It  consists 
of  disquisitions  on  metaphysics,  theology,  and 
morals,  of  remarkable  originality,  simplicitv  of 
humor,  and  ingenuity  of  illustration.  Consult 
his  11  orks,  edited  with  a  Life  by  H.  Mildmay 
(London,  1805;  several  times  reprinted). 

TUCKER,  Alfred  Robert  (1849-1914).  An 
English  bishop,  born  at  Windermere  and  edu¬ 
cated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  Ordained  in 
1882,  he  was  curate  at  Clifton  and  Durham  and 
was  also  identified  with  the  work  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society.  He  performed  notably 
fruitful  service  as  Bishop  of  Eastern  Equatorial 
Africa,  or  Mombasa,  from  1890  to  1899,  and  then, 
the  territory  having  been  divided,  as  Bishop  of 
Uganda.  In  1911  he  visited  England  to  raise 
funds  for  new  buildings  for  the  mission,  and 
while  there  was  offered  the  canonry  of  Durham, 
which  he  accepted  and  held  until  his  death! 
He  published  Eighteen  Years  in  Uganda  and 
East  Africa  (2  vols.,  1908;  new  ed.,  1911). 
TUCKER,  Benjamin  R(icketson)  (1854- 
) .  An  American  anarchist,  born  near  New 
Bedford,  Mass.  He  studied  at  the  Massachu¬ 
setts  Institute  of  Technology,  worked  in  a  print¬ 
ing  office,  and  in  1878  joined  the  editorial  staff 
of  a  Boston  newspaper.  Through  the  influence 
of  Josiah  Warren  (q.v.)  and  others  he  became 
interested  in  radical  thought,  and  made  a  special 
study  of  Proudhon’s  philosophy.  In  1877  he 
founded  a  quarterly,  The  Radical  Review,  which 
failed  of  support,  but  the  journal  Liberty,  estab¬ 
lished  in  1881,  came  to  be  known  as  one  of 
the  leading  anarchist  publications.  Tucker 
adopted  Proudhon’s  views  on  economy,  but  in 
other  respects  his  philosophy  closely  follows 
Herbert  Spencer.  Besides  translations  from 
Bakunin,  Proudhon,  and  others  his  writings  in¬ 
clude  Instead  of  a  Book  (1893;  2d  ed.,  1897), 
which,  in  part,  gives  his  philosophy  of  anarchism, 
and  State  Socialism  and  Anarchism  (1899). 
See  Anarchism,  History  of  the  Theory. 

TUCKER,  George  (1775—1861).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  author,  born  in  Bermuda.  Pie  was  grad¬ 
uated  at  William  and  Mary  College  in  1797, 
studied  law,  practiced  at  Lynchburg,  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Virginia  Legislature,  and  of  Con¬ 
gress  (1819-25),  gained  distinction  as  a  de¬ 
bater  and  constitutional  lawyer,  and  was  (1825- 
45)  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  political 
economy  in  the  University  of  Virginia.  He  was 
a  frequent  contributor  to  political  periodicals, 
and  published,  among  many  other  works,  Letters 
on  the  Conspiracy  of  Slaves  in  Virginia  (1800)  ; 
The  Valley  of  the  Shenandoah  (1824),  a  novel; 

A  Voyage  to  the  Moon,  a  satirical  romance 
(1827)  ;  Principles  of  Rent,  Wages,  and  Profits 
(  1837)  ;  Life  of  Thomas  Jefferson  (1837)  :  The 
Theory  of  Money  and  Banks  investigated  (1839)  ; 
Progress  of  the  United  States  in  Population  and 
Wealth  in  Fifty  Years  (1843);  History  of  the 
L  nited  States  (to  1841,  1856—58)  ;  Banks  or  No 
Banks  (1857)  ;  Essays,  Moral  and  Philosophical 
(1860).  His  History,  of  the  United  States  is 
still  a  work  of  some  importance. 


533 


TUCKER,  Henry  St.  George  (1780-1848). 
An  American  lawyer,  son  of  St.  George  Tucker 
(1752—1828)  and  father  of  John  Randolph 
lucker  (1823-97)  (qa.v. ).  Born  at  Williams- 
burg,  Y  a.,  and  educated  at  V  illiam  and  Mary 
College,  he  practiced  law  at  Winchester,  Va., 
served  as  a  volunteer  officer  in  the  War  of  1812, 
and  was  a  member  of  Congress  in  1815-19,  and 
a  member  of  the  Virginia  Senate  in  1819-23. 
Tucker  served  also  as  Chancellor  of  the  State 
(1824-31),  as  president-judge  of  the  Virginia 
Court  of  Appeals  (1831-41),  and  as  professor 
of  law  at  the  University  of  Virginia  (1841-45). 
He  published:  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  Vim 
ginia  (2  vols.,  1836-37);  Lectures  on  Constitu¬ 
tional.  Law  (1843);  Lectures  on  Natural  Laic 
and  Government  (1844). 

TUCKER,  Henry  St.  George  (1853-  ). 

An  American  lawyer  and  legal  scholar,  born  at 
Winchester,  Va.  He  was  educated  at  Washing¬ 
ton  and  Lee  University  (A.M.,  1875;  LL.B., 
1876),  and  after  admission  to  the  bar  practiced 
at  Staunton.  He  served  as  a  Representative 
in  Congress  from  1889  to  1897.  He  then  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father,  John  Randolph  Tucker  (1823- 
97)  (q.v.),  as  professor  of  constitutional  and  in¬ 
ternational  law  at  Washington  and  Lee,  being 
also  dean  of  the  law  school  from  1899  to  190if, 
and  from  1903  to  1905  was  a  dean  at  Columbian 
( now  George  Washington )  University.  In  1904- 
OS  he  was  president  of  the  American  Bar  Asso¬ 
ciation  and  in  1905-07  president  of  the  James¬ 
town  Tercentenary  Exposition.  In  1914  he  was 
Commissioner  General  to  the  Panama-Pacific  Ex¬ 
position.  He  was  editor  of  Tucker  on  the  Con¬ 
stitution  (1899),  and  wrote  Limitations  on  the 
Treaty -Making  Power  (1915). 

TUCKER,  John  Randolph  (1812-83).  An 
American  naval  officer,  born  at  Alexandria,  Va. 
He  entered  the  United  States  navy  as  a  midship¬ 
man  in  1826,  and  in  1855  reached  the  rank  of 
commodore.  In  1861  Tucker  resigned  his  com¬ 
mission  and  entered  the  Confederate  service.  In 
command  of  the  Patrick  Henry,  he  took  part  in 
the  Hampton  Roads  engagements,  receiving  com¬ 
mand  of  the  wooden  fleet  after  the  Monitor-Mer- 
rimac  battle,  and  assisted  in  the  repulse  of  the 
Union  squadron  at  Drury’s  Bluff.  He  was  pro¬ 
moted  captain  in  May,  1863,  commanded  at 
Charleston  and  at  Drury’s  Bluff,  and  after  the 
evacuation  of  Richmond  was  with  Lee’s  re¬ 
treating  army.  In  1866  Tucker  became  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Peruvian  navy,  with  the  rank  of 
rear  admiral,  and  he  commanded  the  naval 
forces  of  Peru  and  Chile  in  their  war  with 
Spain.  Subsequently  lie  explored  parts  of  the 
upper  Amazon  region.  He  died  at  Peters¬ 
burg,  Va. 

TUCKER,  John  Randolph  (1823-97).  An 
American  congressman,  son  of  Henry  St.  George 
Tucker  (1780—1848)  (q.v.).  He  was  born  at 

Winchester,  Va.,  and  graduated  in  law  at  the 
University  of  Virginia  in  1844.  He  was  elected 
Attorney-General  of  Virginia  in  18'57  and  was  re¬ 
elected  in  1859  and  1863.  At  Washington  and 
Lee  University  he  served  as  professor  of  equity 
and  public  law  in  1870-74,  and  thereafter  until 
1887  was  a  member  of  the  national  House  of 
Representatives,  where  he  won  distinction  as  an 
orator.  Subsequently  he  returned  to  occupy  a 
chair  at  Washington  and  Lee,  where  later  he 
also  became  dean  of  the  law  school.  At  his 
death,  Henry  St.  George  Tucker  (q.v.),  his  son, 
succeeded  to  his  professorship.  In  1892-93  he 
was  president  of  the  American  Bar  Association. 


TUCKER 


TUCO-TUCO 


534 


TUCKER,  Josiah  (1712-99).  An  English 
economist  and  divine,  the  son  of  a  Welsh  farmer. 
He  was  educated  at  St.  John’s  College,  graduat¬ 
ing  in  1736.  He  became  rector  of  St.  Stephen  s, 
Bristol  (1749),  and  dean  of  Gloucester  (1758). 
In  1755  he  received  from  Oxford  the  degree  ot 
D.D.  Tucker  was  a  careful  writer  on  political 
economy  and  religious  subjects.  He  also  pub¬ 
lished  pamphlets  advocating  separation  in  the 
beginning  of  the  contest  between  the  English 
government  and  its  American  colonies.  As  an 
economist  he  has  some  claims  as  a  forerunner  of 
Adam  Smith  (q.v.),  but  Tucker  elaborated  no 
system.  Consult  W.  E.  Clark,  Josiah  Tucker 
(New  York,  1903). 

TUCKER,  Nathaniel  Beverley  ( 1784— 
1851).  An  American  lawyer,  son  of  St.  George 
Tucker.  He  was  born  at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  was 
educated  at  William  and  Mary  College,  studied 
law  and  practiced  in  Virginia  until  1815,  when 
he  removed  to  Missouri.  He  was  a  judge  in  the 
Circuit  Court  until  1830  and  professor  of  law  in 
William  and  Mary  College  (1834-51).  He  pub¬ 
lished  works  on  Pleading  and  Constitutional  Law 
and  several  practical  essays.  His  best  literary 
effort  was  his  novel,  The  Partisan  Leader,  a  Tale 
of  the  Future  (1836).  He  also  wrote  Balcombe 
('1836). 

TUCKER,  St.  George  (1752-1828).  An 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Bermuda.  He  came 
earlv  to  Virginia  and  was  educated  at  V  illiam 
and  "Mary  College,  after  which  he  was  called  to 
the  bar.  During  the  Revolutionary  War  he  com¬ 
manded  a  regiment  at  Yorktown,  where  he  was 
badly  wounded.  •  In  1778  he  married  the  mother 
of  the  afterwrard  celebrated  John  Randolph  of 
Roanoke.  He  served  in  the  Legislature,  but  won 
his  chief  distinction  as  professor  of  law  in  Wil¬ 
liam  and  Mary,  and  as  presiding  judge  of  the 
Virginia  Court  of  Appeals  and  of  the  United 
States  District  Court.  He  is  still  remembered 
for  a  scholarly  edition  of  Blackstone’s  Com¬ 
mentaries  (1803)  and  for  a  single  lyric  begin¬ 
ning  “Days  of  my  youth.”  He  also  published  a 
Disseo'tation  on  Slavery  (1796)  and  other  po- 
liticolegal  works,  and  composed  poems  and 
dramas.  See  also  Tucker,  Henry  St.  George 
(1780-1848);  Tucker.,  Nathaniel  Beverley 
(1784-1851). 

TUCKER,  Samuel  (1747-1833).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  naval  officer,  born  at  Marblehead,  Mass. 
The  son  of  a  shipmaster,  he  ran  off  to  sea  when 
11  years  old,  became  commander  of  a  merchant¬ 
man  in  1768,  and  in  January,  1776,  was  com¬ 
missioned  captain  in  the  American  navy.  In 
command  of  the  Franklin  and  later  of  the  Han¬ 
cock,  he  captured  over  30  British  vessels,  and 
in  March,  1777,  was  transferred  to  the  frigate 
Boston,  which  (February,  1778)  carried  John 
Adams  as  Commissioner  to  France.  After  tak¬ 
ing  many  prizes,  he  was  forced  to  surrender  at 
Charleston  (May,  1780),  but  was  soon  ex¬ 
changed,  and  as*  captain  of  the  Thorn  secured 
many  prizes.  In  July,  1781,  Tucker  was  again 
captured  and  released  on  parole.  In  1813  he 
captured  a  British  vessel  which  threatened  the 
coast  near  his  home  (Bremen,  Me.).  He  served 
in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  (1814-18), 
helped  frame  the  Maine  constitution  (1819), 
and  sat  in  the  Maine  Legislature  (1820-21). 
Consult  Sheppard,  Life  of  Commodore  Samuel 
Tucker  (Boston,  1868). 

TUCKER,  William  Jewett  (1839-  ). 

An  American  clergyman  and  educator.  He  was 
born  at  Griswold,  Conn.,  and  graduated  from 


Dartmouth  in  1861  and  from  Andover  Theologi¬ 
cal  Seminary  in  1866.  He  was  pastor  of  the 
Madison  Square  Presbyterian  Church,  New  York, 
in  1875-79;  a  professor  at  Andover  in  1879-93, 
and  thenceforth  president  of  Dartmouth  College 
until  his  retirement  in  1909.  He  lectured  at 
Lowell  Institute,  at  Union  Seminary,  and  at 
Yale  Divinity  School,  was  university  preacher 
at  Harvard,  and  founded  Andover  ( now  South 
End )  House,  a  social  settlement  in  Boston.  His 
writings  include:  From  Liberty  to  Unity 
(1892);  The  Making,  and  the  Unmaking  of  the 
Preacher  (1898);  Pubiic-Mindedness  (1910); 
Personal  Power  (1910);  The  Function  of  the 
Church  in  Modern  Society  (1911). 

TU CK'ERM AFT,  Bayard  (1855-  ).  An 

American  author.  He  was  born  in  New  York, 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1878,  and  completed 
his  studies  in  Paris.  From  1898  to  1907  he 
lectured  on  English  literature  at  Princeton.  His 
writings  include:  A  History  of  English  Prose 
Fiction  (1882)  ;  Life  of  General  La  Fayette 
(1889);  Diary  of  Philip  Hone  (1889);  Peter 
Stuyvesant  (1893);  William  Jay  and  the  Con¬ 
stitutional  Movement  for  the  Abolition  of  Slav¬ 
ery  (1893);  Life  of  Philip  Schuyler,  1733 - 
180 1>  (1903). 

TU  CKERMAN,  Edward  (1817-86).  An 
American  botanist,  born  in  Boston.  Lie  studied 
at  Union  College,  at  Harvard  University,  and 
abroad.  He  was  professor  of  botany  at  Amherst 
from  1858  till  his  death.  Although  devoted  to  a 
variety  of  botanical  studies,  he  made  a  specialty 
of  lichenology,  publishing:  A  Synopsis  of  the 
Lichens  of  Neio  England  (1848)  ;  Genera  Liche- 
num:  An  Arrangement  of  the  North  American 
Lichens  (1872)  ;  A  Synopsis  of  the  North  Ameri¬ 
can  Lichens  (part  i,  1882;  part  ii,  edited,  with 
an  appendix,  by  Henry  Willey,  1888).  His 
Lichenes  Americce  Septentrionales  Exsiccati 
(1847-55)  contains  150  species.  Consult  the 
Memoir  bv  W.  G.  Farlow  (Washington,  1887). 

TU  CKERMAjNT,  Henry  Theodore  (1813- 
71).  An  American  critic  and  essayist,  born  in 
Boston  and  prominent  in  the  literary  life  of  New 
York  City  after  1845.  The  more  important  of 
his  numerous  publications  were:  The  Italian 
Sketchbook  (1835),  Isabel,  or  Sicily:  A  Pilgrim¬ 
age  (1839),  each  the  outcome  of  a  residence  in 
Italy;  two  volumes  of  verse,  Poems  (1851)  and 
A  Sheaf  of  Verse  (1864);  Artist  ~  Life,  or 
Sketches  of  American  Paintei's  (1847)  ;  Char¬ 
acteristics  of  Literature  (1849;  2d  series,  1851)  ; 
America  and  her  Commentators  (1864); 
Thoughts  on  the  Poets  (1864)  ;  and  Book  of  the 
Artists  (1867),  a  study  of  the  progress  of  art- 
in  America. 

TUCKERMAN,  Joseph  (1778-1840).  An 
American  clergyman  and  philanthropist.  He 
was  born  in  Boston;  graduated  at  Harvard  Col¬ 
lege  ( 1798)  ;  studied  theology,  and  became  a  Uni¬ 
tarian  pastor  in  Chelsea  in  1801.  In  1826  he 
was  appointed  by  the  American  Unitarian  Asso¬ 
ciation  minister  at  large,  devoting  himself  to  mis¬ 
sion  work  in  Boston.  He  is  best  known  as  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  first  sailors’  aid  societies  in 
the  country  (1812),  and  as  one  of  the  pioneers 
in  the  scientific  direction  of  philanthropy.  He 
wrote  much  in  behalf  of  his  projects.  Consult 
the  collection  of  his  writings  under  the  title 
On  the  Elevation  of  the  Poor  (Boston,  1874) 
and  his  Life  by  W.  E.  Channing  (ib.,  1841),  and 
by  Miss  May  Carpenter  (London,  1849). 

'  TUCO-TUCO,  too'ko-too'ko.  A  small  burrow¬ 
ing  ratlike  rodent,  a  spiny  rat  of  the  genus 


TUCSON 


TUDOR 


535 


Ctenomys,  several  species  of  which  are  so  called 
in  imitation  of  their  loud,  treble  call. 

TUCSON,  too-son'.  The  largest  city  of  Ari¬ 
zona,  and  the  county  seat  of  Pima  County,  135 
miles  southeast  of  Phcenix,  on  the  Santa  Cruz 
River,,  and  on  the  El  Paso  and  Southwestern, 
and  the  Southern  Pacific  railroads  (Map: 
Arizona,  D  5).  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Arizona,  opened  in  1891,  and  of  St.  Jo¬ 
seph’s  Academy,  and  contains  a  Carnegie  library, 
the  Desert  Botanical  Laboratory  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution,  and  the  United  States  Magnetic  Ob¬ 
servatory.  Cattle  raising  and  copper  mining  are 
the  leading  industries  of  the  surrounding  district, 
which  also  has  considerable  agricultural  resources. 
The  industrial  establishments  of  the  city  are  for 
the  most  part  connected  with  the  mining  indus¬ 
try,  and  there  are  some  manufactories  of  wagons, 
harness,  saddlery,  and  flour.  Tucson  adopted 
the  city -manager  form  of  government  in  1915. 
Pop.,  1900,  7531;  1910,  13,193;  1915  (U.  S. 
est.),  16,177;  1920,  20,292. 

Tucson  was  first  permanently  settled  as  a 
presidio  by  the  Spaniards  about  1776,  though 
there  had  been  previously  a  small  Indian  village, 
or  rancheria  (abandoned  in  1763),  under  the 
control  of  the  Spanish  authorities.  It  lies 
within  the  territory  obtained  for  the  United 
States  by  the  Gadsden  Purchase  of  1853.  It 
was  the  capital  of  Arizona  Territory  from  1867 
to  1877.  Consult  Bancroft,  History  of  New  Mex¬ 
ico  and  Arizona  (San  Francisco,  1880). 

TUCUMAN,  tbo'kbo-man'.  The  smallest  and 
most  densely  populated  province  of  Argentina 
(Map:  Argentina,  F  3).  Area,  8928  square 
miles.  The  eastern  portion  is  rolling,  but  the 
Avestern  portion  becomes  quite  mountainous. 
The  mountains,  offshoots  of  the  Andes,  afford  ex¬ 
tensive  forests  in  the  valleys,  and  some  mines 
of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  but  these  are  not 
extensively  worked.  Sugar  and  rum  are  the 
chief  products,  but  cereals,  rice,  tobacco,  grapes, 
and  fruits  are  raised.  The  soil  generally  is  fer¬ 
tile,  but  in  some  portions  use  must  be  made  of 
irrigation.  The  population,  largely  mestizo, 
numbered  in  1912  about  325,000.  Capital,  Tucu- 
man  (q.v.).  Tucuman  Avas  originally  a  portion 
of  the  dominions  of  the  Incas.  After  the  con¬ 
quest  the  Gobernacion  of  Tucuman  included 
many  of  the  surrounding  provinces,  and  Avas 
first  subject  to  the  Audiencia  of  Charcas,  and 
after  1776  to  the  Vicerovaltv  of  La  Plata. 

TUCUMAN,  or  SAN  MIGUEL  DE  TUCU- 

MAn.  A  city  of  Argentina,  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Tucuman,  690  miles  nortlnvest  of 
Buenos  Aires,  on  a  plateau  to  the  right  of  the 
river  Tala  or  Sali  (Map:  Argentina,  F  3).  It 
is  a  regularly  built  city,  but  with  narrow  streets. 
The  cathedral  is  modem.  It  has  a  university, 
opened  in  1914.  It  is  rapidly  becoming  a  com¬ 
mercial  centre  of  importance.  The  city  Avas 
founded  in  1565.  Here,  July  9,  1816,  the"  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  the  Plata  Provinces  signed  the 
declaration  of  independence  from  Spain.  Pop., 
1913  (est.),  79,000. 

TUCUMA  (too'koo-ma')  PALM.  See  As- 

TRO  CAR  YUM. 

TUCUMCARI,  too'kum-kar-i.  A  city  and 
the  county  seat  of  Quay  Co.,  N.  Mex., "  about 
350  miles  soutlnvest  of  DenA^er,  Colo.,  on  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  and  the  FI  Paso 
and  Southwestern  railroads  (Map:  NeAV  Mexico, 
F  3).  It  contains  a  United  States  Land  Office, 
a  government  experiment  farm,  and  a  city  li¬ 


brary.  Tucumcari  is  a  distribution  point  for 
coal  and  coke,  has  cattle-raising  and  wheat  and 
corn  growing  interests,  and  manufactures  sisal. 
Pop.,  1910,  2526. 

TUCUNA,  too-koo'na.  A  Avild  tribe  of  the 
upper  Amazon.  See  Ticuna. 

TUCUXI,  too-koo'ne  (South  American  name) . 
A  South  American  dolphin  ( Sotalia  guianensis) , 
very  abundant  in  the  Bay  of  Rio  Janeiro,  AAdiere 
the  natives  regard  it  as  able  to  bring  ashore 
drowned  persons,  and  haA^e  other  fanciful  ideas 
in  regard  to  it.  The  genus  Sotalia  is  represented 
by  other  species  in  various  parts  of  the  Avorld, 
some  of  which  live  Avholly  in  fresh  water.  Con¬ 
sult  F.  E.  Beddard,  Book  of  Whales  (London, 
1900). 

TUDELA,  too-Da'la.  A  town  of  the  Pro\Tince 
of  Navarra,  Spain,  on  the  Ebro,  here  crossed  by 
a  bridge  of  19  arches.  It  is  48  miles  by  rail 
from  Saragossa  (Map:  Spain,  E  1).  Most  of 
its  important  public  buildings  are  modern,  but 
it  is  especially  famous  for  the  Romanesque  Cole- 
giata  ( formerly  the  cathedral ) ,  Avhich  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  finest  churches  in  Europe.  The 
chief  industries  are  the  sawing  of  lumber,  the 
manufacture  of  cloth,  silk  goods,  earthenware, 
and  the  production  of  oil  and  wine.  The  best 
wine  of  Navarra,  resembling  Burgundy,  is  pro¬ 
duced  in  this  vicinity.  Pop.,  1900,  8996;  1910, 
9072.  Tudela  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Moors 
in  the  eighth  century,  but  it  was  retaken  by 
Alfonso  I  of  Aragon  in  1114.  In  1808  the  Span¬ 
ish  forces  under  Castanos  Avere  here  defeated  by 
the  French  under  Lannes. 

TUDELA,  Benjamin  of.  A  medical  trav¬ 
eler.  See  Benjamin  of  Tudela. 

TU'DOR.  The  family  name  of  the  dynasty 
which  occupied  the  throne  of  England  from  1485 
to  1603.  Its  founder  Avas  Owen  Tudor,  an  ob¬ 
scure  Welsh  squire,  who  had  five  children  by 
Catharine,  daughter  of  Charles  VI  of  France. 
Their  son  Edmund  was  made  Earl  of  Richmond 
by  Henry  VI,  kinsman  of  Edmund’s  Avife,  Mar¬ 
garet.  It  is  through  Margaret  that  the  family  de¬ 
rived  its  defective  title  to  the  crown.  She  Avas  the 
heiress  of  the  Beauforts,  children  of  John  of  Gaunt 
by  Catharine  SAvynford,  Avho  had  been  legitimized 
for  every  purpose  except  royal  succession.  Her 
son,  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  became  head 
of  the  Lancastrian  house  in  1471,  and  in  1485, 
at  BosAvorth  Field,  defeated  Richard  III,  who 
fell  in  the  battle.  Henry  was  able  to  secure  the 
support  of  the  Yorkist  nobles  upon  promising 
to  marry  Elizabeth,  the  heiress  of  the  York 
family..  Parliament  confirmed  Henry’s  claim  to 
reign  of  his  own  right,  though  the  lawful  heir 
AA7as  either  his  wife,  Elizabeth,  or,  if  females 
could  not  succeed  her  cousin  EdAA^ard,  the  Earl 
of  Warwick.  The  Tudor  monarchs  Avere  Henry 
VII  (1485-1509),  Henry  VIII  (1509-47),  Ed- 
Avard  VI  (1547-53),  Mary  (1553-58),  and  Eliza¬ 
beth  (1558-1603).  The  Stuart  dynasty,  Avhich 
came  to  the  throne  in  1603,  derived  "its  title 
through  Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  VII,  Avho 
married  James  IV  of  Scotland.  During  the 
Tudor  period  the  crown  Avas  nearly  absolute. 
The  dynasty  Avas  strong  and  purposeful,  and 
Avhile  the  rights  and  functions  of  Parliament 
Avere  not  formally  denied,  its  deliberations  Avere 
controlled  by  royal  influence  over  elections  or 
by  vigorous  and  tactful  management.  The  local 
institutions  kept  their  full  vigor  and  the  Eng¬ 
lish  people  retained  their  training  in  self-gov¬ 
ernment,  When  danger  of  feudal  anarchy  and 
foreign  invasion  had  passed,  and  public  safety 


TUDOR 


TTJ  FU 


536 


no  longer  required  a  strong  executive,  Tudor 
absolutism  speedily  disappeared  under  the  weak 
and  tactless  Stuart  dynasty.  For  details  and 
bibliographies,  see  the  names  of  the  separate 
sovereigns.  See  also  Roses,  Wars  of  the; 
York,  House  of.  Consult  A.  D.  Innes,  England 
under  the  Tudors  (New  York,  1905)  ;  C.  R. 
Lumsden,  The  Dawn  of  Modern  England  (ib., 
1910). 

TUDOR,  Mary  (1496-1533).  Queen  of 
France.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Henry  \  II  of 
England.  In  1514  she  was  married  to  Louis 
XII  of  France  and  after  his  death,  in  1515,  to 
Charles  Brandon,  Duke  of  Suffolk.  Her  only 
child,  a  daughter,  Frances,  became  the  wife  of 
Henry  Grey,  Marquis  of  Dorset,  and  was  the 
mother  of  Lady  Jane  Grey. 

'  TUDOR,  William  (1779-1830).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  merchant  and  author,  born  in  Boston.  He 
was  founder  (1815)  and  first  editor  of  the  North 
American  Review.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
(1796),  engaged  in  business,  visited  Europe,  and 
on  his  return  took  part  in  founding  the  Anthology 
Club  and  contributed  frequently  to  its  magazine, 
The  Monthly  Anthology  (1803-11).  Out  of  this 
club  grew  the  Boston  Athenaeum  (1807),  of 
which  Tudor  was  also  a  founder.  He  originated 
the  movement  for  erecting  Bunker  Hill  Monu¬ 
ment.  In  commerce  he  gained  distinction  as  a 
pioneer  in  the  ice  trade  with  tropical  countries. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Legis¬ 
lature  for  some  years,  appointed  United  States 
Consul  at  Lima,  Peru  (1823),  and  charge  d’af¬ 
faires  in  Brazil  (1827).  He  published  Letters 
on  the  Eastern  States  (1820),  Miscellanies 
(1821),  Life  of  James  Otis  of  Massachusetts 
(1823),  and  an  anonymous  political  allegory, 
Gehel  Teir  (1829),  written  in  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
where  he  died. 

TUDOR,  STYLE.  In  English  architecture, 
a  rather  indefinite  term  applied  to  the  late  Per¬ 
pendicular  (q.v. )  and  the  transition  from  that 
to  Elizabethan  (q.v.),  especially  as  developed 
in  nonecclesiastic  buildings — schools,  colleges, 
and  mansions. 

TU'FA  (It.,  calcareous  rock).  A  name  ap¬ 
plied  to  any  cryptocrystalline  variety  of  calcium 
carbonate  which  has  a  cellular  structure,  es¬ 
pecially  those  varieties  deposited  from  springs  or 
streams.  A  similar  material  emanating  from 
volcanoes  is  known  as  volcanic  tufa. 

TUFF  (Fr.  tuf,  tuffe,  from  It.  tufo,  tufa, 
from  Lat.  tophus,  tofus,  tufa,  calcareous  rock ) . 
Fragmental  volcanic  material  when  compacted 
together  to  form  a  rock.  The  material  which 
by  cementation  of  some  kind  has  formed  the  tuff 
may  be  finely  comminuted  (volcanic  ash  or 
sand),  or  of  larger  fragments  (lapilli  and 
bombs).  A  large  proportion  of  tuffs  have  been 
laid  down  under  water,  or  have  been  carried  by 
water  in  the  form  of  volcanic  mud.  In  rare 
cases  they  are  composed  largely  of  crystals.  Un¬ 
consolidated  volcanic  fragments  are  called  ag¬ 
glomerate,  or  agglomerate  tuff.  If  large  and 
angular  fragments  predominate  in  a  tuff  it  is 
often  called  a  volcanic  breccia.  Such  breccias 
are  produced  when  a  stream  of  lava  flows  over 
and  picks  up  an  agglomerate,  and  also  when 
certain  viscous  lavas  flow  down  a  slope.  In  the 
latter  case  the  lava  stream  consolidates  in  a  shell 
about  a  central  molten  mass,  the  shell  constantly 
fracturing  and  as  quickly  healing  its  fractures 
bv  outflow  and  consolidation  of  molten  material. 

'TUFTS,  Cotton  (1734-1815).  An  American 
physician,  born  in  Medford,  Mass.  He  graduated 


at  Harvard  in  1749,  studied  medicine,  and  settled 
at  Weymouth,  Mass.,  and  in  1765  wrote  the  in¬ 
structions  regarding  the  Stamp  Act  to  the  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  Weymouth  in  the  Provincial  Legis¬ 
lature.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Massachusetts  Medical  Society  and  of  the. Ameri¬ 
can  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  being  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  former  in  1787-95,  and  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  State  convention  which  ratified  the 
Federal  Constitution. 

TUFTS,  James  Hayden  (1862-  ).  An 

American  philosophical  scholar,  born  at  Monson, 
Mass.  He  graduated  from  Amherst  College  in 
1884,  and  from  Yale  Divinity  School  in  1889, 
and  later  studied  at  Berlin  and  Freiburg  (Ph.D., 
1892).  At  the  University  of  Chicago,  with 
which  he  was  connected  after  1892,  he  became 
professor  of  philosophy  in  1900,  and  head  of  the 
department  in  1905,  and  he  served  also  as  dean 
of  the  Senior  College  (1899-1904  and  1907-08). 
In  1914  he  was  president  of  the  American  Phil¬ 
osophical  Association.  He  translated  Windel- 
band’s  History  of  Philosophy  (1893;  2d  ed., 
1910)  ;  contributed  to  Baldwin’s  Dictionary  of 
Philosophy  and  Psychology  (1901);  edited  the 
School  Review  in  1906-09;  and  wrote  James 
Tufts,  a  Memorial  (1902),  and  Ethics  (1908), 
with  John  Dewey. 

TUFTS  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for  higher 
education  founded  at  Medford,  Mass.,  in  1852. 
The  campus  embraces  about  80  acres,  on  which 
are  20  buildings  used  for  education  and  dormi- 
tory  purposes.  The  associated  schools  which  in¬ 
clude  the  School  of  Liberal  Arts,  Jackson  Col¬ 
lege  for  Women,  the  Engineering  School,  the 
Bromfield-Pearson  School,  the  Crane  Theological 
School,  and  the  Graduate  School  are  located  at 
Medford.  The  Tufts  College  Medical  and  Dental 
schools  and  the  one-year  medical  course  are  in 
Boston.  The  college  also  has  an  interest  in 
the  biological  laboratories  at  Harpswell,  Me. 
The  degrees  conferred  are  Bachelor  of  Arts, 
Bachelor  of  Science,  Bachelor  of  Sacred  Theology, 
Master  of  Arts,  Master  of  Science,  Doctor  of 
Medicine,  and  Doctor  of  Dental  Medicine.  The 
Bromfield-Pearson  School  is  a  preparatoiy  in¬ 
stitution  for  the  Engineering  School.  Among 
the  notable  buildings  on  the  campus  is  the 
Barnum  Museum  of  Natural  History,  built  and 
maintained  by  a  fund  given  by  Phineas  T.  Bar- 
num.  This  museum  has  a  large  zoological  col¬ 
lection,  especially  large  in  skeletons,  and 
mounted  skins  of  mammals,  including  the  skele¬ 
ton  of  the  famous  elephant  “Jumbo.”  The 
Eaton  Library,  the  gift  of  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie, 
contains  about  73,000  volumes  and  64,000 
pamphlets.  The  total  enrollment  in  all  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  college  in  1915-16  was  1541  stu¬ 
dents.  Of  these  509  were  in  the  Dental  School, 
383  in  the  Medical  School,  216  in  the  College 
of  Liberal  Arts,  192  in  the  Engineering  School, 
and  96  in  the  Jackson  College  for  Women.  The 
faculty  numbered  249,  of  whom  86  were  of  pro¬ 
fessorial  grade.  The  total  capital  of  the  col¬ 
lege  in  all  departments  including  buildings  at 
the  end  of  the  collegiate  year  1915  was  $3,- 
250,000.  The  buildings  and  grounds  were  val¬ 
ued  at  about  $1,500,000.  The  president  in  1916 
was  Herman  C.  Bumpus,  Ph.D. 

TU  FU,  too  fob  (712-770).  A  noted  poet  of 
China.  He  was  born  in  712  in  Siangyangfu  (q.v.) 
in  the  present  Province  of  Hupeh,  according 
to  one  authority,  or  in  Ruling  in  Shensi,  accord¬ 
ing  to  another.  Through  failure  in  literary  ex¬ 
aminations  he  lost  official  chances,  but  became 


TUGENDBUND 


TUKE 


537 


a  professional  poet,  and  produced  three  descrip¬ 
tive  poems  (742—755)  which  gained  him  favor 
from  the  reigning  Emperor,  and  a  position  at 
court,  where  he  became  popular.  This  Emperor 
fled  from  rebels,  but  Tu  Fu  fell  into  their 
hands,  escaping  in  757.  He  was  recalled  by 
the  new  Emperor,  and  became  a  censor.  Having 
defended  an  official  who  had  incurred  the  dis¬ 
pleasure  of  the  Emperor,  he  fell  into  disgrace, 
was  banished,  and  given  the  position  of  a  sub¬ 
prefect  in  a  small  town  of  Shensi.  This  he 
promptly  resigned  and  retired  to  Sze-chuen.  In 
761  a  post  was  provided  for  him  in  connection 
with  the  Board  of  Works.  This  he  held  for  six 
years,  vvhen  he  resumed  his  wandering  life. 
The  edition  of  his  poems  published  in  1059  con¬ 
tained  1405  compositions.  He  is  the  most  quoted 
poet  in  China.  See  specimens  in  H.  A.  Giles, 
History  of  Chinese  Literature  (New  York,  1901). 

TUGENDBUND,  tbd'gent-bunt'.  An  asso¬ 
ciation  organized  at  Konigsberg,  Prussia,  in  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1808,  for  the  purpose  of  furthering  the 
physical  and  moral  regeneration  of  the  Prussian 
people  in  the  period  of  national  degradation  fol¬ 
lowing  the  disasters  of  the  years  1806-07  and 
the  dismemberment  of  the  Prussian  Kingdom  by 
Napoleon  I  at  Tilsit.  Its  secret  purpose  was 
the  overthrow  of  the  French  domination.  It  was 
dissolved  in  December,  1809,  after  it  had  ac¬ 
complished  much  good  in  its  self-appointed  task 
of  bringing  to  life  the  spirit  of  Prussian 
patriotism. 

TUGUEGABAO,  tob-ga'ga-raT).  The  capital 
of  the  Province  of  Cagayan,  Luzon,  Philippines 
(Map:  Philippine  Islands,  C  2).  Cagayan  is  the 
most  northern  province  of  Luzon  and  is  exceed¬ 
ingly  mountainous.  The  climate  is  very  severe 
in  the  winter,  and  not  healthful  in  the  summer, 
owing  to  the  excessive  humidity.  The  province 
is  well  watered  and  has  a  fertile  soil;  its  area 
is  5052  square  miles.  Pop.,  1903,  156,239.  The 
capital  is  situated  on  the  river  Cagayan,  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  province.  It  has  a 
town  hall,  courthouse,  and  a  government  build¬ 
ing.  Pop.,  1903,  16,105. 

TUI,  tbo'e.  See  Parson  Bird. 

TUILEBIES,  twel're'  (Fr.,  tile  works).  A 
former  royal  palace  in  Paris,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Seine,  on  ground  originally 
occupied  by  tile  yards.  The  site  was  acquired 
by  Louise  of  Savoy,  mother  of  Francis  I,  in  1527, 
and  the  erection  of  the  palace  was  begun  about 
1565  by  Catharine  de’  Medici,  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  Philibert  de  POrme  (q.v.).  The  main 
structure  of  the  original  palace  comprised  a  cen¬ 
tral  pavilion  crowned  by  a  cupola,  flanked  by 
low  wings,  forming  part  of  a  plan  for  a  gran¬ 
diose  palace  of  many  courts.  With  the  death  of 
De  l’Orme  in  1570  this  vast  plan  was  abandoned, 
and  the  wings  were  completed  by  Jean  Bullant. 
Henry  IV  caused  the  erection  of  the  Pavilion  de 
Flore  on  the  south  wing  and  began  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  a  long  gallery  connecting  it  with  the 
Louvre  (q.v.).  Under  Louis  XIV  the  central 
pavilion  was  greatly  enlarged,  the  wings  in¬ 
creased  in  depth  and  height,  and  the  Pavilion  de 
Marsan  on  the  north  wing  was  erected.  In  spite 
of  its  imposing  size,  the  palace  possessed  little 
artistic  interest,  owing  to  the  inharmonious  di¬ 
versity  of  architectural  form  of  its  long  facade. 
Before  the  Revolution  it  was  intermittently  a 
royal  residence,  though  frequently  the  scene  of 
splendid  f£tes:  in  its  theatre  were  given  plavs 
of  Corneille,  Moliere,  and  Voltaire.  On  Oct.  0, 
1789,  Louis  XVI  and  the  royal  family,  brought 


by  the  Parisian  mob  from  Versailles,  took  up 
their  residence  in  the  Tuileries.  It  was  invaded 
by  a  mob  on  June  20,  1792,  without  great  harm. 
On  August  10,  however,  the  organized  sections 
of  Paris  stormed  the  Tuileries  and  after  a  bloody 
battle  cut  down  the  Swiss  Guard,  who,  after  de¬ 
fending  its  great  stairway  with  devoted  courage, 
were  ordered  by  the  King  to  lay  down  their 
arms.  The  royal  family  were  forced  to  take 
refuge  in  the  hall  of  the  Assembly  and  thence 
were  removed  to  the  Temple.  In  1793  the  Con¬ 
vention  began  to  hold  sessions  in  the  north  wing, 
the  Pavilion  de  Marsan  being  given  up  to  com¬ 
mittee  rooms,  administrative  offices,  etc.  After 
the  establishment  of  the  Consulate  the  Tuileries 
became  the  residence  of  Napoleon,  and,  with 
changes  in  internal  construction,  it  remained  the 
residence  of  the  rulers  of  France  to  the  fall  of 
the  Second  Empire  (excepting  1848-52).  Dur¬ 
ing  the  War  of  the  Commune  in  1871  the  palace 
was  set  on  fire  (May  24)  at  the  orders,  it  is 
supposed,  of  the  Communist  leaders.  In  the 
night  of  May  24-25  heavy  explosions  of  gun¬ 
powder  completed  the  ruin  of  the  main  struc¬ 
ture.  The  right  wing,  containing  the  Pavilion 
de  Flore,  escaped  destruction.  The  Pavilion  de 
Marsan  was  restored  in  1875-78,  and  the  Pavil¬ 
ion  de  Flore,  with  the  adjacent  Grande  Galerie, 
was  reconstructed  about  the  same  time  on  a 
modified  design.  The  ruins  of  the  main  build¬ 
ings  were  removed  in  1883.  The  Garden  of  the 
Tuileries,  covering  about  75  acres,  lies  between 
the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  the  site  of  the  palace, 
the  Rue  de  Rivoli,  and  the  Quai  des  Tuileries. 
It  was  laid  out  by  Le  Notre  in  the  time  of  Louis 
XIV,  but  has  undergone  extensive  changes,  es¬ 
pecially  under  the  Second  Empire.  The  garden 
contains  notable  examples  of  sculpture;  it  is  a 
popular  resort  of  Parisians,  especially  as  a  play¬ 
ground  for  children.  See  Paris. 

TUISTO.  See  Mannus. 

TUKABAM,  tu-ka'ram.  See  Marathi. 

TUKE,  Daniel  Hack  (1827-95).  A  cele¬ 
brated  English  alienist,  born  at  York.  He 
studied  medicine  at  St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospital 
College,  of  London,  and  in  1852  became  a  member 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  of  which 
he  became  a  fellow  in  1857.  He  was  afterward 
visiting  physician  to  the  York  retreat  for  the 
insane,  and  subsequently  medical  practitioner  at 
Falmouth  and  London.  He  wrote  many  essays 
for  scientific  periodicals  on  the  treatment  of  in¬ 
sanity,  and  was  coeditor  of  the  Journal  of  Mental 
Sciences,  1878-92.  He  wrote  a  prize  essay  on 
the  Progressive  Changes  which  have  taken  place 
since  the  time  of  Pinel,  in  the  Moral  Management 
of  the  Insane  (1854);  Illustrations  of  the  In¬ 
fluence  of  the  Mind  upon  the  Body,  etc.  ( 1872 ;  2d 
ed.,  2  vols.,  1884)  ;  Insanity  in  Ancient  and  Mod¬ 
ern  Life  (1878)  ;  Chapters  in  the  History  of  the 
Insane  in  the  British  Isles  (1882)  ;  and  a  Dic¬ 
tionary  of  Psychological  Medicine  (2  vols.,  1892) . 

TUKE,  Henry  (1755-1814).  A  Quaker 
writer  born  at  York,  England.  His  father  was 
William  Tuke  (q.v.),  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
first  asylum  for  humane  treatment  of  the  insane. 
After  his  education  in  liberal  studies  he  engaged 
in  business  with  his  father  at  York,  and  at  the 
age  of  25  he  became  a  minister  of  the  Society 
of  Friends.  His  books  were  extensively  read  at 
home  and  some  of  them  were  translated  into 
French,  German,  and  Danish.  The  chief  of  them 
are:  The  Faith  of  the  People  Called  Quakers 
(1801)  ;  The  Principles  of  Religion  as  Professed 
by  the  Society  of  Christians  Usually  called  Quak- 


TUNE 


TULIP 


538 


ers  (1805)  ;  and  The  Life  of  George  Fox  (1813). 
— His  son,  Samuel  Tuke  (1784-1857),  studied 
medicine  and  became  widely  known  for  his 
strenuous  defense  of  the  asylum  at  York,  and  for 
varied  philanthropic  work.  Among  his  publica¬ 
tions  are  Descriptions  of  the  Retreat  (1813), 
concerned  with  the  establishment  which  his 
father  and  grandfather  had  founded,  and  consti¬ 
tuting  the  earliest  account  of  the  humane  treat¬ 
ment  of  the  insane;  and  Practical  Hints  on  the 
Construction  and  Economy  of  Pauper  Lunatic 
Asylums  (1815),  which  is  also  important  in  the 
history  of  the  treatment  of  the  insane. 

TUKE,  William  (1732-1S22).  An  English 
philanthropist.  He  was  born  in  \ork,  was  a 
Quaker  in  religion,  and  engaged  in  mercantile 
pursuits  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  but  found 
time  for  many  works  of  benevolence.  His  great¬ 
est  achievement  was  the  opening  of  the  York 
Retreat  in  1796,  the  first  institution  in  England 
where  the  insane  were  treated  with  kindness 
and  humanity.  In  this  undertaking  he  had  the 
aid  of  his  son  Henry,  Lindley  Murray,  and  other 
Quakers.  His  descendants  have  been  prominent 
in  British  philanthropy.  Tuke’s  biography  was 
written  by  his  great-grandson  (York,  1856). 

TULA,  tobfia.  A  government  of  central  Rus¬ 
sia.  Area,  about  11,960  square  miles  (Map: 
Russia,  E  4).  It  belongs  to  the  central  Russian 
plateau  and  has  an  undulating  surface  cut  by 
deep  river  valleys.  It  is  watered  chiefly  by  the 
Oka  and  its  tributaries  and  the  Don.  Tula  be¬ 
longs  to  the  black  soil  belt  of  Russia.  In  the 
southwest  are  deposits  of  coal,  and  iron  ore  is 
found  in  all  parts.  Agriculture  is  the  main  oc¬ 
cupation,  but  the  household  industries  are  also 
remarkably  developed.  Bee  raising  is  another 
important  industry.  The  chief  manufactured 
products  are  small  metal  articles,  samovars  (tea¬ 
kettles),  wagons,  musical  instruments,  arms,  etc. 
The  trade  in  grain  is  extensive.  Pop.,  1897,  1,- 
419,456;  1912,  1,829,200. 

TULA.  The  capital  of  the  Government  of 
Tula  in  Russia,  situated  on  the  Upa,  121  miles 
south  of  Moscow  (Map:  Russia,  E  4).  It  is  an 
interesting  and  important  town,  with  an  old 
kremlin  rising  above  the  river,  an  extensive  gov¬ 
ernment  arms  factory  and  a  museum.  Tula 
has  also  a  number  of  private  arms  factories, 
and  extensive  metal  works,  where  the  samovars 
(see  Samovar)  for  which  Tula  is  famous  are 
manufactured.  Its  favorable  geographical  posi¬ 
tion,  together  with  its  mines,  have  promoted  the 
town’s  commercial  development.  Pop.,  1911, 
136,530. 

TULA.  A  Mexican  town  of  the  State  of 
Hidalgo,  45  miles  by  rail  north  of  the  city  of 
Mexico,  on  the  Tula  (or  Montezuma)  River 
( Map :  Mexico,  J  7 ) .  The  town,  the  ancient 
capital  Tollan,  is  believed  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  Toltecs,  and  contains  the  ruins  known  as 
Montezuma’s  Palace,  and  others  of  interest  at¬ 
tributed  to  those  people.  It  is  situated  at  an 
elevation  of  6766  feet  above  the  sea.  The  for¬ 
tress-like  church  and  cloister  of  San  Jose  date 
from  1553.  There  are  some  cotton  manufactur¬ 
ing  establishments.  Pop.,  about  5000. 

TULA.  A  town  an  the  State  of  Tamaulipas, 
Mexico,  61  miles  southwest  of  Victoria  (Map: 
Mexico,  J  6 ) .  It  is  an  important  commercial 
centre  in  a  rich  agricultural  district  producing 
chiefly  ixtle.  Pop.,  1910,  6707. 

TULALIP,  tob-la'lip  (North  American  In¬ 
dian,  bay,  inlet).  A  tribe  of  Salishan  stock 
(q.v. )  occupying  a  reservation  of  36  square 


miles  on  Tulalip  Bay,  an  eastern  inlet  of  Puget 
Sound,  Washington.  They  are  a  division  of  the 
Twana.  See  Salishan  Stock. 

TULANE,  tQ -lan',  Paul  (1801-87).  An 
American  philanthropist,  born  near  Princeton, 
N.  J.  He  received  a  common-school  education 
and  in  early  life  removed  to  New  Orleans,  where 
he  engaged  in  business  and  acquired  great  wealth. 
He  retired  in  1867,  and  returned  to  Princeton. 
He  was  the  founder  of  Tulane  University  (q.v.). 

TULANE  UNIVERSITY  OF  LOUISI¬ 
ANA.  An  institution  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  or¬ 
ganized  on  its  present  basis  in  1884,  when  the 
State  placed  the  existing  University  of  Louisi¬ 
ana,  chartered  in  1845,  under  the  perpetual  care 
of  the  Board  of  Administrators  of  the  Tulane 
Educational  Fund.  In  1882  Paul  Tulane  (q.v.) 
gave  his  property  in  that  city  for  the  higher 
education  of  the  “white  young  persons  in  the 
city  of  New  Orleans.”  His  donations  up  to  the 
time  of  his  death  amounted  to  $1,050,000.  The 
university  consists  of  the  Graduate  Department, 
the  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  the  College  of 
Technology,  the  H.  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial 
College  for  Women,  the  College  of  Law,  College 
of  Commerce  and  Business  Administration,  and 
the  College  of  Medicine,  consisting  of  schools-  of 
medicine  (graduate  and  undergraduate),  phar¬ 
macy,  hygiene  and  tropical  medicine,  and  den¬ 
tistry.  It  confers  the  bachelor’s  degree  in  arts, 
science,  education,  and  music,  and  the  profes¬ 
sional  degrees  in  engineering,  law,  medicine, 
pharmacy,  and  dentistry.  All  the  departments 
are  situated  in  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  The 
campus  contains  about  100  acres,  including  the 
athletic  field.  The  total  attendance  in  1915  was 
2708,  the  faculty  numbered  301  and  the  library 
contained  69,500  volumes.  The  value  of  the 
grounds  and  buildings  was  estimated  at  $2,215,- 
000,  the  total  valuation  of  the  university  prop¬ 
erty  being  $2,664,000.  The  endowment  was  $5,- 
310,914  and  the  gross  income  $371,664. 

TULARE,  too-lar'a.  A  city  in  Tulare  Go., 
Cal.,  45  miles  southeast  of  Fresno,  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  and  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and 
Santa  Fe  Coast  Line  railroads  (Map:  California, 
F  6 ) .  It  carries  on  an  important  trade  in  fruits 
and  cereals,  dairying  and  fine  cattle.  There  are 
three  large  creameries.  Tulare  has  a  public 
librarv.  Pop.,  1900,  2216;  1910,  2758. 

TULASNE,  tu'lan',  Louis  Rene  (1815-85). 
A  French  botanist,  born  at  Azay-le-Rideau  (In- 
dre-et-Loire) .  After  studying  law,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  botany  and  made  a  specialty 
of  parasite  mushrooms,  becoming  the  founder  of 
modern  mycology.  From  1842  to  1872  he  was 
at  first  “aide  naturaliste,”  then  professor  at  the 
Museum  of  Natural  History  in  Paris.  His  most 
important  publications  include:  Histoire  et  mo¬ 
nographic  des  champignons  hypog6s  (1851)  ;  Se- 
lecta  Fungorum  Carpologia  (3  vols.,  1861-65), 
with  his  brother  Charles;  and  many  monographs. 
Among  several  discoveries  he  made,  that  of 
polymorphism  among  fungi  marked  an  epoch  in 
the  science. 

TULCEA,  or  TULTCHA,  tool'cha.  A  dis¬ 
trict  town  of  the  Dobrudja,  Rumania,  situated 
on  an  arm  of  the  Danube,  about  45  miles  from 
the  Black  Sea  ( Map :  Balkan  Peninsula,  G  2 ) . 
It  lias  a  good  harbor,  with  a  large  trade  in  fish, 
grain,  and  wool.  Pop.,  1900,  18,800. 

TULIP  (OF.,  Fr.  tulipe,  from  tulipan,  tulip, 
tulipant,  tulpant,  toliban,  tolopan,  turban,  from 
Turk,  tulband,  dulband,  from  Pers.  dulband, 
turban),  Tulipa.  A  genus  of  showy  hardy 


TULIP  TREE 


I 


TULIP  TREE  (LIrlodendron  tullplfera) 


I 


r 


- 

I 


TULIP 


539 


TULLA 


plants  of  the  family  Liliaceae,  easily  recognized 
by  its  fleshy  brown-skinned  bulbs,  broad  or  linear 
leaves,  and  generally  erect  and  usually  solitary- 
flowered  scapes.  About  45  species  are  described, 
mostly  natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  and 
southern  Europe.  For  centuries  the  tulip  has 
been  a  popular  ornamental  plant  for  spring  and 
early  summer,  and  has  recently  been  used  by 
florists  for  winter  flowering.  The  species  from 
which  most  cultivated  varieties  have  been  de¬ 
rived,  Tulipa  gesneriana,  is  a  native  of  Asia 
Minor  and  was  brought  from  Constantinople  to 
Germany  by  Conrad  Gesner  in  1559.  Since 
then  innumerable  varieties  have  been  originated, 
1800  varieties  being  offered  by  Dutch  growers,' 


who  are  the  leading  producers  of  these  bulbs. 
Several  other  species  have  given  rise  to  culti¬ 
vated  varieties,  but  to  a  more  limited  extent. 
Tulipa  suaveolens,  a  native  of  southeastern  Eu¬ 
rope,  is  the  wild '  species  from  which  the  early 
red  and  orange  Due  van  Tliol  tulips  have  been 
obtained.  They  are  inferior  to  the  common  gar¬ 
den  tulip  in  beauty,  but  are  prized  for  their 
fragrance  and  earliness.  (See  Colored  Plate  of 
Liliace/E.)  Tulipa  prcecox  is  the  generally 
cultivated  form  of  Tulipa  oculus-solis,  a  beauti¬ 
ful  species  from  southern  France,  characterized 
by  a  large  black  spot  with  a  yellow  border  at 
the  base  of  each  petal.  Tulipa  greigi,  a  native 
of  Turkestan,  is  a  fine  species  from  which  sev¬ 
eral  cultivated  forms  have  been  developed.  The 
natural  species  are  rarely  grown.  Tulips  are 
cultivated  in  gardens  and  need  a  rich,  sandy 
loam.  The  bulbs  or  offsets  are  planted  in  mid- 
autumn  and  the  flowers  appear  in  spring.  When 
the  plants  have  blossomed  and  the  leaves  have 
begun  to  dry  the  bulbs  are  taken  up,  dried  in 
a  cool  airy  place,  and  stored  in  a  dry  place 

Vol.  XXII.— 35 


until  replanted.  For  pot  culture  tulips  are 
treated  like  hyacinths.  Young  plants  are  also 
obtained  by  sowing  the  seed  in  light  sandy  soil 
under  a  cold  frame  in  late  winter.  Seedlings 
seldom  flower  before  they  are  five  years  old  and 
are  rarely  stable;  i.e.,  after  flowering  one  or 
more  times  they  break  or  develop  a  new  form 
of  color,  which  remains  stable  not  only  with  the 
individual  bulb,  but  with  its  offsets. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  cen¬ 
tury  interest  in  the  tulip  rose  to  a  speculative 
basis.  Bulbs  sold  for  fabulous  prices,  even 
13,000  florins  ($5200)  being  paid  for  a  single 
specimen  of  Semper  Augustus.  Ownership  in 
individual  bulbs  was  divided  into  shares;  bulbs 
were  sold  before  their  existence  and  by  men  who 
possessed  none;  and  of  some  varieties  far  more 
were  sold  than  existed.  The  craze  was  short¬ 
lived,  but  it  financially  ruined  many.  Consult 
J.  Jacob,  Tulips  (London,  1912). 

TULIP  TREE  ( Liriodendron  tulipifera) .  A 
beautiful  North  American  tree  of  the  family 
Magnoliacese,  found  from  Massachusetts  and 
Vermont  to  Wisconsin  and  south  to  Florida, 
Mississippi,  and  Arkansas,  having  a  stem  some¬ 
times  100  to  140  feet  high  and  5  to  9  feet  thick, 
with  a  grayish-brown  cracked  bark  and  many 
gnarled  and  brittle  branches.  The  solitary 
terminal  flowers  resemble  tulips.  The  bark  has 
a  bitter,  aromatic  taste,  like  other  members  of 
the  Magnoliacese.  The  tulip  tree  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  ornaments  of  pleasure  grounds. 
In  some  parts  of  the  Mississippi  valley  it  forms 
considerable  forests,  seldom  or  never  occurring 
alone,  but  in  mixed  woods.  The  heartwood  is 
yellow,  the  sapwood  white.  The  timber  is  easily 
wrought,  takes  a  good  polish,  and  is  much  used 
for  house  carpentry  and  other  purposes  where  a 
light  wood  is  desired.  The  timber  is  usually 
called  poplar,  tulipwood,  or  whitewood.  Fossil 
leaves  of  ancestors  of  the  tulip  tree  are  found 
in  abundance  in  the  North  American  and  Arctic 
Cretaceous  rocks.  These  earliest  representatives 
had  leaves  that  were  not  so  distinctly  lobed  and 
that  resembled,  in  their  entire  margins,  more 
nearly  those  of  the  very  young  individuals  than 
those  of  the  full-grown  trees  of  the  modern 
plant. 

TULL,  Jethro  (1674-1741).  A  British  agri¬ 
culturist.  He  was  born  at  Basildon,  Berkshire, 
and  entered  Oxford  in  1691,  but  two  years  later 
took  up  the  study  of  law  at  Gray’s  Inn.  In 
1699,  shortly  after  becoming  a  barrister,  he 
settled  upon  a  farm  at  Howberrv,  where,  having 
trouble  in  making  his  laborers  carry  out  his 
advanced  ideas,  he  endeavored  to  make  imple¬ 
ments  which  would  do  the  work  “more  faithfully 
than  such  hands  would  do.”  The  results  of  liis 
experiments  are  set  forth  in  his  Horse-Hoeing 
Husbandry,  or* an  Essay  on  the  Principles  of 
Tilling  and  Vegetation  (1733;  2d  ed.,  with 
addenda,  1743;  3d  ed.,  1751).  French  transla¬ 
tions  appeared  in  1753  and  1757,  and  a  new  and 
somewhat  altered  edition  was  put  forth  by 
William  Cobbett  in  1822.  This  work,  which  is 
the  first  of  its  kind,  exercised  a  profound  in¬ 
fluence  on  methods  of  soil  management,  and  upon 
it  Tull’s  fame  chiefly  rests.  See  Tillage. 

TULLA,  tul'la,  Johann  Gottfried  ( 1770— 
1828).  A  German  engineer.  He  was  educated 
in  Heidelberg  and  Freiburg,  and  after  filling 
various  engineering  appointments  became  chief 
engineer  of  the  construction  of  water  and  road 
ways  for  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  in  1813. 
He  founded  the  Engineer  School  of  Baden,  and 


TULUS 


TULLAHOMA  54° 


subsequent  to  1818  had  much  to  do  with  the 
preparation  of  the  plans  for  the  deepening  of  the 
river  Rhine.  He  wrote  Ueber  die  zweckmas- 
sigste  Behandlung  des  Rheins  (1822)  and  Ueber 
die  Rektifikation  des  Rheins  (1825). 

TULLAHOMA,  tul'a-ho'ma.  A  city  in  Cof¬ 
fee  Co.,  Tenn.,  69  miles  southeast  of  Nashville, 
on  the  Nashville,  Chattanooga,  and  St.  Louis 
Railroad  (Map:  Tennessee,  D  3).  Noteworthy 
features  are  the  buildings  of  the  Fitzgerald 
and  Clarke  Preparatory  School,  city  hall,  Pyth¬ 
ian  Home,  Chautauqua  grounds,  State  Voca¬ 
tional  School  for  Girls,  Cumberland  Springs, 
Pylant  Springs,  and  Hurricane  Springs.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  buggies  and  parts,  golf 
sticks,  tobacco  products,  and  overalls.  Pop., 
1900,  2684;  1910,  3049. 

TULLE,  tul.  The  capital  of  the  Department 
of  Correze,  France,  106  miles  by  rail  southwest 
of  Clermont-Ferrand  (Map:  France,  S.,  F  3). 
It  is  a  picturesque  town  with  quaint  houses. 
The  cathedral  (fifteenth  century),  with  a  fine 
bell  tower,  and  the  abbot’s  house  ( fifteenth  cen¬ 
tury),  are  noteworthy.  A  large  government 
firearms  factory  is  in  the  suburb  of  Souilhac. 
From  Tulle  first  came  the  famous  lace  of  that 
name.  Pop.,  1901,  17,412;  1911,  16,942. 

TUL'LIBEE  (North  American  Indian  name). 
A  well-marked  and  valuable  whitefish  ( Argyroso- 
mus  tullibee)  of  the  Great  Lakes,  Lake  of  the 
Woods,  and  northward.  It  i§  bluish  with  white 
sides  showing  silvery  stripes. 

TUL'LIUS,  Servius.  The  sixth  legendary 
king  of  Rome.  He  is  said  originally  to  have 
been  a  slave  of  Tanaquil,  the  wife  of  Tarquinius 
Priscus  (see  Tarquinius).  The  latter  be¬ 
friended  him,  and  Tullius,  after  marrying  the 
daughter  of  Tarquinius,  practically  became  the 
ruling  power  in  the  state.  This  aroused  the  ire 
of  the  sons  of  Ancus  Marcius,  who  were  in  line 
of  succession,  and  they  caused  Tarquinius  to  be 
assassinated.  Tanaquil,  however,  frustrated 
their  plans  by  concealing  the  fact  of  her  hus¬ 
band’s  death  until  Tullius  had  obtained  a  firm 
hold  in  the  government.  According  to  tradition 
the  reign  of  Tullius  was  marked  by  important 
reforms,  notably  the  promulgation  of  a  new 
constitution  and  the  formation  of  an  alliance 
with  the  Latins.  The  new  constitution,  which 
aimed  to  give  the  plebeians  political  inde¬ 
pendence  and  to  make  property  rather  than 
birth  the  basis  of  political  influence,  was  offen¬ 
sive  to  the  patricians,  who,  under  the  leadership 
of  Lucius,  a  son  of  Tarquinius  Priscus,  formed 
a  conspiracy,  which  resulted  in  the  assassination 
of  Tullius.  Tradition  also  adds  that  Tullia,  the 
daughter  of  Tullius  and  wife  of  Lucius,  as  she 
was  returning  from  the  Senate,  which,  coun¬ 
tenancing  the  atrocious  murder  of  Tullius,  had 
recognized  the  claims  of  Lucius  to  the  throne, 
drove  her  chariot  over  her  father’s  dead  body, 
which  still  lay  in  the  street,  where  he  had  been 
struck  down  by  the  assassins.  See  Comitia,  2; 
Plebeians  ;  Rome,  Ancient  Rome,  in  the  section 
entitled  History  of  Rome  during  the  Earliest 
or  Regal  Period,  last  paragraph. 

TUL'LIVER,  Maggie.  The  heroine  of  George 
Eliot’s  Mill  on  the  Floss. 

TUL'LOCH,  John  (1823-86).  A  Scottish 
scholar  and  educator.  He  was  born  at  Dr  on, 
Perthshire,  was  educated  at  St.  Andrews,  and 
ordained  at  Dundee,  in  1845,  as  a  minister  in 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  became  principal  of 
St.  Mary’s  College,  in  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  one  of  her 


Majesty’s  chaplains  for  Scotland.  He  was  highly 
appreciated  as  a  broad-minded,  progressive  the¬ 
ologian,  was  moderator  of  the  General  Assembly 
in  1878,  was  appointed  dean  of  the  chapel  royal 
and  dean  of  the  Thistle  in  1882,  and  died  at 
Torquay.  Among  his  works  are:  Leaders  of  the 
Reformation  (1859;  3d  ed.,  1883);  Beginning 
Life  (1862);  Rational  Theology  and  Christian 
Philosophy  in  England  in  the  Seventeenth  Cen¬ 
tury  (1872;  2d  ed.,  1874);  The  Christian  Doe- 
trine  of  Sin  (1876);  Movements  of  Religious 
Thought  in  Britain  during  the  Nineteenth  Cen¬ 
tury  (1885).  Consult  Mrs.  M.  0.  W.  Oliphant, 
Memoir  of  the  Life  of  John  Tulloeli  (3d  ed., 
London,  1889),  and  A.  K.  H.  Boyd,  Twenty-five 
Years  of  St.  Andrews  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1892-93). 

TULLUS  HOSTILIUS.  See  Hostilius, 
Tullus. 

TULPFNUS.  See  Turpin. 

TULSA,  tul'sa.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Tulsa  Co.,  Okla.,  120  miles  northeast  of  Okla¬ 
homa  City,  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa 
Fe,  the  Midland  Valley,  the  Missouri,  Kansas, 
and  Texas,  the  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco, 
and  the  Tulsa  and  Sand  Springs  railroads 
(Map:  Oklahoma,  E  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Henry  Kendall  College  (Presbyterian),  and 
contains  a  fine  high  school,  a  Carnegie  library, 
and  well-kept  parks  and  boulevards.  In  the 
vicinity  are  found  natural  gas,  coal,  and  enor¬ 
mous  quantities  of  crude  oil,  the  city  being  the 
centre  of  a  vast  oil-producing  region.  Among 
the  industries  are  manufactories  of  brick  and 
tile,  sewer  pipe,  glass,  cottonseed  oil,  pumps, 
engines,  tools  and  machinery,  and  sand,  stone, 
and  wood  products;  oil  refining,  coal  mining, 
and  wheat  milling.  Tulsa  adopted  the  commis¬ 
sion  form  of  government  in  1908.  Pop.,  1900, 
1390;  1910,  18,182;  1915,  28,240;  1920,  72,075. 

TULTCHA.  See  Tulcea. 

TULTCHIN,  tool'chen.  A  town  in  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  Podolia,  Russia,  100  miles  east  of 
Kamenets-Podolsk.  Pop.,  1910,  25,904. 

TULU'NIDS.  A  Mohammedan  dynasty  in 
Egypt  (868-905).  The  founder  was  Ahmed  ibn 
Tulun.  His  father  was  a  Turkish  prisoner  of 
war  sent  by  the  Governor  of  Transoxania  as  a 
present  to  al  Ma’mun  (813—833).  Ahmed  re¬ 
ceived  a  careful  education  and  when,  after 
Tulun’s  death,  his  mother  married  the  powerful 
General  Baik-beg,  he  was  sent  as  Governor  to 
Egypt  (868).  He  soon  made  himself  practically 
independent  of  the  Bagdad  caliphate.  By  his 
administrative  ability  he  developed  the  resources 
of  the  country  and  the  income  of  the  government. 
He  built  mosques,  garrisons,  and  hospitals.  In 
878  he  conquered  Syria,  with  the  exception  of 
Antioch,  and  was  besieging  Tarsus  when  he 
died  in  884.  His  son  Khumaraweihe  (884-895) 
squandered  the  treasures  left  him  by  his  father, 
but  was  able,  through  his  victory  at  Ramie  in 
885,  to  recover  Syria,  which  had  been  taken 
from  him.  He  was  assassinated  in  895.  His 
son  Jeish  (895-896)  was  deposed;  another  son, 
Harun  (896-904),  lost  his  life  in  a  tumult 
while  Egypt  was  attacked  by  the  Caliph  Muk- 
tafi’s  general,  Mohammed  ibn  Suleiman.  Ah¬ 
med’s  son  Sheiban  (904-905)  was  unable  to 
resist  the  attack,  and  the  Tulunid  dynasty  came 
to  an  end  in  905.  Consult  August  Muller, 
Der  Islam  in  Morgen-  und  Abendland  (Berlin, 
1885),  and  Clement  Huart,  Histoire  des  Arabes 
(Paris,  1912). 

TULUS,  too'looz.  One  of  the  civilized  or 
half-civilized  Dravidian  peoples  of  Hindustan. 


TUMACO 


541 


TUMOR 


Tho}  inhabit  the  coast  region  about  Mangalore, 
and  their  language  is  closely  related  to  ancient 
Kauai  ese  (q.v. ).  Consult  Brigcl,  Grammar  of 
the  Tula  Language  (Mangalore,  1872). 

TUMACO,  too-ma/kd.  A  seaport  of  the  De¬ 
partment  of  Cauca,  Colombia,  150  miles  south¬ 
west  of  PopaySn  (Map:  Colombia,  B  3).  It 
has  an  extensive  local  steamer  trade  with  Guaya¬ 
quil  and  Panama.  Pop.,  1912,  11,702. 

TUMBLE  BUG.  See  Dung  Beetle, 

TUMBLER  LOCK.  See  Lock. 

TUMBLEWEEDS.  Plants,  chiefly  annuals, 
especially  abundant  in  prairie  regions.  They 
scatter  their  seeds  as  they  are  rolled  or  tumbled 
from  place  to  place  by  the  wind.  Among  the 
best-known  plants  of  this  sort  in  the  United 
States  are  the  Russian  thistle  ( Halsola  pesti- 
fera)  and  two  tumbling  pigweeds  (Gycloloma 
at?  iplicifolium  and  Amaranthus  grcecizans) . 
See  Seed. 

TUMBLING  MUSTARD.  See  Hedge  Mus¬ 
tard. 

TUMOR  (Lat.,  swelling,  state  of  being  swol¬ 
len).  In  medicine,  an  abnormal  increase  in  size 
of  an  area  of  tissue  or  of  an  organ ;  a  swelling, 
excluding  swellings  occurring  in  the  course  of 
simple  inflammation.  In  pathology,  a  tumor  is 
an  overgrowth  or  hypertrophy,  deviating  in  size 
and  shape  from  the  normal,  with  an  inherent 
power  and  method  of  growth,  this  growth  being 
independent  of  the  rest  of  the  body.  Pathologists 
include  under  the  term  “tumor”  ulcerations  and 
their  boundaries,  when  such  boundaries  are  com¬ 
posed  in  part,  at  least,  of  new  tissue.  Pathologi¬ 
cally,  then,  a  tumor  is  a  growth  of  new  tissue  in 
the  body  which  causes  local  increase  in  the  size 
of  the  part  or  organ  in  which  it  occurs.  Tumors 
are  distinctly  pathological,  subserving  no  useful 
physiological  purposes ;  in  fact,  usually  growing 
at  the  expense  of  useful  tissues  and  organs. 

The  tissues  of  which  tumors  are  composed 
conform  to  the  same  general  types  as  are  nor¬ 
mally  found  in  the  body,  with  the  exception  that 
in  the  case  of  some  tumors  there  is  a  tendency 
towards  the  reversion  of  the  tissue  to  embryonic 
forms.  Tumors  usually  originate  in  tissues  of 
like  structure  with  that  of  the  tumor  itself,  con¬ 
nective-tissue  tumors  taking  their  origin  in 
connective  tissue,  epithelial  tumors  in  epithelium, 
etc.  When  such  tumors  remain  confined  to  the 
tissues  in  which  they  originate  they  are  known 
as  homologous  tumors.  When  they  spread  to 
surrounding  tissues  of  a  different  type,  or  when, 
as  in  malignant  tumors,  new  tumors  are  started 
in  distant  tissues  and  organs  by  the  dissemina¬ 
tion  of  bits  of  tissue  from  the  primary  growth 
through  the  blood  and  lymph,  they  are  known 
as  heterologous  tumors. 

Some  tumors  are  congenital,  notably  the  mevi 
or  vascular  tumors.  In  some  cases  there  appears 
to  be  a  distinct  hereditary  tendency  to  tumor 
formation ;  yet  ideas  as  to"  the  heredity  of  can¬ 
cer  are  grossly  exaggerated  in  many  minds,  for, 
while  the  occurrence  of  cancer  in  several  gen¬ 
erations  has  been  observed,  the  absence  of 
cancer  in  the  children  and  grandchildren  of  per¬ 
sons  who  have  been  afflicted  with  the  most 
malignant  forms  has  been  equally  noted.  In¬ 
flammation  resulting  from  injury,  especially 
from  long-continued  slight  irritation,  seems  to 
be  a  frequent  cause  of  tumor  formation,  injuries 
to  bone  being  frequently  followed  by  develop¬ 
ment  of  osteosarcoma.  Also  injury  to  an  or¬ 
gan,  as  from  a  blow  or  from  a  fall,  often  pre¬ 
cedes  the  development  of  cancer.  Cancer  of  the 


tongue  or  lip  is  often  apparently  traceable  to 
constant  irritation  from  a  broken  clay  pipe  or  a 
rough  tooth.  In  general  it  would  seem  that 
tumors  of  the  connective-tissue  type  (sarcoma) 
most  frequently  follow  a  single  injury,  as  from 
a  blow,  while  tumors  of  the  epithelial  type 
(epithelioma,  carcinoma)  are  more  apt  to  occur 
as  the  result  of  repeated  slight  irritations. 
Chronic  inflammation  seems  to  bear  some  causa¬ 
tive  relation  to  tumor  formation.  This  is  evi¬ 
dent  in  the  frequent  association  of  carcinoma  of 
the  liver  with  cirrhosis  of  that  organ.  Again, 
malignant  tumors  or  cancer  not  infrequently^ find 
their  starting  point  in  such  local  malformations 
as  skin  navi  or  moles.  Age  and  sex  play  im¬ 
portant  roles  among  predisposing  causes  of 
tumors.  Epithelial  cancer  or  carcinoma  is  rare 
in  persons  under  30  years  of  age.  Cancer  of 
the  breast  is  more  common  in  the  female,  this 
being  due  to  the  greater  functional  activity  of 
that  organ  in  the  female.  Cancer  of  the  tongue 
and  lip  is  much  more  common  in  the  male, 
probably  from  the  fact  that  frequent  irritation 
from  smoking  is  common  in  that  sex. 

Knowledge  is  imperfect  as  to  the  primary 
causative  factor  of  tumors.  Of  the  theories 
which  have  been  advanced  in  explanation  of 
tumor  growth,  probably  the  most  ingenious  and 
the  one  to  which  most  credence  is  given  is  one 
advanced  by  Cohnheim.  According  to  his  the¬ 
ory,  during  embryonal  development  some  cells 
stop  developing.  These  cells  may  either  remain 
in  among  tissues  of  their  own  kind  or  may  be¬ 
come  displaced  in  the  course  of  further  develop¬ 
ment  of  surrounding  tissues  and  so  come  to  lie 
among  other  tissues.  Such  cells  lie  dormant  for 
long  periods  until  something  in  their  environ¬ 
ment  calls  them  into  activity,  when  they  de¬ 
velop  with  all  the  potential  growth  of  youno- 
embryonal  cells.  Being  unlimited  by  the"  wear 
and  tear  of  physiological  function,  as  is  the 
case  with  normal  tissues  and  organs,  they  devote 
their  entire  energies  to  growth.  For  these  two 
reasons  the  high  potentiality  for  growth  of 
embryonal  tissue  and  the  lack  of  any  control  of 
the  growth  by  the  requirements  of  function, 
tumor  tissue,  especially  of  the  embryonal  type, 
is  apt  to  be  characterized  by  irregular,  wild 
cell  growth  different  from  the  orderly  arrange¬ 
ment  of  normal  tissue  cells.  While  Cohnheim’s 
hypothesis  offers  a  satisfactory  explanation  of 
most  of  the  phenomena  connected  with  the  tumor 
growth,  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  as  yet 
purely  a  theory,  without  basis  in  known  facts; 
that  no  one  has  ever  been  able  to  demonstrate 
any  of  these  dormant  islands  of  embryonal 
tissue  waiting  to  be  excited  into  tumor  forma¬ 
tion.  Bacteria  as  excitants  have  been  exploited 
by  some  investigators.  While  some  believe  that 
the  true  cause  of  cancer  will  ultimately  be  found 
to  be  bacterial  in  nature,  the  majority  tend  to 
the  opinion  that  the  presence  of  bacteria  in 
tumors  is  an  external  accidental  occurrence 
rather  than  an  internal  causative  factor. 

Tumors  grow  (1)  by  direct  extension  from 
the. periphery,  and  (2)  by  a  growth  of  the  tumor 
at  its  centre  and  a  consequent  pushing  outward 
of  its  peripheral  parts,  or  central  growth;  (3) 
tumors  also  extend  by  what  is  known  as  metas¬ 
tasis.  This,  with  the  formation  of  what  are 
known  as  metastatic  tumors,  occurs  bv  dissemi¬ 
nation  of  cancer  cells  by  means  of  the  blood 
and  lymph.  In  this  way  bits  of  cancer  tissue  are 
carried  to  remote  parts  of  the  body.  This  me¬ 
tastasis  from  a  single  primary  focus  may  occur 


TUMOR 


TUMOR  542 

in  any  tissue  or  organ,  and  commonly  occurs  in 
many  tissues  and  organs  either  in  succession  or 
at  approximately  the  same  time.  It  is  one  of 
the  surest  evidences  of  the  malignancy  of  the 
original  tumor.  These  cancer  cells  lodging  in 
the  tissues  set  up  new  centres  of  growth,  of  the 
same  nature  as  the  parent  growth.  As  the  proc¬ 
ess  of  growth  goes  on  in  tumors  so  does  the 
process  of  degeneration.  Tumors  may  ulcerate 
or  become  gangrenous,  abscesses  may  form  in 
them,  and  they  may  undergo  fatty  or  calcareous 
degeneration.  Degenerative  changes  aie  moie 
frequent  in  the  softer,  rapidly  growing  forms. 

Various  classifications  have  been  suggested, 
all  of  which  are  somewhat  unsatisfactory.  Clin¬ 
ically,  tumors  are  frequently  simply  divided  into 
two  classes:  (1)  benign  tumors,  or  tumors  which 
are  in  themselves  harmless,  and  ( 2 )  malignant 
tumors,  as  cancer  and  sarcoma.  The  most  com¬ 
mon  and  as  yet  most  satisfactory  classification 
of  tumors  is  morphological,  based  upon  their 
structure  relative  to  the  normal  body  tissues. 
The  following  is  the  usually  accepted  classi¬ 
fication  : 

CONNECTIVE-TISSUE  TYPE 

Normal  tissue 

Fibrillar  connective  tissue 
Mucous  tissue 

Embryonal  connective  tissue 
Endothelial  cells 
Fat  tissue 
Cartilage 
Bone 
Neuroglia 

MUSCLE-TISSUE  TYPE 

Smooth-muscle  tissue 
Striated-muscle  tissue 

NERVE-TISSUE  TYPE 

Neuromata 

VASCULAR-TISSUE  TYPE 

Blood  vessels 
Lymph  vessels 

EPITHELIAL-TISSUE  TYPE 

Glands  Adenoma 

Various  forms  of  epithelial  cells  and  asso-  \  Carcinoma 
ciated  tissues  J 

When,  as  is  not  infrequently  the  case,  more 
than  one  kind  of  tissue  is  present  in  a  tumor, 
a  combination  of  terms  is  used  to  designate  its 
nature.  A  combination  of  a  tumor  composed  of 
embryonal  connective  tissue  with  a  bony  tumor 
is  known  as  an  osteosarcoma;  a  muscle-tissue 
tumor  in  which  much  more  than  the  usual 
amount  of  connective  tissue  is  present,  as  a 
fibromyoma,  etc.  In  addition  to  the  new  growths 
included  in  the  classification  given  there  are 
other  forms  of  tumors  or  of  structures  some¬ 
times  called  tumors  which  do  not  fall  within 
any  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  classification. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  cysts  of  various 
kinds,  including  the  so-called  dermoid  cyst  and 
teratoma ;  such  congenital  tumors  as  moles,  navi, 
and  angiomata,  etc.  The  peculiar  placental-tis¬ 
sue  tumor  known  as  deciduoma  may  also  be 
mentioned. 

Nonmalignant  Tumors.  These  are  com¬ 
posed  of  tissues  of  the  types  found  in  the  adult 
and  are  in  themselves  not  dangerous  to  life,  al¬ 
though  sometimes  serious  from  pressure  upon  or 
involvement  of  important  organs.  They  do  not 
as  a  rule  grow  as  rapidly  as  do  malignant 
tumors;  they  do  not  tend  to  recur  when  com¬ 
pletely  removed,  do  not  spread  by  metastasis, 
do  not  involve  neighboring  lymph  glands,  and 
do  not  as  a  rule  interfere  with  the  general 
health  of  the  patient. 

Fibroma. — This  tumor  is  composed  of  fibrillar 


connective  tissue  of  the  type  found  in  the  adult. 
Fibromata  vary  even  more  greatly  in  consistency 
than  does  ordinary  fibrous  tissue,  those  contain¬ 
ing  many  fibres  and  few  cells  being  hard  and 
firm,  fibroma  durum j  those  containing  piopor- 
tionately  many  cells  being  soft,  fibroma  molle. 
They  are  commonly  inclosed  in  a  definite  fibrous 
capsule.  The  softer  fibromata  ai  e  frequently 
very  vascular,  while  the  harder  forms  usually 
contain  few  vessels.  They  are  found  in  the 
skin  and  subcutaneous  connective  tissue,  in  the 
connective-tissue  framework  of  the  various  or¬ 
gans,  in  the  mucous  membranes,  in  the  intermus¬ 
cular  septa,  in  nerve  sheaths,  etc. 

Myxoma. — Myxomata  are  tumors  composed  of 
tissue  which  resembles  a  type  of  tissue  found 
only  in  extremely  small  amount  in  the  adult  and 
known  as  mucous  tissue.  Mucous  tissue  is  there¬ 
fore  essentiallv  embryonic.  These  growths  re¬ 
semble  fibromata  in  structure,  being  made  up  of 
connective-tissue  cells  with  a  fibrillar  inter¬ 
cellular  substance.  The  softer  tumors  are  known 
as  myxoma  gelatinosum,  or  myxoma  molle , 
while  those  of  greater  consistency  are  known  as 
myxoma  medullare.  Myxoma  is  of  compara¬ 
tively  rare  occurrence  in  pure  form.  Usually 
myxomata  are  combined  with  tumor  tissue  .  of 
other  types  to  form  complex  tumors  of  which 
the  most  common  are  lipomyxoma  and  fibro- 
myxoma. 

Lipoma. — Lipomata  are  fatty  tumors.  They 
may  be  hard  or  soft  depending  on  the  amount  of 
connective  tissue  present.  Lipoma  is  a  common 
form  of  tumor,  being  often  superficial,  developing 
in  the  subcutaneous  fat.  Lipomata  may  de¬ 
velop  in  any  situation  where  fat  is  found  and 
consequently  have  a  wide  distribution.  They 
are  generally  inclosed  in  firm  fibrous  capsules 
and  occur  usually  on  the  shoulders,  back,  or 
forearms. 

Chondroma. — These  are  tumors,  in  which  the 
new-formed  tissue  resembles  cartilage  of  either 
the  hyaline  or  fibrous  variety. 

Osteoma. — Osteomata  or  bony  tumors  are 
rather  rare  as  pure  tumors.  Associated  with 
other  forms  of  tumor  tissue  (as  osteosarcoma, 
osteofibroma,  etc.)  they  are  more  common. 

Glioma. — Gliomata  are  connective-tissue  tu¬ 
mors  which  follow  the  structure  of  the  nervous 
system  connective  tissue,  or  neuroglia.  Glio¬ 
mata  are  soft  and  usually  vascular,  thus  pre¬ 
disposing  to  hemorrhage.  They  are  also  ex¬ 
tremely  liable  to  undergo  fatty  degeneration. 
As  a  pure  type  they  are  rare.  Associated  with 
other  forms  of  connective-tissue  new  growths, 
the  gliosarcoma,  gliomyxoma,  etc.,  they  are 
more  common.  They  occur  chiefly  in  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord,  the  ganglia,  and  in  the  optic 
and  olfactory  nerves. 

Myoma. — Myomata  are  tumors  whose  tissue 
elements  are  analogous  to  those  found  in  muscle 
tissue.  Like  normal  muscle,  they  may  be  divided 
into  two  forms,  one  in  which  the  tissue  elements 
are  smooth,  or  involuntary  muscle,,  the  other  in 
which  the  tissue  elements  are  striated,  or  vol 
untary  muscle.  To  the  former  the  name  “leiomy¬ 
oma”  has  been  given,  to  the  latter  the  name  of 
“rhabdomyoma.” 

Neuroma. — Neuromata  are  divided  into  true 
neuromata  and  the  so-called  false  neuromata. 
True  neuromata  are  extremely  rare.  They  ,  con¬ 
sist  of  nerve  tissue  and  may  be  of  the  ganglionic 
type  in  which  new  nerve  cells  develop,  or  of  the 
fibrillar  type  which  consist  of  new-formed  nerve 
fibres.  Neuromata  may  be  single  or  multiple, 


Form  of  tumor 

Fibroma 

Myxoma 

Sarcoma 

Endothelioma 

Lipoma 

Chondroma 

Osteoma 

Glioma 


Leiomyoma 

Rhabdomyoma 


Angioma 
Lymph  angioma 


TUMOR 


TUMOR 


543 


the  latter  frequently  occurring  along  the 
branches  of  distribution  of  a  single  peripheral 
nerve.  They  occur  in  stumps  after  amputation 
of  a  limb  and  are  often  extremely  painful.  The 
false  neuromata  are  not  neuromata  at  all,  but 
fibromata,  sarcomata,  myxomata,  etc.,  of  the 
connective  tissue  of  the  nerve  trunks. 

Angioma. — These  tumors  consist  of  newly 
formed  blood  or  lymph  vessels  and  are  of  two 
kinds,  haemangioma  and  lymphangioma.  The 
former  are  subdivided  into  simple  angioma  or 
angioma  telangiectoides  and  angioma  caverno- 
sum.  The  simple  angiomata  are  composed  of 
masses  of  blood  vessels,  mainly  capillaries,  held 
together  by  connective  tissue.  The  so-called 
strawberry  marks  or  vascular  nsevi,  usually 
of  the  face,  are  congenital  tumors  of  this 
variety. 

Tumors  sometimes  Benign,  sometimes 
Malignant.  Endothelioma. — These  tumors  orig¬ 
inate  from  that  type  of  connective  tissue  known 
as  endothelium  which  forms  the  linings  of  blood 
vessels,  lymphatics,  etc.  On  account  of  their 
extremely  cellular  character  and  on  account  of 
the  reduction  of  their  intercellular  basement 
substance  to  a  minimum,  these  tumors  bear  a 
close  morphological  resemblance  to  the  carci¬ 
nomata,  among  which  they  are  often  classed. 
Endotheliomata  are  most  common  in  the  pleura, 
peritoneum,  dura  mater,  and  pia  mater.  Less 
frequently  they  occur  in  brain,  liver,  ovaries, 
testicle,  lymph  nodes,  salivary  glands,  bone,  and 
skin.  They  may  be  single  or  multiple,  and  may 
form  metastases. 

Adenoma. — Adenomata  are  epithelial  tumors 
in  which  the  epithelium  is  glandular  in  type  and 
is  arranged  in  more  or  less  distinct  alveoli. 
They  thus  correspond  in  structure  to  a  gland. 
The  alveoli  are  supported  as  tumors  in  the 
irregularity  of  the  arrangement  of  their  com¬ 
ponent  elements.  Blocking  up  of  the  ducts  of 
the  glandular  tissue  sometimes  leads  to  an  accu¬ 
mulation  of  secretion  within  the  alveoli  and 
the  formation  of  cysts.  When  this  cyst  forma¬ 
tion  is  a  prominent  feature  of  the  growth  the 
term  “cystadenoma”  is  used  to  designate  the 
tumor.  Of  these  the  most  important  is  the 
multilocular  cystadenoma  of  the  ovary.  Most 
adenomata  are  nonmalignant,  rather  slow-grow¬ 
ing  tumors.  The  most  common  sites  are  the 
ovary,  mammary  gland,  kidney,  liver,  submaxil¬ 
lary,  sublingual,  parotid,  thyroid,  and  lachry¬ 
mal.  They  also  occur  in  those  mucous  mem¬ 
branes  which  are  supplied  with  glands,  e.g.,  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  stomach,  intestines, 
nose,  pharynx,  etc. 

Malignant  Tumors.  Sarcoma. — Sarcomata 
are  tumors  of  the  connective-tissue  group.  They 
differ  from  connective-tissue  tumors  in  that  the 
connective  tissue  of  which  the  sarcomata  are 
composed  is  of  the  embryonal  form.  This 
has,  as  previously  stated,  a  very  distinct  bearing 
upon  their  malignancy,  for  embryonal  tissues 
possess  much  greater  powers  of  "growth  than 
adult  tissues.  Sarcomata  are  usually  classified 
according  to  the  character  and  arrangement 
of  their  cellular  elements — as  small  round- 
celled,  large  round-celled,  small  spindle-celled, 
large  spindle-celled,  giant-celled  or  myeloid,  stel- 
late-celled  sarcoma,  etc.  The  ends  of"  long  bones 
like  the  tibia  and  humerus  are  frequently  af¬ 
fected.  The  mammary  glands  are  sometimes 
the  site  of  sarcoma,  as  also  the  sheaths  of 
peripheral  nerves.  Sarcoma  is  as  a  rule  an 
affection  of  early  life,  most  common  from  10  to 


40,  and  uncommon  after  40.  Both  sexes  are 
about  equally  susceptible. 

Carcinoma. — Carcinomata  or  cancers  are  ma¬ 
lignant  tumors  of  epithelial  tissue.  The  epi¬ 
thelial  elements  are  supported  by  a  more  or  less 
abundant  connective-tissue  framework,  or  stroma, 
which  forms  bundles  of  fibres  irregular  in  ar¬ 
rangement,  in  the  meshes  of  which  are  cavities  or 
alveoli  in  which  the  epithelial  cells  lie  loosely 
without  definite  arrangement.  Generally  the 
epithelial  cells  conform  to  the  different  normal 
types;  but  we  find,  as  is  usual  with  all  cancer¬ 
ous  growths,  an  irregularity  as  to  shape,  size, 
and  arrangement  which  is  much  more  marked 
than  in  normal  epithelium.  And  even  in  a  car¬ 
cinoma  where  a  particular  type  of  cell  pre¬ 
dominates,  other  forms  of  cell  are  frequently 
intermingled. 

Carcinoma  occurs  as  a  primary  tumor  in  tis¬ 
sues  of  epiblastic  origin.  It  originates  in  any 
of  the  various  forms  of  epithelium.  It  is  not  be¬ 
lieved  to  occur  as  a  primary  tumor  in  such  tis¬ 
sues  as  bone,  muscle,  etc.,  which  originate  in 
other  embryonic  layers.  Carcinoma  may,  how¬ 
ever,  involve  any  of  the  body  tissues.  When 
it  involves  tissues  other  than  epithelial,  it  is 
probable  that  the  growth  is  secondary,  the  pri¬ 
mary  tumor  in  epithelium  being  so  small  as  to 
have  passed  unrecognized. 

The  hard  form  of  carcinoma-  common  in  the 
female  breast  is  known  as  scirrhous  cancer  or 
fibro-carcinoma.  Its  hardness  is  due  to  the  large 
amount  of  dense  fibrous  tissue,  the  cellular 
elements  being  comparatively  few.  Very  soft 
carcinomata,  made  up  chiefly  of  cells  with  a 
minimum  amount  of  connective  tissue,  are  called 
medullary  cancer  or  carcinoma  molle.  Melano- 
carcinomata  are  tumors  in  which  more  or  less 
brown  or  black  pigment  is  deposited  in  the 
cells  or  in  the  connective-tissue  stroma.  Car¬ 
cinomata  whose  cells  have  undergone  mucoid 
degeneration  or  whose  stroma  is  of  the  type 
found  in  mucous  connective  tissue  are  known  as 
carcinoma  myxomatoides.  Gelatinous  carcinoma 
is  a  form  in  which  the  cells  become  filled  with  a 
translucent  gelatinous  material. 

Epithelioma. — Epithelioma  is  a  form  of  car¬ 
cinoma  originating  in  squamous  epithelium.  The 
structure  of  the  tumor  tissue  corresponds  roughly 
to  that  of  squamous  epithelium  as  seen  in  the 
skin  and  mucous  membranes.  Epithelial  cancer 
is  most  common  around  the  orifices  of  the  body 
where  skin  and  mucous  membranes  unite,  as 
around  the  openings  of  the  mouth,  nose,  eyes, 
vagina,  etc.  Epitlieliomata  are  the  most  slow 
growing  and  least  malignant  of  all  forms  of  can¬ 
cer.  They  may,  however,  recur  unless  completely 
removed  and  may  form  metastases. 

Malignancy  of  Tumors.  Many  tumors  which 
are  themselves  benign  in  character  may  be 
dangerous  to  life  from  their  position  and  conse¬ 
quent  interference  with  the  functions  of  impor¬ 
tant  organs.  Such  tumors,  although  sometimes 
causing  death,  are  not  classed  as  malignant. 
A  tumor  to  be  classed  as  malignant  must  pre¬ 
sent  certain  well-defined  characteristics.  Among 
these  mav  be  mentioned,  first,  a  tendencv  to 
local  recurrence  after  removal.  This  has  led 
to  the  rule  of  the  surgeon  when  operating  on 
cancer  to  cut  wide  of  the  growth,  even  though 
the  tumor  may  seem  small  and  insignificant, 
in  the  hope  of  removing  all  trace  of  cancerous 
tissue  even  at  the  sacrifice  of  some  healthy 
tissue.  It  is  customary  in  some  cases  to  have 
immediate  microscopical  examination  made  of 


TUNA 


544 


TUNGUS 


the  periphery  of  the  mass  removed,  to  determine 
the  presence  or  absence  of  cancer  cells  at  the 
outer  limits  of  the  operation.  Secondly  may  be 
mentioned  the  tendency  of  a  malignant  tumor 
to  extend  by  direct  continuity  of  growth  to 
surrounding  tissues.  In  discontinuous  peripheral 
growth  there  are  at  first  microscopic  extensions 
outward  of  cancer  cells  from  the  periphery  of 
the  tumor.  These  grow  and  form  nodules  near, 
though  at  first  separated  from,  the  main  tumor 
mass,  but  which  afterward  spread  and  usually 
join  the  original  tumor.  A  third  characteristic 
mark  of  malignancy  is  the  formation  of  what 
are  known  as  metastatic  tumors.  These  are  sec¬ 
ondary  growths  of  the  same  general  nature  as 
the  parent  neoplasm.  They  may  occur  in  any 
tissue  or  organ,  no  matter  how  distant,  and 
spring  from  cancer  cells  disseminated  through 
the  blood  and  lymph.  From  them  still  other 
metastatic  tumors  may  arise.  A  fourth  evidence 
of  malignancy  is  the  effect  of  the  presence  of 
the  cancer  upon  the  general  health  of  the  patient. 
General  impairment  of  health  is  due  to  many 
factors,  such  as  the  drain  upon  the  whole  sys¬ 
tem  of  a  rapid  new  growth,  the  absorption  of 
injurious  matter  from  the  tumor  itself,  the 
effect  of  suppuration  or  necrosis,  etc.,  and  is 
known  as  cancerous  cachexia.  See  Photother¬ 
apy;  X  Ray. 

Bibliography.  Rudolf  Virchow,  Die  krank- 
haften  Geschwulste  (Berlin,  1900)  ;  John  Bland- 
Sutton,  Tumors ,  Innocent  and  Malignant  (4tli 
ed.,  Chicago,  1906)  ;  A.  E.  Hertzler,  Treatise  on 
Tumors  (Philadelphia,  1912)  ;  C.  L.  Seudder, 
Tumors  of  the  Jaws  (ib.,  1912)  ;  C.  P.  White, 
Pathology  of  Growth:  Tumors  (New  York, 

1914)  ;  W.  S.  Bainbridge,  The  Cancer  Problem 
(ib.,  1914)  ;  Delafield  and  Prudden,  A  Textbook 
of  Pathology  (10th  ed.,  ib.,  1914)  ;  G.  E.  Brewer, 
A  Textbook  of  Surgery  (3d  ed.,  Philadelphia, 

1915) . 

TU'NA.  See  Prickly  Pear. 

TUNA.  See  Tunny. 

TUNBRIDGE.  See  Tonbridge. 

TUNBRIDGE  WELLS.  An  English  inland 
watering  place,  on  the  border  of  Kent  and  Sus¬ 
sex,  34  miles  southeast  of  London  (Map:  Eng¬ 
land,  G  5 ) .  Its  picturesque  surroundings, 
healthful  climate,  and  chalybeate  springs  have 
rendered  it  a  fashionable  resort  since  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  the 
various  articles  made  of  Tonbridge  ware.  The 
wells,  discovered  in  1606,  are  situated  at  the 
head  of  a  promenade  called  the  Pantiles.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  corn  exchange,  town 
hall,  public  hall,  sanatorium,  and  mechanics’  in¬ 
stitute.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1889. 
Pop.,  1901,  33,388;  1911,  35,703.  Consult  Ward, 
Surrey  and  Sussex  (London,  1897). 

TUNDRA,  tun 'dr  a  (Russ.,  from  Finnish  tun- 
tur,  marshy  plain).  Regions  in  Arctic  America, 
Asia,  and  Europe,  characterized  as  swamps  of 
bog  moss  with  snow-white  reindeer  moss  and 
various  kinds  of  lichens.  A  luxuriant  growth 
of  flowering  plants  is  also  a  characteristic  of 
some  tundras.  They  are  visited  by  wild  birds 
in  summer,  when  they  are  inaccessible  morasses, 
but  in  winter  they  may  be  readily  crossed.  The 
soil  at  a  depth  of  a  few  feet  remains  frozen 
throughout  the  year,  and  vegetable  growth  in¬ 
creases  in  thickness  annually,  so  that  the  tundra 
surface  slowly  rises.  Their  rivers  expose  deep 
layers  of  ice  and  frozen  soil,  in  which  bones  of 
the  rhinoceros,  the  mammoth,  and  other  extinct 
animals  are  found.  See  Alaska;  Siberia. 


TUNG,  tung.  See  Kukui. 

TUNG'STEN  (Swed.  tungsten,  from  tung, 
heavy  -f-  sten,  stone),  or  Wolfram.  A  metallic 
element  isolated  by  the  brothers  d’Elhujart  in 
1783,  after  Scheele  had,  in  1771,  isolated  tung¬ 
stic  acid.  Tungsten  is  not  found  native,  but 
occurs  as  the  tungstate  of  iron  and  manganese 
in  the  mineral  wolframite,  as  the  calcium 
tungstate  or  sclieelite,  as  the  trioxide  or  wolfram 
ochre,  and  in  small  quantities  in  other  minerals. 
Tungsten  minerals  are  almost  invariably  found 
in  tin  ores.  The  metal  itself  may  be  prepared 
by  heating  sodium  or  calcium  tungstate  with 
carbon,  and  later  refining  in  vacuo.  The  tung¬ 
state  of  sodium  is  obtained  from  tungsten  ore 
by  heating  with  a  moderate  excess  of  sodium 
carbonate,  at  a  temperature  somewhat  below 
the  melting  point  of  the  mass,  subsequently  ex¬ 
tracting  with  water,  and  purifying  the  extracted 
tungstate  by  crystallization. 

Tungsten  (symbol,  W  (wolfram)  ;  atomic 
weight,  184.0)  is  a  bright,  steel-gray,  hard, 
ordinary  brittle,  crystalline  substance,  melting 
at  3302°  C.  (5976°  F.).  It  is  used  to  increase 
the  hardness  and  tenacity  of  steel  and  thus  im¬ 
prove  it  as  a  material  for  hard  tools.  Coolidge 
has  succeeded  in  rendering  tungsten  malleable 
and  ductile,  and  at  present  drawn  tungsten  wire 
is  widely  used  for  making  incandescent-lamp 
filaments.  Tungsten  combines  with  oxygen  to 
form  a  number  of  oxides,  including  a  dioxide 
(W02),  a  sesquioxide  (W203),  and  a  trioxide 
(W03),  the  latter  of  which  unites  with  water 
to  form  tungstic  acid,  which  in  turn  combines 
with  bases  to  form  a  series  of  salts  called 
tungstates.  Of  these  the  sodium  tungstate  is 
sometimes  used  to  replace  sodium  stannate  as 
a  mordant  in  dyeing  and  printing. 

TUNGSTEN  INCANDESCENT  LAMPS. 
See  Electric  Lighting. 

TUNG'STITE.  A  mineral  tungsten  trioxide 
crystallized  in  the  orthorhombic  system.  It  is 
of  a  bright-yellow  or  green  color.  It  is  found 
with  other  tungsten  minerals  in  Cornwall  and 
Cumberland,  England,  and  as  a  coating  or  in 
cavities  in  Monroe,  Conn.,  and  Cabarrus  County, 
N.  C.  The  preparation  of  artificial  crystals  of 
this  mineral  has  been  reported. 

TUNGUS,  tun-guz'.  A  group  of  peoples  of 
the  Ural-Altaic  or  Sibiric  stock  embracing  the 
tribes  of  the  Tungus  proper,  whose  territory  ex¬ 
tends  from  the  Yenisei  to  the  Pacific  and  from 
the  Arctic  Ocean  as  far  south  as  latitude  40°, 
and  the  Manchus.  The  Tungus  proper  consist 
of  the  northern  Tungus,  comprising  the  Olchas 
or  Mangun,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  the 
Oroks  in  the  northern  part  of  Sakhalin,  the  Oro- 
chons,  on  both  banks  of  the  Amur,  the  Mane- 
gers,  on  its  left  bank,  east  of  the  Orochons,  and 
the  Olennvie  or  Reindeer  Tungus ;  the  southern 
Tungus,  including  the  Golds  of  the  lower  Amur 
and  the  Ussuri,  the  Oroches  on  the  coast,  and 
the  Daurians,  or  Solon-Daurs,  mixed  with  Mon¬ 
gols  in  Kulja;  and  the  maritime  Tungus  or 
Lamuts  along  the  Okhotsk  Sea.  Among  some 
of  the  Tungus  Shamanism  of  a  primitive  sort 
prevails.  Russian  influence,  which  began  about 
1650,  is  felt  chiefly  in  the  social  life  of  the 
people.  The  Golds  of  the  Amur,  long  under 
the  influence  of  China,  have  developed  an  in¬ 
teresting  ornamental  art.  They  show  consid¬ 
erable  capacity  for  civilization.  The  Manchus 
are  being  absorbed  by  the  Chinese,  whom  their 
ancestors  once  conquered.  The  Tungus  gener¬ 
ally  are  of  medium  height,  but  the  Manchus 


TUNGUSKA 


TUNIS 


545 


are  often  very  tall.  The  skull  form  tends  to 
be  mesoceplialic.  Consult:  Castr^n,  Grund- 
ziige  einer  tungusischen  Sprachlehre  (St.  Peters¬ 
burg,  1856)  ;  Hiekisch,  Die  Tungusen  (ib., 
1879 )  ;  Schrenck,  Reisen  und  Forschungen  im 
Amurlande  (ib.,  1881-91). 

TUNGUSKA,  tun-goo'ska.  A  name  given  to 
each  of  the  three  large  eastern  tributaries  of 
the  Yenisei  River  in  Siberia.  They  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  as  the  Upper  Tunguska,  or  Angara 
(q.v.),  the  Middle,  or  Stony  Tunguska,  and  the 
Lower  Tunguska. 

TUNGUSKA,  Lower.  The  northernmost  of 
the  three  chief  tributaries  of  the  Yenisei  River 
in  Siberia  (Map:  Asia,  L  2).  It  rises  on  the 
Vitim  Plateau  in  the  Government  of  Irkutsk, 
about  200  miles  northwest  of  Lake  Baikal,  and 
within  14  miles  of  the  Lena  River,  and  flows 
first  north,  then  northwest,  joining  the  Yenisei 
above  Turukhansk,  not  far  from  the  Arctic 
Circle,  after  a  course  of  1600  miles.  Its  upper 
course  flows  between  low  banks  covered  with 
pine  forests,  but  lower  down  the  banks  become 
higher  and  rocky,  and  the  river  penetrates  a 
range  of  mountains  in  a  series  of  rapids.  The 
river  is  navigable  about  450  miles,  but  it  is 
frozen  in  its  lower  course  for  seven  months 
in  the  year.  The  ice  here  blocks  the  upper 
waters  in  the  spring,  causing  extensive  inun¬ 
dations. 

TUNICA  too-ne'ka.  A  North  American  In¬ 
dian  linguistic  stock.  See  TonIca. 

TU'NICA'TA  (Lat.  nom.  pi.  of  tunicatus, 
p.p.  of  tunicare,  to  clothe  with  a  tunic,  from 
tunica,  tunic).  The  single  class  of  the  Uro- 
chorda  containing  small  marine  animals  inclosed 
in  a  soft  elastic  tunic,  which  opens  by  two 
apertures  (oral  and  anal),  and  contains  tuni- 
cin,  a  substance  resembling  cellulose.  The  tunic 
is  usually  thick,  tough,  and  leathery,  but 
may  be  thin  and  delicate,  especially  in  some  of 
the  smaller  forms.  The  mouth,  supplied  with 
tactile  organs,  opens  into  a  capacious  pharynx, 
which  contracts  abruptly  into  a  narrow  oesopha¬ 
gus,  then  expands  into  a  stomach,  followed  by 
a  more  or  less  coiled  intestine  that  terminates 
close  to  the  atrial  pore  or  orifice  (the  other 
opening  in  the  tunic) .  The  walls  of  the  pharynx 
are  perforated  by  numerous  slits,  through  which 
the  water  entering  at  the  mouth  passes  into 
the  cavity  of  the  tunic  and  thence  escapes 
through  the  atrial  pore,  carrying  waste  matter, 
reproductive  products,  etc.  The  pharynx  is  an 
important  respiratory  organ  and  is  correspond¬ 
ingly  richly  supplied  with  blood  vessels.  The 
heart  is  peculiar,  in  that  it  reverses  its  beating, 
pumping  the  blood  in  one  direction  for  a  time, 
then  pausing  and  pumping  the  blood  in  the 
other  direction  for  an  equal  length  of  time. 
The  nervous  system,  contrary  to  common  belief, 
is  not  greatly  reduced,  although  sense  organs 
( except  touch )  are  wanting  or  but  slightly 
developed.  The  muscular  system  is  well  devel¬ 
oped  in  some  forms,  especially  in  the  tunic, 
but  in  others  it  is  reduced  and  serves  chiefly  for 
closing  the  oral  and  atrial  pores.  Reproduc¬ 
tion  is  not  only  by  eggs,  but  takes  place  in 
many  forms  also  by  budding.  In  size  and 
color  the  tunicates  offer  great  diversity.  The 
smallest  forms  are,  as  individuals,  only  a  few 
millimeters  long,  though  the  colonies  they  form 
are  often  many  inches  in  diameter.  The  larg¬ 
est  individuals  are  six  or  eight  inches  high, 
though  some  forms  are  on  stalks  of  much  greater 
length.  In  color  we  find  some  species  black 


and  some  species  white,  and  others  red,  but 
dull  shades  of  greenish,  grayish,  or  brownish 
are  more  common.  Many  free-swimming  forms 
are  almost  transparent  and  nearly  colorless. 

The  number  of  species  is  large  and  the  classi¬ 
fication  has  varied  greatly  with  different  writ¬ 
ers.  They  are  a  comparatively  well-defined  group 
and  are  now  considered  as  a  considerably  de¬ 
generated  offshoot  of  the  branch  from  which 
the  Chordata  have  arisen.  (See  Ascidian.)  The 
tunicates  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  three 
orders,  Larvalia,  Thaliacea,  and  Ascidiacea. 
The  Larvalia  are  a  very  small  group,  containing 
only  one  family  and  few  species,  remarkable 
for  their  small  size  and  free-swimining  habits, 
and  the  retention  throughout  life  of  certain 
characters  which  in  the  other  orders  occur  only 
temporarily  during  development.  These  larval 
characters  are  especially  the  tadpole  form  with 
a  tail,  the  nerve  cord,  and  the  persistent  noto¬ 
chord  or  urochord.  The  Thaliacea  are  also 
free-swimming,  but  are  much  larger  and  more 
degenerate  or  specialized  forms.  There  are 
three  families,  one  of  which  contains  the  beauti¬ 
ful  salpas  (q.v.).  The  order  Ascidiacea  con¬ 
tains  three  suborders  and  a  dozen  or  more 
families.  One  suborder  is  free-swimming  like  the 
salpas,  and  so  is  called  the  Salpiformes ;  the 
second,  called  Composite,  contains  fixed  forms 
which  multiply  extensively  by  budding  and  thus 
form  compound  organisms,  the  individuals  of 
which  are  usually  very  small;  the  third  sub¬ 
order,  the  Simplices,  are  almost  always  fixed 
individuals  ( see  Ascidian  )  ;  but  in  many  cases 
large  numbers  of  individuals  are  united  by  a 
common  stolon  from  which  they  have  arisen  by 
budding,  and  these  forms  are  sometimes  known 
as  social  ascidians.  The  simplices  are  better 
known,  popularly,  than  the  other  suborders,  and 
many  of  them  have  popular  names,  as  sea  pork, 
eea  peach,  sea  potato,  and  sea  squirt. 

Consult  Herdman,  “Report  on  the  Tunicata,” 
in  Thomson  and  Murray,  Report  of  the  Scientific 
Results  of  H.  M.  S.  Challenger:  Zoology ,  vol.  vi 
(London,  1888),  and  general  works  on  zoology. 

TU'NICLE.  See  Costume,  Ecclesiastical. 

TUNING.  The  process  of  bringing  into  per¬ 
fect  musical  accord  the  strings,  pipes  or  mem¬ 
branes  which  constitute  tone-producing  elements 
of  the  various  musical  instruments.  As  a  rule 
the  wind  instruments  do  not  require  special  tun¬ 
ing,  for  their  pitch  is  constant.  Keyed  instru¬ 
ments  (the  piano  and  organ)  require  only  occa¬ 
sional  regulation  of  their  strings  and  pipes ; 
but  the  stringed  instruments  need  to  be  tuned 
constantly.  See  Musical  Instruments  ;  Pitch  ; 
Temperament. 

TUNING  FORK.  A  contrivance  for  regulat¬ 
ing  the  pitch  of  the  voice  or  of  a  musical  in¬ 
strument.  It  consists  of  two  prongs  of  steel 
springing  from  a  handle,  and  so  adjusted  as  to 
produce  a  fixed  note  when  struck.  It  is  tuned 
in  a1,  which  has  435  double  or  870  single  vibra¬ 
tions  per  second.  The  tuning-cone  is  a  hollow, 
metal  cone  used  in  tuning  the  metal  flue  pipes 
of  an  organ.  To  lower  the  pitch  of  a  pipe,  the 
inverted  cone  is  pushed  down  over  its  top:  to 
raise  the  pitch,  the  point  of  the  cone  is  inserted 
in  the  pipe. 

TU'NIS  (Fr.  Tunisie) .  A  French  protecto¬ 
rate  in  North  Africa.  It  is  the  most  northern 
of  African  countries  (Map:  Africa,  E  1).  Its 
boundaries  are  still  indefinite,  but  the  area  is 
probably  less  than  50,000  square  miles.  Tunis 
is  physically  continuous  with  the  rest  of  north- 


TUNIS 


TUNIS 


546 


western  Africa.  The  northern  part  is  composed 
of  the  Little  Atlas  Mountains  which  border  the 
coast,  the  Great  Atlas  to  the  south  on  an  aver¬ 
age  about  1500-2000  feet,  rising  in  the  peak 
of  Sidi  Ali,  and  in  other  summits  to  heights 
of  5700-6500  feet  and  the  inclosed  plateau. 
This  plateau  region  is  fairly  well  watered  by 
numerous  small  streams,  many  of  which  are 
perennial,  and  the  valley  of  the  Mejerda  (an¬ 
cient  Bagradas),  a  stream  which  regularly  over¬ 
flows  its  banks  during  the  winter  rains  and  irri¬ 
gates  the  neighboring  plains,  is  the  chief  area 
of  cultivation.  The  southern  half  of  the  pla¬ 
teau,  generally  treeless,  is  covered  with  esparto 
grass.  On  the  north  coast  the  plateau  falls 
abruptly  in  steep  wooded  cliffs  towards  the 
sea;  on  the  east  coast,  however,  there  is  a  low 
region  about  60  miles  wide,  fertile  in  the  north, 
but  becoming  arid  in  the  south.  The  southern 
half  of  Tunis  belongs  to  the  Sahara  region,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  a  group  of  mountains  in 
the  southeast,  is  generally  low,  in  some  places 
even  below  sea  level.  In  its  northern  part  is 
the  salt  incrusted  area  of  the  Jerid,  surrounded 
by  numerous  hot  springs,  which  are  used  for 
irrigation.  The  date  palm  is  here  indigenous, 
and  grows  in  large  numbers,  but  the  rest  of  the 
Sahara  region  is  arid.  The  climate  of  Tunis 
is  healthful,  with  a  temperature  ranging  from 
50°  F.  to  96°  F.  The  rainfall  averages  22  inches 
in  the  north,  and  is  there  fairly  regular.  In 
the  south  years  may  pass  without  any  regular 
rains,  though  occasionally  there  are  heavy  show¬ 
ers  which  raise  the  average  to  nearly  ten  inches. 
The  flora  and  fauna  are  mostly  identical  with 
those  of  Algeria  (q.v.).  Geologically  Tunis  is 
of  comparatively  recent  formation,  the  moun¬ 
tains  being  mostly  Tertiary,  the  coast  region 
Quaternary,  and  parts  of  the  plateau  Creta¬ 
ceous. 

The  chief  mineral  products  are  zinc,  lead,  iron, 
salt,  gypsum,  phosphates,  and  marble.  In  re¬ 
cent  years,  by  far  the  greatest  development  has 
been  in  phosphates.  Agriculture,  the  main  in¬ 
dustry,  shows  progress.  Cereals  and  the  vine 
are  mainly  cultivated  in  the  northern  part, 
where  the  holdings  are  small.  Farther  south 
the  holdings  are  large  and  devoted  to  stock- 
breeding  and  the  cultivation  of  olives  (about 
500.000  acres)  and  date  palms.  The  chief  pro¬ 
ducts  are  olives  and  olive  oil,  grain,  fruits,  and 
cork.  The  leading  acreages  in  1913  were  1,518,- 
000  for  wheat  and  1,374,000  for  barley.  In  1913 
there  were  29,500  horses,  84,200  asses,  23,500 
mules,  157,100  cattle,  843,100  sheep,  561,700 
goats,  123,900  camels,  and  15,100  swine.  Tunis 
has  practically  no  industries  except  the  native 
or  household.  Carpets,  saddles,  and  other 
leather  articles  and  woolen  goods  are  produced. 
The  fisheries  are  active  and  yield  principally 
allaches,  sardines,  tunny,  and  sponges.  There 
are  sixteen  ports,  three  of  them  excellent.  In 
1913  the  tonnage  entered  was  4,666,000,  about 
three-fourths  French.  Imports  and  exports  in 
1912  were  valued  at  156,294,000  and  154,655,000 
francs,  respectively;  in  1913,  144,254,000  and 
178.663,000.  The  leading  exports  are  phos¬ 
phates,  cereals,  olive  oil,  live  animals,  and  lead. 
About  one-half  the  total  trade  is  with  France. 
At  the  beginning  of  1914  there  were  1428  miles 
of  railway. 

The  French  protectorate  dates  from  1881. 
The  nominal  head  of  the  government  is  the 
native  Bey,  assisted  by  nine  ministers — seven 
French  and  two  native — who  administer  nine  de¬ 


partments.  There  is  also  the  Minister  of  For¬ 
eign  Affairs,  who  is  the  French  Resident-Gen¬ 
eral.  He  is  virtually  the  Viceroy.  Tunis  has 
thirteen  civil  and  two  military  districts  and  a 
military  post — all  in  charge  of  French  repre¬ 
sentatives.  French  tribunals  of  justice  deal 
with  cases  involving  foreigners,  and  native 
courts  with  those  of  the  Tunisians.  The  army 
of  occupation  in  1913  numbered  17,500.  The  capi¬ 
tal  is  Tunis  (q.v.).  The  estimated  revenue  and 
expenditure  for  1913  were  each  about  85,000,- 
000  francs.  The  largest  disbursements  are  for 
the  public  debt  and  public  works.  The  total 
debt  at  the  end  of  1906  amounted  to  £9,287,- 
000;  in  1910  a  loan  of  10,000,000  francs  was 
authorized. 

The  census  of  Europeans,  Dec.  15,  1911,  and 
the  estimate  of  Mohammedans  and  native  Jews, 
Dec.  31,  1911,  showed  a  total  population  of 
1,929,003.  Mohammedans  numbered  1,730,144; 
Italians,  88,082;  native  Jews,  50,383;  French, 
46,044;  Maltese,  11,300;  various,  3050.  There 
are  some  French  and  many  Mohammedan 
schools,  a  Mohammedan  university  in  Tunis, 
and  a  college.  Tunis  is  rich  in  antiquities. 
Punic,  Roman,  and  Byzantine  ruins  abound, 
the  two  former  classes  representing  magnificent 
epochs.  The  site  of  Carthage  is  still  marked 
by  the  remains  of  substructures.  A  fine  mu¬ 
seum  of  relics  has  been  established  here.  The 
Bardo  collection  near  the  capital  is  valuable. 

The  early  history  of  Tunis  is  connected  with 
that  of  Carthage  ( q.v. ) .  After  the  fall  of 
Carthage  the  region  became  the  Roman  Province 
of  Africa  (Africa  in  the  narrower  sense),  sub¬ 
divided  into  the  northern  District  of  Zeugitana 
and  the  southern  district  of  Byzacium  (Provin- 
cia  Byzacena).  Carthage  was  rebuilt,  and  in 
the  second  and  third  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Era  was  one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  The  Romans  were  vanquished 
by  the  Vandals  under  Genseric  in  429.  The 
Vandals  held  the  country  until  their  King,  Geli- 
mer,  was  conquered  and  taken  prisoner  in  534 
by  Belisarius  (q.v.),  the  general  of  the  Byzan¬ 
tine  Emperor  Justinian.  Tunis  then  remained 
under  Byzantine  rule  until  the  conquest  by  the 
Arabs  in  the  seventh  century.  Under  Moham¬ 
medan  rule  the  city  rose  to  great  splendor. 
After  having  formed  for  more  than  a  century 
a  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  caliphs,  the  coun¬ 
try  was  ruled  successively  by  the  dynasties  of 
the  Aglabites,  Fatimites,  Almohades,  and  Haf- 
sites.  In  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  it 
was  for  a  short  time  under  the  rule  of  Roger  II 
of  Sicily.  In  1270  Louis  IX  of  France,  having 
undertaken  a  crusade,  died  during  his  invasion 
of  Tunis,  and  in  1390  the  French  under  the 
Duke  of  Bourbon  were  again  unsuccessful,  be¬ 
ing  repulsed  at  Mahdiya.  In  1535  Charles  V 
undertook  an  expedition  against  the  famous 
corsair  Ivhair-ed  Din  ( Barbarossa) ,  who  had 
established  himself  at  Tunis,  captured  the  city, 
and  liberated  over  20,000  Christian  slaves.  In 
1575  Sinan  Pasha  conquered  the  country  and  in¬ 
corporated  it  with  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The 
government  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  Turkish 
pasha,  a  divan  or  council,  composed  of  the  of¬ 
ficers  of  the  Turkish  garrison,  and  the  com¬ 
mander  of  the  janizaries. 

After  a  few  years,  however,  an  insurrection  of 
the  soldiery  broke  out,  and  a  new  government 
was  established,  the  head  of  which  was  a  “dey” 
possessing  limited  authority,  the  chief  power 
being  at  first  exercised  by  the  military  divan. 


TUNIS 


But  gradually  an  officer,  with  the  title  of  “bey,” 
whose  original  functions  were  confined  to  the 
collection  of  tribute  and  taxes,  acquired  a  su¬ 
premacy  over  the  other  authorities,  and  finally 
obtained  a  kind  of  hereditary  sovereignty.  The 
beys  of  Tunis  made  conquests  on  the  mainland 
and  piratical  enterprises  against  Christian  pow¬ 
ers  at  sea.  During  the  eighteenth  century  Tunis 
became  tributary  to  Algeria.  About  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  nineteenth  century  Hamuda  Pasha 
put  an  end  to  this  dependence,  subdued  the 
Turkish  militia,  and  created  a  native  Tunisian 
army,  in  consequence  of  which  Tunis  virtually 
attained  independence.  The  subsequent  rulers, 
Achmet  Bey  (1837-55),  Mohammed  Bey  (1855- 
59),  and  Mohammed  Sadyk  Bey  (1859-82), 
were  liberal,  enlightened  sovereigns.  In  1871 
the  Sultan  renounced  the  tribute  formerly  ex¬ 
acted,  and  fixed  the  future  relations  of  the'  Sub¬ 
lime  Porte  to  Tunis.  The  Bey  was  to  receive 
his  investiture  from  Constantinople;  without 
the  Sultan's  authority  he  could  neither  declare 
war,  conclude  peace,  nor  cede  territory;  the 
Sultan’s  name  was  to  appear  on  all  the  coin¬ 
age;  the  army  was  to  be  at  the  disposal  of 
the  Porte.  In  internal  matters,  however,  the 
power  of  the  Bey  was  to  be  absolute.  In  1881 
France,  with  the  ostensible  purpose  of  chastising 
the  Khrumirs,  who  had  made  raids  into  Alge¬ 
rian  territory,  sent  an  expedition  into  Tunis. 
At  the  same  time  a  French  squadron  appeared 
before  the  capital  and  the  Bey  was  forced  to 
enter  into  an  engagement  establishing  a  French 
protectorate  over  the  country.  Thereupon  an 
insurrection  broke  out,  and  it  was  only  after 
much  bloodshed  that  the  French  were  able  to 
compel  submission.  In  July,  1881,  they  took 
Sfax,  and  in  October  they  occupied  Kairwan. 
By  the  close  of  the  year  the  country  was  sub¬ 
dued.  The  French  protectorate  has  contributed 
to  the  material  progress  and  prosperity  of 
Tunis. 

Bibliography.  General  description:  A.  Ri¬ 
viere,  La  Tunisie ;  geograpliie,  evenements  de  1881, 
organisation,  politique  et  administration  (Paris, 
1887)  ;  Graham  and  Ashbee,  Travels  in  Tunisia 
(London,  1887),  containing  a  bibliography; 
Charles  Lallemand,  La  Tunisie,  pays  de  pro- 
tectorat  frangais  (Paris,  1891);  Eugene  Poire, 
La  Tunisie  frangaise  (ib.,  1892)  ;  P.  Leroy- 
Beaulieu,  L’Algerie  et  la  Tunisie  (2d  ed.,  ib., 

1897 )  ;  Marcel  Dubois  and  Others,  La  Tunisie  ( ib., 

1898)  ;  Douglas  Sladen,  Carthage  and  Tunis 
(2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1906)  ;  F.  E.  Nesbit, 
Algeria  and  Tunis  (New  York,  1906)  ;  Graham 
Petrie,  Tunis,  Kairouan,  and  Carthage  (Garden 
City,  N.  Y.,  1909)  ;  C.  Monclii-Court,  La  region 
du  Haut  Tell  en  Tunisie:  essai  de  monogra- 

1  phie  g^ographique  (Paris,  1913).  Antiquities: 
Charles  Tissot,  Exploration  scientifique  de  la 
Tunisie  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1884-88)  ;  Carton,  Deeou- 
vertes  Spigraphiques  et  archeologiques,  faites  en 

1  Tunisie  (Lille,  1895)  ;  Gaston  Boissier,  Roman 

1  Africa:  Archceological  Walks  in  Algeria  and 
Tunis  (New  York,  1899).  History:  T.  We- 
rnyss  Reid,  The  Land  of  the  Bey  ( 2  vols., 
London,  1883)  ;  Ernest  Mercier,  Histoire  de 
VAfrique  septentrionale  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1888- 
90)  ;  N.  Faucon,  La  Tunisie  avant  et  depuis 
Voceupation  frangaise  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1892)  ; 
Abel  Clarin  de  La  Rive,  Histoire  generale 
de  la  Tunisie  (ib.,  1893)  ;  Ernst  von  Ilesse- 
Wartegg,  Tunis:  The  Land  and  the  People  (Eng. 
trans.,  new  ed.,  London,  1899)  ;  Alexis  Vitry, 
L’CEuvre  frangaise  en  Tunisie  (Paris,  1900)  ; 


547  TUNKHANNOCK 

Henri  Saladin,  Tunis  et  Kairouan  (ib.,  1908)  ; 
also  H.  S.  Ashbee,  “Bibliography  of  Tunis  from 
the  Earliest  Times,”  in  Bibliography  of  the 
Barbary  States  (London,  1889). 

TUNIS.  The  capital  of  the  Protectorate  of 
Tunis.  It  is  situated  near  the  southwestern  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  Lake  of  Tunis,  about  three  miles 
from  the  ruins  of  ancient  Carthage  (Map:  Af¬ 
rica,  F  1 ) .  The  lagoon  or  Lake  of  Tunis  is  shal¬ 
low,  and  communicates  with  the  Gulf  of  Tunis,  an 
inlet  of  the  Mediterranean,  by  a  narrow  strait 
known  as  the  channel  of  Goletta.  The  gulf  itself 
is  45  miles  broad  at  the  entrance.  The  town  oc¬ 
cupies  rising  ground,  and  both  the  city  proper 
and  the  suburbs  are  surrounded  by  walls.  The 
streets  of  the  inner  town  are  narrow,  unpaved, 
and  dirty,  but  the  bazars  are  well  furnished, 
and  many  of  the  mosques  are  splendid,  par¬ 
ticularly  the  Mosque  of  Yussuf.  The  palace 
of  the  Bey  is  probably  the  finest  building  in 
Tunis.  The  citadel,  begun  by  Charles  V  and 
finished  by  Don  John  of  Austria,  is  interesting 
from  its  collection  of  old  arms.  The  newer 
French  or  foreign  quarter,  established  since 
1893,  has  a  European  aspect.  The  city  contains 
a  Mohammedan  university  and  a  national  mu¬ 
seum  of  arts  and  antiquities.  Water  is  sup¬ 
plied  by  means  of  a  restored  ancient  aqueduct 
from  Jebel  Zaghwan.  Tunis  is  the  commercial 
centre  of  the  State,  and  carries  on  an  impor¬ 
tant  trade  with  Europe  and  Central  Africa. 
Ocean-going  vessels  reach  the  town  directly  b^ 
means  of  a  canal,  7  miles  long  and  21  y2  fet^l 
deep,  opened  in  1893.  Tunis  has  silk  aJI 
woolen  manufactures  of  shawls,  tapestries,  nj^B 
ties,  burnooses,  caps,  turbans,  colored  clof 
also  leather,  soap,  wax,  and  olive  oil,  A 
which  it  exports,  together  with  grain, 
cattle,  fish,  ivory,  gold  dust,  coral,  etjj 
climate  is  unhealthful. 

Tunis  (ancient  Tunes)  was  a  Cartha^B 
city,  frequently  mentioned  in  connection  iB 
the  Punic  wars.  It  became  important  unoW 
the  Arabs.  ( See  Tunis,  Protectorate. )  The 
population  is  stated  for  the  end  of  1911  to  con¬ 
sist  of  about  164,600  Moslems,  43,000  Jews,  and 
about  69,500  Europeans  (including  44,237  Ital¬ 
ians,  17,875  French,  and  5986  Maltese). 

TUNJA,  toon'll  a.  A  city  and  the  capital  of 
the  Department  of  Boyaca,  Colombia  (Map: 
Colombia,  C  2).  It  is  located  9161  feet  above 
the  sea  and  has  a  cold  healthful  climate,  with 
an  average  temperature  of  55°  F.  It  has 
straight  paved  streets  and  around  the  Plaza 
de  Bolivar  are  the  cathedral,  the  government 
house,  and  the  college.  There  are  also  a  peni¬ 
tentiary,  a  normal  school  and  a  seminary.  The 
city  manufactures  tiles  and  bricks.  "  Stock- 
raising,  mining,  and  some  agriculture  are  car¬ 
ried  on  in  the  surrounding  region.  Pop.,  1912, 
8971.  It  was  founded  in  1539  by  Gonzalo 
Suarez  Rendon,  on  the  site  of  the  Chibcha  town 
of  Zaque  Hunza.  Near  the  city  is  the  Boyaca 
bridge  where  Bolivar  won  the  decisive  battle 
of  that  name  on  Aug.  7,  1819. 

TUNKERS.  See  Church  of  the  Brethren. 
TUNKHAN'NOCK.  The  county  seat  of 
Wyoming  Co.,  Pa.,  on  the  Susquehanna  River, 
Tunkhannock  Creek,  and  the  Lehigh  Val¬ 
ley  Railroad,  31  miles  by  rail  northwest  of 
Wilkes-Barre  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  K  3).  The 
chief  industry  is  tanning  and  there  are  spool  and 
tub  factories,  furnaces  and  machine  shops,  stave 
and  planing  mills,  and  witch  hazel  distilleries. 
Lumbering  is  carried  on  extensively.  Pop., 


TUNNEL 


TUNNEL 


548 


1000,  1305;  1010,  1508.  For  description  of 

Tunkhannock  Viaduct,  see  Viaduct. 

TUNNEL  (OF.  tonnel,  tunnel,  tun,  pipe,  ton- 
nelle,  arbor,  arched  vault,  tunnel,  diminutive  of 
tonne,  pipe,  tun,  ML.  tunna,  OHG.  tunna,  Ger. 
Tonne,  AS.  tunne ,  Eng.  tun).  An  artificial  gal¬ 
lery,  passage,  or  roadway  beneath  the  ground, 
under  the  bed  of  a  stream,  or  through  a  hill 
or  mountain.  Tunneling  has  been  known  since 
very  early  times.  A  king  of  Egypt  upon  as¬ 
cending  the  throne  began  at  once  to  drive  the 
long  narrow  passage  leading  to  the  chamber 
of  the  rock-cut  tomb  at  Thebes  which  was  to 
form  his  final  resting  place.  Similar  rock-cut 
work  was  performed  by  the  Nubians  and  In¬ 
dians  in  building  their  temples,  by  the  Aztecs 
in  America,  and  by  most  ancient  civilized  peo¬ 
ples.  The  first  built-up  tunnels  known  were 
those  constructed  by  the  Assyrians.  The 

vaulted  drain  or  passage  under  the  southeast 
palace  of  Nimrud,  built  by  Shalmaneser  II 

( 860-824  b.c.  ) ,  is  in  essentials  a  true  soft- 
ground  tunnel.  A  much  better  example  is  the 

tunnel  under  the  Euphrates,  which  may  be 

claimed  to  be  the  first  subaqueous  tunnel  of 
which  any  record  exists.  It  was,  however,  built 
under  the  dry  bed  of  the  river,  the  waters  of 
which  were  temporarily  diverted  and  then 
turned  back  into  their  normal  channel  after 
the  tunnel  work  was  completed,  making  it  a 
true  subfluvial  tunnel  only  when  finished.  The 
|Euphrates  tunnel  was  built  through  soft  ground, 
■nd  was  lined  with  brick  masonry,  12  feet  wide 
^its  interior  and  15  feet  high.  Only  hand 
was  employed  in  ancient  tunnel  construc- 

^  In  soft  ground  pick  and  shovels  or  scoops 
Hsed.  For  rock  work  the  ancients  possessed 
«:*r  range  of  appliances. 

Irch  Las  shown  that  among  the  Egyptians, 
Brin  the  art  of  quarrying  was  highly  de- 
Brd,  use  w7as  made  of  tube  drills  and  saws 
Wm  cutting  edges  of  corundum  or  other  hard, 
IJyitty  material.  The  usual  tools  for  rock  work 
were  the  hammer,  chisel,  and  wedges;  and  the 
excellence  and  magnitude  of  the  works  accom¬ 
plished  with  these  limited  appliances  attest  the 
unlimited  time  and  labor  available  for  their  ac¬ 
complishment. 

The  Romans  should  doubtless  rank  as  the 
greatest  tunnel-builders  of  antiquity  in  the 
number,  magnitude,  and  useful  character  of 
their  works  and  in  the  improved  methods  they 
devised.  They  introduced  fire  as  an  agent  for 
breaking  down  the'  rock,  and  developed  the 
familiar  principle  of  prosecuting  work  at  sev¬ 
eral  points  at  once  by  means  of  shafts.  They 
built  large  fires  in  front  of  the  rock  to  be  broken 
down  and  when  it  had  reached  a  high  tempera¬ 
ture  cooled  it  suddenly  by  means  of  water,  thus 
producing  cracks  and  fissures. 

The  Roman  tunnels  were  designed  for  public 
utility — aqueducts  and  roads.  One  of  the  most 
notable  of  the  tunnels  of  larger  section  is  that 
which  gives  the  road  between  Naples  and  Poz- 
zuoli  passage  through  the  Posilipo  hills.  It  is 
excavated  through  volcanic  tufa,  and  is  about 
3000  feet  long  and  25  feet  wide,  with  a  section 
in  the  form  of  a  pointed  arch.  In  order  to 
illuminate  this  tunnel,  its  floor  and  roof  were 
made  gradually  converging  from  the  ends  to¬ 
wards  the  middle;  at  the  entrances  the  section 
was  75  feet  high.  This  double  funnel-like  con¬ 
struction  caused  the  rays  of  light  to  concen¬ 
trate  as  they  approached  the  centre,  improving 
the  natural  illumination.  This  tunnel  was 


probably  excavated  during  the  time  of  Augus¬ 
tus,  although  some  authorities  place  it  earlier. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  tunnel-building  was 
practiced  for  military  purposes,  but  seldom  for 
public  need.  Every  great  castle  had  its  private 
underground  passage  from  the  central  tower 
or  keep  to  some  distant  concealed  place  to  per¬ 
mit  the  escape  of  the  family  and  its  retainers 
in  case  of  victory  by  the  enemy,  and  during 
the  defense  to  allow  of  sorties  and  the  en¬ 
trance  of  supplies.  The  tunnel-builders  of  the 
Middle  Ages  added  little  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  art.  Indeed,  until  the  seventeenth  century 
and  the  introduction  of  gunpowder  no  particular 
improvement  was  made  in  the  tunneling  methods 
of  the  Romans.  Although  gunpowder  bad  been 
previously  employed  in  mining,  the  first  im¬ 
portant  use  of  it  in  tunnel  work  was  at  Malpas, 
France,  in  1679-81,  in  the  tunnel  for  the  Lan¬ 
guedoc  Canal.  This  tunnel  was  510  feet  long, 
22  feet  wide,  and  29  feet  high,  and  was  exca¬ 
vated  through  tufa. 

With  the  advent  of  gunpowder  and  canal  con¬ 
struction  the  first  strong  impetus  was  given  to 
tunnel-building  in  its  modern  sense  as  a  com¬ 
mercial  and  public  utilitarian  construction. 
Canal  tunnels  of  notable  size  were  excavated  in 
France  and  England  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  These  were  all  rock 
or  hard-ground  tunnels.  Indeed,  previous  to 
1800  the  soft-ground  tunnel  was  beyond  the 
courage  of  the  engineer  except  in  sections  of 
such  small  size  as  hardly  to  deserve  the  name 
of  tunnels.  In  1803,  however,  a  tunnel  of  24 
feet  wide  was  excavated  through  soft  soil  for 
the  Saint-Augustine  Canal  in  France.  Timber¬ 
ing  was  employed  to  support  the  walls  and  roof 
as  fast  as  the  earth  was  removed  and  the  ma¬ 
sonry  lining  was  built  closely  following  it.  From 
the  experience  gained  in  this  tunnel  were  de¬ 
veloped  the  various  systems  of  soft-ground  sub¬ 
terranean  tunneling  since  employed. 

In  1761  coal  was  shipped  in  boats  from  the 
Duke  of  Bridgewater’s  coal  mines  over  a  canal 
from  Worsley  Mill  to  Manchester.  At  Wors- 
ley,  where  the  basin  was  large  enough  to  hold 
a  great  many  boats,  the  canal  entered  a  hill  by 
a  tunnel  which  at  the  time  of  its  construc¬ 
tion  was  about  a  mile  in  length  and  reached 
the  different  workings  of  the  mine.  It  has 
since  been  enlarged  and  comprises  about  40 
miles  of  subterranean  water  passage. 

It  was  through  the  development  of  the  steam 
railway,  however,  that  the  art  of  tunneling  was 
to  be  brought  into  its  present  prominence.  The 
Terre-Noir  (Black  Earth)  was  the  first  tunnel 
built  on  a  horse  railroad.  It  was  on  a  single- 
track  road  near  St.  Etienne,  in  France,  on  the 
Roanne-Andr6zieux  line.  It  was  begun  in  1826 
and  was  4921.5  feet  long,  9.8  feet  wide  at  the 
springing  line,  and  16.4  feet  in  height.  In  Bel¬ 
gium,  the  Cumptieh  Tunnel  was  built  in  1835  on 
the  Chemin  de  l’Etat,  and  seems  to  have  been 
the  earliest  in  that  country.  It  was  single  track 
and  13.7  feet  wide  at  the  springing  line.  The 
Oberau  Tunnel,  1680  feet  long,  was  completed  in 
1839  on  the  Leipzig-Dresden  line  in  Saxony. 
This  was  the  first  German  tunnel.  In  Austria, 
the  Gumpoldskirch  Tunnel  on  the  Vienna-Glogg- 
nitz  line  near  Wiener-Neustadt  was  built  in  1839. 
I11  Italy  the  Naples-Castelamare  line,  opened  in 
1840,  had  several  tunnels  on  it.  In  1856  the 
total  Italian  tunnels  amounted  to  10,181  me¬ 
ters.  In  Switzerland  the  Hauenstein  Tunnel, 
finished  in  1858,  is  of  interest.  The  first  tun- 


TUNNEL 


TUNNEL 


549 


nel  built  in  the  United  States  was  in  the 
Schuylkill  navigation  canal  above  Auburn,  at 
the  Orwigsburg  landing,  commenced  in  1818  and 
opened  to  traffic  in  1821.  It  was  cut  through 
red  shale,  20  feet  wide  by  18  feet  high  (from 
canal  bottom)  and  was  originally  450  feet  long, 
arched  for  about  75  feet  inward  from  each  por¬ 
tal.  The  highest  point  of  the  hill  over  the 
tunnel  was  only  some  40  feet,  and  had  it  been 
located  but  a  short  distance  down  the  ridge, 
where  the  railway  cut  now  is,  the  tunnel  might 
have  been  eliminated.  In  order  to  get  sufficient 
height  to  tunnel  under,  it  was  necessary  to 
turn  the  course  of  the  canal  at  almost  right 
angles  to  itself.  The  novelty  of  this  tunnel 
was  a  great  factor  in  promoting  general  in¬ 
terest  in  the  canal.  In  1834—37  the  tunnel  was 
shortened  to  about  half  its  original  length,  in 
1845-46  it  was  enlarged  in  width  to  22  feet 
and  further  shortened  to  a  length  of  160  feet, 
and  in  1855-56  it  was  wholly  taken  out;  so 
that  the  first  American  tunnel  no  longer  ex¬ 
ists.  Even  the  names  of  the  engineers  who 
located  and  built  it  are  not  known.  The  first 
railway  tunnel  in  the  United  States  was  built 
on  the  Allegheny  Portage  Railroad  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  in  1831-33. 

MODERN  TUNNELING 

The  art  of  tunneling  entered  its  last  and 
greatest  phase  with  the  construction  of  the 
Mont  Cenis  Tunnel  in  Europe  and  the  Hoosac 
Tunnel  in  America.  The  Mont  Cenis  was  un¬ 
dertaken  to  facilitate  railway  communication 
between  Italy  and  France,  or,  more  properly, 
between  Piedmont  and  Savoy,  the  two  parts 
of  the  kingdom  of  Victor  Emmanuel  II  sepa¬ 
rated  by  the  Alps.  It  is  7.6  miles  long  and 
passes  under  the  Col  de  FrCjus  near  Mont 
Cenis.  Work  was  begun  in  1857  and  finished 
in  1870.  It  was  from  the  close  study  of  some 
of  the  difficulties,  the  great  length  of  the  tun¬ 
nel,  and  the  desire  of  the  engineers  to  finish 
it  quickly,  that  all  the  different  improvements 
were  developed  which  marked  this  work  as  a 
notable  step  in  the  advance  of  the  art  of  tun¬ 
neling.  Thus  the  first  power  drill  ever  used 
in  tunnel  work  was  devised  by  Sommeiller,  one 
of  the  engineers.  In  addition  compressed  air 
as  a  motive  power  for  drills,  aspirators  to  suck 
the  foul  air  from  the  excavation,  air  compres¬ 
sors,  turbines,  etc.,  found  here  their  first  ap¬ 
plication  to  tunnel  construction.  This  impor¬ 
tant  role  played  by  the  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel  in 
Europe  in  introducing  modern  methods  had  its 
counterpart  in  America  in  the  Hoosac  Tunnel, 
completed  in  1875.  For  the  first  time  in 
America  power  rock  drills,  air  compressors,  ni¬ 
troglycerin,  electricity  for  firing  blasts,  etc., 
were  used.  There  remains  now  to  be  noted  only 
the  final  development  in  the  art  of  soft-ground 
submarine  tunneling — the  use  of  shield  and 
metal  lining.  The  shield  was  invented  and  first 
used  by  Sir  Marc  Isambard  Brunei  in  excavat¬ 
ing  the  first  tunnel  under  the  River  Thames 
at  London,  begun  in  1825  and  opened  in  1843. 
In  1869  Peter  William  Barlow  used  an  iron 
lining  in  connection  with  a  shield  in  driving 
the  second  tunnel  under  the  Thames  at  London. 
From  these  inventions  has  grown  up  one  of  the 
most  notable  systems  in  tunneling  now  prac¬ 
ticed,  known  as  the  shield  system.  In  addition, 
as  will  be  discussed  below,  where  depth  permits, 
subaqueous  tunnels  are  now  constructed  by 


sinking  steel  tubes  in  a  trench  dredged  in  the 
river  bottom  and  surrounding  and  lining  them  * 
with  concrete.  This  method  was  first  used  on 
the  Detroit  River  tunnel,  completed  in  1910  with 
10  sections  having  a  total  length  of  2625  feet. 

Construction.  Tunnels  may  be  classified,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  general  nature  of  the  materials 
penetrated,  into  hard-rock  tunnels  and  soft- 
ground  tunnels.  W  hatever  the  material  pene¬ 
trated,  the  general  methods  of  construction  are 
the  same,  but  many  differences  in  detail  exist. 
In  certain  kinds  of  tunnels,  such  as  those  under 
water  and  those  under  city  streets,  other  con¬ 
ditions  than  hardness  of  material  penetrated 
exercise  a  controlling  influence.  For  descrip¬ 
tion,  therefore,  it  is  common  to  classify  tun¬ 
nels  into  hard-rock,  soft-ground,  open-cut,  and 
submarine  tunnels.  In  open-cut  and  submarine 
tunnels  the  material  penetrated  may  be  either 
rock  or  earth.  When  it  has  been  ‘  decided  to 


Fig.  1.  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  CROSS  SECTION  OF  POLYCENTRIC 

FIGURE. 

construct  a  tunnel  the  first  task  is  to  construct 
a  geological  map  which  will  show  as  accurately 
as  possible  the  character  and  inclination  of 
the  earth’s  strata  to  be  penetrated,  the  prob¬ 
ability  of  water  being  encountered,  etc.,  all 
of  which  exercise  an  important  influence  upon 
the  difficulties  and  cost  of  the  work.  The  next 
step  is  to  establish  exactly  the  centre  line  of  the 
tunnel;  this  is  done  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  its  purpose  is  to  find  the  exact 
length  of  the  tunnel  and  to  furnish  a  reference 
line  by  which  excavation  is  directed.  The  de¬ 
termination  of  the  centre  line  is  a  simple  prob¬ 
lem  in  surveying,  requiring  only  skill  and  ex¬ 
actness;  the  longer  the  tunnel,  and  the  higher 
and  more  inaccessible  the  mountain  is  above 
it,  the  more  difficult  the  work.  So  perfect, 
however,  has  the  skill  of  the  surveyor  become 
that  it  is  a  common  thing  to  work  within  a 
small  fraction  of  a  foot  in  alignment  in  driving 
a  long  mountain  or  submarine  tunnel. 

The  centre  line  being  established,  the  next 
step  is  to  find  the  difference  in  elevation  of  the 
two  ends.  The  form  and  dimensions  of  the 
cross  section  of  the  hole  or  passageway  which 
it  is  proposed  to  excavate  are  then  decided  upon. 
The  form  and  dimensions  of  cross  section 
adopted  are  determined  by  the  purpose  to  which 
the  tunnel  is  to  be  put  and  bv  the  character 
of  the  material  penetrated.  The  best  form  for 
the  majority  of  conditions,  and  the  one  most  com¬ 
monly  employed,  is  the  polvcentric  figure  (Fig. 

1 ) ,  in  which  the  number  of  centres  and  length 
of  the  radii  are  fixed  by  the  engineer  to  meet 


TUNNEL 


TUNNEL 


550 


the  particular  conditions  which  exist.  The  di¬ 
mensions  to  be  given  to  the  cross  section  of  a 
tunnel  depend  upon  the  purpose,  for  which  it 
is  to  be  used,  as  will  be  observed  in  the  succeed¬ 
ing  descriptions  of  prominent  tunnels.  In  all 


Fig.  2.  diagram  showing  sequence  of  galleries  in 

DRIFT  METHOD  OF  HARD-ROCK  TUNNELING. 

cases  the  form  and  the  dimensions  are  those  of 
the  inside  of  the  completed  tunnel,  which  is  of 
course  the  inside  of  the  lining  in  all  cases  ex¬ 
cept  those  of  unlined  hard-rock  tunnels,  where 
it  is  the  inside  of  the  original  excavation. 

Excavation.  The  work  so  far  described  is  of 
the  nature  of  engineering  investigation  and  de¬ 
sign.  The  actual  construction  of  work  consists 
in  excavating  in  the  earth  or  rock  a  passageway 
which  follows  the  established  centre  line  and 
conforms  in  dimensions  and  shape  to  the  estab¬ 
lished  cross  section.  In  performing  this  work 
the  whole  area  of  the  cross  section  is  seldom 
removed  at  once,  but  it  is  subdivided  into,  two 
or  more  galleries,  which  are  excavated  in  a 
measure  independently  of  each  other  and  which 
together  form  the  full  cross  section.  The  ob¬ 
jects  of  thus  subdividing  the  work  are  several 
in  number,  the  more  important  being  as  follows: 
By  driving  a  number  of  galleries  each  some¬ 
what  in  advance  of  the  succeeding  one,  several 


Fig.  3.  diagram  showing  sequence  of  galleries  in 

EUROPEAN  HARD-ROCK  TUNNEL. 

gangs  of  men  can  be  worked  without  interfering 
with  each  other;  the  first  gallery,  being  driven 
far  ahead,  serves  to  drain  the  earth  and  to  dis¬ 
close  in  advance  the  nature  of  the  material 
to  be  encountered;  in  soft  material  several 
small  galleries  can  be  driven  and  timbered  with 
much  less  danger  of  caving  than  one  large  gal¬ 
lery.  The  number  and  arrangement  of  the  gal¬ 
leries  vary  with  the  materials  penetrated  and 
with  the  system  of  tunneling  adopted.  The 
first  gallery  excavated  is  called  a  heading  when 
it  is  situated  at  the  top  of  the  cross  section,  and 
a  drift  when  it  is  situated  at  the  bottom  of  the 


cross  section.  The  excavation  of  the  main  sec¬ 
tions  is  termed  enlarging  the  profile. 

Two  general  methods  of  excavating  rock  tun¬ 
nels  are  considered  practical  by  engineers ;  in 
one  the  profile  is  enlarged  from  a  drift  and  in 
the  other  it  is  enlarged  from  a  heading.  The 
sketch  Fig.  2  shows  the  usual  sequence  of  gal¬ 
leries  by  which  the  full  cross  section  is  en¬ 
larged  from  a  drift.  This  method  of  exca¬ 
vation  is  quite  commonly  practiced  in  Europe, 
but  seldom  in  America.  Among  the  most  no¬ 
table  tunnels  built  by  enlarging  a  drift  are  the 
Mont  Cenis  and  the  Simplon,  both  of  which 
are  more  fully  described  farther  on.  The  more 
common  method  of  tunneling  in  America  through 
hard  rock  is  the  heading  and  bench  method.  In 
the  more  recently  driven  tunnels  it  lias  been 
found  that  the  best  results  can  be  obtained  by 
keeping  the  bench  close  up  to  the  heading  so  that 


Fig.  4.  diagram  showing  sequence  of  galleries  in 

AMERICAN  HEADING  METHOD  OF  HARD-ROCK  TUNNELING. 

the  broken  rock  from  the  heading  will  be  thrown 
back  by  the  blasting  and  can  be  handled  at  the 
same  time  as  the  bench.  This  heading  may  be 
of  small  dimensions  and  the  remainder  of  the 
section  may  be  removed  in  successive  small 
parts,  or  it  may  be  the  full  width  of  the  section 
and  the  enlargement  completed  in  one  other  cut. 
When  the  tunnel  is  excavated  by  means  of  sev¬ 
eral  cuts,  the  method  usually  employed  in 
Europe,  the  sequence  of  galleries  is  indicated, 
by  Fig.  3.  When  the  excavation  is  made  by  a 
single  wide  heading  and  a  single  other  cut  for 
removing  the  bench,  the  method  preferred  by 
Americau  engineers,  the  sequence  of  galleries  is 
the  simple  one  indicated  by  Fig.  4.  The  St. 
Gotthard  Tunnel,  described  farther  on,  is  one 
of  the  most  notable  tunnels  excavated  by  en¬ 
larging  a  heading  by  means  of  several  cuts; 
the  Cascade  Tunnel  in  Washington  is  a  notable 
example  of  the  wide  heading  and  single-bench 
method.  In  the  Rogers  Pass  Tunnel  in  British 
Columbia  a  pioneer  tunnel  was  driven  from 
each  end  parallel  with  but  quite  independent  of 
the  main  tunnel.  This  was  done  because  it  was 
impossible  to  use  vertical  shafts,  and  by  making 
cross  cuts  to  the  main  line  it  was  possible  to 
prosecute  the  work  from  several  faces  at  once.. 

In  all  rock  tunnel  work  the  various  galleries 
are  excavated  by  drilling  and  blasting  the  rock. 
The  most  difficult  gallery  to  excavate  is  the  first 
heading  or  drift,  as  the  case  may  be.  Based  on 
the  mode  of  blasting  employed,  there  are  two 
methods  of  driving  the  advance  gallery,  known 
as  the  circular  and  the  centre-cut  methods.  In 
the  first  method  a  set  of  holes  is  first  drilled 


TUNNEL 


TUNNEL 


551 


near  the  centre  of  the  front  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  inclose  a  cone  of  rock;  the  holes, 
starting  at  the  perimeter  of  the  base  of  the  cone, 
converge  towards  a  junction  at  its  apex.  Sel¬ 
dom  more  than  four  to  six  holes  are  comprised 
in  the  first  set.  Around  these  first  holes  are 
driven  a  ring  of  holes  which  inclose  a  cylinder 
of  rock,  and  if  necessary  succeeding  rings  of 
holes  are  driven  outside  the  first  ring.  These 


Fig.  5.  diagram  showing  sequence  of  galleries  in 

BELGIAN  METHOD  OF  SOFT-GROUND  TUNNELING. 

holes  are  blasted  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  driven,  the  first  set  taking  out  a  cone  of 
rock,  the  second  set  enlarging  this  cone  to  a  cyl¬ 
inder,  and  the  other  sets  enlarging  this  cylinder. 

The  success  of  the  work  is  largely  due  to 
the  number  and  length  of  the  holes  and  the  way 
they  are  placed.  The  centre  cut  with  holes  from 
6  to  12  feet  deep  is  the  method  mostly  used  in 
America,  although  the  greater  speed  has  been 
attained  by  the  use  of  shorter  holes,  four  to 
four  and  one-half  feet  deep  and  a  greater  num¬ 
ber;  but  it  has  generally  been  conceded  that 
on  account  of  the  greater  quantity  of  powder 
consumed  this  method  is  more  expensive.  The 
holes  in  the  bench  are  generally  put  in  by 
power  drills  mounted  on  tripods  and  the  holes 
drilled  vertically  in  a  line  at  right  angles  to 
the  centre  line  of  the  tunnel ;  the  number  of 
holes  which  are  necessary  depends  wholly  on 
the  hardness  of  the  ground.  In  the  large  tun¬ 
nels  air-operated  steam  shovels  have  been  used 
to  take  out  the  muck,  but  in  the  majority  of 
tunnels  the  muck  is  shoveled  into  cars  by  hand 
and  the  cars  moved  by  animal  or  electric  power. 
In  conclusion  it  may  be  stated  that  the  present 
high  development  of  labor-saving  machinery  for 
excavating  rock  makes  this  material  one  of  the 
safest  and  easiest  to  tunnel  with  which  the  en¬ 
gineer  ordinarily  has  to  deal.  A  necessary 
equipment  for  tunneling  through  rock  requires 
a  steam,  electric,  or  a  water-power  plant  for 
pumping  air  under  pressure  and  supplying  light 
and  power,  and  in  large  tunnels  these  "power 
plants  are  often  of  considerable  size.  See  Blast¬ 
ing;  Drill. 

Soft-ground  tunnels  are  worked  in  a  variety 
of  ways  which  have  been  classified  according  to 
the  country  in  which  they  originated,  as  Eng¬ 
lish,  Belgian,  Austrian,  and  American.  Obvi¬ 
ously  the  classification,  though  widely  accepted, 
is  far  from  strict,  because  each  method  has  many 
variations,  nor  has  any  method  been  confined  to 
the  country  for  which  it  was  named.  The  Eng¬ 
lish  method  is  to  remove  the  entire  section  in 
short  lengths,  usually  from  12  to  20  feet  in 
advance  of  a  permanent  lining.  The  masons 
and  miners  alternate  in  the  possession  of  the 


face,  and  the  work  of  excavation  and  the  build¬ 
ing  of  masonry  is  uninterrupted  until  each  is 
completed  for  the  length.  A  small  drift  is 
generally  driven  at  the  bottom  of  the  tunnel 
section  from  end  to  end  of  the  tunnel,  both 
for  the  purpose  of  ventilation  and  drainage 
and  for  the  establishment  of  the  centre  line 
underground.  It  also  allows  the  tunnel  to  be 
attacked  at  several  points.  The  main  exca¬ 
vation  always  begins  at  the  top  of  the  tunnel; 
two  roof  bars  are  then  placed  in  this  opening 
with  their  forward  ends  resting  on  posts 
and  their  rear  ends  resting  on  the  com¬ 
pleted  masonry,  transverse  polings  are  then 
driven  over  these  bars,  and  the  heading  is 
widened  for  the  length  of  the  roof  bars.  The 
vertical  breast  boards  are  placed  under  the 
transverse  poling  and  new  side  bars  placed. 
When  the  ground  is  stiff  enough  the  poling  is 
not  driven  over  the  side  bars  but  placed  against 
the  roof  after  excavation.  This  operation  is 
continued  down  the  sides  as  far  as  required 
by  the  nature  and  pressure  of  the  ground. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  carry  it  to  the 
bottom  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  face 
boarded  up  and  firmly  braced  against  the  com¬ 
pleted  lining.  The  miners  now  give  way  to  the 
masons,  who  construct  a  length  of  lining  within 
the  timber  and  the  operation  is  repeated.  This 
method  is  best  adapted  to  very  firm  ground,  but 
has  been  used  successfully  in  heavy  and  wet 
ground.  The  advantages  consist  chiefly  in  a 
large  open  space  in  which  the  masonry  can  be 
built  up  and  the  facility  with  which  the  muck 
can  be  handled.  The  disadvantages  are  that 


Fig.  6.  diagram  showing  sequence  of  galleries  in 

GERMAN  METHOD  OF  SOFT-GROUND  TUNNELING. 

the  miners  are  laid  off  half  the  time,  the  work 
thus  delayed,  and  part  of  the  timbering  is  laid 
on  green  masonry. 

In  the  Belgian  method  the  upper  half  of  the 
tunnel  is  excavated  much  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  English,  except  that  the  excavation 
is  frequently  carried  considerably  farther  ahead 
of  the  masonry.  A  cut  is  then  excavated 
through  the  centre  half  of  the  tunnel  to  the  in¬ 
vert,  leaving  a  berm  on  either  side  to  support 
the  arch  of  the  tunnel  lining.  From  the  centre 
trench  narrow  cuts  are  made  at  intervals  to 
the  side  and  the  masonry  arch  is  underpinned, 
the  cuts  are  widened,  and  the  underpinning  is 
extended  until  a  complete  side  wall  is  built,  and 
finally  the  invert  is  placed.  The  greatest  ad¬ 
vantage  of  this  method  is  the  fact  that  in  firm 
material  the  successive  steps  can  be  carried  on 
at  a  number  of  different  places,  so  that  the 
work  is  hastened.  The  worst  feature  of  this 


TUNNEL 


552 


TUNNEL 


method  is  that  the  arch  is  first  carried  on  earth, 
then  on  timber,  both  of  which  are  liable  to 
settle  unevenly. 

The  German  method  in  its  most  characteris¬ 
tic  form  consists  in  driving  two  separate  head¬ 
ings  at  the  foot  of  each  side  wall.  The  invert 
is  put  in  last,  but  the  rest  of  the  lining  is 
built  from  the  bottom  up,  the  side  walls  being 
built  up  in  the  two  headings  as  high  as  pos- 


In  its  final  development  the  Austrian  system 
is  characterized  by  very  strong  timber  supports. 
It  commences  with  the  centre  bottom  heading, 
and  immediately  above  this  is  driven  another 
heading  extending  to  the  top  of  the  masonry 
arch.  This  last  heading  is  enlarged  laterally 
until  it  includes  the  whole  arch  area,  and  finally 
the  bottom  heading  is  enlarged  laterally  until 
it  includes  the  side-wall  area.  The  side  walls 


Fig.  7.  system  of  strutting  practiced  in  English  method  of  soft-ground  tunneling. 


sible,  then  on  top  of  these  headings  two  others 
are  driven  and  the  walls  brought  up  to  this 
level;  so  on  until  the  side  walls  are  joined  in 
the  centre  heading  at  the  top.  In  practice  only 
two  headings  are  used,  and  this  brings  the  wall 
up  to  the  spring  line  of  the  arch,  which  is  placed 
by  widening  out  the  centre  top  heading.  The 
advantage  of  the  German  method  is  that  a 
large  centre  core  of  earth  is  left  upon  which 


.v 


Cross  Section, 


are  built  first,  the  arch  is  then  placed,  and  the 
invert  goes  in  last. 

In  the  so-called  American  method  the  centre 
top  heading  is  usually  driven,  and  this  is  en¬ 
larged  sideways  to  include  the  entire  arch  area. 
Sills  are  then  placed  and  an  arch  of  segmental 
timbers  is  made  and  placed  which  carries  the 
roof.  Over  these  arches  longitudinal  lagging 
is  usually  placed,  and  the  space  between  the 


/ 


Longitudinal  Section. 


Fig.  8.  a  typical  form  of  timber  lining  for  tunnels. 


the  timbering  can  lie  braced,  and  also  as  the 
.  openings  are  small  the  danger  of  large  cave- 
ins  is  decreased.  The  method  is  not  widely 
used,  however,  as  the  disadvantages,  viz., 
cramped  quarters  and  bad  ventilation,  overbal¬ 
ance  the  advantages. 


ground  and  lagging  is  packed  with  loose  rock. 
The  bench  is  usually  taken  out  in  two  layers 
and  permanent  posts  set  under  the  arches;  this 
leaves  the  whole  of  the  tunnel  opened  and 
tracks  may  be  laid  and  trains  run  before  per¬ 
manent  lining  is  placed.  In  many  tunnels  this 


TUNNEL 


TUNNEL 


553 


was  the  only  lining  used  for  several  years  after 
the  tunnel  was  completed. 

Tunnels  are  usually  lined  even  in  hard  rock 
to  avoid  danger  from  falling  rocks  which  may 
be  shaken  loose  under  constant  traffic.  The 


lining  is  usually  brick,  stone,  or  concrete,  but 
in  some  cases  cast  iron  has  been  used.  Cast 
iron  is  usually  placed  in  subaqueous  tunnels 
where  the  space  is  limited  and  a  strong  lining 
is  necessary.  Concrete  has  been  found  to  be 
very  serviceable  and  cheaper  to  place  than  brick 
or  stone. 

Open-Cut  Tunneling.  When  a  tunnel  or 
rapid-transit  subway  has  to  be  constructed  at  a 
small  depth  below  the  surface,  the  excavation  is 
generally  performed  more  economically  by  mak¬ 
ing  an  open  cut,  building  the  lining  inside  it, 
and  filling  in  the  space  outside  the  lining,  than 
it  is  by  subterranean  tunneling  proper.  The 
necessary  condition  of  small  depth  which  makes 
open-cut  tunneling  desirable  is  generally  found 
in  constructing  rapid-transit  tunnels  under  city 
streets.  This  fact  introduces  the  chief  difficul¬ 
ties  encountered,  since  surface  traffic  makes  it 
necessary  to  obstruct  the  streets  as  little  as 
possible.  The  two  methods  of  open-cut  tunnel¬ 
ing  commonly  practiced  may  be  classed  as  the 
longitudinal-trench  method  and  the  transverse- 


in  this  trench  and  then  filled  around  and  above 
with  well-rammed  earth,  after  which  the  sur¬ 
face  is  restored.  Generally  the  trench  is  opened 
in  short  lengths  and  each  length  completed 
ready  for  surface  traffic  before  the  adjacent 
length  is  opened.  Another  form  of  longitudinal- 
trench  method  is  to  open  two  narrow  parallel 
trenches  in  which  are  built  the  side  walls. 
:The  soil  between  these  walls  is  then  removed 
to  a  sufficient  depth  to  permit  the  roof  to  be 
built  and  covered  over,  and  the  final  process 
is  to  take  out  the  core  of  earth  inclosed  by 
the  side  walls  and  roof.  Generally  one  side 
wall  and  one-half  of  the  roof  arch  are  completed 
and  covered  over  before  the  other  side  wall 
and  half  arch  are  begun.  By  this  arrangement 
one-half  of  the  street  is  always  unobstructed. 

In  the  transverse-trench  method  a  trench 
about  12  feet  wide  is  opened  across  the  street. 


Fig.  10.  TYPICAL  MASONRY  lining  for  tunnels. 

and  in  this  trench  a  short  length  or  slice  of 
the  subway  is  built.  Owing  to  the  small  size 
of  the  opening,  it  is  possible  to  cover  it  with 
a  timber  platform  which  carries  the  street 
traffic  during  construction.  This  method  was 
extensively  used  in  constructing  the  subway  at 
Boston  and  at  New  York.  In  subway  construc¬ 
tion  in  American  cities  in  nearly  all  cases  the 
contractors  are  required  to  support  the  street 


Fig.  11.  MASONRY  WORK  IN  tunnel. 


trench  method.  The  simplest  manner  by  which 
to  construct  open-cut  tunnels  is  to  open  a  single 
cut  or  trench  the  full  width  of  the  tunnel  ma¬ 
sonry.  This  trench  is  strutted  by  means  of 
side  struttings  of  vertical  planks  held  in  place 
by  transverse  beams  extending  across  the  trench 
and  abutting  against  longitudinal  timbers  laid 
against  the  strutting  planks.  The  lining  is  built 


surface  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  traffic  while 
excavating  below.  This  involves  elaborate  and 
strong  timbering  systems. 

Submarine  Tunneling.  Submarine  or  suba¬ 
queous  tunnels  are  those  excavated  under  the 
bed  of  a  river  or  other  body  of  water,  generally 
to  provide  land  communication  between  op¬ 
posite  shores.  Inflowing  water,  always  a  serious 


TUNNEL 


TUNNEL 


554 


difficulty  in  tunnel  work  everywhere,  is  here 
the  most  serious  problem  with  which  the  engi¬ 
neer  has  to  deal.  Where  the  tunnel  is  deep 
below  the  stream  bed  and  penetrates  a  material 
impervious  to  water  it  may  be  excavated  by 
any  of  the  methods  commonly  employed  in  sub¬ 
terranean  work.  When,  however,  the  opposite 
conditions  exist,  resort  is  had  to  the  use  of 
compressed  air  or  to  the  shield  system,  or  to  a 
combination  of  the  two.  In  the  compressed-air 
method  the  forward  end  of  the  tunnel  where 
excavation  is  progressing  is  filled  with  air  under 
sufficient  pressure  to  counterbalance  the  pres¬ 
sure  of  the  water  which  seeks  to  enter.  In  the 
shield  system  the  work  is  carried  on  by  the 
aid  of  a  rather  elaborate  mechanical  device 
commonly  called  a  shield.  The  importance  of 
this  invention  to  the  tunnel  builder  can  hardly 
be  overestimated. 

The  shield  devised  by  Barlow  already  referred 
to  was  greatly  improved  by  J.  H.  Greathead, 
and  was  first  used  in  building  the  London  Tower 
tunnel  begun  in  1869.  The  remarkable  success 
of  this  work  led  to  the  rapid  adoption  of  the 
shield  system  for  tunnel  work  in  England  and 
America.  Briefly  described,  the  modern  tunnel 
shield  is  a  steel-plate  cylinder,  with  its  forward 
edge  strengthened  and  sharpened  to  form  a 
cutting  edge.  The  rear  end  extends  backward 
so  as  to  overlap  the  completed  lining  of  the  cast- 
iron  rings.  Around  its  inside  hydraulic  jacks 
are  attached  at  frequent  intervals  so  that  their 
piston  rods  bear  against  the  front  edge  of  the 
completed  lining.  By  applying  power  to  the 
jacks  their  piston  rods  press  with  great  force 
against  the  immovable  lining  and  thrust  the 
cylinder  forward  into  the  soft  earth.  Generally 
the  cylinder  has  a  vertical  partition  or  dia¬ 
phragm  near  the  front  end,  which  prevents  the 
soft  earth  from  rushing  back  into  it  except 
as  it  is  allowed  by  opening  suitable  doors.  In 
operation  the  cylinder  is  thrust  forward  until 
its  sharp  cutting  edge  penetrates  the  earth  a 
little  distance.  Workmen  then  withdraw  the 
earth  in  small  quantities  through  the  openings 
in  the  diaphragm.  After  enough  material  has 
been  thus  withdrawn  to  leave  the  front  of  the 
shield  clear,  the  shield  is  again  thrust  ahead 
and  more  earth  is  removed.  As  fast  as 
the  shield  moves  ahead  the  lining  is  erected 
under  the  shelter  of  its  tail  end.  A  constant 
repetition  of  these  processes  completes  the 
tunnel. 

Cast  iron  has  been  used  in  the  majority  of 
subaqueous  tunnels  for  a  lining,  on  account  of 
its  strength  for  relatively  thin  sections.  Its 
use  saves  an  unnecessarily  large  excavation,  and 
it  also  gives  a  reaction  for  the  shield  jacks, 
as  the  structure  is  permanent  as  soon  as  the 
sections  are  bolted  in  place. 

Generally  when  shields  are  used  it  is  neces¬ 
sary  to  pump  in  compressed  air,  although  in 
some  cases  compressed  air  has  been  used  with¬ 
out  the  shield,  and  vice  versa.  The  amount  of 
air  used  and  the  pressure  held  varies  with 
the  nature  of  the  ground  through  which  the 
tunnel  is  driven.  The  average  pressure  used 
is  between  25  and  30  pounds  per  square  inch. 
This  pressure  is  employed  when  there  is  from 
70  to  100  feet  to  the  top  of  the  water.  In 
many  cases  it  has  been  necessary  to  dump 
clay  to  a  depth  of  20  or  30  feet  on  top  of 
the  tunnel. 

A  method  of  tunnel  construction  that  has 
found  considerable  application  in  the  United 


States  consists  in  constructing  cylindrical  steel 
sections,  closing  their  ends  with  wooden  bulk¬ 
heads,  then  floating  them  into  position  and  sink¬ 
ing  them  in  a  trench  dredged  in  the  river 
bottom.  The  various  sections  are  joined  suc¬ 
cessively  and  inclosed  with  concrete  as  well  as 
given  an  interior  lining  of  the  same  material. 
This  system  was  first  used  in  the  Detroit  River 
tunnel  of  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad  be¬ 
tween  Detroit  and  Windsor,  and  then  was  found 
available  for  tunnels  under  the  Harlem  River 
for  the  New  York  Subway,  and  at  Chicago  and 
other  places.  Where  dredging  can  be  done, 
and  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  to  any  considerable 
•  depth  below  the  river  bottom,  this  method  is 
distinctly  useful. 

NOTABLE  EUROPEAN  TUNNELS 

The  number  of  tunnels  notable  because  of 
their  length,  the  difficulties  encountered  in 
their  construction  or  for  other  reasons,  is  so 
great  that  mention  can  be  made  here  of  only 
a  few  of  those  which  are  most  celebrated.  The 
Mont  Cenis  Tunnel  through  the  Alps  was  the 
first  to  place  France  in  direct  communication 
with  Italy.  It  passes  from  a  point  near  Modane, 
in  France,  under  the  Col  de  Frejus,  about 
18  miles  west  of  the  actual  Mont  Cenis,  into 
Italian  territory,  at  a  point  near  Bardonecchia, 
about  24  miles  from  Susa.  The  length  of  the 
tunnel  between  extremities  is  7.6016  miles.  It 
is  formed  with  a  rising  gradient  from  each 
end,  at  the  rate  of  about  1  in  45  ^  from  Modane 
and  1  in  2000  from  Bardonecchia,  the  summit  or 
meeting  of  the  gradients  being  halfway  through 
the  tunnel.  The  railway  does  not  enter  at  the 
extremities  of  the  tunnel,  but  joins  it  by  means 
of  special  curved  sections  of  tunnel  at  each 
end.  The  total  length  of  tunnel  traversed 
by  trains  is  7.9806  miles.  The  tunnel  is 
lined  with  the  exception  of  about  300  yards 
on  the  north  side.  The  side  walls  are  8 
feet,  6  inches  thick  throughout.  The  arch 
to  the  south  side  is  constructed  principally  of 
brick,  and  to  the  north  side  of  stone,  a  brick 
key  being  applied  throughout.  There  are  side 
paths  of  flagstones  20  inches  wide. 

Work  was  begun  in  1857,  and  for  three  years 
hand  labor  was  used  entirely,  but  it  was 
planned  from  the  beginning  by  the  engineers, 
Sommeiler,  Grandis,  and  Grattoni,  to  introduce 
machinery  ultimately.  In  1861  power  drills 
were  put  at  work  at  the  south  end,  and  in 
1862  the  north  end  was  similarly  equipped. 
The  tunnel  was  completed  and  opened  for  traffic 
in  1872. 

In  1872  work  was  begun  on  the  St.  Gotthard 
railway  tunnel  through  the  Alps  between  Italy 
and  France,  which  far  exceeded  the  Mont  Cenis 
in  magnitude.  This  tunnel  crosses  the  moun¬ 
tains  between  Goeschenen  and  Airolo,  and  is 
9.25  miles  long.  The  excavation  was  lined 
throughout  with  masonry,  the  side  walls  being 
of  rubble  stone  and  the  roof  arch  of  brick. 
Along  the  bottom  there  was  a  culvert  of  brick¬ 
work.  The  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel  had  been  exca¬ 
vated  by  means  of  a  drift  as  an  advance  gal¬ 
lery,  but  at  St.  Gotthard  the  advance  gallery 
was  a  top  centre  heading.  The  tunnel  was 
opened  for  traffic  in  1882. 

The  third  great  Alpine  tunnel  was  the  Simplon 
Tunnel,  which  was  opened  in  1906.  Many 
schemes  for  the  connection  of  Italy  and  Switzer¬ 
land  by  a  railway  near  the  Simplon  Road  Pass 


TUNNEL 


TUNNEL 


555 


had  been  devised.  The  scheme  which  was  put 
forward  in  1881  by  the  Jura-Simplon  Railway 
consisted  broadly  of  piercing  the  Alps  between 
Brigue,  in  the  Rhone  valley,  and  Iselle,  on  the 
Italian  side,  from  which  village  the  railway 
descends  to  the  southern  terminus  at  Domo 
d'Ossola,  a  distance  of  about  1 1  miles.  The 
tunnel  is  a  double  tunnel.  That  is,  there  are 
two  parallel  tunnels,  having  their  centres  56 
feet  apart,  each  carrying  one  line  of  railway. 
By  means  of  cross  headings  every  220  yards 
the  problems  of  transport  and  ventilation  are 
greatly  facilitated.  In  cross  section  tunnel  No. 
1  is  13  feet,  7  inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  and 
16  feet,  5  inches  wide  at  the  widest  part,  with 
a  total  height  of  18  feet  above  rail  level.  The 
material  penetrated  is  rock.  The  construction 
was  rendered  more  difficult  by  the  inflows  of 
hot  water  from  springs  in  the  vicinity.  The 
trains  are  drawn  through  the  tunnel  by  electric 
locomotives. 

A  new  or  second  Simplon  tunnel  to  meet  the 
needs  of  increased  traffic  was  demanded,  and  this 
had  progressed  to  a  point  where  by  1915  the 
length  of  completed  tunnel  at  the  north  and 
south  ends  was  over  half  completed,  but  prog¬ 
ress  was  seriously  interfered  with  by  the  draft¬ 
ing  of  workmen  for  the  Italian  army. 

The  third  longest  tunnel  in  Europe  is  the 
Loetschberg  Tunnel,  under  the  Loetschen  Pass, 
on  the  line  from  Bern  to  Brig.  This  tunnel  was 
begun  in  1906,  and  was  opened  for  international 
traffic  on  June  15,  1913.  It  is  9.04  miles  from 
portal  to  portal.  Another  important  Swiss 
tunnel  is  on  the  Tauern  railway  through  the 
Alps  at  Gastein.  It  is  27,965  feet  in  length  and 
was  completed  in  1909. 

At  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war 
a  number  of  important  tunnels  were  under  con¬ 
struction  in  Europe.  In  Switzerland  the  Miin- 
ster-Grenchenberg  Tunnel  through  the  Jura 
Mountains,  5%  miles  in  length,  was  pierced 
through  in  1914.  In  1915  the  Cote  d’Or  Tunnel, 
3%  miles  in  length,  through  the  Jura  Moun¬ 
tains,  on  the  new  direct  line  of  the  Paris-Lyons- 
Mediterranean  railway  to  the  Simplon  Tunnel 
route  in  Italy,  was  opened  to  traffic,  having 
been  under  construction  from  1910.  This  is 
a  double-track  tunnel,  where  it  was  found  pos¬ 
sible  to  use  steam  locomotives  on  account  of 
its  good  ventilation.  Considerable  tunneling 
was  required  in  connection  with  the  construction 
of  the  Jungfrau  railway,  where  in  1912  the  line 
was  completed  as  far  as  Jungfraujoch.  This 
tunnel  was  constructed  on  a  grade  to  secure  the 
required  ascent.  In  1916  work  was  in  progress 
on  a  tunnel  under  the  Furka  Pass,  and  other 
schemes  were  in  course  of  consideration.  In 
Switzerland,  on  Jan.  1,  1915,  there  were  in  opera¬ 
tion  or  under  construction  627  tunnels  with  a 
total  length  of  175.01  miles. 

AMERICAN  TUNNELS 

The  great  European  railway  tunnels  which 
have  been  described  find  their  nearest  counter¬ 
part  in  America  in  the  Hoosac  Tunnel,  the  Stam¬ 
pede  Tunnel,  the  Cascade  Tunnel,  the  Snoqualmie, 
and  the  Rogers  Pass  Tunnel.  The  Hoosac 
Tunnel  is  on  the  line  of  the  Fitchburg  Railroad 
in  Massachusetts,  and  passes  through  a  south¬ 
ern  extension  of  the  Green  Mountains  known  as 
the  Hoosac  Mountains.  It  is  4%  miles  long,  and 
was  driven  from  the  two  ends  and  from  an 
intermediate  shaft  1028  feet  deep.  Work  was 
Vol.  XXII— 36 


begun  originally  in  1855  and  was  carried  on 
intermittently,  there  being  many  long  delays 
due  to  lack  of  funds  and  the  obstacles  encoun¬ 
tered.  The  tunnel  proper  was  completed  in  1873, 
but  several  additional  years  were  consumed  in 
the  masonry  work.  Its  cost  was  about  $11,000,- 
000.  The  tunnel  is  24  feet  wide  in  the  widest 
part  and  22  feet,  ^8  inches  high,  and  carries 
two  lines  of  railway  track. 

The  Stampede  Tunnel  carries  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railway  through  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
and  was  begun  in  1886.  From  the  time  it  was 
determined  to  make  Puget  Sound  the  western 
terminus  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway  the 
question  of  a  feasible  route  across  the  Cascade 
Range  was  prominently  before  the  company. 
Between  the  years  1873  and  1884  several  pro¬ 
posed  routes  were  examined  by  the  company’s 
engineers,  of  which  those  via  the  Natchess, 
Stampede,  and  Snoqualmie  passes  were  promi¬ 
nent.  The  Stampede  route,  lying  between  the 
other  two,  was  finally  recommended,  and  was 
formally  adopted  by  the  company  in  1884.  The 
altitude  of  the  mountain  beneath  which  it  was 
necessary  to  tunnel  was  3970  feet  above  sea  level, 
and  the  greatest  thickness  over  the  top  of  the 
tunnel  is  1400  feet,  the  average  depth  being 
about  1200  feet.  The  elevation  of  the  east 
portal  of  the  tunnel  above  the  sea  is  2827  feet, 
and  that  of  the  west  portal  is  2800  feet.  Work 
was  begun  in  February,  1886.  The  total  length 
of  the  tunnel  was  9850  feet,  with  a  rising 
grade  from  each  end  towards  the  middle  and  the 
total  cost  was  $1,160,000. 

The  Cascade  Tunnel  which  carries  the  Great 
Northern  Railroad  through  the  summit  of  the 
Cascade  Range  in  Washington  was  begun  in 
1897  and  finished  in  1900.  It  is  a  single-track 
tunnel,  21.5  feet  high,  16  feet  wide,  and  2.6 
miles  long. 

In  1915  the  Snoqualmie  Tunnel  through  the 
Cascade  Mountains  between  Rockdale  and  Kes- 
chelus,  some  60  miles  east  of  Seattle,  was  com¬ 
pleted.  This  was  a  single-track  tunnel,  11,890 
feet  in  length,  the  construction  of  which  was 
estimated  at  some  $2,000,000,  but  the  saving 
in  snow  fighting  alone  was  estimated  at  $175,- 
000  per  year,  while  the  new  line  effected  a  sav¬ 
ing  of  443  feet  of  elevation  and  1239°  of  curva¬ 
ture.  It  was  constructed  through  varying  kinds 
of  rock,  with  about  75  per  cent  of  the  distance 
through  hard  slate,  and  the  remainder  quartzite 
and  granite. 

In  1916  the  Rogers  Pass  Tunnel,  the  longest 
tunnel  in  North  America,  was  nearing  comple¬ 
tion  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  at  the 
Rogers  Pass  summit  in  the  Selkirk  Mountains 
between  Glacier  and  Field,  B.  C.  In  this  tunnel 
novel  methods  of  construction  were  adopted,  viz., 
running  a  pioneer  tunnel  from  each  end  parallel 
with  but  distinct  from  the  main  tunnel,  to  which 
cross  cuts  were  run  at  intervals.  This  double¬ 
track  tunnel  was  able  to  save  540  feet  in 
elevation,  and  5  miles  in  distance,  in  addition 
to  eliminating  long  stretches  of  snow  sheds. 
The  total  length  of  the  tunnel  was  26,400  feet, 
and  it  was  built  without  intermediate  shafts. 
The  maximum  depth  of  rock  above  the  tunnel 
was  5690  feet,  and  the  tunnel  was  24  feet  high 
and  29  feet  wide,  with  a  concrete  lining  through 
the  softer  materials. 

The  Mount  Royal  Tunnel,  which  gives  ac¬ 
cess  for  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway  into 
the  business  section  of  Montreal,  was  virtually 


TUNNEL 


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556 


completed  in  1916.  It  is  3.1  miles  long,  and 
leads  to  a  passenger  terminal  to  be  located 
immediately  adjacent  to  its  east  portal.  The 
tracks  at  the  station  are  50  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  street,  and  most  of  the  station 
proper  is  underground.  The  tunnel  is  built 
for  double  track,  being  23.5  feet  high,  31  feet 
wide.  It  is  located  almost  entirely  in  rock, 
and  centre  bottom  headings  were  employed,  and 
as  soon  as  these  were  pushed  forward  cars 
were  run  so  as  to  remove  the  muck  and  broken 
stone,  the  latter  being  crushed  for  rock  material 
and  concrete. 

Among  the  many  important  railway  tunnels 
which  have  been  built  through  soft  ground  only 
two  will  be  mentioned.  The  Baltimore  Belt 
Tunnel,  8350  feet  long,  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  was 
excavated  through  water-bearing  sand,  loam, 
clay,  and  gravel  by  the  German  method  of 
soft-ground  tunneling.  It  provides  for  a  double¬ 
track  railway  line.  The  St.  Clair  Tunnel  carries 
the  double  tracks  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway 
under  the  St.  Clair  River  between  Michigan 
and  Canada.  The  excavation  consisted  of  an 
open  cutting  on  the  American  side  2500  feet 
long;  a  tunnel  6000  feet  long  under  the  river, 
and  an  open  cutting  on  the  Canadian  side  3100 
feet  long.  Work  was  begun  by  means  of  two 
shore  shafts  in  1888,  but  these  were  abandoned, 
and  in  1889  work  was  commenced  on  the  cut¬ 
tings.  The  shields  used  were  21  y2  feet  outside 
diameter,  and  the  cylindrical  shell  consisted  of 
1-inch  steel  plates.  The  cylinder  was  stiffened 
by  five  diaphragms  dividing  it  into  12  cells. 
As  the  shield  was  shoved  forward  a  paste  of 
cement  and  water  was  forced  out  through  holes 
left  in  the  lining  to  fill  the  space  left  between 
the  lining  and  the  clay.  The  excavation  was 
done  in  front  of  the  shields,  which  were  then 
forced  forward  by  hydraulic  jacks,  and  the  erec¬ 
tion  of  the  permanent  cast-iron  lining  followed 
up,  the  ring  being  erected  inside  the  tail  of  the 
shield.  The  lining  is  21  feet  in  outside  diameter. 
Each  ring  of  lining  is  18  inches  long,  measured 
on  the  line  of  the  tunnel,  and  is  made  up 
of  13  segments  and  a  key  piece.  Each  segment 
weighs  1050  pounds,  and  the  total  weight  of  cast 
iron  in  the  lining  is  27,000  tons. 

The  Bergen  Hill  Tunnel  of  the  Erie  Railroad 
which  has  been  in  part  turned  into  an  open 
cut  is  worthy  of  mention  on  account  of  its 
size  rather  than  its  length.  The  work  consisted 
of  four  tunnels  varying  in  length  from  220  feet 
to  574  feet.  The  clear  span  of  the  roof  was 
56  feet  and  the  tunnels  carry  four  standard  gauge 
tracks. 

SUBMARINE  TUNNELS 

Channel  Tunnel.  The  most  ambitious  scheme 
of  tunneling  was  the  project  to  connect  England 
and  France  by  a  tunnel  under  the  English 
Channel,  which  has  been  discussed  periodically, 
both  as  an  engineering  proposition  and  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  political  and  economic  considera¬ 
tions  involved.  It  had  been  proposed  by  Hawk- 
shaw  and  Brunlees  about  1870  that  such  a 
tunnel  could  be  built,  but  opposition  of  a 
sentimental  and  military  nature  developed 
whenever  the  project  was  advanced,  until  1913, 
when  companies  were  organized  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  in  France,  in  attempts  to  secure 
government  sanction  for  the  scheme.  It  was 
argued  that  with  the  experience  with  the  Lon¬ 
don  tubes  and  other  deep  tunnels,  and  in  view 
of  the  general  development  in  engineering  knowl¬ 


edge  and  experience  there  would  be  no  difficulty 
in  the  way  of  constructing  two  distinct  sets 
of  bores,  one  of  which  would  be  a  drainage  head¬ 
ing  which  could  be  used  also  for  the  removal 
of  excavated  materials  and  to  supplement  the 

main  svstem  of  ventilation.  The  main  tunnels 
«/ 

were  to  consist  of  two  single-track  tubes,  each 
of  18  feet  interior  diameter,  and  placed  32 
feet  apart  from  centre  to  centre,  being  lined 
throughout  with  cast-iron  segments  of  ample 
strength  to  resist  any  possible  pressure.  An 
estimate  of  the  total  cost  of  the  undertaking 
was  made  of  about  $60,000,000,  but  before  the 
plan,  which  was  advanced  seriously,  could  be 
discussed,  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war  pre¬ 
vented  active  progress. 

The  first  notable  submarine  tunnel  to  be 
driven  through  rock  is  the  Severn  Tunnel  under 
the  river  Severn  in  England.  The  Great  West¬ 
ern  Railway  system  west  of  Bristol  was  formerly 
separated  south  of  Gloucester  by  the  Severn  and 
its  estuary,  from  the  lines  between  Gloucester 
and  the  South  Wales  ports,  as  well  as  from  the 
western  lines  between  Hereford  and  North 
Wales,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  and  the  north. 
This  want  of  connection  was  only  partly  rem¬ 
edied  by  a  steam  ferry  across  the  estuary  of 
the  Severn.  A  tunnel  under  the  Severn  was, 
accordingly,  proposed  in  1871  to  provide  for 
through  traffic,  and  was  authorized  in  1872. 
Work  was  begun  in  1873.  The  site  selected  for 
the  tunnel  was  about  2  miles  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Wye,  where  the  width  of  the  estuary  at 
high  tide  is  about  214  miles.  The  strata  trav¬ 
ersed  by  the  tunnel  consist  of  conglomerate, 
limestone,  carboniferous  beds,  sandstone,  marl, 
gravel,  and  sand;  the  least  thickness  of  soil 
between  the  top  of  the  tunnel  and  the  deepest 
part  of  the  channel  is  44%  feet.  The  total 
length  of  the  tunnel  is  4  miles,  624  yards.  The 
tunnel  was  excavated  from  four  shafts,  work 
being  commenced  in  1873  and  completed  in  1886. 
Great  difficulty  was  experienced  with  water, 
which  flooded  the  workings  on  several  occasions. 

The  Mersey  Tunnel,  about  1  mile  long,  con¬ 
nects  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead  and  was  built 
in  1888.  In  this  work  a  ventilating  tunnel  of 
smaller  size  than  the  main  tunnel  was  excavated 
under  the  main  tunnel  by  a  rotary  boring  ma¬ 
chine  which  cut  out  the  passageway  to  full 
size  at  one  operation. 

The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  tunnels  in  and 
entering  New  York  City  consist  of  a  double 
tunnel  from  the  west  side  of  Bergen  Hill 
in  New  Jersey  to  the  New  City  terminal 
at  Thirtv-second  Street  and  Ninth  Avenue;  the 
station  itself;  tunnels  under  the  city  to  the 
East  River;  four  single-track  tubes  under  the 
river  to  Long  Island  City,  where  connection  is 
made  with  the  Long  Island  Railroad  and  where 
there  are  yards  for  cleaning  and  making  up 
the  trains.  Work  was  begun  on  the  Hudson 
River  tunnels  early  in  1904,  and  by  October, 
1906,  accurate  connections  had  been  made  under 
the  river.  The  railroad  tracks  leaving  the  origi¬ 
nal  line  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  at  Harri¬ 
son,  N.  J.,  enter  the  twin  tunnels,  which  are 
spaced  37  feet  centre  to  centre  at  the  west  face 
of  Bergen  Hill.  As  this  is  in  rock  (a  distance 
of  nearly  6000  feet),  each  tunnel  is  simply 
lined  with  concrete.  Near  the  river,  i.e.,  on 
the  east  side  of  the  hill,  the  tunnels  enter  the 
Weehawken  shaft,  which  is  70  feet  deep,  and 
which  was  sunk  for  the  purpose  of  not  only 


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557 


TUNNEL 


driving  west  under  the  hill  to  meet  those  com¬ 
ing  east,  but  at  the  same  time  driving  east 
under  the  river  to  meet  those  coming  west  from 
the  opposite  shore.  About  400  feet  east  of  the 
^  eehawken  shaft  the  tunnels  strike  soft  ground, 
making  tubes  of  cast  iron  necessary.  These 
are  built  up  in  sections  and  lined  with  22 
inches  of  concrete,  reducing  the  exterior  diam¬ 
eter  of  23  feet  to  19  feet.  Under  the  river  where 
the  material  is  soft,  for  a  distance  of  nearly 
5000  feet,  to  prevent  sinking  under  heavy  traffic 
it  was  necessary  to  support  the  tubes  on  iron 
and  concrete  piles  resting  on  bed  rock.  Ap¬ 
proaching  the  terminal  at  Thirty-first  to  Thirty- 
third  streets,  Seventh  to  Ninth  avenues,  the  tun¬ 
nels  diverge,  forming  a  small  section  of  34 
feet  span  double-track  tunnel,  a  section  of  1096 
feet  of  triple  tunnel  containing  four  tracks  and 
three  spans,  and  a  section  of  605  feet  of  four 
tracks  under  one  span.  Within  the  tubes  a 
ledge  3  feet  8  inches  wide  on  the  level  of  the 
car  windows  is  formed  of  concrete,  to  afford 
the  means  of  egress  in  case  of  accident,  to  pro¬ 
vide  a  path  for  workmen,  and  to  carry  inside 
the  conduits  for  light,  power,  telephone,  and 
telegraphic  purposes. 

The  New  York  City  tunnels  were  driven  from 
several  shafts.  One  of  these  located  at  Eleventh 
Avenue  and  Thirty-second  Street  was  for  the 
purpose  of  driving  the  tunnels  westward  under 
the  Hudson  and  at  the  same  time  eastward  to 
the  terminal.  Two  others,  one  in  Thirty-second 
Street  and  one  in  Thirty-third  Street,  between 
Madison  and  Fourth  avenues,  were  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  also  of  driving  east  and  west  under  the 
city,  and  finally  a  shaft  was  located  on  the  East 
River  front  at  Thirty-third  Street  to  permit 
of  work  being  carried  on  both  beneath  the  river 
eastward  and  beneath  the  city  westward.  As 
the  two  single-track  tunnels  from  beneath  the 
Hudson  approach  the  terminal  they  diverge  to 
make  track  space,  and  in  a  similar  manner,  run¬ 
ning  east  from  the  station,  they  converge  until 
they  finally  become  four  single-track  tubes 
beneath  the  East  River.  At  Seventh  Avenue 
they  consist  of  two  three-track  tunnels,  one 
under  Thirty-second  and  one  under  Thirty-third 
Street,  but  at  the  west  line  of  Fifth  Avenue 
the  three  tracks  are  reduced  to  two,  and  each 
pair  enters  a  separate  excavation  divided  by 
a  12-foot  wall,  and  spaced  34  feet  centre  to 
centre.  At  First  Avenue  they  are  still  further 
reduced  to  two  pairs  of  single-track  tubes. 

The  East  River  tunnels  consist  of  four  sepa¬ 
rate  tubes  beneath  the  river  identical  in  every 
respect  with  those  beneath  the  Hudson.  They 
were  driven  by  the  shield  process,  and  connect 
New  York  City  with  Long  Island  City.  On 
the  Long  Island  side  they  were  begun  in  the 
foot  of  two  shafts  located  just  west  of  Front 
Street  and  run  beyond  up  to  East  Avenue,  about 
2000  feet,  and  from  there  to  Thomson  Avenue. 

The  Hudson  tunnels  between  Manhattan  and 
Jersey  City  and  Hoboken  represented  the  suc¬ 
cessful  culmination  of  several  attempts  to  con¬ 
struct  a  tunnel  under  the  Hudson  River.  For 
financial  and  other  reasons  these  had  proved  un¬ 
successful  until  the  project  was  taken  up  by 
the  Hudson  and  Manhattan  Railroad  Company, 
which  was  able  to  build  two  sets  of  twin  tunnels 
under  the  Hudson  River — one  from  Fifteenth 
Street,  Jersey  City,  to  Morton  Street,  Manhat¬ 
tan,  and  thence  northerly  to  Sixth  Avenue  and 
Thirty-third  Street,  and  the  other  between  the 
Hudson  Terminal  Building  at  Cortland  and 


Fulton  streets,  Manhattan,  to  Jersey  City,  and 
thence  westerly  about  %  mile  to*  Brunswick 
Street,  where  the  tunnel  comes  to  the  surface. 
These  tunnels  were  constructed  through  the  soft 
ground  of  the  river  bed  by  using  shields,  and 
the  upper  line  was  opened  for  traffic  Feb.  1, 
1908,  while  the  second  pair  of  tubes  were  opened 
for  regular  train  service  on  July  19.  The  form 
of  construction  is  segmented  cast  steel  bolted 
together  in  the  rear  of  the  excavating  shields 
as  the  latter  were  advanced.  The  lower  half 
of  each  tube  is  lined  with  concrete,  and  the 
tunnels  have  a  clear  diameter  of  15  feet. 

WATER  TUNNELS 

Next  to  their  use  for  railways,  tunnels  are 
more  frequently  built  to  conduct  water  than  for 
any  other  purpose,  perhaps.  ( See  Aqueduct.  ) 
A  good  example  of  rock  tunneling  for  this  pur¬ 
pose  is  afforded  by  the  Niagara  Tunnel,  built 
to  carry  the  water  away  from  the  wheel  pit 
of  the  Niagara  Power  Company  at  Niagara 
Falls,  N.  Y.  This  tunnel  is  7600  feet  long, 
19  feet  wide,  and  21  feet  high,  and  runs  through 
solid  limestone  rock.  In  California  the  Mount 
Shasta  Power  Corporation  has  a  7-mile  tunnel 
to  carry  water  from  Pitt  River  to  its  power 
house.  This  tunnel  at  first  was  of  7  X  9 
section  and  subsequently  was  to  be  enlarged. 
The  Chicago  water-works  tunnels,  through 
which  the  city  of  Chicago  draws  its  water 
supply  from  Lake  Michigan,  constitute  the  most 
elaborate  system  of  water-supply  tunnels  any¬ 
where  in  the  world.  They  extend  out  into 
the  lake  as  well  as  under  the  city,  and  vary  in 
diameter  from  5  to  13  feet.  In  i915  there  was 
under  construction  an  addition  to  this  elaborate 
system,  which  addition  consisted  of  a  7-mile 
tunnel  extending  from  a  pumping  station  4 
miles  under  the  city  and  3  miles  under  the 
lake  to  an  intake  crib.  This  tunnel  is  of  horse¬ 
shoe  section,  13  feet  wide  and  12  feet  high, 
and  is  driven  through  solid  rock  for  the  entire 
distance. 

At  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  there  is  a  water-supply 
tunnel  3200  feet  long  and  7%  feet  in  diameter, 
lined  with  brick  masonry  throughout,  completed 
in  1895.  At  Cleveland,  Ohio,  there  is  a  water - 
supply  tunnel  extending  out  into  Lake  Erie 
that  is  26,000  feet  long  and  9  feet  in  diameter, 
and  two  other  older  tunnels,  one  being  5  feet 
in  diameter  for  6662  feet  and  5  y2  and  6  feet 
in  diameter  for  2580  feet,  and  the  other  being 
7  feet  in  diameter  and  9200  feet  long.  Recently 
the  West  Side  intake  was  extended  16,000  feet 
beyond  a  crib  1%  miles  from  shore.  For  many 
years  one  of  the  most  notable  water-supply  tun¬ 
nels  in  the  world  was  the  Croton  Aqueduct, 
which  brings  water  to  New  York  City.  This 
tunnel  is  33  miles  long  and  about  14  feet  high 
and  14  feet  wide;  it  was  built  through  rock. 
This  in  turn  has  been  surpassed  by  the  new 
Catskill  Aqueduct.  The  Los  Angeles  Aqueduct 
includes  some  43  miles  of  concrete  lined  tunnels. 
(See  Aqueduct.)  With  the  increased  demand 
for  water  supplies  for  power  and  irrigation, 
tunnels  are  constantly  being  constructed  by 
the  United  States  Reclamation  Service  and  simi¬ 
lar  agencies,  of  which  the  Gunnison  Tunnel, 
30,582  feet  in  length,  is  a  good  example.  (See 
Irrigation.)  The  Wyrnwy  Aqueduct,  77  miles 
long,  for  bringing  water  to  the  city  of  Liverpool, 
England,  has  three  tunnels,  but  not  comparable 
in  length  with  those  mentioned. 


TUNNEL 


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55» 


RAPID-TRANSIT  TUBES  AND  SUBWAYS 

Within  recent  years  many  important  tunnels 
have  been  constructed  to  carry  rapid  transit 
railways  under  city  streets.  Some  of  these,  like 
the  London  tunnels,  have  been  deep  tunnels; 
but  others,  like  those  of  Boston,  Paris,  Phila¬ 
delphia,  and  New  York,  have  been  constructed 
for  the  most  part  by  open -cut  methods  at  a 
small  depth  below  the  surface.  The  City  and 
South  London  Railway,  in  London,  was  begun 
in  1886  and  completed  in  1890,  is  3%  miles 
long  from  the  city  to  the  Swan  at  Stockwell, 
and  is  entirely  underground.  Briefly  the  road 
consists  of  two  10  feet,  6  inch  cast-iron  lined 
tunnels  substantially  parallel  to  each  other, 
which  converge  into  a  single  tunnel  at  the 
termini  to  permit  the  transfer  of  trains  from 
one  line  to  the  other.  These  tunnels  were  con¬ 
structed  by  means  of  the  shield  system.  The 
Waterloo  and  City  Railway  in  London  extends 
from  the  Waterloo  station  of  the  Southwestern 
Railway  to  the  Mansion  House,  a  distance  of 
1  mile,  5  furlongs,  and  150  yards.  It  consists  of 
two  parallel  circular  tunnels  12  feet,  1%  inches 
interior  diameter  except  at  the  curves,  where 
the  dimension  is  increased  to  12  feet,  9  inches. 
The  tunnels  were  driven  by  the  shield  method, 
work  having  been  begun  in  1894  and  completed 
in  1897.  A  single  electric  railway  track  in  each 
tunnel  forms  a  double-track  railway  between  the 
termini  named.  The  Central  London  Railway 
runs  from  Shepherds  Bush  to  the  Bank,  a  dis¬ 
tance  of  5%  miles,  the  whole  distance  being 
in  deep  tunnel  at  depths  varying  from  60  to  90 
feet.  It  consists,  like  the  two  roads  previously 
mentioned,  of  two  parallel  circular  tunnels. 
Each  tunnel  is  IIV2  feet  in  diameter  and  has 
a  cast-iron  lining.  The  shield  system  of  con¬ 
struction  was  employed.  To  be  added  to  these 
tunnels  are  the  Metropolitan  District  railways, 
parts  of  which  are  underground,  begun  in 
1853,  the  Waterloo  and  Baker  Street  Railway. 

The  Blackwall  Tunnel  for  street  traffic  under 
the  river  Thames  at  London  is  6200  feet  in 
length,  of  which  3088  feet  are  tunnel  proper, 
1370  feet  are  open  cut  roofed  over,  and  1742 
feet  are  open  cut  without  covering.  The  ex¬ 
terior  diameter  of  the  tunnel  is  27  feet.  It 
was  driven  by  means  of  a  shield  27  feet,  9  inches 
in  diameter  and  18*4  feet  long,  with  two  dia¬ 
phragms,  from  horizontal  partitions  or  stages 
and  four  vertical  partitions.  The  lining  is  of 
cast-iron  rings.  Work  was  begun  in  1892  and 
completed  in  1897.  The  tunnel  provides  a  road¬ 
way  16  feet  wide  and  two  sidewalks  each  3 
feet,  1  y2  inches  wide.  The  Rotherhithe  Tunnel, 
completed  in  1908  under  the  Thames,  connects 
Ratcliff  on  the  north  shore  with  Rotherhithe  on 
the  south.  It  has  a  total  length  of  6883  feet, 
of  which  3698  feet  are  in  cast-iron  tunnel  and 
3194  feet  in  cut  and  cover  or  open  approach. 
It  has  an  internal  diameter  of  27  feet.  In 
Glasgow,  Scotland,  the  Glasgow  City  and  Dis¬ 
trict  Railway  has  a  length  of  3.123  miles.  Of 
this  distance  1  mile  is  deep  tunnel,  and  3483 
feet  are  tunnel  built  by  the  open-cut  method. 
Work  was  begun  in  1883  and  completed  in  1886. 
The  Glasgow  Central  Railway  has  0.84  of  a  mile 
of  deep  tunnel  and  3.13  miies  of  open-cut  tun¬ 
nel.  The  Glasgow  District  Subway,  6%  miles 
long,  consists  of  two  parallel  circular  cast-iron 
lined  tunnels  11  feet  in  interior  diameter.  The 
tunnels  were  driven  by  the  shield  method.  Con¬ 
struction  was  begun  in  1891  and  completed  in 


1894.  The  subways  of  Paris  were  built  and 
are  owned  by  the  city  and  are  leased,  equipped, 
and  operated  by  a  private  company.  The  metro¬ 
politan  system  (Paris  subways)  as  originally 
planned  included  only  about  46.6  miles  of  double 
track.  The  first  line  was  opened  in  1900.  Later 
extensions  provided  for  34.1  miles  additional. 
The  entire  system,  including  connections,  will 
have  82.9  miles  of  double  track,  of  which  73.3 
will  be  used  for  the  transportation  of  passengers 
and  the  remaining  mileage  for  terminals  and 
connections.  The  track  is  standard  gauge,  but 
the  tunnel  opening  is  too  small  to  admit  steam¬ 
railway  equipment.  The  subway  equipment  can 
therefore  run  out  on  to  the  steam  lines,  but  the 
steam-line  trams  cannot  use  the  subway. 

The  first  Boston  Subway,  begun  in  1894,  is  an 
underground  tunnel  for  the  surface  electric  lines 
entering  the  business  district  of  the  city  of  Bos¬ 
ton.  The  portion  of  the  line  completed  in  1898 
was  10,810  feet  long,  divided  between  double-track 
and  four-track  tunnel.  The  bulk  of  the  tunnel 
was  built  by  open-cut  methods,  but  on  certain  por¬ 
tions  the  shield  system  was  employed.  In  1900 
work  was  begun  on  a  114  mile  extension  of  the 
original  line  under  Boston  harbor  to  East 
Boston.  The  East  Boston  Tunnel  has  a  poly¬ 
centric  cross  section  2314  feet  wide  and  2014 
feet  high,  and  is  lined  with  concrete  masonry. 
The  double-track  subway  section  is  approxi¬ 
mately  rectangular  and  24  feet  wide  by  14 
feet  high,  while  the  four-track  section  is.  a 
similar  form,  but  twice  as  wide.  The  lining 
consists  of  concrete  side  walls  and  brick  roof 
arches  supported  by  columns  and  I-beams  of 
steel.  These  tunnels  were  followed  in  1908  by 
the  Washington  Street  Tunnel,  some  2  miles 
in  length  and  used  by  the  elevated  railway  trains. 
In  1912  there  was  completed  a  subway  to  Cam¬ 
bridge  which  involved  a  tunnel  2500  feet  in 
length  under  Beacon  Hill.  The  Boylston  Street 
Subway,  1 4  miles  long,  was  begun  in  1912  and 
completed  in  1914.  The  Dorchester  Tunnel, 
which  will  be  about  12,000  feet  long,  was  begun 
in  1912,  and  in  1915  there  were  2108  feet 
completed. 

The  original  New  York  Subway,  as  contracted 
for  in  1899,  comprises  some  201/4  miles  of  line, 
three-fourths  of  which  is  in  tunnel.  A  four- 
track  line  runs  from  the  City  Hall  to  96th 
Street,  above  which  it  divides,  one  branch  run¬ 
ning  to  Bronx  Park  and  the  other  to  \  an 
Cortlandt  Park.  The  cross  section  of  the  under¬ 
ground  line  is  of  different  types.  In  the  rec¬ 
tangular  section,  used  for  more  than  half  of 
the  line,  the  dimensions  adopted  for  two  tracks 
are  25  X  13  feet,  and  for  four  tracks,  50  X  13 
feet.  The  barrel-vault  section,  composed  of  a 
polycentric  arch,  is  usually  24  feet  wide  and 
16  feet  high.  The  circular  sections  are  15 
feet  in  diameter,  two  tunnels  being  built  side 
by  side  for  double-track  line.  The  work  was 
done  partly  by  open-cut  methods  and  partly 
underground,  according  to  the  depth  of  the  line 
below  the  surface. 

The  new  New  York  Dual  Subway,  begun  m 
1913,  will  increase  the  single-track  mileage  of  the 
dual  system  (subways  and  elevated  roads  in 
Manhattan  and  Brooklyn)  to  620.  The  new  sub¬ 
way  will  contain  about  3,000,000,000.  cubic 
yards  of  concrete  and  cost  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  $337,000,000.  It  includes  many  types,  of 
construction,  including  open  cut,  excavation 
under  decking,  and  subaqueous  tunnels  driven 
with  and  without  the  use  of  compressed  air.  The 


TUNNEL 


559 


TUNSTALL 


work  also  involves  the  underpinning  of  buildings, 
some  of  them  20  stories  high.  See  Urban 
Transportation. 

In  1916  eight  tunnels,  seven  of  them  double¬ 
tube,  were  in  actual  use  or  building,  to  connect 
Long  Island  with  the  west  bank  of  the  East 
River  at  New  York  City.  The  tunnels  were 
original  subway  tubes,  the  Whitehall-Montague 
Street  tunnels,  the  Old  Slip-Clark  Street  tunnels, 
the  Fourteenth  Street-Eastern  tunnels,  of  the 
new  dual  system,  the  Pennsylvania  tunnels,  the 
Queensboro  or  Steinway  tunnels,  the  Sixteenth 
Street  tunnels,  and  the  Consolidated  Gas  Com¬ 
pany's  Astoria  tunnel.  Naturally  such  work 
was  well  understood,  and  construction  progressed 
rapidly  and  for  the  most  part  without  incident. 
Philadelphia  opened  its  subway  system  in  1908 
with  a  two-track  tunnel  in  connection  with  its 
elevated  railways.  Mention  should  be  made  of 
the  sj^stem  of  narrow-gauge  tunnels  in  Chicago 
for  handling  freight,  built  in  1901.  Other  Amer¬ 
ican  and  European  cities  were  engaged  in  de¬ 
veloping  subway  or  tunnel  schemes,  but  they 
indicated  little  departure  from  the  general  sys¬ 
tems  outlined. 

OTHER,  NOTABLE  TUNNELS 

Among  other  notable  tunnels  the  following 
may  be  briefly  mentioned:  Arlberg  Tunnel,  in 
Austria,  begun  in  1880  and  completed  in  1884 
for  a  double-track  railway,  6.38  miles  long. 
Tequixquiac  Tunnel,  begun  in  1888  to  drain  the 
valley  of  Mexico,  6  miles  long  and  about  14 
feet  wide  and  14  feet  high,  completed  in  1898. 
Trans- Andean  Railway  Tunnel,  through  the  sum¬ 
mit  of  the  Andes  on  the  railway  line  between 
Buenos  Aires  and  Santiago,  3  miles  long,  at  an 
elevation  of  10,460  feet  above  the  sea.  First 
Thames  Tunnel  at  London,  England,  begun  in 
1825  and  completed  in  1843,  1200  feet  long  with 
two  parallel  ways  of  horseshoe  section,  each 
13%  feet  wide  and  16%  feet  high.  East  River 
Gas  Tunnel,  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn, 
2516  feet  long  and  10  feet,  2  inches  in  diameter, 
begun  in  1892  and  completed  in  1894.  East 
River  Tunnel  of  Consolidated  Gas  Company, 
New  York  to  Astoria,  4662  feet  in  length,  of 
sufficient  size  to  accommodate  four  72-inch  gas 
mains.  Khojak  Tunnel,  on  the  Northwestern 
State  Railway  in  India,  12,870  feet  long,  begun 
in  1889  and  completed  in  1891.  Parsik  Hill 
Tunnel,  the  second  longest  in  India,  3900  feet  in 
length.  Graveholz  Tunnel,  on  the  Bergen  Rail¬ 
way,  in  Norway,  single  track,  17,400  feet  long. 
Arthurs  Pass  Tunnel,  through  the  Southern  Alps 
range  on  the  line  of  the  New  Zealand  govern¬ 
ment  railway  in  South  Island,  5  miles,  1660 
feet  in  length,  begun  in  1908.  The  Otira  Tunnel, 
also  in  New  Zealand,  is  notable  for  length,  being 
5%  miles  in  length. 

Bibliography.  Franz  Rziha,  Lehrbuch  der  ge- 
sammten  Tunnel- Baukunst  (Berlin,  1874)  ;  Dan- 
ino,  Gallerie  della  traversata  dell ’  AppennA.no  nella 
linea  Foglio  (Rome,  1875)  ;  H.  S.  Drinker,  Tun¬ 
neling,  Explosive  Compounds,  and  Rock  Drills 
.  .  .  (New  York,  1878)  ;  Burr,  Tunneling  under 
the  Hudson  River  (ib.,  1885)  ;  Leo  von  Rosenberg, 
The  Yosburg  Tunnel  (ib.,”  1887)  ;  T.  A.  Walker, 
The  S.evern  Tunnel :  Its  Cost  and  Difficulties  (Lon¬ 
don,  1888)  ;  J.  Ladame,  “Les  grands  tunnels  des 
Alpes  et  du  Jura,”  in  Chemin  de  fer  de  Calais 
a  Milan  (Paris,  1889)  ;  F.  W.  Simms,  Practical 
Tunneling  (4th  ed.,  New  York,  1896)  ;  Raynald 
Legouez,  De  Vemploie  du  bouclier  dans  la  con¬ 


struction  des  souterrains  (Paris,  1897);  W.  C. 
Copperthwaite,  Tunnel  Shields  and  the  Use  of 
Compressed  Air  in  Subaqueous  Works  (New 
\ork,  1906)  ;  H.  P.  Gillette,  Rock  Excavations : 
Methods  and  Cost  (Chicago,  1907);  E.  M. 
Westen,  Rock  Drills:  Design,  Construction,  and 
Use  (New  York,  1910)  ;  D.  M.  StaufTer,  Modern 
Tunnel  Practice  (rev.  ed.,  ib.,  1911);  G.  H. 
Gilbert  and  Others,  The  Subways  and  Tunnels 
of  New  York:  Methods  and  Costs  (ib.,  1912); 
Charles  Prelini,  Tunneling  (6th  ed.,  ib.,  1912  )  ; 
Brunton  and  Davis,  Modern  Tunneling  (ib., 
1914)  ;  Eugene  Lauchli,  Tunneling  (ib.,  1915)  ; 
the  record  of  the  International  Engineering 
Congress  (San  Francisco,  1915)  contains  sev¬ 
eral  very  important  papers  on  modern  tunneling 
in  Europe  and  America;  a  brief  summary  of  im¬ 
portant  tunnels  and  methods  of  construction  is 
to  be  found  in  Mansfield  Merriman,  American 
Civil  Engineers’  Pocket  Book  (2d  ed.,  New  York, 
1913). 

TUNNEL  NET.  See  Decoy. 

TUNNY  (from  OF.  ton,  thon,  Fr.  thon,  from 
Lat.  thunnus,  thynnus,  from  Gk.  Ovwos,  thyn- 
nos,  dvvos,  thynos,  tunny,  from  dvvew,  thynein, 
to  dart  along),  or  Horse  Mackerel.  The  larg¬ 
est  species  of  mackerel  ( Thunnus  thynnus), 
also  called  tuna  and  great  albacore.  It  has 
the  typical  form  of  mackerel  ( q.v. ) ,  except  that 
its  body  is  thicker,  and  the  tail  is  widely  forked, 
becoming  crescent-shaped.  It  is  pelagic,  and 
occurs  in  all  the  warm  seas,  attaining  a  length 
of  10  feet  and  a  weight  of  1500  pounds.  The 
flesh,  even  of  large  specimens,  is  good,  and  in 
southern  Europe  there  are  important  fisheries. 
Tunny  fisheries  were  early  established  by  the 
Phoenicians,  and  salted  tunny  was  esteemed  by 
the  Romans.  The  fish  are  captured  by  nets,  and, 
besides  the  large  sale  of  them  fresh,  vast 
numbers  are  disposed  of  by  canning.  Every 
part  of  the  body  is  utilized,  the  parts  being 
packed  and  sold  separately,  especially  in  Italy, 
under  distinctive  names.  A  closely  related 
species  is  the  long-finned  albacore  ( Germo 
alalunga) ,  common  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
widely  distributed  elsewhere,  and  abundant  in 
the  spawning  season  on  the  southern  coast  of 
California.  It  is  about  3  feet  long,  and  very 
handsome,  but  its  flesh  is  poor.  See  Plate  of 
Mackerels. 

TUN  SHELL.  One  of  the  large,  thin,  glo¬ 
bose,  finely  ribbed  shells  of  the  gastropod  mol- 
lusks  of  the  family  Doliida?,  closely  related  to 
the  helmet  shells  and  cowries  ( qq.v. ) .  They 
are  mainly  tropical,  but  a  well-known  one 


(Dolium  galea )  inhabits  the  Mediterranean,  and 
becomes  10  inches  in  length,  making  it  the 
largest  mollusk  of  that  region.  The  fig  shells 
(q.v.)  also  belong  to  this  family. 

TUN'STALL.  A  modern  manufacturing  and 


TUNSTALL 


TUPPER 


market  town  in  Staffordshire,  England  (Map: 
England,  D  3).  Since  1910  it  has  formed  part 
of  Stoke-on-Trent  (q.v.). 

TUNSTALL  or  TONSTALL,  Cuthbert 
(1474-1559).  An  English  bishop  and  author. 
He  was  born  at  Hackforth,  Yorkshire;  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  studied  at 
Padua;  became  rector  of  Harrow-on-the-Hill, 
1511;  Archdeacon  of  Chester,  1515;  and  was 
appointed  Master  of  the  Rolls  in  1516,  after  his 
return  as  Commissioner  to  Brussels,  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Erasmus  and  nego¬ 
tiated  two  treaties  with  Charles  I  of  Spain, 
afterward  Charles  V.  He  was  appointed  dean 
of  Salisbury,  1521,  Bishop  of  London  in  1522, 
Lord  Privy  Seal  in  1523,  Ambassador  to  Spain 
in  1525,  and  to  France  in  1527,  and  became 
Bishop  of  Durham  in  1530.  He  was  deprived 
of  his  bishopric  in  1552,  and  committed  to  the 
Tower  on  a  charge  of  treason;  was  reinstated 
by  Mary,  but,  declining  the  oath  of  supremacy 
to  Elizabeth,  was  again  deprived  in  1559,  shortly 
before  his  death.  He  was  considered  one  of  the 
ripest  scholars  and  wisest  diplomats  of  his 
period,  and  was  the  author  of  various  theological 
and  educational  works,  including  In  Laudem 
Matrimonii,  Oratio  (1518)  ;  De  Arte  Supputandi 
Libri  Quatuor  (1522),  an  arithmetical  treatise 
frequently  republished  (1522);  and  De  Veritate 
Corporis  et  Sanguinis  Domini  nostri  Jesu 
Christi  in  Eucharistia  (1551),  one  of  the  best 
contemporary  statements  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  Eucharist. 

TUPAC  AMARU  (tbo'pak  a'ma-roo)  II 
(1742-1781).  A  Peruvian  revolutionist,  whose 
real  name  was  Jose  Gabriel  Condorcanqui,  born 
at  Tinta  (south  of  Cuzco).  He  was  a  direct 
descendant  of  the  original  Incas  and  has  been 
called  the  last  of  the  Incas,  though  it  seems 
he  did  not  himself  lay  claim  to  that  title. 
Under  the  Spaniards  he  ruled  several  villages, 
and  in  1780,  failing  to  get  better  treatment  for 
the  Indians,  he  organized  an  uprising  of  60,- 
000  natives.  The  insurgents  soon  controlled  all 
the  country  between  Lake  Titicaca  and  Cuzco, 
but  in  1781  Tupac  was  defeated  and  captured 
and,  with  some  of  his  family,  was  executed  with 
frightful  torture.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
80,000  Indians  were  killed,  the  Spaniards’  ob¬ 
ject  apparently  being  to  exterminate  the  Inca 
race.  Fernando,  Tupac’s  son,  was  condemned 
to  life  imprisonment,  and  sent  to  Spain  when 
a  child  10  years  old.  His  fate  is  not  known, 
although  in*  1828,  a  man  calling  himself  Fer¬ 
nando  Tupac  Amaru  was  pensioned  at  Buenos 
Aires,  and  afterward  was  a  monk  at  Lima. 

TUPAIA,  tu-pa'ya,  or  BANXRING.  See 
Tree  Shrew. 

TUPELO,  tu'pe-lo  (North  American  Indian 
name),  Nyssa.  A  genus  of  North  American 
trees,  including  those  commonly  known  as  the 
cotton  gum,  Ogeechee  lime,  black  gum,  etc.  See 
Black  Gum. 

TUPELO.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Lee  Co.,  Miss.,  50  *  miles  south  by  west  of 
Corinth,  on  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  and  the  St. 
Louis  and  San  Francisco  railroads  (Map:  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  H  2).  Noteworthy  features  are  the 
United  States  Fish  Hatchery,  Tupelo  Military 
Institute,  courthouse,  city  hall,  and  the  public 
parks.  There  are  cotton  and  cottonseed-oil 
mills,  a  fertilizer  factory,  compress,  brick  and 
tile  works,  etc.  Pop.,  1900,  2118;  1910,  3881. 

TUPI,  tbb-pe'  (allies,  or  village),  or  Tupi- 
NAMBA.  An  ancient  tribe  from  which  the  wide¬ 


spread  Tupian  stock  (q.v.)  takes  its  name,  and 
whose  language  is  the  basis  of  the  lingoa  geral 
or  Indian  trade  language  of  the  Amazon  region. 
About  1550  they  were  populous  and  powerful. 
Being  broken  and  driven  back  by  the  whites, 
they  went  into  the  interior,  the  bands  taking 
different  names.  In  1640  some  of  them  were 
still  settled,  under  their  own  name,  along  the 
Lower  Amazon.  Their  religion  was  a  simple 
animism,  with  little  ceremonial.  Those  yet  re¬ 
maining  in  the  same  vicinity  are  now  called, 
improperly,  Tapuya  (q.v.).  They  are  civilized, 
quiet,  and  intelligent.  The  men  are  strong,  and 
supply  the  bulk  of  the  crews  for  the  Amazon 
River  trade. 

TUPIAN  (tbb-pe'ou)  STOCK,  or  Tupi- 
Guarana.  The  most  widespread  and  important 
linguistic  stock  of  South  America.  When  the 
Portuguese  took  possession  of  Brazil  the  Tupian 
tribes  held  the  greater  portion  of  the  territory 
from  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  (Paraguay  or  Parana) 
on  the  south  to  the  Amazon  on  the  north,  and 
extended  far  inland.  The  two  principal  tribes 
were  the  Tupi  (q.v.),  about  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon,  and  the  Guarani  (q.v.),  on  the  Lower 
Paraguay.  Of  numerous  other  cognate  tribes, 
the  most  important  were  the  Chiriguano, 
Guarayo,  Mundurucu  (q.v.),  Mura  (q.v.),  and 
Omagua  (q.v.).  Many  of  the  eastern  tribes 
were  gathered  into  missions  by  the  Jesuits  at 
an  early  period,  the  Guarani  missions  in  par¬ 
ticular  "at  one  time  containing  more  than  300,- 
000  Indians;  but  through  slave-hunting  raids 
and  the  subsequent  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
the  missions  were  broken  up,  the  more  civilized 
Indians  remaining  to  be  incorporated  with  the 
Spanish  settlements,  while  others  retired  into 
the  unexplored  western  wilderness.  In  general 
culture  the  Tupian  tribes  as  a  rule  were  superior 
to  other  aborigines  of  Brazil,  though  much  in¬ 
ferior  to  the  Quichua  of  Peru.  They  practiced 
agriculture  to  some  extent,  raising  corn,  manioc, 
and  tobacco,  and  were  expert  stone  workers,  ham¬ 
mock  weavers,  and  makers  of  pottery.  They 
kept  monkeys  and  peccaries  for  food,  but  their 
main  dependence  was  upon  hunting  and  fishing. 
Their  houses  were  light  structures,  usually  com¬ 
munal,  and  most  of  them  went  naked.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Omagua,  who  had  acquired 
considerable  of  the  Quichua  culture,  they  had 
no  metals.  The  Tupian  languages  have  been 
extensively  cultivated,  the  Guarani  having  been 
adopted  by  the  Jesuits  for  use  in  all  the  mis¬ 
sions  of  the  Paraguay,  while  the  Tupi,  in  its 
corrupted  form,  is  still  the  trade  medium 
throughout  the  Amazon  region.  Consult: 
Lucien  Adam,  Mat6riaux  pour  servir  a  Vetab- 
lissement  d’une  grammaire  comparee  des  dia¬ 
lect  es  de  la  famille  Tupi  (Paris,  1896)  ;  D.  G. 
Brinton,  Linguistic  Cartography  of  the  Chaco 
Region  (Philadelphia,  1898)  ;  Hermann  von 
Ihering,  The  Anthropology  of  the  State  of  S. 
Paulo,  Brazil  (2d  ed.,  S.  Paulo,  1906)  ;  F.  Pierini 
in  Anthropos,  vol.  iii  (Salzburg,  1908). 

TUPPER,  Sir  Charles  (1821-1915).  A 
Canadian  statesman.  He  was  born  at  Amherst, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  graduated  in  medicine  at 
Edinburgh  University  in  1843.  For  12  years 
he  practiced  his  profession  in  his  native  county 
of  Cumberland,  which  in  1855  elected  him  as 
a  Conservative  member  of  the  Legislative  As¬ 
sembly.  He  was  Provincial  Secretary  in  1856 
and  Premier  in  1864-67.  He  strongly  supported 
the  movement  for  Canadian  Confederation,  over¬ 
came  the  opposition  of  Joseph  Howe  (q.v.),  at- 


TUPPER 


TURANIAN 


56i 


tended  the  conferences  in  1864  at  Charlottetown 
and  Quel>ec  as  a  delegate,  later  joined  the  con¬ 
ference  of  delegates  with  the  British  government 
in  London,  and  shared  in  the  accomplishment  of 
Confederation  in  1867.  In  the  first  Dominion 
administration  of  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  ( 1867- 
73)  he  was  successively  President  of  the  Council 
(1870),  Minister  of  Inland  Revenue  (1872), 
and  Minister  of  Customs  (1873),  but  resigned 
the  last  office  the  same  year,  after  the  defeat 
of  Macdonald  on  charges  of  political  corruption 
in  connection  with  contracts  for  the  proposed 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway.  During  five  years  of 
opposition  he  was  Macdonald's  chief  aid  and  po¬ 
litical  adviser  and  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
electoral  campaign  which  resulted  in  the  Con¬ 
servative  victory  of  1878  and  the  establishment 
of  the  national  policy  of  a  protective  tariff 
the  following  year.  As  the  first  Canadian 
Minister  of  Railways,  he  aided  importantly  in 
the  construction  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  by  a 
private  company  until  1884,  when  he  was 
appointed  High  Commissioner  for  Canada  in 
London.  Returning  in  1887,  he  was  Minister 
of  Finance  until  May,  1888,  shortly  afterward 
resuming  his  position  as  High  Commissioner, 
in  which  office  he  remained  until  1806.  The 
death  of  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  in  1891  having 
been  followed  by  five  years  of  brief  ministries 
and  Conservative  ineptitude,  Tupper  was  again 
brought  from  London  to  Ottawa,  succeeded  Sir 
Mackenzie  Bowell  as  Premier  in  1896,  and  made 
strong  though  unsuccessful  efforts  to  extricate 
the  Conservative  government  from  the  difficul¬ 
ties  into  which  it  had  fallen  over  the  educa¬ 
tional  question  (see  Canada,  History ;  Mani¬ 
toba,  History;  Greenway,  Thomas).  After 
his  defeat  in  1896  he  was  Conservative  opposi¬ 
tion  leader  until  1900,  when  he  retired  from 
public  life.  He  afterward  resided  in  England. 
Both  in  Nova  Scotia  before  Confederation  and 
afterward  in  federal  affairs  he  procured  the 
enactment  of  many  important  laws.  Imperial 
federation  had  his  ardent  support.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  physical  force  and  political 
courage,  distinguished  both  as  debater  and 

orator.  He  was  made  K.C.M.G.  in  1879, 

G.C.M.G.  in  1886,  a  Baronet  in  1888,  and  a 

member  of  the  Imperial  Privy  Council  in  1908. 
He  died  in  England,  but  was  buried  at  Halifax. 
His  Recollections  of  Sixty  Years  has  much  his¬ 
torical  value  (Toronto,  1914).  Consult  also 
Charles  Thibault,  The  Biography  of  Sir  Charles 
Tupper  (Montreal,  1884),  and  E.  M.  Saunders, 
Three  Premiers  of  Nova  Scotia  (Toronto,  1909). 

TUPPER,  Sir  Charles  Hibbert  (1855- 

) .  A  Canadian  statesman,  son  of  Sir 
Charles  Tupper.  He  was  born  at  Amherst, 
Nova  Scotia,  studied  at  McGill  and  Harvard 
universities,  and  in  1878  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  In  1882  he  was  returned  as  a  Conservative 
to  the  Dominion  Parliament,  and  subsequently 
also  in  1887,  1888,  1891,  and  1896-1900.  In 
1888-95  he  was  Minister  of  Marine  and  Fish¬ 
eries,  and  in  1895-96  Minister  of  Justice  and 
Attorney-General.  In  1893  he  served  as  agent 
for  the  British  government  in  the  Paris  tribunal 
of  arbitration  on  the  Bering  Sea  question.  (See 
Bering  Sea  Controversy.)  After  1897  he  prac¬ 
ticed  law  at  Vancouver,  B.  C.  In  1904  he  re¬ 
tired  from  political  life.  He  was  knighted 
(K.C.M.G.)  in  1893. 

TUPPER,  Martin  Farquhar  (1810-89). 
An  English  versifier,  born  in  London.  His  father, 
Martin  Tupper,  was  a  well-known  London  sur¬ 


geon  belonging  to  a  German  family  which  had 
long  been  settled  in  Guernsey.  Martin  was 
educated  at  the  Charterhouse,  and  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  In  1832  he  entered  Lincoln’s 
Inn,  where  he  was  called  to  the  bar  three  years 
later.  He  never  practiced  law,  but  turned  at 
once  to  literature.  He  visited  the  United  States 
in  1851  and  1876.  He  died  at  Albury,  near 
Guildford,  Nov.  29,  1889.  Tupper  published  39 
volumes.  His  first  work,  poems  called  Sacra 
Poesis  (1832),  attracted  slight  attention.  Ger¬ 
aldine  was  published  in  1838:  it  was  a  ludicrous 
attempt  to  complete  Coleridge’s  Christabel.  In 
1838  also  appeared  the  first  installment  of  Pro¬ 
verbial  Philosophy .  The  work  was  completed  in 
1876.  The  earlier  parts  were  enormously  popu¬ 
lar.  Large  sections  of  the  poems  were  trans¬ 
lated  into  German,  French,  and  Danish.  It  is 
hard  to  account  for  this  vogue,  as  the  poem  is 
an  endless  chain  of  canting  moral  common¬ 
places.  Consult  the  autobiography,  My  Life 
as  an  Author  (London,  1886),  and  reviews  in 
contemporary  periodicals,  especially  Fraser’s 
Magazine  (ib.,  October,  1852). 

TUPPER  LAKE.  A  village  in  Franklin  Co., 
N.  Y.,  108  miles  northeast  of  Utica,  on  the 
New  York  Central  Railroad  (Map:  New  York, 
F  2 ) .  Lumbering  is  carried  on  and  among  the 
chief  industrial  establishments  are  saw  mills 
and  a  cooperage.  Pop.,  1910,  3067. 

TUR.  See  Goat. 

TURA,  Cosimo  (c.1430-95).  An  Italian 
painter  of  the  early  Renaissance,  the  founder 
and  most  important  master  of  the  Ferrarese 
School.  He  was  born  in  Ferrara,  studied  at 
Squarcione’s  school  in  Padua,  and  was  influenced 
by  Donatello  and  the  early  works  of  Mantegna. 
His  powerful,  realistic  figures  are  hard  in  color, 
but  well  drawn  and  modeled.  He  delighted  in 
the  symbolic  and  the  grotesque.  His  most  im¬ 
portant  paintings  include  the  impressive  “Pieta” 
(Museo  Civico,  Venice)  ;  the  “Annunciation”  in 
the  cathedral  at  Ferrara;  a  “Dead  Christ  Up¬ 
held  by  Angels”  (Vienna)  ;  “Christ  on  the 
Cross”  (Brera,  Milan)  ;  and  the  altarpiece  “Ma¬ 
donna  with  Saints”  ( Berlin  Museum ) .  Panels 
of  saints  are  at  Dresden,  London,  in  the  Uffizi 
(Florence),  and  at  Modena  and  Paris. 

TURACO,  too-ra'ko  (African  name).  A  bird 
of  the  African  family  Musophagidae  or  plantain- 
eaters  (q.v.).  The  species  are  numerous,  of 
large  size  and  brilliant  plumage,  and  have 
strong,  thick  bills,  more  or  less  curved  on  the 
top,  the  cutting  edges  jagged  or  finely  serrated, 
so  as  to  render  them  very  efficient  instruments 
for  cutting  soft  vegetable  substances,  on  which 
they  feed.  The  colors  are  chiefly  bright  green, 
greenish-blue,  crimson,  and  yellow ;  red  and 
green  predominate.  These  birds  have  a  helmet¬ 
like  crest,  which  they  elevate  when  excited.  One 
of  the  largest  species  is  the  giant  turaco  ( Cory - 
thceola  cristata)  of  western  and  Central  Africa, 
which  is  28  inches  long.  It  is  blue-green  with¬ 
out  red,  but  the  tail  has  a  broad,  black,  sub¬ 
terminal  bar,  and  the  bill  is  red  and  yellow. 

TURA'NIAN.  A  term  formerly  applied 
loosely  to  all  Asiatic  peoples,  excepting  those 
of  Indo-Germanic  or  Semitic  stock.  In  the 
early  Iranian  chronicles  of  the  Persian  era  the 
term  Turan,  in  contrast  with  Iran  (the  home 
of  the  Aryan  Iranians),  was  given  to  the  region 
to  the  northeast,  including  modern  Turkestan, 
the  home  of  non-Aryan,  nomadic,  uncivilized 
peoples.  The  theory  once  put  forth  according  to 
which,  in  prehistoric  times,  western  Asia  and 


TURATI 


TURBOT 


5^2 


Dra- 

Tai, 

now 

). 


most  of  Europe  were  peopled  by  Turanians, 
whose  descendants  could  be  seen  in  Pelasgians, 
Hittites,  Etruscans,  Iberians,  Basques,  Piets, 
Finns,  and  Lapps,  has  now  no  currency  among 
the  best  authorities.  The  term  Turanian  still 
has,  however,  some  scientific  currency,  although 
in  a  much  modified  sense.  Thus  De  Morgan  styles 
the  peoples  of  the  Caucasus  Turanians,  and  Den- 
iker  uses  the  word  as  synonymous  with  Turko- 
Tatars.  In  linguistics  Turanian  formerly  had 
some  vogue  as  a  term  proposed  by  Max  Muller 
for  all  languages  of  Europe,  Asia  (excepting 
China),  and  Oceania,  which  are  neither  Indo- 
Germanic  nor  Semitic.  The  division  of  these 
languages  into  Ural-Altaic  or  Finno-Ugric, 
vidian,  Kolarian,  Tibeto-Burman,  Khasi, 
Mon-Anam,  and  Malayo-Polynesian  is 
adopted. 

TURATI,  too-ra'te,  Filippo  (1857- 
An  Italian  Socialist  leader,  born  at  'Canzo 
(Como).  He  graduated  in  law  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Bologna  in  1877,  and  was  appointed 
counselor  from  the  Province  of  Milan.  Later 
he  was  elected  from  Milan  as  a  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  From  1891  to  1903 
he  served  as  manager  and  editor  of  the  Critica 
sociale,  the  monthly  organ  of  the  Socialist  party. 
As  the  chief  spokesman  of  the  Reformists  or 
Constitutionalists,  Turati  became  the  leader  of 
the  Italian  Socialists,  but  in  1904  Enrico  Ferri 
(q.v.)  succeeded  in  supplanting  him  temporarily. 
The  Milan  Congress,  however,  in  1910  indorsed 
Turati’s  Reformist  policy  by  a  vote  of  two  to 
one,  and  he  continued  to  lead  the  more  numerous 
section  of  the  Socialists.  A  close  personal 
friend  of  King  Victor  Emanuel  III,  he  was  fre¬ 
quently  consulted  by  him  before  the  entrance 
of  Italy  into  the  European  War  in  1915. 

TURBAN  SHELL.  An  herbivorous  scuti- 
branchiate  mollusk,  closely  allied  in  habits  and 

structure  to  the  top 
shell  ( q.v. ) .  It  takes 
its  name  from  a  resem¬ 
blance  in  the  shell  to 
an  Oriental  turban. 
When  denuded  of  its 
outer  coating  the  shell 
is  richly  pearly,  and  is 
one  of  the  shells  most 
widely  sold  as  an  orna¬ 
ment.  In  the  Orient, 
where  most  of  the  spe¬ 
cies  live,  the  animals 
are  often  eaten.  The 
aperture  is  large  and 
flaring,  and  the  opercu- 
The  typical  genus  Turbo,  the 
(see  Pheasant  Shell),  and 
the  spiny  genus  Delphinula,  constitute  the  fam¬ 
ily  Turbinidse,  which  may  be  traced  back  to 
Ordovician  time,  and  especially  flourished  dur¬ 
ing  the  Silurian  period. 

TUR'BELLA'RIA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Lat.  turba,  disturbance,  crowd;  referring  to  the 
whirlpools  caused  by  the  movements  of  their 
cilia).  The  first  and  most  highly  organized 
of  the  three  classes  of  fiatworms,  composed  of 
free-living  worms.  The  body  epithelium  is 
densely  ciliated.  The  turbellarian  worms  are 
found  in  both  salt  and  fresh  water  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  world,  and  in  moist  places 
on  land  in  the  tropics.  They  are  usually  of 
small  size,  less  than  2  inches  long,  but  some 
species  are  4  or  5  inches  long.  The  body  is 

generallv  verv  flat  and  leaflike,  but  in  some 

«/  «/  * 


A  TYPICAL  TURBAN  ( Turbo 
argyrostomus) . 


lum  calcareous, 
genus  Phasianella 


species,  especially  among  the  land  forms,  is 
narrow,  elongated,  and  slightly  arched.  The 
colors  are  sometimes  dull,  but  many  of  the 
marine  forms  are  brightly  colored,  and  are  very 
beautiful  objects.  Most  of  the  Turbellaria  are 
carnivorous,  and  are  very  active,  especially  in 
swimming.  The  class  is  divisible  into  three 
orders,  based  chiefly  on  the  arrangement  of  the 
intestine. 

TUR'BERVILLE  or  TUBERVILE,  George 
(c.1540-c.1610)  .  An  English  poet  of  an  ancient 
Dorset  family.  He  was  born  at  Whitchurch,  in 
Dorsetshire,  and  was  educated  at  Winchester 
and  at  New  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  be¬ 
came  a  fellow  in  1561.  Leaving  Oxford  the 
next  year  without  a  degree,  he  studied  law  at 
one  of  the  inns  of  court  in  London.  In  1568 
lie  accompanied  Thomas  Randolph,  a  special 
ambassador  of  the  Queen,  to  Russia,  where  he 
wrote  verses  describing  the  manners  of  the  peo¬ 
ple  (reprinted  in  part  in  Hakluyt’s  Voyages, 
1589).  Of  his  later  life  nothing  is  known. 
He  probably  died  about  1610.  Turberville  oc¬ 
cupies  an  interesting  place  in  English  literature 
as  a  translator  from  the  Latin  and  the  Italian 
and  as  one  of  the  first  among  English  poets 
to  employ  the  ottava  rima  (q.v.)  and  blank 
verse  (q.v.).  Chief  among  his  works  are  Epi¬ 
taphs,  Epigrams,  Songs,  and  Sonnets  (1567,  in 
Chalmers’s  British  Poets,  vol.  ii,  London,  1810)  ; 
The  Booke  of  Fauloonrie,  or  Hawking,  with 
which  is  bound  The  Noble  Art  of  Venerie,  or 
Hunting,  ascribed  to  Turberville  (1575;  enlarged 
1611);  Tragical  Tales  from  the  Italian,  with 
original  epitaphs  and  sonnets  (1587;  reprinted, 
Edinburgh,  1837)  ;  and  The  Heroycall  Epistles 
of  Ovidius  in  English  (1567).  To  Turberville 
have  been  doubtfully  ascribed  two  versions  of 
Tasso’s  Jerusalem  Delivered  (manuscript  in 
Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford).  Selections  from 
Turberville’s  poems  are  in  Early  English  Poetry, 
edited  by  H.  M.  Fitzgibbon  (London,  1887). 

TUR'BINE.  A  term  used  to  distinguish  a 
variety  of  steam  engines,  water  wheels,  and 
centrifugal  pumps.  The  general  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  turbine  machinery,  compared 
with  older  apparatus,  is  the  employment  of  uni¬ 
form  rotary  motion  in  place  of  reciprocating, 
and  the  use  (in  one  form  or  another)  of  im¬ 
peller  and  guide  vanes  instead  of  pistons  and 
ports.  Some  steam  turbine  engines  replace  the 
initial  guide  vanes  with  nozzles  in  which  the 
steam  is  expanded  before  discharge  upon  the 
first  impeller  vanes.  Turbine  pumps  are  com¬ 
monly  distinguished  from  ordinary  centrifugals 
by  the  presence  of  guide  vanes  which  receive  the 
water  from  the  impeller  and  change  its  velocity 
head  into  pressure  more  efficiently  than  does 
the  simple  open  casing.  See  Pumps  and  Pump¬ 
ing  Machinery;  Shipbuilding,  Machinery  ; 
Steam  Turbine;  Water  Wheel  and  Turbines. 

TUR'BIT.  A  fancy  breed  of  domestic  pigeons, 
varying  in  colors  and  crest,  with  a  flattened  head, 
very  small  beak,  ruffled  breast,  and  other  oddi¬ 
ties.  See  Colored  Plate  of  Pigeons. 

TUR'BOT  (OF.  turbot,  from  Lat.  turbo,  top). 
The  most  valuable  of  the  flatfishes  {Rhombus 
maximus) ,  and  one  of  the  most  toothsome  of  all 
fishes.  It  abounds  off  the  northern  coast  of 
Europe,  and  attains  a  large  size,  sometimes  70 
to  90  pounds  in  weight.  Its  form  is  shorter, 
broader,  and  deeper  than  that  of  almost  any 
other  flatfish.  It  is  brown  in  color  on  the  upper 
surface,  which  is  studded  with  hard  roundish 
tubercles.  Like  the  other  flatfishes,  it  gener- 


TURCARET  , 

ally  keeps  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea;  and 
is  found  chiefly  on  banks  where  there  is  a  con¬ 
siderable  depth  of  water.  See  Flatfish  ;  and 
Plate  of  Flatfish  and  Flounders. 

TURCARET,  tiir'ka'ra'.  A  comedy  by  Lesage 
(17(H)),  satirizing  financial  corruption." 

TURCO-ITAEIAN  WAR.  With  the  realiza¬ 
tion  of  national  unity  in  1871,  Italy  entered 
tjie  field  of  world  politics.  Emulating  other 
Gieat  Powers  of  Europe,  the  country  strove  for 
colonial  possessions.  Northern  Africa  appeared 
to  be  a  possible  place  for  Italy  to  satisfy  ter¬ 
ritorial  ambition.  The  decline  of  Turkish  con- 
tiol  there  had  already  tempted  the  European 
Powers  to  extend  “spheres  of  influence”  over 
these  semicivilized  territories.  France  had  a 
foothold  in  Algeria  and  Great  Britain  in  Egypt. 
Italy  at  first  hoped  to  bring  Tunis  under  her 
control,  but  the  French  had  gradually  pene- 
tiated  this  territory  and  in  1881  France  pro¬ 
claimed  a  protectorate  over  Tunis.  Italian  re¬ 
sentment  at  this  action  led  Italy  to  join  the 
Triple  Alliance  (q.v. )  with  Germany  and  Aus¬ 
tria.  Frustrated  in  ambitions  as"  to  Tunis, 
Italy  turned  attention  to  the  Turkish  territory 
further  east  in  Tripoli  and  Cyrenaica.  Italian 
colonists  began  to  settle  there  and  Italian  capi¬ 
talists  began  “peaceful”  penetration  of  the  coun¬ 
try.  Friction  developed  between  the  European 
financial  interests  and  the  weak  and  corrupt 
Turkish  administration. 

After  the  Turkish  revolution  of  1908  (see 
Turkey  ) ,  which  was  characterized  by  an  out¬ 
burst  of  Turkish  nationalism,  the  Young  Turk 
party  opposed.  the  pretensions  of  Italy  in  Trip¬ 
oli.  The  Italians,  on  the  other  hand,  declared 
that  their  merchants  and  citizens  in  Tripoli 
were  being  mistreated  by  the  Turkish  authori¬ 
ties.  The  crisis  was  reached  when,  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1911,  Italy  sent  an  ultimatum  to  Turkey 
enumerating  her.  complaints  against  Turkish 
misgovernment,  informing  the  Sultan  that  Italy 
had  determined  upon  the  military  occupation 
of  Tripoli  and  demanding  acquiescence  within 
a  period  of  twenty-four  hours.  The  Porte’s 
reply  was  considered  unsatisfactory  by  Italy, 
and  on  Sept.  29,  1911,  the  Italian  government 
declared  war  on  Turkey. 

Italy’s  action  caused  great  apprehension  in 
the  chancelleries  of  the  Great  European  Powers. 
Any  disturbance  in  the  Turkish  dominions  was 
liable  .to  precipitate  trouble  in  the  Balkans 
and  might  lead  to  serious  and  unforeseen  con¬ 
sequences.  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  were 
especially  concerned.  Turkey  had  come  to  be 
regarded  as  a  member  of  the  Triple  Alliance 
group.  Both  the  German  and  Austrian  govern¬ 
ments  appealed  to  Italy,  as  a  member  of  the 
alliance,  to  compromise  the  issue.  They  could 
hardly  do  more,  for  if  pressure  was  brought  to 
bear  upon  Italy  it  might  readily  lead  her  to 
join  forces  with  the  rival  diplomatic  group 
(the  Triple  Entente).  Under  these  circum¬ 
stances  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  were 
forced  to  stand  by  and  see  their  protege  de¬ 
spoiled  by  their  ally  Italy. 

Naval  and  Military  Operations.  The  war 
opened  with  the  sinking  of  three  Turkish  tor¬ 
pedo  boats  off  the  coast  of  Epirus  by  an  Italian 
squadron.  In  October,  1911,  the  Italian  fleet 
blockaded  the  Tripolitan  coast  and,  after  a 
bombardment,  the  port  of  Tripoli  was  occupied. 
An  expeditionary  force  was  landed  but  no  seri¬ 
ous  resistance  was  offered  by  the  Turks,  who 
withdrew  into  the  interior.  An  uprising  of 


on  the 
All  Arabs  who 

v  ere  found  with  firearms  were  condemned  to 
death  and  several  thousand  others,  accused  of 
treachery,  were  transported  to  Italian  islands. 
The  Italian  forces  took  possession  of  many 
coast  towns  and  on  Nov.  5,  1911,  Italy  formally 
proclaimed  annexation  of  Iripoli  and  Cyrenaica. 
Little  ellort  was  made,  however,  to  push  into 
the  interior. 

After  the  war  had  continued  several  months 
the  European  Powers  tried  to  bring  about  peace. 
Russia,  in  particular,  tried  to  obtain  an  agree¬ 
ment  among  the  Great  Powers  to  prepare  some 
feasible  means  of  intervention,  but  the  mutual 
jealousy  and  suspicion  prevented  any  concerted 
action.  It  appeared  as  though  Turkey  might 
stand  out  indefinitely.  To  surrender  a  large 
Mussulman  population  to  a  Christian  Power 
would  have  weakened  the  influence  of  the  Young 
lurk  party  in  control  at  Constantinople. 
Moreover,  Italy’s  hands  were  tied  in  that  she 
had  bound  herself,  under  pressure  from  Austria- 
Hungary,  not  to  carry  on  military  operations 
in  the  Balkans  or  the  HDgean  Sea.  After  four 
months  of  indecisive  warfare  Italy  made  an 
effort  to  force  matters  to  a  final  issue  by  sending 
a  squadron  into  the  Red  Sea  and  bombarding 
the  port  of  Hodeida.  This  was  followed  by  the 
sinking  of  two  Turkish  war  vessels  in  the 
port  of  Beirut.  The  extension  of  the  war  to 
the  Turkish  Asiatic  dominions  was  regarded  by 
the  European  Powers  with  apprehension.  It 
was  probably  the  intention  of  Italy,  by  this 
move,  to  force  the  European  Powers  to  bring 
pressure  to  bear  upon  Turkey  to  yield  to  the 
Italian  demands.  Diplomatic  representations 
were  made  by  the  Powers  to  Turkey,  and  in  the 
hope  of  making  these  effective  an  Italian 
squadron  appeared  in  the  Dardanelles  and  bom¬ 
barded  the  Turkish  forts  there. 

The  Porte  replied  to  the  communication  from 
the  Powers  in  regard  to  mediation  that  this  could 
only  be  accepted  on  the  condition  that  the  sover¬ 
eign  rights,  of  Turkey  should  be  maintained  and 
that  Tripoli  should  be  evacuated  by  the  Italians. 
In  answer  to  the  Italian  attack  on  the  Dar¬ 
danelles,  the  Turkish  government  closed  the 
Straits  to  commerce,  but  upon  the  energetic 
protest  of  the  Powers,  especially  Russia,  this 
action  was  revoked.  Further  action  by  the 
Powers  against  Turkey  was  not  deemed  ex¬ 
pedient  and  it  appeared  as  though  the  war  had 
resolved  itself  into  a  stalemate.  In  Italy  the 
situation  was  critical.  The  government  could 
not  revoke  its  decree  annexing  Tripoli  without 
compromising  Italy’s  position  among  the  Pow¬ 
ers  of  Europe.  The  expenses  of  the  war  ag¬ 
gravated  the  financial  stringency  in  the  coun¬ 
try,  and  it  was  essential  to  bring  the  war  to 
a  close  as  speedily  as  possible.  As  a  further 
effort  to  influence  Turkey,  and  possibly  also 
the  European  Powers,  the  Italians  seized  twelve 
of  the  Turkish  islands  in  the  HSgean.  This 
action  aroused  serious  concern,  especially  in 
Great  Britain,  for  if  Italy  retained  these  islands 
it  would  seriously  modify  the  balance  of  power 
in  the  Mediterranean.  A  second  appearance  of 
the  Italian  fleet  in  the  Dardanelles  in  Julv, 
1912,  threatened  further  complications.  In 
August,  1912,  Turkey  first  indicated  a  desire 
to  e*nd  the  war.  This  move  was  due,  not  so 
much  to  the  activities  of  the  Italians,  as  to 
reports  of  serious  unrest  among  the  Balkan 
states. 


TURCO-ITALIAN  WAR 

the  Arabs  led  to  vigorous  reprisals 
part  of  the  Italian  authorities. 


TURENNE 


TURGENEV 


564 


In  the  latter  part  of  August,  1912,  negotia¬ 
tions  were  begun  between  representatives  of 
Italy  and  Turkey  looking  to  a  restoration  of 
peace.  The  meetings  were  held  at  Ouchy, 
Switzerland.  The  chief  difficulty  arose  from 
Italy’s  decree  annexing  the  province  of  Tripoli, 
which  Turkey  would  not  accept.  The  precipi¬ 
tation  of  the  Balkan  War  (q.v.),  however, 
forced  Turkey  to  accept  such  terms  as  she  could 
obtain,  and  on  Oct.  15,  1912,  preliminaries  to 
peace  were  signed.  The  terms  of  the  Treaty  of 
Lausanne  provided  that  Italy  should  retain  full 
sovereignty  in  Tripoli  and  Cyrenaica.  At  the 
same  time  Turkey  was  not  required  to  recognize 
expressly  the  annexation,  and  Italy  agreed  to 
recognize  the  religious  authority  of  the  Sultan 
over  the  Moslem  subjects  in  the  territory.  The 
iEgean  Islands  were  restored  to  Turkey  on  con¬ 
dition  that  a  general  amnesty  should  be  granted 
to  the  inhabitants  and  local  autonomy  respected. 

The  wider  aspects  of  the  wav,  in  its  effects 
upon  the  international  situation  in  Europe, 
were  of  far-reaching  importance.  As  had  been 
anticipated,  the  disturbance  of  the  status  quo 
in  one  part  of  the  Turkish  dominions  precipi¬ 
tated  trouble  elsewhere.  The  Balkan  States, 
taking  advantage  of  Turkey’s  difficulties,  or¬ 
ganized  the  Balkan  League  and  began  a  war 
which  reached  its  culmination  in  the  tremendous 
conflict  of  1914.  See  War  in  Europe,  Underly¬ 
ing  Causes. 

Bibliography.  G.  F.  Abbott,  The  Holy  War 
in  Tripoli  (New  York,  1912)  ;  Sir  Thomas  Bar¬ 
clay,  Turco-Italian  War  and  its  Problems  (Lon¬ 
don,  1912)  ;  H.  C.  S.  Wright,  Two  Years  under 
the  Crescent  (Boston,  1913)  ;  Francis  McCullagh, 
Italy’s  War  for  a  Desert  (Chicago,  1913)  ;  W. 
IL  Beehler,  History  of  the  Italian-Turkish  War 
(Annapolis,  1913)  ;  Jose  Briva,  La  guerra  italo- 
turca  (Barcelona,  1913)  ;  W.  K.  McClure,  Italy 
in  North  Africa  (Philadelphia,  1914). 

TURENNE,  tu'ren',  Henri  de  Latour  d’Au- 
vergne,  Vicomte  de  (1611-75).  A  marshal  of 
France,  born  at  Sedan,  Sept.  11,  1611,  the  sec¬ 
ond  son  of  Henry,  Duke  of  Bouillon,  and  brought 
up  in  the  Reformed  faith.  He  entered  the 
French  army  in  1630,  served  with  distinction 
under  Bernhard  of  Weimar  in  1637-38,  and  won 
a  victory  over  the  Spaniards  before  Casale  in 
1640.  He  conquered  Roussillon  from  Spain  in 
1642,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  baton  of  a 
marshal  of  France.  In  1643  he  commanded  the 
army  operating  in  Germany,  where  the  French 
had  "sustained  defeat  by  the  Bavarians  and  Im¬ 
perialists.  With  the  Duke  of  Enghien  (later 
Conde)  he  fought  against  General  Mercy  at 
Freiburg  in  August,  1644.  After  suffering  his 
defeat  by  Mercy  at  Marienthal,  May  5,  1645,  he 
shared  in  Conde’s  victory  near  Nordlingen,  Au¬ 
gust  3.  The  next  year  Turenne  united  with  the 
Swedes  to  complete  the  conquest  of  Bavaria,  and 
by  his  successes  hastened  the  close  of  the  Thirty 
Years’  War  (1648).  Under  the  influence  of 
his  elder  brother  and  the  Duchess  of  Longue- 
ville  (q.v.)  he  joined  the  Fronde  (q.v.),  but, 
with  his  Spanish  allies,  was  defeated  by  Du- 
plessis  at  Rethel  in  December,  1650.  In  1651 
he  became  reconciled  with  the  court,  and  suc¬ 
cessfully  commanded  the  royal  armies  against 
Conde,  "who  meanwhile  had  gone  over  to  the 
Fronde.  In  1667,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  so- 
called  War  of  Devolution  (see  Louis  XIV~) ,  the 
King  gave  him  the  supreme  command  of  the 
army,  with  which  he  overran  Flanders  and 
Franche-Comt£.  Louis  XIV  succeeded  in  in¬ 


ducing  him  to  embrace  the  Catholic  faith  ( 1668) . 
Turenne’s  campaign  in  Holland  (1672)  was  a 
triumphant  one;  and  the  Elector  oi  Branden¬ 
burg,  who  had  ventured  to  side  with  the  Dutch, 
was  forced  to  sue  for  peace.  In  the  following 
campaign,  however,  Turenne  was  outmanoeuvred 
by  the  Imperialist  general,  Montecucculi.  In 
1674  he  laid  waste  the  Palatinate  and  defeated 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine  at  Sinzheim.  Forced  from 
Alsace  by  superior  forces,  Turenne  executed  a 
masterly  retreat,  and  found  safety  behind  the 
Vosges  "Mountains;  in  a  midwinter  campaign 
he  reconquered  the  country  after  two  decisive 
victories  at  Miihlhausen  and  Turkheim.  Once 
more  he  crossed  the  Rhine  to  meet  his  old  rival, 
Montecucculi,  but  was  killed  while  reconnoitring 
before  Sasbach,  near  Offenburg,  July  27,  1675. 
He  was  buried  at  St.  Denis,  and  his  body  was 
placed  by  Napoleon  in  the  Invalides. 

Bibliography.  Turenne  left  memoirs  of  his 
campaigns  from  1643  to  1658,  which  are  of  in¬ 
terest  to  the  student  of  military  history  (Paris, 
1782;  new  ed.,  1872);  they  are  supplemented 
by  the  Memoires  by  Deschamps  (ib.,  1901)  ;  his 
letters  were  edited  by  Barthelemv  (ib.,  1874). 
Consult  also:  Henri  Choppin,  La  campagne  de 
Turenne  en  Alsace,  1674-1675  (Paris,  1875)  ; 
Paul  Liimkemann,  Turennes  letzter  Feldzug,  1675 
(Halle,  1883)  ;  L.  de  Piepape,  Turenne  et  l’ inva¬ 
sion  de  la  Champagne,  1649-1650  (Paris,  1889)  ; 
Jules  Roy,  Turenne:  sa  vie,  les  institutions 
militaires  de  son  temps  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1898)  ; 
F.  des  Robert,  Les  campagnes  de  Turenne  en 
Allemagne  (Nancy,  1903)  ;  Hardy  de  Perini, 
Turenne  et  Cond6,  1626-1675  (Paris,  1907); 
C.  G.  Picavet,  Les  dernieres  annees  de  Turenne, 
1660-1675  (ib.,  1914)  ;  id.,  Documents  biogra- 
phiques  sur  Turenne,  1611—1675  (Lille,  1914). 

TURGAI,  toor-gV.  A  territory  of  Russian 
Central  Asia,  an  administrative  division  of  the 
Governor-Generalship  of  the  Steppes  (Map:  Asia, 
H  4).  Area,  176,219  square  miles.  The  larger 
part  is  flat,  with  sandy  deserts  in  the  south. 
The  western  part  is  covered  with  the  Mugajar 
Mountains,  offshoots  of  the  Ural  system.  The 
region  is  watered  by  the  Ural  and  the  Tobol, 
which  are  almost  waterless  during  the  dry 
season.  The  flora  is  poor  and  the  forests  are 
few.  The  fauna,  on  the  other  hand,  is  very 
rich,  especially  in  fur-bearing  animals.  The 
climate  is  continental,  with  extremely  hot  sum¬ 
mers  and  severe  winters. 

Agriculture  is  as  yet  little  developed.  The 
nomadic  Kirghizes  are  engaged  principally  in 
stock  raising  and  hunting.  The  mineral  deposits 
of  the  region,  which  include  iron,  copper,  silver, 
coal,  etc.,  are  practically  untouched.  '  The  na¬ 
tives  export  small  articles  of  metal,  saddles, 
musical  instruments,  carpets,  etc.  There  are 
also  exported  furs  and  animal  products.  The 
barter  system  still  prevails.  Pop.,  1913,  689,500. 

TURGENEV,  tur-gen'yef,  Alexander  Ivan- 
ovitcii  (1785-1846).  A  Russian  historian.  He 
traveled  extensively  in  Germany,  Italy,  France, 
and  Denmark,  making  investigations  in  regard 
to  the  mediaeval  history  of  Russia.  He  published 
Histories  Russice  Monumenta  (2  vols.,  1841-42) 
and  a  Supplementum  (1848). 

TURGENEV,  Ivan  Sergeyevitch  (1818-83). 
A  Russian  novelist.  He  was  born  at  Orel, 
the  son  of  a  wealthy  nobleman.  At  home  he 
learned  German  and  French,  besides  some  Eng¬ 
lish,  while  a  self-taught  serf  implanted  in  him 
a  love  for  the  Russian  poets.  At  16  he  entered 
the  University  of  St.  Petersburg.  Here  he 


TURGENEV 


565  TURGOR 


came  to  know  Pushkin,  Belinsky,  and  other 
.literary  lights.  After  graduating,  he  went  to 
Berlin  to  complete  his  studies,  returning  to  St. 
Petersburg  in  1841.  His  relations  with  his 
mother,  formerly  strained,  were  now  openly 
broken  oiT  on  account  of  her  treatment  of  the 
serfs.  He  had  to  take  service  as  a  government 
clerk,  but  soon  gave  up  his  position  and  set 
himself  to  write.  His  poem  Parasha  (1845) 
"as  heartily  praised  by  Belinsky.  But  it  was 
the  great  success  of  Kolosov  (1846)  and  Khor 
and  Kalinytch  (1847)  that  induced  him  to 
write  the  Annals  of  a  Sportsman  (1847-51). 
These  sketches,  pervaded  with  the  spirit  of  hu¬ 
manity  and  a  sincere  love  for  the  oppressed 
peasants,  became  the  favorite  book  of  Alexander 
1 1,  then  heir  to  the  throne.  When  Turgenev’s 
mother  died  in  1850  he  immediately  liberated  all 
the  serfs  belonging  to  the  estate.  Meanwhile, 
lie  had  incurred  the  suspicion  of  the  government 
bv  his  liberal  utterances  and  in  1852  he  was 
exiled  to  his  estate,  but  was  pardoned  two  years 
later.  In  1855  Turgenev  left  Russia,  and,  ex¬ 
cept  for  a  few  visits  to  the  country  of  his  birth, 
spent  most  of  his  life  abroad,  mainly  at  Paris. 
He  died  at  his  Bougival  villa,  near  Paris,  in 
1883,  and  was  buried  at  St.  Petersburg  in  the 
\  olkov  Cemetery,  the  funeral  procession  ex¬ 
ceeding  anything  of  the  kind  previously  wit¬ 
nessed  in  Russia. 

The  great  fame  of  Turgenev  rests  on  his 
Yakov  Pasynkov  (1855)  ;  Rudin,  Faust  (1856)  ; 
Asya  (1858)  Nobles’  Nest  or  Liza  (1859)  ;  On 
the  Eve,  or  First  Love  (1860),  and  Fathers  and 
Sons  (1862).  In  these  he  turned  to  the  mental 
and  moral  bankruptcy  of  the  upper  classes  as 
resulting  from  a  life  of  idleness  amid  hundreds 
of  overworked  serfs.  Fathers  and  Sons  marks 
an  important  point  in  Turgenev’s  career.  Its 
hero,  Bazarov,  a  young  student  disdaining  all 
but  utilitarian  science,  was  called  by  the  author 
by  the  newly  coined  name  nihilist,  meaning  “a 
man  who  looks  at  everything  from  a  critical 
point  of  view.”  With  one  or  two  exceptions  the 
radical  critics^  savagely  attacked  what  was  con¬ 
sidered  a  caricature  on  the  young  generation. 
With  the  reactionaries  Nihilism  soon  became 
equivalent  to  “respect  for  nothing,”  or  “polit¬ 
ical  unreliability,”  and  this  helped  to  widen  still 
further  the  breach  with  the  Liberals.  The  ani¬ 
mosity  of  Turgenev’s  critics  turned  the  melan¬ 
choly  manifest  in  his  earlier  works  into  pessi¬ 
mism,  and  his  Smoke  (1867  )  depicted  the  whole 
liberal  movement  of  the  sixties  as  a  mirage. 
Virgin  Soil  (1876)  pictured  the  new  generation 
of  the  seventies.  Here,  as  in  his  essay  on 
Hamlet  and  Don  Quixote  of  1860,  Turgenev 
fully  applied  his  favorite  division  of  all  people 
into  two  types,  one  representing  endless  self- 
analysis  and  skepticism,  the  other  enthusiastic 
devotion  to  the  ideal.  But  Turgenev,  living 
abroad,  was  no  longer  a  faithful  painter  of  the 
new  social  currents  in  Russian  life.  Clara 
Mil itch  (1883),  in  spite  of  its  mystical  effect,  is 
a  story  of  the  real  life  of  the  great  Russian 
singer  and  actress  Kadmina,  who  ended  life  by 
suicide  on  the  stage  of  Kharkov.  His  Senilia,  or 
Prose  Poems  (1883),  are  poetic  gems  in  the  most 
perfect  prose. 

Turgenev,  the  lineal  literary  descendant  of 
Pushkin,  is  the  greatest  prose  artist  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  Russian  letters.  His  figures  do  not  stand 
out  boldly  against  the  background,  but  form  an 
harmonious  organic  part  of  the  whole  scheme, 
and  as  such  impress  one  still  more  forcibly  when 


the  whole  scheme  is  comprehended.  The  lan¬ 
guage  of  Turgenev  has  been  at  once  a  model 
and  source  of  despair  for  the  young  Russian 
v  riters.  His  influence  on  modern  literature  has 
been  very  great.  His  works  appeared  in  10 
vols.  (3d  ed.,  St.  Petersburg,  1891).  There  are 
Lnghsh  translations  by  Constance  Garnett  (Lon¬ 
don,  1894-97),  and  by  Isabel  F.  Hapgood  (New 
York,  1904).  Consult:  George  Moore,  Impres¬ 
sions  and  Opinions  (New  York,  1891)  ;  Borkow- 
ski,  Turgenjew  (Stuttgart,  1903);  Haumant, 
lourguenief  (Paris,  1906)  ;  J.  A.  T.  Lloyd,  Tiro 
Russian  Reformers  (New  York,  1911);  W.  L. 
Phelps,  Essays  on  Russian  Novelists  (ib.’  1912)  ; 
P.  S.  Moxom,  Two  Masters,  Browning  and  Tur¬ 
genev  (Boston,  1912),  and  in  Russian  the  studies 
of  A.  Soloviev  (St.  Petersburg,  1908)  and  I. 
Ivanov  (ib.,  1914). 

TURGENEV,  Nikolai  Ivanovitch  (1790- 
1871).  A  Russian  historian,  brother  of  Alex¬ 
ander  Ivanovitch.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  en¬ 
tered  the  civil  service,  and  in  1813  was  associated 
as  Russian  commissary  with  Baron  Stein  in 
governing  the  German  provinces  taken  from 
France.  He  was  afterward  Deputy  Secretary  of 
the  Interior  and  Agriculture  in'  Russia.  *  He 
advocated  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs,  and  in 
1825  was  sentenced  to  death  in  contumaciam,  for 
his  connection  with  the  insurrection  of  the’ De¬ 
cembrists.  He  lived  thenceforth  in  Paris,  where 
he  published  La  Russie  et  les  Russes  (1847). 
TURGIDITY.  See  Turgor. 

TURGITE,  tur'jit  (from  Turginsk,  a  copper 
mine  in  the  Ural  Mountains).  A  hydrated  ferric 
oxide  that  is  found  massive,  with  a  dull,  earthy 
lustre,  and  is  reddish-black  to  dark-red  in  color. 
It  is  found  in  the  Urals,  in  Prussia,  and  in  the 
United  States  at  Salisbury,  Conn.,  where  it  oc¬ 
curs  in  large  botryoidal  masses  with  limonite 
which  latter  mineral  it  much  resembles.  Tur- 
gite  is  regarded  as  an  intermediate  stage  in 
the  alteration  of  limonite  to  hematite  by  the  loss 
of  water,  and  is  a  valuable  ore  of  iron. 

TUR'GOR  (Lat.,  a  swelling).  The  condition 
of  a  plant  cell  when  it  is  stretched  by  the  in¬ 
ternal  pressure  of  the  cell  sap.  The  word  is  also 
applied  to  the  stretching  force.  The  mature 
plant  cell  usually  consists  of  a  protoplasmic 
body,  surrounded  by  an  elastic  membrane  com¬ 
posed  of  cellulose  and  other  materials,  and  in¬ 
closing  one  or  more  vacuoles  filled  with  water, 
the  cell  sap.  This  is  not  pure  water,  but  a 
solution  of  various  substances,  whose  total  os¬ 
motic  pressure  (see  Osmosis)  is  usually  equal  to 
4-30  atmospheres,  and  sometimes  rises  as  high 
as  150  or  more  atmospheres.  Whenever  such  a 
cell  is  surrounded  by  a  solution  of  lower  osmotic 
pressure,  water  will  enter  the  cell  and  find  its 
way  to  the  vacuole.  On  account  of  the  high 
osmotic  pressure,  the  protoplasm  is  driven  out¬ 
ward  against  the  cell  wall  as  water  enters,  and 
the  cell  wall  itself  is  stretched  (unless  this  is 
prevented  by  the  opposing  pressure  of  adjacent 
cells)  until  its  resilience  balances  the  outward 
pressure.  This  stretched  state  of  the  cell  is 
favorable  for  growth  (q.v.),  and  is  the  opposite 
of  the  condition  known  as  plasmolvsis  (q.v.). 
Turgor  may  be  reduced  by  the  withdrawal  of 
water  from  the  cell,  either  by  evaporation  or  by 
surrounding  the  cell  with  a  solution  of  higher 
osmotic  pressure  than  that  inside  it.  Turgor  of 
all  the  cells  of  a  tissue  renders  the  mass  rigid. 
By  the  combined  turgidity  of  all  the  tissues  in 
the  young  parts  of  the  plant  or  those  whose  cells 
are  thin  walled  (e.g.,  leaves),  such  parts  main- 


TURGOT 


TURIN 


566 


tain  their  normal  form.  When  turgor  dimin¬ 
ishes,  the  parts  become  flaccid. 

TURGOT,  tur'go',  Anne  Robert  Jacques, 
Baron  de  l’Aulne  (1727-81).  A  French  econ¬ 
omist  and  statesman.  He  was  born  in  Paris, 
May  10,  1727,  of  an  old  family  of  Normandy, 
and  was  destined  for  an  ecclesiastical  career,  but 
after  studying  awhile  at  the  Sorbonne,  where  he 
won  distinction,  he  turned  from  the  Church  and 
devoted  himself  to  jurisprudence  and  political 
economy.  Here  he  allied  himself  with  the  phil¬ 
osophical  and  liberal  thought  of  his  time.  He 
was  a  contributor  to  the  Encyclopedic  and  be¬ 
came  a  member  of  the  physiocratic  school  of 
economists.  He  became  councilor  to  the  Parle- 
ment  in  1752,  and  in  1761  was  made  intendant 
of  Limoges,  administering  affairs  there  for  13 
years,  and  carrying  out  within  this  field  such 
reforms  as  ancient  prejudices  would  allow.  He 
introduced  a  more  equitable  administration  of 
imposts,  and  succeeded  in  abolishing  the  old 
method  of  repairing  roads  and  bridges  by  the 
compulsory  labor  of  the  poor  inhabitants  of  the 
district,  the  corvee  (q.v.).  He  also  exerted  him¬ 
self  for  the  protection  of  commerce.  A  wider 
field  opened  before  him  when  he  was  called  into 
the  ministry  after  the  death  of  Louis  XV.  The 
finances  were  in  disorder,  and  the  social  and 
political  system  of  France  needed  regeneration 
and  reform.  Turgot  was  first  made  Minister  of 
Marine,  and  afterward  Comptroller-General  of 
France,  when  to  fill  that  post  was  to  be  virtu¬ 
ally  Prime  Minister.  His  first  achievement  was 
so  far  to  reduce  expenditure  as  to  leave  a  sur¬ 
plus  of  20  millions  of  francs  a  year  to  be  applied 
to  the  liquidation  of  old  debts.  He  augmented 
public  revenue  without  imposing  new  taxes.  An 
early  measure  was  the  carrying  out  of  free  trade 
in  corn  through  the  interior  of  France.  He 
desired  complete  freedom  of  trade  within  the 
country,  and  to  make  the  nobility  and  clergy 
contribute  to  the  public  revenue  in  the  same 
proportion  as  the  third  estate.  He  wished,  by 
means  of  provincial  assemblies,  to  accustom  the 
nation  to  public  life,  and  prepare  it  for  the  resto¬ 
ration  of  the  States-General.  But  the  privileged 
classes  whose  exemptions  were  threatened,  nobles, 
courtiers,  farmers  of  the  revenue,  and  financiers, 
united  against  him.  The  King  forsook  him,  and 
Turgot  retired  in  May,  1776,  having  held  office 
only  20  months,  afterward  devoting  himself  to 
literary  pursuits  and  scientific  studies.  His 
most  important  work,  Reflexions  sur  la  forma¬ 
tion  et  la  distribution  des  richesses  (1766),  is 
one  of  the  chief  productions  of  the  physiocratic 
school.  See  Physiocrats. 

Bibliography.  His  complete  works  were  pub¬ 
lished  in  nine  volumes  (Paris,  1808-11),  and 
have  since  been  reprinted  (1844).  Consult  also: 
M.  J.  Condorcet,  Vie  de  M.  Turgot  (Paris, 
1786)  ;  C.  J.  Tissot,  Turgot:  sa  vie,  son  admin¬ 
istration,  ses  ouvrages  (ib.,  1862)  ;  Alfred  Ney- 
marck,  Turgot  et  ses  doctrines  (2  vols.,  ib., 
1885);  Leon  Say,  Turgot  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1891); 
W.  W.  Stephens,  Life  and  Writings  of  Turgot 
(London,  1895)  ;  R.  P.  Shepherd,  Turgot  and 
the  Six  Edicts  (New  York,  1903);  Gustave 
Schelle,  Turgot  (Paris,  1909)  ;  A.  D.  White, 
Seven  Great  Statesmen  in  the  Warfare  of  Hu¬ 
manity  with  Unreason  (New  York,  1910)  ;  Fran¬ 
cis  de  Ferry,  Les  id4es  et  V oeuvre  de  Turgot  en 
matiere  du  droit  public  (Paris,  1911),  contain¬ 
ing  a  bibliography. 

TURHEIM,  Ulrich  von.  See  Ulrich  von 
Turheim. 


TURIN,  tu'rin  or  tu-rln'  (It.  Torino,  pron. 
to-re'no).  The  capital  of  the  Province  of  Turin, 
in  Piedmont,  Italy,  situated  on  the  Po,  here 
navigable  near  the  junction  of  the  Dora  Ri- 
paria,  76  miles  west-southwest  of  Milan  (Map: 
Italy,  A  2).  Turin  is  an  open  unfortified 
town.  It  is  unique  among  Italian  cities  be¬ 
cause  of  its  rectangularity  of  construction — 
long,  straight,  in  part  arcaded  streets,  rectangu¬ 
lar  blocks  of  houses  or  islands,  and  regular 
squares.  It  is  well  built,  and  is  embellished 
with  numerous  squares,  statues,  and  monuments, 
and  beautiful  parks.  The  extensive  Piazza  Cas- 
tello,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Turin,  is  the 
centre  of  the  city’s  life.  Thence  the  most  im¬ 
portant  thoroughfares  diverge,  the  fine  Via  di 
Po  (the  Corso  of  Turin)  leading  southeast  to 
one  of  the  four  bridges  over  the  Po,  and  travers¬ 
ing  the  large  Piazza  Vittorio  Emanuele.  In  the 
Piazza  Castello  rises  the  mediieval  Palazzo  Ma- 
dama,  a  huge  ungainly  pile,  now  occupied  by 
various  institutions.  Northward  looms  the  royal 
palace,  a  plain  brick  edifice,  dating  from  1660. 
Within  it  are  located  the  valuable  royal  armory 
(with  many  historic  relics  of  interest),  a  fine 
collection  of  coins,  etc.  Adjoining  the  palace  is 
the  royal  park.  Near  it  stands  the  common¬ 
place  Gothic  cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Baptist 
(1492-98),  containing  the  fine  impressive  chapel 
of  the  Santissimo  Sudario,  treasuring  some  of 
the  linen  reported  to  have  covered  the  body  of 
the  Saviour.  The  Palazzo  Carignano,  in  the 
Carignano  Square  to  the  south,  in  which  met 
the  Sardinian  Chamber  of  Deputies  (1848-59), 
and  the  Italian  Parliament  (1860-64),  holds 
natural  history  collections.  The  fine  square  of 
San  Carlo  is  situated  south  of  the  Castello. 
The  gardens  of  the  Citadella,  southwest  of  the 
royal  palace,  as  well  as  the  gardens  of  Carlo 
Felice,  to  the  south,  are  both  attractive.  The 
public  park  is  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
city,  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Po,  where  are 
also  located  the  Botanical  Gardens.  On  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Po  rises  the  wooded  Monte 
dei  Cappuccini,  164  feet  above  the  river.  A 
short  distance  east  of  the  city,  on  a  height 
ascended  by  a  cable  railroad,  is  the  royal  burial 
church  of  the  house  of  Savoy — the  Superga — a 
splendid  edifice  affording  a  fine  view.  The  most 
important  monuments  are  those  of  Duke  Victor 
Amadeus  I,  King  Charles  Albert,  Duke  Emman¬ 
uel  Philibert,  and  the  imposing  monument  of 
Cavour.  The  city  has  very  little  architecture 
of  the  Renaissance. 

Turin  is  industrially  and  commercially  pros¬ 
perous.  It  manufactures  mainly  steel  and  iron 
products,  silks,  lace,  velvet,  ribbons,  cotton  and 
woolen  stuffs,  jewelry,  porcelain,  pianos,  and 
furniture.  Prominent  among  the  exports  are 
wine  and  silk. 

Educationally  Turin  is  prominent.  (For  the 
university,  see  Turin,  University  of.)  The 
valuable  National  Library  has  some  350,000 
volumes  and  1500  manuscripts.  Turin  has 
among  its  numerous  educational  institutions  a 
royal  polytechnic  school,  an  astronomical  ob¬ 
servatory  (in  the  Palazzo  Madama),  a  royal 
military  school  for  artillery  and  engineer  offi¬ 
cers,  a  military  school  and  hospital,  a  Liceo 
Musicale,  an  archiepiscopal  seminary,  an  agri¬ 
cultural  school,  a  philharmonic  academy,  four 
gymnasia,  and  an  industrial  school.  In  the 
Palace  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  are  the  pic¬ 
ture  gallery  and  museums  of  antiquities  and 
natural  history.  There  are  an  Italian  Industrial 


TURIN 


TURKESTAN 


567 


Museum,  the  civic  museum,  and  the  museum  of 
the  Risorgimento  Italiano,  in  honor  of  Victor 
Emmanuel  II.  The  last  is  located  in  the  modern 
Mole  Antonelliana,  a  curious  tower-shaped  edi¬ 
fice,  having  a  total  height  of  538  feet,  thus  over¬ 
topping  the  Cologne  Cathedral  and  being  prob¬ 
ably  the  highest  brick  edifice  in  the  world.  The 
Royal  Albertine  Library,  in  the  royal  palace, 
contains  60,000  volumes  and  3000  manuscripts. 
The  Municipal  Library  has  about  104,000 
volumes. 

Turin  is  an  important  military  station,  owing 
to  its  nearness  to  the  French  frontier  and  to  the 
passes  of  the  western  Alps.  The  municipal  debt 
is  more  than  offset  by  the  value  of  the  municipal 
properties.  Pop.,  1911  (commune),  427,106; 
1914  (est.) ,  445,582. 

History.  Turin  was  the  chief  city  of  the 
Ligurian  Taurini.  It  was  taken  by  Hannibal, 
and  became  a  Roman  colony  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  when  it  received  the  name  of  Augusta 
Taurinorum.  It  was  prominent  under  the  Lom¬ 
bards,  became  later  the  seat  of  marquises,  and 
in  the  eleventh  century  passed  to  the  house  of 
Savoy.  It  has  been  repeatedly  in  the  hands  of 
the  French.  Here  Prince  Eugene  won  a  bril¬ 
liant  victory  over  the  French  on  Sept.  7,  1706. 
From  1861  to  1865  Turin  was  the  capital  of  the 
new  Kingdom  of  Italy.  Consult:  Promis,  Storia 
dell’  antioa  Torino  (Turin,  1871);  Borbonese, 
Torino  illustrata  e  descritta  (ib.,  1884)  ;  E.  C. 
Babut,  Le  concile  de  Turin:  Essai  sur  Vhistoire- 
des  eglises  provengales  au  Ve  siecle  (Paris, 
1904). 

TURIN,  Claudius  of.  See  Claudius  of 
Turin. 

TURIN,  University  of.  An  Italian  univer¬ 
sity  founded  in  1405  by  Louis  of  Savoy.  It 
became  at  once  a  refuge  for  the  professors  at 
the  universities  of  Pavia  and  Piacenza,  then 
suffering  from  civil  wars.  Towards  the  latter 
part  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  shared  the  gen¬ 
eral  reputation  and  prosperity  of  the  Italian 
universities  of  that  period.  It  comprised  two 
colleges,  one  founded  in  1457  (Collegio  Grassi), 
and  one  in  1482.  The  university  was  reorganized 
in  1632,  and  in  1713  the  present  building  was 
erected.  The  university  has  faculties  of  law, 
medicine  and  surgery,  philosophy  and  letters, 
and  physical,  natural,  and  mathematical  sciences, 
and  a  school  of  pharmacy.  In  1912-13  there 
were  about  2199  students.  There  are  connected 
with  the  university  the  Collegio  Carlo  Alberto 
and  the  Instituto  Dionisio. 

TURIN  PAPYRUS.  A  hieratic  papyrus, 
preserved  in  the  Museum  of  Turin,  containing  a 
dynastic  list  of  the  kings  of  Egypt.  It  formed 
part  of  the  collection  offered  for  sale  to  the 
French  government  in  1818  by  M.  Dovretti,  the 
French  Consul  General  in  Egypt,  and  was  at 
that  time  perfectly  preserved.  The  French  gov¬ 
ernment  declining  to  buy  it,  the  papyrus  after¬ 
ward  was  acquired  by  the  King-  of  Sardinia  and 
was  finally  sent  to  Turin.  It  was,  however,  care¬ 
lessly  packed,  and  on  its  arrival  it  was  found  to 
be  broken  into  164  fragments.  Cliampollion 
(q.v. )  was  the  first  to  recognize  its  nature  and 
value,  and  in  1824  collected  from  it  between  160 
and  180  royal  prsenomens,  but,  except  in  a  very 
few  cases,  was  unable  to  determine  the  order  of 
succession.  In  1826  Seyffarth  (q.v.)  attempted 
to  piece  together  the  broken  fragments  and  re¬ 
construct  the  papyrus,  but  his  attempted  restora¬ 
tion  is  altogether  unreliable,  partly  on  account 
of  his  limited  knowledge  of  the  hieratic  char¬ 


acter,  and  partly  because  a  large  proportion  of 
the  fragments  are  so  minute  as  to  afford  little 
or  no  indication  of  their  proper  order.  Subse¬ 
quent  attempts  to  restore  the  text  have  met 
with  little  success.  In  its  original  condition 
tiie  Turin  Papyrus  contained  a  list  of  the  kings 
of  Egypt,  beginning  with  the  mythical  period 
and  ending  with  Dynasties  XV  and  XVI,  with 
the  exact  duration  of  each  monarch’s  reign  in 
years,  months,  and  days.  It  would  supply,  if 
complete,  an  invaluable  guide  for  the  earlier  pe¬ 
riod  of  Egyptian  history,  but  in  its  present 
mutilated  state  it  is  of  little  use  for  historical 
and  chronological  purposes  except  in  the  por¬ 
tions  covering  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
djmasties,  where  the  text  is  somewhat  better 
preserved.  Elsewhere  the  papyrus  serves  at 
best  to  confirm  data  derived  from  other  sources, 
and  furnishes  scarcely  any  independent  informa¬ 
tion.  The  text  is  published  in  Lepsius,  Auswahl 
der  wichtigsten  TJrkunden  des  dgyptischen  Al¬ 
ter  thums  (Berlin,  1842),  and  in  Wilkinson,  The 
Fragments  of  the  Hieratic  Papyrus  at  Turin 
(London,  1851).  Consult:  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Literature,  2d  series,  vol.  i 
(London,  1843);  Revue  archeologique,  vol.  vii 
(Paris,  1850)  ;  K.  A.  Wiedemann,  Aegyptische 
Geschichte  (Gotha,  1884-88);  E.  A.  T.  Wallis 
Budge,  A  History  of  Egypt  (New  York,  1902)  ; 
J.  H.  Breasted,  Ancient  Records  of  Egypt  (Chi¬ 
cago,  1907 ) . 

TURKESTAN,  tpr'ke-stan',  Turk.  pron.  toor'- 
ke-stan'.  An  extensive  region  in  Central  Asia, 
included  between  the  Russian  territory  of  the 
Steppes  on  the  north,  the  Mongolian  Desert  on 
the  east,  Tibet,  India,  Afghanistan,  and  Persia 
on  the  south,  and  the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  west. 
A  portion  of  Turkestan  territory  is  comprised 
within  Afghanistan.  Politically  the  region  is 
divided  into  western  or  Russian  Turkestan  and 
eastern  or  Chinese  Turkestan.  The  Russian 
protectorates  of  Khiva  and  Bokhara  and  the 
Russian  Province  of  Transcaspia  are  now  con¬ 
sidered  and  treated  as  separate  divisions. 

Russian  Turkestan.  This  region  embraces 
the  territories  of  Ferghana,  Samarkand,  Semi- 
ryetchensk,  and  Syr-Darya  (Map:  Asia,  F  4). 
Total  area,  about  420,807  square  miles;  total 
population  in  1912,  6,416,700;  on  Jan.  1,  1914 
(estimated),  6,250,300.  Together  with  the 
Transcaspian  province  and  a  portion  of  the 
Pamir,  it  constitutes  the  general  government 
of  Russian  Turkestan.  It  is  bordered  by  the  ter¬ 
ritory  of  the  Steppes  on  the  north,  Sungaria  and 
Chinese  Turkestan  on  the  east,  Bokhara  and 
Khiva  on  the  south,  and  Khiva  and  the  Sea  of 
Aral  on  the  west.  The  western  and  northern 
parts  are  gently  rolling  surfaces  sparsely  clothed 
in  spots  with  bushes  and  shrubs.  Here  are  the 
great  deserts  of  Kara-kum,  Kizil-kum,  and 
Mujun-kum.  In  the  northeast  is  the  extensive 
Lake  Balkhash.  In  the  south  there  are  moun¬ 
tains  belonging  to  the  three  systems  of  the 
Hissar,  the  Alai,  and  Tian  Shan,  and  form  a  wild 
Alpine-like  district,  interspersed  with  fertile  val¬ 
leys.  The  Karatau  chain  stretches  northwest 
across  the  territory  of  Syr-Darya  and  divides 
it  into  two  parts.  There  are  numerous  oases. 
The  Syr-Darya,  rising  on  the  central  mountain 
border,  flows  west  through  the  centre  of  Fer¬ 
ghana,  then  northwest  along  the  southwestern 
side  of  the  Karatau,  finally  reaching  the  Sea  of 
Aral.  The  Ili,  an  affluent  of  Lake  Balkhash,  is 
the  chief  river  in  the  East.  It  flows  northwest 
through  the  centre  of  Semiryetchensk.  These 


TURKESTAN 


TURKESTAN 


568 


streams  have  numerous  tributaries.  The  south¬ 
ern  section  of  Russian  Turkestan  is  subject  to 
earthquakes.  The  climate  is  continental.  The 
summers  are  hot  and  dry  and  the  winters  com¬ 
paratively  severe  and  accompanied  by  destruc¬ 
tive  snowstorms.  The  flora  in  the  west  belongs 
to  the  Aral  Sea  district,  in  the  east  to  the  mid- 
Asiatic  region,  Tjfhe  fauna,  though  essentially  of 
the  Central  Asiatic  type,  comprises  many  tropi¬ 
cal  representatives,  among  them  the  tiger.  Salt, 
coal,  and  asphalt  are  obtained,  and  precious 
stones  are  exported.  Ferghana  and  Samarkand 
are  connected  with  the  Caspian  Sea  by  a  railroad. 

Numerous  irrigation  canals  tap  the  rivers  and 
provide  agricultural  conditions  which  would 
otherwise  be  impossible.  This  is  especially  true 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  country,  where  the 
bulk  of  the  population  is  located.  The  staple 
crops  are  wheat,  rice,  millet,  and  oats.  Cotton 
is  a  promising  crop  in  Ferghana.  Rice  and 
cocoon  silk  are  also  produced  in  noteworthy 
quantities.  Various  kinds  of  fruit,  including 
the  grape,  thrive.  Stock  raising,  however,  is  the 
leading  occupation.  Great  numbers  of  sheep  are 
reared.  The  reported  number  of  live  stock  in 
1914  was:  horses,  2,028,494;  horned  cattle,  2,- 
151,465;  sheep  and  goats,  7,236,055  (of  which 
5,223,208  in  Syr-Darya)  ;  swine,  59,183.  There 
are  said  to  be  over  1,000,000  camels.  The  do¬ 
mestic  industries  are  widespread,  and  some  of 
the  native  products,  such  as  carpets  and  rugs, 
are  highly  valued  in  Europe.  The  manufacturing 
industries  properly  so  called  are  in  their  infancy. 
The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  raw  products, 
which  go  largely  to  Russia.  The  Transcaspian 
Railway  has  been  a  great  pacificator  in  Russian 
Turkestan.  It  reached  Samarkand  in  1888  and 
has  been  extended  to  Tashkent  and  Andijan. 
From  Tashkent  a  line  runs  northwest  to  Oren¬ 
burg  on  the  European  frontier.  While  the  gen¬ 
eral  administration  is  intrusted  to  Russian  offi¬ 
cials,  the  natives  suffer  little  interference,  and 
taxation  is  scarcely  more  than  nominal.  Pub¬ 
lic  education  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  native  religious  bodies,  although  the  Rus¬ 
sian  government  has  shown  considerable  concern 
for  the  instruction  of  the  natives.  The  inhab¬ 
itants  are  almost  wholly  Mohammedans.  The 
Kirghizes  form  about  36  per  cent,  the  Sarts  24 
per  cent,  and  the  Usbegs  and  Kiptchaks  together 
19  per  cent.  The  Russians,  therefore,  constitute 
but  a  small  element.  The  leading  cities  are 
Tashkent,  Khokand,  Namangan,  and  Samarkand. 
Andijan  was  ruined  by  an  earthquake  in  1902. 

Chinese  or  Eastern  Turkestan.  A  depend¬ 
ency  of  China,  bordered  on  the  north  by  Sun- 
garia,  on  the  east  by  Mongolia,  on  the  south  by 
Tibet,  on  the  southwest  by  Kashmir,  and  on  the 
west  and  northwest  by  the  Pamir  and  Rus¬ 
sian  Turkestan.  The  country  is  isolated  and 
forbidding  in  many  aspects ;  a  large  and  ele¬ 
vated  desert  plateau,  surrounded  by  lofty  moun¬ 
tain  ranges,  of  which  the  Tian  Shan  lines  the 
northern  frontier,  and  the  Kuenlun,  Altyn  Tag, 
and  the  spurs  of  the  Karakorum  the  southern. 
The  southern  range  reaches  more  than  18,000 
feet.  The  desert  of  Gobi  occupies  a  portion  of 
the  eastern  section.  The  mean  elevation  of 
Chinese  Turkestan  is  assumed  to  be  about  3500 
feet,  but  there  are  a  number  of  markedly  low 
levels,  and  along  the  southern  face  of  the  Bogdo- 
Ola  mountains,  in  the  depression  of  Luktchun, 
the  surface  drops  425  feet  below  sea  level.  The 
region  is  watered  chiefly  by  the  Tarim  River 
(q.v. ),  which  rises  in  the  west,  and  its  tribu¬ 


taries.  At  the  foot  of  the  frontier  ranges,  over 
4000  feet  above  sea  level,  there  are  chains  of  ex¬ 
traordinarily  fertile  oases  which  mark  the  chief 
caravan  routes  of  the  region.  Along  the  foot 
of  the  Tian  Shan  stretches  a  series  of  lakes, 
of  which  the  largest  is  the  Bagrach  Kul. 

The  climate  is  severe  and  extremely  dry.  Do¬ 
mestic  animals  abound,  and  the  tiger,  jackal, 
wild  camel,  bear,  and  wolf  are  found.  The  oases 
and  the  strips  along  the  base  of  the  mountain 
ranges  alone  offer  conditions  for  permanent  habi¬ 
tation.  The  people  are  engaged  principally  in 
agriculture,  stock  raising,  commerce,  and  hunt¬ 
ing.  Cotton,  silk,  and  animal  products  are  ex¬ 
ported,  and  in  some  of  the  larger  cities,  such  as 
Yarkand,  Khotan,  Aksu,  and  Kashgar,  there  are 
manufactured  copper  ware,  silk,  carpet,  felt,  and 
leather  goods.  There  are  extensive  mineral  re¬ 
sources,  but  mining  is  engaged  in  only  by  the 
natives  and  accordingly  in  a  primitive  way. 
Asbestos,  sulphur,  and  saltpetre  are  obtained. 
A  heavy  caravan  commerce  traverses  eastern 
Turkestan  en  route  to  and  from  China,  this 
region  tyeing  in  the  direct  central  western  route. 
Administratively,  eastern  Turkestan  has  formed 
since  1885  a  part  of  the  Chinese  Province  of  Sin- 
kiang,  and  is  divided  into  the  three  dao-tais  of 
Kashgar,  Aksu,  and  Urumchi  (qq.v.).  The  seat 
of  the  administration  is  at  Urumchi  (Tihwafu). 
The  population  is  estimated  at  2,000,000  and 
is  of  mixed  Aryan  and  Turanian  descent.  The 
most  numerous  are  the  Kirghizes,  Sarts,  Kal¬ 
mucks,  Usbegs,  and  Tajiks.  The  language  is 
eastern  Turkish  with  an  admixture  of  Chinese 
words. 

History.  ( See  Bokhara,  Khiva,  Mongol 
Dynasties,  Samarkand,  etc.)  The  invasion  of 
Central  Asia  by  Russia  began  soon  after  the  con¬ 
quest  of  Siberia,  and  desultory  raids  on  Khiva 
by  pioneers  from  the  north  were  made  as  early 
as  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  expedi¬ 
tion  into  Central  Asia  sent  out  by  Peter  the 
Great  in  1714  ended  in  disaster,  but  the  submis¬ 
sion  of  the  Kirghizes  during  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury  gave  Russia  the  territory  between  the  Ural 
and  the  Lake  of  Balkhash.  In  1839  a  well- 
equipped  Russian  army  sent  against  Khiva  un¬ 
der  the  command  of  Perovski  succumbed  to  cold, 
hunger,  and  sickness.  By  the  end  of  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  Russian  forts 
were  established  at  the  mouth  of  the  Syr-Darya 
and  during  the  following  decades  a  chain  of 
Russian  forts  was  built  along  the  southern  fron¬ 
tier.  In  1854  a  second  expedition  under  Perovski 
against  Khiva  met  with  success.  In  1867  the 
Governor-Generalship  of  Turkestan  was  estab¬ 
lished  with  Tashkent  as  the  capital.  In  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year  Samarkand  was  taken  and  a  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  with  the  Ameer  of 
Bokhara  by  which  Russia  acquired  a  considerable 
part  of  the  Zerafshan  valley,  and  Bokhara  be¬ 
came  practically  a  vassal  state  of  Russia.  In 
1873  a  Russian  expedition  forced  the  Khan  of 
Khiva  to  cede  to  Bokhara  the  Khivan  territo¬ 
ries  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Amu-Darva,  which 
were  soon  annexed  by  Russia.  In  1876  Russia 
annexed  the  Khanate  of  Khokand  (Ferghana). 
The  subjugation  of  the  Tekke-Turkomans  was 
terminated  with  the  capture  of  Geok-Tepe  by 
Skobeleff  in  1881.  The  Turkomans  of  Merv  sub¬ 
mitted  in  1884.  In  1887  the  Afghan  boundary 
was  demarcated  by  an  Anglo-Russian  commis¬ 
sion. 

The  authentic  history  of  Chinese  Turkestan 
can  be  traced  almost  to  the  beginning  of  the 


TURKESTAN 


TURKEY 


Christian  era,  when  the  region  was  partly  un¬ 
der  the  rule  of  China.  Buddhism  was  then  the 
predominating  religion,  but  there  were  also 
sects  of  Nestorian  Christians.  In  the  seventh 
century  the  western  part  of  the  country  fell 
under  the  sway  of  Tibet,  whose  rule  had  been  ex¬ 
tended  by  the  end  of  the  century  to  the  entire 
region.  Islam  began  to  spread  over  eastern 
Turkestan  in  the  tenth  century,  but  even  with 
the  conquest  of  the  country  by  Genghis  Khan 
(q.v.)  at  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury  there  was  perfect  toleration.  It  was  only 
with  the  arrival  of  the  mollalis  from  Bokhara 
in  the  fourteenth  century  that  Islam  became  a 
cause  of  strife,  and  gave  rise  to  the  two  factions 
of  White  and  Black  Mountaineers,  whose  strug¬ 
gles  gave  China  an  opportunity  to  reconquer 
the  country  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  The  history  of  eastern  Turkestan  during 
the  nineteenth  century  is  largely  made  up  of  re¬ 
peated  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  followers 
of  Islam  to  wrest  the  country  from  the  rule  of 
China.  From  1872  to  1876  eastern  Turkestan 
was  practically  independent  under  Yakub  Beg, 
but  the  rule  of  China  was  restored  soon  after 
his  death. 

Bibliography.  Eugene  Schuyler,  Turkestan: 
.A  otes  of  a  Journey  in  Russian  Turkestan  (2 
vols.,  London,  1876)  ;  Jaworski,  Turkestan  (in 
Russian,  St.  Petersburg,  1889)  ;  Max  Albrecht, 
Russisch  Centralasien  (Hamburg,  1896);  Franz 
von  Schwarz,  Turkestan  (Berlin,  1900)  ;  Hugues 
Kraft,  A  travers  le  Turkestan  russe  ( Paris, 
1902)  ;  Raphael  Pumpelly,  Explorations  in  Tur¬ 
kestan  (expeditions  of  1903,  1904),  published  by 
the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington  ( 3  vols., 
Washington,  1905-08)  ;  E.  G.  Kemp,  Face  of 
Manchuria,  Korea,  and  Russian  Turkestan  (New 
York,  1911)  ;  A.  M.  B.  Alealcin,  In  Russian 
Turkestan  (ib.,  1915).  For  Chinese  or  eastern 
iurkestan :  P.  W.  Church,  Chinese  Turkestan 
with  Caravan  and  Rifle  (London,  1901)  ;  M.  A. 
Stein,  “A  Journey  of  Geographical  and  Archae¬ 
ological  Exploration  in  Chinese  Turkestan,”  in 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Annual  Report,  1903 
(Washington,  1904)  ;  id.,  Ancient  Khotan  (2 
vols.,  Oxford,  1907 )  ;  W.  R.  Rickmers,  Duab  of 
Turkestan  (Chicago,  1913),  containing  a  bibli¬ 
ography. 

TURKESTAN.  A  town  in  the  Territory  of 
Svr-Darya,  Russian  Turkestan,  situated  about 
20  miles  east  of  the  right  bank  of  the  Syr-Darya, 
about  180  miles  northwest  of  Tashkent  (Alap: 
Asia,  H  4).  The  Alosque  of  Hazret-Yassavi, 
erected  by  Timur,  is  a  noted  place  of  pilgrimage. 
Pop.,  over  16,000. 

TUR'KEY,  or  The  Ottoman  Empire  (so 
named  from  its  founder,  Othman).  An  Empire 
in  Europe  and  Asia,  with  its  capital  at  Con¬ 
stantinople.  The  bulk  of  the  territories  over 
which  the  Turkish  Sultan  exercises  actual  sov¬ 
ereignty  is  Turkey  in  Asia  which  has  an  area 
of  699,342  square  miles.  This  includes  Asia 
Minor,  Armenia  and  Kurdistan,  Alesopotamia, 
Syria,  and  a  broad  strip  of  country  extending 
the  whole  length  of  Arabia  along  the  west  coast, 
containing  Alecca.  The  European  territorv  un¬ 
der  Turkish  rule,  which  before  the  Balkan'  War 
(q.v.)  amounted  to  65,370  square  miles,  has  been 
lessened  by  division  among  the  states  of  Bul¬ 
garia,  Servia,  Alontenegro,  Greece,  and  Albania, 
so  that  in  1915  it  comprised  but  10,882  square 
miles.  Turkish  territory  has  been  further  de¬ 
pleted  by  the  loss  of  Tripoli,  annexed  to  the 
Italian  Empire  in  1912;  of  Egypt,  proclaimed  a 


569 

British  Protectorate  in  1915,  and  of  Samos  held 
by  Greece.  See  War  in  Europe. 

The  European  possession  has  lost  since  the 
Balkan  W  ar  one-half  of  her  sea  coast  on  the 
Black  Sea,  all  of  the  Adriatic  coast  line  and 
about  four-fifths  of  the  ^Egean  Sea  border.  The 
area,  unlike  the  remaining  Balkan  states,  pos¬ 
sesses  no  great  elevations.  Above  the  low  coasts 
of  the  Black  Sea  rise  hills  of  small  relief,  west 
of  which  is  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Maritza 
River.  A  shaggy  range  of  hills  skirts  the  Sea  of 
Alarmora  and  continues  into  the  Gallipoli  Penin¬ 
sula.  The  rocks  on  both  sides  of  the  Bosporus 
are  Devonian  and  the  coast  hills,  which  are 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  Balkans  by  a 
wide  plain  covered  with  recent  formations,  are 
more  connected  with  Asia  than  with  Europe. 
The  Maritza  valley  and  its  main  tributary  in 
Turkey,  the  Ergene,  forming  a  broad  lowland  less 
than  600  feet  high  and  comprising  over  one-half 
the  state,  are  of  great  fertility  and  yield  easy 
lines  of  communication. 

The  Black  and  Aegean  seas  are  poor  in  havens, 
but  the  winding  river-like  strait  of  the  Bos¬ 
porus,  which  connects  the  Black  Sea  with 
the  Sea  of  Alarmora,  and  through  it  with  the 
Alediterranean,.  has  ample  depth  for  the  largest 
vessels.  Here  is  the  magnificent  harbor  of  Con¬ 
stantinople,  the  great  meeting  place  of  eastern 
and  western  trade.  On  the  strait  of  the  Dar¬ 
danelles,  leading  from  the  Sea  of  Marmora  into 
the  Alediterranean,  is  the  harbor  of  Gallipoli. 
Turkey  lias  a  Mediterranean  climate  which  is 
characterized  by  a  high  percentage  of  sunshine 
and  limited  rain,  in  this  case  about  20  inches  per 
year.  At  Constantinople  the  mean  temperature  in 
January  is  43°  F.,  and  in  July  72.5°.  For  other 
parts  of  the  empire,  see  articles  on  Anatolia 
(Asia  Minor),  Syria,  Armenia,  Hejaz,  Yemen, 

ETC. 

Agriculture,  etc..  Most  of  the  people  of 
Turkey  live  by  farming  and  sheep  raising,  but 
as  these  industries  are  in  a  backward  condition, 
the  rural  population  is  very  poor.  This  condi¬ 
tion  is  due  to  misgovernment,  ignorance,  lack  of 
roads  and  railroads,  and  an  unfavorable  system 
of  land  distribution.  Little  land  is  held  in  free¬ 
hold,  the  greater  part  being  either  crown  prop¬ 
erty  or  vakuf,  i.e.,  held  in  mortmain  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Aloslem  church.  A  system  of 
agrarian  reform  laws  was  promulgated  in  1913, 
and  a  number  of  government  agricultural  schools 
have  been  recently  established.  In  parts  of  the 
Empire  the  problem  of  insufficient  rainfall  is 
being  met  by  extensive  irrigation  projects,  no¬ 
tably  in  Mesopotamia  and  Palestine.  The  use 
of  fertilizer  is  practically  unknown,  but  the 
soil  is  so  productive  that  Turkey  is  an  exporter 
of  foodstuffs.  Agricultural  products  include 
cereals  of  all  sorts,  grapes,  raisins,  and  wine, 
olives  and  olive  oil,  coffee,  opium,  nuts,  sesame, 
flax,  hemp,  coleseed,  licorice,  oranges  and  lemons, 
dates,  figs,  and  attar  of  roses.  The  cotton  in¬ 
dustry,  which  dates  only  from  1905,  is  rapidly 
developing,  and  probably  reaches  200,000  bales 
annually.  Silk  culture  is  encouraged  by  the 
government,  most  of  the  raw  silk  being  shipped 
to  France.  Turkish  tobacco  is  world-famous. 
In  Asiatic  Turkey  there  are  about  16,500,000 
acres  under  cultivation.  An  eastern  Asia  Alinor, 
sheep,  goats,  and  small  horses  are  raised,  and 
wool,  goats’  hair,  hides,  and  gut  are  exported. 
In  Palestine,  recently  established  Zionist  colo¬ 
nies  have  been  successful  exporting  cereals,  cot¬ 
ton,  and  fruits.  In  1913,  1,608,500  boxes  oi 


TURKEY 


TURKEY 


570 


oranges  were  shipped  from  Jaffa.  Turkey  lias 
been  badly  deforested,  its  wooded  area  being 
now  about  20,000,000  acres.  Forestry  laws 
modeled  on  those  of  France  have  been  passed 
and  the  reforestation  has  begun.  Sponge  fishing 
is  an  industry  of  the  Mediterranean  coast,  and 
the  local  fisheries  of  the  Bosporus  are  valued 
at  about  $1,000,000  a  year. 

Mining.  Asia  Minor  and  Kurdistan  are  ex¬ 
ceedingly  rich  in  minerals,  though  these  are 
little  known  and  less  worked.  Silver  is  found 
near  Konia,  and  rich  copper  deposits  near  Tre- 
bizond,  Diarbekr,  and  in  the  Armenian  Taurus 
Mountains.  Considerable  coal  fields  exist  in 
several  districts,  that  near  Heraclea  on  the 
Black  Sea  being  operated  by  French  capital. 
Salt,  a  government  monopoly,  is  exported.  Gold, 
zinc,  lead,  and  iron  have  been  found  but  are 
little  exploited.  Petroleum  has  been  discovered 
near  Rodosto,  Jerusalem,  and  in  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates  valley. 

Manufactures.  There  is  little  manufactur¬ 
ing.  At  Constantinople,  there  are  flour  mills, 
two  glass  factories,  a  soap  factory,  a  dry  dock 
and  arsenal.  Cloth  is  manufactured  in  Constan¬ 
tinople,  Smyrna,  and  Ismid;  and  some  silk  in 
Brusa  and  Damascus.  Olive  oil  and  soap  are 
made  and  exported.  Artisans  produce  brass  and 
copper  utensils  of  considerable  beauty,  and  the 
hand-woven  Turkish  rugs  are  a  very  valuable 
export.  The  reasons  for  the  state  of  manufac¬ 
turing  in  Turkey  are  the  lack  of  skilled  .labor, 
and  the  impossibility  of  competing  in  the  local 
market  against  Europe  and  America. 

Commerce.  The  commerce  of  the  Empire  is 
largely  in  the  hands  of  Greeks,  Jews,  Armenians, 
and  foreigners.  The  imports  always  exceed  the 
exports  in  value.  The  leading  exports  are  bar¬ 
ley,  and  other  cereals,  raisins,  goats’  hair,  wool, 
opium,  rugs  and  carpets,  tobacco,  dried  and 
fresh  fruits,  nuts,  licorice,  coleseed,  attar  of 
roses,  raw  silk,  hides,  gut,  and  cotton.  Manu¬ 
factured  goods  of  all  kinds  are  imported.  Trade 
is  chiefly  with  the  United  Kingdom,  Austria- 
Hungary,  France,  Germany,  Russia,  Bulgaria, 
and  Italy.  Commerce  with  the  United  States 
is  growing  rapidly,  Turkey  exporting  rugs,  to¬ 
bacco,  -hides,  olive  oil,  and  wool,  in  return  for 
cloth,  petroleum,  and  iron  and  steel  goods.  To¬ 
tal  exports  and  imports  for  years 


1910-11 

1911-12 

Imports . 

$187,238,298 

97,150,710 

$193,024,000 

Exports . 

105,009,000 

In  1014,  imports  from  the  United  States,  $3,328,- 
519;  exports  to  the  United  States,  $20,843,077. 

Transportation  and  Communication.  Lack 
of  means  of  transportation  has  always  been  a 
hindrance  to  Turkish  development,  but  within 
recent  years  the  railway  system  has  been  ex¬ 
tended  rapidly.  In  Europe,  Constantinople  lias 
direct  rail  connection  with  Paris  and  Berlin 
through  the  Balkans,  and  with  Dedeaghatch  and 
Saloniki  on  the  HCgean.  In  Asia,  Haidar  Pasha 
(Constantinople),  Smyrna,  and  Beirut  are  rail¬ 
road  centres.  From  Haidar  Pasha  the  Bagdad 
Railway  has  been  completed  as  far  as  the  Taurus 
Mountains,  which  must  be  pierced  by  one  of  the 
longest  tunnels  in  the  world.  Beyond  the  Tau¬ 
rus,  the  line  has  been  run  to  Nisibin,  and  from 
the  Bagdad  terminus  back  to  Samara.  Three 


lines  run  in  from  Smyrna — one  to  the  Marmora 
Sea  at  Panderma,  one  south  and  east  to  Eyerdir, 
one  meeting  the  Bagdad  Railway  at  Afium- 
Kara-Hissar.  From  Beirut  there  is  rail  con¬ 
nection  with  Aleppo  and  with  Damascus,  the 
head  of  the  Hedjaz  Railway.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  European  War  in  1914,  there  were  about 
1050  miles  in  European  Turkey  and  2836  in 
Asiatic  Turkey. 

The  Turkish  mercantile  marine  in  1911  listed 
120  steamers  of  66,878  tons,  and  963  sailing  ves¬ 
sels  of  205,641  tons.  In  1913,  18,285  vessels 
of  17,397,888  tons  entered  and  cleared  at  Con¬ 
stantinople.  English,  Russian,  Austrian,  Ger¬ 
man,  Turkish,  French,  Greek,  Rumanian,  and 
Italian  lines  call  regularly  at  Constantinople, 
and  there  are  direct  sailings  to  New  York. 

Up  to  Oct.  1,  1914,  most  of  the  Powers  main¬ 
tained  extraterritorial  post  offices  in  Turkey. 
Since  that  date  the  postal  service,  mail  and  par¬ 
cel,  has  been  in  Turkish  hands  exclusively. 
There  are  28,890  miles  of  telegraphs  in  the  Em¬ 
pire.  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  Damascus,  and 
Beirut  have  electric  street  railways. 

Government.  Turkey  is  a  limited  monarchy, 
at  the  head  of  which  is  the  Sultan  or  Padishah, 
who  is  also  Caliph  (successor  of  the  prophet 
Mohammed,  and  head  of  the  orthodox  Moslem 
world).  Imperial  succession  vests  in  the  oldest 
member  of  the  reigning  house  of  Otliman. 

The  constitution,  which  was  granted  in  1876, 
suspended  in  1878,  and  restored  by  the  revolu¬ 
tion  of  July  23,  1908,  provides  for  a  ministerial 
form  of  government,  the  Grand  Vizier,  or  Prime 
Minister,  being  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  11,  in¬ 
cluding  the  Sheik  ul  Islam.  The  latter  is  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  Sultan  with  the  approval  of  the 
Ulema  (Moslem  clergy)  and  has  the  power  of 
vetoing  any  imperial  decree  or  parliamentary 
law  by  declaring  it  contrary  to  the  Sacred  Law. 
The  Empire  is  divided  into  23  vilayets  (prov¬ 
inces  ) ,  besides  several  separately  organized 
sanjaks,  and  the  Lebanon  district.  The  vilayets 
are  divided  into  sanjaks,  cazas,  and  nahiehs. 
Each  vilayet  is  governed  by  a  vali,  appointed  by 
the  Sultan,  and  assisted  by  a  provincial  council. 
The  vali  appoints  the  subordinate  officials  of  the 
vilayet. 

The  Parliament  consists  of  a  Senate  and  a 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  senators  are  ap¬ 
pointed  for  life  by  the  Sultan;  the  deputies  are 
chosen  by  indirect  election,  one  deputy  for  6000 
qualified  electors.  The  two-party  system  ob¬ 
tains.  There  is  no  legal  discrimination  by  rea¬ 
son  of  race  or  creed. 

Turkish  law  is  very  complicated,  there  being 
two  recognized  systems  in  force.  One  is  the 
Sacred  Law  (Sheriat)  which  rests  upon  the 
Koran,  the  traditions  of  the  Prophet,  and  the 
precedents  of  the  early  Caliphs.  This  system 
applies  in  certain  cases  involving  real  property, 
or  the  personal  status  of  Mohammedans.  The 
other  system,  which  includes  the  bulk  of  modern 
legislation,  and  is  applicable  in  most  civil  and 
criminal  cases,  is  based  upon  the  French  Code 
Napoleon. 

Foreigners  in  Turkey  formerly  enjoyed  un¬ 
usual  extraterritorial  privileges  guaranteed  by 
a  series  of  treaties  called  Capitulations.  In 
September,  1914,  Turkey  abrogated  these  trea¬ 
ties,  but  none  of  the  Powers  recognized  this 
unilateral  act. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Imperial  revenues 
are  derived  from  direct  taxes,  from  the  tobacco, 
salt,  and  explosives  monopolies,  and  from  the 


ti-;e  l!ee;.ry 
or  the 

UNtVEKSIT Y  Uf  ILLINOIS 


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TlX  IXHARY 
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ONIVL  :  \  Of  ILLINOIS 


TURKEY 


TURKEY 


571 


tariff.  The  largest  expenditures  are  for  mili¬ 
tary  purposes  and  for  the  national  debts. 
Definite  figures  for  revenue  and  expenditure  are 
unobtainable,  but  the  estimates  for  the  fiscal 
year  1913-14  put  the  revenue  at  about  $120,- 
000,000  and  the  expenditures  at  $185,000,000. 
Up  to  1914  the  national  debt  amounted  to  $667,- 
280,430.80,  of  which  62  per  cent  was  held  in 
France  and  29  per  cent  in  Germany.  There  was 
also  a  floating  debt  of  $176,000,000.  The  Im¬ 
perial  Ottoman  Bank  in  1910  had  a  capital 
of  $44,000,000.  This  bank  issued  the  paper  cur¬ 
rency  of  the  Empire  in  notes  of  five  pounds  Turk¬ 
ish  and  one  pound  Turkish,  secured  on  a  gold 
reserve  of  not  less  than  one- third  of  the  value 
of  the  issue. 

Up  to  1914  the  Turkish  tariff  was  fixed  by  the 
Powers.  In  1907  it  was  raised  from  8  per  cent 
to  11  per  cent  ad  valorem  for  seven  years.  In 
October,  1914,  without  the  consent  of  the  Powers 
Turkey  raised  the  tariff  to  15  per  cent  ad 
valorem. 

Army.  The  reorganization  of  the  Turkish 
army,  since  1909,  has  been  directed  and  controlled 
in  large  part  by  German  officers.  Under  Enver 
Pasha,  the  Turkish  Minister  of  War,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  year  1914  the  powers  of  the  “Ger¬ 
man  Military  Mission”  were  greatly  amplified, 
even  to  the  extent  of  placing  German  officers  in 
command  of  Turkish  troops.  Soon  after  his  as¬ 
sumption  of  the  duties  of  War  Minister,  Jan. 
4,  1914,  Enver  Pasha  introduced  universal  mili¬ 
tary  training,  applicable  not  only  to  all  Moslems 
but  to  Christians  previously,  in  great  part,  ex¬ 
empted  from  military  training  and  service. 
There  were  no  exemptions,  but  those,  both  Mos¬ 
lem  and  Christians,  who  were  able  to  pay  a  large 
military  tax,  were  excused  from  a  portion  of  the 
full  period  of  military  training.  The  new  men 
and  funds  secured  in  this  manner  were  used 
to  fill  up  the  regular  organizations  which  had 
been  greatly  depleted  by  the  Balkan  War  of 
1912-13. 

Under  the  new  regime  service  was  from  the 
age  of  20  to  45,  as  follows :  In  the  active  army, 
or  “Nizam,”  two  years  for  the  infantry,  three 
for  the  other  arms ;  in  the  first  reserve,  “Ihtiat,” 
to  the  age  of  40;  in  the  second  reserve  or  Terri¬ 
torial  army,  “Mustahfiz,”  from  40  to  45.  Under 
this  scheme,  in  1914,  the  Nizam,  or  active  army, 
was  first  filled  up  with  trained  men,  those  re¬ 
maining  forming  the  nucleus  for  reserve  bat¬ 
talions  stationed  at  training  depots  to  which 
the  untrained  men  were  sent  for  instruction. 
From  these  battalions  men  were  sent  to  fill  the 
vacancies  occurring  in  the  fighting  lines.  The 
Kurdish  cavalry  are  tribal  militia  organiza¬ 
tions,  service  in  which  exempts  from  compul¬ 
sory  service  in  the  regular  army.  This  cavalry 
was  called  for  service  with  the  field  army  after 
the  outbreak  of  war. 

Turkey,  after  the  Balkan  War,  was  divided 
into  four  territorial  and  inspection  districts  in 
which  army  corps  and  divisions  were  located 
and  recruited  as  follows:  First  district,  Turkey 
in  Europe  and  western  Anatolia,  five  army  corps 
of  three  divisions  each ;  second  district,  Syria, 
two  army  corps  of  three  divisions  each;  third 
district,  Kurdistan  and  eastern  Anatolia,  three 
army  corps  of  three  divisions  each;  fourth  dis¬ 
trict,  Mesopotamia,  two  army  corps  of  two  divi¬ 
sions  each ;  besides  these,  in  Yemen,  one  corps  of 
two  divisions;  Hejaz,  one  division;  Assir,  one 
division;  total,  13  corps  and  two  independent 
divisions,  or  38  divisions  in  all. 

Vol.  XXII.— 37 


It  should  be  noted  that  the  Turkish  division 
consists  of  only  three  regiments  of  three  bat¬ 
talions  each,  or  a  total  of  nine  battalions  of 
infantry  and  from  six  to  nine  batteries  of  field 
or  mountain  artillery.  A  battery  has  four  guns, 
except  when  armed  with  old  models,  when  six  guns 
are  assigned.  The  corps,  as  shown  above,  con¬ 
sists  of  either  two  or  three  divisions,  to  which 
are  attached  either  a  regiment  or  brigade  of 
cavalry,  three  howitzer  batteries,  an  engineer 
battalion,  a  supply  battalion,  and  a  telegraph 
company.  There  are  25  regiments  of  cavalry 
of  five  squadrons  each  in  addition  to  the  Kurdish 
cavalry  already  mentioned. 

Under  the  reorganization  of  1915,  the  peace 
strength  was  estimated  at  200,000;  initial  mo¬ 
bilization  at  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War, 
at  750,000;  ultimate  war  strength  of  the  field 
armies,  1,000,000.  In  addition  to  these  forces 
there  are  the  Gendarmerie,  or  military  police, 
amounting  in  all  to  about  60,000  men,  of 
whom  about  16,000  are  mounted.  During  the 
European  War  most  of  this  force  were  called 
into  active  service,  their  places  being  filled 
by  the  older  reservists  of  the  Mustahfiz.  The 
Lebanon  militia  is  a  local  police  force  consist¬ 
ing  of  two  battalions  of  infantry  and  one  squad¬ 
ron  of  cavalry. 

At  the  head  of  the  army  is  a  War  Min¬ 
ister  assisted  by  a  permanent  assistant  secre¬ 
tary  or  Musteshar,  and  by  the  Chief  of  the 
General  Staff,  which,  upon  mobilization  for  the 
European  War,  contained  a  number  of  German 
military  officers.  Munition  factories  are  under 
the  direction  of  an  official  called  the  Director 
General  of  Military  Factories,  who  presents  an 
independent  budget  for  the  consideration  of  the 
government. 

Infantry  are  armed  with  the  7.65  mm. 
Mauser  magazine  rifle,  of  which  there  was  a 
great  shortage  after  the  Balkan  War.  Field 
artillery  have  the  7.5  cm.  quick-fire  Krupp  gun. 
Of  these,  too,  there  was  a  shortage  due  to  losses 
in  the  Balkan  War.  As  soon  as  practicable  af¬ 
ter  Turkey  entered  the  European  War,  arms  and 
equipment  were  supplied  by  the  Teutonic  Powers. 
Germany,  in  addition  to  supplying  the  field  ar¬ 
mies  of  Turkey,  also  greatly  strengthened  the 
fortifications  at  Adrianople,  Chatalja,  the  Bos¬ 
porus  and  Dardanelles,  Smyrna,  and  Erzerum 
in  Armenia. 

Navy.  See  under  Navies. 

Money,  Weights,  and  Measures.  The  coin¬ 
age  is  on  the  decimal  system,  with  the  gold 
standard.  The  unit  is  the  piaster,  worth  4.4 
cents  American,  with  100  piasters  to  the  pound 
Turkish.  The  silver  currency  is  normally  de¬ 
preciated  about  5  per  cent.  Nominal  value  of 
the  coinage  since  1880  is:  gold,  $185,342,612.40, 
and  silver,  $46,295,326,  besides  a  copper  and 
nickel  currency. 

The  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures 
was  adopted  in  1882  and  is  used  in  the  larger 
cities. 

Population.  As  there  has  never  been  a  cen¬ 
sus,  figures  of  the  population  of  the  Empire  are 
approximate  only.  In  1914,  Turkey  in  Europe 
and  Asia  had  an  area  of  710,224  square  miles 
and  a  population  of  21,273,900.  Besides  there 
was  Cyprus,  administered  by  England,  and  the 
tributary  province  of  Egypt  and  the  Sudan. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war  Cyprus  was 
declared  annexed  to  the  British  Empire  and 
Egypt  was  declared  a  British  protectorate.  Cer¬ 
tain  JEgean  islands,  including  the  Dodecanese. 


TURKEY 


TURKEY 


572 


claimed  by  Turkey,  are  now  in  the  possession 
of  Greece"  and  Italy;  their  legal  status  is  un¬ 
certain. 


DISTRICT 

Area  in 
sq.  miles 

Population 

Turkey  in  Europe . 

10.SS2 

1,891,000 

Turkey  in  Asia: 

Asia  Minor . 

199,272 

10.186,900 

Kurdistan  ('Armpnifl.) . 

71,990 

2,470,900 

Mesopotamia . 

143,250 

2,000,000 

Svria . 

114,530 

3,675,100 

Arabia . 

170,300 

1,050,000 

Grand  total . 

710,224 

21,273,900 

Cvprus  . 

3,584 

286,922 

Eevot . 

12,226 

11,189,978 

Sudan . 

984,520 

2,600,000 

The  division  of  the  population  of  Turkey,  ex¬ 
cept  Egypt,  by  races  is  roughly  estimated : 
Turks,  "  io, 000, 000;  Arabs,  4,000,000;  Greeks, 
2.000,000;  Kurds,  1,600,000;  Armenians,  1.500,- 
000;  Syrians,  1,500,000.  The  remainder  includes 
Jews,  Druses,  Lazes,  Circassians,  and  other  races. 
Constantinople,  Smyrna,  Bagdad,  Damascus, 
Aleppo?  Beirut,  and  Brusa  have  populations  of 
over  100,000.  The  figures  below  refer  to  1914. 


VILAYET 

Area  in 
sq.  miles 

Population 

In  Europe: 

Constantinople . 

1,505 

733 

8,644 

1,203,000 

78,000 

610,000 

Chatalja  (sanjak) . 

Adrianople . 

Total  in  Europe . 

10,882 

1,891,000 

In  Asia: 

Asia  Minor: 

Ismid  (sanjak) . 

3,130 

25.400 
2,550 

25,801 

19,570 

27,370 

39,410 

15.400 
23,970 
16,671 

222,700 

1,626,800 

129,500 

2,50*0,000 

961,200 

932,800 

1,069,000 

422,400 

1,057,500 

1,265,000 

Brusa . 

Bigha  (sanjak) . 

Smyrna  . 

Kastamuni . 

Angora . 

Konia . 

Adana . 

Sivas . 

Trebizond . 

Total . 

199,272 

10,186,900 

Kurdistan  (Armenia): 

Erzerum . 

19,180 

12,700 

14,480 

10,460 

15,170 

645.700 
575,200 
471,500 

398.700 
379,800 

Mamuret  el  Aziz . 

Diarbekr . 

Bitlis . 

Van . 

Total . 

71,990 

2,470,900 

Mesopotamia: 

Mosul . 

35,130 

54,540 

53,580 

500,000 

900,000 

600,000 

Bagdad . 

Basra . 

Total . 

143,250 

2,000.000 

Syria: 

Aleppo . 

33,430 

30,110 

37,020 

6,180 

6,600 

1,190 

1,500,000 

100,000 

1,000,000 

533,500 

341,600 

200.000 

Zor  (sanjak) . 

Syria . 

Beirut . 

Jerusalem  (sanjak) . 

Lebanon . 

Total . 

114,530 

3,675,100 

Arabia: 

Hedjaz  . 

96,500 

73,800 

300.000 

750,000 

Yemen . 

Total . 

170,300 

1,050,000 

Grand  total . 

710,224 

21,273,900 

Education  and  Religion.  Most  of  the  in¬ 
habitants  are  Moslems  and  Mohammedanism  is 
the  state  religion,  with  the  Sultan  as  Caliph  as 
the  head  of  the  religion,  and  the  Sheikh-ul- 
Islam  as  the  leading  ecclesiastic,  representing 
the  Church  in  the  cabinet.  All  religions  are 


tolerated  except  idolatry,  and  the  government 
recognizes  13  non-Mohammedan  communities  or 
Millets — Roman  Catholics,  Greek  Orthodox,  Ar¬ 
menian  Gregorians,  Armenian  Catholics,  Prot¬ 
estants,  Chaldean  Catholics,  Nestor i an s,  Syrian 
Catholics,  Syrian  Jacobites,  Melcliites,  Jews,  Bul¬ 
garian  Catholics,  and  Maronites.  These  com¬ 
munities  are  ecclesiastically  self-governing  and 
their  spiritual  heads  exercise  civil  functions  of 
considerable  importance.  To  a  great  extent  they 
control  the  education  of  their  children  through 
their  parochial  schools. 

The  majority  of  the  Mohammedans  belong  to 
the  Sunni  sect,  though  other  sects  are  repre¬ 
sented. 

Education,  formerly  neglected,  is  now  legally 
obligatory  for  children  between  7  and  16,  in 
state,  parochial,  or  private  schools.  Elemen¬ 
tary  education  is  free.  There  are  about  36,000 
schools  in  the  Empire,  with  an  enrollment  of 
about  1,330,000.  The  system  is  of  recent  de¬ 
velopment,  and  probably  at  least  75  per  cent 
of  the  population  is  illiterate. 

At  Constantinople  there  is  an  Imperial  Uni¬ 
versity  of  five  faculties — arts,  theology,  law, 
medicine,  and  science.  There  are  also  several 
Greek  and  Armenian  colleges  of  high  standing. 
Many  foreign  schools,  some  of  collegiate  rank, 
have  been  opened  under  American,  English,  and 
French  auspices,  missionary  or  philanthropic. 
The  best  known  of  these  are  Robert  College  and 
the  American  College  for  Girls  at  Constanti¬ 
nople,  and  the  Syrian  Protestant  College  at 
Beirut. 

Ethnology.  The  Turkish  Empire  presents  an 
extraordinary  medley  of  nationalities.  The  rul¬ 
ing  race,  the  Osmanli  Turks,  whose  blood  is 
greatly  mixed  with  various  foreign  elements 
(Slavic,  Greek,  and  Albanian  in  European  Tur¬ 
key),  constitute  a  minority  of  the  population 
even  in  the  regions  actually  under  the  rule  of  the 
Sultan.  The  only  section  of  the  Empire  in  which 
they  are  numerically  dominant  is  the  interior  of 
Asia  Minor.  The  most  important  peoples  in 
Asiatic  Turkey  after  the  Osmanlis  are  the  Arabs 
(Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Arabia),  Armenians 
(who  are  found  in  large  numbers  outside  of 
Armenia),  and  Kurds.  The  Greeks  and  Jews 
(in  addition  to  the  Armenians)  are  important 
elements  in  the  urban  population  of  a  large 
part  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  There  are  less  than 
1,000,000  persons  of  Turko-Tatar  blood  in  Tur¬ 
key  in  Europe,  and  these  are  chiefly  in  the  por¬ 
tions  nearest  to  Asia.  The  Turks  form  a  large 
element  in  the  population  of  Constantinople  and 
Adrianople,  in  the  interior  of  Thrace,  and  in 
parts  of  Macedonia.  All  the  remainder  of  the 
population  of  European  Turkey,  with  a  small  ex¬ 
ception,  is  divided  between  Slavic  peoples  and 
those  belonging  to  the  Mediterranean  race,  chiefly 
Greeks  in  the  south  and  east,  and  Albanians 
(Shkipetars)  on  the  Adriatic.  The  Slavs  of 
Turkey  are  of  Serb  and  Bulgarian  stock.  There 
are  a  number  of  Wallachs  (Rumans)  in  the 
southwest,  who  are  known  as  Tsintsars.  The 
Jews  are  numerous  in  Constantinople  and  Sa- 
loniki,  and  the  Armenians  are  also  well  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  urban  population  of  European 
Turkey. 

History.  In  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  at  the  time  of  the  Mongol  invasions  un¬ 
der  Genghis  Khan,  a  small  body  of  Mohammedan 
Turks  moved  westward  from  their  home  in  Iran 
and  made  their  way  to  Asia  Minor.  Under  the 
lead  of  Ertogrul,  they  entered  the  service  of  Ala- 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


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TURKEY 


575 


TURKEY 


tions  were  premature  and  lie  aroused  the  anger 
of  the  Janizaries  by  his  attempts  at  military 
reorganization.  A  revolt  forced  Selim  to  abdi¬ 
cate  in  1807,  and  placed  his  nephew,  Mustapha 
IV  (1807-08),  on  the  throne.  Mustapha  was 
soon  deposed  and  Mahmud  II  (1808-39)  was 
made  Sultan.  A  war  begun  by  Russia  in  1806 
was  terminated  by  the  Ireatv  of  Bucharest  in 
1812,  by  which  the  country  between  the  Dniester 
and  the  Truth  was  ceded  to  Russia.  The  author¬ 
ity  of  the  Sultan  was  reestablished  in  Servia, 
but  the  people  rose  again  under  Milosh  Obreno- 
vitch  and  achieved  a  partial  independence. 
Greece  threw  off  the  Turkish  yoke  in  1822  and 
after  an  heroic  struggle  secured  its  independence 
through  the  armed  intervention  of  the  European 
Powers  in  1827-29.  A  revolt  of  the  Janizaries 
in  1825  was  successfully  met  by  Mahmud;  in 
1826  thousands  of  the  famous  corps  were  slain, 
and  the  organization  was  abolished.  Russia 
waged  a  successful  war  against  Turkey  in  1828- 
29.  General  Diebitsch  advanced  as  far  as 
Adrianople,  and  Paskevitch  was  equally  success¬ 
ful  in  Armenia.  In  the  Peace  of  Adrianople 
(1829)  Turkey  surrendered  to  Russia  the  north¬ 
eastern  coast  land  of  the  Black  Sea  and  trans¬ 
ferred  to  her  the  suzerainty  over  the  tribes  of 
the  Caucasus ;  Russia  was  accorded  a  regular 
protectorate  over  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  which 
for  a  time  were  reduced  to  the  position  of  Rus¬ 
sian  dependencies.  Mehemet  Ali,  Viceroy  of 
Egypt,  who  had  raised  himself  to  an  almost  in¬ 
dependent  position,  made  war  in  1831  on  his 
liege  lord,  the  Sultan.  The  victories  of  Ibrahim 
Pasha  (1832)  secured  to  the  Egyptian  ruler  the 
possession  of  Syria  and  Cilicia,  while  Russia 
took  advantage  of  the  desperate  state  of  Turkey 
to  force  upon  the  Sultan  the  Treaty  of  Unkiar 
Skelessi  (1833),  which  closed  the  Black  Sea 
to  the  vessels  of  war  of  all  nations  save  Russia. 
In  1839  Mahmud  II  made  war  upon  Mehemet 
Ali.  The  Turkish  army  was  utterly  defeated 
by  Ibrahim  Pasha  at  Nisib  (June  24,  1839), 
and  soon  after  the  the  Turkish  fleet  was  treach¬ 
erously  delivered  up  to  the  Egyptians.  Only 
the  intervention  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance  (q.v.) 
in  1840  prevented  the  downfall  of  the  Turkish 
Power.  Mehemet  Ali  was  forced  to  relinquish 
Syria  and  other  territories;  he  was  recognized 
as  hereditary,  though  tributary,  ruler  of  Egypt. 
Soon  after  the  beginning  of  this  war  Mahmud 
II  died  (July  1,  1839).  His  son,  Abdul-Medjid 
(1839-61),  continued  the  reforms  commenced  in 
the  preceding  reign.  Russia’s  truculent  attitude 
brought  on  a  war  with  Turkey  in  1853,  in  which 
that  country  would  have  suffered  severely  but 
for  the  effective  intervention  in  1854  of  England 
and  France,  soon  joined  by  Sardinia,  all  bent 
on  humbling  Russia.  The  allies  of  the  Sultan 
made  the  Crimea  the  scene  of  their  land  opera¬ 
tions,  and  in  1855  Sebastopol  fell.  (See  Crimean 
War.)  The  Treaty  of  Paris  (1856)  restored  to 
Turkey  the  command  of  both  sides  of  the  lower 
Danube,  excluded  the  Czar  from  his  assumed 
protectorate  over  the  Danubian  principalities 
(Wallachia  and  Moldavia),  and  closed  the  Black 
Sea  against  all  ships  of  war.  Wallachia  and 
Molda  via  secured  almost  complete  independ¬ 
ence  and  were  soon  united  into  the  Principality 
of  Rumania.  The  Porte,  adopted  into  the  family 
of  European  nations,  made  a  proclamation  of 
equal  civil  rights  to  all  races  and  creeds  in  the 
Turkish  dominions.  A  massacre  of  Christians  in 
the  Lebanon  and  at  Damascus  (see  Druses) 
provoked  Western  intervention  in  1860.  Abdul- 


Medjid  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Abdul- 
Aziz  (1861-76). 

The  treaty  of  Paris  in  1856  was  supposed  to 
have  settled  the  Eastern  question  (q.v.)  by  guar¬ 
anteeing  turkey’s  integrity,  but  Russia  was 
merely  awaiting  an  opportunity  to  press  its  old 
policy,  and  in  1871  the  Russian  government 
seized  the  opportunity  of  war  between  Germany 
and  France  to  declare  that  it  felt  itself  no  longer 
bound  by  that  provision  of  the  Paris  treaty  which 
forbade  Russia  to  have  a  fleet  in  the  Black  Sea. 
A  London  conference  sanctioned  this  stroke  of 
Russian  diplomacy.  An  insurrection  in  Crete 
in  1866-68  was  suppressed  with  difficulty.  Be¬ 
tween  1854  and  1871  the  Turkish  debt  had  in¬ 
creased  by  nearly  $600,000,000;  and  in  1875  the 
Porte  was  driven  to  partial  repudiation  of  its 
obligations.  An  insurrection  which  broke  out  in 
Herzegovina  in  1875  served  to  stir  up  all  the 
neighboring  Slavic  peoples  and  was  skillfully 
encouraged  by  Russian  emissaries.  In  May, 
1876,  frightful  massacres  of  Christians  in  Bul¬ 
garia  took  place.  At  the  close  of  that  month 
Abdul-Aziz  was  deposed  and  soon  after  was 
found  dead.  His  nephew,  Amurath  or  Murad 
V,  son  of  Abdul-Medjid,  reigned  only  three 
months,  when  he  was  deposed  as  an  imbecile,  and 
his  brother,  Abdul-Hamid  II,  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  In  July,  1876,  Servia  and  Montenegro 
declared  war  against  the  Porte.  Before  the  end 
of  the  year  the  Servians  were  utterly  defeated, 
in  spite  of  the  help  of  many  Russian  volunteers. 
The  state  of  affairs  in  the  Turkish  provinces 
seemed  to  call  for  a  conference  of  the  Great 
Powers  at  Constantinople.  The  proposals  then 
made  for  the  better  government  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  subjects  of  Turkey  were  rejected  by  the 
Grand  Council  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  Simul¬ 
taneously,  however,  with  the  assembly  of  the 
conference  the  Turkish  government  had  taken 
the  extraordinary  step  of  bestowing  a  parlia¬ 
mentary  constitution  on  the  Ottoman  Empire. 
The  Parliament  assembled  in  March,  1877,  but 
this  ostensible  remodeling  of  the  political  fabric 
of  the  Empire  did  not  get  beyond  its  incipiency. 
Russia  took  it  upon  herself  to  enforce  on  Turkey 
the  demands  made  by  the  Powers,  and  on  April 
24,  1877,  declared  war.  (See  Russo-Turkish 
War.)  The  Turks  made  a  brave  stand,  but  at 
last  succumbed,  and  at  the  close  of  January, 
1878,  the  Russians,  aided  by  the  Rumanians, 
were  almost  before  the  walls  of  Constantinople. 
The  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  was  signed  on  March 
3,  but  the  European  Powers  intervened  and  re¬ 
adjusted  the  whole  Eastern  question  at  the  Con¬ 
gress  of  Berlin,  Russia  being  forced  to  content 
herself  with  a  much  less  radical  disruption  of 
the  Turkish  Empire  in  Europe  than  she  had 
sought  to  bring  about.  See  Berlin,  Congress 
of. 

For  a  few  years  under  the  settlement  effected 
at  Berlin,  there  was  comparative  quiet  in  the 
Ottoman  dominions,  although  in  1883,  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  disturbances  in  Egypt,  and  the  bad 
condition  of  the  finances  in  that  province,  Great 
Britain  established  a  control  there  which  prac¬ 
tically  nullified  what  little  was  left  of  the  Otto¬ 
man  sovereignty.  Following  on  a  revolutionary 
movement  at  Philippopolis  in  September,  1885, 
the  Prince  of  Bulgaria  proclaimed  the  annexa¬ 
tion  of  eastern  Rumelia,  and  after  a  decade  the 
Porte  was  compelled  to  recognize  the  change 
which  thus  deprived  it  of  its  fairest  province. 
In  1895-96  there  were  massacres  of  tens  of 
thousands  of  Armenian  Christians,  which  were 


V 


TURKEY  576  TURKEY 


connived  at  by  the  local  officials  of  the  Ottoman 
government.  ‘The  protests  of  Europe  were  of  no 
avail,  because  Abdul-Hamid  knew  well  how  to 
play  off  the  Powers  against  one  another  so  as 
to  prevent  interference  of  an  effective  kind.  A 
rising  of  the  Christians  against  the  Mohammed¬ 
ans  in  Crete  (q.v.)  followed  in  1896,  and  was 
the  signal  for  the  outbreak  of  long-repressed  hos¬ 
tilities  in  Greece,  which  recklessly  entered  upon 
war  with  Turkey  in  April,  1897.  The  campaign 
of  a  few  weeks  showed  the  utter  futility  of  the 
Greek  preparations.  (See  Greece.)  Greece  was 
forced  to  sue  for  peace,  the  terms  of  which  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  payment  to  the  Ottoman  govern¬ 
ment  of  an  indemnity  of  $18,000,000,  and  the 
rectification  of  the  Greco-Turkish  frontier  in 
favor  of  Turkey.  Crete  was  taken  in  charge 
by  Great  Britain,  Russia,  France,  and  Italy,  and 
a  settlement  was  made  in  1898  by  which  the 
suzerainty  of  Turkey  was  renewed,  but  the  island 
was  given  an  autonomous  government  for  three 
years,  its  executive  head  being  Prince  George  of 
Greece,  as  High  Commissioner  of  the  four  Powers. 
This  settlement  was  renewed  indefinitely  upon 
its  expiration  in  December,  1901.  See  Crete. 

The  Ottoman  Empire  in  the  first  decade  of  the 
twentieth  century  seemed  on  the  point  of  col¬ 
lapse.  Arabia  was  in  constant  revolt.  Anarchy 
reigned  in  Albania,  where  the  Sultan’s  officials 
found  it  all  but  impossible  to  enforce  law  or  to 
collect  taxes.  Worst  of  all  was  the  ferment  in 
Macedonia,  where  Greeks,  Servians,  and  Bul¬ 
garians  were  carrying  on  rival  nationalist  agita¬ 
tions  and  with  their  filibustering  exploits  were 
keeping  the  district  in  turmoil.  An  especially 
vigorous  Macedonian  upheaval,  precipitated  by 
the  Bulgarians  in  1903  and  attended  by  massa¬ 
cres  on  the  part  of  the  Turks,  led  to  foreign  in¬ 
tervention;  and  the  Sultan  reluctantly  consented 
to  new  reform  schemes,  which,  however,  were 
never  fully  executed.  Meanwhile  the  public  debt 
was  steadily  increasing;  railways,  mines,  and 
banks  were  falling  into  the  hands  of  foreign 
capitalists;  the  Balkan  nations  and  the  Great 
Powers  of  Europe  were  greedily  regarding  the 
Ottoman  provinces. 

The  “Sick  Man  of  Europe,”  as  Turkey  had  so 
often  been  called,  was  apparently  tottering  to 
his  end.  At  this  point,  however,  appeared  the 
“Young  Turks,”  a  group  of  politicians  and 
patriots,  many  of  whom  had  studied  in  the  uni¬ 
versities  of  western  Europe,  who  dared  dream 
of  rejuvenating  their  country.  The  YMung 
Turks  would  win  parliamentary  government  for 
their  homeland.  In  education,  in  science,  in  in¬ 
dustry,  Turkey  would  be  transformed  into  a 
progressive  state,  vying  with  other  European 
nations.  Above  all,  they  would  induce  their  com¬ 
patriots  to  forget  religious  differences  in  a  spirit 
of  national  patriotism.  The  Young  Turk  move¬ 
ment  was  a  counterpart  in  Turkey  to  the  na¬ 
tionalist  agitations  which  had  already  created  a 
Greece,  a  Servia,  a  Rumania,  and  a  Bulgaria. 
Shrewdly  enough,  the  leaders  of  the  movement 
avoided  all  violence  until  they  were  absolutely 
sure  that  the  army  would  support  them.  Then, 
on  July  23,  1908,  their  central  body,  the  so- 
called  Committee  of  Union  and  Progress,  with 
Enver  Pasha  at  its  head,  proclaimed  at  Saloniki 
the  restoration  of  the  constitution  of  1876.  Two 
army  corps  at  once  threatened  to  march  on  Con¬ 
stantinople:  and  the  terrified  Abdul-Hamid 
hastily  issued  an  imperial  decree,  officially  re¬ 
storing  parliamentary  government.  A  few  op¬ 
ponents  of  the  coup  d’etat  were  assassinated, 


the  press  was  emancipated,  a  Liberal  statesman, 
Kiamil  Pasha,  was  appointed  Grand  Vizier,  and 
Turkey  was  a  constitutional  monarchy.  Tak¬ 
ing  advantage  of  this  disturbance  in  the  Otto¬ 
man  Empire,  Austria-Hungary  in  October,  1908, 
formally  annexed  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and 
simultaneously  Ferdinand  of  Bulgaria  proclaimed 
the  complete  independence  of  his  state  (includ¬ 
ing  eastern  Rumelia)  and  assumed  the  title  of 
“king.”  Helplessly  but  slowly  the  new  Turkish 
government  acquiesced  in  what  it  could  not  pre¬ 
vent  and  in  1909,  in  return  for  financial  indem¬ 
nities,  recognized  Bulgarian  independence  and 
the  Austro-Hungarian  annexation  of  Bosnia- 
Herzegovina  as  accomplished  facts.  To  make 
matters  worse  for  the  constitutional  government 
of  Kiamil  Pasha,  Albania  became  more  turbulent 
in  the  spring  of  1909,  mutiny  broke  out  in 
Arabia,  and  the  quarrels  of  rival  nationalities 
in  Macedonia  became  more  acute.  Under  these 
circumstances,  a  counter  revolution  against  the 
Young  Turks  was  set  on  foot  in  Constantinople 
and  received  the  approbation  of  Sultan  Abdul- 
Hamid  II.  The  Committee  of  Union  and  Prog¬ 
ress,  installed  in  Saloniki,  responded  promptly 
by  sending  an  army  under  Shevket  Pasha  against 
Constantinople.  After  less  than  a  day’s  fighting 
Shevket  Pasha  was  in  command  of  the  capital 
(April  25,  1909).  At  the  behest  of  the 

triumphant  Young  Turks,  the  Parliament,  now 
calling  itself  a  national  assembly,  deposed  Abdul- 
Hamid,  placed  him  under  surveillance  near  Salo¬ 
niki,  and  chose  in  his  stead  his  brother,  Mo¬ 
hammed  V. 

The  new  parliamentary  regime,  under  Young 
Turk  influence,  proceeded  forthwith  to  make  the 
Turkish  language  official,  to  standardize  educa¬ 
tion,  to  plant  Moslem  colonies  in  Macedonia,  to 
utilize  violence  and  bribery  in  elections,  to  forbid 
public  meetings,  to  repress  anti-Ottoman  agita¬ 
tion,  to  disarm  the  Macedonian  Christian  vil¬ 
lagers — in  a  word,  to  attempt  the  “Ottomaniz- 
ing”  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  Resentfully  the 
Bulgarians,  Greeks,  and  Servians  in  Macedonia 
regarded  the  new  tendency,  and,  putting  aside 
their  own  quarrels,  they  now  made  common 
cause  against  the  Turk.  Greece,  Bulgaria,  and 
Servia  began  to  draw  more  closely  together  with 
the  object  of  protecting  the  Christians  in 
Macedonia. 

Meanwhile  the  Turco-Italian  War  (q.v.) 
caused  discomfiture  in  Constantinople.  On  Sept. 
28,  1911,  Italy  announced  her  intention  of  seiz¬ 
ing  Tripoli  and  Cyrenaica.  The  war  that  followed 
was  confined  mostly  to  irregular  but  fierce  hos¬ 
tilities  between  the  Italian  expeditionary  armies 
on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other,  the  Turkish 
garrisons  and  Arab  tribesmen  in  Africa.  During 
the  course  of  the  war,  Italy  occupied  12  of  the 
iEgean  Islands,  and,  when  peace  was  finally  con¬ 
cluded  (October,  1912),  Italy  not  only  gained 
the  vilayets  of  Tripoli  and  Cyrenaica,  but  in 
addition^  acquired  the  right  to  hold  the  12 
iEgean  Islands  should  Turkey  fail  to  grant  to 
their  inhabitants  full  amnesty,  local  autonomy, 
and  public  liberty.  During  the  summer  of  1912, 
while  Turkey  was  still  harassed  and  weakened 
by  the  war  with  Italy,  the  Balkan  states  con¬ 
cluded  treaties  of  alliance  and  began  to  press 
more  vigorously  for  radical  reforms  in  Mace¬ 
donia,  and  at  the  same  time  mutinous  outbreaks 
occurred'  in  Albania.  In  October,  1912,  Bul¬ 
garia,  Greece,  Servia,  and  Montenegro  mobilized 
their  armies  and  presented  joint  ultimatums  to 
the  Porte  demanding  autonomy  for  Macedonia 


TURKEY 


TURKEY 


under  European  governors.  Despite  the  efforts 
of  the  Great  Powers  to  avert  hostilities,  the 
peremptory  refusal  of  the  Turkish  government 
to  comply  with  the  ultimatums  precipitated  the 
war  which  lasted  from  October,  1912,  to  Sep¬ 
tember,  1913.  (See  Balkan  War.)  The  out¬ 
come  of  the  struggle  was  the  loss  of  all  Turkish 
possessions  in  Europe  except  Constantinople, 
Adrianople,  and  a  little  adjacent  territory. 

In  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  Great 
Britain  and  France  had  labored  to  bolster  up 
the  Ottoman  Empire  and  to  safeguard  it  against 
possible  Russian  aggression.  By  the  time  of  the 
Balkan  War,  however,  British  and  French  in¬ 
terests  in  the  Levant  appeared  to  be  menaced  less 
by  Russia  than  by  Austria-Hungary  and  Ger¬ 
many.  The  latter  Powers  were  working  hand 
in  glove:  Germans  were  arming  and  drilling 
the  Turkish  army  and  securing  the  major  share 
of  new  concessions  in  the  Ottoman  Empire,  no¬ 
tably  the  Bagdad  Railway,  while  Austria-Hun¬ 
gary  was  curbing  the  Servians  and  increasing 
her  political  and  economic  influence  in  Mace¬ 
donia.  In  the  course  of  the  Balkan  War,  there¬ 
fore,  France  and  Great  Britain,  in  conjunction 
with  Russia,  tended,  on  the  whole,  to  sympathize 
with  the  Balkan  states  against  Turkey.  Ac¬ 
cordingly,  to  the  student  of  international  politics 
it  was  not  particularly  surprising  that  soon 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War  of  1914 
between  Russia,  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
Servia  on  one  side,  and  Austria-Hungary  and 
Germany  on  the  other,  the  Turkish  government 
should  throw  in  its  lot  with  the  latter  combi¬ 
nation.  Undoubtedly  the  Young  Turk  leaders 
believed  that  if  they  were  quite  unable  to  recover 
what  had  recently  been  wrested  from  them  in 
Europe  they  might  at  least,  through  Teutonic 
support,  maintain  Ottoman  sovereignty  over 
Egypt  and  extend  Turkish  frontiers  into  Persia 
at  the  eventual  expense  of  Russia  and  Great 
Britain.  See  War  in  Europe. 

Bibliography.  (General  description:  Cyrus 
Hamlin,  Among  the  Turks  (New  York,  1878); 
Armin  Yambery,  Die  primitiv  Cultur  des  turko- 
tatarischen  Volkes  (Leipzig,  1879);  id.,  Das 
Tilrkenvolk  (ib.,  1885)  ;  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay, 
Historical  Geography  of  Asia  Minor  (London, 
1890)  ;  L.  M.  J.  Garnett,  Women  of  Turkey  and 
their  Folklore  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1890-91);  H.  O. 
Dwight,  Constantinople  and  its  Problems  (New 
YTork,  1901 )  ;  A.  B.  Dodd,  In  the  Palaces  of  the 
Sultan  (ib.,  1903)  ;  L.  M.  J.  Garnett,  Turkish 
Life  in  Town  and  Country  (ib.,  1904)  ;  J.  L. 
Barton,  Daybreak  in  Turkey  (Boston,  1908)  ; 
A.  F.  Townshend,  A  Military  Consul  in  Turkey 
(Philadelphia,  1909)  ;  David  Fraser,  A  Short  Cut 
to  India  (New  York,  1909)  ;  L.  M.  J.  Garnett, 
Home  Life  in  Turkey  (ib.,  1909)  ;  id.,  Turkey  of 
the  Ottomans  (ib.,  1911)  ;  Z.  D.  Ferriman,  Turkey 
and  the  Turks  (ib.,  1911);  George  Washburn, 
Fifty  Years  in  Constantinople  (Boston,  1911); 
L.  M.  J.  Garnett,  Mysticism  and  Magic  in  Turkey 
(New  York,  1912)  ;  Sir  Edwin  Pears,  Turkey  and 
its  People  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1912)  ;  W.  A.  and  E.  T.  A. 
Wigram,  The  Cradle  of  Mankind  (London,  1914)  ; 
Sir  Edwin  Pears,  Forty  Years  in  Constantinople 
(ib.,  1915);  Grace  Ellison,  An  English  Woman 
in  a  Turkish  Harem  (ib.,  1915).  History: 

Josef  von  Hammer-Purgstall,  Geschichte  des 
osmanischen  Reichs  (10  vols.,  Budapest,  1835; 
rev.  ed.,  without  documents,  4  vols.,  ib.,  1836; 
French  ed.,  18  vols.,  Paris,  1836),  the  standard 
authority;  T.  E.  Holland,  The  European  Con¬ 
cert  in  the  Easteim  Question  (Oxford,  1885)  ; 


577 

Stanley  Lane-Poole  and  Others,  Story  of  Turkey 
(new  ed.,  New  York,  1897);  Halil  Ganem, 
Etudes  d’histoire  orientate :  Les  sultans  ottomans 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1901-02);  Mark  Sykes,  Dar-ul- 
Islam:  A  Journey  through  Ten  of  the  Asiatic 
Provinces  of  Turkey  (New  York,  1904)  ;  E.  S. 
Creasy,  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  (rev.  ed., 
ib.,  1906)  ;  Vahan  Cardashian,  The  Ottoman  Em¬ 
pire  of  the  Twentieth  Century  (Albany,  1908)  ; 
C.  N.  E.  Eliot,  Turkey  in  Europe  (new  ed.,  Lon¬ 
don,  1908)  ;  Angus  Hamilton,  Problems  of  the 
Middle  East  (ib.,  1909)  ;  Victor  Berard,  La 
revolution  turque  (Paris,  1909);  C.  R.  Buxton, 
Turkey  in  Revolution ,  (New  York,  1909)  ;  G.  F. 
Abbott,  Turkey  in  Transition  (ib.,  1909)  ;  Sir 
W.  M.  Ramsay,  Revolution  in  Constantinople 
and  Turkey  in  1909  (ib.,  1910)  ;  David  Fraser, 
Persia  and  Turkey  in  Revolt  (Edinburgh,  1910)  ; 
Francis  McCullagh,  Fall  of  Abd-Ul  Hamid  (Lon¬ 
don,  1910)  ;  H.  C.  Woods,  Danger  Zone  of 
Europe:  Changes  and  Problems  in  the  Near  East 
(Boston,  1911)  ;  B.  G.  Baker,  The  Passing  of  the 
Turkish  Empire  in  Europe  (Philadelphia,  1913)  ; 
William  Miller,  The  Ottoman  Empire,  1801-1919 
(New  lY>rk,  1913)  ;' Victor  Berard,  La  mort  du 
Stamboul :  considerations  sur  le  gouvernement 
des  Jeunes-Turcs  (Paris,  1913)  ;  J.  G.  Schurman, 
The  Balkan  Wars,  1912-1913  (2d  ed.,  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  1914)  ;  A.  La  Jonquiere,  Histoire  de 
V empire  ottoman  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1914)  ;  Ahmed 
Emin,  “Development  of  Modern  Turkey  as  Meas¬ 
ured  by  its  Press,”  in  Columbia  University, 
Studies  in  History,  Economics  and  Public  Laic 
(New  York,  1914)  ;  G.'W.  Bury,  Arabia  Infelix, 
or,  The  Turks  in  Yamen  (ib.,  1915)  ;  H.  O. 
Dwight,  Constantinople  (ib.,  1915)  ;  Mark  Sykes, 
The  Caliph's  Lost  Heritage  (ib.,  1915)  ;  H.  A. 
Gibbons,  The  Foundation  of  the  Ottoman  Empire 
(ib.,  1916). 

TURKEY  (abbrev.  of  Turkey  cock,  Turkey 
hen,  so  called  as  being  supposed  to  come  from 
Turkey,  vaguely  applied  to  Tartary  or  Asia 
in  general).  The  turkeys  are  natives  of  North 
and  Central  America,  and  the  only  two  species 
known  are  the  common  wild  turkey  ( Meleagris 
gallopavo) ,  divided  into  five  subspecies,  and  the 
beautiful  Yucatan  turkey  ( Meleagris  ocellatus) . 
They  were  once  regarded  as  a  distinct  family, 
but  are  now  considered  the  sole  American  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  the  Phasianidae.  The  wild  turkey 
is  like  the  domesticated  one,  but  more  brightly 
colored.  The  ocellated  turkey  of  Central  Amer¬ 
ica  is  a  smaller  and  more  beautiful  species;  the 
plumage  is  lustrous,  and  parts  of  it  are  ocel¬ 
lated,  like  the  peacock’s  feathers;  the  bare  head 
is  blue  with  orange  caruncles.  This  fine  species 
is  confined  to  Yucatan  and  Central  America. 
The  common  wild  turkey  is  still  found  in  Mexico, 
Texas,  and  Arizona,  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
West  and  South,  but  is  scarce  east  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  and  north  of  Virginia  or  Kentucky, 
though  it  formerly  ranged  well  up  into  New 
England  and  as  far  north  as  Ontario.  The  wild 
turkey  nests  on  the  ground,  commonly  laying 
about  12  eggs  of  a  creamy-white  color.  The  fe¬ 
male  rarely  raises  more  than  one  brood  in  a  sea¬ 
son  and  then  only  if  misfortune  has  come  to 
the  first  brood.  The  young  are  at  the  mercy 
of  many  enemies  and  the  adults  that  survive 
have  become  nearly  exterminated  in  America. 

The  domestic  turkey,  the  largest  of  gallina¬ 
ceous  birds,  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Spaniards  early  in  the  sixteenth 
century  and  is  the  descendant  of  the  Mexican 
wild  turkey.  The  domestic  birds  vary  greatly 


TURKISH  LANGUAGE 


TURKEY  BUZZARD  57^ 

in  plumage  from  the  tints  of  the  wild  species  to 
buff,  or  brown,  or  pure  white,  and  occasionally 
produce  a  crest.  On  account  of  its  size  and  the 
excellence  of  its  flesh  and  eggs  the  turkey  is  one 
of  the  most  valued  kinds  of  poultry.  The  man¬ 
agement  of  turkeys  differs  little  from  that  of 
the  common  fowl.  *  The  young  are  tender  for  the 
first  few  weeks,  and  require  care,  particularly  to 
keep  them  from  getting  wet  by  running  among 
the  wet  grass,  or  the  like;  but  afterward  they 
are  sufficiently  hardy.  Consult  American  School 
of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Turkeys,  Waterfowl,  and 
Guineas  (Mountain  Grove,  Mo.,  1914),  and  E. 

A.  Mcllhenny,  The  Wild  Turkey  and  its  Hunting 
(Garden  City,  N.  Y.,  1914).  See  Colored  Plate 
of  Peacock,* Turkey,  and  Guinea  Fowl. 

TURKEY  BUZZARD.  See  Vulture. 

TURKEY  GNAT.  An  insect  ( Simulium 
pictipes)  of  the  dipterous  family  Simuliidae,  iden¬ 
tical  with  the  Southern  buffalo  gnat,  which 
usually  makes  its  appearance  about  the  time 
turkeys  are  setting,  and  sometimes  causes  great 
mortality  among  those  birds.  See  Black  Fly; 
Buffalo  Gnat. 

TURKEY  GUM.  See  Gums. 

TURKEY  RED.  A  name  applied  to  one  of 
the  most  durable  and  beautiful  colors  which 
have  been  produced  on  cotton.  The  process  of 
dyeing  cotton  Turkey  red  is  said  to  have  been 
practiced  in  India  from  ancient  times.  The 
operations  are  long  and  tedious,  and  their  ef¬ 
fect  could  scarcely  be  explained  theoretically. 
Turkey  red  is  one  of  the  colors  of  alizarin  which 
can  be  obtained  either  from  the  madder  root 
(Rubia  tinctorum)  or  by  an  artificial  process 
of  manufacture  as  a  product  of  coal  tar.  See 
Alizarin. 

TURKEY  STONE.  A  honestone  found  in 
Turkey.  See  Hones. 

TURKISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERA¬ 
TURE.  The  language  and  literature  of  the 
Turks  in  general,  and  especially  of  the  Osmanli. 
Within  the  Ural  Altaic  family  the  Turkish  group 
stands  somewhat  nearer  to  the  Samoyedic  and 
Finno-Ugric  than  to  the  Tungusian  and  Mongo¬ 
lian.  While  the  pronouns,  case  suffixes,  and 
construction  of  sentences  are  very  similar  to 
those  in  the  latter  groups,  not  only  is  there 
a  very  marked  difference  in  the  vocabulary,  but 
also  a  more  developed*  system  of  inflection  and 
a  freer  use  of  pronominal  suffixes.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Turkish  group  has  a  simpler  system 
of  cases  than  the  Samoyedic  and  Finno-Ugric; 
it  does  not  incorporate,  as  they  do,  the  pronomi¬ 
nal  object  in  the  verb,  and  it  inserts,  as  they  do 
not,  the  negative  after  the  root  of  the  verb.  It 
is,  on  the  whole,  more  agglutinative  and  less 
inflectional  than  the  Finnish  and  the  Hungarian. 

Among  the  languages  or  dialects  comprised 
within  the  Turkish  group  the  Osmanli  has  the 
closest  affinities  to  the  Anadoli,  the  Krimmi, 
the  Azerbaijani,  and  the  Turkmani,  though  the 
latter  two  already  begin  to  show  characteristic 
differences.  The  Jagatai  and  Taranji,  and  even 
more  the  northern  dialects,  Kirghiz,  Bashkir, 
Irtysh,  and  Volga  in  the  West,  and  Altai,  Ba- 
raba,  Lebed,  Tuba,  Abakan,  Kuarik,  Soyon 
Karagass,  and  Uighur  in  the  East,  have  a  much 
broader  and  harsher  vocalization,  a  very  confus¬ 
ing  substitution  of  consonants,  as  m  for  b,  b  for 
w,  j  for  y,  etc.,  and  a  preservation  of  those  an¬ 
cient  tense  and  case  words  which  in  Osmanli 
and  some  of  the  other  southwestern  dialects  have 
become  mere  arbitrary  particles  added  to  the 
root  to  indicate  tense  or  case. 


TURKISH  LANGUAGE 

The  chief  structural  characteristics  of  the 
Turkish  language  are  four :  ( 1 )  the  root  of 

every  word  is  inviolable;  (2)  the  root  is  em¬ 
phasized  by  making  its  leading  vowel  dominate 
the  vowels  and  to  some  extent  the  consonants 
added  for  purposes  of  inflection,  subjecting  them 
to  change  under  regular  rules  of  euphonic  har¬ 
mony.  (3)  Grammatical  forms,  especially  in 
the  conjugation  of  the  verb,  are  abundant,  regu¬ 
lar,  logical,  and  efficient.  (4)  Determining  or 
modifying  syllables  are  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
root.  *  The  Turkish  verb  begins  in  simplicity. 
For  instance,  bak  means  look  thou,  and  is  the 
root  of  the  verb  balcmak,  to  look.  Upon  this 
root  a  series  of  new  verbs  may  be  built :  ( 1 ) 

Causative:  bakdirmak,  to  cause  or  allow  to 
look;  (2)  reciprocal:  bakishmak,  to  look  at  one 
another;  (3)  reflexive:  bakinmak,  to  look  at 
one’s  self,  i.e.,  to  be  perplexed.  From  these 
again  a  further  series  of  new  verbs  can  be  made 
by  inserting  in  each  the  causative  particle;  (4) 
bakdirtmak,  to  make  or  let  one  cause  another  to 
look;  (5)  bakishdirmak,  to  cause  or  allow  one 
to  look  at  another;  (6)  bakindirmak,  to  cause 
or  allow  one  to  look  at  himself,  i.e.,  to  be  per¬ 
plexed.  All  of  these  new  verbs  can  be  conjugated 
in  the  positive,  the  negative,  and  the  impossible 
form  (to  look;  not  to  look;  and  not  to  be  able 
to  look),  and,  if  the  sense  permits,  in  all  the 
moods  and  tenses  of  the  active  and  passive 
voices.  The  same  is  true  of  the  root  of  every 
verb  in  the  language,  if  the  sense  permits.  It 
has  been  computed  that,  counting  all  the  moods 
and  tenses  and  numbers  and  persons,  the  permu¬ 
tations  of  which  each  Turkish  verb  is  capable 
amounts  to  over  25,000.  Yet  so  simple  and  clear 
are  the  rules  that  the  memorizing  of  44  syllables 
or  particles  enables  one  to  build  and  understand 
the  whole  series.  The  efficiency  of  the  system 
appears  on  realizing  that  Turkish  grammar  has 
but  one  conjugation  and  no  irregular  verbs  ex¬ 
cept  the  auxiliary.  The  scheme  of  the  verb  is 
that  of  a  form  which  will  fit  every  root  and 
which  is  yet  so  transparent  that  the  root  is  al¬ 
ways  visible.  The  same  principle  of  agglutina¬ 
tion  to  the  root  is  followed  in  making  new  verbs 
from  nouns  or  adjectives  and  in  declining  nouns 
and  pronouns.  There  is  no  gender  for  noun, 
pronoun,  or  adjective.  Adjectives  are  subjected 
to  no  change  except  for  comparison.  The  Turk¬ 
ish  syntax  is  peculiar.  The  unit  of  expression 
is  the  paragraph,  and  there  is  no  punctuation. 
The  subject  of  the  ruling  verb  is  placed  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  beginning  of  the  paragraph. 
All  subordinate  sentences  and  clauses  adding 
particulars  have  their  verbs  in  participial  form, 
the  sense  being  thus  suspended  during  the  proc¬ 
ess  of  building  the  paragraph,  until  the  chief 
verb  coming  in  at  the  very  end  illuminates  the 
whole. 

The  earliest  form  of  the  alphabet  used  in 
writing  Turkish  dialects  is  that  employed  in  the 
inscriptions  found  on  the  Yenesei  and  on  the 
Orkhon  River  south  of  Lake  Baikal.  The  let¬ 
ters  show  a  marked  similarity  to  the  Aramaic 
alphabet  appearing  on  the  later  Arsacid  coins. 
One  of  these  inscriptions  is  dated  in  733  a.d.  ; 
but  it  is  not  improbable  that  some  of  them  are 
still  earlier.  The  Uighur  inscriptions  are  some¬ 
what  later;  a  copy  of  the  poem  Kudatku  Bilik, 
“The  Blessed  Knowledge,”  was  made  in  1085. 
These  Uighurs  used  an  alphabet  of  14  letters 
derived  from  the  Nestorian  Syriac.  The  same 


TURKISH  LANGUAGE  579  TURKISH  LANGUAGE 


resemblance  to  the  Estrangelo  is  also  character¬ 
istic  of  the  recently  discovered  Manichaean  texts 
(cf.  Le  Coq,  in  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society,  London,  1911,  pp.  277  ff.),  and  in  a  modi¬ 
fied  form  this  alphabet  seems,  to  have  passed  to 
the  Tunguses  and  the  Mongolians.  As  the  Turk¬ 
ish  tribes  became  Moslems  they  adopted  the 
Arabic  alphabet,  increasing  the  28  letters  to 
33  by  the  device  invented  by  the  Persians  of 
adding  dots  to  five  of  the  Arabic  letters.  This 
alphabet  is  quite  unsuited  to  the  Turkish  lan¬ 
guage,  owing  to  the  lack  of  proper  vowels.  As 
vowels  like  a,  o,  ii  cannot  be  expressed,  it  is 
sometimes  impossible  to  avoid  serious  ambiguity 
or  uncertainty  as  to  the  meaning.  Turkish  is 
occasionally  written  in  Armenian,  Greek,  or 
Russian  letters. 

The  onrush  of  the  Turks  from  the  Far  East 
into  all  civilized  lands,  including  China,  which 
continued  from  the  tenth  century  to  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth,  enlarged  the  meagre  Turkish 
vocabulary.  The  tribes  which  invaded  India, 
now  known  under  the  name  of  Moguls,  lost  their 
language;  but  those  which  conquered  Persia  and 
overthrew  the  Byzantine  Empire  came  under  the 
literary  influence  of  Persian  at  first,  then  of 
Arabic,  and  finally  of  Greek  and  the  European 
languages.  The  consequence  was  that  the  Otto¬ 
man  Turkish  (Osmanli),  as  the  Western  branch 
of  the  language  is  called,  adopted  into  its  literary 
vocabulary  Persian  words  of  poetry  and  history, 
Arabic  words  for  religious  and  legal  writings, 
Greek  words  for  the  winds  and  currents  and  fishes 
of  the  sea,  Italian  words  for  all  that  relates  to 
sailing  vessels,  and,  later,  English  terms  for 
steam,  the  steamboat  and  its  manoeuvres,  and 
French  words  for  many  of  the  terms  of  diplo¬ 
macy. 

TURKISH  LITERATURE 

Turkish  literature  is  a  term  which  at  present 
implies  the  literature  of  the  Western  or  Ottoman 
Turkish  language.  It  may  be  regarded  as  fall¬ 
ing  into  three  periods:  (1)  The  early  period, 
when  writers  were  from  the  region  of  Central 
Asia,  and  when  the  Persian  was  the  model  and 
often  the  instrument  of  their  highest  expression. 
(2)  The  middle  period,  beginning  about  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  extending  well 
into  the  nineteenth,  when  Arabic  dominated  the 
Turkish  literary  world,  having  replaced  Persian 
as  model  except  in  poetry.  (3)  The  modern 
period,  dating  from  about  the  time  of  the 
Crimean  War  (1853-56).  In  it  the  tendency  of 
Turkish  writers  is  to  copy  French,  rather  than 
either  Persian  or  Arabian  models,  and  to  bring 
back  into  the  language  half-forgotten  Turkish 
expressions. 

The  earliest  literary  remains  of  Turkish  writ¬ 
ers  are  the  inscriptions  mentioned  above,  de¬ 
ciphered  and  interpreted  by  Castren,  Thomsen, 
Radloff,  Donner,  and  Hirth.  One  of  the  earliest 
books  of  the  early  period,  celebrated  for  its 
pure  Turkish,  is  a  genealogical  history  of  the 
Tatars  by  Abul  Ghazi  of  Khwarezm,  dating  from 
the  twelfth  century.  The  judge  Burhan  el  din  of 
Sivas,  a  descendant  of  Genghis  Khan,  an  adven¬ 
turer,  ruling  over  two  provinces,  who  lost  his 
life  in  trying  to  conquer  another  in  1398,  has 
left  some  poems  written  in  good  Turkish,  al¬ 
though  after  the  Persian  school.  Another  of 
the  early  poets  was  Suleiman  Effendi  (died 
1410),  chaplain  to  Sultan  Bajazet,  whom  Timur 
carried  off.  He  wrote  a  poem  in  honor  of  the 
birth  of  the  Prophet  Mohammed  which  has  been 


read  throughout  lurkey  on  public  occasions  in 
each  year  during  nearly  500  years,  and  still  re¬ 
tains  its  power  to  move  its  hearers.  Another 
of  the  poets  of  the  early  period  was  Amud  el  din, 
who  wrote  under  the  name  Nesimi.  Like  the 
others  of  these  early  poets,  he  was  under  the 
influence  of  Sufiism  (q.v.),  and  so  incensed  the 
more  orthodox  Moslems  that  he  was  flayed  alive 
at  Aleppo  in  1417.  Sheikhi,  whose  real  name 
was  Sinan  (died  1420),  was  a  doctor  as  well  as 
a  poet.  His  fame  rests  mainly  upon  his  poem, 
the  Klmr-name,  or  Donkey  Book,  in  which  he 
classifies  his  enemies  according  to  the  different 
types  of  asses  found  in  the  East. 

Nevayi,  whose  real  name  was  All  Shir  (died 
1500),  is  the  great  representative  of  Turkish 
poetry  in  this  period.  He  was  Grand  Vizier 
for  a  time  to  Sultan  Husain  of  Herat,  but  re¬ 
tired  early  that  he  might  write.  He  was  a 
master  in  both  Turkish  and  Persian.  The  thor¬ 
oughly  human  quality  of  his  writings  appeared 
from  the  fact  that  one  main  source  of  our  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  old  eastern  Turkish  language  is  a 
dictionary  written  by  a  Persian  in  order  that 
Persians  might  profit  by  Nevayi’s  writings.  The 
greatest  prose  writer  of  this  period  was  Baber, 
great-grandson  of  Timur,  and  “Mogul”  con¬ 
queror  of  India  in  1525-26.  Flis  annals  of  his 
campaigns  are  written  in  plain  Turkish,  Arabic 
and  Persian  words  being  used  to  eke  out  his 
vocabulary. 

Of  the  middle  period  of  Turkish  literature 
Saad  el  din  (died  1599)  offers  a  type.  He  was  a 
warrior  of  great  renown,  and  afterward  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Turkish  Empire  (Sheikh  al  Islam) 
under  Sultan  Mohammed  III.  The  work  on 
which  his  literary  fame  rests  is  a  liistorv  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  called  Taj  el  Tevarikh,  The 
style  is  of  the  most  ornate  Persian  order  and 
there  is  hardly  any  Turkish  in  the  book  except 
those  auxiliaries  essential  to  the  binding  of  the 
sentences.  Saad  el  din  followed  the  principle, 
which  ruled  literature  throughout  the  middle 
period,  that  Arabic  words  must  be  brought  into 
Turkish  with  all  their  grammatical  rules  and 
appurtenances.  The  effect  is  to  make  the  finest 
Turkish  literature  of  this  period  quite  unintel¬ 
ligible  to  those  who  have  not  enough  knowledge 
of  Arabic  and  Persian  to  use  dictionaries  of 
those  languages.  Bald  (died  1599),  rated  by 
Turkish  critics  as  the  “king  of  the  poets  of 
Osmanli  Turkish,”  was  a  contemporary  of  Saad 
el  din.  He  was  the  son  of  a  mosque  servant  who 
became  one  of  the  Caziaskers,  or  judges  of  the 
supreme  court,  under  Sultan  Selim  II.  His 
poetry  was  strongly  Persian  in  flavor,  but  with¬ 
out  slavish  imitation.  Another  great  poet  of 
this  time  was  Fuzuli  (died  1563),  whose  real 
name  was  Mehemed,  of  Bagdad.  To  a  foreign 
taste  he  offers  more  of  originality  than  Baki. 
His  poems  are  warm  with  the  peculiar  fire 
of  Sufiism,  and  in  both  poetry  and  prose  he 
loved  the  strong  virile  Turkish  "words.  The  list 
of  Turkish  poets  is  long,  but  those  mentioned 
are  still  the  greatest  names.  To  them  we  may 
add  Nedim  (died  1725),  whose  ghazels  and 
kasidas  show  originality  as  well  as  eloquence  of 
diction  and  humor.  The  name  of  Kiani,  whose 
real  name  was  Abu  Bekr  (died  1791),  too, 
should  have  a  place  in  the  list  of  notable  poets 
of  this  period.  The  simplicity  and  transparent 
beauty  of  his  lines  are  such  that  had  it  not  been 
for  his  inveterate  waggishness  he  would  hold 
very  high  rank  among  the  Turkish  poets. 
Another  of  the  great  poets  of  this  period  was 


TURKOMANS 


TURKISH  LANGUAGE 

Xabi  (died  1712),  whose  Ghazels  are  accounted 
among  the  finest.  His  real  name  was  \usuf  of 
Urfa.  One  of  his  longer  poems,  the  Khairiye, 
has  been  translated  into  French  by  Pavet  de 
Courteille.  Sheikh  Ghalib  (died  1/98),  whose 
Huan-u-ashk  (Beauty  and  Love)  is  regarded 
as  a  fine  allegory,  should  also  be  mentioned,  as 
well  as  the  poetess  Sherif  Hanum,  who  died  in 
1809,  leaving  a  Divan  of  some  merit. 

The  historians  of  the  middle  period  make  a 
long  list.  But  their  work  is  blemished,  as  a  rule, 
by  a  difficult,  stilted  style,  and  the  pettiness  of 
the  annalist.  Among  exceptions  in  the  long  se¬ 
ries  we  may  select  Pechevi  Ibrahim,  who  shows 
some  inkling  of  what  a  historian  should  be; 
Solak  Zade,  who  died  about  1680,  and  wrote  in 
the  graphic  style  of  an  eyewitness;  and  espe¬ 
cially  Katib  Tehelebi,  sometimes  called  Hajji 
Khalfah  (q.v.).  His  real  name  was  Mustafa, 
and  he  died  in  1658,  leaving  an  enormous  mass 
of  extremely  valuable  writings  in  history,  ge¬ 
ography,  and  bibliography. 

To  the  same  period  probably  belong  _  certain 
writings  of  value  which  are  passed  over  in  scorn 
by  the  Turkish  literary  critics  because  they  are 
not  in  the  mongrel  language  of  the  pedants. 
Hence  their  authors  are  unknown.  Of  this  class 
is  the  History  of  the  Forty  Viziers,  dedicated  to 
Sultan  Mustapha  I  (1617-23).  It  is  a  cycle  of 
some  75  stories  grouped  about  an  incident  of 
the  Joseph  and  Potiphar  order.  The  book  is 
directed  against  the  idea  of  trusting  the  fair 
sex  and  winds  up,  after  all  wrongs  have  been 
righted,  with  the  quaint  prayer,  “May  the  Most 
High  bring  us  all  near  to  the  good  and  to  God, 
and  keep  us  from  the  tricks  of  deceitful  woman. 
Amen.”  Another  of  these  unconsidered  classics 
of  Turkish  is  the  Life  of  Nasr  el  din  Hoja,  a  col¬ 
lection  of  bulls  acted  or  spoken  by  a  Turk  of 
Asia  Minor,  who  is  delightfully  humorous.  To 
the  same  class  belongs  the  story  of  Shah  Miron, 
a  collection  of  fairy  tales,  religious  in  purpose, 
which  is  remarkable  for  its  pure  Turkish  diction. 

As  a  fruit  of  the  Crimean  War  a  revolution 
took  place  in  the  educational  system  of  Turkey. 
The  result  has  been  the  appearance  of  the  mod¬ 
ern  school  of  writers  who  are  yet  to  change  en¬ 
tirely  the  character  of  Turkish  literature.  The 
heavy  scholastic  theologians  are  seeking  to  arrest 
the  movement  by  the  censorship,  and  they  have 
persecuted  or  imprisoned  some  of  the  most  pow¬ 
erful  writers,  like  Ebuzzia  Tewfik,  or  sent  them 
to  die  in  exile  on  a  barren  island  like  Kemal  Bey. 
The  aim  of  the  new  school  of  writers  is  to  free 
the  Turkish  language  from  the  incubus  of  Arabic 
grammatical  purism.  The  writers  who  have  per¬ 
haps  done  the  most  towards  accomplishing  this 
object  are  Ahmed  Vefik  Pasha  (died  1893), 
whose  dictionary  of  Turkish  in  two  volumes  was 
a  revelation  to  multitudes,  and  Ahmed  Mithad 
Effendi,  noted  for  his  novels,  essays,  and  his¬ 
torical  studies.  Great  as  is  the  linguistic  value 
of  Ahmed  Mithad’s  writings,  they  are  too  close 
imitations  of  French  works  to  have  permanent 
literary  value.  Of  far  greater  weight  was  Kemal 
Bey,  who  died  in  1878.  Jevdet  Pasha,  illustrious 
as  an  historian,  whose  works  show  a  steady  de¬ 
velopment  towards  the  simpler  Turkish  style; 
Ziya  Pasha,  a  brilliant  essayist  and  poet;  and 
Jevad  Pasha,  who  has  written  a  fine  history  of 
the  origins  of  the  Turkish  military  organization, 
are  other  examples  of  this  school.  Other  notable 
names  of  this  period  are  Muallim  Naji,  poet  and 
essayist:  Ebuzzia  Tewfik,  literary  critic;  Sezayi 
Bey,  Husain,  Rahmi,  Ahmed  Rasim,  and  Aliy6 


Hanum,  daughter  of  the  historian  Jevdet  Pasha, 
all  of  whom  are  novelists,  dealing  with  current 
life  in  a  realistic  style  entirely  new  in  Turkish 
literature.  Hamid  Bey  has  made  for  himself  a 
name  as  a  playwright.  The  modern  period  can¬ 
not  be  said  to  liave  entirely  revealed  its  qualities 
while  strife  with  reactionist  control  continues. 
But  it  has  at  least  shown  that  there  is  a  future 
before  the  writers  of  Turkey,  if  they  ever  have 
freedom  to  speak  and  to  develop.  See  An¬ 
thology. 

Bibliography.  For  analysis  of  the  philosophy 
of  Turkish  grammar,  consult:  Abel  R6musat,  Re- 
cherches  sur  les  longues  tatares  (Paris,  1820)  ; 
Shaw,  Sketch  of  the  Turkish  Language  as  Spoken 
in  Eastern  Turkestan  (Calcutta,  1878-80)  ; 
for  the  Eastern  Turkish  language:  De  Courteille, 
Diotionnaire  turc-oriental  (Paris,  1870)  ;  Ar- 
nim  Vambery,  Cagataische  Sprachstudien  (Leip¬ 
zig,  1867)  ;  Wilhelm  Radloff,  Proben  der  Volks- 
Utteratur  der  turkischen  Stiimme  Sud-Siberiens 
(St.  Petersburg,  1868);  id.,  Die  alttiirkischen 
Inschriften  der  Mongolei  (ib.,  1897)  ;  Bohtlingk, 
TJeber  die  Sprache  der  -Jakuten  (ib.,  1851)  ; 
Thomsen,  Inscriptions  de  VOrkhon  decliiffrees 
(Helsingfors,  1896)  ;  O.  Donner,  Sur  Vorigine  de 
V alphabet  turc  (ib.,  1896)  ;  J.  Marquardt,  Chro- 
nologie  der  alt -turkischen  Inschriften  (Berlin, 
1898;  6  vols.,  London,  1900-09).  For  the 

Ottoman  Turkish  language,  consult:  Charles 
Wells,  Practical  Grammar  of  the  Turkish  Lan¬ 
guage  (London,  1880)  ;  Adolf  Wahrmund,  Prak- 
tisches  Handbueh  der  osmamsch-tiirkischen 
Sprache  (2d  ed.,  Giessen,  1884)  ;  August  Muller, 
“Tiijkische  Grammatik,”  in  the  Porta  Linguarum 
Orientalium  (Berlin,  1889)  ;  R.  Youssouf,  Gram- 
maire  complete  de  la  long  lie  ottomane  (Constan¬ 
tinople,  1892)  ;  Sir  J.  W.  Redhouse,  Lexicon  of 
the  Ottoman  Turkish  Language  (ib.,  1884), 
the  most  complete  Turkish  lexicon  in  existence; 
id.,  English-Turkislv  Dictionary  (ib.,  1861); 

E.  A.  Leran,  Turlcish-English  Conversation  Il¬ 
lustrated  (Boston,  1914)  ;  Sami,  Dictionnaire 
ture-frangais,  frangais-turc  ( Constantinople, 
1883),  is  a  small  but  very  useful  work.  For 
Turkish  literature,  consult:  Georg  Jacob,  Tiirk- 
ische  Litteraturgeschichte  in  Einzeldarstellungen 
(Berlin,  1900)  ;  id.,  Turkische  Volkslitteratur 
(ib.,  1901)  ;  E.  J.  W.  Gibb,  History  of  Ottoman 
Poetry  (London,  1902-05)  ;  Georg  Jacob, 
Turkische  Bibliothek  (Berlin,  1905-06)  ;  Wil¬ 
helm  Radloff,  Versuch  eines  Worterbuches  der 
Turk-DiaXeete  (Leipzig,  1904—06).  “Turkish 
Literature,”  in  the  World’s  Great  Classics  (Lon¬ 
don,  1901),  is  a  convenient  collection  of  transla¬ 
tions  of  typical  Turkish  works;  except  in  the 
Ottoman  poetry  translated  by  Gibb,  however, 
the  articles  are  not  taken  directly  from  the 
Turkish;  also:  Paul  Horn,  Geschichte  der  turk¬ 
ischen  Moderne  (Leipzig,  1902)  ;  Sir  Edwin 
Pears,  Turkey  and  its  People  (London,  1911); 
Tales  from  Turkey,  collected  and  done  into  Eng¬ 
lish  bv  Allan  Ramsay  and  Francis  McCullagh 
(ib.,  1914). 

TURKISH  MUSIC.  See  Janizary  Music. 

TURCOMANS.  A  people  whose  principal 
home  is  in  the  great  plains  between  the  Caspian 
Sea  on  the  west  and  the  Sea  of  Aral  and  the 
Amu  Darya  on  the  east — the  western  part  of 
Turkestan  in  the  broader  sense.  Some  of  them 
are  to  be  found  in  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and 
other  regions.  They  belong  by  language,  and 
largely  by  blood,  to  the  Turkic  stock.  The 
Turkomans  of  Turkestan  are  under  Russian 
rule.  See  Turkestan. 


TURKO- TATARS 


TURNBULL 


58i 


TURKO-TATARS,  tur'ko-tii'tarz.  A  term 
used  by  certain  ethnologists  to  designate  a  group 
of  Ural-Altaic  peoples  composed  of  the  Turkic 
and  related  so-called  Tatar  tribes  and  nations. 
Under  Turko-Tatars  are  included:  The  Siberian 
peoples  of  i  urkic  stock,  such  as  the  Yakuts  and 
Siberian  Tatars;  the  Kirghiz-Cossacks  of  the 
Irtysh  Caspian  steppes;  the  Kara-Kirghizes  of 
the  Tian-Shan;  the  Uigurs,  Sarts,  Uzbegs,  and 
Turkomans  of  Central  Asia;  the  Tatars  of  the 
Volga;  Bashkirs,  Tchuvashes,  and  Meshtcheriaks, 
in  European  Russia;  the  Tatars  of  the  Crimea 
and  the  Caucasus,  including  the  Nogai,  Karat- 
ehai,  Kumyks,  and  Basians;  the  Azerbaijani;  the 
Yuruks  of  Anatolia;  the  Osmanli  Turks;  the  his¬ 
torical  nations:  the  Huns,  Petchenegs,  Cvimans, 
Avars,  and  perhaps  the  ancient  Bulgars  and  Kha- 
zars,  etc.  Many  of  these  peoples,  like  the  Osman- 
lis,  Starts,  Turkomans,  Uzbegs,  Azerbaijani,  and 
the  Turks  of  Turkestan,  are  largely  Aryanized  in 
blood,  with  often  an  added  Semitic  strain.  Ex¬ 
cept  the  Yakuts,  whose  religion  is  Shamanism, 
and  those  Tchuvashes  who  have  become  Christian, 
the  Turkic  peoples  profess  Islam.  The  empires 
founded  by  Turko-Tataric  peoples  have  had  a 
rather  ephemeral  existence,  and  the  realm  of  the 
Osmanli  Turks  in  Europe  owes  its  perpetuation 
not  a  little  to  the  very  mixed  physical  character 
of  that  people.  Consult:  Armin  V.imbery,  Ety- 
mologisches  Worterbuch  der  turko-tatarischen 
Sprachen  (Leipzig,  1878);  id.,  Die  primitive 
Kultur  des  turko-tatarischen  Volkes  (ib.,  1879)  ; 
id.,  Das  Turkenvolk  (ib.,  1885)  ;  Wilhelm  Rad- 
loff,  Die  Sprachen  der  Turkischen  Stamm e  (St. 
Petersburg,  1866  et  seq.) ;  id.,  Ethnographische 
Ubersicht  der  Turkstdmme  Siberians  Und  der 
Mongolei  (Leipzig,  1883)  ;  Ernest  Chantre, 
Recherches  anthropotogiques  dans  VAsie  occi- 
dentale  (Lyons,  1895)  and  the  periodical  Revue 
Orientate  ( Keleti  Szemle) . 

TURK’S  CAP.  See  Lily. 

TURK’S  HEAD.  A  name  given  to  a  number 
of  coffee  houses  in  London,  among  which  that  on 
the  Strand,  frequented  by  Dr.  Johnson  and  Bos¬ 
well,  was  the  most  noted.  Others  of  the  name 
were  situated  in  Change  Alley,  in  Soho,  and  in 
Westminster. 

TURKS  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  small  islands 
in  the  Bahamas,  which,  together  with  the  Caicos 
Islands  (q.v.),  form  a  dependency  of  Jamaica. 

TURLIN,  Heinkicii  von  dem.  See  Heinkich 

VON  DEM  TURLIN. 

TURMAIR,  toor'mlr,  Johannes.  The  real 
name  of  the  German  historian  best  known  as 
Johannes  Aventinus  (q.v.). 

TUR'MERIC  (Fr.  terre-mdrite,  Neo-Lat.  terra 
merita,  turmeric,  apparently  deserved  earth,  best 
earth,  but  probably  a  corruption  of  an  Oriental 
name,  perhaps  of  Ar.  kurkum,  from  Skt.  kun- 
kuma,  saffron),  Curcuma  tonga.  A  plant  of  the 
family  Zingiberacea?,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
much  cultivated  both  in  India  and  in  Cochin- 
China,  for  its  fleshy  roots,  more  than  $500,000 
worth  of  which  are  annually  exported  from  India 
alone.  YYrnng  roots  abound  in  a  kind  of  arrow- 
root,  but  older  ones  contain  a  large  quantity  of 
a  resinous  yellow  substance  called  turmeric, 
which  is  used  mainly  for  dyeing.  The  color  is 
not  very  stable.  Some  of  its  other  uses  are  in 
chemistry  as  a  test  for  alkalies,  their  carbonates 
and  phosphates,  some  of  the  alkaloids,  and 
boracic  acid,  which  change  it  to  reddish  brown, 
and  as  a  condiment  with  many  kinds  of  food, 
especially  as  a  principal  ingredient  in  curry 
powder.  The  plant  thrives  best  in  a  rich,  friable 


soil,  and  a  situation  not  liable  to  be  flooded. 
It  is  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  rootstock, 
which  are  planted  at  distances  of  18  inches  to 
2  feet,  in  April  or  May.  The  crop  is  gathered  in 
December.  This  kind  of  turmeric  is  sometimes 
distinguished  by  the  name  long  turmeric;  and 
the  name  of  round  turmeric  is  given  to  Kcemp- 
feria  pandurata,  a  plant  of  the  same  family,  also 


turmeric  ( Curcuma  longa ). 


a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  the  roots  of  which 
are  shorter  and  rounder,  but  otherwise  of  very 
similar  quality.  They  are  especially  valued  for 
the  preparation  of  an  artificial  gold  varnish,  as 
they  yield  a  better  color  than  the  former  kind. 
The  Arabic  name  of  turmeric  is  kurkum,  whence 
curcuma.  Turmeric  is  not  cultivated  commer¬ 
cially  in  the  United  States.  See  Curcuma. 

TURN,  toorn.  A  town  adjoining  Teplitz  in 
Bohemia,  Austria.  It  has  a  magnificent  park, 
bathing  establishments,  and  thriving  manufac¬ 
tures  of  many  kinds,  particularly  porcelain. 
Pop.,  1900,  12,408;  1910,  13,653. 

TURNBULL,  Robert  James  (1775-1833). 
An  American  publicist,  born  in  New  Smyrna, 
Fla.  He  was  educated  in  England,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  Charleston  in  1794,  and  practiced 
there  until  1810,  when  he  retired  to  his  planta¬ 
tion.  He  was  active  in  the  Nullification  move¬ 
ment,  and  under  the  signature  of  “Brutus” 
published  31  papers  in  the  Charleston  Mercury, 
during  1827,  which  were  afterward  collected  as 
the  Crisis.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Nullifica¬ 
tion  Convention  in  1832,  and  prepared  the  ad¬ 
dress  to  the  people.  When  the  proclamation  of 
President  Jackson  was  read,  he  was  the  first  to 
volunteer  to  resist  the  general  government. 

TURNBULL,  William  (1800-1857).  An 
American  civil  engineer.  He  was  born  in  Phila¬ 
delphia;  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1819,  and 
was  commissioned  in  the  artillery.  He  was  en¬ 
gaged  largely  in  topographical  work,  and  was 
promoted  to  a  captaincy  in  the  topographical 
engineers  in  1831,  being  brevetted  colonel  in  1847. 
In  the  Mexican  War  he  was  with  General  Scott 
as  chief  topographical  engineer,  and  took  part 
at  Contreras,  Churubusco,  and  the  capture  of  the 
city  of  Mexico.  He  was*  superintending  topo¬ 
graphical  engineer  on  the  Potomac  Aqueduct  for 
the  water  supply  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  in 
charge  of  government  harbor  and  other  engineer¬ 
ing  works.  The  building  of  the  New  Orleans 


TURNBULL 


582 


TURNER 


Custom  House  and  the  Cape  Fear  River  im- 
provements  were  under  his  supervision. 

TURNBULL,  William  Barclay  David  Don¬ 
ald  (1811-63).  A  Scottish  antiquary,  born  at 
Edinburgh.  Educated  for  the  law,  he  was  ad¬ 
mitted  as  advocate  at  the  Scottish  bar  (1832), 
but  devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of  the 
antiquities  and  older  literature  of  Great  Britain. 
In  1834  he  founded  the  Abbotsford  Club,  which 
did  great  service  by  printing  works  preserved 
only  in  manuscripts  or  old  editions.  In  1859 
he  was  employed  by  the  Record  Commission, 
and  in  the  next  two  years  published  two  valuable 
volumes  of  calendars  of  state  papers,  but  on  ac¬ 
count  of  his  Catholicism  he  was  attacked  by  the 
ultra-Protestant  party  and  compelled  to  resign. 
He  was  an  industrious  and  careful  editor,  and 
did  excellent  service  by  his  editions  of  Middle 
English  and  early  modern  English  poetry.  His 
work  as  genealogist  and  historical  editor  was 
of  value.  Among  his  publications  may  be 
named :  The  Romances  of  Sir  Guy  of  TI  arwick 
and  Rembrun  his  Son  (1840);  The  Visions  of 
T undale  (1843)  ;  Letters  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
(1845)  ;  The  Poetical  Works  of  William  Drum¬ 
mond  of  Hawthornden  (1856). 

TURNBULL’S  BLUE.  See  Hyt>roferri- 
cyanic  Acid. 

TURNE'BUS,  Adrianus  (Fr.  Adrien  Tur- 
n£be)  (1512-1565).  An  eminent  French 
scholar,  born  at  Andelys,  famous  as  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Renaissance  in  France.  After 
completing  his  studies  in  Paris  he  became  pro¬ 
fessor  in  the  University  of  Toulouse.  In  1547  he 
was  called  to  Paris,  where  he  taught  Greek  and 
Latin,  and  later  philosophy,  until  his  death. 
From  1552  he  had  charge  of  all  Greek  books  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  royal  press.  Under  him  appeared 
the  first  editions  of  Philo  and  Synesius;  he  him¬ 
self  edited  AEschylus,  Aristotle’s  Ethics,  Cicero’s 
De  Legibus,  Horace  and  Varro’s  De  Lingua 
Latina,  and  made  many  translations.  Turnebus’ 
influence  extended  far  beyond  the  limits  of 
France  through  his  writings  and  pupils,  of 
whom  the  most  famous  was  J.  J.  Scaliger  (q.v.). 
After  his  death  his  commentaries,  translations, 
and  other  writings  were  published  in  three 
volumes  (Paris,  1564-80).  Consult  the  Life  pre¬ 
fixed  to  these  volumes;  also  Mattaire,  Historia 
Typographorum  Aliquot  Parisiensium  (London, 
1817)  ;  and  J.  E.  Sandys,  A  History  of  Classical 
Scholarship,  vol.  ii  (Cambridge,  1908). 

TUR'NER,  Charles  Tennyson  (1808-79). 
An  English  poet,  brother  of  Alfred  Tennyson 
(q.v.).  He  was  born  at  Somersby,  in  Lincoln¬ 
shire.  Like  his  more  famous  brother  he  at¬ 
tended  the  Louth  Grammar  School,  and  then 
studied  at  home  under  the  direction  of  his 
lather,  the  vicar  of  Somersby.  With  Alfred,  he 
published  Poems  by  Two  Brothers  ( 1827 ;  re¬ 
issued  1893).  In  1828  he  entered  Trinity  Col¬ 
lege,  Cambridge,  graduating  B.A.  in  1832.  In 
1835  he  was  ordained  and  became  curate  of 
Tealby,  in  Lincolnshire,  and  two  years  later  vicar 
of  Grasby,  in  the  same  county.  On  inheriting 
a  small  estate  from  a  great-uncle,  Samuel  Tur¬ 
ner,  he  added  Turner  to  his  name.  His  last 
years  were  passed  at  Cheltenham.  After  his 
juvenile  verse  he  published  Sonnets  and  Fugitive 
Pieces  (1830),  which  were  appreciated  by  Cole¬ 
ridge;  and  similar  volumes  in  1864,  1868,  and 
1873.  In  1880  Hallam  Tennyson  brought  to¬ 
gether  all  of  his  uncle’s  sonnets  and  lyrics  under 
the  title  Collected  Sonnets,  Old  and  A Jew,  and  in¬ 
troduced  them  by  a  biographical  sketch. 


TURNER,  Charles  Yardley  (185C-1919). 
An  American  mural  landscape  and  figure  painter. 
He  was  born  in  Baltimore,  and  studied  at  the 
National  Academy  and  the  Art  Students'  League 
in  New  York  City,  and  afterward  under  Lau¬ 
rens,  Munkhcsy,  and  Bonnat  in  Paris.  He  at 
first  exhibited  large  canvases  of  historical  genre, 
such  as  the  “Bridal  Procession”  (Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York),  but  soon  turned  to  mural 
painting  and  executed  decorations  in  many  pub¬ 
lic  and  municipal  buildings  and  hotels.  Good, 
examples  of  his  work,  which  is  well  composed, 
carefully  drawn,  and  realistic  in  character,  are: 
“The  Burning  of  the  Peggy  Stuart,”  and  “The 
Barter  with  the  Indians,”  in  the  Baltimore 
Court  House;  the  two  lunettes  “Washington 
Watching  the  Assault  on  Fort  Lee”  and  “Fulton’s 
Clermont  Making  its  First  Trip  up  the  Hudson,” 
in  the  Hudson  County  Court  House,  Jersey  City; 
the  panels  “Equity”  and  “Law”  in  the  Appellate 
Court,  New  York;  “Opening  of  the  Erie  Canal'5 
and  “Marriage  of  the  Waters”  in  the  DeWitt 
Clinton  High"  School,  New  York.  From  1881  to 
1884  Turner  was  professor  of  drawing  and  paint¬ 
ing  at  the  Art  Students’  League,  New  York,  and 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National  Academy 
of  Design  in  1886.  From  1912  he  was  director 
of  the  Maryland  Institute  of  Art  and  Design. 
He  made  Washington  City  his  residence,  but 
maintained  studios  in  New  York  and  Baltimore. 

TURNER,  Cuthbert  Hamilton  (1860- 
).  An  English  theologian,  born  in  London. 
He  was  educated  at  Winchester  College  and  at 
New  College,  Oxford,  and  at  Oxford  was  an  as¬ 
sistant  lecturer  from  1888  to  1901,  first  Speaker  s 
lecturer  in  biblical  studies  in  1906—10,  and 
thenceforth  lecturer  in  early  Christian  history. 
From  1899  to  1902  he  was  the  first  editor  of  the 
Journal  of  Theological  Studies.  His  publica¬ 
tions  include:  Ecclesice  Occidentalis  Monumenta 
Iuris  Antiquissima  (2  vols.,  1899-1913)  ;  The 
History  and  TJse  of  Creeds  and  Anathemas  in 
the  Early  Centuries  of  the  Church  (1906); 
“Organization  of  the  Church,”  in  Cambridge 
Mediceval  History  (1911);  Studies  in  Early 
Church  History  (1912). 

TURNER,  Cyril.  See  Tourneur,  Cyril. 

TURNER,  Frederick  Jackson  (1861-  ). 

An  American  historian,  born  at  Portage,  Wis. 
He  graduated  in  1884  at  the  University  of  Wis¬ 
consin,  where  (after  further  study  at  Johns 
Hopkins)  he  was  professor  of  American  his¬ 
tory  from  1892  to  1910.  He  then  accepted  a 
chair  of  history  at  Harvard.  He  became  one  of 
the  editors  of  the  American  Historical  Review, 
and  in  1910-11  was  president  of  the  American 
Historical  Association.  He  published:  The 
Character  and  Influence  of  the  Indian  Trade 
in  Wisconsin  (1890);  Policy  of  France  to¬ 
wards  the  Mississippi  Valleij  in  the  Period  of 
Washington  and  Adams  (1906);  Rise  of  the 
Rew  West  (1906);  Reuben  Gold  Thwaites 
(1914). 

TURNER,  Herbert  Hall.  (1861-  .  ).  A 

British  astronomer.  He  studied  at  Clifton  Col¬ 
lege,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  was  later  fellow.  For  a  time  he  was  chief 
assistant  in  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich. 
In  1893  he  was  appointed  fellow  of  New  College, 
Oxford,  and  Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  in 
the  university.  Turner  was  president  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society  in  1903-04.  Be¬ 
sides  serving  as  joint  editor  of  Bedrock  (a  quar¬ 
terly  scientific  review),  he  published  Modern 
Astronomy  (1901);  Astronomical  Discovery 


TURNER 


TURNER 


583 


(1904);  Halley’s  Comet  (1908;  2d  ed.,  1910); 
The  Great  Star  Map  (1912). 

TURNER,  John  Herbert  (1834-  ).  A 

Canadian  government  officer.  He  was  born  at 
Claydon,  England,  was  educated  there,  and  went 
to  Canada  in  1856.  After  a  few  years  in  busi¬ 
ness  at  Charlottetown,  Prince  Edward  Island, 
he  removed  to  Victoria,  British  Columbia,  and 
founded  a  mercantile  house  of  which  he  con¬ 
tinued  to  be  the  head.  Entering  politics,  he 
was  a  Conservative  member  for  Victoria  in  the 
Provincial  Legislature  in  1887-1901.  He  was 
Provincial  Minister  of  Finance  and  Agriculture 
(1887-98;  1899-1901),  Premier  (1895-98),  and 
in  1901-15  he  was  agent-general  for  British  Co¬ 
lumbia  in  London. 

TURNER,  Joseph  Mallord  William  ( 1775— \ 
1851).  The  most  celebrated  landscape  painted 
of  the  English  school.  He  was  born  in  Covent 
Garden,  London,  April  23,  1775,  the  son  of  Wil¬ 
liam  Turner,  a  barber.  Almost  in  his  infancy^ 
he  began  to  paint  and  draw.  He  had  little  edu¬ 
cation  beyond  reading,  which  he  learned  from 
his  father,  and  writing,  which  was  all  he  ac¬ 
quired  at  school.  He  was  constantly  employed) 
in  coloring  prints  and  similar  work,  his  father 
oilering  him  every  possible  facility  for  artistic 
education.  Before  1789  he  was  placed  with 
Thomas  Walton,  an  architect,  to  learn  perspec¬ 
tive,.  but  proved  a  sorry  pupil.  Afterward  he 
studied  with  Thomas  Hardwick,  on  whose  ad¬ 
vice  he  entered  the  Academy  Schools  in  1789  to 
study  landscape.  He  was  admitted  to  the  studio 
of  Reynolds,  under  whom  he  copied  portraits  and 
perhaps  learned  oil  technique;  but  Sir  Joshua 
had  little  influence  upon  him. 

Turner’s  first  drawing  exhibited  at  the  Acad¬ 
emy  was  a  view  of  Lambeth  Palace  (1790). 
For  some  years  he  was  occupied  with  designs 
for  prints  in  magazines,  which  necessitated  long 
sketching  tours  over  England  and  Wales.  He 
continued  his  artistic  education,  however,  as 
one  of  the  coterie  of  young  artists  who  frequented 
the  hospitable  abode  of  Dr.  Thomas  Munro, 
whom  Ruskin  calls  “Turner’s  real  master.” 
Here  he  found  patronage  and  encouragement; 
here,  too,  he  met  Girtin  and  Cozens.  He  was 
influenced  by  Girtin,  the  founder  of  modern 
water-color  painting,  with,  whom  he  sketched 
much  and  formed  a  clo'se  acquaintance.  The 
success  of  Girtin’s  Yorkshire  aquarelles  moved 
Turner,  in  1797,  to  make  a  similar  attempt,  and 
his  journey  in  Yorkshire  and  the  north  resulted 
in  his  forming .  several  important  friendships, 
such  as  that  with  Dr.  Whitaker,  whose  works 
Turner  afterward  illustrated  with  some  of  his 
best  designs.  It  also  had  a  marked  influence 
upon  his  artistic  career,  as  is  shown  by  his  ex¬ 
hibit  at  the  Academy  in  1798,  which  proclaimed 
his  genius  as  a  painter  of  poetic  landscape,  in 
such  pictures  as  “Morning  on  the  Comston  Fells, 
Cumberland”  (National  Gallery),  and  aquarelles 
like  “Norham  Castle”  (Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York),  which  Turner  esteemed  of  high  im¬ 
portance  in  his  development.  In  1799  lie  ex-, 
hibited  several  Welsh  subjects,  in  rivalry  with 
Girtin,  and  his  first  picture  of  a  naval  engage¬ 
ment,  the  “Battle  of  the  Nile” — works  which 
secured  his  choice  as  associate  of  the  Royal 

Academy.  * _ 

With  this  year  ceases  what  Ruskin  calls  Tur- 1 
ner’s  period  of  development,  and  the  period  of 
his  first  style  (1800-20)  begins.  Dropping  topo¬ 
graphical  subjects  he  introduced  historical  and 
mythological  motifs  into  hi3  pictures,  striving 


to  equal  or  surpass  the  masters  then  most  cele¬ 
brated,  William  van  de  Velde,  Nicolas  and  Gas- 
pard  Poussin,  and  Claude  Lorraine,  in  their  own 
subjects.  He  was  especially  influenced  by 
Claude,  the  great  painter  of  light,  which  Turner 
also  considered  the  chief  problem  of  painting. 
In  1802  he  paid  his  first  visit  to  the  Continent, 
the  results  of  which  appeared  in  the  exhibition 
in  1803  of  pictures  and  drawings  of  the  Savoy 
Alps,  most  of  which  are  now  in  the  National 
k  V ,  as  well  as  “Calais  Pier,”  and  a  “Holy 
Family”  of  the  same  year.  The  same  collection 
possesses  his  famous  “Shipwreck”  (1805);  his 
“Garden  of  the  Hesperides”  (1806),  painted 
in  the  classical  style  in  rivalry  with  Poussin; 
and  the  “Sun  Rising  in  the  Mist”  (1807),  one 
of  his  best  and  most  individual  works.  From 
1807  to  1819  he  was  engaged  on  his  Liber 
Studiorum  (q.v.),  in  rivalry  with  Claude’s  Liber 
Veritatis.  The  etchings  for  these  plates,  all  of 
which  were  supervised  or  executed  by  Turner 
himself,  show  the  master  at  his  very  best.  He 
now  made  travels  in  Devonshire,  in  the  north  of 
England,  in  Scotland,  and  on  the  Continent. 
Among  other  important  works  of  this  period  are: 
“Apollo  and  Python”  (1811)  ;  “Hannibal  and  his 
Army  Crossing  the  Alps”  (1812)  ;  “Crossing  the 
Brook”  (1815);  and  “Dido  Building  Carthage” 
(1815),  the  best  of  a  Carthage  series — all  in 
the  National  Gallery. 

With  his  visit  to  Italy  in  1819  begins  his\ 
second  style  (1820-35),  the  time  of  his  most 
perfect  works,  distinguished  by  lightness  and 
brilliancy  of  color.  Ceasing  to  imitate  the  old 
masters,  he  nevertheless  clung  to  the  classical \ 
idea  of  composition.  This  mature  style  is  well 
represented  by  the  first  of  .  the  series  of  the  won¬ 
derful  Italian  pictures  upon  which  his  fame^- 
chiefly  rests — the  “Bay  of  Baise,  with  Apollo 
and  the  Sibyl”  (1823);  also  by  hDido  Direct¬ 
ing  the  Equipment  of  the  Fleet”  (1828)  ;  “Ulys¬ 
ses  Deriding  Polyphemus”  (1829);  “Caligula’s 
Palace  and  Bridge”  (1831);  and  “Childe  Har- 
old’s  Pilgrimage”  (1832),  all  in  the  National 
Gallery.  During  1833-46  he  often  visited  Ven¬ 
ice,  which  for  some  time  furnished  subjects  for 
his  art.  Of  his  numerous  Venetian  subjects  the 
National  Gallery  possesses  a  rich  collection  of 
water  colors,  and  the  “Grand  Canal,”  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York  City,  is  a  fine 
example  of  the  oils.  He  found  time,  however, 
for  other  subjects,  like  “Staffa,  Fingal’s  Cave” 
(1834,  New  York  Public  Library);  “St. 
Michael’s  Mount,  Cornwall”  (1834),  'and  “The 
Fighting  Te?neraire”  (National  Gallery),  the 
best  known  and  most  popular  of  his'  works. 
He  was  still  much  occupied  with  designs  for 
illustrations,  like  Rivers  of  England  and  Ports 
of  England,  in  1824.  The  drawings  for  the 
series  England  and  Wales  (1827-38),  in  which 
several  line  engravers  under  Turner’s  supervision 
brought  this  art  to  a  new  perfection,  are  wonder¬ 
ful  in  color  and  atmospheric  effect.  In  1830 
appeared  the  lovely  illustrations  to  Rogers’s 
Italy ;  in  1833  the  first  of  his  Rivers  of  France, 
the  drawings  for  which  are  among  the  most 
perfect  of  his  works.  He  also  illustrated  the  \ 
works  of  Byron,  Scott*  Milton,  Campbell,  ' 
Rogers’s  Poems,  and  Moore’s  Epicurean. 

The  third  period  of  Turner’s  art  (1835-45)  is^T 
characterized  by  the  relinquishment  of  classic 
composition  and  a  more  direct  communion  with 
nature,  of  which  he  endeavored  to  render  his 
splendid  impressions,  foreshadowing  the  modern 
Impressionists.  Though  it  tended  to  become 


TURNER 


TURNER 


534 


more  dreamlike  and  unreal,  his  work  was  more 
wonderful  in  color  than  ever.  To  this  period 
belong  many  great  works:  the  “Slave- Ship 
(1840,  Boston  Museum);  “The  CastTe  of  Indo¬ 
lence”  (1841,  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York);  “Snow  Storm”  (1842);  “Approach  to 
Venice”  (1843);  “Rain,  Steam,  and  Speed 
(1844) — these  last  in  the  National  Gallery. 
Here  belongs  also  a  series  of  attempts  to  rep¬ 
resent  vague  thoughts  in  color  language,  like 
“War — The  Exile”  (ib.,  1842),  and  many  pic¬ 
tures  of  Alpine  scenery,  the  grandeur  of  which 
he  has  rendered  as  no  other  painter,  in  works 
like  “The  Spliigen.”  After  1845  his  mind  and 
sight  began  to  fail;  but  though  his  work  was  in¬ 
coherent,  it  was  still  good  in  color.  He  began' 
a  new  series,  “The  Whalers,”  which  lie  did  not 
live  to  complete,  and  of  which  there  is  a  good  1 
example  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum.  He  diecU 
at  Chelsea,  Dec.  19,  1851,  and  was  buried  in  St. 
Paul’s  Cathedral.  His  splendid  collection  of 
his  own  works,  262  oils,  135  water  colors,  1757 
studies  in  color,  and  almost  innumerable 
sketches,  was  bequeathed  to  the  nation,  and 
is  for  the  most  part  in  the  National  Gallery. 
He  intended  that  his  fortune,  £140,000,  should  be 
devoted  to  the  establishment  of  pensions  for  indi¬ 
gent  English  artists,  but  his  will  was  broken  and 
most  of  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  lawyers  and 
relatives.  Though  very  economical,  even  sordid  in 
his  personal  habits,  he  was  generous  to  others. 
Much  evil  has  been  said  about  his  private  life 
and  character;  but  those  who  knew  him  best 
found  him  gentle  and  considerate,  a  kind  and 
dutiful  son,  and  a  faithful  friend.  His  brusque 
manner  was  but  a  foil  of  his  retiring  disposi¬ 
tion,  which  made  him  inaccessible  to  society.  It 
is  difficult  to  reconcile  these  characteristics  and 
the  refinement  of  Turner’s  art  with  the  seem- 
inglv  coarse  character  of  his  relation  to  women. 

Turner’s  life  was  one  continuous  course  of 
prosperity,  and  he  fully  achieved  the  fame  he 
so  ardently  desired:  in  1802  he  was  elected 
Academician,  and  in  1808  became  professor  of 
perspective  at  the  Academy.  He  easily  eclipsed 
in  the  public  favor  all  landscapists  of  his  day. 
In  later  life  his  works  were  attacked,  but  to 
atone  for  this  he  found  in  John  Ruskin  the  most 
eloquent  advocate  ever  possessed  by  any  artist, 
though  these  eulogies  have  created  several  wrong 
ideas  about  Turner’s  art.  Its  chief  characteris¬ 
tic  does  not  consist,  as  Ruskin  maintains,  In  a 
scrupulous  fidelity  to  Nature.  He  was  indeed 
one  of  the  profoundest  students  of  Nature; 
but  he  idealized  her,  much  as  did  Byron  and 
Shelley  in  literature.  His  master  passions  in 
art  were  the  rendition  of  light,  and  that  subtle 
quality  which  Ruskin  calls  the  Turnerian  mys¬ 
tery,  by  which  objects  are  rendered  with  a  cer¬ 
tain  hazy  indistinctness  of  the  highest  poetical 
effect.  His  chief  technical  quality  is  not  natu¬ 
ralism,  but  a  splendid  and  brilliant,  thougli 
sometimes  unreal,  color.  He  was  as  subtle  and 
refined  in  drawing  as  in  composition.  In  range 
of  subject,  imagination,  and  sublimity  Turner 
has  never  been  equaled.  Though  unsound  ill, 
oil  technique,  as  is  evinced  by  the  ruined  state 
of  many  of  his  best  works,  he  was  a  consummate  ) 
master  "  of  water  color  (q.v.).  He  was  himself 
an  excellent  etcher  and  engraver,  trusting  to 
mezzotint  to  produce  the  light  and  shadows ;/ 
and  his  designs  for  illustrations  produced  a  new 
school  of  line  engraving  in  England.  His  facil¬ 
ity  of  execution  and  diligence  were  well-nigh  in¬ 
credible.  A  number  of  collections  in  the  United 


States,  including  the  Metropolitan  Museum  with 
the  Vanderbilt  and  Morgan  loans,  and  the  Pub¬ 
lic  Library,  New  York,  possess  good  examples  of 
his  work. 

Bibliography.  The  most  brilliant  and  sym¬ 
pathetic  appreciation  of  Turner  is  by  John 
Ruskin  in  Modern  Painters  (London,  1843-60), 
and  many  later  editions.  The  passages  relating 
to  Turner  were  published  separately  by  Freder¬ 
ick  Wedmore  under  the  title  of  Turner  and 
Ruskin  (2  vols.,  London,  1900).  Consult  also: 

G.  W.  Thornbury,  Life  of  Turner  Founded  on 
Letters  .  .  .  (New  York,  1877)  ;  P.  G.  Hamer- 
ton,  Life  of  J.  M.  W.  Turner  (Boston,  1879); 
W.  C.  Monkhouse,  The  Turner  Gallery :  A  Scries 
of  One  Hundred  and  Twenty  Engravings  with 
Descriptive  Text  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1879)  ; 
Sir  Walter  Armstrong,  Life  of  Turner  ( ib., 
1901);  Masters  in  Art,  vol.  iii  (Boston,  1902), 
containing  a  full  bibliography;  W.  L.  Wyllie, 
J.  M.  IF.  Turner  (New  York,  1905)  ;  W.  G. 
Rawlinson,  Turner’s  Liber  Studiorum :  Descrip¬ 
tion  and  Catalogue  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1907);  A.  J. 
Finberg,  Turner’s  Sketches  and  Drawings  (ib., 
1910);  J.  E.  Phythian,  Turner  (ib.,  1911). 

TURNER,  Nat  (c.1800-31).  An  American 
negro  slave  and  insurrectionist,  who  was  born 
and  lived  in  Southampton  Co.,  Va.  From  his 
childhood  he  fancied  himself  set  apart  for  some 
great  purpose,  and  claimed  to  hear  voices  and 
see  visions.  In  1828  he  declared  he  had  a  com¬ 
mand  to  rise  and  slay  his  enemies,  when  a  sign 
should  be  given.  A  peculiar  solar  appearance 
on  Aug.  13,  1831,  signaled  the  uprising.  With 
four  or  five  companions,  he  began  near  Cross 
Keys,  on  Sunday  night,  August  21,  by  killing 
five  members  of  his  master’s  family  in  their 
beds.  The  conspirators  were  recruited  till  the 
number  reached  53,  and  killed  all,  even  infants, 
in  every  house  in  the  neighborhood.  On  the 
next  morning  the  pupils  of  a  school  were  slain. 
Bv  noon  the  news  had  spread  and  the  band  was 
routed  by  a  party  of  white  men.  United  States 
troops  from  Fortress  Monroe  and  the  militia 
from  various  counties  of  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina  gathered  and  the  conspirators  were 
hunted  down.  Turner  kept  himself  concealed 
for  six  weeks.  On  being  discovered  he  fled,  but 
was  captured  near  Cross  Keys,  October  30,  tried 
and  convicted  at  Jerusalem,  and  on  November 
11  was  there  hanged.  Seventeen  negroes  were 
executed.  It  was  proved  that  some  in  the  party 
were  there  under  strong  compulsion.  Fifty-five 
whites  were  slaughtered  and  more  would  have 
been  killed  but  for  the  faithfulness .  of  slaves, 
who  in  several  instances  defended  their  masters. 
More  stringent  slave  codes  were  passed  in  many 
States,  free  negroes  lost  their  privileges,  sus¬ 
pected  negroes  were  killed  or  mutilated,  and  the 
Manumission  movement,  which  had  considerable 
strength,  was  checked.  Consult  Weeks,  “The 
Slave  Insurrection  in  Virginia,”  in  Magazine  of 
American  History  (New  \ork,  June,  1891),  and 
W.  S.  Drewry,  The  Southampton  Insurrection 
( Washington,  1 900 ) . 

TURNER,  Samuel  Hulbeart  (1790-1861). 
An  American  Episcopal  theologian.  He  was 
born  in  Philadelphia,  and  graduated  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Pennsylvania  in  1807.  He  was  rector 
of  churches  in  Chestertown,  Md.,  New  York,  and 
Brooklyn,  and  became  in  1818  professor  of  his¬ 
toric  theology  in  the  General  Theological  Semi¬ 
nary,  New  York,  and  in  1821  professor  of  bibli¬ 
cal  learning  and  Scripture  interpretation.  He 
was  also  professor  of  Hebrew  in  Columbia  Col- 


J.  M.  W.  TURNER 

'THE  GRAND  CANAL,  VENICE,"  FROM  THE  PAINTING  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM  OF  ART,  NEW  YORK 


THE  L!3"ARY 

OF  tus 

UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


TURNER  585  TURNIP 


lege  after  1830.  Among  his  works  are  com¬ 
mentaries  on  Romans  (1824  to  1853),  Hebrews 
(1852),  Ephesians  (185G),  and  Galatians 
(1856);  Bibliographical  Notices  to  the  Most 
Distinguished  Jewish  Rabbis  (1847);  Companion 
to  the  Book  of  Genesis  (1841)  ;  Parallel  Refer¬ 
ences  of  the  Neiv  Testament  (1848);  Thoughts 
on  Scriptural  Prophecy  (1852).  Consult  his 
autobiography  (New  York,  1863). 

TURNER,  Sharon  (1768-1847).  An  English 
historian.  He  was  born  at  Pentonville,  and  at 
the  age  of  15  was  articled  to  an  attorney,  to 
whose  practice  he  succeeded  six  years  afterward. 
He  was  a  successful  practitioner  until  1829, 
when  he  retired.  From  an  early  time  his  en¬ 
tire  leisure  had  been  devoted  to  "a  study  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period  of  English  history  from  the 
hitherto  almost  unused  Anglo-Saxon  manuscripts 
in  the  British  Museum.  These  studies  culmi¬ 
nated  in  his  famous  History  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
(London,  1797-1805 7th  ed.,  1852).  He  con¬ 
tinued  his  narrative  in  subsequent  years  under 
various  titles  to  the  end  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  but 
with  less  happy  results.  These  historical  works 
were  finally  published  in  a  collective  edition 
under  the  title  History  of  England  from  the 
Earliest  Period  to  the  Death,  of  Elizabeth  (Lon¬ 
don,  1839).  He  also  wrote  Sacred  History  of 
the  World  as  Displayed  in  Creation  and  Sub¬ 
sequent  Events  to  the  Deluge  (ib.,  1832;  8th 
ed.,  1848),  and  other  works. 

TURNER,  Sir  William  (1832-1916).  A 
British  anatomist  and  naturalist,  born  in  Lan¬ 
caster  and  educated  at  St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospi¬ 
tal.  At  Edinburgh  University  he  became  a 
demonstrator  (1854),  was  professor  of  anatomy 
(1867-1903),  and  thereafter  till  his  death  was 
principal  and  vice  chancellor.  From  1898  to 
1904  he  was  president  of  the  General  Medical 
Council,  and  in  1900  was  president  of  the  British 
Association.  He  was  knighted  in  1886  and  re¬ 
ceived  the  K.C.B.  in  1901.  From  1866  to  1894 
he  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Journal  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology.  Turner  published 
numerous  memoirs  on  human  and  comparative 
anatomy  and  prepared  several  of  the  reports  of 
the  Challenger  deep-sea  scientific  expedition. 

TURNER,  William  Wadden  (1810-59).  An 
American  philologist,  born  in  London.  In  1818 
he  emigrated  to  New  York,  and  became  a  print¬ 
er’s  apprentice.  He  was  librarian  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  New  York,  instructor  in  Hebrew  in 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  and  from  1852 
librarian  of  the  United  States  Patent  Office.  Be¬ 
sides  contributions  to  learned  societies  and 
periodicals,  he  published  with  Isaac  Nordheimer 
A  Critical  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language 
(1851),  and  Grammar  and  Dictionary  of  the 
Yoruba  Language  (1858)  ;  and  translated,  with 
P.  J.  Kaufmann,  Mackeldey’s  Compendium  of 
Modern  Civil  Law,  and  the  greater  part  of 
Freund’s  Latin-German  Lexicon. 

TURNHOUT,  tur-nout'.  A  town  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Antwerp,  Belgium,  25  miles  east  by  north 
of  the  city  of  Antwerp  (Map:  Belgium,  C  3). 
It  has  an  old  castle,  utilized  as  a  court  of 
justice  and  a  prison,  and  the  church  of  Ouel- 
Turnhout  with  noteworthy  paintings.  Turnhout 
manufactures  lace,  cloth,  leather,  and  playing 
cards.  Leech  breeding  is  also  an  important  in¬ 
dustry.  The  town  was  the  scene  of  a  victory  of 
the  Dutch,  under  Maurice  of  Nassau,  over  the 
Spaniards  in  1597,  and  in  1789  the  Austrians 
were  defeated  here  by  the  Belgians  under  Van 
der  Mersch.  Pop.,  1900,  20,945;  1910,  23,067. 


TURNING.  See  Metal-Working  Machin¬ 
ery;  Wood- Working  Machinery. 

TURNIP  (  from  turn  -f-  nep,  from  AS.  nap, 
turnip,  from  Lat.  napus,  sort  of  turnip),  Bras- 
sica  campestris  {rapa  of  some  botanists).  A 
biennial  plant  of  the  family  Cruciferuj,  culti¬ 
vated  in  cool  climates  for  Its  globose,  oblong 
or  roundish,  fleshy  roots,  which  are  used  as  a 
vegetable  and  for  stock  feeding.  It  is  a  native 
of  temperate  Europe  and  Asia,  growing  in  fields 
and  waste  places.  Garden  turnips  are  sown  in 
early  spring  or  even  as  late  as  midsummer; 
field  turnips  generally  in  midsummer,  so  as  to 
avoid  the  possibility  of  developing  a  flower  stem 
in  the  year  they  are  planted,  a  development 
which  impairs  the  quality  and  impedes  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  the  edible  part.  The  varieties  both 
of  garden  and  field  turnips  are  very  numerous. 
The  garden  turnips  are  generally  of  compara¬ 
tively  small  size,  rapid  in  growth,  and  of  deli¬ 
cate  flavor.  The  field  varieties  are  larger,  single 
roots  weighing  20  to  25  pounds  being"  found  "at 


times,  and  the  flesh  is  of  coarser  texture.  The 
name  Swedish  turnip  or  rutabaga  is  given  to  a 
group  cultivated  in  the  same  manner  and  used 
for  the  same  purpose  as  the  common  field  and 
garden  variety.  The  cultivated  turnip  grows 
best  in  rich  soil.  It  is  not  well  suited  to  clay, 
though  it  is  often  grown  thereon.  Complete  pul¬ 
verization  of  the  soil  is  requisite  before  seed 
sowing.  On  light  soils,  a  crop  of  turnips  gen¬ 
erally  succeeds  wheat  or  oats.  Seed  may  be 
sown  either  in  drills  2-2 %  feet  apart  or  broad¬ 
cast.  The  young  plants  are  thinned  out  to 
stand  8  inches  or  more  apart,  and  the  ground 
is  stirred  and  carefully  kept  clean  by  cultivation 
and  hoeing.  The  turnip  crop  is  thus  of  great 
use  in  clearing  the  land  of  weeds.  In  many 
places  part  of  the  crop  is  eaten  on  the  ground 
by  sheep,  which  are  corralled  upon  small  areas 
in  fields  perhaps  partly  harvested. 

The  ordinary  turnip  and  the  rutabaga  are 

used  for  feeding  stock,  the  former  less  than 

the  latter.  Both  are  coarse  fodder,  since  thev 

%> 


TURPIN 


TURNIP  INSECTS 

are  bulky  in  proportion  to  their  nutritive  value. 
Turnips  "have  the  following  average  percentage 
composition:  water,  90.5;  protein,  1.1;  fat,  0.2, 
nitrogen-free  extract,  6.3;  crude  fibre,  1.1;  and 
ash,  0.8.  Swedish  turnip:  water,  88.6;  protein, 
1.2;  fat,  0.2;  nitrogen-free  extract,  7.7;  crude 
fibre,  1.3;  and  ash,  1.1.  Experiments  show 
that  90  per  cent  of  the  total  dry  matter,  nitro¬ 
gen-free  extract,  and  crude  fibre  of  turnips  is 
digested.  In  Great  Britain,  northern  Europe, 
and  Canada  large  quantities  of  turnips  are  fed, 
with  other  roots,  replacing  grain  to  a  consider¬ 
able  extent.  Roots  are  little  fed  in  the  United 
States,  probably  because  they  are  less  easily 
cultivated  than"  corn.  Turnips  are  used  espe¬ 
cially  for  sheep.  Dairy  cattle  should  be  milked 
before  being  fed  turnips,  even  in  limited  quan¬ 
tities,  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  tainting  the 
milk.  Sheep  prefer  the  Swedish  turnip  to  all 
other  roots.  Slicing  and  pulping  are  commonly 
practiced.  Consult  New  York  Cornell  Experi¬ 
ment  Station,  Bulletin  31 7.  See  Plate  of  Cab¬ 
bage  and  Allies. 

TURNIP  INSECTS.  There  are  practically 
no  insects  specifically  attached  to  the  turnip, 
although  this  crop  frequently  suffers  from  the 
attacks  of  s'everal  kinds  of  insects.  The  foliage 
is  eaten  by  very  many  of  the  insects  which  are 
found  upon  cabbage  (see  Cabbage  Insects),  and 
the  cabbage  root  maggot  sometimes  affects  the 
turnip  tuber.  Several  of  the  root-feeding  beet 
insects  also  attack  turnips.  See  Sugar-Beet 
Insects. 

TURNOUR,  Cyril.  See  Tourneur,  Cyril. 

TURNPIKE.  See  Highway;  Road. 

TURN-SEVERIN,  or  TURNU-SEVERIN, 
turn'sa'va-ren'.  A  town  of  Rumania  on  the 
Danube  just  below  the  Iron  Gate,  about  175 
miles  west  of  Bucharest  (Map:  Balkan  Penin¬ 
sula,  D  2).  Near  it  are  the  remains  of  Trajan's 
Bridge,  erected  103  a.d.  Pop.,  1900,  18,626. 

TURNSPIT.  A  dog.  See  Hound. 

TURNSTONE.  A  shore  bird  ( Arenaria  in- 
terpres) ,  related  to  the  plovers  and  surf  bird 
(q.v.),  and  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
globe.  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions,  but  oc¬ 
curs  on  the  coasts  of  the  eastern  United  States 
during  migrations.  It  frequents  the  seashore, 
and  its  name  comes  from  its  turning  over 
small  stones  with  its  bill  in  search  of  food.  The 
eggs,  four  in  number,  are  laid  on  lonely  rocky 
coasts  where  there  is  sparse  vegetation.  They 
vary  much  in  color  and  markings,  and  are  cun¬ 
ningly  concealed.  The  length  of  the  turnstone 
is  rather  more  than  9  inches.  The  plumage 
varies  with  the  bird’s  age  and  the  season,  but 
is  always  pied  black  and  white,  with  rufous 
or  brownish  ash.  (See  Colored  Plate  of  Shore 
Birds.)  On  the  coasts  of  the  north  Pacific  is 
found  a  turnstone  ( Arenaria  melanocephala) 
which  lacks  the  rufous  or  brownish  ash.  These 
two  are  the  only  known  species.  The  turnstone 
is  also  known  as  calico  back,  calico  bird,  and 
liorsefoot  snipe. 

TUR'NUS.  In  Roman  story,  King  of  the 
Rutuli  (q.v.),  with  capital  at  Ardea  (q.v.).  Be¬ 
fore  the  arrival  of  .'Eneas  (q.v.),  King  Latinus 
(q.v.)  had  promised  his  daughter  Lavinia  in 
marriage  to  Turnus.  Swayed  by  certain  omens, 
which  the  seers  interpreted  as  meaning  that  his 
daughter  should  be  wedded  rather  to  a  foreigner, 
Latinus  disregarded  his  promise  to  Turnus  and 
offered  Lavinia  to  .Eneas.  Turnus  organized  a 
powerful  coalition  of  Italians  and  Etruscans 
against  .Eneas  and  the  Trojans.  The  resultant 


586 

war,  described  by  Vergil  in  JEneid,  vii-xii,  ended 
with  a  single  combat  between  .Eneas  and  Tur¬ 
nus,  in  which  Turnus  was  slain.  In  the  JEneid , 
Turnus  is  the  foil  to  .Eneas;  he  and  his  allies 
represent  the  semibarbarous  peoples  of  Italy 
which  are  constrained  to  give  way  before  the 
higher  civilization  of  Rome. 

TURNU-SEVERIN.  See  Turn-Severin. 
TUR'PENTINE  (OF.  turpentine,  terebentine , 
ML.  terebintina,  turpentine,  from  Lat.  terebin- 
thinus,  relating  to  the  terebinth,  from  terebin- 
thus,  from  Gk.  repriptvOos,  terebinth).  The 
resinous  exudations  of  various  species  of  co¬ 
niferous  trees.  When  the  viscid  exudation  is 
distilled  without  steam,  oil  or  spirit  of  turpen¬ 
tine  passes  over,  leaving  behind  a  residue  of  com¬ 
mon  resin  or  colophony.  The  distillation  is 
carried  out  in  copper  stills.  The  mass  is  gradu¬ 
ally  heated  to  316°  F.  (158°  C.),  which  is 
approximately  the  boiling  temperature  of  oil  of 
turpentine.  Crude  turpentine  is  washed  with 
caustic  soda  and  redistilled,  producing  a  water- 
white  product  known  as  turps.  The  resin  remain¬ 
ing  in  the  still  is  drawn  off  while  hot.  French 
turpentine  is  distilled  by  means  of  a  current  of 
steam,  and  abietic  acid  is  a  constituent  of  the 
product.  The  oil  or  spirit  of  turpentine  dis¬ 
solves  sulphur,  phosphorus,  wax,  rubber,  cam¬ 
phor,  resins,  and  other  organic  substances  and 
mixes  freely  with  alcohol,  ether,  and  glacial 
acetic  acid,  but  not  with  water.  It  is  a  thin 
colorless  liquid  readily  recognized  by  its  char¬ 
acteristic  odor.  Chemically  it  is  a  mixture  of 
several  isomeric  hydrocarbons  (terpenes)  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  formula  C10H1Q  and  converted  by 
oxidation  into  a  camphor  having  the  composi¬ 
tion  C10H16O.  Oil  of  turpentine  is  largely  used 
in  medicine  as  an  irritant  and  counterirritant 
in  chronic  inflammations.  It  is  an  excellent 
remedy  for  ringworm,  and  is  given  internally 
also  to  stop  hemorrhages,  and  as  a  remedy  for 
gonorrhoea.  The  administration  of  turpentine  is 
attended  with  some  danger,  as .  it  is  likely  to 
produce  inflammation  of  the  kidneys.  In  the 
arts  oil  of  turpentine  is  used  for  the  preparation 
of  varnishes  and  as  a  thinner  and  flattener  of 
oil  paints.  American  turpentine  is  derived  from 
the  Pinus  australis  and  the  Pinus  tceda;  French 
turpentine  from  the  Pinus  maritima ;  Russian 
and  Swedish  turpentine  from  the  Pinus  syl- 
vestris  and  the  Pinus  lederbourii.  Canada  tur¬ 
pentine,  or  Canada  balsam,  is  obtained  from  the 
Abies  balsamea,  growing  in  Canada  and  the 
northern  United  States.  The  disinfectant  “sani- 
tas”  is  prepared  by  passing  air  into  a  mixture 
of  warm  water  and  Russian  turpentine.  Arti¬ 
ficial  turpentine  is  obtained  by  distilling  the 
wood  of  pine  stumps,  and  other  refuse  forms, 
with  steam.  The  odor  is  different  from  that  of 
the  natural  turpentine  and  seems  to  have  created 
a  prejudice  interfering  with  its  general  use. 
Turpentine  substitute  consists  of  various  ma¬ 
tures  of  benzine  or  similar  hydrocarbons  with 
rosin  spirit,  and  is  a  distinctly  inferior  article. 
See  Naval  Stores. 

TURPENTINE  TREE.  See  Pistacia. 
TUR'PIN,  or  TULPI'NUS  (?-c.800).  A 
supposed  mediaeval  chronicler,  Archbishop  of 
Rheims.  He  is  described  as  a  friend  and.  com¬ 
panion  of  Charles  the  Great  and  an  eyewitness 
of  the  exploits  he  relates  in  a  chronicle  in  Latin 
prose  narrating  the  expedition  of  the  Frankish 
Emperor  against  the  Saracens  of  Spain,  and  par- 
ticularlv  the  events  that  preceded  and  followed 
the  battle  of  Roncesvalles  (q-v.).  Turpin’s  name 


TURPIN 


587  TURTLE 


became  attached  to  this  chronicle,  but  though 
there  was  an  Archbishop  Tilpin  of  Rheims  (c.754— 
c.800 ) ,  he  has  no  claim  to  the  description  given 
above,  and  internal  evidence  leads  to  the  con¬ 
clusion  that  the  chronicle  is  mainly  a  work  of 
the  twelfth  century.  It  seems  to  have  sprung 
out  of  the  epic  ballads  and  traditions  of  the 
Carolingian  heroes,  and  was  taken  from  a  manu¬ 
script  composed  probably  at  Compostella.  The 
poems  were  changed  considerably  in  order  to 
further  pilgrimages  to  Compostella.  The  book 
soon  acquired  a  great  popularity,  was  translated 
into  French  by  1206,  and  was  made  use  of  by 
divers  chroniclers,  as  the  author  or  authors  of 
the  Chroniques  de  Saint-Denis,  Vincent  of  Beau¬ 
vais,  and  others.  There  have  been  several  edi¬ 
tions  of  the  chronicle  in  Latin;  the  best,  by 
Ferdinand  Castets,  was  published  at  Paris  and 
Montpellier  in  1880.  It  has  been  translated  into 
many  languages,  among  others  into  English  by 
Rodd  (London,  1812),  and  reprinted  in  Mediaeval' 
Tales,  in  Mor ley’s  Universal  Library  (London, 
1890).  For  editions  and  secondary  works,  con¬ 
sult  August  Potthast,  Bibliotheca  Historica 
Medii  TEvi,  vol.  ii  (Berlin,  1896),  and  especially 
Gaston  Paris,  Histoire  poMique  de  Charlemagne 
(new  ed.  by  Paul  Meyer,  Paris,  1905). 

TURPIN,  Richard,  commonly  called  “Dick 
Turpin”  (1706-39).  An  English  highwayman. 
He  was  born  at  Hempstead,  Essex,  where  his 
father  was  an  innkeeper.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a  butcher,  and,  detected  in  cattle  stealing,  he 
lied  and  joined  a  gang  of  thieves.  They  com¬ 
mitted  several  brutal  robberies,  but  disbanded 
after  two  of  their  number  had  been  captured  and 
hanged.  Turpin  became  associated  with  the  high¬ 
wayman  Tom  King,  whom  he  fatally  shot  when 
trying  to  prevent  King’s  arrest.  Turpin  escaped 
into  Yorkshire,  where  he  passed  for  a  gentleman, 
but  was  soon  suspected,  captured  with  some 
stolen  horses,  tried,  and  executed.  Turpin’s 
reputation  as  a  hero,  and  a  man  of  courage  and 
generosity,  together  with  his  marvelous  ride 
from  London  to  York,  are  fabrications,  enhanced 
by  Ainsworth’s  vivid  characterization  in  the 
novel  Rookieood  (1834). 

TURQUOISE,  tur-kois'  or  tur'kois .  (OF.  tur¬ 
quoise,  turques,  Fr.  turquoise,  fern,  of  turquois, 
Turk.,  from  Turc,  Turk) .  A  hydrated  aluminium 
and  copper  phosphate  that  is  usually  found  mas¬ 
sive.  It  is  opaque,  has  a  waxy  lustre,  and  occurs 
in  various  shades  of  blue  to  green.  The  peculiar 
bluish-green  or  robin’s-egg  tint  is  the  preferred 
color  for  gems.  Turquoise  is  found  in  narrow 
seams  and  irregular  patches  in  igneous  and  vol¬ 
canic  rocks.  The  best  specimens  come  from  the 
vicinity  of  Nishapur,  Persia,  but  the  mineral 
is  found  also  at  various  localities  in  Asia 
Minor,  Turkestan,  and  Siberia.  In  the  United 
States,  the  locality  in  the  Los  Cerillos  Moun¬ 
tains,  near  Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex.,  was  worked  by 
the  ancient  Mexicans,  and  still  yields  fine  stones. 
Other  localities  in  the  United  States  are  in  Col¬ 
orado,  Arizona,  Nevada,  and  California.  Among 
the  early  Mexicans  it  was  regarded  as  emblem¬ 
atic  of  success  and  was  worn  to  preserve  health. 
The  peculiar  property  of  the  turquoise,  of  be¬ 
coming  grayish  green  in  color  as  it  gives  up 
its  moisture,  led  to  a  belief  that  its  dullness 
foretold  misfortune,  and  hence  the  Oriental 
proverb  that  the  turquoise  pales  when  the  well¬ 
being  of  the  giver  is  in  danger.  It  was  believed 
in  the  Orient  to  be  a  remedy  for  diseases  of 
the  head  and  heart.  Bone  turquoise  or  odon- 
tolite  is  fossil  bone  colored  blue  by  iron  phos- 
Vol.  XXII.— 38 


phate.  Consult  Berthold  Laufer,  “Notes  on 
Turquoise  in  the  East,”  in  Field  Museum  of 
.Natural  History,  Publications:  Anthropological 
Series,  vol.  xiii  (Chicago,  1913),  and  J.  E, 
I  ogue,  The  Turquois  (Washington,  1915). 

TURRhCREMATA,  toor'rA-krA-ma'ta.  See 
Torquemada. 

TUR'RET  (OF.  tourette,  touret,  little  tower, 
dim.  of  tur,  tour,  Fr.  tour,  tower,  from  Lat. 
turns,  Gk.  rvpais,  tyrsis,  rvppis,  tyrris,  tower). 
A  revolving  tower  of  circular  or  oval  section  in 
which  naval  guns  are  mounted.  Fixed  towers 
are  commonly  called  barbette  towers  or  bar¬ 
bettes,  as  all  gun  towers  of  this  class  on  modern 
ships  are  designed  to  have  the  guns  fire  over 
the  tops  of  their  walls.  In  all  recent  ships  these 
towers  are  surmounted  by  revolving  turrets 
which  contain  the  guns. 

_TURRETIN,  tur't&N',  or  TURRETINI 

too'ra-te'ne,  Francois  (1623-87).  A  Swiss  Cal- 
vimstic  theologian.  He  was  born  in  Geneva; 
studied  theology  first  in  his  native  city  and 
afterward  in  Holland  and  France;  was  pastor 
at  Geneva,  1647;  removed  to  Leyden,  1650;  and 
was  recalled  to  Geneva  as  professor  of  theology, 
1653.  His  principal  work,  Institutio  Theologies 
Llencticce  (167 9 — 85 ;  new  ed.,  Leyden,  1696;  re¬ 
printed.  Edinburgh,  1847—48),  ranks  high  among 
the  strictest  expositions  of  Calvinistic  theology. 
He  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  Helvetic  Con¬ 
sensus  (1675)  directed  against  the  milder  theol¬ 
ogy  of  Saumur.  (See  Amyraut. )  His  com¬ 
plete  works  were  published  at  Geneva  in  1688. 
His  son,  Jean  Alphonse  (1671-1737),  was 
born  at  Geneva,  and  was  professor  there  of 
ecclesiastical  history,  1697.  He  followed  the 
Saumur  theology,  and  endeavored  to  unite  the 
Reformed  and  Lutheran  churches.  His  chief 
w7ork  is  Cogitationes  et  Dissertationes  Theologicce 
( 1711— 37).  His  collected  works  were  published 
at  Leuwarden  (1774-76).  Consult  the  lives 
of  the  elder  and  the  younger  Turretin,  as  they 
are  commonly  called,  by  E.  de  Bude  (Lausanne, 
1871;  1880). 

TURTCHANINOV,  tur-cha/ni-nof,  Piotk 
Ivanovitch  (1779-1856).  A  Russian  composer 
of  Church  music.  He  was  born  in  the  Govern¬ 
ment^  of  Kiev  and  studied  under  Sarti  and  Videl. 
In  1798  he  became  chorister  at  Kiev,  and  later 
held  similar  positions  elsewhere.  In  1827  he 
became  instructor  at  the  Imperial  chapel,  and 
in,  1831—41  was  a  priest  of  the  Imperial  church 
of  St.  Petersburg.  Turtchaninov’s  special  con¬ 
tribution  to  Church  music  was  his  harmonization 
of  ancient  melodies  contained  in  the  liturgy. 
His  masterly  arrangements,  published  posthu¬ 
mously  in  four  volumes,  are  characterized  by 
very  independent  leading  of  the  voices,  the  as¬ 
signment  of  the  cantus  firmus  (q.v. )  generally 
to  some  other  voice  than  the  soprano,  and  the 
faithful  preservation  of  the  original  intervals 
through  avoidance  of  chromatic  alterations. 

TURTLE  (probably  a  corruption  of  tortoise, 
or  of  Sp.  tortuga,  Portug.,  It.  tartaruga,  Fr. 
tortue,  tortoise;  in  either  case  ultimately  from 
Lat.  tortus,  twisted,  so  called  on  account  of  the 
crooked  feet;  probably  influenced  by  popular 
etymology  with  Eng.  turtle,  sort  of  ’dove).  A 
shell-incased  reptile  of  the  order  Chelonia.  The 
word  “turtle”  is  used  mainly  to  indicate  the 
large  marine  forms,  although  in  the  United 
States  it  is  applied  freely  to  both  fresh-water 
and  land  forms.  “Tortoise”  (q.v.),  strictly 
speaking,  refers  to  land  forms. 

Structure.  The  body  of  a  turtle  is  invariably 


TURTLE 


TURTLE 


588 


short  and  broad,  and  is  protected  above  and 
below  by  somewhat  bony  shields,  with  spaces 
between  them  in  front  and  behind,  into  which 
the  head  and  legs  may  be  drawn.  The  conical 
tail  is  usually  bent  around  against  the  side  of 
the  body  when  the  turtle  retracts  into  the  shell, 
thus  covering  the  circular  vent.  The  armature 
or  “shell”  is  composed  of  an  upper  part,  the 
“carapace,”  and  a  lower,  the  “plastron.  The 
carapace  is  formed  from  the  ribs,  of  which  there 
are  eight  pairs;  and  from  the  annular  parts  of 
the  dorsal  vertebrae,  expanded  into  plates,  which 
are  joined  to  each  other  by  dentilated  sutures, 
so  that  the  whole  acquires  great  firmness,  and 
the  dorsal  vertebrae  are  rendered  immovable. 
The  plastron  is  formed  of  pieces  which  repre¬ 
sent  the  sternum  or  breastbone,  and  which  are 
ordinarily  nine  in  number,  and  have  names,  as 
also  have  the  parts  of  the  carapace.  The  box 
tortoise  has  certain  plates  movable,  so  as  more 
completelv  to  inclose  its  body,  the  tuitles 
and  other  aquatic  chelonians  cannot  thus  with¬ 
draw  their  head,  tail,  and  limbs  from  dangei, 
but  their  greater  activity  of  movement  compen¬ 
sates  for  this.  The  above  remarks  apply  to  all 
turtles  (Thecophora)  except  the  leatherbacks 
(Athecse),  whose  body  is  jacketed  in  a  contin¬ 
uous  leather-like  case  composed  largely  of  a 
mosaic  of  polygonal  bony  plates;  and  the  verte¬ 
brae  and  ribs  are  not  fused  with,  but  are  free 
from,  the  carapace.  See  Leatherback. 

Externally  the  entire  shell  is  covered  with 
horny  epidermal  plates  or  shields  of  various 
forms  and  ornamentations,  but  arranged  in  all 
families  on  a  regular  plan.  Each  shield  grows 
individually,  the  rings  visible  upon  many  of 
them  indicating  each  a  year’s  growth  -at  least 
in  countries  where  a  winter  hibernation  and 
consequent  suspension  of  growth  take  place. 
These  plates  may  be  detached  by  heat,  and  in 
the  hawksbill  are  of  the  beautiful  material 
called  “tortoise  shell”  (q.v.).  The  neck,  legs, 
and  tail  are  often  provided  with  a  horny  scaled 
armature.  A  cuticular  layer  covers  the  out¬ 
side  of  the  armature  and  is  shed  in  fragments 
from  time  to  time.  The  skull  agrees  funda¬ 
mentally  with  that  of  crocodiles,  but  has  sev¬ 
eral  peculiar  features,  and  is  very  solid.  The 
mouth  is  bounded  by  a  more  or  less  horny 
beak  like  that  of  birds.  The  jaw  is  toothless, 
and  the  food  is  swallowed  whole.  There  is, 
therefore,  no  need  of  a  delicate  sense  of  taste, 
and  this  sense  is  degenerate.  In  the  stomach 
there  are  no  organs  of  trituration,  and  the 
process  of  digestion  is  necessarily  very  slow, 
and  is  dependent  on  the  action  of  the  gastric 
juice.  The  heart  is  short,  thick,  and  has  but 
one  ventricle.  The  lungs  are  large  and.  are 
capable  of  containing  much  air.  The  air  is 
drawn  into  the  mouth,  the  passages  to  the  nares 
are  then  stopped  by  the  tongue,  and  the  air  is 
gulped  down.  This"  way  of  supplying  the  lungs 
is  required  by  the  rigidity  of  the  armature, 
which  prevents  chest  expansion  and  contraction. 
Turtles  can  remain  under  water  for  an  hour 
or  so  without  renewing  the  lung  contents.  1  heir 
eyesight  is  very  keen.  The  eye  is  protected  by 
an  upper  and  a  lower  lid  and  also  by  a  nicti¬ 
tating  membrane,  as  in  birds.  The  sense  of 
hearing  is  very  acute. 

Habits  and  Habitat.  When  startled,  some 
turtles,  such  as  the  wood  turtle,  give  a  loud 
snakelike  hiss.  The  males  of  the  large  Gala¬ 
pagos  tortoises,  according  to  Darwin,  bellow  or 
roar  at  the  breeding  season.  The  common 


painted  turtles  utter  a  piping  note,  particu¬ 
larly  in  the  spring.  Turtles  are  diurnal  ex¬ 
cept  at  the  breeding  season.  With  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  sea  turtles,  the  habitat  of  any  individ¬ 
ual  turtle  is  very  local.  Tortoises  and  terra¬ 
pins  that  have  been  marked  have  been  observed 
in  the  same  pasture  year  after  year.  Sea  tur¬ 
tles  return  to  a  locality  to  breed.  Those  in 
the  temperate  region  hibernate  through  cold 
weather  buried  in  earth  or  mud.  Marine  forms 
have  the  legs  modified  into  huge  paddles,  while 
amphibious  forms  have  leglike  limbs  only  par¬ 
tially  webbed.  The  coloration  of  those  that 
spend  considerable  time  on  land  simulates  that 
of  the  ground.  One  form  ( see  Matamata  )  lias 
a  fringed  or  foliaceous  neck  of  much  service  in 
hiding  it  while  seeking  prey  or  avoiding  foes. 
About  250  species  of  Chelonia  are  known,  the 
most  numerous  species  being  found  in  fresh 
water,  generally  in  warm  climates.  The  marine 
species  are  the  largest.  Several  kinds  occur  in 
the  Alleghany  region  at  considerable  altitudes, 
but  none  live  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Chelo¬ 
nia  are  not  numerous  in  species  on  the  California 
coast,  or  in  Europe,  while  on  the  Asiatic  coast 
they  are  abundant. 

Some  of  the  sea  turtles,  the  land  tortoises 
(q.v.),  and  a  part  of  the  fresh-water  terrapins 
(q.v.)  are  herbivorous,  and  these  are  the  ones 
commonly  eaten  by  man.  Other  sea  and  fresh¬ 
water  forms  feed  entirely  or  in  part  on  animal 
food,  and  are  usually  ferocious.  Fresh-water 
forms,  such  as  the  snapping  turtles  ( q.v . ) ,  feed 
on  fish,  mussels,  earthworms,  insect  larvae,  young 
ducks,  and  the  like.  The  box  turtle  eats  mush¬ 
rooms  and  berries,  and  not  infrequently  makes 
raids  on  tomato  gardens.  Certain  pond  forms 
are  practically  omniverous. 

Aquatic  turtles  come  on  land  usually  on 
moonlight  nights  at  breeding  time  to  deposit 
their  eggs.  A  sandy  slope  is  preferred.  Here 
they  dig  a  hole  with  the  hind  feet,  let  the  eggs 
fall  within  it,  and  replace  the  sand  deftly.  The 
female  then  retreats  quickly  to  the  water.  Al¬ 
most  any  soil  will  suffice  for  the  American 
painted  turtle,  and  the  same  rotten  log  may 
be  utilized  by  many  musk  turtles  until  it  holds 
hundreds  of  eggs.  These,  if  not  dug  up  by 
some  animal,  are  left  to  hatch  by  the  aid  of 
the  sun’s  heat.  The  snapping  turtle  deposits 
from  18  to  30  eggs  in  the  early  morning  hours. 
The  wood,  painted,  and  skunk  turtles,  which 
lay  from  three  to  eight  eggs,  choose  the  after¬ 
noon  for  egg  laying.  The  eggs  of  snapping  tur¬ 
tles  are  usually  spherical  and  about  the  size 
of  a  walnut.  The  shell  is  tough  and  leathery. 
Certain  other  turtles  lay  oval  eggs,  and  a  few 
eggs  having  a  shell  of  a  fine  porcelain  textuie. 
The  eggs  hatch  slowly,  some  kinds  only  after 
three  or  more  months.  As  soon  as  the  young 
hatch  thev  begin  to  creep  about  and  to  travel 
down  inclines  until  they  reach  water.  All  the 
species  are  extremely  tenacious  of  life;  they 
are  capable  of  extraordinary  abstinence,  and .  of 
living  long  after  having  sustained  injuries  which 
would  have  destroyed  almost  any  other  ani¬ 
mal.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  longevity, 
examples  of  which  are  mentioned  under  Tor- 

Economic  Value.  The  flesh  of  those  which 
subsist  on  animal  food  is  musky  and  unpleas¬ 
ant;  that  of  vegetable  feeders  is  much  esteemed. 
Most  of  the  eggs  are  excellent.  Vast  quantities 
of  eggs  of  the  large  Amazonian  arrau  ( Pod- 
ocneinis  eccpansa)  are  pressed  to  obtain  oil  of 


TURTLE 


TURTLE 


589 


commercial  value.  The  most  highly  esteemed 
for  food  is  the  green  turtle  (q.v.),  and  its  rela¬ 
tive  the  “edible”  turtle  of  the  East  Indies. 
Many  smaller  kinds  are  eaten,  including  the 
favorite  American  terrapin,  the  snapping  turtle, 
and  other  fresh-water  forms. 

Classification.  The  Chelonia  were  at  first 
divided  according  to  modifications  of  the  feet. 
Cope,  recognizing  the  separability  of  Trionychoi- 
dea,  also,  in  1870,  emphasized  a  division  based 
upon  the  mode  of  carrying  the  neck,  one  group 
(Pleurodira)  bending  it  sidewise  in  withdraw¬ 
ing  the  head,  and  the  other  (Cryptodira)  with¬ 
drawing  it  in  an  S-shaped  curve  in  a  vertical 
plane.  A  more  worthy  division  is  Athecse  for 
the  shell-less  Sphargidae,  or  leatherbacks,  and 
Thecophora  for  all  other  kinds.  Boulenger’s 
classification  is  as  follows: 


Athecse 


Sphargidae. 


Chelonia 


Theco¬ 

phora 


[  Pelomedusidse. 
Pleurodira  j  Chelydidse. 

(  Carettochelydidse. 


Cryptodira 


Chelydridae. 

Dermatemydidae. 

Cinosternidse. 

Platysternidae. 

Testudinidse. 

Chelonidse. 


Trionychoidea .  .  .  Trionychidse. 


The  Pelomedusidse  are  a  small  family  of  Afri¬ 
can  and  South  American  turtles  including  the 
large  and  valuable  “arrau.”  The  family  Che- 
lydidje  includes  the  curious  matamata  (q.v.), 
certain  long-necked  Australian  types  ( Chelo- 
donia),  and  the  South  American  Hydromedusa. 
The  Carettochelydidse  are  a  family  in  which  is 
set  a  strange  small  turtle  of  New  Guinea,  whose 
“shell”  is  covered  with  soft  skin  instead  of 
horny  shields.  Of  the  cryptodirous  families,  the 
Chelydridse  are  represented  by  the  various  snap¬ 
ping  or  “alligator”  turtles  (q.v.),  and  the  Der- 
matemydidse  by  a  few  species  of  aquatic  tor¬ 
toises  of  Central  America.  The  Cinosternidse 
are  the  family  of  the  North  American  “skunk” 
turtles.  (See  Musk  Tortoise.)  Platysternidae 
includes  only  a  single  Siamese  water  tortoise. 
The  Testudinidse,  on  the  other  hand,  are  the 
most  populous  of  Chelonian  families  and  nearly 
cosmopolitan.  The  shell  in  this  family  is  al¬ 
ways  covered  with  well-developed  horny  shields, 
the  plastron  has  nine  bones,  and  the  neck  is 
completely  retractile.  About  20  genera  with 
more  than  130  species  are  now  recognized;  but 
the  generic  distinctions  are  not  easily  recognized 
by  external  appearances.  Here  are  classified 
the  North  American  “mud  turtles”  of  the  genus 
Chrysemys,  which  abound  in  all  still  waters,  as 
do  the  “pond  tortoises”  ( Emys )  of  Europe,  the 
terrapins  ( q.v. ) ,  and  the  box  tortoises  ( Cis- 
tudo ) .  The  last  get  their  name  from  the  fact 
that  the  plastron,  which  is  united  with  the 
carapace  by  ligaments,  is  divided  into  two  mov¬ 
able  lobes,  connected  by  a  hinge  permitting 
them  to  be  lifted  up  against  the  overhanging 
carapace,  and  closing  both  ends  of  the  shell 
perfectly  after  the  animal  has  drawn  within 
its  defenses.  The  common  box  tortoise  of  the 
United  States  ( Cistudo  Carolina )  is  entirely 
terrestrial,  numerous  everywhere,  and  interest¬ 
ing  in  its  habits.  In  this  family  also  fall  the 
various  land  tortoises  of  the  type-genus  Tes- 
tudo.  Most  of  the  foregoing  are  terrestrial  or 
fresh-water  forms,  while  the  remainder  are  ma¬ 
rine  and  have  the  limbs  modified  into  swim¬ 


ming  paddles  or  “flippers.”  The  family  Che- 
lonidae  contains  many  great  extinct  forms,  from 
the  Cretaceous  to  recent  times,  and  a  few  ex¬ 
isting  species,  of  which  the  green  turtle,  liawks- 
bill,  and  loggerhead  (qq.v. )  are  representatives. 
The  order  Trionychoidea  contains  only  the 
family  Trionychidae,  which  have  no  rigid  plates 
on  the  fiat  carapace,  but  a  soft  leathery  skin, 
and  the  plastron  imperfect.  See  Soft- Shelled 
Turtle. 

Fossil  Turtles.  The  origin  of  the  Chelonia  is 
uncertain.  Otoccelus,  an  armored  cotylosaur  from 
the  Permian  of  Texas,  has  been  suggested  by 
Cope  as  a  possible  progenitor,  but  the  relation¬ 
ship  is  doubtful.  Certain  characters  of  shoulder- 
girdle  and  ventral  abdominal  ribs  in  the  plesio¬ 
saurs  indicate  that  this  order  may  have  genetic 
affinity  with  the  turtles,  and  the  dicynodonts 
and  placodonts  of  Triassic  age  resemble  turtles 
remarkably  in  many  structures  of  the  skull  and 
limb  bones.  (See  Theromorpha. )  All  these 
groups  belong  to  the  synapsid  division  of  Rep- 
tilia.  Little  evolution  is  demonstrable  within 
the  chelonian  order  from  its  first  appearance 
in  the  European  Upper  Trias  to  the  present, 
except  in  the  degeneration  of  the  carapace  and 
elongation  of  the  digits  in  the  marine  forms. 
The  oldest  turtle  known  is  Proganochelys ,  from 
the  Keuper  (Upper  Trias)  of  Germany.  A 
probably  primitive  character  in  this  genus  is 
the  well-developed  row  of  supra-marginal  plates. 
The  Lower  Jurassic  strata  have,  as  yet,  yielded 
no  chelonian  remains,  but  in  the  Upper  Jurassic, 
Cretaceous,  and  the  Tertiary  they  are  abundant, 
chiefly  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The  exist¬ 
ing  suborders  Cryptodira  and  Pleurodira  appear 
to  be  fully  differentiated  in  the  Upper  Jurassic, 
the  Trionychia  in  the  Upper  Cretaceous  of 
North  America.  As  a  rule  the  known  Jurassic 
turtles  have  a  solidly  roofed  skull  like  that  of 
the  recent  green  turtle,  and  a  well-developed 
carapace.  Professor  Baur’s  opinion  is  that  the 
earliest  turtles  were  swamp  turtles,  and  that  the 
soft-shelled  Trionychia  and  the  marine  families 
evolved  from  these  along  one  line,  and  the  land 
tortoises  along  another. 

Cryptodira  is  the  suborder  most  widely  rep¬ 
resented  among  fossils,  as  among  recent  tur¬ 
tles.  Several  of  the  existing  families,  including 
the  marine  Chelonidoe  and  the  “leather  turtles,” 
are  already  differentiated  in  the  Cretaceous, 
and  in  the  Lower  Eocene  the  highly  specialized 
land  tortoises  appear.  Of  the  Cretaceous  sea 
turtles  some  attained  enormous  size;  Proto- 
sphargis  from  Italy  had  a  shell  nine  feet  long, 
and  in  the  North  American  Archelon  the  skull 
alone  measures  three  feet.  The  suborder  Pleu¬ 
rodira  is  widely  distributed  as  fossils  in  various 
Mesozoic  systems.  Miolania,  from  the  Pleis¬ 
tocene  of  Queensland,  was  a  huge  creature  in 
which  the  head  was  armed  with  bony  “horns.” 
The  third  suborder,  Trionychia,  is  known  from 
the  North  American  Cretaceous  and  the  Tertiary 
of  both  hemispheres. 

Bibliography.  L.  Agassiz,  Contributions  to 
the  Natural  History  of  the  United  States  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1857-62)  ;  E.  G.  Boulenger,  Catalogue  of 
Chelonians  in  British  Museum  (London,  1889)  ; 
Hans  Gadow,  “Amphibia  and  Reptiles,”  in  Cam¬ 
bridge  Natural  History ,  vol.  viii  ( ib.,  1901); 
E.  G.  Boulenger,  Reptiles  and  Batrachians  (New 
York,  1914)  ;  S.  W.  Williston,  Water  Reptiles  of 
the  Past  and  Present  (Chicago,  1914).  Most  of 
the  literature  on  fossil  Chelonia  consists  of  spe¬ 
cial  papers  in  scientific  periodicals,  especially  by 


TUSCANY 


590 


TURTLE  CREEK 

Baur  and  Fra-as  in  Germany,  Boulenger  and 
Gadow  in  England,  and  Hay  in  America.  A  re¬ 
cent  masterly  summary  is  O.  P.  Hay,  Fossil 
Turtles  of  North  America  (Washington,  1908). 
Consult  also  Reptile;  Tortoise.  _ 

TURTLE  CREEK.  A  borough  in  Allegheny 
Co.,  Pa.,  12  miles  southeast  of  Pittsburgh,  on 
the  Pennsylvania  and  the  Union  railroads.  A 
large  electrical  manufacturing  plant  of  the 
Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Com¬ 
pany,  employing  16,000  persons,  is  situated  here. 
There  is  a"  Carnegie  library  and  a  technical 
school.  Pop.,  1900,  3262;  1910,  4995. 
TURTLEDOVE.  See  Dove;  Pigeon. 
TUR'TON.  A  cotton-manufacturing  town  in 
Lancashire,  England,  4%  miles  north  of  Bolton. 
Pop.,  1901,  12,353;  1911,  12,648. 

TURVEYDROP,  Mr.  A  character  m 
Dickens’s  Bleak  House,  said  to  have  been  mod¬ 
eled  on  George  IV. 

TUS'CALOO'SA.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Tuscaloosa  Co.,  Ala.,  56  miles  southwest 
of  Birmingham,  on  the  Black  Warrior  River,  and 
on  the  Alabama  Great  Southern,  the  Louisville 
and  Nashville,  and  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  1  ail- 
roads  (Map:  Alabama,  B  2)..  The  University 
of  Alabama,  opened  in  1831,  is  a  mile  east  of 
the  city.  Other  educational  institutions  are 
the  Tuscaloosa  Female  College  (Methodist  Epis¬ 
copal  South),  opened  in  1860;  the  Alabama 
Central  Female  College;  Boy’s  Training  School; 
and  Stillman  Institute  (Presbyterian),  a  colored 
theological  school,  opened  in  1870.  The  State 
Insane  Hospital,  the  old  State  Capitol  building, 
the  Federal  building,  and  the  bridges  spanning 
the  Black  Warrior  also  are  noteworthy  features. 
The  commercial  importance  of  the  city  has  been 
increased  by  extensive  improvements  on  the  river, 
adding  considerably  to  the  distance  open  to  navi¬ 
gation.  Coal  is  mined  extensively  in  the  vicin¬ 
ity,  and  at  Holt,  a  suburb,  there  are  a  large 
iron  furnace,  coke  ovens,  and  a  by-product  plant. 
The  city  is  the  centre  of  cotton  and  lumber 
interests,  and  its  principal  industrial  establish¬ 
ments  are  connected  with  these.  In  1911  the 
commission  form  of  government  was  adopted.  It 
was  the  capital  of  the  State  from  1826  to  1846. 
Pop.,  1900,  5094;  1910,  8407;  1915  (U.  S.  est.), 
10,152;  1920,  11,996. 

TUS'CANY  (It.  Toscana).  Formerly  a  sov¬ 
ereign  grand  duchy,  now  a  district  (comparti- 
mento)  011  the  west  coast  of  Italy  (Map:  Italy, 
C  3).  It  comprises  the  maritime  provinces 
Grosseto,  Livorno  (Leghorn),  Lucca,  and  Pisa, 
the  inland  provinces  Arezzo,  Florence,  and 
Siena,  and  the  Province  of  Massa  e  Carrara,  ex¬ 
tending  from  the  sea  northward  between  Liguria 
and  the  Apennines.  The  greater  part  of  Tus¬ 
cany  is  mountainous,  the  Apuan  Alps  reaching 
6385  feet  and  Mount  Amiata  5655  feet.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Arno,  Cecina,  Ombrone, 
and  Serchio,  all  flowing  into  the  Mediterranean. 
Except  in  the  Maremma,  a  large  marshy  region 
on  the  southern  coast,  the  climate  is  mild  and 
healthful.  The  leading  mineral  deposits  include 
iron,  mercury,  borax,  copper,  and  salt;  there 
are  many  mineral  and  thermal  springs.  Among 
the  important  agricultural  products  are  wheat, 
maize,  the  vine,  the  olive,  and  tobacco.  For  pop¬ 
ulation,  see  section  on  that  topic  under  Italy. 

Tuscany  corresponds  nearly  to  ancient  Etruria 
(q.v.).  The  Etrurians  or  Tuscans  were  the 
earliest  inhabitants  known  to  history.  They 
were  conquered  by  the  Romans,  by  whom  in 
later  times  the  land  was  called  Tuscia.  During 


the  period  of  barbarian  migrations  Tuscia  was 
possessed  in  turn  by  the  Ostrogoths,  the  em¬ 
perors  of  Constantinople,  and  the  Lombards. 
The  last  were  conquered  by  Charles  the  Great 
and  a  Frankish  margrave  or  duke  was  estab¬ 
lished  with  Lucca  as  his  residence.  Tuscia 
formed  a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  or  of 
the  Lombards.  In  1030  Boniface  II  of  the 
house  of  Canossa  became  Duke  of  Tuscany. 
He  was  also  Count  of  Modena,  Reggio,  Mantua, 
and  Ferrara.  His  granddaughter,  the  Countess 
Matilda  (q.v.),  known  as  “the  Great  Countess,” 
was  an  ardent  friend  of  Pope  Gregory  VII,  and 
one  of  the  most  powerful  supporters  of  the 
papal  party  during  the  investiture  struggle. 

At  her  death,  in  1115,  she  bequeathed  all  of  her 
wide  dominions  to  the  papacy;  but  the  German 
emperors  claimed  the  duchy  as  an  Imperial  fief, 
and  for  more  than  a  century  “the  property  of 
Matilda”  was  the  cause  of  constant  strife  be¬ 
tween  the  popes  and  the  emperors.  During 
this  period  the  principal  cities  became  inde¬ 
pendent  and  prosperous.  Pisa  had  risen  to  in¬ 
dependence  and  power  long  before  this,  and  was 
now  a  great  maritime  Republic.  At  the  close 
of  the  thirteenth  century  she  succumbed  to  the 
power  of  her  rival  Genoa.  For  several  centuries 
the  history  of  Florence  is  to  a  great  extent  the 
history  of  Tuscany.  At  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century  she  was  at  the  head  of  the  Tuscan  league 
of  cities  formed  to  resist  the  Hohenstaufen. 
This  brought  her  into  close  alliance  with  the 
papacy,  and  usually  Florence  remained  a  firm 
adherent  of  the  Guelph  party. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  Dante,  Giotto,  Pe¬ 
trarch,  and  Boccaccio  made  Tuscany  preeminent 
in  the  revival  of  letters  and  arts.  The  Tuscan 
dialect  became  the  literary  language  of  Italy. 
In  1406  Pisa  submitted  to  Florence,  and  soon 
after  she  became  mistress  of  Leghorn.  Internal 
dissensions  in  Florence  led  to  the  establishment 
of  the  predominance  of  the  Medici  (q.v.),  Co- 
simo  de’  Medici  got  control  of  affairs  in  1434  and 
made  the  supreme  power  in  Florence  the  heredi¬ 
tary  possession  of  his  house.  In  1532,  through 
the  instrumentality  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V, 
Alessandro  de’  Medici  was  made  Duke  of  Flor¬ 
ence.  He  was  assassinated  in  1537,  and  Cosimo 
the  Great  became  Duke.  The  latter  added  to 
the  territories  of  the  duchy,  especially  by  re¬ 
ceiving  Siena  from  Charles  .  This  gift  bound 
him  more  closely  to  Spain,  and  for  nearly  two 
hundred  years  Tuscany  was  generally  under 
the  influence  of  Spain.  ‘  In  1569  the  Florentine 
dominions  were  erected  into  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Tuscany.  The  house  of  Medici  became  ex¬ 
tinct  in  the  male  line  in  1737.  By  the  terms 
of  the  Treaty  of  Vienna,  which  had  been  con¬ 
cluded  in  1735,  the  grand  duchy  was  given  to 
Francis  of  Lorraine,  the  husband  of  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria.  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand 
III  was  dispossessed  by  the  French  in  1799.  By 
the  Treaty  of  Madrid  between  France  and  Spain, 
in  1801,  Tuscany  was  erected  into  the  Kingdom 
of  Etruria  and  given  to  the  son  of  the  Duke 
of  Parma.  In  1807  Napoleon  took  possession 
of  the  country,  which  was  united  with  France. 
Elisa  Baciocchi,  the  sister  of  Napoleon,  received 
the  title  of  Grand  Duchess  of  Tuscany.  In  1814 
Ferdinand  III  was  reinstated  and  ruled  until 
1824.  His  successor,  Leopold  II,  did  much  to 
promote  the  prosperity  of  Tuscany.  In  1847 
Lucca  was  annexed  to  the  grand  duchy.  In 
February,  1848,  Leopold  granted  a  liberal  con¬ 
stitution  to  his  subjects,  but  the  tide  of  revo- 


TUSCARORA 

lution  carried  everything  before  it,  and  early 
in  1849  the  Grand  Duke  fled  from  his  country. 
A  counter-revolution  was  soon  set  on  foot  by 
the  Moderate  Liberal  party  and  in  a  few  months 
Leopold  was  restored  to  his  throne.  In  1850 
he  entered  into  a  convention  with  Austria  by 
which  Austrian  troops  were  to  occupy  Tus¬ 
cany,  and,  thus  supported,  he  reinstituted  a 
regime  of  absolutism.  In  1859,  in  consequence 
of  his  pro-Austrian  policy,  he  was  obliged  to 
leave  his  state,  which  was  occupied  by  the 
forces  of  Victor  Emmanuel.  On  March  15,  1860, 
the  people  by  a  plebiscite  voted  the  union  of 
Tuscany  with  Italy. 

Bibliography.  For  the  early  history  of  Tus¬ 
cany,  consult  the  histories  of  Florence,  Pisa, 
and  Arezzo,  especially  F.  T.  Perrens,  Ilistoire  de 
Florence  (9  vols.,  Paris,  1877-90)  ;  Robert  Da- 
vidsohn,  Geschiclite  von  Florenz  (4  vols.,  Berlin, 
1896-1912).  For  the  later  history,  Alfred  von 
Reumont,  Geschiclite  Toscanas  seit  dem  Ende 
des  florentinischen  Freistaates  (3  vols.,  Gotha, 
1876-77).  For  the  nineteenth  century,  Charles 
Seignobos,  Political  History  of  Europe  since 
1814  (trans.  by  S.  M.  Macvane,  New  York,  1900), 
gives  a  convenient  summary  and  furnishes  an 
ample  bibliography.  General  description:  Ed¬ 
ward  Hutton,  Siena  and  Southern  Tuscany  (New 
York,  1910)  ;  M.  H.  Hewlett,  Earthwork  out  of 
Tuscany  (ib.,  1911);  J.  W.  and  A.  M.  Cruick- 
shank,  Smaller  Tuscan  Towns  (ib.,  1912). 

TUS'CARCPRA.  An  important  Southern  tribe 
of  Iroquoian  stock  ( q.v. ) .  When  first  known 
about  the  year  1670  they  resided  along  the 
Neuse  River  in  eastern  North  Carolina,  where 
in  1700  they  occupied  fifteen  villages  with  an 
estimated  population  of  1200  warriors  or  about 
6000  souls,  and  held  paramount  influence  over 
all  the  smaller  tribes  of  that  section.  They 
were  hostile  to  most  of  the  leading  Southern 
tribes,  but  maintained  a  close  friendship  with 
the  Northern  Iroquois  (q.v.),  whom  they  knew 
as  traditional  kinsmen.  In  consequence  of  en¬ 
croachments  upon  their  lands,  they  rose  against 
the  whites  in  September,  1711.  A  war  of  two 
years  ensued,  in  which  both  Carolina  provinces 
joined  forces,  together  with  a  great  body  of 
Indian  allies,  against  them.  Finally  defeated, 
the  Tuscarora  abandoned  their  country  and  fled 
north  to  the  Iroquois,  who  received  them  as  the 
sixth  tribe  of  their  confederacy,  henceforth 
known  as  the  “Six  Nations.”  See  Iroquois. 

TUS'CULAN  DISPUTATIONS  (Lat.  Tus- 
culanoe  Disputationes) .  A  philosophical  work 
in  five  books  by  Cicero  (44  b.c.  ),  dedicated  to 
M.  Brutus. 

TUS'CULUM.  An  ancient  city  of  Latium, 
about  15  miles  south  of  Rome,  situated  on  a 
ridge  of  hills  known  as  the  Colles  Tusculani,  and 
forming  part  of  the  Alban  Range.  We  catch  the 
first  certain  glimpse  of  its  historical  existence 
towards  the  close  of  the  regal  period  at  Rome, 
when  it  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  prosperity 
and  power.  Octavius  Mamilius,  ruler  of  Tus- 
culum  and  the  foremost  prince  in  Latium,  mar¬ 
ried  a  daughter  of  Tarquin  the  Proud  (see 
Tarquinius),  and  played  a  conspicuous  part  in 
the  last  of  the  great  struggles  made  by  the 
banished  tyrant  to  regain  his  Kingdom.  To¬ 
wards  the  close  of  the  Republic  Tusculum  be¬ 
came  a  famous  country  residence  of  the  wealthy 
Romans.  As  late  as  the  twelfth  century  the 
ancient  city  continued  entire;  but  in  1191  it  was 
stormed  by  the  Romans  and  razed  to  the  ground. 
Many  fine  remains  of  ancient  Tusculum  have 


591  TUSKEGEE  NORMAL  INSTITUTE 

been  dug  up  in  recent  times,  among  them  being 
the  amphitheatre,  theatre,  and  city  walls.  See 
Frascati. 

TUSCUMBIA,  tus-kum'bl-a.  A  city  and  the 
county  seat  of  Colbert  Co.,  Ala.,  125  miles 
northwest  of  Birmingham,  on  the  Tennessee 
River,  on  the  Southern,  the  Northern  Alabama, 
and  the  Louisville  and  Nashville  railroads,  and 
on  three  steamship  lines  (Map:  Alabama,  B  1). 
There  are  extensive  railroad  shops,  steel  fur¬ 
naces,  stove  foundries,  cottonseed-oil  mills,  a 
pipe  plant,  and  a  button  factory.  Features  of 
interest  are  the  Helen  Keller  Library,  court¬ 
house,  a  huge  spring  in  the  heart  of  ‘the  city, 
and  two  public  parks.  Pop.,  1900,  2348;  1910, 
3324. 

TUSKEGEE,  tus-ke'gS.  A  city  and  the 
county  seat  of  Macon  Co.,  Ala.,  44  miles 
by  rail  east  of  Montgomery,  on  the  Tuskegee 
Railroad  (Map:  Alabama,  D  3).  The  leading 
industries  are  cotton  raising  and  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  cottonseed  oil,  meal,  and  lumber.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  Tuskegee  Normal  and  Indus¬ 
trial  Institute  for  negroes.  The  place  was  set¬ 
tled  about  1800.  Pop.,  1900,  2170;  1910,  2807. 

TUSKEGEE  NORMAL  AND  INDUS¬ 
TRIAL  INSTITUTE.  An  institution  for  the 
education  of  negroes,  founded  and  conducted 
by  negroes  at  Tuskegee,  Ala.,  established  in 
1881  by  an  Act  of  the  Legislature  under  the  name 
of  Tuskegee  State  Normal  School,  with  an  ap¬ 
propriation  of  $2000.  It  was  opened  July  4, 
1881.  In  1884  the  appropriation  was  increased 
to  $3000,  and  in  1893  the  institution  was  in¬ 
corporated  under  its  present  name.  In  1916  the 
attendance  had  grown  to  1650.  The  faculty 
consists  of  185,  employed  in  the  administration 
of  the  various  departments  in  teaching  and  in 
the  extension  work  of  the  school.  The  library 
contains  19,000  volumes.  The  endowment  fund 
in  1916  was  $1,945,326,  including  a  gift  of  $600,- 
000  from  Andrew  Carnegie.  The  total  value 
of  the  school  plant,  including  107  buildings, 
land,  and  equipment,  is  $1,567,062.  This  does 
not  include  19,527  acres  of  public  lands  re¬ 
maining  unsold  from  25,000  acres  granted  by 
Act  of  Congress  in  1899  and  valued  at  $250,000. 

The  object  of  the  institute  is  to  give  its  stu¬ 
dents  a  thorough  common-school  education  and 
at  the  same  time  fit  them  by  manual  and  indus¬ 
trial  training  to  perform  successfully  some  form 
of  skilled  labor.  The  institute  also  aims, 
through  the  Phelps  Hall  Bible  Training  School, 
to  fit  young  men  and  women  for  the  ministry 
and  other  forms  of  social  and  religious  work. 
The  constant  aim  is  to  correlate  the  literary 
training  with  the  industrial  training  and  prac¬ 
tical  interest^  of  the  pupils.  By  this  means 
the  work  of  the  students  in  the  trades  be¬ 
comes  invested  with  the  character  of  a  demon¬ 
stration.  On  the  other  hand,  the  principles  ac¬ 
quired  in  the  academic  studies  gain  in  definite¬ 
ness,  precision,  and  interest  by  application  to 
actual  situations  and  to  real  objects. 

Students  are  admitted  on  passing  an  exami¬ 
nation  in  reading,  writing,  and  the  fundamental 
operations  of  arithmetic.  Instruction  is  given 
in  two  sessions.  The  day  school  is  intended  for 
students  able  to  pay  all  or  the  greater  part 
of  their  expenses  in  cash.  They  attend  school 
in  the  daytime  three  days  each  week  and  are 
required  to  work  three  days  each  week.  The 
night  school  is  designed  for  students  too  poor 
to  pay  the  small  charge  made  in  the  day  school. 
Tuition  is  free.  The  monthly  charge  for  board 


TUSK  SHELL 


TUSSOCK  MOTH 


592 


and  living  expenses  is  $10,  of  which  day-scliool 
students  may  work  out  from  $2  to  $4  a  month, 
while  pupils  of  the  night  schools  are  given  the 
opportunity  to  work  out  all  their  board. 

In  the  department  of  mechanical  industries, 
instruction  and  practice  are  given  in  architec¬ 
tural  and  mechanical  drawing,  steam  and  elec¬ 
trical  engineering,  blacksmitliing,  brickmaking, 
carpentry,  founding,  harness  making,  carriage 
trimming,  machining,  painting,  printing,  saw¬ 
milling,  shoemaking,  tinsmithing,  tailoring,  and 
wheel  wrighting.  The  industries  for  girls  in¬ 
clude  sewing,  dressmaking,  millinery,  cooking, 
laundering,  domestic  service,  mattress  making, 
basketry,  and  nursing.  So  far  as  possible  the 
product  of  the  student  work  is  used  in  the  in¬ 
stitute,  and  the  surplus  is.  sold.  The  printing 
office  furnishes  all  the  printed  matter  of  the 
school,  and  issues  two  weeklies  and  a  monthly 
newspaper  for  the  institution  besides  three 
others  for  persons  outside.  The  school  build¬ 
ings,  including  the  Carnegie  Library,  are  al¬ 
most  wholly  the  product  of  student  labor.  The 
aim  of  the*  agricultural  department  is  by  theo¬ 
retical  instruction  in  scientific  principles,  and 
their  application  in  the  field,  orchard,  dairy, 
and  truck  garden,  to  make  its  students  intelli¬ 
gent  and  successful  farmers.  To  some  of  the 
agricultural  courses  women  are  admitted.  Ex¬ 
tension  work  is  carried  on  through  the  Tuskegee 
Negro  Conference,  the  Short  Course  in  Agricul¬ 
ture,  farm  demonstration  work,  and  traveling  in¬ 
stitutes  for  the  benefit  of  farmers  in  the  South. 
The  Russell  Plantation  settlement  and  the 
mothers’  meetings  are  also  a  part  of  the  commun¬ 
ity  work  the  school  is  seeking  to  do.  Booker  T. 
Washington  (q.v. ),  who  had  been  the  principal 
of  the  institution  since  its  foundation,  died 
Nov.  14,  1915.  Major  Robert  R.  Moton,  com¬ 
mandant  at  Hampton  Institute,  succeeded  him. 
Consult  B.  T.  Washington,  Up  from  Slavery 
(New  York,  1900);  id.,  Working  with  the 
Hands  (ib.,  1904)  ;  id.,  Tuskegee  and  its  Peo¬ 
ples  (ib.,  1905). 

TUSK  SHELL,  or  Tooth  Shell.  A  scapho- 
pod  mollusk  of  the  genus  Dentalium,  common  in 
the  ocean  on  muddy  bottoms  at  the  depth  of 
from  10  to  40  fathoms,  as  well  as  in  very  deep 
water.  The  shell  is  shaped  like  a  gently  curved 
elephant’s  tusk  and  is  open  at  each  end.  The 
animal  ha^  no  head,  eyes,  or  heart,  though  it 
has  a  small  elongated  digging  foot.  Its  genus 
first  appears  in  the  Eocene  rocks.  These  shells 
were  formerly  extensively  used  by  the  northwest 
coast  Indians  as  material  for  making  necklaces 
and  adorning  clothing,  and  were  circulated  as 
a  shell  money  (q.v.),  called  hi-qua. 

TUSSAUD,  tu'so',  Marie,  Madame  (1760- 
1850).  Founder  of  the  London  waxworks  ex¬ 
hibit  in  Baker  Street.  She  was  born  (Gresholtz) 
at  Bern,  Switzerland,  and  learned  at  Paris 
the  art  of  wax  modeling,  in  which  she  subse¬ 
quently  instructed  Madame  Elisabeth,  sister  of 
King  Louis  XVI.  After  a  three  months’  im¬ 
prisonment  during  the  French  Revolution,  she 
brought  to  London  her  collection,  afterward  in¬ 
creased  to  include  about  300  figures.  There 
is  connected  with  it  a  Chamber  of  Horrors,  with 
relics  of  criminals  and  a  collection  of  instru¬ 
ments  of  torture.  Consult  F.  Herve,  Memoirs 
of  Madame  Tussaud  (London,  1878),  which, 
however,  is  not  altogether  reliable. 

TUSSEH,  tus'se,  or  TUS'SER.  See  Silk¬ 
worm. 

TUS'SER,  Thomas  (c.1524-80).  An  English 


rhymer.  He  was  born  at  Rivenhall,  near  Wit- 
ham,  in  Essex,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  at 
Cambridge.  For  10  years  he  was  a  musician 
in  the  service  of  Lord  Paget  of  Beaudesert,  and 
thus  lived  at  qourt.  He  then  settled  for  a 
time  as  farmer  in  Suffolk,  and  thereafter  moved 
about  from  place  to  place,  eventually  dying 
in  a  debtor's  prison  at  London.  He  is  remem¬ 
bered  for  Five  Hundreth  Poyntes  of  Good  Hus¬ 
bandry  United  to  as  Many  of  Good  Huswifery, 
a  homely  proverbial  poem,  to  which  is  prefixed 
an  autobiography  in  verse  (1573);  based  upon 
Pointes  of  Husbandrie  (1557)  and  a  Hundreth 
Poyntes  of  Good  Husserie  (licensed  1557). 
Consult  the  reprints  edited  by  W.  Payne  and  S.  J. 
Herrtage  for  the  English  Dialect  Society  (Lon¬ 
don,  1878). 

TUS'SXLA'GO  (Lat.,  coltsfoot).  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  family  Composite.  Tussilago 
farfara,  sometimes  called  coltsfoot,  is  the  only 
species.  It  has  solitary  flower  heads  on  scaly 
scapes,  appearing  before  the  leaves  in  early 
spring.  Both  disk  and  ray  flowers  are  yellow, 
the  leaves  heart-shaped,  angular,  downy  beneath, 
somewhat  glutinous  and  subacrid.  The  leaves 
of  the  butter  bur  ( Petasites  vulgaris),  which 
has  been  naturalized  from  Europe,  resemble 
those  of  Tussilago,  but  are  much  larger;  the 
pale  flesh-colored  flowers  also  appear  before 
the  leaves,  but  are  in  a  dense  thyrsus.  The 
flowers  of  both  are  much  sought  after  by  bees. 

TUSSOCK  MOTH.  Any  moth  of  the  family 
Liparidae,  a  name  suggested  by  the  tufts  of 
hairs,  often  bright-colored,  upon  the  caterpillars. 
The  moths  are  dull-colored,  and  the  females  of 
some  species  are  wingless.  Twenty  species  occur 
in  the  United  States.  The  group  includes  some 
famous  enemies  of  fruit,  shade,  and  forest  trees. 


TUSSOCK  MOTH.  % 

a,  adult  male  of  Hemerocampa  leucostigma;  b,  cocoon 
fastened  to  the  wall  and  wingless  female  carrying  egg  sac; 
c.  caterpillar. 

Two  imported  species,  the  gypsy  moth  (q.v.) 
and  the  browntail  moth  ( Euproctis  chrysor- 
rhoea) ,  do  great  damage  in  New  England.  The 
latter  species  flies  during  midsummer,  when 
the  female  lays  from  200  to  300  eggs  underneath 
leaves  near  the  tips  of  branches  and  covers  them 
with  hair.  The  larvae  appear  in  from  two  to 
three  weeks  and  skeletonize  the  leaves.  They 
also  feed  on  apple  and  pear  fruits.  In  late 
September  they  retire  into  cases  formed  of 
leaves,  attached  to  the  twigs  by  silken  threads, 
and  remain  there  until  the  leaf  buds  open  in 


TUTELO 


593 


TVASHTAR 


tlie  spring,  feeding  upon  the  young  foliage, 
flowers,  and  fruit  until  June,  when  they  pupate. 
.The  caterpillars  when  abundant  are  annoying 
to  human  beings  from  the  mechanical  irritation 
to  the  skin  caused  by  their  barbed  hairs. 

The  white-marked  tussock  moth  (Hemero- 
campa  leucostigma )  is  a  well-known  enemy  of 
shade  and  fruit  trees  in  the  eastern  United 
States.  The  female  is  wingless,  the  male  small 
and  inconspicuous.  Phe  overwintering  eggs  are 
laid  in  a  glistening  white  frothy  mass,  attached 
to  the  outside  of  the  female's  cocoon,  which  is 
usually  placed  on  a  tree  trunk.  The  young 
caterpillars  hatch  in  the  spring  and  feed  upon 
the  leaves,  i  here  are  two  or  three  generations 
each  year.  Winter  pruning  and  burning  of  the 
hibernacula  of  the  former  species,  and  summer 
spraying  the  larvae  of  the  latter  with  arsenites, 
have  been  recommended.  Consult  W.  J.  Holland, 
The  Moth  Book  (new  ed.,  New  York,  1905). 

TUTELO,  tbo'te-lo,  or  TOTERO,  tbt'er-b. 
An  eastern  tribe  of  Siouan  stock,  calling  them¬ 
selves  Yesan,  formerly  on  the  upper  Roanoke 
and  Dan  rivers  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
and  in  alliance  with  the  cognate  Saponi  (q.v.). 
They  were  first  visited  in  1670  by  the  German 
tiaveler  John  Lederer,  who  calls  them  Nahyssan. 
fn  1701  Lawson  found  them  near  central  North 
Carolina,  preparing  to  move  to  the  settlements 
for  protection  against  the  Iroquois,  who  had 
driven  them  from  villages  on  the  Roanoke. 
They  were  much  reduced  in  number  and  unable 
any  longer  to  stand  against  their  enemies. 
The  refugee  tribes  were  afterward  settled  by 
Governor  Spotswood  of  Virginia  near  Fort 
Christanna,  in  what  is  now  Brunswick  Co.,  Va., 
where  they  remained  until  about  1740,  when, 
finally  at  peace  with  the  Iroquois,  they  removed 
to  the  north,  together  with  the  Saponi,  and 
settled  on  the  Susquehanna  at  Shamokin,  now 
Sunbury,  Pa.  Later  they  were  adopted  by  the 
Cayuga,  thus  becoming  a  component  part  of  the 
Iroquois  League.  Their  village  near  Cayuga 
Lake  being  destroyed  by  Sullivan  in  1779,  they 
fled  to  Canada  and  found  their  final  home  with 
the  Iroquois  on  the  Grand  River  Reservation,  in 
Ontario,  locating  on  Tutelo  Heights,  near  Brant¬ 
ford.  They  are  practically  extinct.  Consult 
James  Mooney,  Siouan  Tribes  of  the  East  ( Wash¬ 
ington,  1895). 

TUT'ICOR/IN.  A  seaport  in  the  District  of 
Tinnevelli,  Madras,  India,  443  miles  by  rail 
south  by  west  of  the  city  of  Madras,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Manar  (Map:  India,  D  8).  The  manu¬ 
facturing  establishments  are  chiefly  connected 
with  the  cotton  industry.  Pearl  fishing,  formerly 
the  principal  industry’  has  greatly  declined  in 
importance.  Pop.,  1901,  28,048;  ‘1911,  34,758. 
TU'TONITE.  See  Explosives. 

TUTTIETT,  Mary  Gleed.  See  Gray,  Max¬ 
well. 

TUTTLE,  tuU’1,  Daniel  Sylvester  (1837- 

) .  An  American  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop,  born  at  Windham,  N.  Y.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  in  1857,  and  at  the  General  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary  in  1862,  and  was  ordained  a 
deacon  in  1862  and  a  priest  in  1863.  He  was 
rector  of  a  church  at  Morris,  N.  Y.,  until  1867, 
and  Missionary  Bishop  of  Montana,  Utah,  and 
Idaho  until  1886,  when  he  was  transferred  to 
the  diocese  of  Missouri.  In  1903  he  became 
presiding  Bishop  of  his  denomination  in  the 
United  States.  He  published  Reminiscences  of 
a  Missionary  Bishop  (1906). 

TUTTLE,  Herbert  (1846-94).  An  Ameri¬ 


can  historian,  born  at  Bennington,  Vt.  He 
graduated  in  1869  at  the  University  of  Vermont. 
I  rom  18S0  to  1881  he  was  a  lecturer  on  inter¬ 
national  law  at  the  University  of  Michigan,  and 
in  the  latter  year  was  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  politics  and  international  law  in  Cornell 
T_  ni\  ersity.  He  was  subsequently  transferred 
to  the  chair  of  modern  European  history.  He 
published:  German  Political  Leaders  (1876); 
History  of  Prussia  to  the  Accession  of  Frederick 
the  Great  (1884);  and  a  History  of  Prussia 
under  Frederick  the  Great  (1888). 

TUTTLLN'GEN,  tobt'ling-en.'  A  town  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Wiirttemberg,  Germany,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube,  64  miles  southeast 
of  Strassburg  (Map:  Germany,  C  5).  It  has 
shoe  factories,  tanneries,  and  manufactures  sur¬ 
gical  instruments,  cutlery,  leather,  and  woolen 
goods.  Pop.,  1900,  13,465;  1910,  15,862.  Tut- 
tlingen  is  historically  notable  as  the  scene  of 
a  battle  in  1643,  during  the  Thirty  Years’  War, 
in  which  an  Austro-Bavarian  force  defeated  the 
French. 

TUTUILA,  tbb'tbo-effa.  The  principal  island 
of  American  Samoa,  46  miles  southeast  of  Upolu 
(Map:  Samoan  Islands,  D  3,  4).  Area,  40.2 
square  miles.  Its  surface  is  mountainous  and 
picturesque  with  luxuriant  forests  and  there  are 
signs  of  volcanic  activity.  The  climate  is  sub¬ 
tropical  and  the  rainfall  averages  about  ISO 
inches  annually.  The  principal  articles  of  im¬ 
port  are  cotton  goods,  meats,  hardware,  bread- 
stuffs,  and  fish.  Copra  is  practically  the  only 
export.  It  is  a  government  monopoly  and  a 
source  of  revenue  which  makes  the  island  self 
supporting.  In  1913  the  imports  were  valued 
at  $133,399  and  the  exports  at  $132,645.  Tu- 
tuila  contains  the  best  harbor  of  the  Samoan 
group,  Pago  Pago  (q.v.),  which  is  also  the  seat 
of  government.  The  island  together  with  the 
Manua  group  and  a  few  other  islands  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  United  States  is  administered  bv  a 
naval  governor.  Pop.,  1912,  7251.  See  Samoan 
Islands.  , 

TUXTLA  GUTIERREZ,  tbos^tla  gbo/te-ar/- 
ras.  The  capital  of  the  State  of  Chiapas,  Mex¬ 
ico,  270  miles  southeast  of  Vera  Cruz  (Map- 
Mexico,  M  9).  The  principal  building  is  the 
government  palace.  The  main  industries  are 
tanning,  indigo  preparations,  and  general  com¬ 
merce.  Pop.,  1900,  9395;  1910,  10,239. 

TUY,  tob'e.  A  Spanish  frontier  town  of  the 
Province  of  Pontevedra,  in  Galicia,  on  the  Mino, 
63  miles  north  of  Oporto,  Portugal  (Map: 
Spain,  A  1).  The  cathedral  is  a  fortress-like 
structure.  The  international  iron  bridge  span¬ 
ning  the  Mino  is  worthy  of  note.  The  town 
is  in  the  midst  of  the  fertile  Vega  del  Oro, 
celebrated  for  the  culture  of  fruits,  vegetables^ 
and  silks.  Tanneries  and  soap  factories,  with 
a  brisk  trade  with  Portugal,  form  the  chief  in¬ 
dustries  of  the  town.  Pop.,  1900,  11,631;  1910 
11,986. 

TUY.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philippines,  in  the 
western  part  of  the  Province  of  Batangas.  It 
lies  about  24  miles  northwest  of  Batano-as. 
Pop.,  1903,  2430. 

TVASHTAR,  tvash'tar  ( Skt.  tvastr,  creator, 
from  tvaks,  talcs,  to  fashion;  connected  with 
Av.  Owaxs,  to  create,  or  Tvashtri).  A  divinity 
of  Vedic  Hindu  mythology  of  uncertain  origin, 
possessing  many  of  the  characteristics  of  He- 
phaestus  or  Vulcan  (q.v.).  As  the  divine  arti¬ 
ficer  his  chief  works  are  the  thunderbolt  of 
Indra  (q.v.)  and  a  cup  for  the  soma  (q.v.)  of 


TWEEDDALE 


TVER 


594 


the  gods.  Similarly  he  is  the  deity  who  fashions 
all  living  forms,  both  of  men  and  of  animals,  so 
that  in  later  texts  he  is  said  to  have  produced 
the  whole  world,  and  to  have  been  the  ancestor 
of  all  mankind.  He  is  also  a  creator  of  gods, 
particularly  of  Brihaspati  (q.v.),  Agni  (q.v.), 
Saranyu,  wife  of  Vivasvant,  who  bore  the  Asvins 
(q.v.)  and  Yama  (q.v.)  and  Yami,  the  primeval 
pair,  and,  probably,  Indra,  although  this  god 
is  sometimes  said  to  have  killed  his  sire  in 
order  to  obtain  the  soma.  He  is  further  con¬ 
nected  with  the  Ribhus  (q.v.),  who  are  also 
skillful  artificers.  Consult  A.  A.  Macdonell, 
Vedic  Mythology  (Strassburg,  1897),  and  L.  D. 
Barnett,  Antiquities  of  India  (London,  1913). 

TVER,  tver.  A  government  of  central  Rus¬ 
sia.  Area,  25,225  square  miles  (Map:  Russia, 

E  3).  The  surface  is  largely  an  elevated  plain, 
intersected  by  deep  river  valleys.  The  north¬ 
western  part  is  hilly.  The  government  is 
watered  chiefly  by  the  upper  Volga  with  its 
tributaries  and  the  Dvina.  The  soil  is  not 
fertile,  and  the  supply  of  grain  is  insufficient 
to  meet  the  domestic  demand.  The  household 
industry  is  well  developed,  entire  sections  of 
the  government  being  engaged  in  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  footwear,  felt  goods,  linen,  nails,  axes, 
agricultural  implements,  etc.  The  local  manu¬ 
factures  are  chiefly  cotton  goods,  flour,  leather, 
spirits,  etc.  Pop.,  1897,  1,769,135;  1912,  2,- 
250,200. 

TVER.  The  capital  of  the  government  of 
the  same  name,  situated  on  the  Volga,  298 
miles  southeast  of  St.  Petersburg  (Map:  Russia, 
E  3 ) .  It  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  Catholic  bishop, 
has  a  thirteenth-century  monastery  and  an 
Imperial  palace  occupied  by  the  Governor.  Tver 
is  one  of  the  chief  cotton-manufacturing  centres 
of  Russia.  There  are  also  flour  mills,  wagon 
factories,  saw  mills,  etc.  Pop.,  1910,  62,652. 
Tver  dates  from  1181  and  was  the  capital  of 
an  independent  principality  from  the  thirteenth 
century  to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth,  when  it 
was  annexed  to  Moscow. 

TWACHTMAN,  twoKt'man,  John  Henry 
(1853-1902).  An  American  landscape  painter. 
He  was  born  in  Cincinnati,  and  studied  at  the 
Cincinnati  School  of  Design  under  Frank  Duve- 
neck,  in  Munich  under  Loefftz,  and  with  Bou¬ 
langer  and  Lefebvre  in  Paris.  He  was  most 
influenced  by  the  Impressionists,  and  was  one 
of  the  most  consistent  exponents  of  that  school 
among  American  painters.  His  landscapes, 
somewhat  unequal  in  execution,  are  character¬ 
ized  by  a  subtle  treatment  of  high-keyed  color 
in  delicate  tonal  effects  and  by  harmony  of 
form  and  masses.  Most  of  his  subjects,  apart 
from  the  Niagara  Falls  and  Yellowstone  series, 
were  taken  from  the  neighborhood  of  his  home 
in  Greenwich,  Conn.,  and  among  the  most  charm¬ 
ing  are  some  pastel  studies.  Good  examples 
of  his  work  are  to  be  found  in  nearly  all  public 
collections  in  America,  including  the  Worces¬ 
ter  Art  Museum,  Metropolitan  Museum  (New 
York),  Cincinnati  Art  Museum,  Boston  Art 
Museum,  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
etc.  In  1913  a  comprehensive  exhibition  of  his 
paintings  was  held  in  New  York,  and  in  1915-16 
a  room  was  devoted  to  him  at  the  Panama-Pacific 
Exposition,  San  Francisco. 

TWAIN,  Mark.  See  Clemens,  Samuel  L. 

TWAITE.  A  poor  sort  of  European  shad 

( Clupea  finta).  See  Allice. 

TWANA,  twa'na.  See  Salishan  Stock. 

TWEED.  A  river  of  southern  Scotland.  It 


rises  in  Peebles  and  flows  eastward,  emptying 
into  the  North  Sea  at  Berwick  (Map:  Scotland, 

F  4).  It  is  97  miles  long,  but  unnavigable, 
and  along  its  banks  much  of  the  tweeds  of  com¬ 
merce  is  made.  For  18  miles  of  its  lower  course 
it  forms  the  boundary  between  England  and 
Scotland,  and  it  flows  through  one  of  the  most 
historic  regions  of  Great  Britain,  the  celebrated 
Borders. 

TWEED.  A  twilled  fabric  (see  Weaving), 
often  woven  in  two  colors,  the  yarn  being  dyed 
before  weaving.  It  is  a  soft,  flexible,  durable 
material,  usually  of  wool,  sometimes  of  cotton 
and  wool.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  locality 
where  it  was  first  manufactured — in  villages 
along  the  Tweed,  in  Scotland. 

TWEED,  William  Marcy  (1823-78).  A  no¬ 
torious  American  politician,  leader  of  .  the  so- 
called  Tweed  Ring,  born  in  New  York  City.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  chairmaker,  received  slight 
education,  and  early  entered  politics,  becoming 
an  alderman  of  New  York  City  in  1850,  and 
taking  a  seat  in  Congress  in  1853.  Subsequently 
he  was  a  school  commissioner,  became  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  board  of  supervisors  ^  of  New  York 
County,  and  was  president  of  the  board  four 
successive  terms.  From  1867  to  1871  he  was 
State  Senator.  Tweed  was  grand  sachem  of 
Tammany  in  1869—71.  He  was  appointed 
deputy  street  commissioner  in  1861,  and  when 
in  1870  that  department  was  changed  to  the 
department  of  public  works,  he  was  the  com¬ 
missioner  at  its  head,  a  position  which  enabled 
him  to  initiate,  it  was  believed,  the  formation 
of  the  combination  known  as  the  Tammany 
Ring,  or  Tweed  Ring.  The  ring  elected  its 
candidate  for  mayor  in  1865,  and  its  candidate 
for  Governor  in  1868,  and  so .  controlled  the 
Legislature  as  to  secure  a  modification  of  the 
city’s  charter,  greatly  increasing  the  power  of 
the  offices  held  by  the  ring.  Legislators  and 
judges  were  bribed,  bills  were  passed,  and  de¬ 
cisions  rendered  in  favor  of  the  members  of  the 
ring.  Gigantic  schemes  of  city  improvement 
were  organized  and  carried  out  successfully, 
though  accompanied  generally  with  much  pecula¬ 
tion.  Probably  no  spoliation  so  great  was  ever 
executed  in  any  country.  Its  exposure  was 
made  largely  by  the  New  York  Times,  with 
the  help  of  a  disappointed  enemy  of  the  ring, 
in  July,  1871;  investigation  and  prosecution 
were  undertaken  by  a  committee  of  70  citizens, 
under  the  lead  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden  (q.v*)  ? 
and  Tweed  was  indicted  in  1872  for  forgery 
and  grand  larceny.  Two  trials  were  held,  and 
in  1873  Tweed  was  convicted,  and  sentenced  to 
12  years’  confinement  in  the  penitentiary  and 
to  pay  a  fine  of  $12,300.18.  He  was  confined 
on  Blackwell’s  Island  from  November,  1873, 
until  June,  1875,  when  he  was  released  by  a 
decision  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  on  a  legal 
technicality.  He  was  immediately  rearrested  on 
a  warrant  issued  in  a  civil  suit  for  $6,198,- 
957.85,  and  sent  to  Ludlow  Street  Jail.  Being 
permitted  to  ride  out  with  an  officer,  he  escaped, 
and  fled  to  Spain.  He  was  returned  in  Novem¬ 
ber,  1876,  and  placed  in  Ludlow  Street  Jail 
until  April  12,  1878,  when  he  died.  Consult: 
G.  Myers,  History  of  Tammany  Hall  (New  York, 
1901);  J.  K.  McGuire,  The  Democratic  I'arty 
of  the  State  of  Hew  York  (ib.,  1905)  ;  Bryce, 
The  American  Commonwealth  (new  ed.,  2  vols., 
ib.,  1910). 

TWEED'DALE.  See  Peeblesshire. 

TWEEDDALE,  John  Hay,  second  Earl  and 


TWICKENHAM 


TWEEDLEDUM  AND  TWEEDLEDEE  595 


first  Marquis  of  (1626-97).  A  Scottish  soldier 
and  statesman.  After  serving  in  the  King’s 
army  (1642)  he  fought  against  Charles  at 
Marston  Moor  (1644),  and,  four  years  later, 
commanded  at  Preston  in  the  King’s  army  again. 
He  entered  Parliament  in  1654,  became  Privy 
Councilor  on  the  Restoration  and  President  of 
the  Council  in  1663,  and  (1664)  was  appointed 
High  Commissioner  on  Ecclesiastical  Affairs. 
Pie  labored  for  a  more  lenient  attitude  towards 
Covenanters  and  was  removed  from  office  in 
1674  by  the  influence  of  Lauderdale.  He  was 
restored  to  some  of  his  posts  in  1680  and  1682; 
held  office  under  James  II,  but,  disliking  his 
Scottish  policy,  joined  the  Revolution;  and  in 
1689,  became  Privy-  Councilor  under  William 
and  Mary.  He  was  a  commissioner  on  the 
Glencoe  massacre  and  was  dismissed  by  the  King 
in  1696  for  assenting  to  the  Colonization  Act 
and  Paterson’s  Darien  schemes. 

TWEEDLEDUM  AND  TWEEDLEDEE. 
An  expression  denoting  an  inappreciable  differ¬ 
ence  between  unimportant  points.  It  was  used 
by  Byron,  satirizing  the  feud  between  partisans 
of  Handel  and  Buononcini. 

TWEEDMOUTH,  twed'miith,  Edward  Mar- 
joribanks,  second  Baron  (1849-1909).  A 
British  statesman,  born  in  London.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  became  a  barrister  in  1874, 
and  was  a  Liberal  member  of  Parliament  for 
Berwick  in  1880—94.  In  1886  he  was  made 
Comptroller  to  the  Household,  and  in  1892-94 
he  was  Parliamentary  Secretary  to  the  Treas¬ 
ury.  In  1894—95  he  was  Lord  Privy  Seal  and 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  and  in 
December,  1905,  became  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty.  At  this  time  public  opinion  in 
Britain  was  becoming  increasingly  excited  over 
German  rivalry  in  naval  construction,  and  in 
March,  1908,  it  was  reported  that  Tweedmouth, 
in  a  correspondence  with  the  German  Emperor, 
had  prematurely  disclosed  certain  details  of 
naval  estimates  before  officially  communicating 
them  to  the  House  of  Commons.  The  report 
was  untrue,  but  it  led  to  his  resigning  from  the 
cabinet  in  September,  1908.  Consult  the 
Countess  of  Aberdeen  (his  sister),  Edward 
Marjoribanks,  Lord  Tweedmouth,  Notes  and  Rec¬ 
ollections  (London,  1909). 

TWEED  RING.  See  Tweed,  Wm.  M. 

TWELFTH  NIGHT,  or  What  You  Will. 

1.  A  comedy  by  Shakespeare,  played  at  Middle 
Temple  Hall,  Twelfth  Night,  1602,  according  to 
J.  Manningham’s  diary.  The  principal  plot 
was  taken  from  Bandello’s  tale,  perhaps  through 
Belleforest’s  Histoires  tragiques,  or  B.  Rich’s 
Apollonius  and  Silla,  adapted  from  Cinthio’s 
Hecatommithi.  A  similar  plot  is  found  in 
two  Italian  plays,  GV  Ingannati  (1537)  and 
Gl’  Inganni  (1592).  Malvolio,  Sir  Toby,  Sir 
Andrew,  and  the  clown  are  all  Shakespeare’s. 

2.  A  festival  12  days  after  Christmas.  See 
Epiphany. 

TWELVE,  Gospel  of  the.  See  Apocrypha. 

TWELVE  APOSTLES.  See  Apostles’ 
Islands. 

TWELVE  TABLES,  Law  of  the.  The  ear- ' 
lier  systematic  written  statement,  or  code,  of 
Roman  law.  According  to  the  Roman  tradition, 
this  code  was  drawn  up  to  appease  the  plebeians, 
who  complained  that  the  unwritten  customary 
law,  as  interpreted  by  patrician  priests  and  ap¬ 
plied  by  patrician  judges,  gave  no  adequate 
protection  to  their  liberties.  In  452  b.c.  10 
magistrates  were  elected  to  write  laws  {decem¬ 


viri  legibus  scribendis) ,  and  before  the  end  of 
the  following  year  10  tables  of  laws  were  sub¬ 
mitted  to  and  accepted  by  the  popular  assembly. 
In  450  b.c.  two  supplementary  tables  were 
similarly  adopted.  The  decemvirs  claimed  that 
they  had  made  the  law  equal  for  all,  high  and 
low;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Roman 
people  regarded  the  XII  Tables  with  great 
veneration,  as  a  bulwark  of  personal  liberty.  / 

This  code  seems  to  have  introduced  little  if 
any  new  law,  being  substantially  a  restatement 
of  the  older  custom.  Its  rules  were  "simple  and 
were  tersely  and  clearly  expressed.  It  contained 
no  constitutional  law,  and  it  dealt  mainly  with 
the  law  of  family,  property,  crimes,  torts,  and 
civil  procedure.  It  did  not  state  the  law  fully 
even  in  these  matters,  for  (as  in  other  early 
codes)  rules  that  were  so  well  settled  as  to  be 
indisputable  were  not  included. 

The  XII  Tables  have  come  down  to  us  in 
fragments  only.  In  Roman  legal,  historical, 
and  grammatical  writings,  a  couple  of  score  of 
passages  are  directly  cited,  and  it  is  sometimes 
stated  in  which  of  the  tables  the  rule  stood. 
Other  rules  are  paraphrased  or  indicated  by 
allusions.  Attempts  to  reconstruct  the  code 
have  been  made  by  Gothofredus  (1616),  Dirk- 
sen  (1824),  Sclioell  (1866),  and  Voigt  (1883). 
The  text  commonly  given  in  works  on  Roman 
law  is  that  of  Sclioell,  and  citations  of  table 
and  law  by  number  are  regularly  based  on  his 
reconstruction. 

The  credibility  of  the  Roman  tradition  con¬ 
cerning  the  origin  of  the  XII  Tables  has  been 
energetically  attacked  by  recent  writers,  who 
assert  that  the  tradition  is  of  late  origin  and 
that  the  XII  Tables  are  a  private  compilation 
made,  probably,  in  the  third  century  b.c. 

Consult:  M.  Voigt,  GescMchte  und  System  des 
Rechts  der  XII  Tafeln  (Leipzig,  1883)  ;  Edouard 
Lambert,  Le  problem  de  Vorigine  des  Douze 
Tables  (Lyons,  1902)  ;  Charles  Appleton,  Le 
testament  romain:  la  metliode  du  droit  compare 
et  V authenticity  des  Douze  Tables  (Paris,  1903). 
See  Civil  Law. 

TWES'TEN,  August  Detlev  Christian 
(1789-1876).  A  German  Protestant  theologian. 
He  was  born  at  Gliickstadt,  studied  at  Kiel 
and  Berlin,  and  became  professor  of  theology 
at  Kiel,  1814.  In  1835  he  succeeded  Schleier- 
macher,  whose  views  he  had  adopted,  at  Berlin. 
He  was  very  influential  in  the  formation  of 
the  United  Evangelical  church  of  Prussia  and 
was  a  member  of  its  supreme  council  until  his 
death.  He  published  Vorlesungen  iiber  die 
Dogmatik  der  evangelisch-lutherischen  Kirche 
(1826-37);  Grundriss  der  analytischen  Logik 
(1834)  ;  Matthias  Flacius  Illyricus  (1844)  ;  and 
edited  Schleiermacher’s  Ethik  (1841).  Consult 
G.  Heinrici,  August  Twesten  nach  Tagebiichem 
und  Brief en  ( Berlin,  1889 ) . 

TWICH'ELL,  Joseph  Hopkins  (1838-1918). 
An  American  Congregational  clergyman,  born 
at  Southington,  Conn.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1859,  was  chaplain  of  the  71st  Regiment,  New 
York  State  Volunteers,  during  the  Civil  War, 
and  in  1865  became  pastor  of  the  Asylum  Hill 
Congregational  Church,  at  Hartford,  Conn.  He 
was  one  of  Mark  Twain’s  most  intimate  friends. 
His  writings  include  John  Winthrop  (1891); 
Some  Old  Puritan  Love  Letters  (1893)  ;  History 
of  the  Minisinlc  Country  (1912).  Consult,  pas¬ 
sim,  A.  B.  Paine,  Mark  Twain:  A  Biography  (3 
vols.,  New  York,  1912). 

TWICKENHAM,  twik^n-am.  A  town  in 


TWIG  GIRDLER 


TWILIGHT  SLEEP 


Middlesex,  England,  on  the  Thames,  connected 
with  Richmond,  on  the  opposite  bank,  by  a  sub¬ 
stantial  bridge,  10  miles  southwest  of  St.  Paul  s, 
London  (Map:  London,  F  4).  It  has  interesting 
historic  dwellings,  and  is  a  residential  district 
for  Londoners.  It  contains  the  great  church 
of  St.  Stephen’s,  completed  in  1874;  the  estate 
of  Alexander  Pope,  where  the  grotto  is  all 
that  remains  (Pope’s  monument  is  in  the 
church)  ;  Walpole’s  villa,  called  Strawberry 
Hill;  and  Orleans  House,  temporarily  occupied 
by  Louis  Philippe,  and  still  owned  by  his  de¬ 
scendants.  Pop.,  1901,  21,000;  1911,  29,367. 

Consult  Cobbett,  Memorials  of  Twickenham 
(London,  1872). 

TWIG  GIRDLER.  See  Girdler. 

TWIGGS,  David  Emanuel  (1790-1862).  An 
American  soldier,  born  in  Richmond  Co.,.  Ga. 
In  1812  he  was  appointed  captain  in  the  Eighth 
Infantry.  He  served  in  the  War  of  1812,  and 
was  promoted  major  in  1814.  He  later  fought 
against  the  Seminoles,  and  then  in  the  Black 
Hawk  War,  and  was  commissioned  colonel,  of 
the  Second  Dragoons  in  June,  1836.  For  services 
at  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  where 
he  commanded  the  right  wing  of  General 
Taylor’s  army,  he  was  brevetted  brigadier  gen¬ 
eral.  In  the  attack  on  Monterey  he  commanded 
a  division,  was  brevetted  a  major  general,  and 
after  a  short  term  as  Governor  of  Monterey 
was  sent  to  join  General  Scott  at  Vera  Cruz. 
In  the  advance  on  the  City,  of  Mexico  he  com¬ 
manded  the  Second  Division,  led  the  main 
attack  at  Cerro  Gordo,  and  performed  impor¬ 
tant  services  at  Contreras  and  Churubusco  and 
in  the  attack  on  the  gates  of  Mexico.  After 
the  war  ended  he  was  for  some  years  in  charge 
of  the  Department  of  the  West  and  then  of  that 
of  Texas.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
he  surrendered,  without  resistance,  the  United 
States  property  under  his  charge  to  the.  Con¬ 
federates.  He  was  made  a  major  general  in  the 
Confederate  service  and  commanded  in  Louisi¬ 
ana,  but  age  and  infirmities  led  him  to  leave  the 
service  late  in  1861. 

TWIG  PRTJNER.  Any  of  several  species  of 
longicorn  beetles  of  the  genus  Elaphidion,  the 
females  of  which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  twigs 
of  several  kinds  of  trees.  The  eggs  hatch  and 
the  larva  when  nearly  full  grown  severs  its 
twig,  transforming  to  pupa  within  the  twig 
after  it  has  fallen.  The  common  oak  pruner 
( Elaphidion  villosum)  is  a  slender  long-horned 
beetle,  dark  brown  in  color,  and  covered  with 
grayish  pubescence.  It  feeds  in  twigs  of  oak, 
hickory,  chestnut,  maple,  apple,  plum,  peach, 
and  other  trees.  The  purpose  of  the  amputation 
of  the  twig  by  the  larva  seems  not  primarily  to 
make  the  twig  fall,  but  to  penetrate  the  wood 
to  the  bark  for  an  easy  exit.  Elaphidion  sub- 
pubescens  works  in  the  same  way  in  shoots  of 
white  oak,  while  Elaphidion  mucronatum  is 
found  in  twigs  of  live  oak  and  other  trees. 
The  larva  of  Elaphidion  unicolor  amputates  the 
twigs  of  the  redbud  ( Cercis  canadensis ) .  A  few 
other  insects  have  similar  habits.  For  example, 
certain  liorntails,  notably  the  willow-shoot  horn- 
tail  ( Phyllcecus  integer),  live,  in  the  larval 
stage,  in  twigs  of  willow,  which  they  cause  to 
wilt  and  break. 

TWILIGHT  (from  twi-,  combining  form  of 
fW0  _|_  light).  The  diffused  illumination  of 
the  sky  which  immediately  precedes  sunrise 
and  follows  sunset.  When  *the  sun  sets  below 
our  horizon,  we  are  not  at  once  plunged  into 


the  darkness  of  night.  There  is  an  intermediate 
period  of  partial  and  slowly  increasing  darkness 
which  we  call  twilight.  It  is  caused  by  the.  re¬ 
flection  of  the  sunlight  by  dust  and  particles 
of  water  vapor  in  the  upper  atmosphere.  The 
same  phenomenon  occurs  just  before  sunrise, 
and,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  evening  twilight, 
is  called  dawn.  Dawn  begins  and  twilight  ends 
when  the  sun  is  about  18°  below  the  horizon, 
and  consequently  their  duration  varies  with 
the  latitude  and  with  the  season  of  the  year. 
The  higher  the  latitude  the  smaller  the  angle 
at  which  the  sun’s  path  meets  the  horizon,  and 
hence  the  longer  it  takes  the  sun  to  sink  to 
a  distance  of  18°  below  the  horizon.  In  the 
tropics  twilight  rarely  lasts  longer  than  30 
minutes,  while  in  the  latitude  of  the  north  of 
Scotland  it  lasts  so  long  that  about  midsummer 
there  are  several  nights  on  which  it  fills  the 
entire  interval  between  sunset  and  sunrise. 

TWILIGHT  SLEEP.  A  method  of  produc¬ 
ing  amnesia  and  analgesia  (abolition  of  mem¬ 
ory  and  pain)  during  childbirth,  originating  at 
Freiburg,  with  Kroenig  and  Gauss,  who  de¬ 
veloped0  an  exact  technique  founded  on  the 
experiments  of  Von  Steinbuchel,  published  in 
1902.  Gauss  reported  the  results  of  his 
first  300  cases  in  1906,  and  applied  the  term 
Ddmmerschlaf  to  this  method.  The  Freiburg 
technique  consists  in  administering  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  labor  an  injection  of  14  grain  mor¬ 
phine  hydrochloride,  and  grain  of  scopo¬ 

lamine  hydrobromide.  At  succeeding  intervals, 
depending  on  the  indications,  doses  of  grain 
of  scopolamine  alone  are  given,  the  intervals 
between  doses  being  regulated  so  as  to  keep 
the  patient  in  a  condition  of  amnesia.  From 
the  first  dose  the  mother  must  be  watched 
closely  as  to  her  pulse,  the  progress  of  labor, 
and  the  signs  of  returning  memory,  and  the 
fetal  heart  frequently  auscultated.  When  the 
technique  is  closely  followed  by  one  skilled  in 
its  use  and  in  quiet  surroundings,  it  is  asserted 
that  it  is  successful  in  75  per  cent  of  the  cases; 
that  no  harm  results  to  the  mother;  and  that 
the  usual  complications  of  childbirth  are  not 
increased.  But  judging  from  various  repoits 
the  method  is  often  ineffective,  the  mother  sm- 
fers  subsequently  from  delirium  and  headache, 
and  the  fetus  is*  frequently  born  in  an  asphyxi¬ 
ated  condition,  the  terms  indicating  the  various 
degrees  of  asphyxia  being  oligopnea,  apnea,  and 
asphyxia. 

Several  modifications  of  the  procedure  have 
been  introduced,  perhaps  the  most  notable  of 
which  is  that  of  Siegel,  an  assistant  of  Kroenig 
in  the  Freiburg  Frauenklinik.  The  modification 
consists  in  the  substitution  of  narcophine  for 
morphine,  narcophine  being  a  combination  of 
morphine  with  narcotine,  through  the  agency 
of  meconic  acid.  The  drug  is  supposed  to  be 
less  dangerous  than  morphine.  In  220  succes¬ 
sive  cases  Siegel  reports  88  per  cent  of  complete 
amnesia,  10  per  cent  of  partial  amnesia,  and  2 
per  cent  unaffected;  67.6  per  cent  of  the  children 
oligopneic;  1.7  per  cent  apneic;  1.7  per  cent 
breathed  spontaneously;  27.7  per  cent  were 
born  asphyxiated,  half  of  the  latter  dying;  1.3 
per  cent  were  stillborn.  It  was  noted  that  it 
sometimes  took  30  minutes  to  revive  some  of  the 
partially  asphyxiated  infants. 

Since  the'  discovery  of  anoesthetics,  ether, 
chloroform,  cocaine,  laudanum,  and  many  other 
drugs  have  been  tried  for  the  purpose  of 
ameliorating  the  sufferings  incident  to  child- 


TWILLER 


TWINING  PLANTS 


597 


birth.  Disregarding  general  anaesthetics,  which 
are  always  indicated  for  brief  periods  during  the 
most  difficult  stages  of  labor,  a  few  other  meth¬ 
ods  may  be  mentioned.  In  1896,  Savitsky,  a 
Russian  physician,  said  that  he  had  used,  with 
complete  success  and  absence  of  harm,  anti- 
pyrine  given  by  rectum.  In  1914,  Dessaignes, 
of  the  French  Academy  of  Medicine,  recom¬ 
mended  a  drug  called  antalgesine  obstetrique. 
This  drug  was  supposedly  obtained  by  the  ac¬ 
tion  of  chlorhydrate  of  morphine  on  living  fer¬ 
ments  resembling  yeast.  The  drug  has  been 
since  condemned,  and  has  even  been  said  to 
consist  of  nothing  more  than  morphine  in  solu¬ 
tion.  Pantopon,  a  morphine  derivative,  is  ex¬ 
tolled  by  other  observers. 

In  1914  twilight  sleep  was  popularly  ex¬ 
ploited  in  several  lay  journals  and  magazines. 
The  accounts  were  highly  colored,  and  exagger¬ 
ated  the  benefits  of  twilight  sleep  on  the  one 
hand,  while  magnifying  the  pain  of  ordinary 
parturition  on  the  other.  It  was  even  made  to 
appear  that  children  born  during  twilight  sleep 
were  more  vigorous,  mentally  and  physically, 
than  their  brothers  and  sisters  born  under  ordi¬ 
nary  conditions.  The  movement  among  certain 
classes  of  women  attained  almost  to  the  propor¬ 
tions  of  hysteria,  and  the  medical  profession 
w'as  openly  accused  of  being  too  indolent  and 
callous  to  apply  the  method.  The  consensus 
of  opinion  at  present  is  that  twilight  sleep  is 
practicable  in  about  80  per  cent  of  carefully 
selected  cases,  that  it  should  be  applied  only 
in  hospital  surroundings  or  in  well-regulated 
households,  and  that  a  physician  skilled  in 
its  use  should  be  in  constant  attendance.  Its 
miscellaneous  application  is  bound  to  result  in  a 
large  amount  of  complications,  both  to  mother 
and  child.  Consult  A.  M.  Heilman,  Twilight 
Sleep  (New  York,  1915). 


twinflower  ( Linncea  borealis). 

TWILLER,  Wouter  van.  See  Van  Twilleb, 
Wouter. 

T WIL'LIN GATE  or  TOULINGTJET,  too'- 
laN'gaC  A  port  of  entry  on  the  Twillingate 
Islands  in  Notre  Dame  Bay,  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  Newfoundland,  232  miles  by  steamer 
from  St.  John’s  (Map:  Newfoundland,  F  3).  It 
is  a  prosperous  fishing  centre.  Pop.,  1901,  3542; 
1911,  3348. 

TWIN  FALLS.  A  citv  and  the  countv  seat 
of  Twin  Falls  Co.,  Ida.,  35  miles  south  of  Sho¬ 
shone,  on  the  Oregon  Short  Line  Railway 


(Map :  Idaho,  D  7 ) .  The  chief  industrial  estab¬ 
lishments  are  vulcanizing  works,  Hour  and  plan¬ 
ing  mills,  creameries,  sash  and  door  works,  lum¬ 
ber  yards,  a  sheet-metal  shop,  and  manufactories 
of  candy,  harness,  and  vinegar.  Abundant  water 
power  is  provided  by  the  Shoshone  Falls,  5 
miles  distant.  Pop.,  1910,  5258. 

TWINFLOWER.  A  hardy,  trailing  ever¬ 
green  plant  of  the  family  Caprifoliaceae.  Linncea 
borealis,  the  only  species,  is  a  favorite  in  rock¬ 
eries.  on  account  of  its  dainty,  bell-shaped, 
nodding,  pink  or  white,  fragrant  flowers,  which 
appear  during  midsummer  in  pairs  upon  erect, 
slender  stems.  It  thrives  best  in  open,  peaty 
soil  and  in  shade.  In  the  woods  it  may  be 
found  as  far  south  as  Maryland  and  the  moun¬ 
tains  of  California,  but  is  more  common  north¬ 
ward,  being  circumpolar  and  alpine  in  its  dis¬ 
tribution. 

TWINFLOWER.  See  Partridge  Berry. 

TWINING  PLANTS.  Plants  whose  axes 
are  coiled  about  slender  supports,  as  common 
morning-glory  and  hop.  In  most  cases  the  sup¬ 
port  must  be  slender  (less  than  15  centimeters 
in  diameter),  though  some  tropical  plants  coil 
about  thick  tree  trunks,  and  others  climb  some¬ 
what  similarly  by  partial  twining.  ( See 
Lianas.)  The  direction  of  twining  varies  with 
different  plants,  being  either  clockwise  or  coun¬ 
terclockwise.  While  the  direction  of  twining 
is  usually  constant  in  the  same  species,  some 
twiners  coil  in  either  direction.  The  direction 
is  not  constant,  however,  among  members  of 
the  same  family,  nor  even  among  different  spe¬ 
cies  of  the  same  genus. 

The  cause  of  twining  has  long  been  a  difficult 
problem.  The  most  satisfactory  explanation 
seems  to  be  that  twining  stems  are  endowed 
with  a  sensitiveness  to  the  action  of  gravity, 
which  may  be  distinguished  as  lateral  geotropism 
(q.v.).  The  stem  at  first  grows  erect  (on  ac¬ 
count  of  negative  geotropism),  but  through 
unequal  growth,  causing  nutation  ( q.v. ) ,  soon 
inclines  to  one  side.  At  this  period  of  develop¬ 
ment  the  flanks  (the  sides  of  the  stem  now  on 
the  right  and  left  as  distinguished  from  the 
upper  and  lower)  are  sensitive  to  their  changed 
relation  to  gravity  (on  account  of  the  new  hori¬ 
zontal  position),  which  thus  becomes  a  stimulus. 
The  response  cf  the  stem  to  this  stimulus  is 
an  accelerated  growth  on  one  flank,  the  right 
or  left,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  acceleration 
of  growth  there  swings  the  horizontal  tip  to¬ 
wards  a  new  point  of  the  compass,  and  at 
the  same  time,  from  mechanical  necessity,  par¬ 
tially  rotates  the  stem  on  its  longitudinal  axis, 
so  that  a  new  side  is  brought  into  the  flank 
position  and  therefore  under  stimulation.  It 
then  responds  likewise  with  accelerated  growth; 
this  swings  the  tip  still  farther  around,  and  again 
brings  a  new  region  under  stimulation.  By 
this  continued  action  each  side  of  the  stem  is 
successively  stimulated,  and  the  tip  is  therefore 
swung  in  a  circle.  At  the  same  time  it  is 
elongating.  If,  in  course  of  twining,  the  nearly 
horizontal  tip  strikes  a  support,  only  the  part 
beyond  the  support  continues  to  swing,  and 
therefore  begins  to  wrap  around  the  support, 
forming  coils  which  are  at  first  low  and  loose. 
Later  negative  geotropism  again  asserts  itself 
in  this  part  of  the  stem,  which  grows  so  that 
it  straightens,  if  possible,  the  actual  effect  being 
to  steepen  the  coils  and  make  them  clasp  the 
support  more  closely.  The  slenderer  the  sup¬ 
port,  as  a  rule,  the  steeper  are  the  completed 


TWISS 


TWO  SICILIES 


598 


coils.  This  explanation  receives  its  strongest 
support  from  the  fact  that  when  the  action  of 
gravity  is  equalized,  as  by  rotating  a  seedling 
twiner  on  a  clinostat  (q.v.),  no  coiling  takes 
place.  There  are  various  phenomena  of  twining, 
experimentally  induced,  of  which  no  full  ex¬ 
planation  can  yet  be  given.  There  is,  however, 
no  mere  mechanical  stoppage  of  the  swinging 
tip  which  permits  coiling,  because  it  has  no 
momentum,  and  because  many  twiners  will  coil 
about  a  loose  cord.  It  is  further  probable  that 
twiners  are  susceptible  to  the  continued  contact 
and  pressure  of  the  support,  and  that  this  plays 
some  part  in  the  method  of  climbing  which  they 
have  adopted. 

Twining  plants  are  characterized  by  unusu¬ 
ally  long  growing  regions,  and  by  the  retarded 
development  of  foliage  leaves.  1  hus,  while  in 
erect  stems  from  10  to  20  centimeters  of  the 
apex  are  still  capable  of  elongation,  in  twining 
plants  the  elongating  region  is  30  to  50  centi¬ 
meters  long,  or  in  some  cases  as  much  as  80 
centimeters  The  slow  development  01  the  foliage 
leaves  seems  both  to  be  correlated  with  this 
long  maintenance  of  the  power  of  growth,  and 
to  be  necessary  for  twining,  because  the  presence 
of  fully  developed  foliage  would  interfere  seri¬ 
ously  with  the  free  movements  of  the  tip. 

TWISS,  Sir  Travers  (1809-97).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  jurist  and  scholar.  He  was  born  in  Mary- 
lebone,  London,  graduated  from  University 
College,  Oxford,  with  distinction,  and  published 
in  1836  his  Epitome  of  Niebuhr’s  History  of 
Rome.  In  1840  he  was  called  to  the  bar.  From 
1842  to  1847  he  was  professor  of  political  econ¬ 
omy  at  Oxford,  from  1852  to  1855  professor  of 
international  law  at  King’s  College,  London, 
and  from  1855  to  1870  held  the  regius  profes¬ 
sorship  of  civil  law  at  Oxford.  He  also  helci 
several  ecclesiastic  legal  positions,  and  in  1S58 
he  became  chancellor  of  the  diocese  of  London, 
the  same  year  having  been  created  Queen’s 
counsel.  In  1867  he  was  appointed  Queen’s 
Advocate-General  and  was  knighted.  Owing  to 
a  scandalous  libel  of  which  he  and  his  wife 
were  the  victims,  in  1872  he  retired  to  private 
life  and  devoted  himself  to  juridical  science 
and  literature.  In  1884  he  drafted  for  the 
King  of  Belgium  a  constitution  for  the  Congo 
Free  State,  "and  in  1884-85  was  counsel  ex¬ 
traordinary  to  the  British  Embassy  during  the 
Berlin  Conference.  His  chief  works  are:  View 
of  the  Progress  of  Political  Economy  in  Eu¬ 
rope  since  the  Sixteenth  Century  (London, 
1847);  The  Oregon  Territory:  Its  History  and 
Discovery  (New  York,  1846)  ;  but  his  fame  rests 
principally  on  his  treatise,  The  Law  of  Nations 
(1861-63). 

TWITTER.  A  peculiar  deformation  of  car¬ 
nation  plants,  produced  possibly  by  several 
kinds  of  insects:  a  plant  louse  or  green  fly  of 
the  genus  Siphonophora,  a  true  tlirips  and 
possibly  the  larva  of  some  an  thorny  iid  fly. 
Carnation  twitter  may  be  produced  by  any  cause 
which  checks  the  growth  of  the  plant;  hence 
any  one  of  several  insects  may  be  involved. 

TWO  GENTLEMEN  OF  VERO'NA,  The. 
A  comedy  by  Shakespeare,  probably  produced  in 
the  original  form  in  1591,  and  in  the  present 
form  in  1595;  first  printed  in  the  folio  of  1623. 

TWO  HARBORS.  A  city  and  the  county 
seat  of  Lake  Co.,  Minn.,  28  miles  northeast 
of  Duluth,  on  Lake  Superior,  and  on  the  Duluth 
and  Iron  Range  Railroad  (Map:  Minnesota, 
F  3).  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  iron- 


ore  shipping  points,  and  also  makes  large  ship¬ 
ments  of  lumber  and  pulp  wood.  Pop.,  1900, 
3278;  1910,  4990. 

TWO  NOBLE  KINSMEN.  A  play  produced 
in  1625  and  published  in  1634  as  the  work 
of  Fletcher  and  Shakespeare.  It  was  probably 
written  by  Massinger  and  Fletcher  with  RoAvley. 

TWO  RIVERS.  A  city  in  Manitowoc  Co., 
Wis.,  7  miles  northeast  of  Manitowoc,  on  Lake 
Michigan,  and  on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern 
Railroad  (Map:  Wisconsin,  F  4).  The  leading 
manufactures  are  dentists’  and  printers’  cabi¬ 
nets,  wood  type  cases,  office  furniture,  alu¬ 
minium  novelties,  gasoline  engines,  tubs,  pails, 
veneer  goods,  and  knitted  goods.  Pop.,  1900, 
3784;  1910,4850. 

TWO-SEED-IN-THE-SPIRIT  BAPTISTS. 

See  Baptists. 

TWO  SICILIES,  Kingdom  of  the.  The 
name  commonly  given  to  a  former  kingdom 
embracing  Sicily  and  southern  Italy,  and  known 
often  as  the  Kingdom  of  Naples.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  southern  part  of  the  Italian  mainland 
came  to  be  kno\\Tn  as  “Sicily  on  this  side  of  the 
Faro”  (the  Strait  of  Messina).  From  the  earli¬ 
est  times  both  island  and  mainland  were  sub¬ 
ject  to  settlement  and  conquest  by  peoples  of 
widely  different  stock,  producing  a  complicated 
admixture  of  races.  At  the  dawn  of  history  the 
Phoenicians  had  trading  settlements  there.  In 
the  eighth  century  b.c.  numerous  Greek  colonies 
were  founded  in  both  Sicily  and  southern  Italy 
and  became  powerful  and  wealthy  states.  A 
new  Phoenician  element  A\ras  introduced  when 
Carthage  disputed  the  supremacy  of  Sicily  with 
the  Greeks.  The  Roman  conquest  folloAved.  In 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  at  the  time  of 
the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Sicily  was  rav¬ 
aged  by  the  Vandals.  ToAvards  the  close  of  the 
century  the  Ostrogoths  made  themselves  masters 
of  Italy  and  Sicily.  In  the  sixth  century  their 
realm  AA7as  conquered  by  the  Byzantines.  Soon 
after  the  Lombards  established  their  SAvav  OA'er 
part  of  southern  Italy.  The  Lombard  Duchy 
of  Benevento  was  founded,  out  of  which  in 
the  ninth  century  arose  the  three  principalities 
of  Benevento,  Salerno,  and  Capua.  By  the  side 
of  these  was  the  Duchy  of  Naples,  a  Byzantine 
creation.  Apulia  and  Calabria  AA7ere  held  by  the 
Byzantines  until  the  eleventh  century.  In  the 
years  from  827  to  878  the  island  of  Sicily  was 
conquered  by  the  Saracens,  and  they  also  ob¬ 
tained  a  foothold  on  the  mainland. 

About  1037  the  sons  of  a  Norman  knight, 
Tancred  de  Hauteville,  setting  out  Avith  a  feAV 
folloAvers,  entered  southern  Italy  in  the  service 
of  the  Byzantine  Governor,  but  soon  seized  and 
divided  Apulia  and  Avere  able  to  hold  the 
country  against  every  effort  of  the  Greeks  to 
dislodge  them.  Robert  Guiscard,  one  of^  these 
brothers,  became  Count  of  Apulia  in  10;>7.  and 
in  1059  he  Avas  recognized  by  Pope  Nicholas 
II  as  Duke  of  Apulia  and  Calabria.  In  1061 
his  younger  brother,  Roger,  AA7ith  a  feAV  hundred 
Norman  knights,  began  the  conquest  of  the  is¬ 
land  of  Sicily,  which  became  a  county  and  a 
fief  of  Robert’s  duchy,  though  the  total  sub¬ 
jugation  of  the  island  Avas  not  accomplished 
till  1090,  after  Robert’s  death.  In  1127  Roger 
II,  son  of  the  first  Roger,  united  Apulia,  Cala¬ 
bria,  and  Sicily,  and  in  1130  assumed  the  title 
of  King  of  Sicily.  He  ruled  over  the  Abruzzi, 
made  himself  master  of  Capua,  and  received 
the  submission  of  Naples.  The  marriage  of 
Frederick  Barbarossa’s  son,  the  later  Emperor 


TWO  SICILIES  59Q  TWO  SICILIES 


Henry  VI,  to  Constance,  heiress  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  in  1186,  united  the  destinies  of  the 
Norman  Kingdom  with  those  of  the  house  of 
Hohenstaufen,  whose  rule  began  in  1194.  The 
child  of  this  marriage,  the  Emperor  Frederick  II 
(<l-v-)>  was  the  most  remarkable  prince  in  the 
Europe  of  his  day.  He  reorganized  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  Sicilian  Kingdom  on  essentially 
modern  lines,  founded  the  University  of  Naples, 
and  made  his  court  a  brilliant  centre  of  high 
culture  and  learning.  Iiis  death  in  1250  was 
followed  by  the  downfall  of  the  Ilohenstaufens. 
In  1266  Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  Louis  IX 
of  France,  at  the  instance  of  the  Pope,  under¬ 
took  the  conquest  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  He  van¬ 
quished  Manfred,  son  of  Frederick  II,  at  Bene- 
vento,  and  in  1268  captured  and  executed  Con- 
radin,  the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufens.  Charles 
of  Anjou  made  Naples  his  residence. 

Ihe  year  1282  witnessed  the  fearful  popular 
uprising  against  the  French  in  Sicily  known  as 
the  Sicilian  Vespers  (q.v.).  The  people  shook 
off  the  yoke  of  Anjou  and  placed  their  island 
under  the  rule  of  Pedro  III  of  Aragon.  The 
house  of  Anjou  continued  to  rule  in  south 
Italy,  which  thus  became  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples.  In  1296  Sicily  was  separated  from 
Aragon,  but  continued  under  the  rule  of  the 
Aragonese  house,  and  in  1412  was  reunited  with 
that  kingdom.  Eobert  I  of  Naples  (1309-43) 
made  himself  the  champion  of  the  Guelph  party 
and  extended  his  influence  throughout  Italy. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  granddaughter  Joanna 
I  (q.v.),  and  an  anarchic  period  began  and 
continued  for  many  years,  the  heirs  of  the  elder 
Neapolitan  line,  which  had  also  acquired  the 
throne  of  Hungary,  contending  with  new  as¬ 
pirants  from  Anjou.  In  1399  the  Neapolitan 
line  triumphed  in  the  person  of  the  crafty  and 
unprincipled  Ladislas  (q.v.).  He  died  in"  1414, 
leaving  the  kingdom  to  his  sister,  Joanna  II 
(q.v.).  She  was  given  up  to  sensuality,  and 
disorder  was  renewed.  After  her  death  in  1435 
Alfonso  V,  King  of  Aragon  and  Sicily,  under¬ 
took  the  conquest  of  Naples,  of  which  he  secured 
possession  in  1442,  reigning  until  his  death  in 
1458.  He  left  Aragon  and  Sicily  to  his  eldest 
son,  John,  and  Naples  to  his  illegitimate  son, 
Ferdinand,  under  whose  rapacious  and  cruel 
rule  new  troubles  arose.  In  1495  Charles  VIII 
of  France  invaded  Naples,  and  although  he  was 
compelled  to  withdraw  in  the  same  year,  his 
successor,  Louis  XII,  jointly  with  Ferdinand 
of  Spain,  conquered  the  country  in  1501.  Two 
years  afterward  the  Spaniards*  under  Gonsalvo 
de  Cordoba  (q.v.)  drove  out  the  French  and 
made  Naples  a  Spanish  province. 

The  country  was  now  subjected  to  the  oppres¬ 
sion  of  Spanish  viceroys.  Rebellion  at  Naples 
broke  out  in  1647  under  Masaniello  (q.v.). 
In  1707  the  Neapolitan  dominions  were  wrested 
from  Spain  by  Austria  during  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.  (See  Succession  Wars.) 
Naples  was  confirmed  to  Austria  by  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht  (1713)  and  Sicily  was  given  to 
Savoy.  In  1720  Sicily  was  transferred  by  Savoy 
to  Austria  in  exchange  for  Sardinia.  In  1734 
Hon  Carlos,  second  son  of  Philip  V  of  Spain, 
of  the  house  of  Bourlxm,  and  Elizabeth  Farnese 
invaded  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  in  1735  he  was 
crowned  and  was  recognized  by  the  Treaty  of 
\ienna  as  King  Charles  III.  (See  Charles  III, 
King  of  Spain.)  After  the  Peace  of  Aix-la- 
C  hapelle  (1748)  Italy  enjoyed  nearly  a  half 
century  of  peace,  and  these  years  witnessed  in 


the  Two  Sicilies  progress  along  many  lines, 
but  the  upheaval  of  the  French  Revolution 
bi ought  new  troubles.  the  coalition  against 
the  French  Republic  was  joined  by  Ferdinand, 
the  second  Bourbon  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
(See  Ferdinand  I.)  In  December,  1798,  the 
Neapolitans  attempted  to  drive  the  French  out 
of  the  Papal  States.  They  were  thrown  back, 
Naples  was  taken  (January,  1799),  and  the 
Parthenopean  Republic  was  created.  In  the 
same  year  Ferdinand  was  reinstated  with  the 
assistance  of  the  English  fleet.  In  1896  Na¬ 
poleon  conquered  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  and 
placed  his  brother  Joseph  Bonaparte  on  the 
throne,  Ferdinand  continuing  to  reign  in  Sicily. 
In  1808  Joseph  was  succeeded  bv  Joachim 
Murat  (q.v.).  After  the  fall  of  Murat  in  1815 
Ferdinand  was  restored  in  Naples.  At  the  close 
of  1816  Ferdinand  united  the  kingdoms  of 
Naples  and  Sicily  into  the  single  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  and  changed  his  title  from 
Ferdinand  IV  to  Ferdinand  I. 

In  1820  there  was  a  military  rising  in  the 
Neapolitan  dominions,  joined  by  the  Carbonari 
(q.v.),  under  the  leadership  of  General  Pepe, 
to  secure  a  constitutional  government.  The 
King  yielded  to  the  demand,  notwithstanding 
his  agreement  with  Austria  to  make  no  constitu¬ 
tional  concessions.  At  the  same  time  a  revolu¬ 
tionary  movement  aiming  at  autonomy  for  the 
island  took  place  in  Sicily.  The  congress  *of 
the  Great  Powers  at  Laibach  (1821)  charged 
Austria  with  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand’s 
absolute  power.  The  patriots  made  an  inef¬ 
fectual  resistance  arid  Ferdinand  resumed  his 
tyrannical  sway  under  the  protection  of  Aus¬ 
trian  bayonets.  Ferdinand  died  in  1825  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  I  (q.v.), 
who  in  1830  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ferdinand 
II  (q.v.).  The  change  of  rulers  brought  about 
no  change  in  the  despotic  policy  of  the  govern¬ 
ment.  After  1843  the  republican  propaganda  of 
Mazzini  took  a  strong  hold  in  southern  Italy. 
At  the  beginning  of  1848  Sicily  rose  in  insur¬ 
rection  to  secure  an  autonomous  and  constitu¬ 
tional  government.  Ferdinand  II  was  forced 
to  grant  a  representative  constitution  to  his 
subjects.  This  did  not  satisfy  the  Sicilians. 
The  deposition  of  Ferdinand  was  declared,  a 
provisional  government  organized,  and  the  Duke 
of  Genoa,  son  of  the  King  of  Sardinia,  was 
elected  King  of  the  Sicilians  (June,  1848),  a 
dignity  which  he  declined.  In  his  Neapolitan 
dominions  Ferdinand,  with  the  aid  of  reac¬ 
tionary  elements,  was  enabled  successfully  to 
combat  the  revolutionary  movement  now  sweep¬ 
ing  through  Italy.  In  September,  1848,  his 
forces  entered  upon  a  Sicilian  campaign.  In 
May,  1849,  Palermo  capitulated  and  the  revolu¬ 
tion  in  the  island  ended.  Ferdinand,  once  more 
the  despot,  wreaked  a  fearful  vengeance  upon 
the  champions  of  liberty  in  his  dominions.  His 
atrocities  were  finally  checked  by  the  inter¬ 
vention  of  England.  In  1859  Ferdinand  II 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  II.  The 
emancipation  of  northern  Italy  (except  Venetia) 
from  the  rule  of  Austria  and  the  tyrants  up¬ 
held  by  her  (1859—60)  was  speedily  followed 
by  the  liberation  of  the  Two  Sicilies  from  the 
Bourbons,  accomplished  through  the  efforts  of 
Garibaldi,  and  by  their  incorporation  in  the 
new  Kingdom  of  Italy  (1860-61).  See  Gari¬ 
baldi;  Italy:  Victor’  Emmanuel  II. 

Bibliography.  Amari,  Storia  del  Musulmani 
di  Sicilia  (Florence,  1854-72);  Pietro  Colletta, 


TY 


TYLER 


600 


History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  113Jf-182o; 
Enc  trans.  by  S.  Horner  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
1858-60);  Gemelli,  Storia  della  nvoluzione 
Sicilian  a  mS-Jt9  (Bologna,  1868)  ;  Quernet ,Die 
piemontesische  Herrschaft  auf  Sizihen  (Bern, 
1879)  ;  La  Lumia,  Studi  di  storia  sicihane 
(Palermo,  1870);  id.,  Storie  siciliane  (ib., 
^g8l_83)  ;  Gotliein,  Die  Kulturentwichlung 
Siiditaliens  (Breslau,  1886);  E.  A.  Freeman, 
History  of  Sicily  from  the  Earliest  Times  (Ox¬ 
ford,  1.891 )  ;  id.,  Story  of  Sicily  (New  York, 
1892)  ;  R.  De  Cesare,  La  fine  di  un  regno  (Citta 
di  Castello,  1900);  R.  M.  Johnston,  Napoleonic 
Empire  in  Southern  Italy  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1304)  ; 

C  Auriol,  La  France,  VAngleterre  et  Naples 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1904-05)  ;  Cambridge  Modern 
History,  vols.  iv,  vi,  ix  (New  York,  1906-09), 
containing  full  bibliography;  Oscar  Biovnmg, 
History  of  the  Modern  World,  vol.  1  (ib.,  Ur-). 
TY.  See  Tyr. 

TYA'NA,  Apollonius  of.  See  Apollonius 

of  Tyana.  ,  ,  ,, 

TYBEE  (tFbe)  ISLAND.  An  island  at  the 

mouth  of  the  Savannah  River,  Georgia  (Map: 
Georgia,  F  4).  It  is  historically  noted  as  the 
site  of  the  batteries  erected  by  General  Gill- 
more  in  1861  for  the  reduction  of  Fort  Pulaski, 
which  capitulated  April  11,  1862.  At  the  north 
end  of  the  island  stands  a  lighthouse  of  the  first 
order,  144  feet  high,  lighting  the  Tybee  Roads, 
from  which  a  channel  protected  by  jetties  leads 
up  to  Savannah. 

TY'BURN.  The  chief  place  of  execution  m 
London  prior  to  1783,  frequently  mentioned  in 
Eno-lish  history  and  literature.  It  was  near 
the^  northeast  corner  of  Hyde  Park,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  Oxford  Street,  and  about 
where  the  Edgeware  and  Uxbridge  roads  unite, 
near  the  present  Marble  Arch.  It  was  named 
from  a  small  stream  which  ran  from  Hampstead 
to  the  Thames  through  St.  James’s  Park. 
Wooden  galleries  were  erected  near  the  gallows 
for  the  accommodation  of  spectators.  The  crimi¬ 
nal  was  conveyed  from  Newgate  (q.v.)  to  Ty¬ 
burn  (about  2  miles)  by  Holborn  and  the 
Tvburn  Road,  now  Oxford  Street.  As  Oxford 
Street  and  London  spread  westward,  the  long 
procession  became  inconvenient,  and  the  place 
of  execution  was,  in  1783,  removed  to  the  Old 
Bailey,  or  Newgate.  Under  parliamentary  stat¬ 
ute  prosecutors  who  secured  a  capital  comic¬ 
tion  against  a  criminal  were  exempted  from  all 
manner  of  parish  and  ward  “offices  within  the 
parish  in  which  the  felony  had  been  committed,” 
and  obtained  what  was  called  a  Tyburn  ticket, 
which  was  enrolled  with  the  clerk  of  the  peace, 
and  sold  like  any  other  property.  The  privileges 
the  tickets  conferred  were  greatly  valued,  as 
they  sold  at  a  high  price.  Consult  Alfred 
Marks,  Tyburn  Tree:  Its  History  and  Annals 

(London,  1908). 

TYCHE,  ti'ke.  See  Fortuna. 

TYCHO  BRAHE,  te'ko  bra'S  or  bra.  See 
Hkaiie 

’  TYCHO'NIUS,  or  TICHQNXUS  (?-c.400). 
A  Donatist  writer.  He  was  born  in  Africa, 
headed  a  party  among  the  Donatists,  and  de¬ 
fended  their  position.  Of  his  writings  those 
of  most  interest  are  his  biblical  works,  a  com¬ 
mentary  on  the  Revelation  and  especially  lus 
Liber  Reqularum.  The  latter  has  been  edited 
by  F  C  Burkitt,  The  Book  of  Rules  of  Tychonius 
(Cambridge,  1894),  and  has  great  interest  as 
the  first  attempt  at  a  system  of  hermeneutics. 

TYCHSEN,  tiK'zen,  Olaus  Gerhard  (1/o4 


1815).  A  German  Semitic  scholar.  He  was 
born  at  Tondern,  Schleswig,  studied  at  Halle, 
and  taught  in  the  orphan  asylum  there.  In 
1759-60  he  traveled  through  Germany  and  Den¬ 
mark  as  a  missionary  to  the  Jews.  In  1760 
he  went  to  the  newly  founded  University  of 
Biitzow,  where  he  was  professor  of  Oriental 
languages  from  1763  till  the  university  was 
closed  in  1789.  He  then  became  librarian  at 
Rostock.  Tyclisen-is  especially  noted  for  his 
knowledge  of  Rabbinic  literature  and  Jewish 
history  and  for  his  work  in  Arabic  paleography; 
he  also  attempted  to  decipher  the  cuneiform  in¬ 
scriptions.  He  published  Biitzcivische  Neben- 
stunden  (1766-69);  Physiologies  Syrus  (1795); 
Historia  Monetce  Arabics  (1797)  ;  and  Tractatus 
de  Legalibus  Arabum  Ponderibus  ac  Mensuns 
(1800),  the  treatise  of  Makrizi.  For  his  biog¬ 
raphy,  consult  A.  T.  Hartmann  (Bremen,  1818- 
20).* 

TYCOON,  or  TAIKUN,  tl'koon'  (Jap.  tai- 
kun,  great  prince,  from  Chin,  ta,  great  +  lciun, 
prince).  A  title  formerly  applied  to  the  Shogun 
of  Japan  by  foreigners.  It  dates  from  the  early 
days  of  Occidental  intercourse  with  the  Japanese 

people.  ^  _ 

TYD'EUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  TcSees).  In  Greek 
mythology,  son  of  CEneus  and  Peribcea.  As  a  re¬ 
sult  of  a  murder  he  was  forced  to  flee  from 
his  father’s  Kingdom  of  Calydon  and  married 
Deipyle,  daughter  of  Adrastus  (q.v.),  King  of 
Argos.  He  went  with  Adrastus  against  Thebes, 
where  he  slew  Melanippus,  who  had  wounded 
him.  When  Athena  came  to  him  with  a  remedy 
which  would  have  made  him  immortal,  Am- 
phiaraus  ( q.v. )  brought  him  the  head  of  Mela- 
nippus.  TydGUS  devoured  a  part  of  it,  and  the 
goddess,  in  disgust,  abandoned  him. 

TYE,  Christopher  (c.1497-1572) .  An  Eng¬ 
lish  organist  and  composer  of  considerable  note 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  He  became  a  chorister, 
and  in  1536  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal. 
Under  Elizabeth  he  was  organist  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  and  produced  many  services  and  anthems, 
some  of  which  continue  to  be  sung  in  England. 
Some  of  them  show  a  marked  originality  and 
variety  of  treatment.  He  also  translated  the 
first  half  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  into  Eng¬ 
lish  verse,  and  then  set  it  to  music  of  generally 
excellent  quality.  He  seems  to  have  taken 
orders  and  to  have  held  two  or  three  parishes 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Cambridge. 

TY'ERMAN,  Luke  (1820-89).  An  English 
Wesleyan  minister  and  biographer.  He  was  born 
at  Osinotherly,  Yorkshire,  entered  the  ministry 
in  1842,  and  continued  to  preach  until  1864, 
when  he  retired  and  devoted  himself  to  literary 
work.  He  published:  The  Life  and  Times  of 
Rev.  Samuel  Wesley  (1866);  The  Life  and 
Times  of  Rev.  John  Wesley  (1870-71);  The 
Oxford  Methodists  (1873);  The  Life  of  Rev. 
George  Whitefield  (1876);  Wesley’s  Designated 
Successor:  The  Life,  Letters,  and  Literary 
Labors  of  Rev.  John  William  Fletcher  (1883). 

TYIGH,  ti'ig.  See  Warm  Springs. 

TYLDESLEY  (tllz'li)  WITH  SHAKER- 
LEY,  shak'er-1!.  A  town  in  Lancashire,  Eng¬ 
land,  10  miles  northwest  of  Manchester.  Its 
modern  growth  is  due  to  its  cotton  manufactures 
and  neighboring  collieries.  Pop.,  1901,  14,843; 
1911,  15,582.  " 

TY'LER.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  ot 
Smith  Co.,  Tex.,  105  miles  by  rail  east  by 
south  of  Dallas,  on  the  St.  Louis  Southwestern 
and  the  International  and  Great  Northern  rail- 


TYLER 


601 


TYLER 


roads  (Map:  Texas,  E  3).  It  has  Tyler  Col¬ 
lege,  a  commercial  and  literary  institution,  and 
Texas  College  (Methodist)  for  colored  youths. 
Noteworthy  also  are  the  city  hall,  the  Carnegie 
library,  the  Federal  court  and  post-office  build- 
ing,  the  Court  of  Criminal  Appeals  building,  and 
the  St.  Louis  Southwestern  Railroad  Hospital. 
There  are  two  parks — Bellevue  and  Lakewood. 
Tyler  derives  considerable  importance  from  its 
situation  in  a  fertile  region  producing  large 
quantities  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and  cotton.  A 
box  and  crate  factory,  an  oil  mill,  a  compress, 
mattress  and  overall  factories,  a  fruit  and  vege¬ 
table  cannery,  a  pottery,  and  railway  shops  are 
the  leading  industrial  establishments.  In  1914 
the  city  adopted  the  commission  form  of  govern¬ 
ment.  Tyler  was  settled  about  1844,  and  was 
first  corpora  ted  about  1850.  Pop.,  1900,  8069: 
1910,  10,400;  1915,  11,629;  1920,  12,085. 

TYLER,  Bennet  (1783-1858).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  Congregational  minister  and  educator.  He 
was  born  at  Middlebury,  Conn.,  graduated  at 
Yale  College  (1804),  and  was  pastor  at  South 
Britain,  Conn.,  president  of  Dartmouth  College 
( 1 822-28 ),.  pastor  at  Portland,  Me.,  and  from 
1834  till  his  death  was  first  president  and  pro* 
fessor  of  theology  in  a  theological  seminary  at 
East  Y\  indsor  Hill,  Conn.  (This  was  removed 
to  Hartford  in  1865  and  was  thereafter  known 
as  Hartford  Theological  Seminary.)  He  pub¬ 
lished:  History  of  the  New  Haven  Theology 
(1837);  Treatise  on  the  Sufferings  of  Christ 
(1845);  A  Treatise  on  New  England  Revivals 
( 1S46)  ;  Letters  to  Dr.  H.  Bushnell  on  Christian 
Nurture  (2  series,  1847-48)  ;  Lectures  on  Theol- 
og y  (posthumous,  with  memoirs  by  his  son-in- 
law,  Rev.  Dr.  Nahum  Gale,  Boston,  1859).  Con¬ 
sult  Williston  Walker,  Neio  England  Leaders 
(New  York,  1901).  See  New  England  Theol¬ 
ogy. 

TYLER,  Daniel  (1799-1882).  An  American 
engineer  and  soldier,  born  at  Brooklyn,  Conn. 
He  graduated  in  1819  at  West  Point,  and  in 
.  1824-26  served  at  the  Fortress  Monroe  School 
of  Artillery  Practice.  In  1828-29  he  was  in 
France,  studying  artillery  methods,  in  1830-34 
was  on  ordnance  duty,  and  in  the  latter  year 
resigned.  He  was  contracting  engineer  and 
president  of  several  railways  until  the  Civil 
War,  when  he  became  colonel  of  the  First 
Connecticut  Volunteers,  and  was  soon  after¬ 
ward  commissioned  brigadier  general.  Having 
been  mustered  out,  he  was  in  1862  reappointed 
with  rank  of  brigadier  general,  and  participated 
in  the  Mississippi  campaign  and  also  in  the 
siege  of  Corinth.  In  1863  General  Tyler  com¬ 
manded  the  Union  forces  at  Harper’s  Ferry  and 
Maryland  Heights. 

TYLER,  John  (1790-1862).  The  tenth 
President  of  the  United  States.  He  was  born 
at  Greenway,  Charles  City  Co.,  Va.,  March 
29,  1790,  the  son  of  Judge  John  Tvler,  who 
was  Speaker  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Delegates, 
Governor  of  Virginia,  and  a  judge  of  State  and 
Federal  courts.  The  son  graduated  at  William 
and  Mary  College  in  1807 ;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1809;  and  became  a  member  of  the  Leg¬ 
islature  in  1811,  where  he  acted  with  the  Re¬ 
publicans  and  supported  the  war  with  Great 
Britain.  He  was  elected  to  the  Legislature  five 
times  in  succession  until  1816,  when  he  went 
to  Congress.  In  the  House  of  Representatives, 
during  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Congresses, 
he  acted  with  the  States-Rights  Republicans, 
condemned  General  Jackson’s  course  in  Florida, 


and  opposed  the  United  States  Bank  and  the 
Missouri  Compromise.  In  1823  he  was  again 
a  member  of  the  Virginia  Legislature.  In  1825 
no  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  by  the 
Legislature,  and  was  unanimously  reelected  the 
following  year.  At  the  close  of  his  second  term 
as  Governor  he  was  elected  over  John  Randolph 
to  the  United  States  Senate,  in  which  he  op¬ 
posed  the  tariff  measures  of  1828  and  1832,  op¬ 
posed  nullification,  but  condemned  Jackson’s 
nullification  proclamation,  although  he  sup¬ 
ported  Jackson  for  the  presidency  in  1832  and 
stood  alone  among  the  Senators  in' voting  against 
the  Force  Bill  of  1833.  He  was  chosen  for 
a  second  term  in  the  Senate,  and  in  1834  made 
a  report  censuring  President  Jackson  for  re¬ 
moving  the  deposits  from  the  United  States 
Bank,  and  voted  for  Clay’s  resolution  of  cen¬ 
sure.  Having  subsequently  been  instructed  bv 
the  Legislature  of  Virginia  to  vote  for  the  ex¬ 
punging  of  the  resolution  of  censure,  he  refused 
to  obey,  and  in  February,  1836,  resigned  his 
seat  and  retired  to  private  life.  Tyler  was  a 
leading  member  of  the  new  Whig  party,  and 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  vice"  presi¬ 
dency  in  1836.  In  1840  he  was  elected  Vice 
President  on  the  Whig  ticket  with  General  W. 
IT.  Harrison  (q.v.).  President  Harrison  died 
April  4,  1841,  one  month  after  his  inaugura¬ 
tion,  and  was  succeeded  by  Tyler,  who  com¬ 
pletely  broke  with  the  party  that  had  elected 
him.  He  vetoed  the  bill  to  recharter  the  Bank 
of  the  United  States,  and  when  it  was  modified 
partly  in  accordance  with  his  suggestions  and 
repassed  he  vetoed  it  again.  The  bill  to  re¬ 
vise  the  tariff  met  a  similar  fate.  Thereupon, 
on  Sept.  11,  1841,  all  the  members  of  the  cab¬ 
inet  except  Webster,  who  was  then  engaged  in 
negotiations  with  Great  Britain  concerning  the 
boundary  between  the  LTnited  States  and  Can¬ 
ada,  resigned,  and  a  year  later  Webster  fol¬ 
lowed.  Shortly  thereafter  some  of  the  leading 
Whigs  issued  a  public  address  declaring  that 
“all  political  connection  with  them  and  John 
Tyler  was  at  an  end  from  that  day  henceforth.” 
The  chief  events  of  Tyler’s  administration  were 
the  conclusion  of  the  Webster-Asliburton  Treaty 
(q.v.)  with  Great  Britain  and  the  annexation 
of  Texas.  In  1845  he  retired  to  his  estate  in 
Charles  City  Co.,  Va.,  where  he  remained  un¬ 
til  1861,  when  he  was  called  to  preside  over 
the  Peace  Convention  at  Washington.  Failing 
in  his  efforts  at  compromise,  he  gave  his  adhe¬ 
sion  to  the  Confederate  cause,  voted  for  seces¬ 
sion  in  the  Virginia  convention,  served  in  the 
Confederate  Provisional  Congress,  and  was 
elected  to  the  Confederate  House  of  Represen¬ 
tatives,  but  died  at  Richmond,  Jan.  18,  1862,  be¬ 
fore  he  could  take  his  seat.  Consult:  L.  G 
Tyler,  The  Letters  and  Times  of  the  Tylers  ( 3 
vols.,  Richmond,  1884-96)  ;  J.  F.  Rhodes,  His¬ 
tory  of  the  United  States  (New  York,  1910)  ;  J. 
G.  Wilson,  Presidents  of  the  United  States,  vol. 
ii  (ib.,  1914).  For  a  more  detailed  account  of 
the  events  of  his  administration,  see  the  section 
on  History  in  the  article  United  States. 

TYLER,  John  Mason  (1851-  ).  An 

American  biologist  and  author.  He  was  born 
at  Amherst,  Mass.,  graduated  in  1873  from  Am¬ 
herst  College,  and  after  studying  at  Union  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary  and  at  Gottingen  and  Leipzig, 
returned  to  his  Alma  Mater  as  instructor,  be¬ 
coming  Stone  professor  of  biology  in  1882.  His 
publications  include:  The  Whence  and  the 
Whither  of  Man  (1897)  ;  Growth  and  Education 


tyler 


602 


TYLER’S  REBELLION 


(1907)  ;  Man  in  the  Light  of  Evolution  (1908)  ; 
The  Place  of  the  Church  in  Evolution  (1914). 

TYLER,  Lyon  Gardiner  (1853-  )•  -Mi 

American  educator,  son  of  President  Tyler,  oorn 
at  Sherwood  Forest,  Va.  He  graduated  m  lb  10 
at  the  University  of  Virginia,^  studied  law,  ana 
in  1877-78  was  professor  of  belles-lettres  at 
William  and  Mary  College.  In  mS-jp  he  was 
principal  of  Memphis  Institute,  m  1882  88  piac- 
ticed  law  at  Richmond,  Va.,  and  in  1887  was  a 
member  of  the  Virginia  House  of  Delegates.  In 
1888  he  became  president  of  William  and  Mary 
College.  His  publications  include:  The  Letters 
and  Times  of  the  Tylers  (3  vols.,  1885-96  )  ; 
Parties  and  Patronage  in  the  ^ rated  states 
(1891);  The  Cradle  of  the  Republic  (1900 ;  M 
ed.,  1906);  England  in  America  (1904);  Wil¬ 
liamsburg,  the  Old  Colonial  Capital  (1907)  ;  The 
Cavalier  in  America  (1913)-  He  edited  the 
Narratives  of  Early  Virginia,  1606-1625  ( 1907  ) 
and  Encyclopedia  of  Virginia  Biography  (0  vols., 

TYLER,  Moses  Coit  (1835-1900).  An 
American  literary  historian  and  educator,  born 
at  Griswold,  Conn.  His  parents  removed  to 
Michigan,  where  he  began  his  education.  Me 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1857  and,  aftei  studying 
theology  there  and  at  Andover,  had  Congrega¬ 
tional  pastorates  at  Owego  and  Poughkeepsie, 

N  Y  He  resigned  the  latter  charge  m  186l, 
from  ill  health,  and  went  to  England,  where  he 
spent  four  years  of  rest,  studying,  lecturing,  and 
writing.  In  1867  he  became  professor  of  Eng¬ 
lish  a?  the  University  of  Michigan,  and  in  1881 
was  called  to  the  chair  of  American  history  at 
Cornell,  holding  this  until  his  death.  In  1881  lie 
was  ordained  deacon  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church  and  was  advanced  to  the  priesthood 
in  1883.  He  published  his  History  of  Ameri¬ 
can  Literature  during  the  Colonial  .  Time 
(2  vols.)  in  1878,  and  won  a  wide  reputation  for 
scholarship.  This  history,  which  was  continued 
in  the  two  volumes  entitled  A  Literary  History 
of  the  American  Revolution  (1897)  and,  in  a 
measure,  in  the  essays  entitled  Three  Men  of 
Letters  ( Bishop  Berkeley,  President  Dwight,  and 
Joel  Barlow,  1895),  constitutes  Professor  Ty¬ 
ler’s  chief  claim  to  remembrance.  It  hardly 
carries  the  story  of  American  literature  beyond 
the  year  1783,  but  within  its  limits  is  character¬ 
ized'  by  such  accuracy  and  breadth  of  scholar¬ 
ship  that  it  is  not  likely  to  be. superseded,  and 
fully  entitles  its  author  to  a  high  place  among 
literary  historians..  It  is  somewhat  diffuse  and 
fails  to  apply  standards  rigorously.  Besides 
this  liistorv,  Tvler’s  most  important  work  is  a 
biography  "of  Patrick  Henry  in  the  American 
Statesmen  Series  (1888).  He  also  published 
The  Brawnville  Papers  (1868),  devoted  to  the 
claims  of  physical  culture;  a  revision  of  H. 
Morley’s  Manual  of  English  Literature  (1879)  ; 
Memorial  of  E.  K.  Apgar  (privately  printed, 
1886)  ;  and  Glimpses  of  England  (1898),  a  col¬ 
lection  of  letters  from  England.^  Consult  W. 
P.  Trent  in  the  Forum  (New  York,  August, 
1901),  and  G.  L.  Burr  in  Report  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Historical  Association,  vol.  i  (ib.,  1901), 
and  Moses  Coit  Tyler:  Selections  from  his  Let¬ 
ters  and  Diaries,  edited  by  J.  T.  Austen  (Garden 
City,  N.  Y.,  1911). 

TYLER,  Ransom  Hebbard  (1813-81).  An 
American  legal  author,  born  in  Leyden,  (Mass. 
He  studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  New 
York  bar.  He  was  elected  district  attorney 
and  county  judge  for  Oswego  County.  An  ex¬ 


tensive  traveler,  he  was  also  editor  of  the  Os¬ 
wego  Gazette  and  contributed  to  periodicals. 
He°  published  The  Bible  and  Social  Reform 
(1863),  and  important  legal  works,  among 
them:  American  Ecclesiastical  Law  (1866)  ; 
Usury,  Pawns  or  Pledges,  and  Maritime  Loans 
(1873);  Fixtu/res  (1877);  Infancy  and  Cover¬ 
ture  (2d  ed.,  1882). 

TYLER,  Royael  (1757-1826).  An  American 
jurist  and  author,  born  in  Boston.  He  grad¬ 
uated  at  Harvard  College  in  1776,  studied  law 
under  John  Adams,  and  was  for  a  time  aide 
to  General  Benjamin  Lincoln,  serving^  in  the 
Revolution  and  in  Shays’s  Rebellion  in  1786.  In 
1790  he  removed  to  Vermont,  became  a  judge 
of  the  Supreme  Court  in  1794,  and  was  Chief 
Justice  from  1800  to  1806.  His  chief  legal  work 
was  Reports  of  Cases  in  the  Supreme  Cow  t  of 
Vermont  (1809-10).  He  wrote  several  Clevel¬ 
and  successful  plays,  of  which  one,.  The  Con¬ 
trast,  a  comedy  partly  in  Yankee  dialect,  pre¬ 
sented  in  New  York  in  1/86,  was  the  hist  Ameri 
can  comedy  produced  by  a  professional  dramatic 
company.  *  Other  plays  were  May  Day  and  The 
Georgia  Spec.  He  also  contributed  light,  witty 
verse  to  periodicals.  Tyler’s  Contrast  was  pub¬ 
lished  in  1790  and  reissued  in  1887  by  the  Dun¬ 
lap  Society,  with  an  introduction  by  T.  J.  Mc- 
Ivee.  Some  of  his  work  may  be  found  in  The 
Spirit  of  the  Farmer’s  Museum  (1801),  for  he 
helped  Joseph  Dennie  (q.v.)  to  make  The  Farm¬ 
er’s  Museum  a  success,  and  also  in  Dennie  s  late 
newspaper,  The  Portfolio,  of  which  Tylers  lit¬ 
erary  criticism  was  a  feature. 

TYLER,  Wat  ( ?-1381 ) .  The  principal  leader 
of  the  English  social  revolt  of  1381.  Owing  to 
the  fact  that  he  was  captain  of  the  Kentish  in¬ 
surgents,  he  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
a  Kentisliman;  but  he  was  from  Colchester  in 
Essex.  He  should  not  be  confounded  with  his 
colleague,  Jack  Straw,  captain  ,  of  Essex.  The 
usual  supposition  drawn  from  his.  name,  that  he 
was  a  tiler  by  trade,  is  not  certain,  since  a  sui- 
name  of  the  fourteenth  century  does  not  nec¬ 
essarily  indicate  trade.  Nothing  is  known  of 
his  life  previous  to  the  revolt.  Unfavorable 
estimates  of  his  character  are  based  upon  the 
hostile  and  unreliable  testimony  of  Walsmgham 
and  Froissart.  Even  hostile  sources  are  agreed 
as  to  his  ability.  His  part  in  the  organization 
of  the  revolt  was  second  only  to  that  of  John 
Ball,  and  he  was  certainly  the  chief  factor  m 
conducting  it.  The  peasants’  levies  were  sum¬ 
moned  in  his  name,  and  important  questions 
were  submitted  to  his  personal  decision.  On 
special  occasions  he  acted  as  spokesman  of  the 
insurgents,  presenting  their  demand  to  the  King. 
The  extent  of  his  importance  as  a  leader  is 
shown  by  the  entire  collapse  of  the  revolt  after 
his  murder  at  Smithfield.  See  Tyler’s  Re¬ 
bellion.  „ 

TYLER’S  REBELLION.  The  name  usually 

applied  to  the  English  social  revolt  in  1381, 
from  Wat  Tyler,  its  chief  leader.  It  had  been 
prepared  for’  years  by  the  teaching  of  a  priest, 
John  Ball  (q.v.),  in  southern  and  eastern  Eng¬ 
land,  and  from  his  home  at  Colchester  it  was 
silently  organized  throughout  Essex,  and  thence 
in  the  adjoining  counties,  especially  Middlesex, 
Sussex,  and  Kent.  The  determination  of  the 
crovernment  to  punish  those  who  by  false  re¬ 
turns  had  attempted  to  avoid  payment  of  an 
oppressive  poll  tax  greatly  incensed  the  people 
and  cave  occasion  for  the  outbreak  in  Essex 
in  the  early  part  of  June,  1381.  The  country 


TYLER'S  REBELLION 


TYLOR 


603 


was  soon  aflame,  and  a  division  under  Wat 
Tyler  and  Jack  Straw  crossed  the  Thames  at 
Erith.  After  capturing  the  castle  of  Dartford, 
where  Tyler  was  chosen  leader,  and  securing  the 
allegiance  of  the  mayor  and  council  of  Canter¬ 
bury,  they  marched  on  London.  On  June  12 
they  camped  at  Blackheath,  a  southeastern  sub¬ 
urb,  while  the  Essex  men,  under  Jack  Straw, 
gathered  at  Mile  End.  Bands  of  insurgents, 
from  near  and  distant  counties,  marched  on 
London,  Corpus  Christi  (June  13)  being  the 
day  chosen. 

Disappointed  in  a  promised  conference  at 
Blackheath  with  the  young  Richard  II,  whom 
the  Council  would  not  permit  to  land  from  his 
barge  in  the  Thames,  the  insurgents  on  June  13 
marched  on  London.  The  London  populace  and 
the  powerful  Fishmongers’  Company  sided  with 
them,  and  both  the  southern  and  northern  arm¬ 
ies  were  admitted  into  the  city.  The  former 
straightway  invested  the  Tower  of  London,  in 
which  the  King,  his  Council,  and  many  of  the 
nobility  had  taken  refuge.  In  vain  did  Rich- 

!ard  try  to  calm  them  from  a  turret;  yielding  to 
their  threats,  the  Council  agreed  to  the  King's 
meeting  them  on  the  following  morning  at  Mile 
End. 

The  traditional  account  of  this  conference, 
based  on  Froissart,  represents  the  boy  King  by 
courage  calming  the  insurgents  and  inducing 
them  to  disperse.  In  reality  it  was  a  confer¬ 
ence  between  the  timid  lad  and  the  leaders,  with 
Tyler  as  spokesman,  in  presence  of  the  entire 
rebel  army.  The  King  listened  to  Tyler’s  har¬ 
angues,  graciously  granted  all  their  demands, 
and  then  retired  to  the  Tower  Royal,  another 
London  fortress.  The  insurgents’  demands  in¬ 
cluded  the  abolition  of  serfdom,  a  maximum 

5  rent  of  fourpence  the  acre  for  lands  thus  freed, 
the  right  to  buy  and  sell  free  of  toll  all  over 
England,  and  the  abolition  of  the  Statutes  of 
Laborers,  by  which  wages  had  been  fixed  in 
the  interests  of  the  landlords  and  master  crafts¬ 
men.  The  King  also  agreed  to  let  them  execute 
his  ministers,  and  promised  in  future  to  choose 
his  councilors  from  among  the  insurgents. 

By  virtue  of  this  grant,  the  commons  marched 
straightway  to  the  Tower,  seized  and  beheaded 
such  of  the  ministers  as  they  could  secure — - 
Simon  Sudbury,  who  was  Archbishop  of  Canter¬ 
bury  and  Chancellor,  and  Sir  Robert  Hales,  the 
Treasurer,  besides  a  few  others,  among  whom 
Were  four  collectors  of  the  poll  tax.  Meanwhile 
a  large  number  of  the  insurgents  returned  home, 
satisfied  with  the  abolition  of  villeinage.  But 
the  most  formidable  division,  under  Tyler, 
Straw,  and  Ball,  remained,  demanding  further 
economic  concessions,  and  above  all  the  refor¬ 
mation  of  the  Church,  in  accordance  with  Ball’s 
ideals.  The  King  agreed  to  meet  them  at 
Smithfield  at  vespers  of  June  15.  Here,  too, 
the  traditional  account  has  given  glamour  to 
the  heroism  of  Walworth,  Mayor  of  London,  and 
the  boy  King.  In  reality,  Tyler  was  lured  out 
of  sight  of  his  men,  and,  granting  his  demands, 
a  pretext  was  found  to  arrest  him,  in  resisting 
which  he  was  dispatched  by  Walworth  and  other 
royal  retainers.  Their  demands  having  been 
satisfied,  the  rebels  were  induced  to  go  to  St. 
John’s  Field,  as  they  supposed,  at  Tyler’s  com¬ 
mand.  When  they  learned  the  truth,  and  saw 
the  royal  forces  approaching,  they  were  glad 
to  disperse,  retaining  the  charters  of  freedom 
granted  at  Mile  End. 

The  demands  of  the  insurgents  at  Smithfield 

Vol.  xxn.— 39 


include  two  legal  requirements  directed  espe¬ 
cially  against  the  Statute  of  Laborers,  one 
against  serfdom,  and  a  fourth  demanding  free 
use  of  woods,  hunting  and  fishing  to  all  ten¬ 
ants  of  manors.  Their  demands  for  the  ref¬ 
ormation  of  the  Church  difler  from  others  of 
a  later  period  in  that  the  confiscation  of  Church 
property  accrues  to  the  benefit  of  the  common 
people,  instead  of  King  or  nobility,  by  enfran¬ 
chising  the  tenants  of  clerical  domains  and  de¬ 
creasing  clerical  taxes.  The  reforms  were  the 
most  democratic  ever  demanded. 

Though  the  political  and  economic  aspira¬ 
tions  of  the  peasantry  formed  the  backbone  of 
the  revolt  of  1381,  there  were  other  important 
factors.  The  lower  classes  of  the  towns  sym¬ 
pathized  with  the  insurgents.  In  some  cases  the 
city  governments,  like  Canterbury  and  Bridge- 
water  in  the  south  and  York,  Scarborough,  and 
Beverley  in  the  north,  were  implicated.  A  very 
important  factor  was  a  general  uprising  against 
the  monasteries,  both  of  tenants  and  especially 
of  mesne  towns.  At  St.  Albans,  both  towns¬ 
men  and  peasants  extorted  charters  of  liberties. 
There  were  movements  at  Reading,  Dunstable, 
and  other  smaller  foundations;  at  Cambridge 
there  was  an  uprising  against  the  university. 
In  Sussex  matters  centred  in  a  fierce  revolt 
against  Abbey  St.  Edmunds,  the  prior  of  which 
was  beheaded.  John  Wrawe,  the  captain  of  the 
county,  was  a  priest,  as  were  others  of  the 
leaders.  In  Norfolk  the  plundering  was  es¬ 
pecially  severe;  under  the  leadership  of  Geof¬ 
frey  Lister  and  Sir  Roger  Bacon,  ambassadors 
with  a  large  sum  of  money  were  sent  to  the 
King  to  obtain  the  liberties  desired.  All  of 
these  local  outbreaks  were  connected  with  the 
central  movement.  There  was  less  plundering 
than  might  have  been  expected,  and  violence  was 
usually  directed  against  persons  connected  with 
the  government  or  local  oppressions,  and  es¬ 
pecially  those  known  as  adherents  of  John  of 
Gaunt.  After  the  rebels  had  retired,  the  rem¬ 
nants  of  the  revolt  were  stamped  out  with  great 
severity;  the  liberties  granted  were  everywhere 
revoked,  and  the  reaction  was  far  bloodier  than 
the  revolt.  The  effect  of  the  movement  was  to 
abolish  for  the  time  the  poll  taxes,  to  do  away 
practically  with  the  Statute  of  Laborers,  and 
to  hasten  the  general  tendency  towards  the  ab¬ 
olition  of  villeinage. 

Consult:  George  Kriehn,  in  American  Histori¬ 
cal  Review,  vol.  vii  (New  York,  1902)  ;  Edgar 
Powell,  The  Rising  in  East  Anglia  in  1381 
(Cambridge,  1896)  ;  Andre  Reville,  Souleve- 
ment  des  travailleurs  d’Angleterre  en  1381 
(Paris,  1898)  ;  G.  M.  Trevelyan,  England  in 
the  Age  of  Wycliffe  (London,  1899)  ;  id.,  The 
Peasant  Rising  and  the  Lollards  (ib.,  1899)  ; 
Charles  Oman,  The  Great  Revolt  of  1381  (Ox¬ 
ford,  1906). 

TYLOP'ODA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk. 
tv\os,  tylos,  knob,  knot,  callus  -f-  irovs,  pons, 
foot).  A  section  of  the  Ruminantia,  which  em¬ 
braces  the  Camelidse,  distinguished  by  the  padded 
character  of  the  soles  of  the  feet.  See  Camel- 
id^e. 

TY'LOR,  Sir  Edward  Burnett  (1832-1917  ). 
An  English  anthropologist,  born  in  London. 
After  a  year’s  travel  in  the  United  States,  he 
went  to  Mexico  in  1856  with  Henry  Christy  and 
in  1859  published  his  observations  in  Anahuac, 
or  Mexico  and  the  Mexicans,  notable  for  accur¬ 
acy  of  description.  In  1865  Researches  into 
the  Early  History  of  Mankind  appeared;  in  1871 


TYLOSIS 


TYNDALL 


he  published  Primitive  Culture,  in  1881  Anthro¬ 
pology,  and  in  1900  The  Natural  History  of 
Religion.  These  works  exerted  a  profound  in¬ 
fluence  on  the  development  of  anthropological 
science.  Tylor’s  most  important  scientific  con¬ 
tribution  is  his  treatment  and  development  of 
the  doctrine  of  animism  as  the  fundamental  and 
universal  factor  in  primitive  religions.  (See 
Animism;  Religion,  Comparative.  )  From 
1896  till  his  retirement  he  was  the  first  pro¬ 
fessor  of  anthropology  at  Oxford.  He  was 
knighted  in  1912. 

TYLO'SIS  (from  Gk.  ruXos,  tylos,  knob,  knot, 
callus).  A  protusion  of  a  living  cell  through 
a  pit  in  a  large  pitted  vessel,  due  to  the  pres¬ 
sure  in  the  cell.  Often  the  nucleus  and  some 
of  the  protoplasm  passes  through  the  pit  into 
the  tylosis,  and  in  this  case  cell  division  may 
take  place  until  the  cavity  of  the  vessel  is  en¬ 
tirely  filled  with  the  growing  tissue.  Sections 
of  the  stem  of  the  Virginia  creeper  ( Ampelopsis 
quinquefolia)  show  tyloses  in  which  cell  division 
has  taken  place  until  the  cavities  of  the  vessels 
are  nearly  closed. 

TYMMS,  T.  Vincent  (1842-  ).  An  Eng¬ 

lish  Baptist  clergyman.  He  was  born  in  Lon¬ 
don,  and  studied  at  Regent’s  Park  College  in 
that  city.  From  1869  to  1891  he  served  as 
minister  of  the  Downs  Chapel,  Clapton,  Lon¬ 
don,  and  thereafter  until  1904  was  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Baptist  College,  Rawdon,  Leeds, 
holding  also  the  chair  of  theology.  He  served 
as  president  of  the  Baptist  Union  of  Great 
Britain  in  1896.  In  1903  he  was  Angus  lec¬ 
turer  at  Regent’s  Park  College.  His  publica¬ 
tions  include:  The  Christian  Idea  of  Atonement 
( 1904 )  ;  The  Private  Relationships  of  Christ 
(1907);  The  Evolution  of  Infant  Baptism  and 
Related  Ideas  (1912);  The  Cameroons  ( West 
Africa )  :  A  Historical  Review  (1915). 

TYMPANITES,  tlm'pan-i'tez.  A  disease  of 
horses  and  cattle.  See  Bloat  and  Horse. 

TYM'PANUM  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tvp.-Ka.vov, 
drum ) .  In  anatomy,  the  middle  ear.  ( See  Ear.  ) 
In  architecture,  (a)  the  flat  space  inclosed 
within  the  sloping  and  horizontal  cornices  of  a 
pediment;  usually  in  classic  and  neoclassic  ex¬ 
amples,  filled  with  sculpture.  ( & )  The  flat  space 
inclosed  between  the  spring  and  intrados  of  a 
recessed  arch,  or  between  the  arch  and  lintel  of 
a  door  or  window  set  within  or  under  it.  In 
mediaeval  architecture  it  was  often  adorned  with 
mosaic,  inlay,  or  relief  sculpture. 

TY'NAN,  Katharine.  See  Hinkson,  Mrs. 
Katharine. 

TYNDALE,  tin'dal,  William  (?-1536).  An 
English  translator  of  the  Bible.  He  was  born 
on  the  borders  of  Wales,  between  1490  and  1495, 
and  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
After  leaving  Cambridge  (about  1522)  he  be¬ 
came  tutor  and  chaplain  in  the  home  of  Sir  John 
Walsh,  a  knight  of  Gloucestershire.  He  preached 
frequently  and,  his  opinions  differing  from  those 
of  the  clergy  of  the  neighborhood,  he  became  in¬ 
volved  in  religious  dispute,  and  an  accusation 
was  made  against  him  before  William  of  Mal¬ 
vern,  chancellor  of  the  diocese,  who  censured 
him  for  his  boldness  and  indiscretion.  As  a 
result  of  his  experience,  Tyndale  became  deter¬ 
mined  to  translate  the  New  Testament  into  Eng¬ 
lish.  He  went  to  London  in  1523,  but,  failing 
to  obtain  help,  he  retired  to  Germany  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year.  The  New  Testament  was  printed 
at  Worms  in  1525  and  carried  to  England,  and, 
though  denounced  by  the  government,  several 


reprints  were  produced  within  the  next  few 
years.  Tyndale  remained  on  the  Continent 
writing  tracts  in  advocacy  of  the  reformed  doc¬ 
trines.  His  chief  original  work,  The  Obedience 
of  a  Christian  Han  and  How  Christian  Rulers 
Ought  to  Govern,  appeared  in  1528.  In  1530  he 
published  a  translation  of  the  Pentateuch,  and 
in  1531  one  of  the  Prophet  Jonah.  During  this 
period  Tyndale  associated  with  Luther,  John 
Frith,  Patrick  Hamilton,  John  Rogers  (qq.v.), 
and  other  leading  reformers.  He  adopted  the 
Zwinglian  doctrine  of  the  Lord’s  Supper,  and 
separated  himself  from  the  other  English  reform¬ 
ers  by  opposing  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII  from 
Catharine  of  Aragon.  He  was  the  subject  of 
much  annoyance  from  the  authorities  and 
changed  his  abode  from  time  to  time.  In  1535 
he  was  treacherously  arrested  at  Antwerp,  and, 
after  a  confinement  of  sixteen  months  in  the 
Castle  of  Vilvorde,  near  Brussels,  the  State 
prison  of  the  Low  Countries,  he  was  puulicly 
strangled  and  burned  as  a  heretic  Aug.  6,  1536. 
Tyndale  was  a  man  of  both  learning  and  talent; 
his  translations  were  made  directly  from  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek,  and  furnished  the  basis  for 
the  authorized  version.  His  New  Testament  has 
been  frequently  reprinted  (in  facsimile  by  Fran¬ 
cis  Fry,  London,  1862)  ;  his  Pentateuch  was 
edited  by  Mombert  (New  York,  1884);  and  his 
miscellaneous  writings  were  published  by  the 
Parker  Society  (London,  1848-50).  Consult: 
F.  L.  Clarke,  Life  of  William  Tyndale  (London, 

1883)  ;  C.  E.  Heisch,  William  Tyndale  (ib., 

1884)  ;  R.  Demaus,  William  Tyndale  (2d  ed., 
ib.,  1886)  ;  G.  B.  Smith,  William  Tyndale  and 
his  Translation  of  the  English  Bible  (ib.,  1896)  ; 
I.  M.  Price,  The  Ancestry  of  our  English  Bible 
( Philadelphia,  1907 ) . 

TYNDALL,  tin'dal,  John  (1820-93).  An 
English  physicist,  born  at  Leighlin  Bridge, 
County  Carlow,  Ireland.  Having  only  a  school 
education,  he  found  employment  at  first  in  one 
of  the  subordinate  grades  of  the  Ordnance  Sur¬ 
vey,  in  Ireland  and  later  in  England.  After 
working  a  few  years  as  a  railroad  engineer  he 
was  appointed  teacher  of  mathematics  and  sur¬ 
veying  at  Queenwood  College,  Stockbridge,  in 
1847.  He  'then  went  to  Marburg,  where  he 
studied  for  two  years,  returning  to  Queenwood 
in  1851  with  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  In  January, 

1 853,  Tyndall  communicated  his  first  paper  to  the 
Royal  Society,  On  Molecular  Influences — Trans¬ 
mission  of  Heat  Through  Organic  Structures. 
In  the  following  month  a  lecture  On  the  Influ¬ 
ence  of  Material  Aggregation  upon  the  Manifes¬ 
tations  of  Force,  before  the  Royal  Institution, 
inaugurated  his  reputation  as  a  brilliant  lec¬ 
turer.  In  May  of  the  same  year  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the 
Royal  Institution,  thus  becoming  a  colleague 
of  ^Faraday,  succeeding  as  director  on  the  lat- 
teUsdeath  in  1867.  Tyndall  early  undertook 
researches  on  diamagnetism  at  Marburg  in  con¬ 
junction  with  Knoblauch,  which  resulted  in  a 
publication  entitled  On  the  Magneto-optic  Prop¬ 
erties  of  Crystals  and  the  Relation  of  Magnetism 
and  Diamagnetism  to  Molecular  Arrangement. 
These  and  later  researches  were  published  under 
the  title  of  Researches  on  Diamagnetism  and 
Magno-crystallic  Action,  Including  the  Question 
of  Diamagnetic  Polarity  (1870).  Tyndall  spent 
much  time  in  the  Alps,  where  he  combined 
mountain-climbing  with  scientific  research,  mak¬ 
ing  numerous  careful  observations  on  the  great 
Swiss  glaciers.  These  were  published  in  popu- 


TYNDAREUS 


TYPE 


605 


lar  form  and  in  scientific  contributions  to  the 
Philosophical  Transactions.  In  connection  with 
his  study  of  the  glaciers,  Tyndall  became  inter¬ 
ested  in  atmospheric  phenomena,  particularly 
the  study  of  vapors.  This  led  to  researches  on 
radiant  heat  and  its  transmission,  radiation, 
and  absorption  by  vapors  and  gases.  These  in¬ 
vestigations  involved  a  controversy  with  Magnus, 
but  Tyndall  was  able  to  demonstrate  the,  cor¬ 
rectness  of  his  views.  These  researches  were 
later  collected  and  published  under  the  title 
Contributions  to  Molecular  Physics  in  the  Do¬ 
main  of  Radiant  Iieat  (1872).  In  his  study 
of  radiant  energy  Tyndall  analyzed  various  kinds 
of  light  in  order  to  determine  the  proportion  of 
luminous  and  nonluminous  rays  and  their  effect 
on  various  substances.  He  also  discovered  that 
in  optically  pure  air,"  that  is,  air  free  from 
dust  or  other  particles,  a  luminous  beam  is  in¬ 
visible.  These  discoveries  led  to  improved  meth¬ 
ods  of  sterilization,  which  are  described  in  his 
Essays  on  Floating  Matter  of  the  Air  in  Rela¬ 
tion  to  Putrefaction  and  Infection. 

The  British  government  availed  itself  of  Tyn¬ 
dall’s  scientific  ability  and  in  1866  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  Faraday  as  a  scientific  adviser  to  Trin¬ 
ity  House  (in  charge  of  the  lighthouse  service) 
and  the  Board  of  Trade.  Tyndall  achieved  a 
universal  reputation  as  a  lecturer  and  did  much 
valuable  work  in  the  popularizing  of  science. 
Few  scientific  lecturers  have  been^able  to  pre¬ 
sent  the  principles  and  facts  of  physics  to  the 
general  public  so  successfully  as  Tyndall.  He 
visited  the  United  States  in ‘1872-73,  on  a  lec¬ 
ture  tour  that  was  most  successful,  and  a  few 
years  afterward  gave  the  proceeds  to  forward 
the  cause  of  original  research  in  the  United 
States.  He  wrote  many  popular  treatises  on 
scientific  subjects,  which  have  been  printed  in 
repeated  editions  and  have  been  translated  into 
foreign  languages.  Among  his  works  are:  Heat 
Considered  as  a  Mode  of  Motion  (1863);  On 
Sound  (1867)  ;  Faraday  as  a  Discoverer  (1868)  ; 
Fragments  of  Science  for  Unscientific  People 
(1871);  The  Forms  of  Water  in  Clouds  and 
Rivers,  Ice  and  Glaciers  (1872);  Six  Lec¬ 
tures  on  Light  Delivered  in  America  in 
1812—73  (1873);  New  Fragments  (1892  and 

1897);  Notes  on  Light  (1870);  Notes  on  Elec¬ 
trical  Phenomena  and  Theories  (1870).  His 
works  on  the  glaciers  and  the  Alps  include  The 
Glaciers  of  the  Alps  (1860  and  1896);  Moun¬ 
taineering  in  1861  (1862);  and  Hours  of 

Exercise  in  the  Alps  (1871). 

TYNDAREUS,  tin-da're-us  (Lat.,  from  Gk. 
Tej/5dpees).  A  King  of  Sparta.  Having  been 
driven  out  by  his  half-brother,  Hippocoon,  he 
fled  to  .Ktolia  and  became  an  ally  of  Thestius, 
whose  daughter  Leda  he  married.  Hercules  re¬ 
stored  him  to  Sparta.  Leda  bore  him  Castor 
and  Clytemnestra,  and  at  the  same  time  by 
Zeus  became  the  mother  of  Pollux  and  Helen. 
After  the  death  of  Castor  and  Pollux  and  their 
reception  among  the  gods,  Tyndareus  sur¬ 
rendered  the  kingship  of  Sparta  to  Menelaus. 

TYNE,  tin.  A  river  of  north  England  (Map: 
England,  E  2),  formed  by  the  North  and  the 
South  Tyne  in  Northumberland  Hills.  It  flows  to 
the  east  partly  on  the  boundary  between  Nor¬ 
thumberland  and  Durham,  and  empties  into  the 
North  Sea  at  Tynemouth.  One  of  the  principal 
coal-mining  and  manufacturing  regions  of  Eng¬ 
land,  and  the  cities  of  Newcastle,  Gateshead, 
and  South  Shields  lie  on  its  banks.  Length,  80 
•  miles;  navigable  to  Blaydon,  about  18  miles. 


I  he  Tyne  ports  were  second  among  English 
ports  in  the  exports  of  coal  in  1912  and  fourth 
in  tonnage  of  vessels  arrived  and  departed. 
Consult:  Guthrie,  The  River  Tyne  (Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne,  1880);  Palmer,  The  Tyne  and  its 
Tributaries  (London,  1881). 

TYNEMOUTH,  tm'muth  or  tin'-.  A  market 
town  and  seaport,  the  chief  watering  place  of 
Northumberland,  England,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tyne,  8  miles  east  of  Newcastle  (Map:  Eng¬ 
land,  El).  It  includes  the  townships  of  North 
Shields,  Chirton,  Preston,  and  Cullercoats.  Ship¬ 
building  is  carried  on  and  there  are  rope  and 
sail  works,  besides  important  fisheries.  The 
sands,  about  a  mile  in  length,  are  overlooked 
by  picturesque  cliffs.  Noteworthy  are  the  gate¬ 
way  of  the  old  castle,  the  fine  ruins  of  a  priory 
and  lady  chapel,  the  master  mariner’s  asylum, 
the  aquarium,  and  assembly  rooms.  The  munic¬ 
ipal  borough  buildings  are  in  North  Shields. 
Tynemouth  was  a  Saxon  fortress.  Pop.,  1901, 
51,514;  1911,  58,822.  Consult  Adamson,  “Tyne¬ 
mouth  Priory  and  Castle,”  in  Archceologia 
JElina,  vol.  xxiii  (London,  1901). 

TYNG,  ting,  Stephen  IIigginson  (1800-85). 
An  American  Protestant  Episcopal  clergyman. 
He  wTas  born  at  Newburyport,  Mass.,  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1817,  and  was  ordained  in  1821. 
After  holding  several  less  important  charges,  he 
was  rector  successively  of  St.  Paul’s  Church  and 
the  Church  of  the  Epiphany,  Philadelphia,  and 
•of  St.  George’s  Church,  New  York  (1845-78). 
Dr.  Tyng  was  a  pronounced  evangelical  and  low 
churchman  and  a  leading  opponent  of  ritualism. 
He  was  widely  noted  for  his  fervid  eloquence 
as  a  preacher,  and  he  zealously  advocated  total 
abstinence  and  other  reforms.  He  published, 
aside  from  discourses  and  memoirs,  Recollec¬ 
tions  of  England  (1847)  ;  Forty  Years’  Experi¬ 
ence  in  Sunday-Schools  (1860);  The  Prayer 
Book  Illustrated  by  Scriptures  (8  vols.,  1863- 
67 )  ;  and  The  Office  and  Duty  of  the  Christian 
Pastor  (1874).  He  was  editor  of  the  Episcopal 
Recorder,  the  Theological  Repository,  and  the 
Protestant  Churchman.  Consult  his  Life  by  his 
son,  C.  R.  Tyng  (New  York,  1890). 

TYPE  (Lat.  typus,  from  Gk.  tvttos,  type, 
figure,  impress,  blow,  from  rvirreiv,  typtein,  to 
strike ) ..  In  zoology :  ( 1 )  The  name  applied  by 
De  Blainville  to  the  four  branches  of  Cuvier. 
These  “types"  were  founded  on  what  were  then 
considered  as  four  fundamental  “plans”  of  or¬ 
ganization.  (See  Classification  of  Animals.) 
Cuvier  and  his  successors,  notably  Von  Bael  and 
L.  Agassiz,  taught  that  these  types  existed,  as 
it  were,  side  by  side,  the  Vertebrata  the  high¬ 
est,  but  with  no  genetic  connection,  and  that 
each  type  was  characterized  by  a  distinct  plan 
of  structure — a  view  now  superseded  by  that 
of  the  doctrine  of  descent.  See  Evolution  ; 
Phytogeny. 

( 2 )  The  “type”  or  “typical  species”  of  a  genus 
is  the  one  first  described,  or  regarded  as  the  most 
typical,  and  about  which  the  other  species  were 
clustered.  A  “type  specimen”  is  that  individual, 
or  the  several  individuals,  which  served  as  the 
basis  for  the  description  of  a  new  species.  The 
careful  preservation  of  an  author’s  type  speci¬ 
men  is  all-important  in  systematic  zoology  and 
botany,  as  it  is  the  ultimate  source  of  appeal 
in  unraveling  complicated  cases  of  synonymy. 

TYPE.  In  theology,  an  image  or  representa¬ 
tion  of  some  object  which  is  called  the  antitype 
(q.v.).  It  is  applied  to  Old  Testament  objects 
and  persons,  taken  to  prefigure  ideas  in  the 


TYPE  FOUNDING  606  TYPE  FOUNDING 


Christian  history  or  theology;  and  earthly 
things  supposed  to  represent  heavenly  things. 
The  idea  of  types  appears  in  Paul  and  the 
writer  of  Hebrews,  and  came  originally  from 
the  Greek  allegorizing  of  Homeric  tales. 

TYPE  FOUNDING.  The  art  of  founding 
or  casting  printers’  types.  (See  Printing.)  In 
the  early  times  printers  made  their  own  type, 
but  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  centuiy 
the  necessity  arose  for  a  division  of  labor  and 
tvpe  founding  became  a  business  distinct  from 
printing.  The  art  was  first  developed  in  France 
and  from  that  country  spread  to  Italy,  Ger¬ 
many,  England,  and  the  United  States.  I  he 
first  successful  type  founder  in  America  appeals 
to  have  been  Christopher  Sauer,  who  established 
a  type  foundry  in  Germantown,  Pa.,  in  1772. 
In  ^1796  the  Scotch  type  founders  Binny  and 
Ronald  son  started  a  type  foundry  in  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Pa.,  which  after  many  struggles  succeeded. 
Between  1772  and  1796  several  persons,  among 
whom  was  Benjamin  Franklin,  attempted  to 
found  type,  but  they  all  failed  to  make  a  busi¬ 
ness  success  of  their  attempts.  In  1810  Eliliu 
White  established  a  successful  type-founding 
business  in  New  York,  and  his  successors  are 
still  making  and  selling  type  although  under 
another  firm  name.  These  early  type  founders 
all  cast  their  type  by  hand,  after  much  the 
same  methods,  probably,  as  had  been  practiced 
since  metal  types  were  first  used.  Indeed,  it 
was  well  on  towards  the  middle  of  the  nine-* 
teentli  century  before  type  was  successfully 
founded  by  machine  to  "any  considerable  ex¬ 
tent. 

Hand  Founding.  The  first  step  in  the  process 
of  type  founding  by  hand  is  the  cutting  of  the 
counterpunch  from  the  design  of  the.  lettei , 
this  counterpunch  being  an  engraving  in  steel 
of  the  hollow  part  of  the  letter  to  be  made, 
that  is,  of  the  part  of  that  letter  which  is  to 
appear  white  where  printed.  The  counter- 
punch  is  then  impressed  to  the  proper  depth 
in  a  short  bar  of  soft  steel  which  becomes  the 
punch,  or  die,  with  the  letter  reversed,  from 
which  the  type  is  to  be  made.  The  outer  edges 
are  then  cut  away  until  all  the  lines  of  the  letter 
are  perfect,  and  then  this  die  is  struck  into  a 
piece  of  copper  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter 
long,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  deep,  and  of  a  width 
proportionate  to  the  size  of  the  type  to  be  cast. 
This  copper,  being  so  impressed  with  the  repre¬ 
sentation  of  the  letter,  requires  to  be  adjusted 
to  the  mold,  so  that  the  “face”  or  impression 
of  the  punch  (in  the  copper)  may  be  brought 
into  such  relation  with  the  metal  which  forms 
the  “body”  or  stalk  of  the  type,  that  when  the 
types  are  “set  up”  they  may  stand  at  the 
proper  distance  from  each  other,  and  be  in 
“line”  or  range,  and  also  square  to  the  page; 
this  work  is  termed  “justifying,”  and  the  cop¬ 
per  is  now  a  “matrix.”  The  matrix  is  now 
fixed  into  a  small  instrument  or  frame  of  pol¬ 
ished  steel,  called  the  mold,  which  is  composed 
of  two  parts,  with  a  space  between  to  be  filled 
with  the  melted  metal  that  forms  the  type. 
The  space  within  is  of  the  size  of  the  required 
body  of  the  letter,  and  is  made  exactly  true. 
The"  melted  metal,  being  poured  into  this  space, 
sinks  down  to  the  bottom  in  the  matrix,  and, 
instantly  cooling,  the  mold  is  opened,,  and  the 
type  is  cast  out  bv  the  workman.  This  process 
of  casting  types  is  executed  with  great  celerity. 
Of  course,  every  separate  letter  in  the  alpha¬ 
bet,  every  figure,  point,  or  mark,  must  have 


its  own  punch  and  matrix.  After  being  cast 
the  types  have  to  be  dressed,  and  this  work 
is  performed  by  hand.  It  consists  first  in  remov¬ 
ing  the  projection  or  jet  of  superfluous  metal 
that  clings  to  the  end  which  is  towards  the 
top  of  the  mold  while  the  type  is  being  cast; 
second,  in  rubbing  off  the  burrs,  or  sharp  edges 
of  metal,  and  smoothing  the  sides  of  the  types 
on  gritstones;  and,  finally  in  cutting  a  groove 
in  the  foot  of  each  type  so  that  each  piece  may 
rest  securely  on  its  feet,  and  examining  the  type 
with  a  magnifying  glass  to  discover  imperfec¬ 
tions.  Considering  the  nature  of  the  operation, 
type  casting  by  hand  is  performed,  by  an  ex¬ 
pert,  with  remarkable  rapidity,  from  3000  to 
4000  types  per  day  being  produced  ready  for 
the  finishing  process  by  the  experienced  work¬ 
man. 

Machine  Founding.  Various  attempts  were 
made  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  to  cast  types  by  machinery.  The  first 
successful  machine  for  this  purpose  was  devised 
by  David  Bruce,  Jr.,  of  New  York,  and  was  pat¬ 
ented  in  1838.  As  subsequently  improved,  this 
machine  was  extensively  used  in  American  t\pe 
foundries  and  wTas  introduced  into  Europe. 
Briefly  described,  the  Bruce  type-casting  ma¬ 
chine  consists,  first,  of  a  small  melting  pot, 
which  contains  the  molten  metal,  and  is  placed 
over  a  small  furnace.  In  the  interior  of  the 
pot  is  arranged  a  forcing  pump  and  valve  for 
admitting  the  metal  under  the  piston,  and  also 
for  preventing  the  return  of  the  metal  into  the 
mass  in  the  pot  when  the  piston  is  depressed. 
Every  revolution  of  a  crank  gives  this  piston  a 
sudden  thrust  which  injects  enough  of  the  melted 
metal  to  fill  the  mold  and  the  matrix.  After 
receiving  this  metal  the  mold  opens,  as  a  door 
on  its  hinges,  and  at  the  same  instant  the  ma¬ 
trix  springs  backward.  The  type,  which  is  held 
by  a  blunt  pin,  is  then  hit  and  released,  the 
mold  closes  automatically,  and  the  piston  in¬ 
jects  a  new  supply  of  molten  metal.  A  blast 
of  cold  air  directed  upon  each  mold  keeps  it 
cool,  so  that  the  machine  can  do  its  work 
rapidly,  a  rate  of  one  hundred  per  minute  not 
being  uncommon  in  the  smaller  sizes.  The 
larger  types,  however,  are  more  slowly  cast  as 

they  cool  less  quickly. 

The  weakness  of  the  Bruce  machine  lay  in 
the  fact  that  types  produced  by  it  had  to  be 
dressed  by  hand,  and  although  Mr.  Bruce  in 
1868  invented  an  apparatus  for  dressing  the 
type  mechanically  which  could  be  applied  to  his 
casting  machine,  neither  it  nor  the  inventions 
of  several  men  abroad  were  adopted  by  type 
founders  generally.  Bruce’s  improved  machine 
was  followed  by  one  designed  by  Henry  Barth,  of 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1888,  which  casts  the  types 
and  finishes  them.  This  machine,  which  has 
a  much  larger  output  than  the  earlier  ones,  re¬ 
tains  the  general  principles  of  a  divided  mold 
which  opens  to  discharge  the  types,  although  its 
construction  and  processes  differ  radically  fi  om 
the  Bruce  machine.  In  the  Barth  type  caster 
one-lialf  of  the  mold  is  upright  and  immovable, 
while  the  other  half  slides  back  and  forth  at  a 
rapid  rate,  releasing  the  types  as  made  and 
closing  again  before  the  next  spurt  of  hot  metal 
is  forced  in.  It  breaks  off  the  jet,  rubs  down 
the  edges,  forms  the  feet,  and  delivers  the  types 
ready  for  inspection.  Type  is  now  produced  at 
the  rate  of  from  ten  to  two  hundred  per  minute, 
but  mention  should  be  made,  of  a  rotary  type¬ 
casting  machine  developed  in  England,  which 


TYPESETTING  AND  TYPE  CASTING  MACHINES 

i.  Automatic  Type  Casting  Machine  2.  Multiple  Linotype  Machine 


TYPESETTING  AND  TYPE  CASTING  MACHINES 


MONOTYPE  TYPESETTING  AND  TYPE  CASTING  MACHINES 


TYPES 


produces  type  ready  for  printing  without  in¬ 
spection  or  treatment  at  the  rate  of  1000  per 
minute.  In  conclusion,  mention  should  also  be 
made  of  the  type  punch  cutting  machine,  in¬ 
vented  by  L.  B.  Benton,  of  Milwaukee,  Wis., 
which  operates  on  the  principle  of  the  panto¬ 
graph  and  produces  from  one  pattern  letters  of 
any  size  desired. 

Consult:  Reed,  History  of  the  Old  English 
Letter  Founders  (London,  1887);  T.  L.  -De 
Vinne,  Historic  Printing  Types  (New  York, 
1880)  ;  id.,  Treatise  on  the  Processes  of  Type- 
making  (ib.,  1900) .  See  Typesetting  Machines. 

TYPES,  Theory  of.  See  Chemistry. 

TYPESETTING.  See  Printing. 
TYPE'SET'TING  MACHINES.  Machines 
devised  to  set  or  compose  printers’  types  auto¬ 
matically  and  mechanically.  In  hand  composi¬ 
tion  the  types  are  picked  one  at  a  time  from  a 
wooden  case  and  then  set  one  after  another  in 
the  proper  order  to  form  the  words  which  it  is 
desired  to  print.  After  the  set  types  have  been 
printed  from,  or  molded  to  form  plates,  they  are 
distributed — returned  to  their  proper  compart¬ 
ments  in  the  case.  (See  Printing.)  Composi¬ 
tion  and  distribution  by  hand  are  tedious  and 
expensive,  and  from  early  times  efforts  have 
been  made  to  devise  a  machine  which  would 
perform  these  tasks  speedily  and  economically. 
Until  within  recent  years  these  attempts  were 
not  commercially  successful.  Perhaps  the  first 
serious  attempt  to  design  a  machine  to  do  away 
with  hand  composition  was  made  by  Dr.  William 
Church,  whose  device  Avas  patented  in  England 
in  1822.  His  machine  was  designed  to  cast 
types  and  leave  them  in  reservoirs,  and  they 
were  set  from  these  reservoirs  by  pressing  keys 
arranged  much  like  piano  keys.  After  use  the 
types  were  remelted,  the  inventor  in  this  way 
avoiding  distribution.  Evidently  Church  was  a 
man  ahead  of  his  times,  for  it  was  not  till  20 
years  had  elapsed  that  the  issuing  of  patents 
for  typesetting  machines  began  to  be  frequent. 
In  1840  James  H.  Young,  of  England,  completed 
a  machine,  which  is  said  to  have  set  types  at 
the  rate  of  13,000  per  hour,  but  the  types  had 
to  be  arranged  in  lines,  distributed,  and,  pre¬ 
sumably,  placed  in  the  magazines  by  hand,  which 
required  three  persons  besides  the  operator. 
The  first  distributing  machine  patented  in 
America  Avas  invented  by  Frederick  Rosenberg, 
in  1843,  and  the  first  English  patent  on  a  dis¬ 
tributor  Avas  taken  out  by  Etienne  Robert 
Gaudens,  in  1840.  After  this  among  prominent 
American  inventors  folloAV  the  names  of  Mitch¬ 
ell,  Alden,  Felt,  Brown;  Westcott,  Kastenbein, 
Paige,  Richards,  Burr,  and  in  more  recent  years 
Thorne,  MacMillan,  and  Mergenthaler.  Among 
the  prominent  foreign  inventors  Avho  achieved 
some  success  were  Hattersley,  Mackie,  Fraser, 
and  Wicks,  in  England;  Sorensen,  of  Denmark; 
Fischer  and  Von  Langen,  of  Germany;  and  Del- 
cambre,  of  France.  At  present  only  the  Thorne, 
MacMillan,  Mergenthaler,  and  Lanston  ma¬ 
chines  are  much  used  (the  Lanston  is  a  nondis¬ 
tributing  machine),  but  the  commercial  suc¬ 
cess  reached  by  some  of  the  earlier  machines 
was  remarkable.  The  Alden  machine  Avas  at 
one  time  used  in  the  NeAv  York  Tribune  office. 
Ten  of  the  Mitchell  machines,  invented  in  1853, 
are  said  to  ha\Te  been  used  at  one  time  in  a 
single  office.  In  1809  the  London  Times  began 
to  use  the  Kastenbein  machines,  and  set  the 
whole  paper  by  them.  In  1880  the  Burr  ma¬ 
chine  Avas  tried  by  the  New  York  Tribune ,  and 


607  TYPESETTING  MACHINES 

that  paper  used  three  of  these  machines  for 
some  years.  In  1884  the  Fischer  and  Von  Lan¬ 
gen  machine  Avas  used  by  the  Cologne  Gazette. 
All  these  successes,  however,  have  been  far  out¬ 
done  b}^  the  Thorne,  MacMillan,  Mergenthaler, 
and  Lanston  machines. 

The  Thorne  machine,  a  combined  setting  and 
distributing  machine,  which  was  exhibited  in 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878,  consists  of  an  up¬ 
right  cylinder  with  \rertical  channels  around  a 
periphery,  each  channel  holding  a  column  of 
types — one  channel  a’ s,  another  6’s,  etc.  The 
lower  half  of  the  cylinder  is  stationary,  and 
its  channels  contain  the  distributed  types.  The 
upper  half  of  the  cylinder  turns  Avith  a  step  by 
step  motion,  and  its  channels  contain  lines  of 
type  to  be  distributed.  The  motion  of  the 
upper  cylinder  brings  its  channels  opposite  those 
of  the  lower,  when  an  instant’s  pause  occurs, 
permitting  any  type  whose  projections  corre¬ 
spond  to  the  lower  channel’s  nicks  to  drop. 
Tlie  upper  cylinder  then  revolves  one  step,  bring¬ 
ing  the  channels  again  in  coincidence.  The  type 
is  set  from  the  lower  channels,  the  lowest  type 
being  pressed  out  radially  when  the  operator 
depresses  the  key  which  governs  it.  A  rapidly 
revolving  plate  beloAV  Avhirls  the  type  around 
into  an  endless  belt,  which  carries  it  to  a  set¬ 
ting-up  mechanism.  Here  it  is  turned  upright 
and  joins  the  continuous  line  of  types  slowly 
pushed  along  towards  the  justifier,  which  di¬ 
vides  it  into  lines  of  column  or  page  measure. 
A  later  machine,  called  the  Simplex,  closely 
resembles  the  Thorne  machine.  In  the  MacMil¬ 
lan  machine  the  setting  and  the  distributing 
are  done  by  separate  machines.  The  magazines 
of  the  setting  machine  are  removable,  being  ex¬ 
changed  for  full  ones  as  fast  as  they  become 
empty.  The  operator  ejects  the  types  from  the 
magazines  by  pressing  suitable  keys,  and  they 
are  set  up  in  long  lines  to  be  justified  by  hand. 
The  distributor  consists  of  a  horizontal  wheel 
with  radial  channels,  in  which  the  types  to  be 
distributed  are  placed.  The  frame  surrounding 
the  wheel  contains  other  radial  channels  having 
projections  corresponding  to  the  nicks  in  the 
types.  The  moA^able  magazines  are  placed  radi¬ 
ally  in  connection  with  these  outer  channels. 
When  the  Avheel  slowly  revoKes,  the  types  pass 
from  the  channels  of  the  wheel  into  the  outer 
channels  Avhenever  a  type  comes  opposite  one 
Avhose  projections  correspond  to  its  nicks.  The 
Paige  machine  might  be  mentioned  for  its  Avon- 
derful  mechanism,  its  18,000  parts  composing, 
justifying,  and  distributing  the  types.  Its  cost 
of  construction  and  the  excessive  expense  in¬ 
curred  in  running  it,  however,  were  too  great  to 
make  it  practicable.  Both  the  Thorne  and  the 
MacMillan  machines  set  types  AAdiich  are  pre¬ 
viously  made  by  the  regular  type-founding  proc¬ 
ess.  (See  Type  Founding.)  This  should  be 
noted  before  proceeding  further,  since  the  Mer¬ 
genthaler  and  Lanston  machines,  instead  of  com¬ 
posing  previously  cast  types,  themselves  cast  the 
types  as  they  are  desired  by  the  operator. 

The  Mergenthaler  Linotype  machine  Avas  in¬ 
vented  by  Ottmar  Mergenthaler,  and  the  first 
machine  was  completed  in  1884.  This  machine 
takes  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  sets  up  a 
line  of  molds,  and  casts  a  line  of  type  (lin’o’- 
type),  or  rather  a  solid  metal  bar  Avith  raised 
letters  on  one  edge,  Avliich  is  knoAAm  as  a  “slug,” 
and  is  the  same  as  if  a  line  of  types  Avere  fused 
solid.  The  molds  or  matrices  are  small  pieces 
of  brass,  each  Avith  a  letter  impressed  on  its  edge, 


TYPESETTING  MACHINES 


608 


TYPESETTING  MACHINES 


as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  They  are  placed  in  maga¬ 
zine  tubes,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  Fig.  2, 
all  the  a’s  in  one  tube,  all  the  6’s  in  another, 
and  so  on,  the  tubes  being  ar¬ 
ranged  vertically  in  a  continuous 
line.  The  machine  has  a  key¬ 
board  like  a  typewriter,  and  the 
depression  of  a  key,  as  D,  con¬ 
nected  by  a  rod,  C,  with  the  es¬ 
capement,  B,  causes  a  matrix  to 
drop  into  an  inclined  channel,  E, 
down  which  it  falls  to  the  in¬ 
clined  traveling  belt,  F,  by  which 
.  it  is  carried  to  the  assembler,  or 
)  stick,  G,  where  it  takes  its  place 
l,  J*  in  line.  The  spaces,  I,  between 

words  are  simply  ,-duplex  wedges, 
dropped  into  position  from  a 

Fig.  1.  matrix  FOR  box,  H,  in  the  same  way  as  njeitiog 
mergenthaler  the  matrices  when  the  finger  ?ot 
machine.  key,  J,  is  pressed.  When  the 

compositor  has  set  all  that  will  go  into  a  line, 
the  duplex  wedges  are  slid  one  upon  another, 
thus  “spacing  out”  the  line,  and  the  line  so 
formed  is  carried  over  in  front  of  a  slot  on  the 
wheel,  K,  where  automatically  the  ^Line  of  type 
is  cast  with  metal  from  the<  reservoir,  M,  shown 
in  detail  in  Fig.  3,  and  its  sides  and  base 
planed,,  after  which  the  mold  wheel,  K,  makes 
a  quarter  of  a  revolution  and  the  slug  is  de¬ 
posited  on  a  galley.  The  matrices  meanwhile 
are  released  and  passed  overhead  to  the  bar,  R, 
where  thin  teeth  engage  on  its  horizontal  ribs. 
This  bar  rises  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line, 
and  the  matrices  are  carried  up  to  the  dis¬ 
tributor,  T,  whence  they  find  their  way  to  the 
appropriate  magazine  tubes,  each  matrix  being 
released  at  the  proper  point.  A  speed  of  4000 
ems  an  hour  is  the  average  rate  of  a  good 
Linotype  operator,  while  those  unusually  ex¬ 
pert  attain  as  high  a  speed  as  5000  to  6000 
ems.  The  advantages  of  this  machine  are, 


is  another  and  a  very  decided  advantage.  The 
Linotype  machine  in  its  latest  form  performs 
successfully  the  most  intricate  kinds  of  compo¬ 
sition,  including  tabular  matter  and  the  use  of 


Il]atrix 

lit)® 


JTJold 
II  0.2. 


JSurycr 


Fig.  3.  melting  pot  mold  wheel,  etc.,  of  linotype 

MACHINE. 


several  classes  of  characters,  and  has  been  per¬ 
fected  to  such  an  extent  that  the  movement  of 
a  hand  can  bring  into  use  a  double  magazine 
containing  360  type  characters,  a  triple  maga¬ 
zine  with  540  characters,  or  even  a  quadruple 
magazine,  thus  making  use  of  two  to  four  sizes 
or  fonts  in  one  piece  of  work. 

The  Lanston  Monotype  machine,  like  the 
Mergenthaler  Linotype,  is  primarily  a  type¬ 
casting  machine,  but  with  the  radical  distinc¬ 
tion  that  it  casts  separately  each  letter,  point, 
and  sign,  including  the  spaces.  The  machine  is 
constructed  in  two  parts,  a  keyboard  and  a  tvpe- 


ITjolcl  wheel 


Am)  to  carry  sluq$ 
over  in  galley . 


Ejector- pushing 
liootype-fron) 
njola-to-galley 


Heceivigg  galley 


ffinotypes  ready  for  use 


Fig.  4.  mold  wheel  of  linotype  machine. 

casting  machine.  The  function  of  the  keyboard, 
which  resembles  a  typewriter  and  which  carries 
257  keys  corresponding  to  all  of  the  characters 
used  in  a  font  of  type  and  a  few  additions  rep¬ 
resenting  movements  to  be  performed  by  the 
a  mono1  others,  that  it  gives  constantly  a  new  casting  machine,  is  to  punch  a  series  of  holes 
tvpe  face  to  print  from,  and  also  that  there  is  in  a  moving  strip  or  ribbon  of  paper,  which  is 
no  distributing  to  be  done,  the  slugs  being  unwound  from  one  spool  to  another,  passing 
remelted  after  use.  The  “spacing-out”  device  under  a  series  of  punches  in  its  journey,  the 


Fig.  2.  mergenthaler  linotype  machine  showing 
essential  parts. 


TYPEWRITERS 


TYPEWRITERS 


motive  power  being  compressed  air.  These 
punches  are  operated  by  striking  the  keys  on 
the  keyboard.  The  result  of  the  keyboard  oper¬ 
ation  is,  therefore,  a  narrow  roll  of  perforated 
paper.  This  strip,  when  fed  to  the  casting 
machine,  initiates  and  controls  the  movements 
of  the  matrix  case  over  the  mold.  The  matrices, 
which  are  made  of  bronze,  are  carried  in  a  ma¬ 
trix  case  about  three  inches  square,  and  any  char¬ 
acter  is  brought  opposite  the  casting  point  by 
the  matrix  carrier.  After  the  matrix  is  in  posi¬ 
tion  the  sizing  of  the  type  is  accurately  de¬ 
termined  by  an  automatic  wedge,  the  pump 
mechanism  operates,  filling  the  mold  and  ma¬ 
trix,  and  a  single  type  is  made.  The  matrix  is 
then  lifted  from  the  type  which  is  delivered 
into  the  channel  blocks  where  the  line  is  as¬ 
sembled.  While  this  is  being  done  the  matrix 
for  the  next  character  is  being  placed  in  posi¬ 
tion  over  the  mold  for  the  next  type  cast,  these 
operations  following  one  another  at  the  rate  of 
140  finished  types  per  minute.  Justified  lines 
are  composed  on  this  machine  in  sizes  from  5  to 
18  point,  while  type  for  the  cases  may  be  cast  as 
high  as  36  point,  or  ornaments,  leads,  slugs,  and 
rules  up  to  12  point.  Consult  T.  L.  De  Vinne, 
Modern  Methods  of  Book  Composition  (New 
York,  1904),  and  J.  S.  Thompson,  History  of 
Composing  Machines  (ib.,  1904).  See  Printing. 

TYPE'WRI'TERS.  Machines  for  producing 
legible  characters  without  the  aid  of  movable 
type. 

History.  The  first  typewriter  of  which  we 
have  any  record  was  patented  in  England 
in  1714.  In  1829  the  first  American  type¬ 
writer,  called  a  typographer,  was  patented  by 
W.  A.  Burt.  About  1833  a  typewriter  was  pro¬ 
duced  in  France,  having  a  separate  key  lever 
for  each  letter.  In  1844  and  in  1846  typewrit¬ 
ing  machines  were  invented  in  England,  which, 
like  many  of  the  early  machines,  were  designed 
primarily  for  the  use  of  the  blind  and  so  pro¬ 
duced  embossed  characters.  Between  1840  and 
1860  Sir  Charles  Wheatstone  invented  several 
typewriters  which  are  now  in  the  South  Ken¬ 
sington  Museum. 

Among  early  American  inventors  were  Charles 
Thurber  and  A.  E.  Beach.  The  Thurber  ma¬ 
chine  (1843)  is  simply  a  set  of  type  bars  in  a 
vertical  position  around  a  horizontal  brass 
wheel,  16  inches  across,  which  revolves  about 
a  central  post,  the  characters  being  brought 
into  position  by  hand  from  either  direc¬ 
tion.  Common  types  are  inserted  in  the  lower 
ends  of  the  type  bars.  In  1856  A.  E.  Beach, 
who,  as  early  as  1847,  had  constructed  a  fairly 
successful  but  never  perfected  typewriter,  took 
out  a  patent  for  a  machine  intended  to  print  em¬ 
bossed  letters  for  the  blind.  This  is  worthy  of 
record,  because  it  covered  a  principle  afterward 
developed  into  the  modern  typewriter — viz., 
a  basket  of  levers  arranged  in  a  circle,  delivering 
their  impressions  on  a  common  centre.  In  order 
to  make  raised  letters  there  were  two  sets  of 
bars,  one  coming  up  and  the  other  down,  one 
having  a  raised  letter  and  the  other  its  mate, 
a  sunken  letter.  The  strip  of  paper  passed  be¬ 
tween  the  two. 

Beach  was  followed  by  S.  W.  Francis.  To  the 
Beach  principle  of  a  circle  of  type  bars  Francis 
added  the  pianoforte  action.  Another  early  in¬ 
ventor  was  Thomas  Hall,  who  was  carrying  on 
independent  experiments  about  the  same  time 
as  Beach  and  Francis.  Although  his  machine 
embodied  the  principle  of  a  circle  of  type  bars, 


yet  their  movement,  instead  of  being  from  be¬ 
low  upward,  was  from  above  downward,  con¬ 
verging  at  a  common  centre,  an  inked  ribbon 
intervening  between  type  and  paper.  But  Hall 
wgs  compelled  to  abandon  his  efforts  without 
realizing  his  expectations,  and  only  a  few  of 
his  typewriters  were  made.  In  1881  he  took 
out  a  patent  on  a  typewriter  made  on  an  en¬ 
tirely  different  plan.  It  had  a  perforated  dial 
plate,  two  inches  square,  containing  seventy- 
five  characters.  Underneath  this  dial  plate  in 
his  latest  machine,  called  the  Century,  patented 
in  1889,  was  a  rubber-faced  cvlinder  with  let- 
ters  on  its  surface  corresponding  to  those  on 
the  dial  plate.  When  the  stylus  is  brought  to 
any  perforation  in  this  dial  plate,  the  cylinder 
beneath  is  turned  to  present  the  corresponding 
letter  to  the  paper,  and  the  stylus  being  pressed 
into  the  hole  the  letter  is  printed.  The  under 
cylinder  revolves  against  an  inked  pad. 

About  1867  Charles  Latham  Slides,  Samuel 
W.  Soule,  and  Carlos  Glidden,  of  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  began  to  experiment  on  the  construction 
of  a  typewriter,  and  from  this  tlie  Remington 
typewriter  had  its  origin.  The  first  crude 
model  was  completed  early  in  1868.  Soule 
dropped  out  of  the  enterprise  almost  immedi¬ 
ately  and  Glidden  finally  disposed  of  his  inter¬ 
est  also.  Sholes,  encouraged  by  suggestions  and 
financial  aid  from  James  Densmore,  of  Mead- 
ville,  Pa.,  who  early  purchased  an  interest  in  the 
machine,  continued  his  experiments.  Several 
models  were  built  and  were  tested  under  con¬ 
ditions  of  service  by  practical  stenographers, 
until  in  1873  the  inventors  considered  the  ma¬ 
chine  sufficiently  perfected  to  warrant  manu¬ 
facture  upon  a  large  scale.  A  successful  effort 
was  made  to  interest  the  gun  manufacturers, 
E.  Remington  &  Son,  of  Ilion,  N.  Y.,  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  machine.  After  more  than 
a  year  of  patient  work  by  the  skilled  mechanics 
at  Ilion,  a  complete  remodeling  of  the  crude  de¬ 
vice  of  the  inventors  resulted.  The  first  model 
was  put  upon  the  market  in  1874.  It  retained 
only  the  principles  of  the  original  construction. 
As  many  of  its  elements  are  fundamental,  it 
may  be  briefly  described  as  follows:  Pivoted 
about  a  horizontal  ring  were  type  bars,  some  38 
in  number,  with  steel  types  inserted  in  their 
lower  ends,  and  so  arranged  as  to  rise  vertically 
to  a  common  centre.  The  short  arms  of  these 
levers  were  connected  by  wire  rods  with 
the  levers  proceeding  from  the  keyboard.  The 
paper  to  be  printed  passed  around  a  rubber  cyl¬ 
inder,  and  the  lower  side  of  this  cylinder  re¬ 
ceived  the  impact  of  the  types.  An  inked  rib¬ 
bon  intervened  between  type  and  the  paper. 
This  ribbon,  in  the  operation  of  the  machine, 
was  gradually  unwound  from  a  spool  at  one 
side  of  the  machine  to  another  on  the  other 
side,  and  when  the  spool  was  exhausted  the  mo¬ 
tion  was  reversed.  With  each  release  of  a  key 
by  the  finger  of  the  operator,  a  ratchet  move¬ 
ment  at  the  back  of  the  cylinder  allowed  the 
carriage  to  move  along  one  space,  thus  making 
room  for  the  next  letter.  The  tension  was  kept 
on  the  carriage  by  a  coiled  spring  and  strap. 
At  the  end  of  a  line  the  carriage  was  drawn 
back  to  the  starting  point  by  means  of  an  arm 
depending  in  front,  and  the  same  movement 
turned  the  cylinder,  and  carried  the  paper  to 
make  ready  for  the  following  line. 

In  1877  an  improvement  was  introduced, 
whereby  each  type  bar  in  the  circle  was  made 
to  carry  two  characters,  adjusted  to  separate 


TYPEWRITERS 


TYPEWRITERS 


610 


common  centres.  By  depressing  a  shift  key  the 
carriage  is  thrown  backward  to  the  second 
centre,  which  is  adjusted  to  receive  all  the  cap¬ 
ital  letters  and  many  other  characters  placed 
in  relation  thereto. 

In  1894  an  improved  model,  having  a  lighter 
and  stronger  paper  carriage,  was  placed  upon 
the  market.  The  shifting  movement  was  ac¬ 
complished  by  a  new  mechanism,  and  improve¬ 
ments  in  the  spacing  mechanism,  greatly  in¬ 
creasing  the  speed  of  the  machine,  thus  making 
it  more  acceptable  to  expert  operators,  were 
adopted.  An  automatic  ribbon  reverse  was 
later  included,  and,  in  addition  to  increasing 
the  number  of  characters  and  the  width  of  the 
carriage  for  holding  wide  sheets  of  paper,  many 
minor  points  of  improvement  have  been  from 
time  to  time  adopted  by  the  manufacturers. 

The  Remington  was  the  pioneer  machine,  and 
its  first  competitor  was  the  Caligraph,  promoted 
by  George  W.  N.  Yost.  The  Caligraph  had  the 
basket  of  type  bars,  but  had  a  polygonal  im¬ 
pression  cylinder,  the  impressions  being  received 
on  the  flat  faces.  It  resembled  the  Remington, 
but  had  a  double  set  of  keys,  thus  obviating 
the  use  of  a  shift  from  capital  to  small  letters, 
and  the  horizontal  keys  were  hinged  at  the 
front.  This  machine  was  for  a  time  the  most 
important  of  those  machines  where  there  was 
a  separate  key  for  each  type  character,  but  its 
manufacture  was  discontinued.  Mr.  Yost  left 
the  Caligraph  and  brought  out  the  Yost  type¬ 
writer,  which  does  not  use  the  inked  ribbon, 
but  its  type,  when  at  rest,  bears  against  a  cir¬ 
cular  inking  pad. 

Unlike  the  foregoing  was  the  Hammond  ma¬ 
chine,  invented  by  James  B.  Hammond  in  1880- 
83.  Its  central  principle  was  the  type  wheel,  a 
favorite  device  of  John  Pratt,  who  labored  long, 
but  unsuccessfully,  to  make  his  invention  a 
success.  The  arrangement  of  the  original  key¬ 
board  of  the  Hammond  differed  materially  from 
that  of  the  Remington,  being  almost  semicircu¬ 
lar.  In  1890  a  new  model,  the  Universal  Ham¬ 
mond,  was  introduced,  having  a  keyboard  with 
three  banks  of  keys,  like  other  standard  ma¬ 
chines.'  Still  later,  a  light  rubber  shell  or 
shuttle,  supported  by  a  metal  backing,  was  sub¬ 
stituted  for  the  wheel.  In  this  machine  90 
types  are  cast  in  true  alignment  upon  a  curved 
plate  of  vulcanite,  called  the  “shuttle,”  in  the 
form  of  an  arc  of  a  circle.  The  backing  for  the 
shuttle  is  a  heavy  cast-iron  ring  called  “anvil,” 
and  may  be  compared  to  a  wheel  having  a  slot 
in  the  centre  of  its  face  in  which  the  steel  web 
of  the  shuttle  slides.  This  forms  a  guide  for 
the  shuttle  in  its  horizontal  movements.  The 
anvil  is  stationary  and  firmly  fixed  to  a  ver¬ 
tical  shaft  by  which  it  may  be  raised  to  bring 
either  of  three  rows  of  type  into  the  printing 
position.  The  depression  of  a  key  controlling 
the  character  to  be  printed  brings  that  char¬ 
acter  on  the  shuttle  into  position  by  means  of 
a  shuttle  arm  and  a  series  of  index  pins,  each 
one  of  which  corresponds  to  the  angular  dis¬ 
tance  of  any  character  from  the  normal  position. 
The  impression  of  the  hammer  is  at  that  mo¬ 
ment  received  by  means  of  a  lever,  which  re¬ 
leases  the  hammer  spring  and  the  carriage  and 
forces  the  paper  against  the  type  on  the  face 
of  the  shuttle.  As  these  shuttles  are  inter¬ 
changeable,  it  is  possible  for  the  one  machine 
to  produce  any  number  of  different  alphabets  or 
styles  of  type. 

The  Smith-Premier  was  placed  on  the  market 


in  1889.  This,  like  the  Remington,  is  a  type- 
bar  machine,  but  has  a  large  keyboard  with  a 
key  for  each  character  as  in  the  Caligraph.  A 
novel  feature  of  this  machine  is  a  round  brush 
which  can  be  revolved  to  clean  the  type.  An¬ 
other  improvement  of  the  Smith-Premier  was 
a  three-colored  ribbon  so  arranged  that  a  change 
from  one  color  to  either  of  the  others  can  be 
made  by  simply  pushing  a  lever. 

In  1892  the  Blickensderfer  machine,  having 
a  type  wheel  which  rotated  so  as  to  bring  the 
appropriate  characters  in  position  to  strike  the 
paper,  was  introduced,  and  attained  great  popu¬ 
larity  on  account  of  its  simplicity  and  low 
cost.  Its  makers  later  developed  an  electric  type¬ 
writer  where  an  electric  motor  supplied  the 
power  and  rendered  the  manipulation  much 
easier  for  the  operator,  and  eventually  took 
up  also  the  making  of  type-bar  machines  of 
the  conventional  type. 

During  the  closing  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  by  which  time  the  use  of  the  type¬ 
writer  had  become  almost  universal,  many  new 
machines  were  brought  upon  the  market,  so  that 
at  its  close  there  were  over  100  different  ma¬ 
chines,  on  which  nearly  1700  patents  have  been 
granted.  Various  new  models  were  developed, 
most  of  which  were  along  conventional  and 
established  lines.  With  few  exceptions  cheap 
typewriters  have  never  proved  durable  and  suc¬ 
cessful,  though  latterly  several  small  and  port¬ 
able  machines  have  been  placed  on  the  market. 
The  demand  for  such  machines  undoubtedly 
exists,  particularly  for  school  and  domestic 
use  in  addition  to  traveling. 

Perhaps  the  most  noted  of  the  successful  ma¬ 
chines  brought  out  at  the  later  stage  was  the 
Underwood  typewriter,  first  put  on  the  market  in 
1896,  but  which  soon  came  into  widespread  use. 
This  is  a  type-bar  machine,  but  instead  of  the 
usual  upright  basket,  making  a  practically  com¬ 
plete  circle  of  type  bars,  the  letters  are  con¬ 
tained  in  a  segment  of  a  circle,  and  this  par¬ 
tial  basket  is  laid  upon  its  side  and  moves  as 
a  whole  when  the  shift  key  is  operated.  The 
advantage  of  this  arrangement  is  that  the 
type  strikes  on  the  front  of  the  impression 
cvlinder,  instead  of  on  the  bottom,  thus  keeping 
the  work  entirely  in  sight.  As  early  as  1891 
visible  writing  had  been  produced  on  the  V  il- 
liams,  using  an  inked  pad,  and  about  the  same 
time  in  the  Brooks,  a  ribbon  machine.  The  same 
advantage  was  also  secured  in  the  L.  C.  Smith 
machine,  where  ball  bearings  were  employed  to 
secure  easy  running  and  light  touch.  This 
machine  also  enjoyed  wide  popularity,  while 
the  demand  for  visible  writing  led  to  a  re¬ 
modeling  of  the  Remington  to  secure  that  end, 
and  the  Monarch  machine  carried  out  the  idea 
of  the  shifting  segment.  In  the  Oliver  machine 
there  is  a  double  instead  of  a  single  shift  key 
for  which  advantages  are  claimed. 

An  important  development  in  typewriters  was 
a  machine  which  served  for  writing  letters, 
writing  on  flat  cards,  on  the  page  of  a  bound 
book,  writing  bills,  tabulating,  and  adding  one 
or  more  columns  of  figures  as  they  are  written 
by  the  machine.  The  Elliott-Fisher  billing  and 
adding  machine,  patented  May  15,  1906,  one 
of  the  first  of  these  machines,  was  a  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  Elliott  &  Hatch  book  typewriter. 
In  this  machine  the  slieet  which  was  being  writ¬ 
ten  was  held  stationary  on  a  flat  platen,  while 
the  machine  proper,  consisting  of  frame,  type 
levers,  etc.,  moved  either  forward  and  backward 


TYPEWRITERS 


611 


TYPHA 


or  sideways.  Later  came  modifications  of 
ordinary  typewriters  whereby  tabulating  and 
adding  mechanism  were  supplied  so  that  not 
only  billing  but  all  commercial  bookkeeping 
could  be  done  on  the  machine  used  for  ordinary 
correspondence.  The  Remington  adding  and 
subtracting  typewriter  was  brought  out  in 
1907,  and  in  1915  a  most  elaborate  machine 
was  perfected.  The  Underwood  Company  and 
other  makers  also  brought  out  bookkeeping  and 
adding  typewriters,  each  of  which  possesses  cer¬ 
tain  advantages  and  conveniences.  In  fact  these 
machines  have  completely  revolutionized  book¬ 
keeping  and  accounting,  for  they  are  able  to 
list  the  items  and  to  add,  subtract,  or  cross 
add. 

Manifolding.  Reprints  may  be  secured  by 
the  ordinary  copy  press,  copying  ink  being  used 
on  the  typewriter  ribbon  or  pad.  By  the  use 
of  carbon  paper  alternately  between  thin  sheets 
of  ordinary  paper,  the  typewriter  itself  can  be 
made  to  produce  several  copies  at  a  time.  Thus 
in  modern  business  operation  as  referred  to 
above  by  the  use  of  loose  leaf  books  of  account, 
the  original  order,  the  invoice,  the  bill  for  goods, 
and  the  posting  in  the  ledger  can  be  effected  at 
one  operation,  or  other  modifications  of  the 
system  made.  By  the  use  of  a  special  kind  of 
paper  on  a  sheet  of  cloth,  stencils  may  be  made 
for  the  mimeograph.  See  Copying  Machine. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  use  of  the  typewriter 
to  a  point  where  it  has  become  indispensable 
in  all  lines  of  business  and  many  other  forms 
of  activity,  is  noteworthy.  It  was  placed  on 
the  market  about  1875  and  its  usefulness  was 
soon  appreciated  by  courts  of  law,  business 
houses,  and  governmental  departments.  In  the 
early  eighties  its  use  became  general  in  all  de¬ 
partments  of  the  United  States  government  ex¬ 
cept  the  Department  of  State.  It  was  first  em¬ 
ployed  for  instructions  to  diplomatic  and  con¬ 
sular  officers  in  1895  and  the  official  communica¬ 
tions  of  the  department  to  diplomatic  officers 
of  foreign  countries  were  first  executed  upon  the 
typewriter  in  1897.  Now  it  is  even  customary 
for  armies  in  the  field  to  have  typewriters  as 
part  of  the  headquarters  equipment  for  issuing 
orders  and  reports.  That  the  typewriter  is 
found  everywhere  in  business  to  the  practical 
exclusion  of  handwriting  has  long  been  evident, 
for  the  gain  in  time  for  transcribing  and  for 
reading  correspondence  and  records  was  early 
appreciated.  An  average  operator  can  write 
on  the  machine  some  60  words  a  minute  or  at 
a  rate  about  three  times  as  fast  as  that  of  the 
average  penman,  while  in  competition  experts 
maintain  a  speed  well  in  excess  of  100  words 
a  minute.  Furthermore,  the  addition  of  various 
mechanical  adjuncts  for  spacing,  addressing, 
tabulating,  etc.,  reduces  to  a  minimum  the  time 
and  facilitates  the  entire  operation.  The  use 
of  ribbons  of  more  than  one  color,  readily 
interchangeable,  now  a  feature  of  most  ma¬ 
chines,  adds  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  printing, 
giving  emphasis  as  desired. 

Once  the  services  of  a  stenographer  were  re¬ 
quired  for  correspondence,  but  now  by  the  use 
of  phonographs  or  dictating  machines  any  quali¬ 
fied  typist  with  sound  tubes  at  her  ears  is 
able  to  transcribe  letters  or  other  spoken  com¬ 
munications  when  the  sound  is  reproduced.  In 
most  newspaper  offices  reporters  and  other  writ¬ 
ers  are  required  to  prepare  their  manuscript 
on  typewriters.  Aside  from  its  mechanical 
considerations  the  typewriter  must  be  considered 


as  an  important  element  in  the  social  revolution 
caused  by  the  entrance  of  women  into  com¬ 
mercial  life.  It  was  found  that  the  light  labor 
involved  in  copying  and  transcribing  notes  could 
be  performed  readily  by  women  of  fair  education 
and  general  aptitude  as  well  if  not  better  than 
by  men  and,  once  their  success  was  established, 
women’s  position  in  business  life  was  assured, 
so  that,  in  the  census  year  1910,  of  the  593,224 
women  engaged  in  clerical  operations  263,315 
were  stenographers  arid  typewriters,  as  com¬ 
pared  with  53,378  males. 

Typewriters  are  now  an  essential  part  of  the 
equipment  of  telegraph  and  cable  offices,  for 
so  rapidly  can  messages  be  transcribed  that  the 
receiving  operator  can  not  only  keep  pace  with 
the  sender,  but  can  maintain  speed  so  great 
as  to  bring  about  the  abbreviation  of  the  tele¬ 
graph  code.  In  the  modern  use  of  the  typewriter 
the  so-called  touch  system  is  extensively  prac¬ 
ticed.  There  the  typist  is  taught  to  locate  the 
positions  of  the  various  keys  so  that  she  can 
strike  them  at  will  without  looking  at  the  desig¬ 
nation  of  the  characters.  In  this  way  increased 
speed  and  comfort  to  the  operator  are  secured 
and  even  a  blind  person  may  use  a  typewriter. 
It  may  be  remarked  that  in  all  makes  of  type¬ 
writers  the  arrangement  of  keys  is  the  same, 
the  so-called  universal  keyboard  being  employed 
with  but  few  and  slight  modifications.  This 
is  arranged  so  that  the  letters  most  used  come 
in  the  centre  and  in  convenient  proximity. 

Attention  had  been  directed  to  the  production 
of  power  typewriters,  in  which  the  operator  has 
merely  to  touch  a  key  with  sufficient  force  to 
release  latent  mechanism,  whereupon  power  from 
some  external  source  completes  the  impression. 
In  electrical  typewriters,  of  which  several  have 
been  patented,  the  impression  mechanism  is 
operated  by  magnets,  the  operator  closing  the 
circuit  when  he  touches  the  key,  but  these  never 
have  been  widely  used. 

Statistics.  According  to  the  thirteenth 
United  States  census  (1910)  there  were  in  1909 
in  the  United  States  89  factories  devoted  to  the 
manufacture  of  typewriters  and  supplies,  in 
which  a  combined  capital  of  $26,308,688  was 
invested.  These  factories  produced  in  1909 
typewriters  and  supplies  valued  at  $19,718,767. 
Of  the  total  product  $6,899,069  worth,  or  over 
one-third  of  the  total  number,  were  exported, 
and  this  figure  had  grown  to  $11,532,364  in 
1913,  declining  to  $5,315,134  in  1915.  The  enor¬ 
mous  growth  of  the  industry  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  in  1889  there  were  only  30  factories, 
having  a  capital  of  $1,421,783,  and  producing 
an  output  valued  at  $3,630,126. 

TY'PHA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  rvcp-rj,  typhe, 
cat-tail).  A  genus  of  widely  distributed  marsh 
plants  of  the  family  Typhaceoe.  Two  species 
are  American,  Typha  latifolia  and  Typha  an- 
gustifolia,  and  are  popularly  known  as  cat¬ 
tail  or  reed  mace.  The  former,  which  is  the 
commoner,  is  sometimes  called  bulrush.  It 
grows  to  the  height  of  5  or  6  feet.  The  astrin¬ 
gent  rootstocks  are  rich  in  starch,  and  the 
young  shoots  of  both  species  are  much  eaten 
by  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  and  are  sometimes 
used  in  England  under  the  name  of  Cossack 
asparagus.  The  pollen  of  Typha  is  inflammable, 
like  that  of  Lycopodium,  for  which  it  is  used 
as  a  substitute.  Typha  angustifolia  and  Typha 
elephantina  are  employed  in  India  and  Europe 
for  making  mats  and  baskets,  chair  bottoms, 
etc.  The  leaves  of  Typha  are  commonly  used  in 


TYPHLOPIDiE 


612 


TYPHOID  FEVER 


the  United  States  in  cooperage  to  place  betw 
the  staves  and  in  the  seams  of  barrel  heads.  ! 
Plate  of  Aquatic  Plants.  . 


TYPHLOP'IDJE.  See  Blindworm  (2). 

TYPHO'EUS.  See  G;ea. 

TY'PHOID  EXTRACT.  See  Organotherapy. 

TYPHOID  FEVER  (from  Gk.  rvcpcj d-qs,  ty- 
pliodes,  delirious,  from  tO0os,  typhos,  stupor, 
mist,  vapor,  smoke,  from  rv<pe iv,  typhein,  to 
smoke ;  connected  with  Skt.  dhupu,  smoke ) ,  or 
Enteric  Fever,  Typhus  Abdominalis,  Abdomi¬ 
nal  Typhus.  A  specific  disease,  infectious 
chiefly  or  entirely  through  the  excretions,  having 
a  febrile  period  of  about  three  weeks,  and  char¬ 
acterized  by  ulceration  of  the  intestinal  lymph 
follicles,  swelling  of  spleen  and  mesenteric 
glands,  and  parenchymatous  changes  in  many 
organs. 

Typhoid  fever  is  due  to  a  specific  microor¬ 
ganism  known  as  the  typhoid  bacillus,  a  small 
bacillus  with  rounded  ends,  about  two  micro¬ 
millimeters  in  length  and  about  one-third  as 
broad.  It  is  motile  and  grows  at  room  tempera¬ 
ture  on  the  ordinary  culture  media,  preferably 
in  the  presence  of  air  or  oxygen,  but  capable 
of  life  without.  (See  Plate  of  Disease  Germs.) 
During  an  attack  of  typhoid  fever  the  bacillus 
is  found  regularly  in  the  intestinal  and  mesen¬ 
teric  lymph  nodes  and  as  a  rule  in  the  spleen. 
In  the  early  stage  of  the  disease,  when  the 
nodes  are  simply  enlarged,  few  or  no  bacilli 
are  present  in  the  bowel  evacuations.  Later, 


when  ulceration  of  the  nodules  has  occurred, 
the  bacilli  are  usually  found  in  the  stools.  In 
urine  and  bile  it  is  quite  common  to  find  the 
typhoid  bacillus,  and  in  these  secretions  they 
may  persist  long  after  recovery,  thus  furnishing 
possible  sources  of  infection  long  after  the 
danger  is  supposed  to  have  passed.  Typhoid 
bacilli  have  also  been  reported  in  the  blood, 
lungs,  pleura,  liver,  kidney,  uterus,  and  in  other 
organs  in  which  typhoid  lesions  occur ;  also  in 
typhoid  serous  exudates  and  in  the  heart  in 
typhoid  endocarditis. 

'  Contraction  of  typhoid  fever  is  caused  by  tak¬ 
ing  the  bacilli  into  the  mouth  and  thence  into 
the  intestine.  Food  and  drink  are  usually  the 
vehicles  which  serve  for  the  entrance  of  the 
bacillus,  water  and  milk  being  probably  the 
most  frequent  sources  of  infection.  The  latter 
is  especially  dangerous  from  the  fact  that  the 
typhoid  bacillus  not  only  lives  but  multiplies 
in  it.  Water  and  milk,  however,  are  only  danger¬ 
ous  when  they  actually  contain  the  typhoid 
bacilli  which  have  entered  into  them  from 
the  excretions  of  typhoid  patients  or  carriers. 

The  typhoid  carrier  is  a  person  who  harbors 
and  excretes  the  bacilli  in  large  numbers,  al¬ 
though  in  normal  health  and  generally  unaware 
of  his  infection.  Cooks  and  dairymen  are  most 
dangerous  in  this  respect  to  the  community  and 
to  them  have  been  traced  many  scattered  epi¬ 
demics.  Flies  having  access  to  the  excreta  of 
typhoid  patients  are  capable  of  contaminating 
food  and  spreading  the  disease.  Other  minor 
sources  of  infection  are  fresh  vegetables  and 
oysters. 

*  The  initial  seat  of  activity  of  the  typhoid 
bacillus  is  undoubtedly  in  the  intestines.  Here 
the  bacillus  first  sets  up  a  catarrhal  inflamma¬ 
tion  of  the  mucous  membrane.  This  is  followed 
by  the  characteristic  lesion  of  typhoid,  viz., 
inflammation  of  the  intestinal  lymph  nodes. 
Both  solitary  nodules  and  Peyer’s  patches  are 
affected,  although  it  is  in  the  latter  that  the 
changes  are  usually  most  marked.  These  nodules 
may  undergo  resolution,  or  may  break  down, 
forming  the  typical  typhoid  ulcer,  which  may 
erode  blood  vessels,  thus  setting  up  hemorrhage ; 
or  perforate  into  the  peritoneal  cavity,  giving 
rise  to  peritonitis.  Ulcers  are  formed  in  Peyer’s 
patches,  gradually  increasing  in  size,  and  dis¬ 
charging  into  the  intestines.  Changes  in  the 
liver  and  spleen  are  of  common  occurrence  in 
typhoid  fever.  Of  the  two  the  spleen  is  most 
frequently  affected.  The  changes  consist  of 
congestion  with  proliferation  of  the  cellular 
elements  of  the  spleen  and  consequent  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  organ. 

Typhoid  fever  is  widely  distributed  through¬ 
out  ‘  the  world,  but  is  especially  prevalent  in 
the  temperate  zones.  From  its  prevalence  dur¬ 
ing  the  autumn  it  has  been  called  autumnal 
fever.  Young  adults  are  usually  attacked,  the 
affection  being  comparatively  rare  among  chil¬ 
dren  and  old  persons.  Hot  and  dry  weather  are 
favorable  for  its  development.  Its  distribution 
is  largely  due  to  a  contaminated  water  supply. 
Cities  which  drain  their  sewage  into  the  rivers 
or  lakes  whence  they  derive  their  drinking 
water  suffer  most  severely.  In  1914  to  1915,  the 
death  rate  in  several  large  cities  of  the  United 
States  per  100,000  population  was:  New  York, 
6.2;  Detroit,  13;  Baltimore,  22.4;  Birmingham, 
Ala.,  40.2;  Nashville,  Tenn.,  47.3. 

The  incubation  period  of  enteric  fever  lasts 
from  8  to  14  days,  or  longer.  The  onset  is 


TYPHOID  FEVER 


613  TYPHOID  FEVER 


gradual  and  is  followed  by  nausea,  loss  of 
appetite,  headache,  pains  in  the  back  and  ex¬ 
tremities,  nosebleed,  and  perhaps  a  distinct 
chill.  For  a  few  days  the  patient  may  go 
about  his  work,  but  at  the  end  of  that  'time 
is  compelled  to  go  to  bed.  This  may  be  reckoned 
the  definite  onset  of  the  disease.  The  fever  is 
characteristic.  _  During  the  first  week  the 
temperature  rises  steadily  by  a  degree  or  a 
degree  and  a  half  a  day  until  103°  to  105°  F. 
is  reached ;  during  the  second  week  the  fever 
remains  high;  during  the  third  week,  in  cases 
of  moderate  severity,  it  gradually  declines,  and 
in  the  fourth  week  convalescence  begins.  About 
the  seventh  to  the  tenth  day  the  patient  presents 
the  typical  appearance  of  enteric  fever.  He  is 
dull,  listless,  and  apathetic,  the  eyes  are  bright, 
the  pupils  dilated,  the  face  pale,  with  flushed 
cheeks  and  dark  lips.  The  tongue  is  dry  and 
red,  with  a  band  of  white  fur  on  each  side.  At 
the  end  of  the  first  week  a  rose-pink  rash  ap¬ 
pears  on  the  abdomen.  It  consists  of  from  10 
to  30  raised  circular  spots,  which  fade  on  pres¬ 
sure.  These  spots  last  only  two  or  three  days, 
but  successive  crops  appear.  The  abdomen  is 
distended  and  tender,  and  several  offensive  yel¬ 
low  stools  may  be  passed  daily.  Death  may 
occur  at  the  end  of  the  second  week,  from  hemor¬ 
rhage  or  perforation  of  the  bowel.  The  third 
week  is  marked  by  great  weakness,  muscular 
tremors,  delirium,  and  failing  heart,  although 
the  fever  is  slowly  dropping,  and  death  may  take 
place  from  exhaustion.  Convalescence  in  the 
average  case  sets  in  during  the  fourth  week.  In 
a  certain  number  of  cases  relapses  occur;  these 
are, .  as  a  rule,  shorter  and  milder  than  the 
original  attack,  but  are  similar  in  character. 
One  attack  of  enteric  fever  confers  immunity 
from  others.  The  mortality  ranges  from  10  to 
30  per  cent. 

To  prevent  the  spread  of  typhoid  the  follow¬ 
ing  precautions  are  observed.  The  stools  and 
urine  of  patients  are  thoroughly  disinfected  by 
immersion  in  strong  solutions  of  corrosive  sub¬ 
limate,  carbolic  acid,  or  chlorinated  lime  and 
protected  from  flies.  In  districts  having  a  de¬ 
fective  drainage  system  the  dejecta  may  finally 
be  disposed  of  by  mixing  with  sawdust  and 
burning  or  burying  in  trenches  after  saturation 
with  chloride  of  lime.  Bedpans,  rectal  ther¬ 
mometers,  syringes,  tubes,  and  all  other  utensils 
coming  in  contact  with  the  patient’s  discharges 
are  disinfected  by  boiling  and  immersion  in  anti¬ 
septic  solutions.  Bedclothes  and  linen  are  simi¬ 
larly  disinfected.  During  epidemics  drinking 
water  and  milk  should  be  boiled  and  raw  vege¬ 
tables  such  as  lettuce  and  celery  avoided. 

Careful  nursing  and  regulated  diet  are  of 
first  importance  in  the  treatment.  The  patient 
is  strictly  confined  to  bed  from  the  beginning  of 
the  disease  until  the  temperature  has  been  nor¬ 
mal  for  at  least  a  week.  A  liquid  or  semisolid 
diet  has  been  found  best  throughout  the  course  of 
the  attack.  The  modern  tendency  is  to  feed  the 
patient  more  liberally  than  in  the  past.  Broth; 
consomme,  albumin  water,  and  beef  juice  a 
given  to  vary  the  diet.  Milk  should  be  peptoniz 
or  mixed  with  lime  water  or  vichv.  The  patie 
is  urged  to  take  plenty  of  cool  water,  and 
juice  of  an  orange  or  lemon  may  be  giver, 
intervals.  Food  is  taken  about  every  1 
hours  during  the  day,  and  once  or  twb 
night  if  there  is  great  exhaustion. 

Control  of  the  fever  is  the  most  imp 
element  in  the  direct  treatment  of  typho 


this  is  best  accomplished  by  means  of  cold 
water,  by  sponging,  the  wet  pack,  and  bathing. 
Sponging  is  sufficient  in  ordinary  cases  and  for 
children  and  delicate  persons.  The  cold  pack 
consists  in  wrapping  the  patient  in  a  sheet 
wrung  out  of  water  at  60°  or  65°  F.  The  full 
bath,  or  cold  tubbing,  was  introduced  by  Brand 
of  Germany,  and  this  treatment  was  formerlv 
almost  universally  followed  in  hospitals.  Of 
late  years,  however,  it  has  lost  favor  on  account 
of  its  severity. 

The  drug  treatment  of  typhoid  is  sympto¬ 
matic.  Cold  sponging  renders  febrifuges  un¬ 
necessary.  Antipyrine  and  phenacetin  are  some¬ 
times  given,  but  they  tend  to  depress  the  heart. 
Intestinal  antiseptics,  such  as  turpentine,  salol, 
and  carbolic  acid,  render  the  stools  less  offensive 
and  prevent  the  production  of  gas.  Return  to 
solid  food  must  be  gradual  on  account  of  the 
danger  of  perforation  through  intestinal  ulcers. 

Widal’s  Test  for  Typhoid  Fever.  This  is  a 
reliable  method  of  diagnosis,  and  depends  upon 
the  fact  that  the  blood  of  typhoid-fever  patients 
acquires  the  property  of  causing  a  reaction  when 
brought  into  contact  with  active  typhoid  bacilli. 
In  the  test  a  small  amount  of  biood  or  serum 
diluted  is  mixed  with  a  fresh  pure  culture  of 
the  typhoid  bacillus.  The  reaction,  as  observed 
under  the  microscope,  consists  in  a  destruction 
of  the  motility  of  the  bacilli  and  their  agglutina¬ 
tion,  that  is,  their  collection  into  larger 
smaller  clumps.  The  reaction  may  not  o  • 
the  first  stages  of  the  disease.  A  posP 
with  quite  dilute  serum  makes  t1  ysis 

of  typhoid  almost  certain,  althr  reac¬ 

tion  does  rarely  occur  in  other  d 

Paratyphoid  fever  is  an  4 
clinically  resembling  typhoi 
more  irregular  in  its  course 
cific  bacillus  or  bacilli  wl 
intermediate  between  thf 
the  Bacillus  coli.  It 


j  disease, 
milder  and 
due  to  a  spe- 
ipy  a  position 
s  typhosus  and 
Ames  called  the 
is  based  on  the 
al  reaction  being 


yphoid  fever  is  con- 
of  a  specific  vaccine. 


paracolon  bacillus.  D 
agglutination  test,  1 ; 
negative. 

Immunization 
f erred  by  the  ini- 

Protection  P  .  cain  and  immunity  lasts, 

according  7  O  test  available  data,  for  two 

m  more.  Vaccination  is  prac- 
,rmies  of  the  civilized  world,  and 
Le  has  been  reduced  at  least  75  per 
;  measures.  The  value  of  typhoid 


and  a  ha7 
ticed  in 
the  tyr 
cent  1 


vacc? 
the 
her  i 
t-T  *1 

T 


is  illustrated  by  the  statistics  of 
v  ar  of  the  European  War.  From  the 
1  of  hostilities  only  1365  cases  of 
jccurred  among  the  British  troops  in 
.ind  Belgium,  whereas  in  the  Boer  War 
3,000  cases  occurred  in  a  very  much 
r  number  of  troops.  See  Hygiene,  Mili- 


ygiene. 

suit:  William  Osier,  Studies  in  Typhoid 
■s  (Baltimore,  1895);  id.,  Problems  of 
i  noid  Fever  in  the  United  States  (ib.,  1899)  ; 
M.  Anders,  A  Textbook  of  the  Practice  of 
idicine  (12th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1915);  G.  A. 
are,  A  Textbook  of  the  Practice  of  Medicine 
3d  ed.,  ib.,  1915)  ;  Reference  Handbook  of  the 
Medical  Sciences  (3d  ed.,  New  York,  1915)  ; 
G.  C.  Whipple,  Typhoid  Fever:  Its  Causation , 
Transmission,  and  Prevention  (New  York,  1908)  ; 
J.  W.  Schereschewsky,  “Anti-typhoid  Vaccina¬ 
tion,”  in  United  States  Public  Health  and  Marine 
Hospital  Service,  Public  Health  Report,  No.  56 
(Washington,  1911),  and  numerous  other  pub- 


TYPHUS  FEVER 


TYPHOID  FLY 


lications  of  this  bureau.  See  Influenza  in 
Animals. 

TYPHOID  FLY.  See  House  Fly. 

TY'PHON  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tv<t>wv) ,  or  Ty- 
phoeus.  In  Greek  legend,  the  offspring  of 
Gaea,  or  Earth,  and  Tartarus.  He  was  a  fire- 
breathing  monster  with  100  serpent  heads,  who 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Titans  (q.v.)  strove 
to  wrest  the  power  from  Zeus.  He  was  finally 
smitten  by  the  thunderbolt  and  cast  into  Tai 
tarus.  By  Echidna  he  was  the  father  of  many 
monsters  who  were  destroyed  by  Hercules.  Ty- 
phon  seems  to  be  the  personification  of  the  vol¬ 
canic  elements,  and  the  scene  of  the  conflict 
is  at  first  in  the  volcanic  regions  of  Lydia  and 
Phrygia,  and  later  about  Etna  and  Stiomboli, 
while  the  description  in  Hesiod  of  the  battle 
with  Zeus  is  a  vivid  picture  of  a  violent  erup¬ 
tion.  For  the  Egyptian  Set-Typhon,  who  later 
influenced  the  Greek  story,  see  Set. 

TYPHOON'  (Portug.  tufao,  from  Ar.  Pers. 
tufan,  tempest,  hurricane,  from  tufanidan,  to 
roar,  cry  out;  cf.  Gk.  Tv(f>u>v,  Typhon,  Tvphon 
(q.V.);  also  Chin,  t’ai  fung,  great  wind,  For¬ 
mosan  Chin,  tai  fung,  typhoon).  The  name  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  hurricanes  that  visit  the  waters 
east  of  Asia.  From  a  meteorological  point  of 
view  the  typhoon  is  a  special  case  of  the  cyclonic 
storm.  Typhoons  usually  originate  at  about  or 
east  -of  the  longitude  of  Guam  and  nearer  the 
equator  than  Manila;  they  move  towards  the 
west  or  west-northwest,  but  gradually  cuive  so 
that  they  often  pass  northward  or  northeast¬ 
ward  alotig  the  coasts  of  China  and  Japan.  Ty 
phoons  appear  to  be  quite  as  severe  on  the 
average  as  the  West  Indian  hurricanes;  the 
barometer  often  falls  lower  at  the  centre,  and 
the  rainfall  is  probably  heavier.  Knowledge  of 
the  laws  of  typhoons  is  now  sufficient  to  justify 
cautious  predictions  of  their  paths  and  the 
issuance  of  storm  warnings  to  navigatois.  -All 
the  baguios  and  typhoons  of  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean  have  been  classified  as  follows  by  Dobeick, 
Algue,  and  Bergholz: 

Group  1  occur  between  December  and  March ; 
the  storms  originate  between  5  N.  and  12 
N.  and  145°  E.  and  143°  E.;  move  at  first  to¬ 
wards  the  north-northwest;  reach  the  vertices  of 
their  parabolic  orbits  in  latitude  15°  N.-19°  N. 
and  then  turn  towards  the  north-northeast. 

Group  2  occur  in  April  and  May  or  October 
and  November;  originate  between  129°  E.  and 
147°  E.  and  5°  N.  and  12°  N.;  move  towards 
the  northwest;  have  their  vertices  in  latitude 
1G°  N.-21°  N.,  and  then  move  towards  the 

northeast.  \ 

Group  3  occur  between  June  and  September ; 
originate  between  139°  E.  and  126°  E.  and  20 
N.  and  8°  N.;  move  at  first  towards  the  north¬ 
west  by  north;  have  their  vertices  at  21°  N.— 
25°  N.  and  then  turn  to  the  northeast  by  east. 

When  typhoons  reach  the  China  Sea  in  the 
months  of  December  to  March  they  generally  con¬ 
tinue  towards  the  east-northeast,  and  are  lost 
in  the  interior  of  the  country.  Those  that 
occur  in  the  summer  and  spring  months  recurve 
much  more  frequently,  attain  higher  latitudes, 
and  are  frequently  destructive  in  Japan  and 
adjacent  waters;  occasionally  they  continue 
moving  northeastward  until  they  reach  Bering 
Sea  or  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

Full  details  of  typhoons  are  published  regu¬ 
larly  by  the  meteorological  offices  of  Hongkong, 
Tokyo,  and  Manila,  and  their  general  tracks, 
together  with  occasional  special  studies,  are 


published  on  the  Pilot  Charts  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  published  monthly  by  the  United  States 
Hydrographic  Office.  Consult  Jose  Algue,  The 
Cyclones  of  the'  Far  East  (2d  ed.,  Manila,  1904), 
and  W.  Doberck,  Law  of  Storms  in  the  Eastern 
Seas  (4th  ed.,  Hongkong,  1898). 

TY'PPIUS  FEVER  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
rvcpos,  stupor,  mist,  vapor,  smoke),  Jail  Fever, 
Ship  Fever,  or  Spotted  Fever,  Typhus  Ex¬ 
anthematous.  An  acute,  specific,  and  highly 
contagious  fever,  endemic,  and  also  prevailing  in 
epidemics,  especially  in  times  of  destitution 
and  in  the  presence  of  overcrowding  and  bad 
ventilation.  It  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
bacillus  discovered  by  Dr.  Harry  Plotz  (q.v.)  in 
1915,  the  Bacillus  typhi  exanthematici,  and  is 
attended  with  no  characteristic  lesions  of  the 
tissues  as  in  the  case  of  typhoid  fever,  but 
with  serious  blood  changes.  The  disease  is 
carried  by  the  body  louse  ( Pediculus  vestimenti) 
principally,  but  the  head  louse  ( Pediculus 
capitis)  is  also  capable  of  transmitting  it.  It 
is  ushered  in  by  an  abrupt  onset,  with  marked 
nervous  symptoms,  rheumatic  pains,  rigors,  and 
headache/  A  maculated  eruption  appears,  most 
commonly  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  disease,  of 
slightly  elevated  spots,  disappearing  on  pres¬ 
sure  at  first,  afterward  persistent  and  darker, 
and  there  is  early  prostration  of  the  nervous  and 
muscular  systems.  Delirium  usually  comes  on 
during  the  second  week.  The  fever  terminates 
by  a  crisis,  which  occurs  on  or  about  the  four¬ 
teenth  day,  after  which  recovery  is  very  rapid. 

In  former  centuries  typhus  fever  was  a  com¬ 
mon  scourge,  in  times  of  war  and  famine,  under 
the  names  of  jail  fever,  camp  fever,  ship  fever, 
and  the  like.  The  earliest  accounts  of  the  dis¬ 
ease  described  epidemics  in  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury  in  France,  Italy,  and  Hungary;  and  the 
earliest  description  is  credited  to  Fra  Castorius 
of  Verona  (1580),  in  his  work  De  Contagione  et 
Contagiosis  Morbis.  The  name  typhus  was  spe¬ 
cifically  used  by  de  Sauvage  in  1760.  Severe 
epidemics  occurred  in  Europe  during  the  seven¬ 
teenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  Willis  ( 1686) 
in  England  gave  it  the  name  “Synochus  putrida.. 
The  mortality  was  appalling  and  special  hospi¬ 
tals  were  built  for  typhus  patients.  It  is  a 
disease  of  the  temperate  and  cold  zones  and  is 
due  directly  to  overcrowding  of  people  in  un¬ 
cleanly  surroundings  thus  favoring  communica¬ 
tion  through  lice.  At  the  present  time  the 
disease  is  limited  to  half -civilized  countries  and 
to  the  slums  of  seaport  cities.  Local  outbreaks 
sometimes  occur  on  ships,  and  in  jails  and  poor- 
houses.  The  mortality  in  different  epidemics 
varies  from  12  to  20  per  cent.  It  was  for 
a  long  time  confounded  with  typhoid  fever 
( q.v. ) ,  but  it  differs  from  this  in  many  ways. 

During  the  epidemic  of  typhus  which  spread 
over  Serbia  in  1914—15,  it  is  stated  that  every 
hospital,  prison  camp,  barracks,  and  almost 
every  home  was  invaded;  and  a  conservative 
estimate  puts  the  mortality  at  135,000,  includ¬ 
ing  30,000  Austrian  prisoners.  The  first  cases 
of  the  disease  reached  the  port  of  New  York 
between  January  7  and  May  2,  by  means  of 
passenger  steamers  sailing  mainly  from  Mediter¬ 
ranean  ports.  This  was  the  first  typhus  visita¬ 
tion  in  20  years  and  the  cases  in  quarantine 
furnished  material  for  Plotz’s  studies  and  es¬ 
tablished  the  identity  of  true  typhus  with  the 
milder  endemic  form,  which  had  been  known 
as  Brill’s  disease.  Plotz  made  a  vaccine  which 
was  used  in  Serbia  and  was  thought  to  have  some 


TYPICAL  PHRASE 


TYRANT 


615 


value,  at  least  in  prophylaxis.  In  1913  Nicolle 
induced  the  disease  in  a  chimpanzee  by  inject¬ 
ing  the  blood  of  typhus  patients;  and  succeeded 
in  transmitting  the  disease  from  monkey  to 
monkeys,  by  means  of  the  body  louse.  The  latter 
observation  has  been  confirmed  by  Anderson, 
Goldberger,  Ricketts,  and  others.  Ricketts  lost 
his  life  by  contracting  the  fever  in  Mexico,  where 
it  is  very  prevalent  and  is  known  as  tabardillo. 

The  treatment  of  typhus  is  symptomatic.  As 
the  disease  is  exceedingly  contagious,  patients 
are  promptly  isolated,  placed  in  clean  surround¬ 
ings,  and  their  clothes  disinfected  or  sterilized 
by  heat  to  destroy  lice  and  their  eggs.  The 
high  temperature  is  reduced  by  means  of  cold 
sponging,  the  cold  pack,  or  bathing,  and  by 
the  administration  of  quinine,  antifebrine,  or 
phenacetin.  All  patients  are  benefited  by  small 
doses  of  the  mineral  acids,  and  mild  saline 
laxatives.  For  the.  headache  and  delirium  cold 
applications  to  the  head  are  indicated.  Alcohol 
is  used  as  a  stimulant  throughout  the  attack, 
to  combat  the  great  prostration.  During  con¬ 
valescence  such  tonics  as  strychnine  and  quinine 
are  most  useful.  The  patient  may  be  nourished 
by  liquid  foods.  Consult  V.  C.  Vaughan,  “His¬ 
tory  and  Epidemiology  of  Typhus  Fever,”  in 
Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association 
(Chicago,  May  29,  1915). 

TYPICAL  PHRASE  (Lat.  typicalis,  from 
typicus,  from  Gk.  tvttlkos,  typikos,  relating  to  a 
type).  In  dramatic  music,  the  recurrence  of 
a  theme  or  phrase  to  mark  the  similarity  of 
the  dramatic  situation  between  the  part  where 
such  a  phrase  occurs  and  the  part  where 
it  was  first  heard.  The  typical  phrase  is  es¬ 
sentially  different  from  the  leitmotiv.  Whereas 
the  leitmotiv  constitutes  the  basic  material 
and  is  employed  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
theme  in  a  symphony,  the  typical  phrase  is  only 
a  quotation,  and  can  do  nothing  more  than  re¬ 
call  a  similar  situation.  See  Leitmotiv. 

TYPOGRAPHICAL  UNION  OE  NORTH 
AMERICA,  The  International.  The  labor 
organization  of  the  printers  and  those  engaged 
in  kindred  trades,  the  oldest  national  trade 
union  in  the  United  States.  It  was  organized 
in  1850  as  the  National  Convention  of  Journey¬ 
men  Printers,  but  assumed  the  name  National 
Typographical  Union  in  1852,  and  the  present 
name  in  1869. 

In  organization  the  International  Typographi¬ 
cal  Union  is  a  typical  industrial  union.  Pro¬ 
vision  is  made  for  the  separation  of  the  different 
trades  into  trade  district  unions,  which  retain 
a  large  measure  of  autonomy,  although  they 
combine  for  purposes  of  defense,  in  each  juris¬ 
diction  where  there  are  unions  of  more  than 
one  trade,  in  allied  printing  trades  councils. 
The  International  itself,  however,  strictly  regu¬ 
lates  the  maximum  hours  of  labor  of  all  mem¬ 
bers,  the  number  of  days’  work  per  week,  the 
method  of  securing  work  and  the*  discharge  of 
employees  (through  foremen,  who  must  belong 
to  the  union),  the  employment  of  substitutes, 
type  standards  in  the  fixation  of  piece  scales, 
the  use  of  sublists  (lists  of  authorized  substi¬ 
tute  workers),  and  the  interchange  between 
newspapers,  not  owned  by  the  same  company, 
of  matter  previously  used  either  in  the  form 
of  type,  matrices,  or  photo-engravecl  plates.  Of 
the  receipts  from  regular  dues,  five  cents  is 
apportioned  to  the  general  fund,  five  cents  to 
the  special  defense  fund,  seven  and  one-half 
cents  to  the  defense  fund,  seven  and  one-half 


cents  to  the  burial  fund,  fifteen  cents  to  the  en¬ 
dowment  fund  of  the  Union  Printers’  Home, 
at  Colorado  Springs,  Colo.  In  addition  to  the 
per  capita  tax,  every  member  pays  five  cents 
per  month  as  a  subscription  to  the  official  paper, 
The  Typographical  Journal,  published  monthly 
at  Indianapolis. 

TYPOG'RAPHY.  See  Printing. 

TYR,  tir  ( Icel.  Tyr,  AS.  Tiw,  OHG.  Zio  ; 
connected  with  Lat.  Ju-piter,  Gk.  Zeus,  Zeus, 
the  chief  god,  Skt.  dydus,  sky).  The  old  Norse 
name  of  a  Teutonic  deity.  It  is  possible  that 
in  the  early  common  Germanic  system  Tyr  was 
the  foremost  god,  whose  place  was  later  taken 
by  Odin.  In  the  Eddas  he  is  represented  as  the 
son  of  Odin,  the  god  of  war  and  fame.  When 
the  zEsir  (q.v. )  persuaded  the  wolf  Fenrir 
(q.v. )  to  allow  himself  to  be  bound  with  the 
cord  Gleipnir,  Tyr  put  his  right  hand  in  the 
wolf’s  mouth,  as  a  pledge  that  he  would  be 
loosened,  and  when  the  gods  refused  to  release 
Fenrir  the  wolf  bit  the  hand  off  at  the  wrist. 
At  the  twilight  of  the  gods  he  will  meet  his 
death  at  the  same  time  with  his  enemy  the 
monster  dog  Garm.  See  Ragnarok;  Scandi¬ 
navian  and  Teutonic  Mythology. 

TYRANNOSAURUS.  An  extinct  tyrant 
lizard  which,  when  erect,  stood  18  feet  high. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  formidable  of  all  the 
huge  dinosaurs  whose  remains  are  found  in 
the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  the  western  United 
States.  Consult  F.  A.  Lucas,  Animals  of  the 
Past  (New  York,  1913). 

TYRANT  (Lat.  tyrannus,  from  Gk.  rvpawos, 
master,  sovereign).  A  name  given  in  modern 
times  to  an  arbitrary  and  oppressive  ruler, 
but  by  the  ancient  Greeks  applied  not  neces¬ 
sarily  to  one  that  exercised  power  badly,  but 
merely  to  one  that  obtained  it  illegally,  or  to 
one  who  held  sovereignty  originally  established 
by  usurpation.  While  tyrants  appear  sporadi¬ 
cally  at  all  periods  in  Greek  history,  they  were 
especially  numerous  during  the  seventh  and 
sixth  centuries  b.c.,  when  it  was  not  difficult 
for  an  ambitious  and  unscrupulous  man,  often  a 
noble,  to  appear  as  a  leader  of  the  populace 
and  by  its  aid  secure  power.  Often  a  violent 
seizure  of  the  power  was  welcomed  as  affording 
relief  from  present  evils.  In  other  cases  the 
tyrant  of  the  nobles  was  a  lawgiver  to  the 
demos.  These  early  tyrants  seem  usually  to 
have  ruled  generously  towards  the  poorer  classes, 
but  towards  other'  nobles  they  were  naturally 
suspicious  and  frequently  stern  and  cruel. 
While  there  are  cases  in  which  ancient  testi¬ 
mony  declares  the  tyrant  a  true  tyrant  in 
the  modern  sense,  the  greater  number  of  these 
men  seem  to  have  aimed  at  a  just  rule,  and 
the  glory  and  prosperity  of  their  states;  they 
were  frequently  the  patrons  of  literature  and 
the  fine  arts.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in 
the  Sicilian  tyrants  of  the  fifth  century  b.c. 
After  the  Persian  wars,  the  development  of 
democracy  and  the  rise  of  Athens  led  to  the 
passing  away  of  this  form  of  government,  to 
revive  witli  the  general  weakening  of  the  Greek 
states.  This  later  period  of  tyranny,  which 
begins  in  the  fourth  century  b.c.,  is  not  marked 
by  so  wide  an  extension  of  the  evil,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  few  of  the  possessors  of 
the  power  are  men  of  extraordinary  ability, 
who,  having  proved  capable  of  restoring  or 
rescuing  an  enfeebled  state,  have  seized  or 
been  given  the  supreme  control.  Such  were 
Dionysius  I  of  Syracuse  and  Jason  of  Pherse. 


TYRE 


TYRANT  FLYCATCHER 

In  general  this  second  series  of  tyrants  'were 
more  cruel  and  arbitrary  than  the  earlier  gen¬ 
eration.  The  Thirty  Tyrants  (q.v.)  of  Athens 
were  only  an  oligarchical  board  established  in 
the  interest  of  Sparta  in  404  b.c.,  and  owed  the 
name  “Tyrants”  to  later  writers,  their  con¬ 
temporaries  referring  to  them  as  “The  Thirty.” 
Consult:  Plass,  Die  Tyrannis  bei  den  Griechen 
(Bremen,  1852);  Zeller,  Ueber  den  Begriff  der 
Tyrannis  bei  den  Griechen  (Berlin,  1887)  ;  Scho- 
mann-Lipsius,  Griechische  Alterthiimer  (4th  ed., 
ib.,  1897). 

TYRANT  FLYCATCHER.  See  Fly- 

Catcher 

TYRANTS,  The  Thirty.  See  Thirty  Ty¬ 
rants,  The. 

TYRCONNEL,  ter-kon'el,  Richard  Talbot, 
Earl  and  titular  Duke  of  (1630-91).  An 
Irish  Jacobite.  He  was  the  youngest  son  of 
Sir  William  Talbot,  of  County  Kildare,  Ireland, 
a  prominent  Roman  Catholic  politician  dui  ing 
the  reign  of  James  I.  He  fought  against  Crom¬ 
well  at  Drogheda  and  after  the  death  of 
Charles  I  lived  in  Spain  and  Flanders.  In 
his  youth  he  was  notorious  as  a  sharper  and 
bully  and  under  the  Protectorate  he  was  recom¬ 
mended  as  a  man  fit  to  assassinate  Cromwell. 
Soon  after  the  Restoration  he  endeavored  to 
obtain  the  favor  of  the  royal  family  by  blacken¬ 
ing  the  reputation  of  Anne  Hyde,  so  as  to  fur¬ 
nish ‘the  Duke  of  York  with  a  pretext  for  break¬ 
ing  his  promise  of  marriage  to  her.  Though 
unable  to  injure  her  reputation,  he  succeeded 
in  gaining  the  favor  of  the  Duke,  and  conti  Led 
to  make  himself  welcome  at  the  palace  both  as 
a  votary  of  its  pleasures  and  as  a  counselor 
in  affairs  of  state.  Immediately  on  the  acces¬ 
sion  of  James  II  he  was  made  Earl  of  Tyrcon- 
nel,  and  put  in  command  of  the  troops  in 
Ireland.  He  now  aimed,  by  means  of  the  Irish 
army,  to  make  the  King  independent  of  Parlia¬ 
ment.  To  this  end  he  discharged  Protestant 
soldiers,  and  favored  Roman  Catholics  in  e\ery 
possible  way,  admitting  them  not  only  to  the 
army,  but  to  offices  and  corporations.  This 
service  he  performed  so  well  that  in  1687  the 
King  made  him  Lord  Deputy  of  Ireland.  His 
arrival  in  that  country  spread  terror  and  dis¬ 
may  through  the  English  Protestant  population, 
who  had  already  suffered  under  his  military 
rule.  Finding  themselves  without  protection 
and  their  property  a  prey  to  marauders,  many 
of  them  left  the  country,  commerce  declined, 
and  economic  conditions  became  wretched.  But 
this  state  of  affairs  did  not  last  long.  On  the 
arrival  of  James  II  in  Ireland  in  1689,  after  his 
flight  from  England,  he  created  the  Earl  Duke 
of  Tyrconnel.  After  the  fatal  battle  of  the 
Boyne  (1690),  in  which  the  Duke  held  high 
command,  he  retired  to  France.  In  1691  he 
returned  to  Ireland,  to  further  the  cause  of 
James.  Notwithstanding  the  defeat  of  Aughrim 
(July  12,  1691),  and  the  capitulation  of  Gal¬ 
way,"  Tyrconnel  made  preparations  for  the  de¬ 
fense  of  Limerick,  binding  himself  and  his 
countrymen  by  oath  not  to  surrender  until 
they  received  permission  from  James,  then  at 
St.  Germain.  At  the  same  time,  however,  he 
dispatched  a  letter  in  which  he  stated  his  con¬ 
viction  that  all  was  lost.  On  August  11,  before 
an  answer  could  arrive,  he  was  stricken  with 
apoplexy,  and  died  on  the  14th. 

TYRE,  tir  (Lat.  Tyrus,  from  Gk.  Tepos, 
Aramic  Tnr,  from  Phoenician  Sur,  rock).  The 
most  important  city  of  ancient  Phoenicia,  on  the 


Mediterranean  coast  about  50  miles  south  of 
Beirut  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  C  4).  Its  name 
comes  from  the  double  rock  just  off  the.  coast, 
the  site  of  the  earliest  settlement.  This  por¬ 
tion  of  the  city  is  connected  with  the  mainland 
by  a  causeway  which  dates  from  the  days,  of 
Alexander  the  Great ;  before  the  Greek  period, 
however,  the  older  Tyre  was  an  island  divided 
by  a  natural  canal.  It  has  now  been  definitely 
ascertained  that  the  old  sanctuary  to  Melkart, 
the  Baal  or  chief  deity  of  Tyre,  stood  on  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  little  island,  and, 
this  being  determined,  priority  of  the  island 
settlement  over  the  adjoining  coast  is  also  de¬ 
termined.  The  city  grew  until  it  included  as 
a  suburb  the  adjoining  coast  land,  and  after 
the  union  of  island  and  coast  the  entire  place 
was  known  as  the  city,  of  Tyre.  From  a 
strategic  point,  the  situation  of  Tyre  was  favor¬ 
able,  while  its  admirable  ports  predestined 
it  for  its  future  commercial  role.  Those  ports 
were  chiefly  two,  the  Sidonian  port  and  the 
Egyptian  harbor.  Whether  Tyre  or  Sidon 
is"  "the  oldest  settlement  of  Phoenicia  is  not 
easily  decided.  The  evidence  is  in  favor  of  the 
latter,  though  the  view  formerly  held,  which 
made  Tyre  an  offshoot  of  Sidon,  must  be 
abandoned  in  •  the  light  of  recent  researches. 
Herodotus  records  a  tradition  which  traced  the 
settlement  of  Tyre  back  to  the  twenty-eighth 
century  b.c.  The  date  may  be  too  early,  though 
when  Egypt  began  her  campaigns  for  the  pos¬ 
session  of  western  Asia  under  Thothmes  I 
(c.1510  b.c.)  Tyre  was  already  flourishing  and 
important.  A  new  period  of  prosperity  began  for 
Tyre  with  the  decline  of  Egyptian  control 
(c.1400  b.c.  ) ,  and  though  we  know  little  of 
the  history  of  the  place  for  the  next  three 
centuries,  the  important  position  it  occupied 
when  Tiglath-pileser  I  or  Assyria  (c.1140-1105 
b.c.)  opened  his  successful  series  of  campaigns 
to  the  West  justifies  the  conclusion  that  in 
the  interval  Tyre  more  than  maintained  her 
supremacy  over  Sidon.  It  was  a  period  of  com¬ 
mercial  extension,  followed  by  a  decline  due 
to  internal  disturbances.  It  was  not  until  c.870 
b.c.  that,  so  far  as  present  knowledge  goes,  an 
Assyrian  king,  Asurnazirpal  III,  included  Tyre 
and"  Sidon  in  his  campaigns  and  obtained  trib¬ 
ute  from  both,  as  well  as  from  Byblos  and 
Arvad  Among  the  kings  of  this  period  known 
to  us  from  a  list  of  Menander  preserved  by 
Josephus  is  Hiram  from  whom  Solomon  ob¬ 
tained  material  and  workmen  for  his  building 
operations.  (See  Hiram;  Solomon.)  After 
the  days  of  Asurnazirpal  III,  the  compact  be¬ 
tween  Tyre  and  Assvria  remained  uninterrupted, 
except  for  short  intervals.  To  save  her  com¬ 
merce  and  her  position  of  supremacy,.  Tyre 
preferred  to  pay  tribute  rathei  than  l  isk  an 
encounter  at  arms  with  Assyria.  In  the  days 
of  Sennacherib  (705-681  b.c.),  however,  Tyre 
paid  for  a  manifestation  of  independence  by 
an  encounter  with  the  Assyrian  monarch,  which 
ended  in  a  momentary  defeat  for  the  Assyrians; 
but  Tyre  was  cut  off  from  communication  with 
the  coast,  and  after  enduring  a  siege  of  five 
years,  according  to  Menander,  was  obliged  to 
submit  (c.700  b.c.).  Tyre  recovered  and  en¬ 
tered  in  a  combination  with  Egypt  to  resist 
the  advance  of  Esarliaddon,  the  successor  of 
Sennacherib,  who  had  to  content  himself  with 
receiving  the  homage  of  King  Baal  of  Tyre  with¬ 
out  actuallv  capturing  the  city ;  but  Asurbanipal, 
his  successor,  may  have  succeeded  towards  the 


TYRE 


TYROTOXICON 


617 


end  of  his  reign  (668-625  b.c.)  in  forcing  the 
city  to  surrender.  Tyre  became  an  Assyrian 
vassal,  but  her  commercial  position  was  unaf¬ 
fected,  and  the  fall  of  Assyria  (c.606  b.c.)  en¬ 
abled  her  once  more  to  assert  her  independence. 
Nebuchadnezzar  II  besieged  the  city  for  13 
years;  at  the  end  of  that  time  (572  b.c.)  he 
was  forced  to  leave  and  seek  compensation  for 
his  vain  labors  in  Egypt.  But  Tyre  was  no 
doubt  exhausted  by  the  long  siege,  and  her  old 
rival  Sidon  profited  by  the  loss  of  trade  which 
followed,  to  take  up  the  superior  position  in 
the  commercial  world.  The  last  native  ruler  of 
Tyre  was  Ittobaal.  Tyre  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Persians  in  the  reign  of  Cambyses  (c.527 
B.c. ) .  It  still  flourished  in  the  Achsemenian 
period,  sent  large  fleets  as  their  contingents  to 
the  Greek  wars,  and  formed  with  Sidon  and 
Arvad  a  federal  state  having  its  capital  at 
Tripolis. 

It  was  taken  by  Alexander  in  332  b.c.  after  a 
seven  months’  siege,  and  by  Antigonus  17  years 
later,  after  a  siege  of  14  months.  During  the 
Roman  period  it  was  an  important  city  with  a 
famous  university  and  a  dominant  Hellenistic 
type  of  civilization.  During  the  early  centuries 
of  modern  occupation  it  was  again  a  centre 
of  commerce  and  industry.  It  was  captured  by 
the  Crusaders  under  Baldwin  II  in  1124  and 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Christians  till 
1291,  when  it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Malik 
al  Ashraf,  ruler  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  It  has 
never  recovered  its  old  importance.  The  present 
town  (Ar.  Sur)  has  about  6500  inhabitants. 
Consult:  Prutz,  Aus  Phonizien  (Leipzig,  1876)  ; 
Krall,  “Studien  zur  Geschichte  des  alten  Aegyp- 
tens,  iii,  Tyros  und  Sidon,”  in  Sitzungsberichte 
der  kaiserlichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften 
zu  Wien,  vol.  cxvi  (Vienna,  1888)  ;  Friedrich 
Jeremias,  Tyrus  bis  zur  Zeit  N ebukadnezars 
(Leipzig,  1891);  Lucas,  Geschichte  der  Stadt 
Tyros  zur  Zeit  der  Kreuzziige  (Berlin,  1896)  ; 
Hugo  YY  inckler,  Altorientalische  Forschungen 
(Leipzig,  1893-1906)  ;  Victor  Berard,  Les  Phe- 
nioiens  et  VOdyssee  (Paris,  1902-03)  ;  Landau, 
Die  Phonizier  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1903). 

TYRE,  Apollonius  of.  See  Apollonius  of 
Tyre. 

TYRE,  William  of.  See  William  of  Tyre. 

TYREE.  See  Tiree. 

TYRIAN  (tlr'i-an)  PURPLE.  See  Murex; 
Purple  Shell. 

TYRNAU,  or  TIRNAU,  tfir'nou  (Hung., 
Nagy-Szombat ;  Slav.,  Trnava) .  A  town  of 
Hungary,  on  the  river  Trnava,  25  miles  north¬ 
east  of  Pressburg  (Map.:  Austria-Hungary,  E  2). 
It  has  a  cathedral,  dating  from  1389,  and  a 
large  episcopal  palace.  Tyrnau  has  manufac¬ 
tures  of  cloth,  linen,  vinegar,  sugar,  and  malt 
products,  and  has  a  general  trade,  especially  in 
wine.  Pop.,  1900,  13,281;  1910,  14,759,  mostly 
Slovaks  and  Magyars. 

TYROL,  te-rol'.  A  crownland  of  Austria. 
See  Tirol. 

TYROLIENNE,  te'rd'lyen'  (Fr.,  Tyrolese). 
A  Tyrolese  dance,  or  dance  song.  It  is  best 
heard  in  the  Zillerthal,  in  the  Tyrolese  Alps. 
A  characteristic  feature  is  the  Jodler.  See 
Jodeln. 

TYRONE,  ti-ron'  (Ir.,  Tir-owen,  Owen’s 
country ) .  An  inland  county  of  Ulster,  Ireland 
(Map:  Ireland,  D  2).  Area.  1260  square  miles. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Blackwater,  the 
Foyle,  and  the  Mourne.  The  northwestern 
mountains  rise  in  Slieve  Sawel  to  a  height  of 


2236  feet.  Between  Dungannon  and  Stewarts- 
town  there  is  a  small  but  productive  coal  field. 
The  soil  of  the  plain  is  fertile;  the  hilly  dis¬ 
tricts  are  sandy  or  gravelly,  and  devoted  to 
pasturage.  There  are  manufactures  of  linens 
and  coarse  woolens  and  earthenware.  Pop., 
1851,  255,700;  1901,  150,567;  1911,  142,665. 

The  capital  is  Omagh. 

TYRONE.  A  borough  in  Blair  Co.,  Pa.,  15 
miles  northeast  of  Altoona,  on  the  Little  Juniata 
River,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  (Map: 
Pennsylvania,  E  6).  It  has  considerable  com¬ 
mercial  importance,  being  an  outlet  for  the 
Clearfield  coal  fields,  and  is  noted  especially 
for  the  manufacture  of  various  paper  products. 
There  are  also  planing  mills,  and  chemical  and 
candy  factories.  Tyrone  is  an  important  rail¬ 
road  junction  and  has  large  repair  shops.  The 
Birmingham  Female  Seminary  is  3  miles  dis¬ 
tant.  Pop.,  1900,  5847;  1910, '7176. 

TYRONE,  Hugh  O’Neill,  second  Earl  of 
(  ?1540— 1616 ) .  An  Irish  soldier  and  revolu¬ 
tionist.  He  was  the  grandson  of  the  first 
Earl,  his  father,  who  was  illegitimate,  being 
Baron  of  Dungannon.  His  elder  brother  was 
murdered  in  1562,  and  Hugh  became  Baron  of 
Dungannon,  for  precaution  being  sent  to  Eng¬ 
land.  In  1568  he  returned  to  Ireland,  and 
for  some  years  had  difficulty  in  maintaining 
his  position  against  his  kinsmen.  In  1580  he 
commanded  a  troop  of  horse  in  Munster  against 
the  rebel  Earl  of  Desmond,  and  in  1583  was 
commander  of  the  northern  marches.  In  1585 
he  was  allowed  to  style  himself  Earl  of  Tyrone, 
and,  strengthening  his  power  in  1587,  visited 
England  to  petition  for  a  restitution  of  all 
lands  granted  to  his  putative  grandfather  by 
Henry  VIII.  He  was  unsuccessful,  and,  resent¬ 
ing  the  visit  of  commissioners  sent  to  arbitrate 
his  differences  with  his  rival,  Turlough  Luineach, 
he  attacked  the  latter,  but  was  defeated.  He 
was  placed  under  restraint  and  afterwards  par¬ 
doned,  but  he  entered  on  intrigues  to  separate 
Ireland  from  England,  offered  the  crown  of 
Ireland  to  Philip  II  of  Spain,  and  after  a  com¬ 
paratively  successful  campaign,  in  which  he  de¬ 
feated  Sir  John  Norris,  he  killed  his  brother- 
in-law,  Sir  H.  Bagnal,  and  effected  a  truce 
with  the  Earl  of  Essex.  In  1601  he  was  worsted 
by  Lord  Mountjoy,  surrendering  to  him  early  in 
1603.  He  was  soon  after  pardoned.  In  1607, 
again  suspected,  he  fled  to  Brussels,  after¬ 
ward  proceeding  to  Rome,  where  he  lived  on  a 
small  pension  allowed  him  by  the  Pope  and  the 
Spanish  King.  Consult  John  Mitchel,  The  Life 
and  Times  of  Aodh  O’Neill  (New  York,  1868). 

TY'ROSINASE.  See  Enzyme;  Oxidase. 

TYROSINE,  tir'6-sin  or  -sen.  See  Liver. 

TYR'OTOX'ICON  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  rvpos, 
tyros,  cheese  +  roijtKov,  toxikon,  poison ) .  An 
alkaloid  isolated  from  poisonous  cheese,  by  Vic¬ 
tor  C.  Vaughan,  of  Michigan,  in  1885,  and 
named  by  him  in  ignorance  of  the  fact  that 
Kuhn,  of  Leipzig,  had  given  this  name  in  1824 
to  “a  poisonous  principle  formed  in  cheese  by 
putrefaction.”  The  principle  has  been  found 
in  ice  cream  and  cream  puffs,  as  well  as  in 
milk. 

The  symptoms  of  tyrotoxicon  poisoning  are 
vomiting,  diarrhoea,  pain  over  the  stomach, 
coated  tongue,  feeble  and  irregular  pulse,  pale 
and  cyanosed  face.  In  some  cases  the  body 
is  covered  with  spots.  In  others  there  is  marked 
dryness  and  constriction  of  the  throat.  In  all 
there  is  marked  nerve  exhaustion.  The  treat- 


6i8 


TYKWHITT 


TYRRELL 

ment  of  tyrotoxicon  poisoning  consists  in  empty¬ 
ing  and  flushing  the  digestive  tract  and  sup¬ 
porting  the  heart.  ...  . 

TYR/RELL,  George  (1861-1909).  A  British 
Catholic  theologian.  lie  was  born  in  Dublin 
and  studied  there  at  Trinity  College  in  1878, 
but  in  the  following  year  became  a  member  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  church.  Entering  the 
Jesuit  order  in  1880,  he  took  the  required  train¬ 
ing  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1891,  and  after¬ 
ward  was  appointed  an  instructor  in  philosophy 
at  St.  Mary’s  Hall,  Stonyliurst,  England.  In 
1899,  three  "years  after  his  removal  to  London, 
his  sympathy  with  some  tendencies  of  modern 
religious  thought  became  evident  and  prevented 
a  complete  acceptance  of  the  principles  of  the 
order.  Moreover,  his  later  writings  disclosed 
divergences  from  conservative  Catholic  theol¬ 
ogy,  while  his  mysticism  emphasized  the  reli¬ 
gious  life  as  transcending  any  doctrinal  embodi¬ 
ment  of  it.  The  Jesuit  authorities  disapproved 
of  him,  and  finally  one  of  his  privately  printed 
letters  on  religious  subjects,  which  had  been 
translated  and  published  in  a  Milan  periodical, 
occasioned  his  expulsion  from  the  order  in 
February,  1906.  About  a  year  and  a  half 
later,  his  criticism  in  the  London  Times  of  the 
Pope’s  encyclical  against  modernism  was  the 
cause  of  his  minor  excommunication,  with  re¬ 
served  case  at  Rome.  Nevertheless,  although 
deprived  of  his  standing  as  a  priest  and  a 
Jesuit,  Tyrrell  continued  to  maintain  his  liberal 
attitude  ‘and  his  distinction  between  the  ex¬ 
periences  of  personal  religion  and  their  theologi¬ 
cal  interpretation.  In  1908  Cardinal  Mercier 
of  Belgium  attacked  him  in  his  Lenten  pastoral 
as  the"  protagonist  of  modernism,  and  Tyrrell 
replied  the  same  year  in  a  volume  entitled 
Medicemlism.  Since  he  never  retracted  and  his 
reserved  case  was  not  decided,  he  died  virtually 
outside  the  pale  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
His  other  publications  include:  Nova  et  Vetera: 
Informal  Meditations  (1897;  3d  ed.,  1900); 
Hard  Sayings  (1898);  External  Religion:  Its 
Use  and  Abuse  (1899);  Oil  and  Wine  (1902; 
new  ed.,  1907)  ;  Lex  Orandi  (1903)  ;  Lex 
Credendi  (1906)  ;  Through  Scylla  and  Charyb- 
dis  (1907),  being  the  narrative  of  his  religious 
development;  and  Christianity  at  the  Cross- 
Roads  (1909).  Consult  Hakluyt  Egerton, 
Father  Tyrrell’s  Modernism  (London,  1909), 
and  M.  D.  Petre,  Autobiography  and  Life  of 
George  Tyrrell  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1912). 

TYRRELL,  James  Williams  (1863-  ). 

A  Canadian  civil  engineer,  born  at  Weston, 
Ont.  He  graduated  in  civil  engineering  at 
Toronto  University  in  1889,  but  before  this  date 
had  had  varied  experience.  In  1893  he  went 
with  his  brother,  Joseph  Burr  Tyrrell  (q.v. ), 
as  topographer  and  interpreter  on  an  expedition 
from  Lake  Athabasca  through  the  Barren  Lands 
to  Chesterfield  Inlet;  and  in  1900,  at  the  re¬ 
quest  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  Ottawa, 
he  took  charge  of  an  exploratory  survey  of 
the  region  between  Great  Slave  Lake  and  Hud¬ 
son  Bay,  traveling  nearly  5000  miles  by  canoe 
and  dog  sled.  He  was  elected  president  of  the 
Ontario  Land  Surveyors’  Association  in  1905. 
He  published:  Across  the  Subarctics  of  Canada 
(1897;  3d  ed.,  1908);  Report  on  the  Great 
Slave  Lake-Hudson  Bay  Expedition  of  1900. 

TYRRELL,  Joseph  Burr  (1858-  ).  A 

Canadian  geologist  and  mining  engineer.  He 
was  born  at  Weston,  Ont.,  and  graduated  at 
Toronto  University  in  1880.  Appointed  (1881) 


an  explorer  on  the  Canadian  geological  survey 
staff,  he  took  part,  between  1883  and  1892,  in 
expeditions  in  Manitoba  and  the  Northwest, 
and  in  1893-94  made  notable  journeys,  largely 
through  the  unexplored  north  and  northwest 
country,  traveling  over  6000  miles.  (See  Tyr¬ 
rell,  James  Williams.)  In  1898-1906  he  was 
a  mining  engineer  in  Dawson  City,  next  remov¬ 
ing  to  Toronto.  In  1896  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  awarded  him  the  Back  grant,  and  he 
was  twice  elected  president  of  the  Canadian 
Institute  (1910,  1911).  He  wrote  David 

Thompson,  Explorer  (1910),  and  edited  Samuel 
Hearne’s  A  Journey  from  PHnce  of  Wales’s 
Fort  in  Hudson  Bay  to  the  Northern  Ocean,  in 
the  Years  1769-72  (1911). 

TYRRELL,  Robert  Yelverton  (1844-1914). 
An  Irish  classical  scholar,  born  at  Ballingarry, 
County  Tipperary,  and  educated  at  Trinity  Col¬ 
lege,  Dublin.  He  was  appointed  fellow  of 
Trinity  College  in  1868,  was  made  professor 
of  Latin  in  1871,  and  served  as  regius  professor 
of  Greek  (1880-98),  as  professor  of  ancient 
history  (1900-04),  and  then  as  registrar.  He 
was  a"  frequent  contributor  to  English  reviews, 
and  edited  and  translated  many  classical  works. 
Tyrrell  received  honorary  degrees  from  several 
of  the  great  universities.  The  most  important 
of  his  works  are:  an  edition,  with  Purser,^  o‘f 
the  Correspondence  of  Cicero  (7  vols.,  1879— 
1900);  Bacchce  of  Euripides  (2d  ed.,  1897); 
Troades  (2d  ed.,  1884);  Miles  Gloriosus  of 
Plautus  (2d  ed.,  1886);  Latin  Poetry  (1893); 
Sophocles  (1897);  Anthology  of  Latin  Poetry 
(1901);  Echoes  of  Kottabos  (1906),  with  Sir 
E.  Sullivan;  Essays  on  Greek  Literature  (1909). 

TYRRHENIAN  SEA  (Lat.  Tyrrhenum 
mare).  That  part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
which  is  inclosed  between  the  islands  of  Corsica 
and  Sardinia  on  the  west,  Sicily  on  the  south, 
and  the  Italian  peninsula  on  the  east  (Map: 
Italv,  C,  D  4) . 

TYRTAE'US  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Tvpraios,  Tit¬ 
rates,  Tyrtaios)  (fl.  c.63()  b.c.).  A  Greek  lyric 
poet,  famous  for  his  political  elegies  and  march¬ 
ing  songs.  According  to  Attic  tradition,  he  was 
a  lame  schoolmaster  of  Aphidnte,  in  Attica, 
of  low  birth,  whom  the  Athenians,  ignorant  of 
his  lyric  power  and  jealous  of  the  Lacedae¬ 
monians,  sent  to  Sparta  when  the  Lacedae¬ 
monians,  at  the  advice  of  the  Delphic  Apollo, 
asked  them  for  assistance  against  the  Messenians. 
The  tradition,  however,  is  only  the  invention 
of  a  late  time.  Tyrtaeus  was  no  doubt  a  Spar¬ 
tan,  or  an  Ionian  who  had  moved  to  Sparta. 
By  his  poems  he  aroused  the  Spartans  and  led 
them  to  victory  over  their  foes.  The  fragments 
of  his  work  are  published  by  Bergk,  Poetce 
Lyrici  Grceci,  vol.  ii  (5th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914). 
See  Embaterion. 

TYRWHITT,  tir'it,  Richard  St.  John  ( 1827- 
95).  An  English  writer  on  art.  He  graduated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1849,  and  was  a 
tutor  from  1852  to  1856.  Ordained  in  the  Eng¬ 
lish  church,  he  was  vicar  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen 
at  Oxford  from  1858  to  1872.  Tyrwhitt  had  an 
uncommon  artistic  insight  and  exhibited  several 
water  colors  that  showed  rare  promise.  But 
a  lack  of  technical  training  led  him  to  forego 
original  painting  for  the  interpretation  of  the 
work  of  others."  Among  his  works  are:  Con¬ 
cerning  Clerical  Powers  and  Duties  (1861)  ; 
Christian  Art  and  Symbolism,  with  Hints  on 
the  Study  of  Landscape  (1872)  ;  The  Art  Teach¬ 
ing  of  the  Primitive  Church  (1874);  Greek 


TYRWHITT 


TZE-HSI 


and  Gothic:  Progress  and  Decay  in  the  Three 
Arts  of  Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting 
(1881);  An  Amateur  Art  Book:  Lectures 
(1886).  He  also  published  a  novel  and  a  vol¬ 
ume  of  verse  called  Free  Field  Lyrics  (1888). 

TYRWHITT,  Thomas  (1730—86).  An  Eng¬ 
lish  scholar,  born  in  London.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  graduated  in  1750.  Five  years  later  he 
was  elected  fellow  of  Merton,  and  called  to  the 
bar  at  the  Middle  Temple;  but  he  never 
practiced  law.  From  1756  to  1762  he  was 
Deputy  Secretary  of  War,  and  from  1762  to 
1768  clerk  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Both 
of  these  positions  he  resigned,  for  they  inter¬ 
fered  with  his  studies.  Tyrwhitt  is  now  best 
known  for  his  edition  of  Chaucer’s  Canterbury 
Tales  (4  vols.,  1775;  5th  vol.,  1778).  He  also 
punctured  (1778  and  1782)  the  bubble  of  the 
Rowley  forgeries.  His  classical  scholarship  is 
represented  by  sundry  dissertations  on,  and  edi¬ 
tions  of,  ancient  authors. 

TYSON,  George  E.  (1829-1906).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  whaler  and  Arctic  explorer,  born  in  New 
Jersey.  When  already  a  whaler  of  extended 
experience,  Tyson  sailed  as  ice  master  of  the 
Polaris  American  polar  expedition  under  Hall 
ip  1871.  When  the  Polaris  was  shipwrecked  in 
Smith  Sound,  Tyson  and  18  of  the  crew  were 
left  adrift  on  the  ice  pack.  Assuming  command 
of  the  party,  by  his  resourcefulness  and  seaman¬ 
ship  he  kept  the  men  together  and  maintained 
their  morale  under  desperate  circumstances. 
They  were  rescued  by  the  sealer  Tigress,  April 
30,  1873,  off  the  coast  of  Labrador  after  a  drift 
of  about  1800  miles  during  196  days.  An  ac¬ 
count  of  the  drift  is  found  in  Blake,  Arctic  Ex¬ 
periences  Containing  Capt.  George  E.  Tyson’s 
Wonderful  Drift  on  the  Ice-Floe  (New  York, 
1874). 

TYSON,  James  (1841—  ).  An  American 

physician  and  pathologist,  born  in  Philadelphia. 
At  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
graduated  M.D.  in  1863,  he  was  professor  of 
pathology  and  morbid  anatomy  from  1876  to 
1889,  dean  of  the  medical  faculty  from  1888 
to  1892,  and  professor  of  the  practice  of  medi¬ 
cine  from  1899  till  his  retirement  in  1910,  be¬ 
coming  well  known  especially  through  his  earlier 
work  in  the  cell  theory  and  Bright’s  disease. 
He  held  the  presidency  of  the  Association  of 
American  Physicians  (1907-08)  and  of  the 
College  of  Physicians,  Philadelphia  (1907-10). 
Among  his  writings  are:  The  Cell  Doctrine 
(1870;  2d  ed.,  1878);  Introduction  to  Normal 
Histology  (1873);  Guide  to  the  Practical  Ex¬ 
amination  of  Urine  (1875;  10th  ed.,  1902); 
Treatise  on  Bright’s  Disease  and  Diabetes 
(1881;  2d  ed.,  1904)  ;  Manual  of  Physical  Diag¬ 
nosis  (1891;  4th  ed.,  1901);  The  Practice  of 
Medicine,  a  Textbook  (1896;  6th  ed.,  rev.  and 
rewritten,  1913)  ;  Selected  Addresses  on  Sub¬ 
jects  Relating  to  Biography,  Travel,  etc.  (1914). 

TYTLER,  tif/ler,  Alexander  Fraser  ( 1747— 
1813).  A  Scotch  historical  writer,  and  a  judge 
of  the  Court  of  Session  in  Scotland  under  the 
title  of  Lord  Woodhouselee.  He  was  born  in 
Edinburgh,  where  he  was  educated.  In  1770 
he  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar.  In  1780  he 
became  professor  of  history  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh;  in  1790,  judge  advocate  of  Scot¬ 
land;  and  in  1802  he  was  raised  to  the  bench 
of  the  Court  of  Session.  His  writings  include 
a  biography  of  Henry  Home,  Lord  Karnes 
(1807);  The  Decisions  of  the  Court  of  Session 
Vol.  XXII.— 40 


(  1778);  and  the  work  by  which  he  was  best 
remembered,  Elements  of  General  Historu 
(1801). 

TYTLER,  Patrick  Fraser  (1791-1849).  A 
Scotch  historical  writer,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
the  fourth  son  of  Alexander  Fraser  Tytler, 
Lord  Woodhouselee.  He  was  educated  in  Edin¬ 
burgh  and  in  England,  and  was  called  to  the 
Scottish  bar  in  1813.  Three  years  later  he  was 
appointed  King’s  counsel,  but  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  the  production  of  various  literary  and 
historical  works,  the  most  valuable  of  which 
is  his  History  of  Scotland  (1828—43),  beginning 
at  the  accession  of  Alexander  III  and  terminat¬ 
ing  at  the  union  of  the  crowns — a  book  of  more 
original  research  than  any  preceding  work  on 
the  same  subject.  His  writings  also  include 
Life  of  James  Crichton  of  Cluny,  commonly 
called  the  Admirable  Crichton  (1819)  ;  Life  and 
Writings  of  Sir  Thomas  Craig  of  Riccarton 
(1823)  ;  Life  of  John  Wicliff  (1826)  ;  Lives  of 
Scottish  Worthies  (1831-33);  Historical  View 
of  the  Progress  of  Discovery  on  the  More  North¬ 
ern  Coasts  of  America  (1832)  ;  Life  of  Sir  Wal¬ 
ter  Raleigh  (1833);  Life  of  King  Henry  VIII 
(  1837);  and  England  under  the  Reigns  of  Ed¬ 
ward  VI  and  Mary  (1839),  with  the  contempo¬ 
rary  history  of  Europe.  In  consideration  of 
his  merits  as  an  historian,  Sir  Robert  Peel’s 
government  conferred  on  him  a  pension  of  £200 
a  year.  Consult  J.  W.  Burgon,  Life  of  Patrick 
Fraser  Tytler  (London,  1859). 

TYUMEN,  tybo-man'y’.  A  town  in  Siberia. 
See  Tiumen. 

TZANA,  tsa'na,  TANA,  or  DEMBEA.  A 

lake  in  Abyssinia,  situated  between  11°  35' 
and  12°  16'  north  latitude,  at  a  height  of  5800 
feet,  and  occupying  an  area  of  1160  square 
miles  (Map:  Egypt,  D  5).  It  is  surrounded  by 
volcanic  mountains,  receives  over  30  affluents, 
and  discharges  its  waters  southward  through  the 
Blue  Nile.  It  contains  a  number  of  inhabited 
islets. 

TZAR.  See  Czar. 

TZE-AN  (1837-81).  Senior  wife  of  Hien- 
fung  (q.v. ),  Emperor  of  China,  and  known  as 
the  Empress  of  the  Eastern  Palace,  to  distin¬ 
guish  her  from  Tze-hsi  (q.v.),  the  Empress  of 
the  Western  Palace,  familiar  in  history  as  the 
Great  Empress  Dowager.  Although  Tze-an  was 
the  one  legal  wife  of  Hien-fung  and  in  rank 
above  the  Western  Empress,  yet  she  was  easily 
dominated  by  the  more  masterful  Tze-hsi,  to 
whose  plans  and  ambitions,  while  both  were 
Empresses  Dowager,  she  offered  no  obstacles. 
She  is  remembered  mainly  because  of  her  asso¬ 
ciation  with  Tze-hsi. 

TZE-HSI,  TZU-HI,  or  TZI-HI,  tze-he  (1835- 
1908).  The  most  famous  woman  in  Chinese 
history,  known  as  the  Great  Empress  Dowager, 
and  virtually  the  ruler  of  China  for  almost  half 
a  century.  She  was  born  in  Peking  of  a  Manchu 
family  named  Hweicheng,  and  belonged  to  the 
historic  Nara  or  Nala  clan,  hence  her  name 
of  Yehonala,  which  she  bore  when  a  child.  In 
her  sixteenth  year  she  was  selected  for  the  Im¬ 
perial  harem  of  the  Emperor  Hien-fung  (q.v.). 
She  started  as  a  kmei-jen,  or  concubine  of  the 
fifth  rank.  Because  of  her  beauty  and  talents 
she  was  promoted  to  the  fourth  rank  in  1854; 
in  1856  she  was  advanced  to  the  third  rank, 
and  by  1858  she  was  second  only  to  the  first 
concubine  Tze-an  (q.v.),  who  became  Imperial 
consort  on  the  death  of  Hien-fung's  legal  wife. 
Practically  uneducated  when  she  entered  the 


TZE-HSI 


620  TZSCHIRNER 


palace,  she  applied  herself  diligently  to  a  thor¬ 
ough  course  in  Chinese  history,  calligraphy,  and 
classics,  and  became  known  as  a  fine  scholar 
of  the  old  school.  On  April  27,  185G,  she  gave 
birth  to  a  son,  afterward  the  Emperor  Tung- 
chih  (q.v.)  ;  this  greatly  increased  her  influence. 
She  was  now  known  as  the  Empress  of  the 
Western  Palace.  It  was  her  almost  unerring 
judgment  of  people  and  events  which  enabled 
her  eventually  to  reach  absolute  power.  On 
the  death  of  Hien-fung  she  frustrated  a  con¬ 
spiracy  to  put  her  out  of  the  way,  and  together 
with  Tze-an  (q.v.),  the  Empress  of  the  East¬ 
ern  Palace,  and  Prince  Kung  she  secured  the 
overthrow  of  her  enemies.  She  was  then  2G 
years  of  age. 

From  that  time  she  was  the  real  ruler  of 
China,  remaining  so  during  the  reigns  of  Tung- 
chih  (1861-75)  and  Kwang-su  (q.v.),  to  whom 
she  married  her  favorite  niece,  also  called  Ye- 
honala.  She  had  the  political  wisdom  to  se¬ 
lect  Li  Hung  Chang  (q.v.)  as  her  chief  adviser, 
and  later  Li’s  prot6g6,  Yuan  Shih-kai  (q.v.). 
These  two  men,  together  with  Prince  Kung  and 
Prince  Ching,  helped  her  to  direct  her  foreign 
policies.  She  was  able  to  keep  her  country 
in  fairly  good  standing  among  the  nations  of 
the  world  until  the  Chino- Japanese  War  (1894- 
95 )  revealed  the  weakness  of  China  and  the 
inability  of  the  Chinese  government  to  prevent 
territorial  aggression.  The  result  is  found  in 
the*  most  critical  period  of  Chinese  history, 
from  1895  to  1902.  First  came  the  seizures, 
leases,  and  concessions  of  the  Powers,  which 
Tze-lisi  was  powerless  to  withstand.  Then 
came  the  short-lived  era  of  reform  of  the 

Emperor  Kwang-su  in  1908,  which  Tze-hsi  be¬ 
lieved  to  be  premature  and  therefore  crushed, 
through  her  agents  Jung-lu  and  Yuan  Shih- 
kai.  But  she  was  not  able  to  prevent  the 

Boxer  Rebellion,  and  although  she  at  first  dis¬ 

approved  of  it,  she  later  gave  the  Boxers  en¬ 
couragement  and  Imperial  support.  The  tragic 
results  of  the  Rebellion  having  taught  Tze-hsi 
that  the  old  order  in  China  must  be  eradicated, 
from  1901  to  1908  she  distinctly  encouraged 

the  modernizing  of  China,  and  also  was  in 
favor  of  constitutional  government,  which  she 
promised  should  be  granted  in  1916.  It  was 
largely  because  of  her  determined  stand  that 
China*  threw  off  the  opium  curse,  although  Tze- 
hsi  herself  indulged  occasionally.  In  1908,  just 
before  her  death,  she  designated  Pu-yi  (Hsuan- 
tung,  q.v. ) ,  son  of  her  nephew,  Prince  Chun 
(Tsai-feng,  q.v.),  as  the  next  Emperor.  She 
died  Nov.  15,  1908,  one  day  after  the  death  of 
Kwang-su. 

Tze-hsi  was  ambitious  and  arbitrary,  but,  like 
Queen  Elizabeth  of  England,  was  able  to  sur¬ 
round  herself  with  good  advisers  and  the  ablest 
of  her  subjects.  Remarkably  patriotic,  she 
never  spared  herself  the  grinding  toil  necessary 
to  rule  the  Chinese  world.  Her  character  has 
been  much  maligned,  especially  by  her  enemies 
in  south  China,  and  as  much  overpraised  by 
her  admirers.  She  is  one  of  the  few  women 


who  have  profoundly  influenced  the  world’s 
history. 

Consult:  K.  A.  Carl,  With  the  Empress  Dow¬ 
ager  (New  York,  1905);  Bland  and  Backhouse, 
China  under  the  Empress  Dowager  (Philadel¬ 
phia,  1910)  ;  P.  W.  Sergeant,  The  Great  Em¬ 
press  Dowager  (New  York,  1911)  ;  Paul  Clem¬ 
ents,  The  Boxer  Rebellion  (ib.,  1915).  See 

China,  Modem  History. 

TZENTAL,  tsen'tiil.  An  ancient  cultured 
nation  of  Mayan  stock,  occupying  a  large  part 
of  the  states  of  Tabasco  and  northern  Chiapas, 
in  Mexico.  Their  traditional  culture  hero  was 
Votan,  who  was  said  to  have  built  the  great 
ruins  at  Palenque  (q.v.),  in  Chiapas,  and  their 
general  civilization  resembled  that  of  the  Maya 
and  other  cognate  tribes.  They  still  constitute 
an  important  part  of  the  population  of  their 
ancient  territory. 

TZETZES,  tsSt'sez,  Johannes  (Lat.,  from 
Gk.  T uavvys  Tfer^s)  (twelfth  century  a.d.). 
A  Byzantine  author  and  grammarian,  who  de¬ 
voted  himself  to  classical  Greek  literature.  He 
was  author  of  many  works,  both  prose  and 
verse,  which  have  value  as  sources  of  classical 
information  not  available  elsewhere.  His  prin¬ 
cipal  writings  are  his  poems  Iliaca,  which  in¬ 
cluded  the  Ante-Hom  erica,  Homerica,  and  Post- 
Homerica,  and  dealt  with  the  entire  Trojan 
tradition,  and  are  best  edited  by  Bekker  (Ber¬ 
lin,  1816).  His  Chiliades  is  a  didactic  poem 
in  12,674  verses,  divided  into  sixty  chapters, 
treating  of  mythological,  literary,  and  histori¬ 
cal  miscellanies.  This  huge  work  was  provided 
by  its  author  with  explanatory  scholia;  it  was 
edited  by  Kiessling  (Leipzig,  1826).  Other 
works  are:  a  collection  of  107  letters,  his  scholia 
to  Hesiod,  Aristophanes,  Lycophron’s  Alexandra, 
Oppian’s  Halieutica,  and  some  minor  works. 
His  elder  brother,  Isaak  Tzetzes,  was  probably 
associated  with  him  in  preparing  certain  com¬ 
mentaries,  and  devoted  himself  particularly 
to  the  study  of  metric.  Consult:  K.  Krum- 
bracher,  Geschichte  der  byzantinischen  Littera- 
tur  (2d  ed.,  Munich,  1897)  ;  H.  Spelthahn,  Stu- 
dien  zu  den  Chiliades  des  Johannes  Tzetzes  (ib., 
1904). 

TZINTZUNZAN,  chi'choon-chan.  A  town 
of  the  State  of  Michoac&n,  Mexico,  28  miles  west 
of  Morelia,  on  Lake  Patzcuaro.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  church  containing  a  painting  supposed 
to  be  an  Entombment,  by  Titian,  which  is  wor¬ 
shiped  by  the  people. 

TZQNECA,  tsb-na'ka.  See  Tsonekan. 

TZSCHIRNER,  cher'ner,  Heinrich  Gottlieb 
(1778-1828).  A  German  Protestant  theologian. 
He  was  born  at  Mittweida,  Saxony;  studied 
theology  at  Leipzig;  became  professor  of  theol¬ 
ogy  at  Wittenberg  in  1805;  at  Leipzig  in  1809; 
and  prebendary  of  Meissen  in  1818.  He  pub¬ 
lished  Protestantismus  und  Katholicismus  aus 
dem  Standpunkt  der  Politik  betraehtet  (1822; 
4th  ed.,  1824);  Das  Reaktions system  (1824); 
and  Der  Fall  des  Heidentums  (ed.  by  Niedner, 
18291.  Consult  his  Life  by  J.  Goldhorn  (Leip¬ 
zig,  1828)  and  K.  H.  Politz  (ib.,  1828). 


u 


UThe  twenty-first  letter  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish  alphabet.  The  Phoenician  al¬ 
phabet  ended  with  t  (q.v. )  and  u 
was  the  first  of  the  letters  developed 
in  Greek  to  supply  the  deficiency 
of  the  Phoenician.  (For  the  early 
history  of  this  letter,  see  Alphabet.)  Origi¬ 
nally  U  was  the  uncial  and  cursive  form,  and  V 
the  capital  form.  The  two  were  differentiated 
about  the  fifteenth  century  a.d.,  when  V  was 
limited  to  representing  the  consonant  sound. 
Before  the  fifteenth  century  small  v  and  u  were 
used  interchangeably.  In  English  u  represents 
a  variety  of  sounds  besides  its  original  value, 
which  is  that  of  a  rounded  back  vowel,  the  u  in 
rude.  It  stands  also  for  the  sound  yoo,  as  ed¬ 
ucate,  mule,  value.  It  is  pronounced  like  56 
in  full,  pull,  push ;  u  in  Turk,  turnip,  urge; 
u  (unrounded)  in  tub,  up,  muff.  A  u  is  al¬ 
ways  written  after  q  (q.v.).  In  this  case  it 
has  the  consonantal  value  of  10,  which  it  has  also 
often  after  other  consonants,  especially  g  and  s, 
as  in  quick,  quartz,  quote;  language,  anguish; 
suave,  dissuade.  It  is  silent  in  guard,  tongue, 
build,  etc. 

The  sources  of  u  are  as  follows:  AS.  u,  as  nut, 
from  hnutu ;  AS.  u,  as  us  from  iis,  but  from 
butan,  up  from  up;  AS.  6,  as  must  from  moste. 

In  chemistry  U  stands  for  uranium.  See 
Phonetics.  Consult:  Philippe  Berger,  Histoire 
de  I’ecriture  dans  V antiquity  (2d  ed.,  Paris, 
1802)  ;  W.  Rippmann,  Elements  of  Phonetics 
(London,  1910)  ;  Maurice  Prou,  Manuel  de  pdl6- 
ographie  latine  et  franchise  (3d  ed.,  Paris, 
1910)  ;  Henry  Sweet,  The  Sounds  of  English 
(Oxford,  1908)  ;  Sir  E.  M.  Thompson,  Introduc¬ 
tion  to  Greek  and  Latin  Paleography  (ib.,  1912). 
UAKARI,  wa-ka're.  See  Ouakari. 
UARAYCU,  wa-rlffvoo.  A  peculiar  tribe  on 
the  lower  Jurua  and  Jutay  rivers,  and  the  ad¬ 
jacent  portion  of  the  Amazon,  western  Brazil. 
They  whip  their  youths,  and  suspend  maidens 
over  a  smoking  fire,  as  tests  of  fortitude.  Girls 
are  betrothed  in  childhood,  and  the  young  man 
must  hunt  game  for  his  bride  long  before  he 
is  permitted  to  marry  her.  They  burn  their 
dead  and  bury  the  ashes  in  their  huts. 

TJARDA,  oo-iir'da.  The  second  of  the  Egyp¬ 
tian  historical  novels  by  Georg  Ebers  (1877). 
The  action  takes  place  in  Egypt  during  the 
reign  of  Rameses  II. 

UAUPE,  wa'oo-pa'.  An  extensive  group  of 
tribes,  probably  remotely  of  Arawakan  stock 
(q.v.),  residing  on  the  Uaupes  River,  a  head 
stream  of  the  Rio  Negro,  in  southeastern  Col¬ 
ombia.  They  cultivate  corn,  tobacco,  manioc, 


cane,  and  bananas,  are  experts  with  the  bow, 
lance,  and  blowgun,  and  are  great  fishermen. 
They  live  in  large  communal  houses,  sometimes 
nearly  100  feet  square,  with  a  roof  nearly  40 
feet  high  supported  by  columns  hewn  from 
tree  trunks.  They  make  pottery  and  baskets  and 
use  canoes  hollowed  out  from  logs.  The  men 
wear  the  G-string,  feather  headdresses,  and 
amulets.  The  women  go  naked.  Those  of  the 
same  clan  are  not  allowed  to  intermarry.  Each 
communal  household  has  its  hereditary  chief. 
In  physique  they  are  tall,  stout,  and  well  made. 
They  are  reputed  to  be  very  industrious. 

UAUPES,  wa'oo-pas'.  A  large  tributary  of 
the  Rfo  Negro,  considered  by  some  geographers 
as  the  true  head  stream  of  that  river  ( Map : 
Brazil,  C  3 ) .  It  rises  in  the  Eastern  Cordillera 
of  the  Colombian  Andes,  descends  in  falls  and 
rapids,  and  flows  southeastward  to  its  conflu¬ 
ence  with  the  main  stream  in  northwest  Brazil. 
It  is  over  700  miles  long,  and  navigable  in  its 
lower  course. 

UBALDINI,  oo'bal-de'ng,  Petruccio  ( ?1524- 
?1600).  An  Italian  illuminator  and  scholar  of 
Tuscan  birth.  He  went  to  England  in  1545,  and 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI  fought  in  the  Scot¬ 
tish  wars.  At  this  period  of  his  life  he  wrote 
Relatione  delle  cose  del  regno  d ’  Inghilterra 
(1551),  wherein  he  records  his  experiences  of 
English  manners  and  institutions.  In  1580  he 
visited  Ireland  and  compiled  an  account  of  the 
unsuccessful  Spanish-Italian  invasion  of  Kerry. 
His  Vita  di  Karlo  Magno  Imperatore  (1581) 
was  the  first  Italian  book  printed  in  England. 

UBANGI,  u-b  an'gi.  A  river  of  Central  Africa, 
the  largest  northern  tributary  of  the  Congo 
( Map :  Congo,  C  2 ) .  It  is  known  also  as  the 
Mobangi  (near  its  mouth),  the  Dua  (19°  to 
20°  E.),  the  Koyu  (21°  to  22°  E.),  and  the 
Makua  and  Welle  (in  its  upper  course).  The 
river  rises  in  the  extreme  northeastern  corner 
of  Belgian  Congo,  not  far  from  the  Nile,  and 
flows  westward,  then  southward  just  above  the 
Zongo  rapids,  and  finally  joins  the  Congo  near 
the  equator  after  a  course  of  about  1500  miles. 
From  its  mouth  to  its  confluence  with  the 
Mbomu  at  Yakoma,  the  Ubangi  forms  the 
boundary  between  French  Equatorial  Africa  and 
the  Belgian  Congo.  That  part  of  the  river 
known  as  the  Welle  was  first  discovered  by 
Schweinfurth  in  1870;  some  10  years  later 
Junker  explored  the  Makua;  in  1884  Hanssens 
discovered  the  mouth  of  the  Mobangi;  in  1885- 
86  Grenfell  went  up  as  far  as  the  Zongo  rapids, 
and  within  half  a  dozen  years  the  several  parts 
of  the  river  already  discovered  were  identified 


UBASTET 


UCCELLO 


as  the  Ubangi.  In  great  part  the  river  flows 
through  a  populous  country.  Ubangi  is  also 
the  name  of  a  district  in  the  northwestern  part 
of  Belgian  Congo. 

UBASTET,  oo-bas'tet.  An  Egyptian  goddess, 
called  also  Paslit  or  Pakht  and,  from  the  Greek 
form  of  the  name  of  the  city  where  she  was 
especially  worshiped,  Bubastis  or  Bast.  She  \\  as 
the  wife  of  Ptah  (see  Memphis),  and  was  identi¬ 
fied  by  the  Greeks  with  Artemis  (see  Diana). 
Her  son  was  Turn,  the  solar  deity  of  the  west¬ 
ern  horizon.  Beside  her  main  seat  of  worship 
at  Bubastis  (q.v.)‘  she  was  honored  at  Thebes 
(q.v. )  and  together  writh  Ptah,  at  Memphis. 
Ubastet  is  usually  represented  as  a  woman  with 
a  cat’s  head;  in  earlier  monuments  she  has  the 
head  of  a  lion.  Her  annual  festival,  held  at 
Bubastis,  was  characterized  by  revelry  with 
phallic  accompaniments  implying  a  fertility 
concept  in  the  nature  of  the  goddess.  Her  cult 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  ancient,  but  from 
the  reign  of  Bameses  III  (q.v.),  in  the  thirteenth 
century  b.c.,  it  became  one  of  the  most  im¬ 
portant  in  Egypt.  See  Bubastis,  and  illus¬ 
tration  of  Pakht  in  Plate  of  Egyptian  Deities 
in  the  article  Egypt. 

tJBEDA,  oo-Ba-Da.  A  Spanish  town  of  the 
Province  of  Jaen,  in  Andalusia,  in  the  midst 
of  the  fertile  Loma  de  Ubeda.  It  is  74  miles 
east  of  Cordova  (Map:  Spain,  D  3).  The  coun¬ 
try  abounds  in  vineyards,  olive  plantations,  and 
pasturages  devoted  especially  to  the  rearing  of 
horses.  The  town  contains  a  castle  with  more 
than  20  towers,  the  sixteenth-century  Church 
of  San  Salvador,  and  the  Gothic  San  Pablo  and 
Corinthian  San  Nicolas  of  lesser  note,  together 
with  the  Palacio  de  las  Cadenas  (in  which  aie 
the  municipal  offices),  and  the  edifice  of  the 
Coleffio  de  Escolapios.  The  streets  are  broad 
and  well  paved  and  with  the  plazas  well  kept. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  pottery,  leather, 
soap,  and  woolens.  An  important  fair  is  held 
annually.  Pop.,  1900,  19,395;  1910,  22,341. 

UBERTI,  oo-ber'te,  Fazio  degli  (born  not 
later  than  1310,  died  not  earlier  than  1368). 
An  Italian  poet,  born  in  Pisa.  .  A  Ghibellme 
in  politics,  he  lived  most  of  his  life  as  an 
exile  at  the  courts  of  the  Visconti  (Milan) 
and  the  Scaligeri  (Verona).  His  most  am¬ 
bitious  work,  the  Dittamondo  (i.e.,  oicta 
mundi,  or  things  worthy  of  note  in  the  world ) , 
a  didactic  poem  in  terza.  rima  ( q.v. ) ,  is  note¬ 
worthy  chiefly  because  in  its  methods  it  imitates 
the  Divina  Corn-media.  Like  Dante,  converted 
to  righteousness  in  the  middle  of  the  path  of 
life,  Fazio  feigns  himself  guided  on  a  fan¬ 
tastic  journey  by  the  ancient  geographer  Solmus, 
from  whose  work  and  that  of  Pliny  he  borrows 
largely.  He  traverses  nearly  all  the  known 
world  save  Asia,  narrating  fables,  traditions, 
legends,  and  various  curiosities  of  Mediaeval 
erudition.  Save  for  a  description  of  Pome  the 
work  is  artistically  barren.  Some  of  his  poli¬ 
tical  satires,  however,  are  spirited,  and  his  love 
lvrics,  with  their  reminiscences  of  the  stil  nuovo 
and  even  the  Sicilian  school,  and  with  their 
Yielding  to  Petrarchian  influence,  possess  be¬ 
sides  liveliness  of  fancy  and  some  elegance  of 
style.  Consult:  Dittamondo  (Milan,  1826)  ;  B. 
Benier  Le  liriche  edite  e  inedit e  di  F.  d.  U. 
(Florence,  1883)  ;  Pellizzari,  T1  Dittamondo  e 
la  D.  Commedia  (Pisa,  1905)  ;  Whitmoie,  Fazio 
dejrli  Uberti  as  a  Lyric  Poet,”  in  Romanic  Re¬ 
view  (New  York,  1914). 

U'BIQUIST  (from  Lat.  ubique,  everywhere). 


A  plant  which  grows  in  practically  all  habitats. 
The  common  dandelion,  which  grows  naturally 
in  light  or  shaded,  moist  or  dry  conditions,  may 
be  regarded  as  a  typical  example.  1  he  term 
cosmopolite  refers  to  existence  in  all  climates 
rather  than  all  habitats. 

UBIQ'UITY  (from  Lat.  ubique ,  everywhere, 
from  ubi,  where) .  A  term  applied  in  theology 
to  the  doctrine  that  the  Lord’s  body,  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  its  personal  union  with  the  divine, 
by  a  “communication  of  properties,  is  every¬ 
where  present.  This  use  of  the  word  has  its 
origin  in  the  teachings  of  Luther,  who,  to  de¬ 
fend  the  real  presence  of  the  entire  Christ  in 
the  elements  of  the  Lord’s  Supper,  taught  that 
Christ’s  body  could  be  everywhere,  although 
he  called  this  presence  “illoeal.”  Consult  lit¬ 
erature  under  Luther. 

UCAYALI,  oo'ki-a'le.  A  large  river  of  Peru 
( Map :  Peru,  C  5 ) ,  one  of  the  main  headstream  s 
of  the  Amazon.  From  length  and  volume  it 
should  be  considered  as  the  true  upper  course 
of  that  river.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Apurimac  (q.v.),  or  Tambo,  and  the  Quil- 
1  aba  mb  a  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes  be¬ 
tween  the  departments  of  Junm  and  Cuzco,  and 
flows  northward  in  a  winding  course  till  it 
joins  the  Marahon  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Peru  to  form  the  Amazon.  The  length  of  the 
Ucayali  proper  is  about  1000  miles,  and  with 
the  Apurimac  the  length  is  nearly  1500  miles. 
Some  of  their  sources  are  near  Lake  Titicaca, 
while  that  of  the  Mantaro,  a  tributary  of  the 
Apurimac,  is  in  Lake  Chinchaycocha  or  Junm 
(q  v  )  within  100  miles  of  Lima,  near  the  Pa¬ 
cific  coast,  and  over  13,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
So  rapid  is  their  flow  that  at  their  confluence 
the  Ucayali  proper  is  less  than  1000  feet  above 
sea  level.  Its  later  course  through  the  densely 
forested  montano  is  sluggish,  falling  only  500 
feet  in  nearly  1000  miles.  Its  banks  are  here 
very  low,  and  it  divides  repeatedly  into  side 
channels,  while  large  adjacent  areas  are  periodi¬ 
cally  submerged.  The  Ucayali  is  navigable  for 
large  vessels,  maintaining  a  depth  of  40  to  i  0 
feet  for  over  600  miles.  Steamers  can  also  as- 
cend  the  Pachitea,  the  principal  tributary  be¬ 
low  the  confluence  of  the  headstreams,  over  200 
miles  to  a  point  about  300  miles  from  Lima  and 
3600  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon. 
The  Ucayali  thus  affords  an  easy  means  of  com¬ 
munication  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
heart  of  Peru. 

UCCELLO,  oot-cheFlo,  Paolo,  properly  Paolo 
di  Dono  (1397-1475).  A  Florentine  painter  of 
the  early  Benaissance.  The  name  Uccello  was 
derived  from  his  fondness  for  birds,  which 
formed  a  part  of  his  menagerie.  It  is  not 
known  with  whom  he  studied  painting,  but  he 
was  perhaps  influenced  by  Masaccio  and  cer¬ 
tainly  by  Donatello.  A  pioneer  of  the  so-called 
Florentine  Bealists,  he  was  especially  known 
for  experiments  in  linear  perspective  and  fore¬ 
shortening.  Wherever  possible,  his  paintings 
are  paradigms  of  perspective,  and  are  often 
scientific  rather  than  artistic  productions.  As 
they  lack  atmosphere,  the  figures  seem  immobile 
and  clumsy.  He  excelled  especially  m  por¬ 
traiture:  as  in  the  fine  equestrian  portrait  of 
the  condottiere,  Sir  John  Hawkwood  a  fresco 
in  grays  in  Florence  Cathedral,  and  those  ot 
Giotto,  Brunelleschi,  Donatello,  Manetti,  and 
himself  in  the  Louvre.  In  the  cloisters  of  Santa 
Maria  Novella  he  painted  an  interesting  senes 
of  five  frescoes  of  scenes  from  Genesis.  His 


UCHARD 


UDINE 


623 


well  known  ‘‘Battle  of  San  Romano,”  an  early 
production,  survives  in  the  Uffizi,  with  others 
of  like  title  in  the  Louvre  and  the  National 
Gallery,  London;  and  a  quaint  “St.  George  and 
the  Dragon”  is  in  private  possession  in  Paris 
and  ^  ienna.  Other  interesting  works  are  a 
late  “Hunting  Scene  at  Night”  (Oxford),  the 
“Story  of  the  Jew  and  the  Host”  at  Urbino; 
and,  according  to  Berenson,  “A  Man  and  Woman 
of  the  Portinari  Family”  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York.  He  exercised  a  determina¬ 
tive  influence  on  the  entire  realist  group,  and 
on  Piero  della  Francesca.  Uccello’s  marked 
feeling  for  decorative  design  strongly  influenced 
the  decorative  arts  of  his  day.  The  four  win¬ 
dows  in  the  drum  of  Florence  Cathedral  are 
after  his  designs.  Consult  Giorgio  Vasari,  Lives 
of  the  Most  Eminent  Painters,  Sculptors,  and 
Architects,  vol.  i,  Eng.  trails,  by  Blashfield  and 
Hopkins  (New  York,  1890),  and  Bernhard  Ber¬ 
enson,  Florentine  Painters  of  the  Renaissance 
(3d  ed.,  ib.,  1909). 

UCHARD,  u'shar',  Mario  (1824-93).  A 
French  playwright  and  novelist,  born  in  Paris. 
After  following  for  some  time  the  business  of  a 
stockbroker,  he  married  in  1853  Madeline  Brolian 
(q.v. )  of  the  Thehtre  Fran^ais,  where  he  pro¬ 
duced  the  drama  La  Fiammina  (1857),  which 
was  very  successful.  His  other  plays  attracted 
much  less  attention,  but  his  novels  won  much 
favor.  They  include:  Raymond  (1861);  Le 
mariage  de  Gertrude  (1862);  La  comtesse 
Diane  (1864);  Une  derniere  passion  (1866); 
Mon  oncle  Barbasson  (1876);  Ines  Parker 
(1880);  Antoinette  ma  oousine  (1891);  and 
others. 

UCHATIUS,  u-Ka'tsl-us,  Franz,  Baron 
(1811-81).  An  Austrian  general  and  inventor, 
born  at  Theresienfeld.  Entering  the  Second 
Regiment  of  artillery  in  1829,  he  became  com¬ 
mandant  of  the  ordnance  works  in  the  arsenal 
at  Vienna  in  1871,  was  made  a  major  general  in 
1874,  and  lieutenant  field  marshal  in  1879.  He 
introduced  an  improved  process  of  manufactur¬ 
ing  steel  in  1856,  constructed  several  ballistic 
apparatus,  especially  one  for  measuring  the 
pressure  of  gas  in  gun  barrels,  invented  the  so- 
called  steel  bronze  (Uchatius  metal),  which  was 
used  for  the  equipment  of  the  Austro-Hunga¬ 
rian  field  artillery,  and  in  1875  constructed  the 
ring  grenades,  adopted  since  then  by  nearly  all 
artilleries.  Consult  Lenz,  Lebensbild  des  Gen¬ 
erals  Uchatius  (Vienna,  1904). 

U'CHEE,  u'che,  or  YUCHI,  yoo'che.  An  in¬ 
teresting  tribe,  constituting  a  distinct  linguistic 
stock,  formerly  centring  on  the  middle  Savannah 
River,  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  but  after¬ 
wards  incorporated  with  the  Creek  confederacy. 
Very  little  is  known  of  them,  but  evidence  tends 
to  substantiate  their  own  claim  that  they  were 
the  autochthones  of  eastern  Georgia  and  the 
adjacent  region,  antedating  the  Muskhogean 
tribes  ( see  Muskhogean  Stock  )  by  many  years. 
They  call  themselves  children  of  the  sun,  which, 
according  to  their  myth,  was  their  mother,  and 
was  worshiped  with  elaborate  ceremonies.  In 
1739  Governor  Oglethorpe  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  Uchee  at  their  principal  town,  then  on 
the  Savannah  River  about  30  miles  above  Sa¬ 
vannah.  Before  the  end  of  the  century  they  had 
removed  to  the  Creek  country,  where  in  1799 
they  had  four  towns  with  about  250  warriors,  or, 
perhaps,  800  souls.  Their  main  town  was  on  the 
western  (Alabama)  side  of  the  Chattahoochee,  a 
few  miles  below  the  present  Columbus.  They 


participated  in  the  treaties  and  wars  of  their 
Creek  allies,  and  removed  with  them  in  1835 
to  the  Indian  Territory.  They  now  number  but 
38.  Consult  F.  G.  Speck,  in  University  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  Anthropological  Publications,  vol.  i 
( Philadelphia,  1909 ) . 

UDAIPUR,  oo'di-poor',  or  ODEYPORE, 

called  also  Mewar,  or  Meywar.  A  native  state 
of  India,  under  British  protection,  in  Rajputana 
(Map:  India,  B  4J .  Area,  12,756  square  miles. 
Pop.,  1901,  1,021,664;  1911,  1,293,776.  The  capi¬ 
tal,  Udaipur,  situated  120  miles  southeast  of 
Jodhpore  at  an  altitude  of  2064  feet,  had  47,587 
inhabitants  in  1911.  Here  is  an  imposing  royal 
palace  of  marble  and  granite.  Just  south  of  the 
city  is  the  fortified  hill  Eklingarh.  The  roads 
leading  to  the  city  are  guarded  by  a  series  of 
fortresses,  but  these  have  fallen  into  a  state  of 
decay. 

UDAL.  See  Odal. 

UDALL,  u'dal  or  UVEDALE,  Nicholas 
(1505-56).  An  English  schoolmaster  and  play¬ 
wright.  He  was  born  in  Hampshire.  In  1524  he 
was  graduated  from  Corpus  Christi  College,  Ox¬ 
ford,  and  elected  a  fellow.  He  took  an  early  and 
active  part  in  the  Reformation,  but  he  trimmed 
his  sails  in  the  reign  of  Mary.  From  1534  to 
1541  he  was  head  master  of  Eton,  and  from  1554 
to  1556  head  master  of  Westminster  School.  The 
fame  of  his  various  translations,  pamphlets,  and 
Latin  and  English  verse  has  been  eclipsed  by  his 
Ralph  Roister  Doister,  an  English  comedy  on  the 
Roman  model.  It  seems  to  have  been  composed 
for  the  boys  at  Eton  before  1551,  though,  so  far 
as  is  known,  it  was  not  published  until  1566.  It 
is  the  earliest  English  comedy  now  extant.  Con¬ 
sult  the  reprint  by  E.  A.  Arber  (London,  1869), 
and  A.  W.  Ward,  English  Dramatic  Literature, 
vol.  i  (rev.  ed.,  ib.,  1899).  See  Gammer  Gur- 
ton’s  Needle. 

UDDER,  Inflammation  of  the.  See  Mam- 

MITIS. 

UDDE  VALLA,  ud'de-vaFla.  A  port  of 
Sweden,  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Byfjord,  48 
miles  north  of  Goteborg  (Map:  Sweden,  E  7). 
It  has  a  school  of  navigation,  and  manufactures 
cotton  goods  and  furniture.  There  are  also  sugar 
refineries,  wood-pulp  mills,  and  granite  quarries. 
Pop.,  1901,  9442;  1910,  12,583. 

UDINE,  ob'dAna.  The  capital  of  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Udine,  Italy,  in  a  fertile,  highly  culti¬ 
vated  plain  on  the  Roja  Canal,  84  miles  by  rail 
northeast  of  Venice  (Map:  Italy,  D  1).  It  con¬ 
sists  of  an  inner  and  an  outer  town  separated  by 
fortifications.  The  streets  are  crooked  and  nar¬ 
row,  but  it  is  an  agreeable  city.  In  the  centre 
of  the  town  rises  a  hill  crowned  by  a  castle,  now 
used  as  a  barracks,  dating  from  1517.  The  chief 
square  lies  at  the  southern  base  of  the  hill.  The 
imposing  municipal  palace,  in  the  style  of  the 
Doges’  Palace  of  Venice,  contains  a  large  marble 
statue  of  Ajax,  and  some  excellent  mural  paint¬ 
ings.  The  Romanesque  cathedral  possesses  a 
finely  sculptured  portal.  Udine  has  a  handsome 
theatre,  a  splendid  archiepiscopal  palace  with 
historic  memories,  a  school  of  industrial  arts, 
and  a  technical  institute.  There  is  a  small  pub¬ 
lic  garden,  and  the  artistic  house  of  the  painter 
Giovanni  da  Ucline  is  shown.  In  the  Palazzo 
Bartolini  there  are  a  municipal  museum  of  an¬ 
tiquities,  paintings  by  Giovanni  da  Ucline,  and  a 
library  of  over  88,000  volumes  and  3120  manu¬ 
scripts.  Udine  is  in  one  of  the  most  unique  and 
beautiful  districts  in  the  world.  The  city  manu¬ 
factures  silks,  velvets,  leather,  metal  ware,  paper, 


UDO 


UFFIZI 


and  sugar.  The  chief  trade  is  in  flax  and  hemp. 
Pop.  (commune),  1901,  37,942;  1911,  47,617. 

Udine,  the  ancient  Utina,  was  an  important 
city  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury  it  became  the  capital  of  Friuli.  In  1420  it 
passed  to  Venice.  Near  Udine  is  the  small  but 
interesting  town  of  Cividale  del  Iriuli  (q.\. ), 
the  ancient  Forum  Julii.  F  dine  was  the  base 
of  the  Italian  campaign  against  Austria  in  the 
great  war  which  broke  out  in  1914.  See  Wab 
in  Europe. 

UDO,  bb'do  ( Aralia  cordata) .  A  Japanese 
vegetable  suitable  for  wide  cultivation  for  its 
blanched,  edible  shoots.  The  plants  are  bushy 
and  yield  edible  shoots  for  about  nine  years. 
They  should  be  planted  about  3  to  4  feet  apart 
and  cultivated  like  asparagus.  The  shoots  are 
blanched  by  mounding  with  earth,  or  covering 
with  closed  drain  tile  early  in  the  spring.  The 
shoots -may  be  prepared  for  the  table  in  the  same 
manner  as  asparagus.  See  Aralia. 

UEBERWEG,  u'ber-vaG,  Friedrich  (1826- 
71 ) .  A  German  philosopher,  born  at  Leiclilingen, 

'  Prussia.  He  was  educated  at  Gottingen  and  Ber¬ 
lin,  and  in  1862  was  made  professor  of  philos¬ 
ophy  at  Konigsberg,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death.  His  most  important  works  are  his  Sys¬ 
tem  der  Logik  und  Geschichte  der  logischen 
Lehren  (1857;  5th  ed.,  1882;  Eng.  trans.  of  the 
3d  ed.  by  Lindsay,  London,  1871 ) ,  and  his  Grund- 
riss  der  Geschichte  der  Philosophic  (1863—66.; 
10th  ed.,  rev.  by  M.  Heinze,  1910  et  seq. ;  Eng. 
trans.  of  the  4th  ed.  by  Morris,  New  York,  1871) , 
which  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  histories  of 
philosophy  in  moderate  compass  ever  published, 
and  is  unrivaled  in  the  fullness  of  its  bibliog¬ 
raphy;  Schiller  als  Historiker  und  Philosoph 
(Leipzig,  1884).  Consult  F.  A.  Lange,  Friedrich 
Ueberweg  (Berlin,  1871);  M.  Brasch,  Die  Welt- 
und  Lebensanschauung  Friedrich  Ueberwegs 
nebst  einer  biographisch-historischen  Einleitung 
(Leipzig,  1889). 

UECHTRITZ,  uK'trlts,  Friedrich  von  (1800- 
75) .  A  German  dramatic  poet  and  novelist,  born 
at  Gorlitz,  Silesia.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at 
Leipzig  and  held  various  judicial  positions  at 
Treves  and  Diisseldorf.  Of  several  tragedies,  for 
the  most  part  technically  weak,  Alexander  and 
Darius  (1827),  with  a  preface  by  Tieck,  was 
produced  in  Dresden,  Berlin,  and  Vienna.  Das 
Ehrenschwert  also  met  with  a  favorable  recep¬ 
tion.  The  dramatic  poem  Die  Babylonier  in 
Jerusalem  (1836),  while  little  adapted  to  the 
stage,  is  distinguished  by  brilliant  diction.  His 
best-known  novels  are  Der  Bruder  der  Braut 
(1860),  a  religious-patriotic  tale,  and  Eleazar 
(1867),  a  romance  of  the  great  Judean  war.  He 
also  published  Blicke  in  das  Diisseldorf er  Kunst- 
und  Kiinstlerleben  (1839-42).  Consult  Erin- 
nerungen  an  Friedrich  von  Uechtritz  und  seine 
Zeit  in  Brief en  von  ihm  und  an  ihn  (Leipzig, 
1884),  with  a  preface  by  Svbel,  and  W.  Steitz, 
F.  von  Uechtritz,  als  dramatischer  Dichter  (Gor- 
litz,  1909). 

UECHTRITZ,  Kuno  von  (1856-1908).  A 
German  sculptor,  born  at  Breslau.  He  studied 
at  the  Vienna  Academy  under  Tilgner,  to  whose 
influence  is  to  be  attributed  his  fondness  for  the 
baroque  and  rococo  styles,  manifest  in  his  early 
portrait  busts.  Subsequently  he  turned  to  poly¬ 
chrome  work,  carrying  it  from  softer  tints  to 
thoroughly  naturalistic  treatment,  of  which  an 
“Italian  Pifferaro  with  his  Monkey”  is  an  ex¬ 
ample.  After  his  removal  to  Berlin  in  1886  he 
took  up  decorative  and  monumental  sculpture, 


earning  reputation  with  several  fountain  designs, 
enlivened  by  mythological,  ideal,  and  genre  fig¬ 
ures,  and  animals,  and  displaying  a  subtle  sense 
of  humor.  For  the  Siegesallee  he  executed  the 
group  with  the  statue  of  Elector  George  A  illiam 
(  1899),  and  for  Breslau  the  Moltke  Monument. 

UFA,  bb'fa,  A  government  of  east  Russia. 
Area,  47,130  square  miles  (Map:  Russia,  J  4). 
The  east  portion  has  a  mountainous  surface, 
being  traversed  by  offshoots  of  the  b  ral  Moun¬ 
tains,  running  in  densely  wooded  ridges  parallel 
to  the  main  mass.  The  western  part  has  a 
steppelike  appearance  with  an  incline  towards 
the  Kama.  This  river  forms  the  west  boundary 
line  of  the  government,  and  its  navigable  tribu¬ 
tary,  the  Byelava,  intersects  it  from  southeast 
to  northwest.  The  climate  is  severe,  but  health¬ 
ful.  Ufa  is  a  highly  mineralized  region  contain¬ 
ing  deposits  of  iron,  copper,  coal,  petroleum, 
sulphur,  etc.  Mining  industries  are  little  devel¬ 
oped.  Agriculture  employs  only  a  part  of  the 
population,  as  the  inhabitants  are  stock  breeders 
and  nomadic.  About  one-third  of  the  area  is  cul¬ 
tivated,  producing  rye,  oats,  and  wheat.  The 
holdings  are  generally  large,  and  the  use  of  im¬ 
proved  machinery  is  increasing.  An  important 
dairy  product  is  kumiss.  The  manufacturing  in¬ 
dustries  are  connected  to  a  large  extent  with 
mining,  and  the  chief  iron  and  steel  works  are 
situated  at  Zlatoust  ( q.v. ) .  Other  manufactures 
are  spirits,  leather,  soap,  and  candles.  Pop., 
1912,  was  2,988,500,  of  whom  the  Russians  con¬ 
stituted  about  45  per  cent  of  the  total,  the  re¬ 
mainder  consisting  of  Bashkirs,  Tatars,  and 
Meshtcheryaks. 

UFA.  The  capital  of  the  Government  of  Ufa, 
in  east  Russia,  situated  on  the  Byelaya,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Ufa,  326  miles  by  rail  east- 
northeast  of  Samara  (Map:  Russia,  J  4).  Pop., 
1910,  103,485. 

UFFIZI  (oo-fet'se),  Palazzo  Degli.  A  cele¬ 
brated  Florentine  palace,  containing  one  of  the 
finest  collections  of  sculpture  and  painting  in  the 
world.  It  was  erected  in  1560-76,  after  the  de¬ 
signs  of  Giorgio  Vasari,  for  the  government  offices 
of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany.  The  ground 
story  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  open  halls  of 
Italy;  it  is  roofed  with  barrel  vaulting  supported 
by  heavy  Doric  pillars  which  extend  the  height 
of  the  entire  facade.  The  top  story,  now  con¬ 
taining  the  gallery,  was  originally  an  open 
loggia.  In  the  vestibule  and  court  are  many 
statues  of  celebrated  Tuscans. 

The  nucleus  of  the  gallery  was  a  part  of  the 
celebrated  collections  made 'by  the  Medici  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  Additions  were  acquired  or 
inherited  by  many  of  the  Medicean  dukes,  and 
the  collection  was  bequeathed  to  the  state  by  the 
last  representative  of  the  line  in  1737.  It  is 
especially  rich  in  antique  statuary,  possessing 
the  celebrated  Niobid  group,  the  “Boy  Drawing 
Out  a  Thorn,”  the  “Apollino,”  the  “Medicsean 
Venus,”  “Satvr,”  “Wrestlers,”  “The  Grinder,”  and 
“Dying  Alexander.”  The  collection  of  paintings 
is  ithe  most  important  in  Italy,  and  for  Italian 
painting  the  greatest  in  the  world.  It  includes 
numerous  works  by  artists  of  the  early  Flor- 
entine  Renaissance,  such  as  Fra  Angelico,  Fi¬ 
lippo  and  Filippino  Lippi,  Domenico  Ghirland¬ 
aio,  and  especially  Sandro  Botticelli,  to  whom 
a  room  is  dedicated.  The  High  Renaissance  is 
well  represented  by  Michelangelo,  Fra  Bartolom¬ 
meo,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  Raphael,  Giorgione, 
Titian,  and  Correggio,  the  gallery  being  espe¬ 
cially  rich  in  masterpieces  of  Titian  and  Raph- 


UGANDA  PROTECTORATE  625  UGANDA  PROTECTORATE 


ael.  There  is  also  a  fine  collection  of  Flemish 
and  Dutch  masters.  The  celebrated  “Tribuna” 
of  the  Tjffizi  is  an  octagonal  room  containing 
many  of  the  masterpieces  of  the  collection. 
There  is  also  an  excellent  collection  of  drawings, 
published  in  three  series  of  11  volumes  and 
eight  series  of  four  volumes  (Florence,  n.  d.). 
An  interesting  feature  of  the  gallery  is  a  unique 
collection  of  portraits'  of  great  masters  by  them¬ 
selves.  A  passageway  connects  the  Uffizi  with 
the  Pitti  collection.  (See  Pitti  Palace.)  The 
second  story  of  the  Uffizi  contains  the  Biblioteca 
Nazionale,  containing  300,000  volumes  and 
14,000  manuscripts.  Its  nucleus  was  the  Maglia- 
bechiana  collection,  to  which,  in  1862,  was 
added  the  Royal  Library  of  the  Pitti  Palace. 
The  Uffizi  also  houses  the  Florentine  state 
archives,  one  of  the  richest  collections  of  docu¬ 
ments  in  the  world.  Consult  C.  C.  Heyl,  The 
Art  of  the  Uffizi  Palace  (Boston,  1912),  and 
P.  G.  Konody,  The  Uffizi  Gallery  (ib.,  1912). 

UGANDA  (oo-gan'da)  PROTECTORATE. 
A  British  protectorate  in  British  East  Africa, 
consisting  of  the  native  kingdom  of  Uganda  and 
several  adjacent  states  (Map:  Congo,  F  2). 
The  protectorate  covers  121,437  square  miles, 
of  which  16,377  are  water. 

Uganda  is  a  remarkably  diversified  country, 
with  snow  peaks,  elevated  plains,  vast  forests, 
low  swamps,  and  arid  depressions.  The  variety 
of  climate  it  offers  is  likewise  exceptionally 
great.  The  Lake  Rudolf  region  in  the  northeast 
has  an  average  altitude  of  2000  feet,  is  tropi¬ 
cally  hot,  and  is  a  barren  and  unpromising  sec¬ 
tion.  The  Mount  Elgon  region  and  that  north 
of  the  Victoria  Nyanza  in  the  southeast  are 
much  more  favorable  to  development,  owing  to 
the  ample  rainfall  and  well-watered  conditions. 
But  the  climate  here  is  generally  damp,  hot,  and 
productive  of  malarial  fevers.  .This  region,  west¬ 
ward  of  the  extinct  volcano  Mount  Elgon — a 
gigantic  mass  14,200  feet  high,  with  a  crater 
about  10  miles  wide — has  an  average  elevation 
of  some  4000  feet,  and  possesses  dense  forests, 
marshes,  and  many  good  agricultural  districts. 
The  course  of  the  Nile  from  the  Ripon  Falls 
(its  exit  from  the  Victoria  Nyanza)  through 
Lake  Kioga  to  the  confluence  of  "the  waters  from 
Lake  Albert  is  within  or  contiguous  to  this 
region.  The  western  part  of  the  protectorate, 
separated  from  the  Belgian  Congo  by  the  Albert 
and  Albert  Edward  lakes,  the  magnificent  snowy 
Ruwenzori  (q.v.),  whose  highest  summit,  Alex¬ 
andra,  is  16,794  feet  high,  and  the  deep-forested 
valley  of  the  Semliki,  forms  a  region  rich  in 
possibilities.  Splendid  plateaus  and  charming 
small  lakes  abound  here.  Cooling  breezes  make 
much  of  this  region  not  only  habitable,  but 
inviting.  In  the  Nile  valley  to"  the  north,  below 
Lake  Albert,  the  heat  is  extreme,  the  rainfall 
abundant  on  the  windward  slopes  of  the  ranges. 
The  northern  part  of  the  protectorate  is  gener¬ 
ally  forbidding.  The  waters  of  the  many  lakes 
which  characterize  the  protectorate  are  partly 
fresh  and  partly  salt. 

Except  in  the  Rudolf  district,  the  flora,  which 
is  in  general  kindred  to  that  of  West  Africa,  is 
rich  and  abundant,  but  there  is  no  oil  palm. 
Papyrus  covers  the  swampy  Nile  valley.  The 
lofty  mountains  explain  the  presence  of  the  al¬ 
pine  vegetation  in  the  higher  parts,,  and  of  the 
witch-hazel  and  trees  of  kindred  classes  on  the 
plateaus.  Uganda  has  a  peculiar  long  grass, 
from  10  to  15  feet  high,  which  is  used  for  build¬ 
ing  purposes  by  the  natives.  The  fauna  is  allied 


to  that  of  equatorial  Central  Africa  and  the 
Congo  basin,  in  conformity  with  the  moist  and 
forested  character  of  the  region.  A  list  of  the 
birds  and  quadrupeds  would  include  most  of 
those  of  Africa  which  are  not  strictly  desert  or 
seacoast  forms.  Lions  and  leopards  are  numer¬ 
ous,  living  upon  antelopes  and  wild  and  tame 
cattle;  and  the  rivers  and  lakes  abound  in  croco¬ 
diles,  feeding  upon  the  fish,  many  of  which  are 
wholesome  for  food.  There  are  no  anthropoid 
apes,  but  many  monkeys,  of  which  the  guerza  is 
most  notable.  Large  collections  of  insects  and 
land  shells  have  been  made,  but  a  great  deal 
remains  to  be  learned  of  the  smaller  life  of  the 
region. 

In  the  eastern  sections  of  the  protectorate 
granite  and  gneiss  of  Archaean  age  are  promi¬ 
nent;  in  the  central  regions,  quartz,  sandstone, 
and  basalt  are  added;  around  Lake  Rudolf  lava 
and  tufl  are  superimposed  on  the  foregoing 
formations.  Iron  ore  is  abundant  and  widely 
distributed.  Gold  occurs  northwest  of  Lake 
Rudolf,  and  graphite  in  Buganda  and  Bunyoro. 
The  soil  is  very  fertile,  except  in  the  Rudolf 
region.  Among  the  Baganda,  a  remarkably 
efficient  people,  now  largely  Christian,  not  a 
little  has  been  done  towards  improving  the  coun¬ 
try  by  building  substantial  houses,  making  good 
roads,  etc.  The  most  important  product  com¬ 
mercially  is  cotton,  the  output  of  which  has  in¬ 
creased  rapidly  in  recent  years;  the  estimated 
area  under  cotton  in  1913-14  was  upward  of 
110,000  acres,  and  the  export  was  6467  tons, 
valued  at  £317,687.  Other  products  are  coffee, 
peanuts,  cacao,  ivory,  and  hides.  Trade  is 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  natives  and  British 
Indians.  Imports  of  merchandise  (including 
goods  in  transit)  increased  from  £168,911  in 
1904-05  to  £897,262  in  1913—14,  and  exports 
(exclusive  of  goods  in  transit)  from  £60,378  to 
£524,260.  The  so-called  Uganda  Railway  is 
wholly  within  the  East  Africa  protectorate. 
From  Port  Florence,  the  terminus  of  this  rail¬ 
way  on  Victoria  Nyanza,  a  steamer  service  is 
maintained  with  Entebbe,  Jinja,  and  Port  Bell 
in  Uganda.  A  railway  extends  8  miles  from 
Port  Bell  to  Kampala.  The  Busoga  Railway 
extends  54  miles  from  Jinja  around  the  Nile 
rapids  to  Kakindu,  and  thence  8  miles  to  Nama- 
sagali,  both  these  towns  being  on  the  Nile. 
Thence  steamers  ply  to  Lake  Kioga,  again  on 
the  Nile,  and  on  Albert  Nyanza. 

The  protectorate  of  Uganda  is  divided  into 
five  provinces:  Rudolf,  Eastern,  Northern,  West¬ 
ern,  and  Buganda.  These  provinces  are  sub¬ 
divided  into  districts.  Almost  the  entire  pro¬ 
tectorate  outside  of  the  Rudolf  province  is  now 
under  direct  British  administration;  but  the 
native  chiefs  are  permitted,  and  in  fact  en¬ 
couraged,  to  administer  the  government  of  their 
own  subjects.  The  province  of  Buganda  is  recog¬ 
nized  as  a  native  kingdom.  The  King,  whose 
title,  “Kakaba,”  is  hereditary,  is  assisted  by 
three  native  ministers  and  by  a  native  assembly 
“Lukiko.”  This  government  is  well  organized 
and  efficient,  and  the  dynasty  can  be  traced  back 
to  about  the  year  1400.  Similar  rights  and 
privileges  are  conceded  to  the  chiefs  of  Bunyoro, 
Toro,  and  Ankole.  For  Europeans  and  non- 
natives  justice  is  administered  by  British  courts. 
The  British  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
governor,  whose  headquarters  arc  at  Entebbe. 
The  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Buganda  is 
Mengo,  about  20  miles  north  by  east  of  Entebbe. 
The  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  protectorate 


UGOGO 


626 


UHLAND 


were  £256,550  and  £200,180  in  1013—14.  Deficits 
are  covered  by  British  grants  in  aid. 

The  population  of  the  protectorate  was  esti¬ 
mated,  March  31,  1014,  at  2,000,122,  including 
2,004,454  natives,  3651  Asiatics,  and  1017  Euro¬ 
peans  (of  whom  256  females).  The  Baganda, 
numbering  about  650,000,  have  many  churches 
and  schools. 

The  natives  of  the  protectorate  may  be  classi¬ 
fied  as  Negritos  or  Pygmies,  Bantus  (q.v.),  Ni¬ 
lotic  negroes,  Hamites,  and  Masai  (q.v.),  though 
most  of  them  are  probably  mixtures  in  varying 
degree  of  these  different  types.  The  Pygmies 
are  not  numerous,  a  few  being  found  in  that  part 
of  the  Congo  forest  which  is  included  within  the 
limits  of  the  protectorate.  The  Bantus,  who  in 
general  are  an  agricultural  people,  make  up 
nearly  half  the  population.  The  Hamites  are 
represented  by  a  few  tribes  in  the  islands  and  on 
the  north  shore  of  Lake  Budolf,  and  by  the  pas¬ 
toral  Waliuma  or  Bahima,  probably  of  Galla 
ancestry  (see  Gallas),  who  more  than  100  years 
ago  conquered  the  Bantu  agriculturists,  and  at 
present,  more  or  less  mixed  with  Bantu  blood, 
form  the  aristocracy  and  ruling  classes.  They 
are  purest  in  the  western  part  of  the  protecto¬ 
rate,  where  there  are  also  a  few  separate  Bahima 
tribes.  The  Masai  are  met  with  in  the  Rudolf 
region,  the  Suk  and  Turkana  tribes  being  good 
representatives.  The  Nilotic  negroes  occupy  the 
Nile  Province  and  a  large  part  of  the  Central 
Province,  reaching  the  Victoria  Nyanza  in  Ka- 
virondo.  Negro  tribes  also  extend  southward 
along  the  Albert  Nyanza,  especially  on  the  west 
side,  the  Semliki  River,  and  the  Albert  Edward 
Nyanza  to  the  extreme  southwest  corner  of  the 
protectorate. 

The  Uganda  protectorate  was  formed  initially 
of  the  once  powerful  native  kingdom  of  Uganda, 
which  has  been  in  the  British  sphere  of  influence 
since  1890.  The  protectorate  dates  from  1894. 
The  region  was  first  visited  by  a  European  (Cap¬ 
tain  Speke)  in  1862.  Stanley  passed  through 
Uganda  in  1875. 

Bibliography.  Speke,  Journal  of  the  Dis¬ 
covery  of  the  Source  of  the  Nile  (Edinburgh, 
1863)  ;  Taylor,  The  Lake  Regions  of  Central 
Africa  (New  York,  1875)  ;  Wilson  and  Felkin, 
Uganda  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan  (London, 
1882)  ;  Elisee  Reclus,  Geographic  universelle, 
vol.  xiii  (Paris,  1888)  ;  Richter,  Uganda  (Gii- 
tersloh,  1893)  ;  Colville,  Land  of  the  Nile 
Springs  (London,  1895)  ;  Scott-Elliott,  A  Natu¬ 
ralist  in  Mid  Africa  (ib.,  1896)  ;  Ashe,  Two 
Kings  of  Uganda  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1897)  ;  Ansorge, 
Under  the  African  Sun  (ib.,  1899)  ;  Lugard,  T1 le 
Story  of  Uganda  (ib.,  1900)  ;  Purvis,  Handbook 
of  British  East  Africa  and  Uganda  (ib.,  1900)  ; 
Kollmann,  The  Victoria  Nyanza  (ib.,  1900)  ; 
Sir  H.  H.  Johnston,  The  Uganda  Protectorate 
(ib.,  1902)  ;  Handbook  for  East  Africa,  Uganda, 
and  Zanzibar  (Mombasa,  1903)  ;  A.  B.  Lloyd, 
Uganda  to  Khartoum  (New  York,  1906)  ;  H.  M. 
Stanlev,  In  Darkest  Africa  (2  vols.,  ib.,  new  ed., 
1913) .  ' 

UGOGO,  u-go'gO.  A  district  of  German  East 
Africa,  about  170  miles  west  of  that  part  of  the 
coast  opposite  Zanzibar  (Map:  Congo,  G  4). 
It  is  a  bare,  arid  plateau,  about  3500  feet  in 
altitude,  inhabited  by  the  Gogo,  or  Wagogo,  a 
warlike  Bantu  tribe. 

UGOLINO  DA  SIENA,  oo'gO-le'no  da  sya'na. 
A  name  appearing  in  the  early  annals  of  Sienese 
painting  and  once  thought  from  its  different  des¬ 
ignations  to  apply  to  four  persons.  It  is  prob¬ 


able,  however,  that  the  Ugolino  da  Siena  who 
was  influenced  by  Duccio  and  Cimabue,  and  who 
died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1339,  was  identical 
with  Ugolino  di  Neri  and  L^golino  di  Pietro, 
mentioned  in  Sienese  records  of  1317  and  1324. 
The  only  work  attributed  to  him  with  any  degree 
of  probability  is  part  of  an  altarpiece  which 
was  painted  for  Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  two 
panels  of  which  are  now  in  London. 

UGKIANS,  oo'gri-anz.  A  term  often  used  to 
designate  a  subdivision  (closely  related  to  the 
Finns)  of  the  Ural-Altaic  stock,  which  included 
the  Ostiaks,  Voguls,  and  Magyars.  See  Ural 
Altaic 

UHBE,  oo'de,  Fritz  von  (1848-1911).  A 
German  historical  and  genre  painter,  born  at 
Wolkenburg,  Saxony.  He  began  his  artistic 
studies  at  the  Dresden  Academy  in  1866,  but, 
finding  himself  at  variance  with  the  spirit  pre¬ 
vailing  there,  followed  a  military  career  until 
1877,  when  again  he  took  up  painting  at  Mu¬ 
nich,  giving  his  attention  especially  to  the  old 
Dutch  masters.  In  1879  he  removed  to  Paris, 
where  he  worked  for  a  short  time  in  Munkacsy’s 
studio,  but  principally  studied  from  nature  and 
Dutch  models.  A  result  of  these  combined  in¬ 
fluences  was  the  “Family  Concert”  (1881,  Co¬ 
logne  Museum).  The  new  coloristic  principles 
which  he  in  the  meanwhile  adopted  are  apparent 
in  the  “Arrival  of  the  Organ  Grinder”  (1883), 
and,  turning  now  to  religious  subjects,  he  created 
those  remarkable  and  pathetic  masterpieces 
“Suffer  the  Little  Children  to  Come  unto  Me!” 
(1884,  Leipzig  Museum)  and  “Come,  Lord  Jesus, 
and  Be  Our  Guest”  (1885,  National  Gallery, 
Berlin),  both  scenes  in  a  workingman’s  cottage. 
He  next  produced  “Christ  with  the  Disciples 
at  Emmaus”  ( 1885,  Stadel  Institute,  Frank¬ 
fort),  “The  Sermon  on  the  Mount”  (1887), 
the  triptych  of  the  “Nativity”  (1889,  Dresden 
Gallery),  and  “The  Walk  to  Bethlehem”  (1890, 
New  Pinakothek,  Munich),  a  bold  modern  con¬ 
ception  of  the  subject.  Uhde  brought  about  a 
complete  change  in  German  art,  counting  among 
his  followers  most  of  the  younger  generation. 
His  later  productions  include:  “Noli  me  tan- 
gere”  (1894,  New  Pinakothek,  Munich),  “The 
Wise  Men  from  the  East”  (1896,  Madgeburg 
Museum),  “The  Last  Supper”  (1897,  Stuttgart 
Museum),  “Richard  III,”  “Ascension”  (1898, 
New  Pinakothek,  Munich),  and  “Woman,  Why 
Weepest  Thou?”  (1900,  Vienna  Museum),  the 
altarpiece  of  the  Lutherkirche,  Ziorchan  (1905), 
and  “Going  Home”  (1908).  Uhde  is  known  for 
his  attempt  to  bring  back  German  art  to  the 
ancient  religious  ideals.  Like  the  primitive 
painters  he  depicts  with  deep  religious  feeling, 
yet  with  powerful  naturalism  and  highly  poetic 
treatment  of  light  and  atmosphere,  the  person¬ 
ages  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  lowly  garb  of 
the  German  working  classes.  He  also  portrays 
the  woes  of  laboring  people.  Consult  the  mono¬ 
graphs  by  Liicke  (Leipzig,  1887),  Graul  (Vi¬ 
enna,  1893),  Bierbaum  (Munich,  1893),  Meiss¬ 
ner  (Berlin,  1900),  and  for  reproductions  of 
all  his  works,  Rosenhagen,  in  Klassiker  der 
Kunst  (Stuttgart,  1908). 

UHLAND,  oo'lant,  Ludwig  (1787-1862).  A 
distinguished  German  poet,  philologist,  and  lit¬ 
erary  historian.  Born  at  Tubingen,  April  26, 
1787,  he  studied  jurisprudence  there  in  1802- 
OS,  at  the  same  time  cultivating  mediaeval  litera¬ 
ture,  especially  old  German  and  French  poetry, 
the  study  of  which  he  pursued  for  eight  months 
in  Paris.  On  his  return  he  began  the  practice 


UHLAND 


<>27  UINTATHERIUM 


x)f  law  at  Stuttgart,  worked  in  the  Ministry 
<>f  Justice,  and  when  in  1815  Wurttemberg  was 
to  be  granted  a  new  constitution,  his  lyrics  in 
praise  of  liberty  were  enthusiastically  received. 
-As  a  member  of  the  Legislature  from  1819  to 
1839  he  sided  with  the  opposition.  In  1848  he 
was  elected  to  the  German  National  Assembly 
but  in  1850  retired  from  political  life  and 
settled  at  Tubingen,  devoting  himself  exclusively 
to  literary  pursuits.  From  1829  to  1833  lie 
had  held  the  professorship  of  German  literature 
t^i  ,  10  ^.niyersity  of  Tubingen.  As  a  lyric  poet 
Uhland  is  remarkable  for  truth  and  simplicity 
of  sentiment  and  his  picturesque  view  of  nature. 
His  ballads  and  romances  rank  among  the  most 
precious  ideal  treasures  of  the  German  nation. 

in  mg  his  early  life  he  labored  to  revive  the 
ballad.  None  has  caught  the  spirit  of  the  old 
folk  song  more  fully  than  he.  Of  his  songs 
the  most  widely  popular  are  “Der  Wirtin  Toch- 
terlein”  and  “Der  gute  Kamerad”;  of  the  bal- 

1  “-?*!  Schloss  am  Meer,”  “Das  Gluck  von 
Edenhall,  “Des  Goldschmieds  Tochterlein,” 
Koland  Schildtrager,”  “Der  schwarze  Ritter  ” 
and  “Des  Sangers  Fluch”  are  in  all  anthologies. 
He  v  as  the  first  poet  of  the  Swabian  school  who 
sought  to  combine  purity  of  style  with  brevity 
and  vigor,  and  to  give  romantic  sentiment  to  all. 
Although  poetically  effective,  his  glorifications 
of  Gei  man  faith,  the  dramas  Ernst,  Herzog  von 
Schwab en  (1817)  and  Ludwig  der  Bayer  (1819) 
lack  dramatic  action  and  had  only  moderate 
success.  Uhland  was  a  founder  of  Germanic 
and  Romance  philology.  Besides  the  treatise 
Ueber  das  altfranzdsische  Epos  (1812),  and  an 
essay  Zur  Geschichte  der  Freischiessen  (1828), 
there  are  to  be  especially  mentioned  Walther 
Vogelweide,  ein  altdeutscher  Dichter 
(1822);  Der  Mythus  von  Tlior  (1836),  the  re¬ 
sult  of  painstaking  original  investigation;  and 
the  masterly  collection  Alte  hoch-  und  nieder- 
deutsche  V olkslieder  (1844-45;  3d  ed.,  1892). 
His  poetical  works  were  repeatedly  published 
as  Gedichte  und  Dramen ,  while  his  scientific 
work  is  embodied  in  Schriften  zur  Geschichte 
der  Dichtung  und  Sage,  edited  by  Holland,  Kel¬ 
ler,  and  Pfeiffer  (1865—72).  Consult:  Mayer, 
Ludwig  Uhland,  seine  Freunde  und  Zeitgenossen 
(ib.,  1867)  ;  id.,  Ludwig  Uhlands  Leben:  Aus  des- 
sen  Nachlass  und  aus  eigener  Erinnerung  zusam- 
mengestellt  von  seiner  Wittwe  (ib.,  1874)  ;  H. 
Dederich,  Ludwig  Uhland  als  Dichter  und ’  Pa¬ 
triot  (Gotha,  1886)  ;  W.  L.  Holland,  Zw  Ludioig 
Uhlands  Geddchtnis  (Leipzig,  1886)  ;  H.  Fischer, 
Ludwig  Uhland:  eine  Studie  zu  seiner  Sakular 
feier  (Stuttgart,  1887);  Bernhardt,  Uhlands 
pohtische  Betatigung  (1910);  A.  Hartmann, 
Ludwig  Uhland  (Stuttgart,  1913). 

UHLAND,  Wilhelm  Heinrich  (1840-1907). 

A  German  engineer  and  writer  on  technology^ 
born  in  Nordheim,  Wurttemberg.  In  1S65  he 
founded  the  Technikum  Mittweida,  the  first  pri¬ 
vate  institution  for  the  instruction  of  machin¬ 
ists,  and  in  1868  organized  the  Technikum 
Frankenberg,  near  Chemnitz.  He  invented  numer¬ 
ous  appliances  for  industrial  use.  He  founded 
and  became  editor  of  the  periodical  Der  praktische 
Maschinen-Konstrukteur,  and  wrote:  Handbuch 
fur  den  praktischen  Maschinen-Konstrukteur 
(1883);  Skizzenbuch  fur  den  praktischen 
Maschinen-Konstrukteur  (16  vols.,  1867-95;  2d 
ed.,  1906)  ;  Die  Corliss-  und  V  entildampfmaschi- 
nen  (1879);  Die  Telephonanlagen  (1881); 
Dampfmuschinen  mit  Bchiebersteuerung  (1881)  ; 
Die  Woolfschen  und  CompounddampfmascJiinen 


(1882)  ;  Die  Hebeapparate  (1882-83)  ;  Das  elek- 
5™*  Li°ht  und  Me  elektrische  Beleuchtung 
(1884)  ;  Die  Brotbdckerei,  Biskuit-  und  Teia- 
warenf abrikation  (1885). 

UHLICH,  oo'Uk,  Lebereciit  (1799-1872). 
One  of  the  founders  of  the  German  “Free  Conore- 
gations”  (q.v.).  He  was  born  at  Gothen,  Anhalt, 
studied  at  Halle,  and  served  as  pastor  in  various 
places  till  1847,  when  he  withdrew  from  the 
Evangelical  church,  and  thenceforth  was  preacher 
Flee  Congregation  at  Magdeburg.  In 
1841  he  became  the  leader  of  the  “Protestant 
Friends,”  or  “Friends  of  Light.”  His  liberal 
views  frequently  involved  him  in  difficulties  with 
aiith°-ties-  He  Published  Bekenntnisse 
n  i?'’  1 846 )  ;  Ghristentum  und  Kirche  (2d 
eel.,  1846);  Die  Throne  im  Himmel  und  evuf 
Drden  (1845)  ;  Handbiichlein  der  freien  Religion 
(/th  ed.,  1889).  His  autobiography  appeared  at 
Gera  in  1872. 

UHO,  do/h6.  See  Mono  and  Oo. 

UHRICHSyiLLE,  u'riks-vil.  A  village  in 
luscarawas  Co.,  Ohio,  midway  between  Pitts¬ 
burgh  and  Columbus,  on  Big  Stillwater  Creek 
and  on  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and 
St.  Louis,  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  rail¬ 
roads  (Map:  Ohio,  IP  5).  It  derives  consider¬ 
able  commercial  importance  from  its  situation 
111  a  farming  and  stock-raising  region,  and  has 
several  large  sewer-pipe  and  fire-clay  plants, 

loin  ?7^ined  extensively-  Pop.,  1900,  4582; 

1  f *  1  Uj  4  / ol. 


UIGUKS,  we'gurz.  A  people  of  East  Turk¬ 
estan,  and  of  Turkic  stock.  They  founded  the 
powerful  Kingdom  of  Hiong-Nu,  which  reached 
its  zenith  in  the  first  century  a.d.,  when  it  was 
divided  into  a  northern  and  "a  southern  empire. 
Fhe  latter  was  destroyed  by  the  Tunguses  in 
the  third  century,  whereupon  the  southern 
Uigurs  retreated  to  the  west  and  founded  the 
Empire  of  the  Huns  (q.v.).  In  the  eighth  cen¬ 
tury  the  northern  Uigurs  founded  a  kingdom 
which  was  destroyed  by  the  Kirghizes.  In  the 
liftlr  century  a.d.  their  culture,  developed  on  the 
slopes .  of  the  Tian  Shan,  was  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  and  about  this  time  they  underwent 
considerable  Buddhistic  and  Chinese  influence, 
their  religion  having  already  been  modified  to 
some  extent  by  Nestorian  Christians,  from  whom 
they  adopted  the  traces  of  Zoroastrianism  pres¬ 
ent  among  them.  But  they  finally  adopted  the 
faith  of  Islam,  and  have  been  modified  in  blood 
and  other  characteristics  by  more  recent  Mon- 
gol -Chinese,  Arab,  and  Turkic  elements.  Time 
has  deprived  the  Uigurs  of  their  independent 
nationality  and  much  of  their  peculiar  culture. 
Probably  from  Uigur  influence  the  Mongols  and 
Manchus  have  adopted  the  Syrian  system  of 
writing,  and  other  advances  in  the  culture  of 
the  numerous  tribes  of  Central  Asia  and  Siberia 
are,  perhaps,  from  the  Uigurs.  Consult:  Klap¬ 
roth,  Abhandlungen  iiber  die  Sprache  und  Schrift 
der  Uiguren  (Paris,  1820)  ;  Vamberv,  Uigur- 
ische  Sprachmonumente  und  das  Kudatku  Bilik 
( Leipzig,  1870)  :  Schott,  Zur  Uigurenfrage 
(Beilin,  18/5)  ;  Radloff,  Aus  Sibirien  (Leipzig, 
1893)  ;  id.,  Ethnologische  Uebersicht  der  Tilrken- 
stdmme  Sibiriens  und  der  Mongolei  (ib.,  1883)  ; 
id.,  Die  alt  till  kischen  Inschriften  der  M  onaolei 
(St.  Petersburg,  1899). 

UUM'TATHE'RIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  from  En" 
Uintah,  mountain  range  in  Utah  +  Gk.  6VPlo7r 
therion,  dim.  of  drip,  ther,  wild  beast).  An  ex¬ 
tinct  and  blunt-toed  (amblypod)  ungulate  mam¬ 
mal,  found  fossil  in  the  Eocene  fresh-water  de- 


UIST 


UKIYO-YE 


628 


posits  of  the  western  United  States.  The  animal 
was  about  the  size  of  a  rhinoceros,  with  a  large 
narrow  head.  The  skull  of  the  male  is  armed 
with  two  pairs  of  bony  hornlike  protuberances, 
the  larger  hinder  pair  being  supported  by  crests 
of  bone° that  slope  up  towards  them  from  points 
near  the  orbits.  There  are  two  small  knobs  on 
the  end  of  the  nose..  Upper  incisors  are  absent 
and  the  upper  canines  of  the  male  are  enlarged 
to  form  drooping  recurved  tusks.  The  eyes,  were 
small.  The  brain  cavity  is  small,  indicating  a 
ratio  between  weight  of  brain  and  that  of  body 
of  about  1  to  .4000,  which  is  exceptionally  low 
for  a  mammal. 

UIST,  wist,  North  and  South.  Two  islands 
of  the  Outer  Hebrides,  situated  south  of  Lewis- 
with-Harris  and  15  to  30  miles  west  of  Skye 
(Map:  Scotland,  A  2).  They  are  separated  by 
the  smaller  island  of  Benebecula.  North  Uist  is 
18  miles  long  and  3  to  10  miles  wide;  South 
Uist  is  22  miles  long  and  7  miles  wide.  The 
western  parts  of  both  are  fertile  and  productive 
and  the  inhabitants  engage  in  agriculture  and 
cattle  raising,  as  well  as  fishing.  Pop.,  1911, 
of  North  Uist,  3753;  of  South  Uist,  5109. 

UITOTAN,  we-to'tan.  An  Indian  linguistic 
stock  of  Colombia,  South  America.  The  Uitoto 
dwell  on  the  upper  Yapura  River.  Consult  Koch- 
Griinberg,  in  Zeitschrift  fiir  Ethnologie,  vol. 
xxxviii  (Berlin,  1906),  and  id.,  Zivei  Jahre  unter 
den  Indianern  ( ib.,  1909-10). 

UJ-BECSE,  oo'y’-be'che.  See  Becse. 
UJFALVY,  bb'y’-fal-ve,  Karl  Eugen  (1842- 
1904).  An  Austrian  philologist,  anthropologist, 
and  traveler,  born  in  Vienna  of  an  old  Hun¬ 
garian  noble  family.  Educated  in  the  military 
academy  at  Wiener-Neustadt,  he  served  as  lieu¬ 
tenant  in  the  army  until  1864,  when  he  went 
to  study  at  the  University  of  Bonn.  Going  to 
France  in  1867,  he  was  appointed  profebsoi  in 
the  Oriental  Academy  in  1873,  and  by  ordei  of 
the  French  government  undertook  three  scientific 
expeditions  into  Central  Asia,  in  1876—82,  the 
results  of  which  were  published  in  Expedition 
scientifique  frangaisc  en  Russie,  en  Siberie,  et 
dans  le  Turkestan  (3  vols.,  1878-80).  Among 
several  ethnological  and  linguistic  essays,  there 
are  to  be  noted :  La  langue  magyare,  son  origine, 
etc.  (1871);  La  migration  des  peuples,  etc. 
(1873)  ;  Melanges  altaiques  (1874),  and  others. 
After  1884  he  devoted  himself  to  art-historical 
researches  and  published  in  that  field  Les  biscuits 
de  porcelaine  (1893). 

UJHELY,  Satoralja,  See  Satoralja- 
Ujhely. 

UJI,  oo/je.  A  well-known  suburb  of  Kyoto, 
Japan,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Empire.  Lji 
lies  on  the  Uji  River  where  it  breaks  through 
the  gorge  as  it  issues  from  Lake  Biwa.  The 
pretty  village  is  surrounded  by  ancient  and 
famous  tea  plantations.  Pop.,  less  than  20,000. 

UJI  (Jap.,  maggot).  The  Japanese  name  for 
a  parasite  of  the  silkworm,  a  tachinid  fly 
( Leskia  sericaria) .  It  is  said  by  Sasaki  that 
the  eggs  of  the  parasite  are  laid  upon  the  mul¬ 
berry^  leaves  and  are  eaten  by  the  worms,  after 
which  the  larva  hatches  out  and  feeds  in  the 
interior  of  the  worms  in  the  same  way  as  do  the 
larvae  of  tachina  flies.  The  life  history  is  thus 
very  abnormal,  since  with  other  species  the  eggs 
are' laid  upon  the  body  of  the  caterpillar  or  other 
host  insect.  This  parasite  sometimes  does  con¬ 
siderable  damage  in  Japan,  but  fortunately  has 
not  reached  other  silk-raising  countries. 

UJIJI,  bo-je'j£.  A  town  situated  on  the  east 


shore  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  Africa  (Map:  Congo,. 

F  3).  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  railroad  from 
Dar-es-Salaam  at  the  coast,  some  743  miles 
long,  and  was  formerly  an  important  slave  mar¬ 
ket.  Here  Stanley  found  Livingstone  in  1871. 
Pop.,  about  8000. 

UJI-YAMADA,  oo'je-ya'ma-da.  A  town  in 
the  Prefecture  of  Miye,  central  Hondo,  Japan, 

73  miles  by  rail  south  of  Nagoya  (Map:  Japan, 

E  6 ) .  It  is  filled  with  inns  and  hotels  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  pilgrims  to  the  near-by 
Ise  shrines.  Pop.,  1898,  27,990;  1908,  37,539. 

UJJAIN,  bo- jin'  (Skt.  Ujjayini,  City  of  Vic¬ 
tory,  Gk.  ’O^vv,  Ozene),  or  Oojein.  A  town  of 
Malwa,  in  the  State  of  Gwalior,  Central  India, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sipra  (Map:  India, 

C  4).  It  has  an  active  trade  in  opium,  cotton, 
and  grain.  It  was  formerly  encircled  by  a  wall 
six  miles  in  circumference  and  was  one  of  the 
seven  sacred  cities  of  India ;  it  has  a  spacious 
bazar,  a  grand  palace  of  the  Maharaja  Sindhia, 
and  other  important  monuments.  Ujjain  is  said 
to  have  been  the  viceregal  seat  of  Asoka  (q.v.) 
during  his  father’s  reign  at  Patna,  but  is  better 
known  as  the  capital  of  the  Samvat  (q.v.) 
Kingdom  founded  by  Vikrama  (q.v.).  It  was 
the  capital  of  Sindhia  from  1750  until  the  seat 
of  government  was  removed  to  Gwalior  in  1810. 
Pop.,  1901,  39,892. 

tJJVIDEK,  bo'y’vi-dak.  A  town  in  Hungary. 

See  Neusatz. 

UKASE,  u-kas'  (Russ,  ukazu,  edict,  from 
ykazatl,  to  order,  indicate,  from  y,  in,  by,  near, 
connected  with  Gk.  kv,  en,  Lat.  in,  in  +  kazatl, 
to  show),  or  Ukas.  A  term  applied  in  Russia 
to  all  orders  or  edicts,  legislative  or  adminis¬ 
trative,  emanating  from  the  government.  Ihe 
ukases  either  proceed  directly  from  the  Em¬ 
peror,  or  are  published  as  decisions  of  the  direct¬ 
ing  Senate.  In  either  case  they  have  the  force  of 
laws  till  annulled  by  subsequent  decisions.  A 
collection  of  ukases  in  48  volumes  was  made  by 
order  of  Czar  Nicholas  in  1827,  and  has  been 
supplemented  from  time  to  time.  These,  elimi¬ 
nating  such  as  are  unimportant  or  of  tempoi  ary 
authority,  constitute  the  present  legal  code 
(s-uod)  of  the  Russian  Empire. 

UKEREWE,  bb'ki-ra'wa.  See  Victoria- 
Nyanza. 

UKHTOMSKY,  uK-t6m'sk£,  Esper  Espero- 
vitch,  Prince  ( 1861—  ) .  A  Russian  author 

and  poet,  born  near  Oranienbaum,  of  an  old 
princely  family.  In  1884  he  was  appointed  to  a 
position  in  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior.  His 
Travels  in  the  East  of  Nicholas  II  (London, 
1806-1902),  a  splendidly  illustrated  work,  pub¬ 
lished  in  Russian,  English,  French,  and  German, 
describes  three  journeys  on  which  he  accom¬ 
panied  the  Czar.  Besides  many  lyric  poems,  he 
contributed  book  reviews  and  ciitical  and  his¬ 
torical  essavs  to  periodicals,  and  in  1896  as¬ 
sumed  the  editorship  of*  the  Sanktpeterburgskiya 
Viedomosti,  in  which  he  advocated  an  energetic 
Russian  policy  in  eastern  Asia. 

UKIYO-YE,  bb'kyo-ya'  (Jap.,  pictures  of  the 
passing  world).  The  name  of  the  modern  pop¬ 
ular  school  of  painting  in  Japan,  founded  by 
Hokusai  (q.v.)  and  continued  by  his  pupils  and 
successors.  The  beginning  of  the  movement  may 
be  traced  as  far  back  as  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
centurv,  when  droll  sketches  were  made  by 
Iwasa  Matahei  (1577-1650).  Towards  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century  Okvo  painted  fowls, 
fishes,  and  monkeys,  their  naturalism  giving  an 
immense  impulse  to  the  popularization  of  art. 


UKRAINE 


629 


ULCER 


The  most  common  form  of  Ukiyo-v6  is  the 
nishiki-yg,  “brocade  pictures,”  and  it  "is  the  art 
of  the  common  people.  Consult :  Andersou, 
Descriptive  and  Historical  Catalogue  of  Chinese 
and  Japanese  Art  (London,  1886)  ;  Frank  Brink- 
ley,  Japan:  Its  History ,  Arts,  and  Literature 
(8  \  ols.,  Boston,  1010)  ;  E.  F.  Fenollosa,  Epochs 
g/  Chinese  and  Japanese  Art  (2  vols.,  New  York, 

U'KRAINE.  A  name  formerly  applied  to  a 
part  of  the  old  Kingdom  of  Poland,  comprising 
portions  of  the  present  Russian  governments  of 
Podolia,  Kiev,  Techernigov,  Ekaterinoslav,  and 
Kherson,  the  whole  of  Poltava,  and  part  of 
Galicia.  By  the  Treaty  of  Andrussovo  in  1667 
the  portion  to  the  left  of  the  Dnieper  and  Kiev 
passed  to  Russia,  and  later  became  known  as 
Little  Russia.  Ihe  remainder  was  acquired  by 
Russia  at  the  second  partition  of  Poland  in 
1793. 

UKRAINIANS,  u-kran'i-anz,  or  Little  Rus¬ 
sians  ( Malorussians ) .  A  Slavic  people  num¬ 
bering  about  35,000,000  inhabiting  the  south¬ 
east  of  Russia  (especially  the  governments  of 
Volhynia,  Kiev,  Podolia,  Kherson,  Ekaterinoslav, 
Kharkov,  Poltava,  and  Chernvgov)  and  parts  of 
Austria-Hungary.  (See  Ru’thenians.)  Com¬ 
pared  with  the  Great  Russians,  the  Ukrainians 
.  are  taller,  darker,  and  more  brachycephalic  and 
show  a  marked  difference  in  temperament,  man¬ 
ners,  and  customs.  The  Ukrainians  of  Russia 
belong  to  the  Greek  church,  while  those  of  Aus¬ 
tria  are  mostly  Uniates. 

The  early  history  of  Russia  in  so  far  as  it 
centres  about  the  State  of  Kiev  is  in  fact 
Ukiainian  history.  (See  Russia,  History .) 
The  Ukrainian  principality  of  Galicia  (Halich) 
which  was  founded  in  the  twelfth  century  was 
annexed  to  Poland  in  the  fourteenth.  About  the 
same  time  Ukrainian  Kiev  and  Volhynia  were 
wrested  by  Lithuania  and  later  incorporated  in 
Poland.  Polish  discipline,  however,  availed  lit¬ 
tle  against^  the  turbulent  Ukrainian  Cossacks. 
In  1654  Khmelnitski,  or  Chmielnicki  (q.v. ), 
hetman  of  the  Zaporogian  Cossacks  allied  him¬ 
self  to  Czar  Alexei  Mikhailovich  and  for  100 
years  the  Zaporogian  military  republic  (Sich) 
enjoyed  autonomy  under  the  protectorate  of 
Russia.  Catharine  II,  however,  destroyed  it  in 
1775.  The  partition  of  Poland  brought  under 
the  Russian  crown  all  the  Ukrainian  lands  ex¬ 
cept  Galicia.  See  War  in  Europe. 

The  dialects  spoken  by  the  Ukrainians  differ 
from  Great  Russian  (see  Russian  Language) 
by  such  phonetic  changes  as  i  for  Russian  e(ie)  ; 
h  for  g ;  another  i  sound  for  primarv  o  and  e 
in  closed  syllables;  etc.  The  early  literature  of 
Kievite  Russia  (see  Russian  Literature)  was 
largely  Ukrainian  literature.  The  modern 
Ukrainian  literature,  as  distinct  from  the  Rus¬ 
sian,  was  inaugurated  in  1798  by  Kotliarevsky 
(q.v.)  and  illustrated  by  such  writers  as  the 
poet  Shevchenko  (q.v.)  and  the  novelists  and 
storv-writers  Storozhenko  (1817-74),  Levitski- 
Nechui  (1838-  ),  Panas  Mirny,  and  Evdotia 

Panaev-Stanitski  (1820-93).  With  the  seventies 
the  centre  of  Ukrainian  literary  activity  was 
shifted  to  Galicia,  where  the  Ukrainians  could 
write  without  fear  of  government  interference. 
The  most  distinguished  modern  writers  are  Boris 
Grinchenko  (1863-1910),  Ivan  Franko  (1856- 

),  the  novelist  Kotsinbinski  (died  1913), 
the  poets  Konisski  (1836-1900)  and  Lesia 
Ukrainka  (died  1903),  and  the  dramatist  Tobile- 
vich  (1845-1907). 


Bibliography.  In  Russian:  the  histories  of 
Efimenko  (St.  Petersburg,  1906);  Kovalevski 
(ib.,  1912)  ;  Grushevski’s  Survey  (3d  ed.,  Kiev, 
and  his  Illustrated  History  of  the  Ukraine 

T(TSt-,^te/sbur"’'  1913);  P°g°din>  The  Slavic 
World  (Moscow,  1915);  in  Ukrainian:  Grushev- 

skis  History  of  the  Ukrainian  People  (Kiev, 
1904-  ;  vol.  i  in  Ger.  trans.,  Leipzig,  1906). 

i  ei iodicals :  Ruthenische  Revue  (Vienna,  1903- 
OS),  continued  as  Ukrainische  Rundschau: 
Revue  Ukraimenne  (Lausanne,  1915  et  seq.)  ; 
Ann  ales  des  Nationaliies  (Paris,  issue  of  March 
1913)  and  Svohoda  of  Feb.  29,  1916  (Jersey 
City).  The  propagandist  literature  in  English 
on  the  so-called  Ukrainian  Question  is  fairlv 
large.  Mention  may  be  made  of  Fedorchuk. 
Memorandum  on  The  Ukrainian  Question  (Lon¬ 
don,  1914);  Bedwin  Sands  (A.  Raffalovich ) , 
The  Ukraine  (ib.,  1914),  containing  a  good  bib¬ 
liography;  Steffen,  Russia,,  Poland  and  The 
Ukraine  { New  York,  1915);  and  Ukraine’s  Call 
to  Freedom  (ib.,  1915).  There  are  literary  his¬ 
tories  and  monographs  by  Franko  (Lemberg, 
1910),  Efremov  (Kiev,  1911),  Ogonovski  (Lem¬ 
berg,  1884-86),  N.  Petrov,  and  Zhitetski;  in 
German,  Pypin  and  Spasovich,  Geschichte  der 
slavischen  Literaturen,  vol.  i  (Leipzig,  1880). 
Further,  Pypin,  History  of  Russian  Ethnography, 
vol.  111  (St.  Petersburg,  1900);  Grinchenko, 
Literature  of  Ukrainian  Folklore  /  Levitski, 
Galician  Russian  Bibliography  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (Lemberg,  1888-89);  Literatumo- 
Naukovy  Vistnik  (ib.,  1898  et  seq.). 

ULBACH,  ul'bash',  Louis  (1822-89).  A 
French  novelist,  born  at  Troyes.  Fie  began  his 
career  as  a  journalist  and  took  part  in  several 
violent  controversies,  the  most  notable  of  which 
concerned  his  accusation  that  Edmond  About 
(q.v.)  in  his  novel  Tolla  had  been  guilty  of 
plagiarism.  Ulbach  was  appointed  librarian  of 
the  Arsenal  Library  in  1875.  He  wrote  many 
popular  novels,  including:  M.  et  Mme.  Fernel 
(1860)  ;  La  ronde  de  nuit  (1874)  ;  Le  crime  de 
Martial  (1880);  Le  marteau  d’acier  (1882); 
Autour  de  V amour  (1885);  La  maitresse  du 
general  (1887),  and  Le  parrain  de  Cendrillon 
(1888). 

ULCER  (from  Lat.  ulcus,  Gk.  e'X/co?,  helkos, 
sore,  ulcer,  wound ) .  An  open  sore ;  a  super¬ 
ficial  solution  in  the  continuity  of  the  soft  parts. 
The  tendency  of  an  ulcer  is  towards  continued 
dissolution  of  the  tissues  in  which  it  exists, 
rather  than  towards  healing,  as  in  the  case  of  an 
ordinary  open  granulating  wound,  the  latter 
being  less  frequently  (though  properly)  called 
an  ulcer.  They  are  usually  classified  according 
to  character  and  mode  of  origin  into  simple  and 
specific  or  infective  ulcers.  Infective  ulcers  may 
result  from  such  infective  diseases  as  syphilis, 
tubercle,  leprosy,  and  glanders.  Among  the  sim¬ 
ple  ulcers  may  be  mentioned  a  number  of  va¬ 
rieties,  such  as  the  traumatic  or  inflammatory , 
the  varicose  or  chronic,  the  erethritic  or  irritable, 
the  perforating  or  trophic,  the  callous  or  indo¬ 
lent  ulcer,  the  hemorrhagic,  the  phagedenic,  and 
the  fungous  ulcer. 

The  structures  to  which  ulceration  is  usually 
limited  are  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes. 
Upon  the  surface  of  an  ulcer  a  layer  of  inflam¬ 
matory  exudate  is  found,  mingled  with  frag¬ 
ments  of  broken-down  tissue  or  tissue  in  a  state 
of  coagulation  necrosis.  Beneath  this  lies  a 
layer  of  granulation  tissue,  composed  of  polynu¬ 
clear  leucocytes  and  epithelioid  cells,  with  rela¬ 
tively  little  intercellular  substance,  but  richly 


ULEILAS 


ULEABORG  630 


supplied  with  a  network  of  capillary  blood  ves¬ 
sels,  and  forming  the  base  of  the  ulcer.  Below 
this  there  is  usually  found  some  of  the  fibrous 
tissue  of  the  deeper  layers  of  the  skin.  The 
edo-es  of  the  ulcer  consist  of  the  sui  rounding 
skin,  more  or  less  altered  by  inflammatory 
changes.  The  margins  of  an  ulcer  are  occasion¬ 
ally  undermined  by'the  ulcerative  process,  or  they 
may  become  firmly  adhesive  to  the  periosteum  of 
bone  or  other  subjacent  structures.  The  varicose 
ulcer,  the  form  most  commonly  seen  by  the  sur¬ 
geon,  is  situated  usually  on  the  front  of  the  leg, 
above  its  lower  third.  Around  it  are  generally 
seen  the  numerous  dilated  and  congested  veins 
whose  condition  is  responsible  for  the  ulcerative 
process.  Passive  hypersemia  and  its  resultant 
enfeebled  nutrition  are  the  fundamental  causes 
of  ulceration  in  this  locality. 

The  treatment  of  ulceration  in  general  may  be 
regarded  as  constitutional  and  local.  Constitu¬ 
tional  treatment  consists  in  fresh  air,  nourish¬ 
ing  diet,  proper  hygienic  surroundings,  adminis¬ 
tration  of  iron  where  anaemia  exists,  and  ap¬ 
propriate  medication  for  any  specific  constitu¬ 
tional  disease  that  may  be  present.  Tuberculous 
ulcers  are  often  healed  rapidly  by  exposure  to 
the  sunlight.  Local  treatment  consists  in  rest 
and  elevation  of  the  part,  antiseptic  measures, 
and  the  application  of  special  local  forms  of 
treatment  adapted  to  the  conditions  present  at 
the  site  of  ulceration.  Bandaging,  strapping, 
and  the  application  of  various  stimulating  sub¬ 
stances  are  the*  measures  generally  employed. 
An  ointment  of  “scarlet  red,”  an  anilin  dye,  is 
often  applied  to  hasten  epithelial  growth.  Con¬ 
sult:  E.  M.  Foote,  A  Textbook  of  Minor  Sur¬ 
gery  (New  York,  1914)  ;  E.  Adams,  Treatment 
of  Chronic  Leg  Ulcers  (ib.,  1914)  ;  J.  C.  DaCosta, 
Modern  Surgery  (7th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1914). 

ULEABORG,  uTe-6-borV.  The  northernmost 
government  of  Finland,  Russia  (Map:  Russia, 
C  1).  Area,  63,954  square  miles,  or  44  per 
cent  of  the  area  of  Finland.  The  surface  is 
densely  wooded  and  interspersed  with  lakes  and 
marshes.  The  climate  is  very  severe.  The  chief 
industry  is  lumbering.  There  are  also  some 
metal  works  and  tanneries.  Pop.,  1912,  326,900, 
almost  exclusively  Finns. 

ULEABORG  (Finnish,  Oulu).  The  capital  of 
the  Government  of  Uleaborg,  in  Finland,  Rus¬ 
sia,  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  498  miles  by  rail 
north  of  Helsingfors  ( Map  :  Russia,  C  2 ) .  Its 
trade  includes  produce,  coal,  iron,  salt,  raw 
hides,  and  timber.  Pop.,  1913,  21,000. 

ULEMA,  ul'a-ma  (Ar.  ulama ,  pi.  of  alim, 
learned,  from  alima,  to  know ) .  The  lawyers 
of  Islam.  This  religion  has  no  ecclesiastical 
ministry,  as  any  one  of  the  Faithful  may  lead 
a  congregation  in  prayer  as  Imam.  But,  as 
theoretically  every  detail  of  life  is  to  be  guided 
by  the  letter  of  the  Koran,  along  with  all  the 
approved  traditions  and  orthodox  interpreta¬ 
tions,  there  is  the  necessity  of  a  class  of  men 
learned  in  the  canon  law,  to  act  as  advisers  of  the 
Faithful  in  all  these  emergencies.  The  Ulemas, 
therefore,  correspond  most  closely  to  the  class 
of  the  Scribes  or  Rabbis  in  Judaism.  Their 
province  is  now  confined  to  a  limited  field  in 
the  Turkish  Empire.  By  dictating  details  of 
domestic  life,  they  wield  vast  authority  over  the 
people,  and  stand  independent  of,  and  often  op¬ 
posed  to,  the  secular  government.  They  are  re¬ 
cruited  mostly  from  the  lower  classes.  The  can¬ 
didates  go  up  to  the  schools  or  universities, 
where  the  scholar  remains  three  or  four  years, 


passing  successively  through  the  disciplines  of 
grammar,  dogma,  and  law.  He  may  also  pursue 
logic,  rhetoric,  etc.  The  great  Mohammedan 
university  is  that  of  Cairo.  The  order  is 
hierarchically  graded.  Above  the  lowest  class 
stand  the  muftis  and  mollahs  (qq.v.). 

U'LEX.  See  Furze. 

U'LEXITE  (named  in  honor  of  G.  L.  Ulex, 
a  German  chemist).  A  hydrated  sodium  and 
calcium  borate  that  occurs  in  rounded  masses, 
consisting  of  fine  fibres.  It  has  a  silky  lustre, 
and  is  white.  It  is  an  important  source  of 
bor£ix 

ULEELDT,  ool'felt,  Korfiz,  Count  (1606- 
64).  A  Danish  adventurer.  Through  marriage 
with  Leonora  Christina,  the  natural  daughter  of 
King  Christian  IV,  he  rose  to  high  office,  being 
made  governor  of  Copenhagen  and  royal  steward 
(1643).  He  retained  his  influence  after  the  ac¬ 
cession  of  Frederick  III,  the  enmity  of  whose 
Queen,  however,  forced  him  in  1653  to  flee  to 
Sweden.  In  1657  he  fought  against  his  native 
country,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Roskilde  (1658) 
was  restored  to  his  estates.  After  many  vicissi¬ 
tudes  he  died  a  fugitive  near  Basel,  Feb.  20, 
1664.  His  wife  was  kept  a  prisoner  at  Copen¬ 
hagen  from  1663  to  1685,  and  wrote  an  account 
of  her  captivity  in  Jammers  Minde,  a  notable 
specimen  of  Danish  prose.  She  died  in  1698. 
Consult  Ziegler,  Denlcwurdigkeiten  der  Grafin 
Leonora  Christina,  vermdhlten  Grafin  Ulfeldt 
(Vienna,  1879). 

ULEILAS,  uFfi-las,  Gothic  WULEILA,  wul'- 
fi-la  (little  wolf)  (c.311-c.383) .  Bishop  of  the 
Goths,  and  translator  of  the  Bible  into  Gothic. 
He  was  born  in  Dacia.  Tradition  relates  that 
his  ancestors  were  Cappadocian  Christians  who 
had  been  taken  captive  by  the  Goths  and  lived 
many  years  among  them.  Early  in  life  he  was  a 
lector'  or  reader  of  the  Scriptures  among  his 
countrymen,  and  in  341  he  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  the  West  Goths  by  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia  (q.v. )  at  a  synod  at  Antioch.  He 
was  then  and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  an 
Arian.  For  seven  years  he  worked  with  much 
success  as  a  missionary  north  of  the  Danube. 
In  348  the  persecution  of  a  heathen  chief  com¬ 
pelled  Ulfilas  and  his  flock  to  emigrate,  and, 
with  the  consent  of  the  Emperor  Constantine, 
they  settled  in  Mcesia,  in  Byzantine  territory 
south  of  the  Danube.  For  more  than  30  years 
Ulfilas  continued  his  activity  as  the  apostle  to 
the  Goths;  he  died  at  Constantinople,  whither 
he  had  been  summoned  by  the  Emperor.  L  lfilas 
had  a  good  knowledge  of  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Gothic,  and  preached  and  wrote  in  all  three 
languages.  He  is  remembered  chiefly  for  his 
translation  of  the  Bible,  which  marks  not  only 
the  beginning  of  Christianity  among  his  people, 
but  of  Germanic  literature  as  well.  His  plan 
is  said  to  have  included  the  entire  Bible  with  the 
exception  of  the  Books  of  Kings,  which  he 
thought  contained  too  much  about  wars  for  the 
good  of  his  fierce  countrymen.  The  portions  of 
his  work  which  have  been  preserved  are  most 
of  the  four  Gospels,  the  Second  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  and  other  fragments,  comprising 
the  greater  portion  of  the  New  Testament;  of  the 
Old  ^Testament,  portions  of  the  Books  of  Ne- 
hemiah  and  Genesis  only.  The  chief  manuscript 
is  the  so-called  Codex  Argenteus,  written  with 
silver  letters  on  purple  parchment  and  now  in 
the  library  of  the  University  of  Upsala.  Edi¬ 
tions  of  all  the  fragments  have  been  published 
bv  Von  der  Gabelenz  and  Lobe  (3  vols.,  Leipzig, 

V 


ULLATHORNE 


631  ULRICH 


1843—46);  Uppstrom,  Codex  Argenteus ,  in  fac¬ 
simile  (Upsala,  1854-57);  Fragmenta  Gothica 
hclecta  (ib.,  1861)  ;  Codices  Gothici  Ambrosiani 
( Stockholm,  1868);  Bernhardt  (Halle,  1875); 
Heyne  (9th  ed.,  Paderborn,  1896)  ;  Stamm  (11th 
ed.,  ib.,  1908).  Consult  also:  W.  Bessell,  Ueber 
das  Leben  des  Ulfilas  und  die  Bekehrung  der 
Goten  zum  Christentum  (Gottingen,  1860)  ; 
C.  A.  A.  Scott,  Ulfilas:  Apostle  of  the  Goth's 
(London,  1885);  Cambridge  Mediceval  History, 
vol.  i  (New  York,  1911). 

ULLATHORNE,  ul'a-thorn,  William  Ber¬ 
nard  (1806-89).  An  English  Roman  Catholic 
prelate,  born  at  Pocklington,  Yorkshire.  He 
"  ent  to  sea  in  1821,  entered  the  Benedictine 
monastery  at  Downside,  near  Bath,  in  1823, 
and  took  the  vaws  in  1825.  Ordained  a  priest 
in  1831,  he  was  vicar  general  at  Sydney,  Aus¬ 
tralia,  in  1833-36;  returning  to  England,  he 
agitated  against  the  transportation  system  in 
1836—38 ;  and  then  spent  two  more  years  in  Aus¬ 
tralia.  In  1841  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  a 
mission  at  Coventry,  in  1845  became  Bishop 
of  the  west  of  England.  From  1850  to  1888, 
when  he  retired,  he  served  as  Bishop  of  Birming¬ 
ham.  His  writings  on  religious  subjects  include: 
The  Endowments  of  Man  (1882)  ;  The  Ground¬ 
work  of  the  Christian  Virtues  (1883)  ;  Christian 
Patience  (1886).  Consult  his  Autobiography 
(London,  1891).  J 

ULLMARHST,  ul'man,  Karl  (1796-1865).  A 
German  Protestant  theologian.  He  was  born  at 
Epfenbach,  Bavaria, .  and  studied  theology  at 
Heidelberg  and  Tubingen.  He  was  appointed 
piofessor  at  Heidelberg  in  1821.  In  connection 
with  Umbreit  he  established  in  1828  the  Theolo- 
gische  Studien  und  Kritiken.  He  was  professor 
at  Halle,  1829-36,  after  which  he  returned  to 
Heidelberg.  He  was  president  of  the  supreme 
ecclesiastical  council  of  Baden,  1856-61.  His 
most  important  works  were  Gregor  von  ~Nazianz 
(1825;  2d  ed.,  1867)  ;  Hie  Reformatoren  vor  der 
Reformation  (1841;  2d  ed.,  1866:  Eng.  trans., 
1877);  Ueber  die  Sundlosigkeit  Jesu  (7th  ed., 
1863)  ;  Das  1 V esen  des  Christenthums  (5th  ed., 
1865),  all  of  which  were  translated  into  English. 
His  chief  writings  were  published  in  five  volumes 
(Gotha,  1863-67).  Consult  his  Life  bv  Bey- 
schlag  (Gotha,  1867). 

ULLOA,  ul-yo'a,  Antonio  de  (1716-95).  A 
Spanish  statesman  and  scientist,  born  at  Seville. 
He  entered  the  Spanish  navy,  and  in  1735  ac¬ 
companied  to  South  America  the  French  scien¬ 
tific  expedition  sent  out  to  measure  a  degree  of 
the  meridian  at  the  equator.  He  became  rear 
admiral  in  1760,  went  to  Louisiana  as  Governor 
in  1764,  and  was  made  lieutenant  general  of  the 
naval  forces  in  1770.  He  was  sent  on  a  secret 
expedition  against  Florida,  but  his  zeal  as  nat¬ 
uralist  made  him  forget  his  sealed  orders  and 
brought  him  before  a  court-martial  (1780). 
He  was  acquitted,  but  lived  in  retirement.  He 
wrote  the  important  work  Aoticias  americanas, 
entretenimientos  fisico-historicos  sobre  la  Amer¬ 
ica  Mcridonal  y  la  Septentrional  Oriental  .  . 
(Madrid,  1772). 

ULLOA’S  RING.  See  Anthelia. 
ULLSWATER,  ulz'wa'ter.  The  largest  of 
the  English  lakes,  after  Windermere,  lying  be¬ 
tween  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  10  miles 
east  of  Keswick  (Map:  England,  D  2).  Length, 
Sy2  miles;  breadth,  %  to  %  miie.  jts  scenery 
is  rugged  and  grand,  and  one  of  its  chief  features 
is  Helvellyn. 

ULM,  ulm.  A  city  of  the  Kingdom  of  Wiirt- 


temberg,  Germany,  and  an  important  Imperial 
fortress  at  the  junction  of  the  Iller  and  the 
i  Jau  with  the  Danube,  which  here  becomes  navi¬ 
gable,  43  miles  west  of  Augsburg  (Map:  Ger- 
many,  D  4).  Two  bridges  unite  the  city  with 
JNew  Ulm,  a  village  on  the  Bavarian  side  of 
the  Danube.  The  streets  are  narrow.  The  min¬ 
ster  (a  Protestant  church)  is  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  and  beautiful  example  of  late  Gothic 
architecture  in  Germany,  and  next  to  Cologne 
Cathedral  is  the  largest  churcli  in  that  country. 
It  is  40/  feet  long,  159  feet  broad,  and  the  spire 
(finished  1890)  is  530  feet  high.  The  building 
was  begun  in  1377,  and  finished,  except  the 
spire,  in  1494.  The  leading  industries  are  flax, 
cotton,  and  woolen  weaving;  bleaching;  the 
manufacture  of  paper,  leather,  and  mixed  fabrics; 
beer  brewing,  shipbuilding,  printing,  etc.  Ulm 
is  famed  for  ornamental  pipe  bowls,  its  pastry, 
called  Ulmer  bread,,  and  its  trimmed  lumber, 
lop.,  1910,  56,109.  Ulm  was  a  free  Imperial 
city  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century,  and  had 
become  very  prosperous  by  the  close  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  In  1530  the  city  accepted  the  Ref- 
oimation,  and  the  majority  of  the  people  have 
since  been  Lutherans.  In  1802  Ulm  was  at¬ 
tached  to  Bavaria,  and  became  part  of  Wiirt- 
temberg  in  1810.  Here  on  Oct.  17,  1805,  the 
Austrian  general  Mack  surrendered  to  the 
French  with  about  23,000  men.  Consult:  Pres- 
sel,  Ulmisches  Urkundenbuch  (Stuttgart,  1873)  ; 
Loeffler,  Geschiclite  der  Festung  Ulm  (Ulm, 
1883);  Schultes,  Chronik  von  Ulm  (ib./  1886). 

UL'MIN.  See  Humus. 

ULfPIAN  (Domitius  Ulpianus).  A  distin¬ 
guished  Roman  jurist,  a  citizen  of  Tyre,  who 
lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  second  and  the 
first  part  of  the  third  century.  Under  Septimius 
Severus  (193-211  a.d.  )  he  became  assessor  in  the 
auditorium  of  Papinian,  i.e.,  he  was  an  as¬ 
sociate  justice  when  Papinian  was  praetorian 
preiect  or  Chief  Justice  of  the  Empire.  Under 
Caracalla,  who  put  Papinian  to  death,  Ulpian 
retained  his  position;  but  Elagabalus  stripped 
him  of  his  dignities  and  exiled  him  from  Rome. 
On  the  accession  (222  a.d.)  of  the  youthful  Alex¬ 
ander  Severus,  to  whose  mother  he  was  related, 
Ulpian  was  recalled,  appointed  guardian  of  the 
Emperor  and  praetorian  prefect,  and  became  the 
virtual  Regent  of  the  Empire.  He  was  slain  in 
228  a.d.  in  a  rising  of  the  Praetorian  Guard. 
Ulpian  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  of  the 
Roman  legal  writers.  Besides  voluminous  com¬ 
mentaries  on  the  civil  law  and  on  the  praetorian 
edict,  he  published  collections  of  cases  (opinions, 
responses,  etc. ) ,  books  of  rules  and  institutions, 
treatises  on  the  powers  and  duties  of  different 
magistrates,  and  many  monographs.  On  account 
of  the  lucidity  of  his  style,  Justinian’s  compilers 
drew  more  largely  upon  his  writings  than  upon 
those  of  any  other  jurist.  Excerpts  from  his 
works  constitute  one-third  of  the  Digest.  Out¬ 
side  of  Justinian’s  Digest,  only  one  of  Ulpian’s 
books  has  been  even  partially  preserved,  viz.,  his 
monograph  .  on  rules  ( Liber  Singula  ris  Regu- 
larum) ,  which  appears  to  have  been  a  handbook 
for  practitioners.  It  is  frequently  printed  with 
the  Institutes  of  Gaius,  as  in  Muirhead’s  edition 
(Edinburgh,  1880),  and  in  that  of  Abdy  and 
Walker  (3d  ed.,  Cambridge,  Eng.,  1885)'.  See 
Civil  Law;  Jurisconsult. 

ULRICH,  ool'rik  (1487-1550).  Duke  of 
Wiirttemberg.  He  was  the  son  of  Count  Henry 
IV,  and  at  the  age  of  11  succeeded  to  the  duke¬ 
dom,  assuming  personal  power  in  1503.  He 


ULRICH 


ULTRAMONTANISTS 


632 


added  to  the  territory  of  Wiirttemberg,  but  so 
impoverished  the  peasantry  that  in  1514  they 
rose  in  revolt.  This  he  quelled  only  after  many 
important  concessions.  By  the  murder  of  Hans 
von  Hutten,  brother  of  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  he 
aroused  the  enmity  of  the  dukes  of  Bavaria  and 
the  nobility.  He  was  placed  under  the  ban  of 
the  Empire,  and  was  driven  from  the  country  by 
the  Swabian  League  in  1519,  and  his  possessions 
were  sold  by  the  league  to  Charles  V,  who  trans¬ 
ferred  them  afterward  to  his  brother  Ferdinand. 
Ulrich  went  over  to  the  Protestants,  and  with 
the  aid  of  Philip  of  Hesse  won  back  his  dukedom, 
at  the  head  of  an  army  of  20,000  men  (1534), 
but  only  as  a  fief  of  Austria.  He  then  carried 
on  the  work  of  the  Reformation,  joined  the 
Schmalkaldic  League,  and  fought  against  Charles 
V  in  1546.  He  bought  a  precarious  peace  from 
the  Emperor  at  great  cost,  and  died  in  1550  just 
as  he  was  again  threatened  with  deposition. 
Consult  Kugler,  Ulrich,  Herzog  zu  Wiirttemberg 
(Stuttgart,  1865). 

ULRICH,  ul'rik,  Charles  Frederick  (1858- 
1908).  An  American  painter.  He  was  born  in 
New  York  City  and  studied  there  at  Cooper  In¬ 
stitute  and  the  National  Academy,  and  after¬ 
ward  in  Munich.  In  1883  he  was  awarded  the 
Thomas  B.  Clarke  prize  for  his  picture  “In  the 
Land  of  Promise,”  and  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  National  Academy.  His  pictures,  which 
are  detailed  in  treatment  and  minutely  finished, 
include  “The  Carpenter,”  “A  Dutch  Typesetter,” 
“The  Wood  Engraver,”  and  “Glass  Blowers  of 
Murano”  (Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York). 

ULRICH,  Edward  Oscar  (1857-  ).  An 

American  paleontologist,  born  at  Cincinnati, 
Ohio.  He  studied  at  German  Wallace  College, 
Berea,  Ohio,  and  at  Ohio  Medical  College.  He 
was  curator  of  geology  for  the  Cincinnati  So¬ 
ciety  of  Natural  History  in  1877-81,  served  as 
paleontologist  to  the  geological  surveys  of  Illi¬ 
nois,  Minnesota,  and  Ohio  between  1885  and 
1896,  and  after  1897  was  geologist  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey.  For  ten  years  he  was 
an  associate  editor  of  the  American  Geologist. 
His  publications  include:  American  Palceozoic 
Bryozoa  (1884);  American  Palceozoic  Sponges 
and  Palceozoic  Bryozoa  (1890)  ;  Geology  of  the 
Lead,  Zinc,  and  Fluor  Spar  District  of  Western 
Kentucky  (1904)  ;  A  Revision  of  Palceozoic  Sys¬ 
tems  (1911). 

ULRICH  VON  HUTTEN,  yl'riK  f6n  hut'- 

ten.  See  Hutten,  Ulrich  von. 

ULRICH  VON  LICHTENSTEIN,  liiUten- 
stln  (c.1200-76).  A  German  minnesinger,  born 
in  Styria,  of  an  ancient  noble  race,  and  who  was 
Landeshauptmann  of  Styria  in  1245,  headed  the 
refractory  Styrian  nobility,  and  went  through  a 
terrible  imprisonment  in  his  own  castle  of 
Frauenburg.  His  chief  work,  Frauendienst 
( 1255) ,  is  valuable  for  the  history  of  civilization. 
It  describes  many  tournaments  and  foolish  adven¬ 
tures,  which  he,  a  married  man  and  an  other¬ 
wise  sensible  gentleman  of  good  reputation, 
claims  to  have  undertaken  in  the  service  of  a 
high-born  mistress.  Unintentionally  it  reduced  the 
decadent  woman  cult  of  the  day  to  an  absurdity. 
However,  it  contains  some  graceful  lyrics.  The 
Frauendienst  was  published  by  Bechstein  in  two 
volumes  (Leipzig,  1888).  Consult  also  Falke, 
Geschichte  der  fiissleicJien  Pauses  Lichtenstein, 
vol.  i  (Vienna,  1868)  ;  Ivnorr,  Ueber  Ulrich  von 
Lichtenstein  (Strassburg,  1875)  ;  Becker,  Wahr- 
heit  und  Dichtung  in  U.  von  Lichtensteins 
Frauendienst  (Halle,  1888). 


ULRICH  VON  TURHEIM,  tur'hlm.  A 

Swabian  noble  and  epic  poet  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Of  the  details  of '  his  life  nothing  is 
known.  He  continued,  using  other  sources,  Gott¬ 
fried  von  Strassburg’s  Tristan  und  Isolde,  and 
Wolfram  von  Eschenbach’s  Willehalm.  The  for¬ 
mer  is  conjecturally  dated  1240,  the  latter,  en¬ 
titled  Der  starlce  Renneicart,  1250.  Consult: 
Bechstein,  Tristan  und  Isolde  (Leipzig,  1875)  ; 
Lolimeyer,  Die  Handschriften  des  Willehalm 
Ulrich  von  Turheim  (Halle,  1882)  ;  and  article 
by  O.  Kohl  in  Zeitschrift  fur  deutsche  Philologie , 
vol.  xiii  (ib.,  1882). 

ULRICI,  ul-re'tse,  Hermann  (1806-84).  A 
German  philosopher,  born  at  Pforten,  Branden¬ 
burg.  He  studied  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  and  after 
a  brief  career  as  a  lawyer  devoted  himself  ex¬ 
clusively  to  literature  and  philosophy.  In  1834 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Halle,  where  he  resided  till  his  death.  Among 
his  works  are  to  be  mentioned:  Geschichte  der 
hellenischen  Dichtkunst  (1835);  Ueber  Shake- 
spearcs  dramatische  Kunst  (1839;  Eng.  trans., 
1864)  ;  Ueber  Princip  und  Methode  der  Hegels- 
chen  Philosophic  (1841);  Das  Grundprincip  der 
Philosophic  (1845-46);  System  der  Logik 
(1852)  ;  Gott  und  die  Natur  (1862)  ;  Gott  und 
der  Mensch  (1866-72).  He  was  an  opponent  of 
the  Hegelian  philosophy,  and  endeavored  to  es¬ 
tablish  an  empirical  idealism. 

UL'STER.  The  northernmost  province  of 
Ireland,  comprising  the  nine  counties  of  Antrim, 
Armagh,  Cavan,  Donegal,  Down,  Fermanagh, 
Londonderry,  Monaghan,  and  Tyrone  ( qq.v. ) . 
Total  area,  8613  square  miles.  Pop.,  1861,  2,- 
389,263;  1901,  1,582,826;  1911,  1,581,696.  The 
Presbyterians  and  Episcopalians  constitute  more 
than  half  of  the  inhabitants. 

UL'STERITES.  See  Party  Names. 

UL'STER  KING-AT-ARMS.  The  chief 
heraldic  officer  of  Ireland.  See  King-at-Arms. 

ULTIMA  THULE,  fil'ti-ma  thu'le.  See 
Thule. 

UL'TRAMARINE'  (from  Lat.  ultra,  beyond 
+  marinus,  marine,  from  mare,  sea).  A  blue 
pigment  originally  obtained  from  the  mineral 
lazulite,  or  lapis  lazuli  (q.v. ).  The  finest  speci¬ 
mens  of  lazulite  come  from  various  localities  in 
Persia,  Siberia,  and  Chile,  and  when  ground  form 
the  pigment;  but,  as  only  a  very  small  proportion 
of  that  mineral  is  available,  the  pigment  is  very 
expensive.  In  1828  Guimet,  of  Toulouse,  was 
successful  in  producing  it  on  a  commercial  scale, 
and  almost  simultaneously  a  synthetical  method 
for  its  preparation  was  announced  by  Gmelin, 
of  Tubingen.  For  the  manufacture  of  artificial 
ultramarine,  sodium  sulphate,  china  clay,  and 
carbon  are  ground  together  and  heated  in  cruci¬ 
bles,  afterward  being  roasted  with  powdered  sul¬ 
phur.  A  so-called  direct  method,  which  is  said 
to  yield  better  results,  consists  in  calcining  in  a 
muffle  furnace  a  mixture  of  sulphur,  china  clay, 
soda  ash,  charcoal,  and  some  infusorial  earth. 
The  pigment  fords  extensive  use  in  the  arts  as  a 
coloring  material,  owing  to  its  brilliancy  as  a 
body  color  and  high  coloring  power.  Cobalt 
ultramarine,  or  Tlffinard’s  blue,  is  a  pigment  pre¬ 
pared  by  mixing  freshly  precipitated  alumina 
with  cobalt  arsenate  or  phosphate,  drying  the 
mixture,  and  then  slowly  heating  it  to  redness. 
Yellow  ultramarine  is  a  pigment  consisting  of 
barium  chromate.  Laundry  blueing  was  for¬ 
merly  made  from  ultramarine. 

ULTRA-MICROSCOPE.  See  Microscope. 

UL'TRAMON'TANISTS  (from  Lat.  ultra, 


ULTRA  VIRES 


ULTRA-VIOLET  RAY  633 


beyond  -f-  montanus,  mountainous,  relating  to  a 
mountain,  from  mons,  mountain;  from  the  ge- 
ographical  position  of  Italy  relative  to  countries 
north  of  the  Alps,  and  hence  applied  to  the 
Italian  party  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church). 
T  he  name  applied  to  those  who  recognize  the 
papal  claim  of  supremacy  over  all  national 
churches  and  sovereigns.  Since  1870  it  has  been 
used  also  as  a  designation  of  all  who  accept  the 
decrees  of  the  Vatican  Council,  and  in  a  broader 
sense  it  has  been  applied  to  the  most  conserva¬ 
tive  element  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  In 
a  purely  political  sense  it  has  come  to  be  used 
to  designate  the  extreme  Catholic  party  in  al¬ 
most  every  nation  of  northern  Europe.  The 
Ultramontanists  as  a  church  party  first  ap¬ 
peared  in  the  papacy  of  Gregory  VII  (q.v.), 
who  maintained  that  the  Pope  had  the  power 
to  depose  and  absolve  temporal  rulers.  The  en¬ 
forcement  of  this  theory  would  have  had  the  ef¬ 
fect  of  entirely  superseding  the  freedom  of  action 
of  the  various  churches,  and  its  assertion  aroused 
powerful  opposition  in  the  churches  of  Germany 
and  France.  After  the  Council  of  Constance 
(1414-18)  (q.v.)  the  struggle  between  the  Ultra¬ 
montanists  and  the  champions  of  the  liberties 
of  the  various  churches  became  the  principal 
point  of  dispute  within  the  ecclesiastical  body. 

I  he  opposition  in  the  Gallican  church  was  par¬ 
ticularly  active.  After  the  reconstruction  of 
Europe,  following  the  Napoleonic  wars,  the 
actual  influence  of  the  Ultramontanists  was  de¬ 
creased,  although  their  principles  were  still  often 
reasserted.  In  1869-70,  in  connection  with  the 
meeting  of  the  Vatican  Council  and  the  discus¬ 
sion  of  the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility,  the 
political  aspects  of  Ultramontanism  assumed 
new  importance.  In  Germany,  Austria,  and 
France  the  Catholic  parties  in  Parliament  are 
designated  by  the  name  of  Ultramontanes.  Con¬ 
sult  Hoenbroech,  Der  Ultramontanismus  (2d  ed., 
Berlin,  1898),  and  L.  K.  Gotz,  Der  Ultramon¬ 
tanismus  als  Weltanschauung  (Bonn,  1905). 

ULTRA-VIOLET  RAY  (Method  of  Water 
Purification  ) .  See  Water  Purification. 

ULTRA  VIRES,  ul'tra  vi'rez  (Lat.,  beyond 
one’s  powers ) .  A  legal  term  employed  to  indi¬ 
cate  the  acts  of,  or  contracts  entered  into  by, 
corporate  bodies  beyond  the  scope  of  the  powers 
given  to  them  expressly  or  by  implication  by 
their  charters  or  the  general  law  under  which 
they  were  created. 

Ultra-Vires  Contracts.  Ultra-vires  contracts 
of  corporations  should  be  distinguished  from 
those  which  are  illegal  either  by  statute  or  some 
rule  of  the  common  law.  Strictly  an  ultra-vires 
contract  of  a  corporation  is  without  legal  valid¬ 
ity  to  bind  the  corporation  because  the  act  is 
without  or  beyond  the  legal  powers  of  the  cor¬ 
poration,  that  is,  the  powers  specified  in  its  char¬ 
ter  or  certificate  of  incorporation,  and  those 
necessarily  to  be  implied  therefrom,  and  there¬ 
fore  has  no  legal  existence.  Illegal  contracts, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  without  such  validity  be¬ 
cause  of  the  positive  prohibition  of  such  con¬ 
tracts  by  the  statute  or  common  law  on  grounds 
of  public  policy.  This  distinction  is  important 
because  of  the  difference  in  the  consequences 
which  flow  respectively  from  ultra-vires  con¬ 
tracts  and  illegal  contracts  of  corporations. 
(For  a  fuller  discussion  of  this  subject,  see 
Quasi  Contracts.)  It  is  held  by  the  English 
courts,  by  the  Federal  courts  of  the  United 
States,  and  by  the  courts  of  some  of  the  States 
that  neither  party  to  an  ultra-vires  contract  can 


acquire  any  true  contract  rights  under  it.  In 
each  of  these  courts,  except  the  English  courts, 
it  is  also  held  that  in  case  either  party  has 
given  his  performance  under  such  a  contract, 
he  may  recover  the  property  or  thing  so  given  in 
an  appropriate  action,  or  the  value  of  the  per¬ 
formance.  so  given,  on  theory  of  quasi  contract. 
The  distinction  between  rights  on  the  contract 
and  in  quasi  contract  in  case  of  ultra-vires  con¬ 
tracts  is  often  of  the  greatest  importance. 

The  second  view  with  reference  to  ultva-vires 
contracts,  and  the  one  which  is  held  in  most  of 
the  States,  is  that  so  long  as  such  contracts  re¬ 
main  executory  neither  party  to  the  contract 
acquires  any  rights  under  it,  it  being  a  complete 
answer  to  an  action  brought  by  either  party 
either  for  damages  or  specific  performance  that 
the  contract  is  invalid  because  ultra  vires.  If, 
however,  either  party  has  performed  the  contract 
on  his  part,,  the  other  is  held  to  be  estopped  to 
deny  its  validity,  and  the  plaintiff  may  recover 
as  though  the  contract  were  originally  valid.  In 
a  few  States,  notably  New  York,  even  although 
the  contract  is  fully  performed  there  can  be  no 
recovery  unless  the  performance  has  benefited  the 
corporation.  The  application  of  the  doctrine  of 
estoppel  to  such  cases  is  anomalous  and  in  many 
cases  practically  does  away  with  the  doctrine  of 
ultra  vires.  In  the  case  of  negotiable  paper  is¬ 
sued  ultra  vires  by  a  corporation,  it  is  every¬ 
where  held  that  ultra,  vires  is  a  personal  and  not 
a  real  defense  (see  Negotiable  Instruments) r 
and  cannot  be  set  up  against  a  bona  fide  pur¬ 
chaser  for  value,  although  it  may  be  a  valid 
defense  against  the  original  taker*  or  holder  of 
the  paper.  In  determining  what  contracts  are 
ultra  vires,  the  courts  have  applied  liberal  rules 
of  interpretation,  holding  not  only  that  con¬ 
tracts  expressly  authorized  were  within  the 
powers  of  the  corporation,  but  that  it  has  all 
the  power  to  contract  which  can  fairly  be  im¬ 
plied  from  the  language  of  its  charter  and  from 
the  character  of  the  business  which  it  is  author¬ 
ized  to  conduct. 

Torts  and  Crime.  Strictly  all  torts  com¬ 
mitted  by  the  agents  of  a  corporation  while  act¬ 
ing  for  the  corporation  are  ultra  vires,  since  a 
corporation  has  no  express  or  implied  authority 
to  commit  tortious  acts.  Following  this  course 
of  reasoning,  the  early  tendency  of  the  courts 
was  to  hold  that  corporations  could  not  be  held 
legally  responsible  for  torts.  Governed,  how¬ 
ever,  by  considerations  of  policy,  courts  now  gen¬ 
erally  hold  that  corporations  are.  liable  for  all 
torts  of  their  agents  and  employees  committed 
by  them  within  the  scope  of  their  authority. 
When  malice  is  an  essential  element  in  the  tort, 
the  malice  of  the  agent  is  imputed  to  the  cor¬ 
porate  principal.  Upon  similar  principles  cor¬ 
porations  have  generally  been  held  responsible 
for  minor  criminal  offenses,  and  in  many  States 
there  are  now  special  statutes  governing  the 
criminal  responsibility  of  corporations.  It  has 
even  been  said  that  a  corporation  may  be 
guilty  of  a  crime  involving  specific  intent.*  See 
Criminal  Law. 

Courts  of  equity  will  take  jurisdiction  to  re¬ 
strain  ultra-vires  acts  at  the  suit  of  a  stock¬ 
holder  upon  his  showing  that  the  directors  or 
trustees  of  the  corporation  refuse  to  act.  There 
is  also  statutory  authority  in  some  States  for 
proceedings  brought  in  behalf  of  the  State  by 
the  Attorney-General  to  restrain  ultra-vires  acts 
when  they  are  working  a  public  injury,  and  at 
common  law  the  State  may  proceed  on  the  rela- 


ULUA 


ULYSSES 


tion  of  a  private  individual  to  compel  forfeiture 
of  the  charter  of  a  corporation  by  quo  war¬ 
ranto  (q.v.)  on  the  ground  that  the  corporation 
is  committing  ultra-vires  acts  under  such  cir¬ 
cumstances  as  to  amount  to  a  departure  from 
the  business  or  purposes  for  which  it  was  organ¬ 
ized.  Consult  the  authorities  referred  to  under 
Corporation;  Criminal  Law;  Equity;  Quasi 
Contract. 

ULUA,  ool'wa,  WOOLWA,  wool'wa,  or  Sumo. 
A  group  of  tribes  including  the  Sumo  proper,  the 
Cookra,  the  Poya,  and  others,  occupying  the 
headwaters  of  the  streams  which  empty  along 
the  east  coast  of  Nicaragua.  They  call  them¬ 
selves  Sumo,  the  other  names  having  probably 
been  bestowed  by  their  enemies,  the  Mosquito 
(q.v.).  They  are  below  middle  stature,  of  light 
brown  complexion  and  handsome  features,  with 
chests  and  arms  strongly  developed.  They  live 
in  huts  consisting  of  palm-leaf  roofs  raised  upon 
posts,  accommodating  four  families.  'The  wo¬ 
men  wear  only  a  short  skirt  of  bark  fibre. 
Painting  is  common,  and  they  also  flatten  the 
head.  They  plant  corn,  cacao,  sugar  cane,  and 
chile,  and  the  women  are  potters,  while  the  men 
are  expert  boatmen  and  lumberers.  Polygamy 
prevails,  and  girls  are  frequently  betrothed  al¬ 
most  in  infancy.  Boys  are  subjected  to  manhood 
ordeals.  Their  dead  are  buried  under  sheds, 
and  they  unwind  a  long  thread  from  the  former 
owner’s"  house  to  the  grave.  Recent  investiga¬ 
tions  by  Dr.  Lehmann  have  shown  that  the 
language  of  the  Ulua  or  Sumo  group  of  tribes 
is  recently  connected  with  that  of  the  Mosquito 
tribes  of  the  coast  and  the  Matagalpa  of  the 
interior. 

ULUGH-BEG,  oo'luG-beg'  or  -ba'  ( 1394-1449 ) . 
A  Persian  prince  and  astronomer,  the  grandson 
of  Timur  (q.v.).  He  succeeded,  in  1447,  to  the 
Imperial  throne  of  Samarkand  on  his  father’s 
death.  He  was  a  successful  warrior,  but  was 
finally  defeated,  captured,  and  put  to  death  by 
his  eldest  son,  who  had  been  driven  to  rebellion 
by  his  father’s  unjust  suspicions  of  his  loyalty. 

Ulugh-Beg  founded  the  observatory  at  Sa¬ 
markand.  He  is  noted  as  a  patron  of  astrono¬ 
mers,  and  was  himself  a  diligent  observer.  His 
principal  contribution  to  astronomical  science  is 
his  star  catalogue,  the  first  original  one  since 
that  made  by  Ptolemy.  The  astronomical  works 
of  Ulugh-Beg  were  written  in  Arabic,  afterward 
translated  into  Persian,  and  thence  the  chrono¬ 
logical  portion  of  them  into  Latin  by  Greaves 
(London,  1650),  and  the  geographical  part 
(1652).  An  independent  version  in  Latin  and 
Persian  was  published  by  Hyde  (Oxford,  1665). 
The  latest  edition  of  the  star  catalogue  was 
edited  by  Baily  in  1843,  and  published  in  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society, 
vol.  xiii  (London,  1843). 

TJL'VA.  A  marine  genus  of  the  green  algae 
( Chlorophyceae)  (q.v.),  known  as  sea  lettuce, 
the  flat  membranous  body  resembling  a  leaf  in 
appearance  but  not  in  structure. 

UL'VERSTON.  A  seaport  in  Lancashire, 
England,  22  miles  northwest  of  Lancaster  (Map: 
England,  C  2 ) .  Its  parish  church  dates  from 
1111.  It  stands  in  an  extensive  agricultural  and 
mining  district,  and  has  manufactures  of  iron, 
boilers,  linen,  paper,  ropes,  hardware,  and  chemi¬ 
cals.  Pop.,  1901,  10,064;  1911,  9552. 

ULYSSES,  u-lis'ez  ( Lat.  Ulysses,  Ulixes,OUxes, 
Athen.,  Boeot.,  Corinth.  Gk.  ’O Xvaaevs,  Olysseus, 
’OXvrrevs,  Olytteus,  general  Gk.  ’Odvaaevs,  Odys¬ 
seus,  probably  of  Illyrian  origin,  influenced  by 


popular  connection  with  oSvaaeadai,  odyssesthai, 
to  be  hated).  A  legendary  Greek  hero.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  oldest  legend,  the  Homeric,  he  was 
the  son  of  Laertes  (q.v.),  Prince  of  Ithaca,  and 
of  Anticleia,  daughter  of  Autolycus.  According 
to  a  later  account,  his  father  was  the  crafty 
Sisyphus  (q.v.),  whence  he  is  sometimes  called, 
by  way  of  reproach,  Sisyphides.  He  married 
Penelope  (q.v.),  by  whom  he  became  the  father 
of  Telemachus  (q.v.).  When  the  expedition 
against  Troy  (q.v.)  was  resolved  on,  Agamem¬ 
non  and  Menelaus  prevailed  on  Ulysses,  though 
with  difficulty,  to  take  part  in  it.  Later  tradi¬ 
tions  represent  him  as  feigning  madness — an 
artifice  which  failed  through  the  skill  of  Pala- 
medes.  Once  enlisted,  Ulysses  devoted  himself 
to  the  success  of  the  expedition;  with  Nestor's 
aid  he  secured  the  help  of  Achilles,  and  with 
Menelaus  he  undertook  a  fruitless  embassy  to 
Troy  to  demand  the  return  of  Helen  and  her 
treasures.  When  the  Greek  fleet  assembled  at 
Aulis,  Ulysses  brought  12  ships.  In  the  narra¬ 
tive  of  the  Iliad  Ulysses  plays  an  important  part. 
In  prudence  and  ingenuity  of  resource  he  is  the 
foremost  of  the  Hellenic  chiefs,  while  in  courage 
he  is  inferior  to  none.  His  later  trait  of  trick¬ 
ery  is  seen  in  the  episode  of  Dolon,  but  in  the 
Homeric  poems  he  is  generally  represented  as 
a  model  of  the  older,  as  Achilles  is  of  the 
younger,  hero.  After  the  fall  of  Troy,  the  Hom¬ 
eric  narrative  of  his  long  wandering  on  his  re¬ 
turn  to  Ithaca  is  contained  in  the  Odyssey.  His 
ships  were  driven  by  a  storm  on  the  coast  of 
Thrace,  where  he  plundered  the  land  of  the  Ci- 
cones,  but  lost  a  number  of  his  crew.  When  he 
reembarked,  a  north  wind  blew  his  vessels  to 
the  country  of  the  Lotophagi  (the  Lotus-eaters), 
on  the  coasts  of  Libya,  where  some  of  the  com¬ 
panions  of  Ulysses  ate  of  the  wondrous  fruit, 
and  wished  to  rest  forever.  But  their  leader 
compelled  them  to  leave  the  land,  and,  sailing 
north  again,  they  touched  at  the  Island  of 
Goats,  where  Ulysses  left  all  his  ships  but  one. 
Thence  he  proceeded  to  the  land  of  the  Cyclopes, 
where  occurred  the  adventure  in  the  cave  of 
Polyphemus  (q.y.).  With  his  reunited  fleet  he 
now  visited  the  island  of  HColus,  ruler  of  the 
winds,  who  gave  him  a  favoring  breeze,  and  the 
unfavorable  winds  tied  in  a  skin.  This  his 
companions,  in  search  of  treasure,  opened,  and 
at  once  they  were  swept  back  to  the  island,  from 
which  they  were  now  sternly  excluded.  They 
then  reached  the  land  of  the  Laestrygonians,  a 
race  of  cannibals,  who  destroyed  all  the  ships 
but  one.  Escaping  with  his  solitary  ship,  he 
next  landed  on  the  island  of  .Esea,  inhabited  by 
the  sorceress  Circe  ( q.v. ) .  After  a  year’s  so¬ 
journ  he  was  sent  by  Circe  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Hades,  to  inquire  about  his  return  from  the 
seer  Tiresias  (q.v.).  Tiresias  disclosed  to  Ulys¬ 
ses  the  fact  of  the  implacable  enmity  of  Poseidon, 
whose  son,  Polyphemus,  he  had  blinded,  but  en¬ 
couraged  him  at  the  same  time  with  the  assur¬ 
ance  that  he  would  yet  reach  Ithaca  in  safety, 
if  he  would  not  meddle  with  the  herds  of  Helios 
(the  sun  god)  in  Thrinacia. 

Ulysses  next  passed  in  safety  the  perilous 
island  of  the  Sirens  (q.v.),  but,  when  he  sailed 
between  Scylla  and  Charybdis,  Scylla  devoured 
six  of  his  companions.  He  next  came  to 
Thrinacia,  where  his  crew  insisted  on  landing, 
and  while  storm  bound  killed,  in  spite  of  their 
oath,  some  of  the  cattle  of  Helios  while  Ulysses 
was  asleep.  When  they  had  sailed  away  a.  fierce 
storm  arose,  and  Zeus  sent  forth  a  flash  of  light- 


UMA 


UMBELLIFEIL® 


635 


ning-  that  destroyed  the  ship.  Every  one  on 
boa  id  was  drowned  except  Ulysses,  who,  clinging 
to  the  mast,  was  finally  washed  ashore  on  the 
island  of  Ogygia,  the  abode  of  the  nymph 
Calypso,  with  whom  lie  lived  for  eight  years. 
The  nymph  offered  him  immortality  if  he  would 
remain,  but  his  love  for  Penelope  and  longing 
for  his  home  were  too  deep,  and  at  the  entreaty 
of  his  special  guardian,  Athena,  Zeus  sent 
Hermes  to  command  his  release.  Sailing  east¬ 
ward  in  a  skiff  of  his  own  building,  he  was  seen 
by  the  implacable  Poseidon,  who  roused  against 
him  a  terrible  storm,  which  wrecked  his  skiff, 
lie  barely  escaped,  by  the  aid  of  Leucothea,  to 
the  land  of  the  Phseacians.  Naked  and  worn  by 
fatigue,  lie  fell  asleep,  but  was  awakened  by  the 
sport  of  Nausicaa,  daughter  of  the  King,  Al- 
cinous,  and  her  maidens.  She  received  him 
kindly  and  brought  him  to  the  city.  Entering 
the  palace  under  Athena’s  protection,  he  was  en¬ 
tertained  by.  the  King,  who  promised  him  safe 
convoy  to  his  home.  On  the  magic  Phseacian 
ship  he  fell  asleep,  and  was  landed,  with  the 
rich  presents  of  the  Phaeacians,  while  still  un¬ 
conscious. 

Disguised  as  a  beggar,  he  repaired  to  the  hut 
of  the  swineherd  Eumseus,  where  he  met  and  re¬ 
vealed  himself  to  Telemachus.  The  next  day  he 
was  brought  by  Eumseus  to  the  palace,  where  he 
was  recognized  by  his  old  dog,  Argus.  Here  he 
was  harshly  treated  by  the  suitors  of  his  wife, 
who  were  living  riotously  on  his  estate.  After 
an  interview  with  Penelope,  to  whom  he  foretold 
her  husband’s  return,  he  was  recognized  by  his 
old  nurse,  Eurycleia,  whom  he  bound  to  silence. 
When  the  suitors  all  failed  to  string  the  great 
bow,  he  took  it,  easily  strung  it,  and  shot  the 
arrow  through  a  row  of  12  axes,  thus  accom¬ 
plishing  the  test  Penelope  had  proposed  for  the 
suitors.  Then,  aided  by  Telemachus,  Eumseus, 
and  the  neatherd  Philoetius,  he  slew  all  the 
insolent  suitors.  The  last  book  of  the  Odyssey 
records  his  recognition  by  his  father,  Laertes,  and 
a  final  reconciliation  with  the  friends  of  the 
suitors,  brought  about  by  Athena’s  aid.  The 
Homeric  poems  have  a  tradition  of  further  wan¬ 
derings  to  appease  Poseidon,  by  introducing  his 
worship  among  a  people  who  knew  not  the  sea, 
and  finally  a  happy  old  age  and  painless  death. 
Allusions  show  that  to  Ulysses  was  also  given 
a  prominent  place  in  other  episodes  of  the  Trojan 
War,  such  as  the  battle  over  the  body  of  Achilles, 
the  invention  of  the  device  of  the  wooden  horse, 
and  the  final  sack  of  Troy.  The  other  epics  (see 
Cyclic  Poets)  enlarged  these  episodes  and  added 
others,  in  which  Ulysses  frequently  played  but 
a  mean-spirited  part.  This  degradation  of  his 
character  continued  in  many  of  the  plays  of  the 
Attic  tragedy,  and  was  further  developed  in  later 
writers,  especially  the  comedians,  and,  of  course, 
by  the  Romans,  since  to  them,  as  the  descendants 
of  the  Trojans,  he  was  the  archenemy  of  their 
race.  His  death  in  these  narratives  was  usually 
attributecl'to' his  son  by  Qirce,  Telegonus  (q.v.), 
who  had  been  sent  by  his  mother  in  search  of  his 
father.  Landing  in  Ithaca,  he  was  met  in  arms 
by  LTlysses,  and  slew  him  with  a  spear  tipped 
with  the  sting  of  a  rav,  thus  fulfilling  the 
prophecy  that  death  should  come  to  him  from 
the  sea.  Consult  the  article  “Odysseus,”  in 
Friedrich  Liibker,  Reallexikon  des  klassichen 
AXtertums  (8th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914). 

UMA,  bb'ma.  In  Hindu  mythology,  one  of  the 
principal  names  of  the  consort  of  the  god  Siva 
(q.v.),  also  called  Durga  (q.v.),  Devi  (q.v.), 

Vol.  XXII.— 41 


Kali  (q.v.),  Parvati  (q.v.),  Bhavani,  and  re¬ 
garded  either  as  beneficent  or  malignant.  The 
myths  relating  to  this  goddess,  who  is  worshiped 
especially  in  Bengal,  are  recounted  in  the  great 
epic  poems  and  Puranas  (q.v.),  but  the  text¬ 
book  of  her  worshipers  is  the  Dcvimahdtniya,  or 
the  majesty  of  Devi,  and  a  portion  of  the 
Markandeya  Parana.  In  the  Rdmdijand  (q.v.) 
she  is  the  daughter  of  the  nymph  Mena  and  of 
Mount  Himalaya,  whence  her  names  Parvati, 
Haimavati,  and  similar  ones,  meaning  “the 
mountainous”  or  “the  mountain-born.”  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  Puranas,  in  a  former  life  she  was 
Sati,  the  daughter  of  Daksha  (q.v.),  but  it  was 
only  as  Uma  that  she  bore  to  Siva  Gane§a  (q.v.), 
the  god  of  wisdom,  and  Kartikeya  (q.v.),  the 
god  of  war.  According  to  the  Harivansa  (q.v.) 
in  another  life  she  was  born  as  the  daughter 
of  YaSoda,  and  exchanged  for  Vishnu  (q.v.), 
when,  in  his  incarnation  as  Krishna  (q.v.),  he 
was  born  as  a  son  of  Devaki.  On  that  occasion 
she  was  killed  by  Kansa,  and  became  a  divine 
virgin,  whence  she  was  called  Kanya,  or  Kumari, 
the  virgin.  The  principal  myths  concerning  her 
were  her  destruction  of  the  demons  Madliu, 
Kaitabha,  and  Mahisha,  her  defeat  of  the  army 
of  the  demons  Chanda  and  Munda,  and  her  de¬ 
struction  of  the  demons  Raktavija,  Sumbha,  and 
Ni&umbha.  In  commemoration  of  her  victory 
over  Mahisha,  a  festival  called  the  Durgapuja,  or 
Durgotsava,  is  annually  celebrated  in  Bengal, 
followed  three  weeks  later  by  another,  the  Kali- 
puja,  in  honor  of  her  destruction  of  Chanda 
and  Munda.  She  dwells  with  Siva  on  Mount 
Kailasa,  a  peak  of  the  Himalaya.  Consult : 
John  Muir,  Original  Sanskrit  Texts,  vol.  iv  (2d 
ed.,  London,  1873);  W.  J.  Wilkins,  Hindu 
Mythology  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1900)  ;  L.  D.  Barnett, 
Antiquities  of  India  (ib.,  1913).  See  Parvati  in 
the  Plate  of  Hindu  Deities  with  India. 

UMAN,  oo-man'.  A  district  town  in  the 
Government  of  Kiev,  Russia,  on  the  Umanka,  170 
miles  south  of  Kiev  (Map:  Russia,  D  5) .  It  has 
two  palaces  belonging  to  the  counts  Potocki. 
Pop.,  1910,  41,678,  of  whom  more  than  half, 
were  Jews. 

U'MATIL'LA.  A  tribe  of  Shahaptian  stock 
(q.v.)  formerly  near  the  junction  of  the  Umatilla 
and  the  Columbia  in  northeastern  Oregon,  and 
now  with  the  Cayuse  and  Wallawalla  upon  a 
reservation  in  the  same  neighborhood.  Like 
neighboring  tribes,  they  subsisted  originally  on 
fish,  game,  and  berries,  and  did  not  practice 
agriculture.  They  were  visited  by  Lewis  and 
Clark  in  1804,  and  about  40  years  afterward  by 
Jesuit  missionaries,  by  whom  some  were  con¬ 
verted  and  civilized.  Bv  a  treaty  of  1855  they 
agreed  to  come  upon  their  present  reservation. 
In  1910  thev  numbered  272. 

UMAYYADS.  See  Ommiads. 

UMBA'GOG  LAKE.  One  of  the  Rangeley 
Lakes  (q.v.). 

UMBALLA,  um-baFla.  The  capital  of  a  dis¬ 
trict  in  the  Punjab,  India.  See  Ambala. 

UMBEL.  A  form  of  inflorescence  (q.v.). 

UM'BELLIF'EIIZG  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Lat.  umbella,  umbrella,  umbel,  diminutive  of 
umbra,  shadow,  shade  +  ferre,  to  bear).  The 
Parsley  Family.  A  large  and  important  fam¬ 
ily  of  dicotyledonous  herbs  and  a  few  shrubs 
containing  about  250  genera  and  2000  species 
generally  characterized  by  the  inflorescence,  an 
umbel  which  is  often  compound.  The  mature 
fruit  is  necessary  for  the  determination  of  most 
of  the  genera  and  many  of  the  species.  The 


UMBER 


UMBRIA 


636 


species  are  widely  distributed,  but  are  not  abun¬ 
dant  in  tropical'  regions.  They  generally  have 
divided  or  compound,  rarely  simple,  leaves,  and 
usually  abound  in  a  resinous  secretion,  and  vola¬ 
tile  oils,  on  account  of  which  many  are  reputed 
poisonous.  Acridity  is  their  general  character¬ 
istic.  Some  are  pleasantly  aromatic,  others 
have  a  powerful  and  disagreeable  smell.  In  the 
roots  of  some,  especially  when  enlarged  by  cul¬ 
tivation,  starch  and  sugar  are  stored,  so  that 
they  become  useful  for  food.  Many  of  the  genera 
contain  species  of  economic  importance,  the  bet¬ 
ter  known  ones  being  Daucus  (carrot),  Pastinaca 
( parsnip ) ,  Apiurn  ( celery ) ,  Fceniculum  ( fennel ) , 
Carum  (caraway),  and  Coriandrum  (corian¬ 
der  ) .  Among  the  more  common  genera  of  the 
North  American  flora  are  Eryngium  (snake- 
root),  Sanicula  (black  snakeroot),  Eydrocotyle 
( pennvwort ) ,  Osmorhiza  ( sweet  cicely ) ,  Conium 
(poison  hemlock),  Cicuta  (water  hemlock) ,  Sium 
(water  parsnip),  Thaspium  (meadow  parsnip), 
Heracleum  (cow  parsnip),  and  Angelica.  The 
name  Apiaceae  is  given  by  some  botanists  to  the 
family  Umbelliferse. 

UMBER  (from  Fr.  ombre,  from  Lat.  umbra, 
shadow,  shade).  A  mineral  pigment  resembling 
ochre,  but  differing  from  true  ochre  (q.v.)  in 
containing  some  oxide  of  manganese.  It  is  soft, 
earthy,  and  of  a  dark-brown  color.  It  occurs  at 
many  localities  in  Europe,  notably  in  the  island 
of  Cyprus,  and  is  also  mined  in  Illinois,  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  Georgia,  and  New  York.  Raw  umber 
yields  a  brown  paint,  while  burnt  umber  has  a 
redder  tinge.  .Both  are  stable  and  can  be  mixed 
with  water  or  oil.  See  Paint,  Mineral;  Ociire. 

UMBERTO,  oom-ber'tO.  See  Humbert  I. 

UMBII/ICAL  CORD  (from  Lat.  umbilicus, 
navel ;  connected  with  Gk.  cycpaXos,  omphalos, 
OIr.  imblin,  OHG.  nabalo,  Ger.  Nabel,  AS.  nafela, 
Eng.  navel),  or  Navel  String.  The  bond  of 
communication  between  the  foetus  (which  it  en¬ 
ters  at  the  umbilicus,  or  navel)  and  the  placenta, 
which  is  attached  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
maternal  womb.  It  consists  of  the  umbilical 
vein  lying  in  the  centre,  and  the  two  umbilical 
arteries  winding  from  left  to  right  round  the 
vein.  Contrary  to  the  usual  course,  the  vein 
conveys  arterial  blood  to  the  foetus,  and  the 
arteries  return  venous  blood  to  the  placenta. 
These  vessels  are  embedded  in  a  yellow  gelatinous 
matter,  known  from  its  first  describer  (in  1659) 
as  the  jelly  of  Wharton.  Nerve  filaments  have 
been  traced  into  the  cord;  but  the  presence  of 
lymphatics  is  doubtful.  The  whole  is  invested 
by  a  membrane  (the  amnion),  and  its  ordinary 
length  is  about  20  inches.  As  soon  as  a  child  is 
born,  and  its  respiration  fairly  established,  the 
umbilical  cord  is  tied  and  divided  near  the  navel, 
which  spontaneously  closes,  the  fragment  of 
cord  dying  away.  See  Foetus  and  Placenta. 

UMBILICAL  HERNIA.  The  term  applied 
to  the  protrusion  of  intestine  at  the  navel  or 
umbilicus.  It  is  of  most  frequent  occurrence 
shortly  after  birth;  but  it  is  not  uncommon  in 
women  who  have  been  frequently  pregnant.  See 
Hernia. 

UMBILICUS,  um-biPi-kus.  The  anatomical 
term  for  the  navel. 

UMBRA  (un/bra)  TREE.  See  Ombu  Tree. 

UMBRELLA  (from  It.  ombrella,  umbrella, 
parasol,  Lat.  umbra,  shade) .  In  its  origin,  and 
still  in  the  Far  East,  a  sunshade  or  movable 
canopy  regarded  as  a  privilege  of  high  rank,  and 
used  in  ceremonial  processions.  In  England  and 
America  the  term  has  become  restricted  to 


round,  folding  shades,  with  high  ribbed  frame 
of  steel  or  cane  covered  with  silk  or  cotton,  used 
principally  for  protection  against  rain,  and 
equivalent  to  the  French  parapluie  (against  the 
rain ) .  The  small,  fancy  umbrellas  used  by 
women  in  Europe  and  America  as  sunshades 
bear  the  name  “parasols”  ( against  the  sun ) . 
Similar  sunshades  were  used  by  the  women  of 
ancient  Greece  and  Rome.  See  Costume. 

UMBRELLA  BIRD.  A  black  South  Ameri¬ 
can  bird  ( Cephalopterus  penduliger) ,  the  size  of 
a  crow,  whose  head  is  ornamented  with  a  crest 
forming  a  covering  somewhat  like  a  parasol,  com¬ 
posed  of  straight  elevated  feathers  with  white 
and  stiff  shafts  terminated  by  black  beards  which 
project  forward.  The  sides  of  the  neck  are 
naked,  but  long,  black,  glossy,  metallic  feathers, 
forming  a  loose  pelerine  hanging  below  the 
breast,  spring  from  the  throat  and  sides  of  the 
neck.  The  tail  is  long  and  slightly  rounded. 
There  are  two  other  closely  allied  species.  They 
live  in  deep  woods,  make  rough  stick  nests,  and 
utter  cries,  especially  at  twilight,  described  as 
“lowings.”  See  Cotinga  and  Plate  of  Cotingas, 
etc. 

UMBRELLA  PLANT.  See  Cyperus. 

UMBRELLA  TREE.  See  China  ThEE; 
Magnolia. 

UMBRETTE'.  A  peculiar  lieron-like  bird 
( Scopus  umbretta )  representing  alone  an  Afri¬ 
can  family  (Scopidse)  closely  related  to  the 
shoebill  (Balceniceps) .  It  is  a  native  of  the 
wooded  regions  of  Madagascar  and  most  of 
Africa.  It  has  a  body  about  the  size  of  a 
common  fowl’s,  long  naked  legs,  with  very  large, 
slightly  webbed  toes,  and  a  large  head  with 
a  long,  keeled,  storklike  beak,  surmounted  by 
a  great  crest,  suggesting  in  profile  the  name 
“hammerhead”  given  by  many  English  observ¬ 
ers.  The  plumage  is  purplish  brown,  with 
black  tail  bars ;  and  its  smoky  tints  make  it  al¬ 
most  invisible  at  dusk.  At  night,  according  to 
Evans,  it  roosts  in  trees.  Its  food  consists  of 
fish,  reptiles,  frogs,  worms,  mollusks,  and  in¬ 
sects  from  shallow  water.  The  note  is  a  harsh 
quack  or  weak  metallic  sound.  The  nest  is  an 
enormous  structure  of  sticks,  lined  with  roots, 
grass,  rushes,  or  clay,  having  a  hole  at  the 
side;  it  is  placed  in  a  tree,  on  a  ledge,  or  rarely 
on  the  ground.  Three  to  five  white  eggs  form 
the  complement. 

UM'BRIA.  In  ancient  geography,  a  country 
of  central  Italy,  corresponding  loosely  with  the 
modern  territorial  division  of  the  same  name, 
which  constitutes  the  Province  of  Perugia  ( Map : 
Itaty,  D  3).  At  an  early  date  the  name  Umbria 
was  applied  indefinitely  to  a  large  territory  in 
central  and  north  Italy.  The  Umbrians  were 
among  the  oldest  and  most  powerful  nations  of 
Italy,  and  probably  once  held  all  the  land  in 
central  Italy  between  the  Adriatic  and  the 
Tyrrhenian  Sea.  This  territory  was  gradually 
decreased  by  the  encroachment  of  the  Etruscans 
on  the  west,  of  the  various  Celtic  tribes  on  the 
north,  and  of  the  Picentes  on  the  south,  until 
the  Umbrians  were  shut  off  from  the  sea  in  the 
valleys  east  of  the  Apennines. 

Umbria  at  the  period  of  the  Roman  conquest 
of  Italy  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  A  ger 
Gallicus,  on  the  east  by  Picenum,  on  the  south  by 
the  country  of  the  Sabines,  and  on  the  west  by 
Etruria.  The  historical  prominence  of  the  Um¬ 
brians  ends  with  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century  b.c.  ;  they  were  defeated  by  Rome  in  308 
b.c.,  and,  with  the  other  confederated  peoples, 


UMLAUT 


UMBRIAN  SCHOOL  OF  PAINTING  637 


were  crushed  at  the  battle  of  Sentinuin,  205  b.c. 
After  220  b.c.  the  Via  Flaminia  ran  through  the 
country.  Umbria,  together  with  the  Ager  Galli- 
cus,  which  had  been  restored  to  the  territory 
after  the  conquest  of  the  Senones  by  the  Romans, 
constituted  the  sixth  region  of  Italy  in  Augus¬ 
tus’  division.  Knowledge  of  the  Umbrian  civil¬ 
ization  and  language  has  been  gained  chiefly 
from  inscriptions,  as  the  accounts  left  by  ancient 
writers  are  of  uncertain  value.  The  most  impor¬ 
tant  of  these  epigraphical  remains  are  the  seven 
bronze  tablets  found  at  Gubbio  (the  ancient 
Iguvium,  the  mediaeval  Eugubium)  in  1444.  See 
Eugubine  Tables;  also,  for  the  language,  Italic 
L a  n  gu ag  es  ,  U mb  ri an . 

The  district  known  in  modern  times  as  Um¬ 
bria  was  a  part  of  the  Papal  States  until  1860. 
The  Province  of  Perugia  has  an  area  of  3748 
square  miles.  Pop.,  1901,  675,352;  1911,  686,- 
596.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  but  the  val¬ 
leys  are  fertile.  Capital,  Perugia  (q.v.).  See 
also  Latin  Language. 

UM'BRIAN  SCHOOL  OF  PAINTING.  The 

name  applied  to  the  Central  Italian  painters  of 
the  Renaissance,  living  chiefly  within  the  modern 
Province  .  of  Umbria.  The  Umbrian  school  is 
characterized  by  its  intense  but  dreamy  religious 
sentiment,  evident  in  the  ecstatic  expression  of 
the  faces.  The  Umbrians  had  admirable  il¬ 
lustrative  qualities  and  good  color,  but  they 
were  deficient  in  form  and  dramatic  action. 
Though  usually  classed  as  Umbrians,  the  prin¬ 
cipal  painters  of  the  northern  part  of  this  ter¬ 
ritory  had  strong  affiliations  with  the  Floren¬ 
tines  and  differed  from  the  others  in  depicting 
form  and  movement.  Such  artists  were  Piero 
della  Francesca  (died  1492),  and  his  pupils, 
Melozzo  da  Forli  and  Luca  Signorelli.  Gentile 
da  Fabriano  (died  1427)  may  be  considered  the 
first  great  Umbrian  painter.  Fra  Angelico’s 
pupil  Benozzo  Gozzoli  (died  1497)  exercised  a 
strong  influence  on  the  Umbrian  school.  Its 
founder  in  the  narrower  sense  was  Niccolo  da 
Foligno,  and  the  first  important  Perugian  mas¬ 
ter  was  Bonfigli ;  then  In  the  later  fifteenth 
century  came  Fiorenzo  di  Lorenzo,  Pinturicchio, 
and  Perugino,  its  best-known  master  next  to 
his  pupil  Raphael.  All  the  best  qualities  of 
the  school  culminated  in  Raphael,  who  added 
the  best  that  Florence  and  the  antique  could 
give.  A  characteristically  Umbrian  contempo¬ 
rary  of  Raphael  was  “Lo  Spagna”  at  Spoleto. 
Consult:  Bernhard  Berenson,  Central  Italian 
Painters  of  the  Renaissance  (New  York,  1897)  ; 
the  monographs  by  Jules  Destrec  (Brussels, 
1900);  Umberto  Gnoli  (Bergamo,  1908);  Emil 
Jacobson  (Strassburg,  1914);  and  the  works 
cited  under  Florentine  School  of  Painting. 

UMBRIEL,  um'bri-el.  See  Uranus. 

UM'BRINE.  A  fish.  See  Meagre. 

UMLAUFT,  um'louft,  Friedrich  (1844- 
) .  An  Austrian  geographer  and  author, 
born  and  educated  in  Vienna,  where  he  became 
professor  at  the  state  Gymnasium  of  Mariahilf 
and  at  the  municipal  Teachers’  College  in  1870. 
He  wrote:  Die  osterreichisch-ungarische  Monar¬ 
chic  (3d  ed.,  1897);  Die  Alpen,  Handbuch  der 
gesammten  Alpenkunde  (1887;  Eng.  trans., 
1889)  ;  Das  Luftmeer,  Grundziige  der  Meteorolo- 
gie  und  Klimatologie  (1891;  Swed.  trans., 
1897);  Namenbuch  der  Stadt  Wien  (1895, 
1905)  ;  and  edited  Die  Lander  Oesterreich-Un- 
garns  in  Wort  und  Bild  (15  vols.,  1880-89). 
From  1882  to  1910  he  was  editor  of  the  Deutsche 
Rundschau  fur  Geographie  und  Statistik. 


UMLAUT,  oom'lout  (Ger.,  sound-change). 
In  comparative  philology,  the  change  undergone 
by  a  vowel  or  diphthong  through  the  influence 
of  a  following  vowel.  It  is,  therefore,  essen¬ 
tially  a  process  of  regressive  vowel  assimilation. 
Another  form  of  umlaut,  or  process  of  progres¬ 
sive  vowel  assimilation,  is  contained  in  the  so- 
called  law  of  vowel  harmony  of  the  Ural-Altaic 
languages  (q.v.).  It  occurs  frequently  through¬ 
out  the  Indo-Germanic  linguistic  group,  although 
it  is  a  characteristic  only  of  the  Germanic  lan¬ 
guages.  As  more  or  less  sporadic  examples  of 
umlaut,  occasionally  called  mutation,  or  metaph¬ 
ony,  by  English  writers,  may  be  cited  Av. 
vohu,  good,  mosu,  soon,  but  Skt.  vasu,  maksu ; 
Armen,  keam,  I  live,  but  Skt.  jivami;  Bceot.  Gk. 
Tpe-rredda,  table,  but  Attic  rpaire^a;  Attic  Gk. 
riuvavs,  half,  beside  r/fuavs;  Lat.  nihil,  nothing, 
from  ne  hilum,  not  a  thing;  Vulgar  Lat.  vixil- 
lum,  banner,  butumen,  pitch,  but  Lat.  vexillum, 
bitumen ;  OIr.  cloth,  famous,  but  Gk.  kXvtos; 
OChurch  Slav,  bidrinu,  watchful,  beside  budrlnu, 
budru,  Lith.  budru.  In  Germanic  umlaut  is 
caused  either  by  i  or  u.  The  i  umlaut  changes 
a  preceding  e  to  i,  and  a  to  e,  as  Goth.,  OHG. 
ist,  is,  but  Gk.  earl;  OHG.  gesti,  plural  of  gast, 
host.  In  MHG.  the  i  umlaut  changes  0,  u,  a,  6,  u, 
and  uo  to  6,  ii,  ae,  oe,  iu,  and  ue  respectively,  as 
locher,  plural  of  loch,  hole;  siXne,  plural  of  sun, 
son;  gaeben,  subjunctive  of  gdben,  gave;  hoeren, 
present  of  horte,  heard;  briute,  plural  of  brut, 
bride;  giiete,  goodness,  from  guot,  good.  The 
chief  i  umlauts  in  Anglo-Saxon  are  of  ce,  a,  o,  6, 
u,  and  u  to  e,  ce,  e  ( or  usually  y),  e,  and  y  re¬ 
spectively,  as  AS.  weccan,  to  wake,  Goth,  voak- 
jan;  hcelan,  to  heal,  from  hdl,  health;  exen, 
plural  of  oxa,  ox,  and  gylden,  golden,  from  gold, 
gold;  deman,  to  judge,  from  dom,  judgment; 
icy  lien,  woolen,  from  iculle,  wool;  cypan,  to  pro¬ 
claim,  from  cup,  famous.  In  Icelandic  also  the 
i  umlaut  plays  an  important  part.  In  the  Teu¬ 
tonic  languages,  umlaut  is  found  in  Anglo-Saxon 
as  early  as  the  sixth  century,  and  is  fully  de¬ 
veloped  in  Low  German  by  the  eighth  century. 
From  the  tenth  century  onward  it  makes  its 
appearance  also  in  the  dialects  of  Middle  and 
Upper  Germany. 

The  u  umlaut  is  less  far-reaching  than  the 
palatalization  caused  by  i.  It  does  not  seem 
to  have  occurred  in  Gothic  or  in  High  German. 
It  is  found,  however,  in  Anglo-Saxon  and,  highly 
developed,  in  Icelandic.  In  Anglo-Saxon  a  be¬ 
fore  u  or  o  becomes  ea,  e  becomes  eo,  and  i  be¬ 
comes  io,  although  these  umlauts  are  by  no 
means  regular  in  their  action.  Examples  are 
ealu,  ale,  but  genitive  alo,  ealo,  Northumb.  ales; 
xceorod,  folk,  beside  icerod;  mioluc,  milk,  but 
Goth,  milulcs.  The  principal  Icelandic  u  um¬ 
lauts  are  of  a  to  o,  d  to*  6,  e  to  6,  e  to  6,  i  to  y, 
i  to  y,  cei  to  oy  or  ey,  ia  to  io,  ua  to  uo  or  o, 
ua  to  6,  ui  to  y,  ui  to  y,  and  uce  to  6.  There  are 
other  minor  umlauts.  Anglo-Saxon  has  a  pala¬ 
tal  umlaut  which  changes  the  eo  and  io,  arising 
from  the  breaking  of  Germanic  e  and  i  before  a 
guttural  h  plus  a  consonant,  to  ie  and  later  to 
i,  y,  and  before  palatals  ea  and  ea  later  became 
e,  e.  Examples  are  rieht,  ryht,  right,  beside 
reoht,  OHG.  relit;  Wiht,  Wight,  beside  Wioht ; 
sex,  knife,  beside  earlier  seax ;  cge,  eye,  beside 
earlier  eage.  In  Icelandic  there  are  traces  of  an 
r  umlaut,  as  in  ccr,  they  (feminine),  but  OSwed. 
paR,  Goth.  pos.  In  German  umlaut  survives 
as  an  important  element  in  the  inflection.  It 
is  found  especially  in  nouns,  as  Bruder,  plural  of 
Bruder,  brother  (but  OHG.  bruoder  for  both 


UMMERAPOORA 


UN  CLEANNESS 


638 


numbers)  ;  Sohne,  plural  of  Sohn,  son  (OHG. 
suni,  sun)  ;  Ednde,  plural  of  Hand,  band  (OHG. 
henti,  hunt)  ;  hammer,  plural  of  Lamm,  lamb 
(OIIG.  lemhir,  lamb).  It  also  characterizes  the 
comparative  and  superlative  degrees  of  adjec¬ 
tives,  as  jung,  young,  junger,  jiingst  (OHG. 
jung,  jungiro,  jungisto  ) ,  and  is  seen  in  the  im¬ 
perfect  subjunctive  of  certain  verbs,  as  hdtte 
from  haben,  to  have  (OHG.  habeti) .  In  English 
there  are  only  sporadic  traces,  as  in  men,  mice, 
feet,  as  plurals  of  man,  mouse,  foot  (AS.  men, 
mcen,  mys,  fet,  plurals  of  man,  mils,  fot) ,  and 
in  causative  verbs,  as  set  from  sit  (AS.  settan 
from  sittan,  Goth,  sat  fan  from  sitan,  pret.  sat). 
Consult:  Victor  Henry,  Short  Comparative 
Grammar  of  English  and  German  (London, 
1894)  ;  W.  Wilmanns,  Deutsche  Grammatik  (3 
vols.,  Strassburg  1893-1906;  vol.  i,  2d  ed., 
1897)  ;  H.  Lichtenberger,  Histoire  de  la  langue 
allemande  (Paris,  1895).  See  English  Lan¬ 
guage;  German  Language;  Teutonic  Lan¬ 
guages  ;  and  special  titles  devoted  to  the  differ¬ 
ent  languages  mentioned  in  this  article. 

UMMERAPOORA,  See  Amarapura. 

UMPQUA,  ump'kwa.  An  Athapascan  tribe. 

UMRIT'SAR.  A  city  of  the  Punjab,  India. 
See  Amritsar. 

UNA,  u'na.  The  principal  female  personage 
in  the  first  book  of  Spenser’s  Faerie  Queene. 
She  stands  in  the  allegory  for  Truth.  She  is 
the  companion  of  the  Red  Cross  Knight  (q.v.) 
on  his  mission  from  the  court  of  Gloriana,  but 
is  soon  separated  from  him  by  Archimago  and 
undergoes  many  painful  adventures  until  res¬ 
cued  by  Prince  Arthur  and  restored  to  her 
knight. 

U'NAKA  MOUNTAINS  (called  also,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  the  Smoky  or  Great  Smoky 
Mountains).  A  southwestern  division  of  the 
Appalachian  Mountains,  branching  from  the 
Blue  Ridge  in  south  Virginia,  and  extending 
south  westward  near  the  Tennessee  and  North 
Carolina  boundary,  penetrating  a  short  distance 
into  north  Georgia  (Map:  North  Carolina,  A  4). 
On  the  west  they  are  separated  from  the  Cum¬ 
berland  plateau  by  the  great  eastern  valley  of 
the  Tennessee,  and  on  the  east  they  are  con¬ 
nected  with  the  Blue  Ridge  by  an  intricate 
system  of  cross  ranges  forming  the  rugged  rem¬ 
nants  of  a  lofty  plateau  culminating  in  the 
Black  Mountains.  Nearly  all  the  eastern  head- 
streams  of  the  Tennessee  rise  on  this  inclosed 
plateau  and  break  through  the  Unaka  Range. 
Otherwise  the  latter  forms  a  sharply  defined 
ridge  between  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina.  In 
the  north  there  are  three  main  ridges  inclosing 
fine  valleys.  The  average  elevation  of  the  main 
ridge  is  from  3000  to  5000  feet,  the  middle  por¬ 
tion,  generally  known  as  the  Great  Smoky  Moun¬ 
tains,  being  the  highest.  Here  a  number  of 
peaks  rise  to  6000  feet,  extending  their  rocky 
summits  above  the  timber  line.  The  highest  is 
Clingman  Peak  (Yancey  Co.,  N.  C.)  with  an 
altitude  of  6611  feet.  The  range  is  composed 
chiefly  of  Lower  Silurian  sandstones  and  shales, 
with  some  Archean  metamorphic  rocks.  The 
slopes  are  covered  with  pine  forests,  and  the 
range  abounds  in  grand  and  rugged  scenery. 

UNALASKA,  bo'na-las'ka,  or  UNA- 
LA3HKA.  The  second  largest  and  most  im¬ 
portant  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  135  miles 
southwest  of  the  extremity  of  the  Alaska  Penin¬ 
sula  (Map:  Alaska,  E  9).  It  is  about  75  miles 
long  and  from  10  to  25  miles  wide;  its  coasts 
are  indented  with  fiords,  and  it  consists  mainly 


of  barren  and  treeless  mountains,  among  which 
rises  the  volcano  of  Makushin  to  a  height  of 
5691  feet.  The  island  is  thinly  populated  by 
Aleuts  and  a  few  Russians  and  Americans,  chiefly 
engaged  in  fishing  and  sealing.  The  largest 
inhabited  place  is  Unalaska  Village  or  Iliuliuk, 
with  a  population  in  1915  of  about  400.  It  has 
a  government  school  of  about  80  pupils.  It  is 
a  port  of  call  for  vessels  navigating  Bering  Sea. 

UN  ALGA  (bo-naPga)  ISLAND.  An  island 
of  the  Andreanof  group,  Alaska,  situated  in 
about  54°  N.,  166°  W.  It  has  a  wireless  station 
of  the  United  States  navy,  and  was  made  a 
lighthouse  reservation  in  1901. 

UNAU,  u-na'  or  bb-nou'.  The  two-toed  sloth 
(q.v.). 

UN'CAS  (?-c.l6S3).  A  famous  sachem  of 
the  Mohegan  (q.v.)  Indians  in  Connecticut.  At 
first  a  Pequot  chief,  he  revolted  about  1635  and 
collected  a  number  of  Indians,  who  took  the 
name  of  Mohegans,  which  had  once  belonged  to 
the  Pequot  (q.v.),  against  whom  he  fought  as 
an  ally  of  the  English  in  the  Pequot  War  of 
1637.  He  was  rewarded  by  the  whites  with  a 
grant  of  Pequot  lands.  In  1643  he  defeated  the 
Narraganset  chief  Miantonomo  (q.v.),  and 
later,  "with  the  sanction  of  the  commissioners 
representing  the  United  Colonies  of  New  Eng¬ 
land,  had  him  put  to  death.  In  1648  the  Mo¬ 
hawks  and  Pocomtocks  began  an  unsuccessful 
war  against  him.  In  1657  he  was  besieged  by 
the  Narraganset  sachem  Pessacus,  but,  accord¬ 
ing  to  tradition,  was  relieved  by  Ensign  Thomas 
Leffingwell.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown, 
though  he  is  known  to  have  been  alive  in  1682. 
Consult  S.  G.  Drake,  The  Book  of  the  Indians  of 
North  America  (Boston,  1834),  and  W.  L.  Stone, 
Uncas  and  Miantonomoh,  a  Historical  Discourse 
(New  York,  1842). 

UNCIAL  (un'shi-al)  LETTERS.  A  term 
applied  in  Greek  and  Latin  paleography  to  a 
modification  of  capital  letters,  which  are  made 
rounded  instead  of  square,  as  being  written  on 
papyrus  or  vellum.  See  Paleography,  Letters 
and  their  Forms. 

UN'CIN  A'RX  A.  .  See  Ankylosomiasis ; 
Hookworm  Disease. 

UNCLEANNESS.  As  used  in  the  Old  Tes¬ 
tament,  a  term  ,  having  several  shades  of  mean¬ 
ing.  In  its  primary  sense  it  signifies  a  bodily 
condition  Which  during  its  continuance  excluded 
from  the  holy  community.  Such  a  condition 
might  be  produced  by  a  variety  of  causes,  as 
childbirth  (Lev.  xii),  contact  with  a  dead  body 
(Num.  xix.  11-12),  or  leprosy  (Lev.  xiii-xiv). 
Various  purificatory  rites  are  prescribed  in  the 
Pentateuchal  codes  to  free  from  this  condition. 
In  a  wider  sense  the  term  “unclean’’  is  applied 
to  animals  prohibited  as  food  (Lev.  xi;  Deut. 
xiv.  3-21),  and  the  fruit  of  trees  was  unclean 
( i.e.,  could  not  be  eaten )  for  the  first  three  years 
(Lev.  xix.  23).  Certain  bodily  functions  (con¬ 
nected  with  reproduction)  were  generally  re¬ 
garded  in  early  times  as  rendering  a  person  un¬ 
fit  to  perform  religious  rites,  or,  in  other  words, 
to  approach  the  deity. 

The  stipulations  in  regard  to  certain  animals 
regarded  as  unclean  belong  in  a  different  cate- 
gorv.  In  many  regions  certain  animals  are 
considered  sacred  either  because  a  clan  regards 
itself  as  descended  from  a  particular  animal 
or  because  for  other  reasons  the  animal  in 
question  is  supposed  to  afford  protection  to 
the  clan.  Thus  the  animal  formerly  regarded 
as  sacred  comes  to  be  avoided  as  unclean.  And 


UNCLE  SAM 


UNCONSCIOUS 


630 


connection  with  the  widespread  symbolism  of 
giving  to  deities  the  shapes  of  animals  leads  to 
the  conception  that  certain  animals  are  to  be 
avoided  because  of  their  "demoniac  nature.  In 
the  Pentateuchal  regulations  all  these  factors 
may  be  traced — the  sanctity  attached  to  certain 
animals,  their  position  as  totems,  as  well  as  the 
later  conception  which  regarded  them  as  the 
abode  of  evil  spirits. 

In  primitive  religions  disease  is  ascribed  to 
the  presence  of  a  demon  or  evil  spirit  in  the 
body,  brought  there  by  the  power  of  a  sorcerer 
or  witch.  A  cure  is  thought  to  be  effected  by 
certain  rites  in  which  sympathetic  magic  plays  a 
prominent  part.  In  the  Pentateuchal  codes, 
however,  an  advance  in  religious  ideas  is  mani¬ 
fested  by  designating  a  diseased  person  as  one 
smitten  by  God.  The  disease  chiefly  dealt  with 
is  a  form  of  leprosy,  which  is  still  common  in 
the  East.  From  disease  to  death  is  but  a  short 
step,  and  the  primitive  views  held  in  regard  to 
death  led  to  precautions  to  be  exercised  by  those 
who  are  obliged  to  touch  a  dead  body.  On  the 
one  hand,  death  itself  indicates  the  triumph  of 
the  evil  spirit,  while  on  the  other,  the  uncer¬ 
tainty  as  to  the  whereabouts  of  the  soul  or  spirit 
of  the  dead  person  incites  fear  and  leads  to 
precautions  against  the  unexpected  return  of 
the  spirit  perhaps  only  temporarily  absent.  By 
a  natural  extension  of  the  term  the  dead  person 
is  regarded  as  unclean. 

The  rabbinical  schools  in  Babylonia  and  Pales¬ 
tine  elaborated  the  subject  still  further,  and  in 
the  Talmud  the  laws  and  degrees  of  the  various 
kinds  of  uncleanness  are  set  forth  in  great  detail 
accompanied  with  minute  discussions  of  casuis¬ 
tical  problems  in  connection  with  the  subject. 
The  extension  of  the  term  “unclean”  to  the 
fruits  of  trees  for  the  first  three  years  is  quite 
secondary,  and  dates  from  the  late  period  when 
it  had  acquired  the  general  sense  of  forbidden, 
without  reference  to  any  genuine  uncleanness 
connected  with  the  transgression  involved.  The 
prohibition  appears  to  have  been  an  economic 
regulation  to  insure  productiveness.  Consult 
the  commentaries  on  the  passages,  cited:  B.  Stade, 
Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  vol.  i  (Berlin, 
1887)  ;  I.  Benzinger,  Hebrdische  Archdologie 
(2d  ed.,  Tubingen,  1907). 

UNCLE  SAM.  See  National  Nicknames. 

UNCLE  TOM’S  CABIN.  See  Stowe,  Har- 
riet  Beecher. 

UNCOMMERCIAL  TRAVELLER,  The.  A 
series  of  papers  written  by  Charles  Dickens  for 
All  the  Year  Round,  from  Jan.  28  to  Oct.  13, 
1860.  Eleven  new  sketches  were  added  in  the 
edition  of  1868  and  seven  in  1869. 

UNCONFORMITY.  A  term  applied  in  geol¬ 
ogy  to  a  break  or  interruption  in  the  sequence 
of  rock  formations.  In  areas  of  stratified  rocks 
one  series  may  be  found  sometimes  to  rest  upon 
the  upturned  or  eroded  edges  of  another  series, 
thus  showing  that  the  deposition  of  the  inferior 
beds  was  followed  by  an  upheaval,  during  which 
they  were  disturbed  from  their  horizontal  posi¬ 
tion  or  were  eroded,  and  then  by  a  depression 
beneath  the  water,  where  the  upper  series  was 
deposited.  An  unconformity,  therefore,  marks  a 
hiatus  in  the  geological  record — a  lapse  of  time 
unrecorded  by  sedimentation — and  it  is  only  by 
examining  the  sequence  of  deposits  in  other 
regions  that  the  missing  series  can  be  supplied. 
See  Geology. 

UNCONSCIOUS,  The.  An  hypothesis  of  the 
school  of  psychology  of  Dr.  S.  Freud  (q.v. ),  used 


originally  to  explain  and  cure  various  types  of 
maladies  of  mental  origin.  (See  Psychother¬ 
apy.)  This  doctrine  of  the  unconscious,  which 
is  radically  different  from  the  conception  of 
the  older  psychology  given  under  subconscious 
(q.v.),  was  first  published  in  1893.  It  is  also 
essentially  different  from  the  unconscious  will 
of  Schopenhauer  (q.v.)  or  of  Hartmann  (q.v.). 
The  conscious  life  of  man,  varying  in  intensity 
from  the  maximum  clearness  at  the  focus  of 
attention  to  the  marginal  states  (sounds,  sights, 
etc.,  faintly  heard  and  partially  attended  to, 
including  ideas  and  imaginations),  is  grounded, 
according  to  the  Freudian  school,  upon  the  un¬ 
conscious,  which  never,  as  such,  enters  conscious¬ 
ness,  but  which  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
mental  life  by  directing  or  conditioning  the 
choice  of  ideas  that  shall  enter  consciousness. 

The  unconscious  is  an  instinctive  or  impelling 
force  or  desire  and  does  not  reason  or  think  in 
conscious  modes.  Its  emergences  into  conscious¬ 
ness  take  the  form  of  expressions  of  desire 
mostly  so  elemental  and  gross  as  to  be  unac¬ 
ceptable  to  modern  social  life.  So  there  is 
assumed  a  transforming  and  distorting  agency 
that  stands  at  the  threshold  of  consciousness 
and  rehabilitates  or  disguises  the  expressions  of 
desire  so  that  they  shall  not  offend  the  moral 
sense  of  the  conscious  life.  This  agency  Freud 
calls  the  Censor.  “The  unconscious  idea  is  one 
which  cannot  penetrate  consciousness  no  matter 
how  powerful  it  may  become;  and  one  which 
we  do  not  perceive  but  whose  existence  we  con¬ 
cede  because  of  other  signs  and  proofs”  (Freud) 
— somewhat  analogous  to  the  astronomers’  in¬ 
ferring  the  existence  of  an  invisible  body  from 
the  aberrations  of  the  planets  that  are  visible- 
Beside  the  unconscious  and  standing  below  the 
conscious  is  the  state  of  those  mental  processes 
which,  like  the  multiplication  table,  may  be 
called  into  consciousness  at  will.  Freud"  has 
called  this  state  the  foreconscious.  Substantial 
practical  results,  shown  in  the  cure  of  mental 
and  other  diseases,  have  justified  the  assumption 
of  the  impelling  force  of  the  unconscious,  which 
force  is  called  the  libido  or  desire. 

Concrete  illustrations  of  the  effects  of  the 
unconscious  in  everyday  normal  life  are  every¬ 
where  observable.  The  forgetting  of  names  is 
explained  by  the  desire  to  avoid  letting  them 
come  into  consciousness,  because  unpleasant  ex¬ 
periences  associated  with  them  might  be  recalled ; 
forgetting  to  post  a  letter  containing  a  check 
may  be  caused  by  unconscious  desire  not  tc  let 
go  of  the  money.  Freud  relates  (in  his  Inter¬ 
pretation  of  Dreams)  that  although  intending 
to  visit  an  old  and  uninteresting  woman  he 
found  himself  before  the  door  of  a  very  much 
more  attractive  person,  and  explains  his  absent- 
minded  action  by  the  fact  that  his  unconscious 
desired  to  visit  the  attractive  person  while  his 
conscious  interest  would  have  led  him  to  his 
aged  patient.  The  effect  of  the  power  of  the 
unconscious  is  most  strikingly  noticeable  in  its 
work  upon  the  dreams  of  all  persons.  The  inter¬ 
pretation  of  dreams  according  to  psychanalysis, 
as  Freud  has  termed  his  method,  is  the  most 
important  feature  of  the  Freudian  psychology. 

( See  Dreaming  ;  Freud,  S. ;  Hysteria.  )  *  The  un¬ 
conscious  is  represented  as  being  conditioned  to 
a  large  degree  by  heredity  and  as  a  type  of  blind 
desire  recapitulating  the  evolution  of  the  mental 
life  of  the  race.  (See  Recapitulation  Theory.) 
The  libido,  or  primal  psychic  desire,  as  it  is 
ontogenetically  developed,  strives  to  satisfy  it- 


UNCONSCIOUS 


UNDERHILL 


640 


self,  first  with  respiratory,  nutritive,  and  elimi¬ 
native  activities  (in  the  new-born  infant),  then 
with  investigations  into  the  various  parts  of 
its  body  (the  so-called  auto-erotic  stage),  as  a 
concrete  example  of  which  is  mentioned  the 
thumbsucking  of  children,  in  many  cases  car¬ 
ried  on  for  many  years;  then  in  a  general  mag¬ 
nifying  of  interest  in  the  ego  as  a  whole  (the 
Narcissistic  period),  and  finally  at  the  age  of 
puberty  in  normal  humans,  in  the  development 
of  true  sexual  love  which  is  transferred  from 
self  (unless  retarded  or  obstructed)  to  its  object 
in  the  opposite  sex,  the  true  mate.  A  funda¬ 
mental  type  of  the  unconscious  mental  life  which 
Freud  believes  to  exist  in  every  human  he  has 
termed  the  “(Edipus  complex.”  This  implies 
not  that  every  man  wishes  to  kill  his  father  and 
marry  his  mother,  a  misconstruction  which  has 
caused  much  criticism  of  Freud’s  theories,  but 
that  in  the  usual  life  of  the  child  his  first- 
object  of  affection  is  obviously  his  mother  and 
he  instinctively  regards  his  father  as  his  rival. 
The  manner  in  which  any  given  individual  has 
unconsciously  worked  out  the  relations  of  this 
(Edipus  complex  is  looked  upon  as  a  measure 
of  his  progress  towards  a  truly  adult  social 
life.  Most  psychoneurotics  and  many  appar¬ 
ently  normal  persons  are  shown,  by  the  latent 
content  of  their  dreams,  to  have  been  unsuccess¬ 
ful  in  the  practical  working  out  of  this  (Edipus 
complex  in  a  way  which  will  enable  them  to 
perform  to  the  utmost  of  their  abilities  their 
work  in  human  society.  Of  this  maladaptation 
to  the  requirements  of  life  one  is  painfully 
aware  when  he  has  suffered  in  some  way  by  the 
lack  of  harmony,  the  conflict  in  his  psyche,  as  it 
is  called.  His  unconscious  having  been  analyzed 
by  the  method  of  psychanalysis,  the  realization 
of  the  maladjustment  to  environment  leads  the 
individual  to  a  conscious  endeavor  towards  a 
reform  which  is  essentially  ethical ;  and  it  is  be¬ 
lieved  by  the  Freudians  that  the  harmony  with 
the  ideals  of  civilization  thus  attained  is  the 
cause  of  the  amelioration  or  cure  of  the  malady. 

The  effect  of  the  unconscious  is  seen  by  the 
Freudians  not  only  in  the  individual  but  in  the 
race,  being  shown  in  all  works  of  imagination, 
all  religious  and  social  movements,  such  as 
alchemy,  Rosicrucianism,  Freemasonry,  etc.,  and 
in  poems  and  other  works  of  art  and  in  myths. 
An  extensive  study  has  been  made  in  the  subject 
of  myth  formation  as  governed  by  unconscious 
psychic  processes,  and  a  similarity  noted  between 
myths  and  dreams.  One  author  (Abraham)  calls 
the  myth  the  dream  of  the  nation  and  the  dream 
the  myth  of  the  individual. 

The  details  of  the  Freudian  view  of  the  un¬ 
conscious  are  admittedly  only  a  working  hypoth¬ 
esis,  and  as  such,  like  every  scientific  theory, 
are  subject  to  constant  development  at  the  hands 
of  scientists,  among  whom  are  a  large  number 
of  psychiatrists  in  Europe  and  America.  The 
conflict  between  this  theory  and  the  regular 
academic  experimental  psychology  is  more  ap¬ 
parent  than  real,  as  the  Freudians  do  not  wish 
to  say  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  unconscious 
conscious  states,  an  implication  that  will  natu¬ 
rally  be  attributed  to  them.  They  merely  posit 
a  force,  imperceptible  as  such,  but  the  effects 
of  which,  seen  in  the  various  phenomena  of 
hypnotism,  etc.,  are  not  explainable  on  any 
hitherto  appearing  hypothesis.  The  effects  of 
this  force  have,  however,  quite  practical  results 
in  human  conduct,  and  are  quite  workable  for 
the  understanding  of  psychic  manifestations 


and  for  the  conscious  evolution  of  psychic  life. 
Consult:  S.  Freud,  Interpretation  of  Dreams 
(New  York,  1913)  ;  O.  Pfister,  Die  Psychanaly- 
tische  Methode  (Leipzig,  1913)  ;  H.  Silberer, 
Probleme  der  Mystik  und  ihrer  Symbolik  (Vi¬ 
enna,  1914)  ;  Morton  Prince,  The  Unconscious 
(New  York,  1914)  ;  C.  G.  Jung,  Psychology  of 
the  Unconscious  (ib.,  1916). 

UNCONSCIOUS  CEREBRATION.  See 
Cerebration,  Unconscious;  Determining  Tend¬ 
ency;  Subconscious. 

UNCTION  (Lat.  unctio,  an  anointing,  from 
unguere,  to  anoint).  The  practice  of  anointing 
the  body,  or  certain  portions  of  the  body,  with 
oil.  It  was  resorted  to  by  the  ancients  from 
motives  of  health,  of  athletic  development,  or 
of  luxury;  but  the  practice  now  is  chiefly  a 
religious  one.  It  was  a  rite  in  frequent  use 
among  the  Egyptians,  as  well  as  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Among  the  Hebrews  priests  and  kings 
were  anointed  upon  being  set  apart  for  their 
several  offices,  as  were  also  sacred  vessels.  In 
Christian  use,  anointing  in  sickness  was  common 
from  a  very  early  time.  (See  Extreme  Unc¬ 
tion.)  Besides  the  anointing  of  the  sick,  how¬ 
ever,  there  were  many  other  sacred  unctions  in 
ancient  Christian  practice;  viz.,  in  baptism,  con¬ 
firmation,  ordination,  consecration  of  churches, 
and  the  coronation  of  kings. 

UNDERGROUND  RAILROAD.  The  name 
popularly  applied  before  the  Civil  War  to  the 
system  of  aiding  fugitive  slaves  to  escape  from 
their  masters  and  elude  pursuit.  .  By  furnishing 
food  and  shelter  as  well  as  advice  to  fugitives, 
northern  abolitionists  enabled  thousands  to  es¬ 
cape  to  Canada  beyond  the  reach  of  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law.  The  most  favored  routes  lay  through 
Ohio  and  Pennsylvania.  Houses  along  them 
came  to  be  known  as  stations ;  those  who  directly 
assisted  the  escaping  fugitives  were  known  as 
conductors ;  and  those  who  made  contributions  of 
money,  clothing,  etc.,  were  known  as  stock¬ 
holders  in  the  enterprise.  Many  negroes  in 
Canada  made  trips  to  the  South  to  assist  their 
friends  in  escaping  from  slavery.  Rewards  were 
offered  by  Southern  legislatures  and  individuals 
for  the  delivery  of  such  persons  south  of  Mason 
and  Dixon’s  line.  Among  the  most  active  white 
persons  in  the  underground-railway  service  were 
Levi  Coffin,  Josiah  Grinnell,  Gerrit  Smith,  Theo¬ 
dore  Parker,  Thomas  Garrett,  Rev.  Charles  Tor- 
rey,  and  Samuel  J.  May.  Coffin  was  commonly 
styled  the  president  of  the  concern,  and  he 
claimed  to  have  been  actively  engaged  in  the 
business  for  33  years  and  to  have  received  into 
his  house  an  average  of  100  fugitives  annually. 
The  historian  Rhodes  observes  .that  the  chief 
historical  importance  of  the  Underground  Rail¬ 
road  lay  in  its  manifestation  of  popular  senti¬ 
ment.  Many  of  those  concerned  in  this  service 
were  fined  heavily  for  violating  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law,  Garrett  alone  paying  a  fine  of  $8000 ; 
but  occasional  punishments  inflicted  did  not 
break  up  the  practice,  and  it  continued  to  be 
one  of  the  chief  grievances  of  the  South  against 
the  North.  Consult  W.  IT.  Siebert,  The  Under¬ 
ground  Railroad  from  Slavery  to  Freedom  (New 
York,  1899). 

UNDERGROUND  RAILWAY.  See  Rail¬ 
ways  ;  Tunnel  ;  Urban  Transportation. 

UN'DERHILL,  John  (?-1672).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  colonist,  born  in  Warwickshire,  England. 
In  his  youth  he  saw  military  service  in  the  Low 
Countries  and  Spain,  and  in  1630  he  accom¬ 
panied  the  elder  John  Winthrop  to  Boston.  Four 


UNDERLEASE 


UNDERWRITER 


641 


years  after  his  arrival  he  was  elected  to  the 
Colonial  Assembly,  and  in  1637  he  aided  Capt. 
John  Mason  (q.v.)  to  exterminate  the  Pequot 
Indians.  Of  this  expedition  he  wrote  an  account 
entitled  Newes  from  America,  which  was  pub¬ 
lished  in  London  the  following  year.  In  spite 
of  the  services  thus  rendered  he  incurred  the 
wrath  of  the  colonists  by  espousing  the  Anti- 
nomianism  of  Wheelwright  and  by  his  immo¬ 
rality.  Leaving  Massachusetts,  he  took  refuge 
at  Dover  in  New  Hampshire,  and  was  there 
elected  Governor.  Later  he  removed  to  Con¬ 
necticut  and  became  a  member  of  the  Assembly. 
In  1643  he  entered  the  military  service  of  the 
New  Netherlands,  but  10  years  later  he  was 
expelled  and  went  to  Rhode  Island,  where  he 
obtained  a  commission  to  make  war  on  his  late 
employers.  In  1664  the  New  Netherlands  were 
conquered  by  the  English,  and  Underhill  re¬ 
turned  and  settled  at  Oyster  Bay,  where  in 
1667  he  obtained  a  grant  of  150  acres  of  land 
from  the  Mantinenoc  Indians.  On  this  property, 
which  he  named  Killingworth,  he  passed  his 
later  years. 

UNDERLEASE.  The  creation  of  a  new 
term  by  a  lessee  of  lands,  by  alienation  of  a  por¬ 
tion  of  or  an  interest  in  his  own  term,  with  a 
reversion  in  himself.  Where  a  lease  is  silent 
on  the  question  a  lessee  may  make  a  valid  under¬ 
lease,  so  long  as  the  conditions  in  the  original 
lease  are  observed,  and  it  is  therefore  customary 
to  include  in  the  lease  a  covenant  against  sub¬ 
letting  or  assignment  by  the  lessee,  without  the 
consent  of  the  landlord.  See  Landlord  and 
Tenant,  and  consult  the  authorities  there  re¬ 
ferred  to;  Lease. 

UNDERSTANDING.  A  term  which  has 
been  employed  in  various  philosophical  systems, 
from  Plato  to  Hegel,  as  in  some  sort  antithetical 
to  reason.  In  general,  the  point  of  distinction 
has  been  that  reason  is  the  higher,  understand¬ 
ing  the  lower  faculty  of  cognition;  that  reason 
apprehends  intuitively  and  in  wholes,  under¬ 
standing  discursively,  on  the  ground  of  prem¬ 
ises  and  hypotheses  which  it  does  not  itself  test; 
that  reason  moves  above  the  realm  of  sense, 
while  understanding  is  indebted  for  its  material 
to  the  empirical  data  of  sensation.  In  the  mod¬ 
ern  psychological  system  reason  and  understand¬ 
ing  have  either  dropped  out  of  use  or  at  least 
have  come  to  play  a  very  subordinate  part. 
See  Knowledge.  Consult:  j.  Sully,  The  Human 
Mind  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1892)  ;  William  James, 
Principles  of  Psychology  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  ib., 
1905)  ;  YY .  Wundt,  Physiologische  Psychologie 
(6th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1910-11). 

UNDERTONES.  See  Harmonics. 

UNDERWING  MOTH.  Any  noctuid  moth 
of  the  subfamily  Catocalinse,  and  especially  one 
of  the  type  genus  Catocala,  of  which  more  than 
125  species  inhabit  the  United  States.  Many 
have  beautifully  colored  hind  wings,  which, 
however,  are  entirely  concealed  by  the  others 
when  they  are  at  rest.  They  are  night  fliers, 
and  generally  pass  the  day  upon  trunks  or 
branches  of  trees  which  they  closely  resemble  in 
coloring.  The  larvae  are  inconspicuous,  and  are 
usually  protectively  colored,  and  curious  lateral 
structures  have  been  developed  for  the  purpose 
of  disguising  the  resting  line  between  the  larva 
and  the  surface  upon  which  it  stands.  Some 
of  them  have  developed  bright  warning  colors 
in  spots  which  may  be  exhibited  at  the  will  of 
the  larva. 

UN'DERWOOD,  Lucien  Marcus  (1853- 


1907).  An  American  botanist,  born  at  New 
Woodstock,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  at  Syracuse 
University  in  1877.  He  was  professor  of  botany 
and  geology  at  Illinois  Wesleyan  (1880-83). 
professor  of  botany  at  Syracuse  ‘  ( 1883-91 ) ,  and 
De  Pauw  (1891-95),  and  in  1896  became  pro¬ 
fessor  of  botany  at  Columbia.  He  committed 
suicide.  He  published:  Our  Native  Ferns  and 
how  to  Study  them  (1881;  rev.  in  1882  as  Our 
Native  Ferns  and  their  Allies,  5th  ed.,  1900)  ; 
Descriptive  Catalogue  of  North  American  Hepat- 
icce  (1884);  An  Illustrative  Century  of  Fwngi 
(1889);  Hepaticce  Americans  (1887-93); 
Moulds,  Mildews,  and  Mushrooms  (1889).  His 
TJnderioood  Families  of  America  was  edited  bv 
H.  J.  Bonker  in  1913. 

UNDERWOOD,  Oscar  Wilder  (1862-  ). 

An  American  legislator,  born  at  Louisville,  Ky. 
He  was  educated  in  law  at  the  University  of 
Virginia,  and  settled  at  Birmingham,  Ala.,  being 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1884.  In  1892  he  was 
made  chairman  of  the  Democratic  district  exec¬ 
utive  committee,  and  in  1894  he  was  elected 
Representative  in  Congress,  but  his  seat  was 
successfully  contested  by  Truman  H.  Aldrich. 
He  was  reelected  in  1896  and  served  continu¬ 
ously  until  1915.  In  Congress,  Underwood  be¬ 
came  one  of  the  most  prominent  debaters  and 
parliamentary  leaders  of  his  party  and  its  chief 
expert  in  tariff  legislation.  Although  the  repre¬ 
sentative  of  a  manufacturing  and  mining  dis¬ 
trict,  he  stood  consistently  for  a  revenue  tariff. 
In  1910  he  cooperated  with  Champ  Clark  as  a 
leader  of  the  Democrats  in  reducing  the  powers 
of  Speaker  Cannon  (q.v.).  In  1911  "he  was  made 
chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee 
and  majority  leader  of  the  Democratic  party  in 
the  House.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
author  of  the  great  reform  in  procedure  whereby 
committee  members  were  to  be  elected  by  the 
House  on  nomination  of  the  Committee  on  Ways 
and  Means.  Underwood  led  the  fight  for  Cana¬ 
dian  reciprocity  and  was  the  framer  of  the 
series  of  tariff  measures  revising  separately 
various  schedules  of  the  Payne- Aldrich  Law, 
such  as  the  Farmers’  Free  List  Bill,  the  Wool 
Bill,  Cotton  Bill,  Steel  Bill,  and  a  bill  changing 
the  chemical  schedule,  which  were  vetoed  by 
President  Taft.  His  skill  in  leadership  brought 
him  wide  notice,  so  that  as  a  candidate  for  the 
presidential  nomination  at  the  Baltimore  Con¬ 
vention  in  1912  he  ranked  third,  receiving  at 
one  time  130  votes.  Afterward  he  was,  in  gen¬ 
eral,  a  supporter  of  President  Wilson,  although 
he  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Panama  Canal 
Tolls  Exemption  Act.  In  1913  he  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  important  Underwood-Sim- 
mons  Tariff  Act  (see  Tariff).  In  1914  he  was 
elected  United  States  Senator,  having  defeated 
Richmond  P.  Hobson  (q.v.)  in  the  primary 
election  by  more  than  20,000  votes.  See  United 
States,  History. 

UNDERWRITER.  In  ordinary  usage,  a 
person  who  is  authorized  to  negotiate  insurance 
contracts.  In  modern  financial  practice  a  pe¬ 
culiar  form  of  insurance  has  arisen  to  which  the 
term  “underwriting”  is  applied.  It  has  been 
resorted  to  for  many  years  in  marketing  new 
securities  for  established  corporations,  but  has 
reached  its  highest  development  in  the  financing 
of  the  large  industrial  corporations  recently 
formed.  When  a  large  corporation  is  organized 
to  absorb  a  number  of  existing  companies  it  is 
usually  necessary  to  raise  a  large  sum  of  money 
to  serve  as  a  working  capital  or  to  be  employed 


UNDERWRITING 


UNEMPLOYMENT 


642 


in  the  purchase  of  stock  in  the  original  com¬ 
panies  which  holders  are  unwilling  to  exchange 
for  new  securities.  To  raise  this  cash  the  serv¬ 
ices  of  an  underwriter  are  usually  secured.  The 
underwriting  contract  is  one  by  which  the  com- 
pany  is  assured  of  a  definite  amount  of  capital 
within  a  stated  time.  The  underwriter  binds 
himself  to  take  at  some  stated  future  time  a 
stipulated  part  of  the  securities  of  the  new 
company  at  a  price  named  in  the  contract,  un¬ 
less  such  a  part  is  sold  before  that  time  at  as 
high  a  price.  He  usually  further  agrees  to  ad¬ 
vance  at  once  the  capital  needed  to  launch  the 
company.  The  underwriter  leaves  a  wide  margin 
between  the  price  at  which  he  agrees  to  take  the 
stock  and  the  price  at  which  he  hopes  to  sell  it. 
A  part  of  his  reward  comes  from  this  source. 
He  sometimes  exacts  in  addition  a  bonus  of 
stock  for  himself,  or  a  commission  on  all  stock 
sold,  and  occasionally  stipulates  that  none  of 
the  stock  given  to  others  shall  be  put  on  the 
market  until  he  has  disposed  of  the  entire 
amount  that  he  has  Underwritten. 

The  securities  of  a  corporation  of  any  magni¬ 
tude  are  seldom  underwritten  by  a  single  person 
or  firm.  The  original  underwriter  usually  al¬ 
lows  other  bankers  or  favored  customers  to  share 
in  the  underwriting.  The  group  is  known  as  an 
underwriting  syndicate.  The  original  under¬ 
writer  usually  acts  as  syndicate  manager.  Each 
member  of  the  syndicate  subscribes  for  a  part  of 
the  stock.  The  cash  that  has  to  be  raised  to 
carry  out  the  agreement  with  the  company  is 
secured  by  the  syndicate  manager  partly  through 
an  assessment* pro  rata  upon  the  members  of  the 
syndicate,  partly  by  borrowing  on  the  security  of 
the  underwriting.  At  the  expiration  of  the  time 
limit  the  syndicate  manager  distributes  the  profit 
of  the  transaction  pro  rata  among  the  members, 
if  the  specified  amount  of  stock  has  been  sold. 
If  some  of  it  still  remains  unsold,  whatever  profit 
has  been  realized  is  distributed,  and  each  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  syndicate  is  called  upon  to  take  his 
proportionate  share  of  the  unsold  stock  at  the 
stipulated  price. 

UNDERWRITING,  Marine.  See  Ships 
and  Shipping,  Classification  for  Marine  Insur¬ 
ance. 

UNDERWRITING  OF  SECURITIES.  See 

Railways. 

UNDINES,  un-denz'  (ML.  undina,  from  Lat. 
unda,  wave).  The  name  given  in  the  fanciful 
system  of  the  Paracelsists  to  the  elementary 
spirits  of  the  water.  Paracelsus  describes  the 
Undines  in  his  Treatise  on  Elemental  Spirits. 
They  are  of  the  female  sex.  This  order  of  ele¬ 
mentary  spirits  intermarries  most  readily  with 
human  beings,  and  the  Undine  who  bears  a  child 
by  such  union  receives  with  her  babe  a  human 
soul.  But  the  man  who  marries  her  must  be 
careful  not  to  go  on  the  water  with  her,  or  at 
least  not  to  anger  her  there,  for  she  will 
return  to  her  original  element.  Should  this 
happen,  the  Undine  will  seek  to  destroy  her 
husband  should  he  venture  on  a  second  mar¬ 
riage.  Fouque  has  made  this  Paracelsist  fancy 
the  basis  of  an  exquisite  tale  entitled  Undine, 
published  in  1811  and  frequently  translated 
into  English. 

UNDUE  INFLUENCE.  In  law,  such  an  in¬ 
fluence  or  control  exercised  over  the  mind  of  a 
testator  that  his  will  is  practically  overpowered, 
and  that  he  is  constrained  by  it  to  make  some 
disposition  of  his  property  by  will  contrary  to 
his  own  best  judgment  and  wishes.  Mere  per¬ 


suasion,  appeals  to  the  charity,  benevolence, 
affections,  gratitude,  or  pride  of  a  testator  will 
not  constitute  undue  influence,  unless  carried 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  mind  of  the  testator 
is  virtually  overpowered.  For  example,  one  of 
several  children  may  suggest  to  one  of  their 
parents  that  the  latter  should  bequeath  to  him 
a  larger  share  of  his  property  than  to  the  others, 
and  urge  as  a  reason  that  he  labors  under  some 
disability  rendering  him  less  able  to  support 
himself  than  the  others,  or  that  the  others  have 
been  abundantly  provided  for  by  bequests  or 
devises  from  other  relatives,  etc.  Where  a  will 
is  contested  on  the  ground  of  undue  influence, 
the  courts  will  scrutinize  very  carefully  the  re¬ 
lationship  which  existed  between  the  testator 
and  the  beneficiary,  and  if  it  was  of  a  confiden¬ 
tial  or  fiduciary  character,  as  that  of  attorney 
and  client,  physician  and  patient,  religious  con¬ 
fessor  and  confessant,  such  a  fact  is  regarded  as 
a  suspicious  circumstance,  which,  taken  in  con¬ 
junction  with  proof  of  active  efforts  on  the  part 
of  the  beneficiary  to  induce  the  testator  to  make 
his  will  in  favor  of  the  former,  may  give  rise  to 
a  presumption  of  undue  influence.  Ordinarily, 
however,  where  undue  influence  is  charged,  the 
burden  of  proof  rests  upon  the  party  making  it. 
Any  person  who  would  have  been  a  legal  heir 
if  the  testator  had  died  intestate  may  contest 
his  will  on  the  ground  of  undue  influence,  and  if 
he  is  successful  the  court  will  refuse  to  probate 
the  will.  See  Will,  and  consult  the  authorities  - 
there  referred  to. 

UN'DULANT  FEVER.  See  Malta  Fever. 

UNUDULATORY  THEORY  OF  LIGHT. 

See  Light. 

UNEARNED  INCREMENT.  The  extent  to 
which  the  value  of  real  property  increases  inde¬ 
pendently  of  any  expenditure  of  labor  or  capital 
upon  it  by  its  possessor.  See  the  article  Single 
Tax. 

UNEMPLOYMENT.  A  term  applied  to  that 
condition  of  industrial  life  in  which  there  is  a 
considerable  number  of  workmen  out  of  work. 
In  its  widest  application  it  describes  the  con¬ 
dition  of  several  classes.  In  a  report  by  the 
Labor  Department  of  the  English  Board  of 
Trade  in  1893  the  term  is  used  of  four  distinct 
classes:  (1)  those  who,  engagements  being  for 
short  periods,  have  terminated  their  last  en¬ 
gagement  on  the  conclusion  of  a  job,  and  have 
not  entered  on  another;  (2)  those  who  belong 
to  trades  in  which  the  volume  of  work  fluctuates, 
and  who,  though  they  may  obtain  a,  full  share 
each  year  of  the  work  afforded  by  their  industry, 
are  not  at  the  given  time  able  to  get  employment 
at  their  trade;  (3)  those  who  are  economically 
suffering  because  there  is  not  enough  work  in 
those  trades  to  furnish  a  fair  amount  to  all 
who  try  to  earn  a  livelihood  at  them;  (4)  those 
who  cannot  get  work  because  they  are  below 
trade  standards  of  efficiency,  or  because  their 
personal  defects  debar  them.  Another  classifica¬ 
tion  divides  the  unemployed  into  three  classes: 
(1)  members  of  season  trades;  (2)  members  of 
decaying  trades;  (3)  the  “fringe”  or  least  com¬ 
petent  members  of  every  trade.  These  are  broad 
definitions,  including  two  separate  groups,  those 
who  for  one  reason  or  another,  as  feebleness, 
illness,  old  age,  criminal  characteristics,  or  men¬ 
tal  deficiency,  are  incapable ;  and,  secondly,  those 
able  and  willing  but  unable  to  find  work. 
The  first  class  has  always  existed,  and  its  pres¬ 
ence  occasions  different  phases  of  the  problems 
of  poverty  and  pauperism.  The  existence  of  the 


UNEMPLOYMENT 

second  class  constitutes  more  strictly  the  prob¬ 
lem  of  unemployment.  Irregularity  of  employ¬ 
ment  even  for  competent  workmen  is  not  a  mod¬ 
ern  phenomenon.  It  has  been  characteristic  of 
every  stage  of  economic  development;  but,  from 
the  growth  of  industrial  democracy  and  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  humanitarian  interest,  the  evil 
assumes  new  importance. 

The  immediate  causes  of  unemployment  are 
many.  Chief  among  them  are:  (1)  fluctuations 
due  to  change  of  season,  as  in  the  building 
trades,  in  dock  labor  in  London,  or  in  the  tea, 
wool,  and  timber  industries;  (2)  introduction 
of  new  machinery  and  transformation  of  proc¬ 
esses;  (3)  migration  of  labor  from  rural  dis¬ 
tricts  to  the  city,  or  from  one  country  to  an¬ 
other;  (4)  displacement  of  adult  males  by 
women  or  children;  (5)  shifting  of  the  seat  of 
an  industry  from  one  place  to  another;  (G) 
change  in  fashion;  (7)  industrial  depression  or 
the  operation  of  some  extraordinary  occurrence, 
as  war.  Some  of  these  causes  have  been  in 
operation  with  increasing  force  since  the  revolu¬ 
tionary  inventions  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
the  introduction  of  new  methods  of  transporta¬ 
tion  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  influence  of  the  causes  mentioned  has  been 
accentuated  during  the  past  century  by  the 
periodic  appearance  of  crises  which  profoundly 
affect  the  entire  organization  of  trade  and  in¬ 
dustry.  Under  international  competition  mar- 
.  kets  become  more  sensitive  to  remote  disturb¬ 
ances;  production  may  cease,  and  entire  classes 
of  workmen  for  weeks  together  be  thrown  out  of 
work.  In  addition  to  these  clearly  recognizable 
causes,  various  theories,  involving  a  discussion 
of  the  fundamental  principles  of  political  econ¬ 
omy,  have  been  advanced  to  explain  the  phenom¬ 
ena  of  unemployment.  Only  a  reference  can  be 
made  to  these.  First,  the  theory  of  overpro¬ 
duction  :  under  the  present  system  of  production, 
with  its  enormous  capacity  for  manufacture, 
more  goods  are  created  than  are  required  for 
market  needs;  consequently  there  must  be  cessa¬ 
tion  at  regular  intervals  until  the  excess  supply 
has  been  taken  up.  Second,  the  theory  of  under¬ 
consumption  :  the  rich  hoard  and  invest  too 
much  in  fixed  capital,  while  the  poor  have  not 
the  power  of  wholesome  consumption.  Third, 
the  theory  of  inflated  credit:  the  extensive 
organization  of  business,  the  promotion  of  new 
enterprises,  the  growth  of  banking  institutions 
for  the  sale  of  credit  have  all  stimulated  the 
growth  of  the  credit  system;  the  settlement  of 
contracts  is  thus  made  contingent  upon  future 
success ;  this  development  goes  beyond  the  limits 
of  safety,  and  periodically  necessitates  contrac¬ 
tion;  this  depresses  industry,  and  men  are  out 
of  work.  Fourth,  the  Socialist  theory,  which 
attributes  unemployment  to  the  institution  of 
private  property  and  the  practice  of  individual 
competition:  these  necessarily  cause  a  never- 
ending  fluctuation  of  supply 'and  demand,  and 
prevent  a  harmony  of  industrial  interests. 

Statistics  of  unemployment  are  far  from  satis¬ 
factory.  To  determine  the  amount  of  unemploy¬ 
ment  statistics  should  show  the  number  and 
proportion  of  those  out  of  work  on  a  particular 
day  and  also  the  duration  of  unemployment  for 
each  workman  during  the  year.  Popular  esti¬ 
mates  of  unemployment  are  greatly  exaggerated, 
owing  to  the  inclusion  of  the  shiftless  and  chronic 
paupers.  A  true  estimation  of  the  significance 
of  unemployment  can  be  secured  only  by  a  clas¬ 
sification  of  statistics  by  cause  of  unemployment : 


643  UNEMPLOYMENT 

whether  due  to  seasonal  fluctuations  peculiar 
to  a  trade,  to  inability  to  find  work  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  an  industrial  depression,  to  personal 
characteristics  which  place  a  man  in  the  class  of 
unemployables,  or  to  sickness  or  disability.  The 
principal  sources  of  unemployment  statistics  are: 
returns  from  trade  unions,  statistics  of  men 
employed  in  manufacturing  establishments  at 
different  seasons ;  census  statistics  of  the  unoc¬ 
cupied;  special  investigations  or  censuses  of 
particular  cities,  or  groups  of  workmen;  records 
of  distress  committees,  especially  in  England 
since  1905;  records  of  employment  bureaus?  and 
statistics  secured  in  connection  with  unemploy¬ 
ment  insurance  benefits. 

Trade-union  returns  were  earliest  developed, 
and  give  fairly  reliable  data  of  the  amount  of 
unemployment  among  their  members.  Returns 
of  trade  unions  are  published,  e.g.,  by  the 
Labor  Department  of  Great  Britain  in  the  'Labor 
Gazette  and  in  the  Annual  Abstract  of  Labor 
Statistics,  beginning  with  1887;  by  the  Labor 
Department  of  France  since  1894,  and  of  Bel¬ 
gium  since  1895.  German  figures  on  unemploy¬ 
ment  are  published  in  the  Reich sarbeitsbl at t  and 
in  the  Arbeitsmarkt.  In  the  United  States,  the 
Bureau  of  Labor  of  New  York  publishes  in  its 
quarterly  bulletin  returns  from  trade  unions 
(since  1897),  and  the  Massachusetts  Bureau 
since  1905;  the  American  Federation  of  Labor 
gives  a  monthly  report  of  unemployment  in  the 
American  Federationist.  These  records  are  lim¬ 
ited  as  a  rule  to  well-organized  trades.  The 
English  trade-union  returns  published  by  the 
Labor  Department  of  the  Board  of  trade  cover 
650,000  unionists,  about  one-third  of  the  total 
members  of  trade  unions,  and  one-twelfth  of 
the  total  industrial  manual  workers.  The  pro¬ 
portion  of  union  workmen  out  of  work  to  the 
total  membership  (minus  those  who  were  sick, 
on  strike,  etc.)  varied  from  1894  to  1908  be¬ 
tween  2.4  per  cent  and  6.9  as  an  average  for 
the  year.  The  seasonal  fluctuation  of  some  trades 
is  clearly  revealed  by  the  figures.  The  percen¬ 
tage  in  the  building  trades  (carpenters  and 
plumbers)  varied  from  3.3  in  August  to  5.9 
in  December;  in  the  furnishing  trades  from 
^  uarj  to  2.4  in  April.  No  definite 
conclusion  as  to  unemployment  among  all  indus¬ 
trial  workers  can  be  drawn  from  these  figures; 
they  include  too  great  a  proportion  of  skilled 
workmen,  and  of  the  skilled  workmen  those  in 
the  engineering  and  building  trades  are  more 
than  proportionately  represented. 

Statistics  for  unemployment  are  not  as  well 
developed  in  the  United  States  as  in  Europe. 
Trade-union  returns  for  selected  industries  in 
New  Tork  State  indicate  a  percentage  varying 
from  10  to  37  per  cent  for  different  seasons 
and  for  different  years;  in  1910  the  lowest  per¬ 
centage  was  12.5  in  September  and  the  highest 
was  24.5  in  January.  In  1902  for  May  the  figure 
was  14  per  cent;  in  1903,  for  the  same  month, 
20;  1904,  27.1;  in  1905  it  fell  to  less  than  10; 
in  J910  it  was  14.5  and,  in  1911,  27.2.  These 
figures  are  reported  by  the  secretaries  of  the 
trade  unions  and  cover  a  membership  of  ap¬ 
proximately  100,000.  No  careful  discrimina¬ 
tion  is  made  in  these  returns  between  those  out 
of  work  because  they  cannot  find  emplovment — 
the  real  unemployed — and  the  sick,  disabled, 
etc.;  and  in  this  respect  they  are  much  inferior 
to  English  statistics.  Figures  for  all  unions  in 
the  State,  including  450,000  men,  giving  the 
number  idle  on  the  last  day  of  the  quarter"show 


UNEMPLOYMENT 


UNEMPLOYMENT 


644 


a  somewhat  smaller  percentage  of  idleness  than 
for  the  selected  unions.  Further  the  percentage 
idle  throughout  the  quarter  for  all  unions  for 
July  to  September  varied  from  1.9  in  1908  to 
12.8  in  1908;  for  the  first  quarter  from  5.5  in 
1903  to  26.3  in  1908.  Returns  for  trade  unions 
in  Massachusetts  indicate  a  smaller  proportion 
of  trade-union  members  out  of  work  than  those 
for  New  York;  the  extremes  of  variation  for  un¬ 
employment  at  the  end  of  each  quarter  from  1908 
to  1911  being  from  17.9  to  4.8  per  cent.  Perhaps 
the  higher  proportion  returned  in  New  York  may 
be  due  to  the  greater  relative  weight  of  the 
building  and  clothing  trades  in  the  New  York 
data — industries  in  which  unemployment  and 
seasonal  fluctuation  are  very  considerable.  The 
reports  of  the  American  F ederationist  indicate 
a  low  degree  of  unemployment.  In  1908,  a  year 
of  depression,  the  percentage  varied  from  4.1 
to  9.6;  the  percentage  for  the  preceding  year 
varied  from  0.2  to  5.8  for  the  different  months. 
These  figures  seem  more  comparable  to  the 
English  returns. 

The  statistics  from  manufacturers  as  to  num¬ 
bers  employed  in  different  months  afford  an 
indication  of  the  seasonal  fluctuation  of  un¬ 
employment.  The  figures  for  the  Federal  Census 
of  1905  showed  a  maximum  number  employed 
of  5,678,000  in  October;  the  minimum,  5,263,000, 
fell  in  January;  the  difference  indicates  that 
7.3  per  cent  fewer  men  were  employed  in  Janu¬ 
ary  than  in  October.  The  figures  do  not  indicate 
the  proportion  unemployed  in  the  latter  month, 
nor  do  they  take  into  account  the  possibility 
that  those  not  employed  in  manufacture  in  Jan¬ 
uary  may  be  able  to  find  work  in  other  lines. 

The  statistics  of  the  Federal  Census  on  un¬ 
employment  are  unsatisfactory  and  unreliable. 
In  1900,  22.3  per  cent  of  the  occupied  over  10 
years  were  returned  as  unoccupied  for  some 
part  of  the  census  year.  About  one-half  of  those 
reported  idle  were  unoccupied  for  three  months 
or  less,  and  four-fifths  of  the  rest  were  unem¬ 
ployed  for  a  period  of  four  to  six  months.  These 
figures  throw  no  light  as  to  the  cause  of  idle¬ 
ness,  whether  sickness,  disability,  whether  from 
choice  or  from  inability  to  secure  work.  They 
cover  all  persons  10  years  of  age  and  over  who 
report  a  regular  occupation,  and  probably  in¬ 
clude  many  children  attending  school  who  are 
employed  a  part  of  the  year. 

Special  investigations  throw  more  light  on 
the  subject.  A  special  police  census,  e.g.,  was 
taken  in  Rhode  Island  in  March,  1908,  to  deter¬ 
mine  the  number  unemployed  on  account  of  the 
industrial  depression  then  prevailing.  The  five 
principal  cities  with  about  two-thirds  of  the 
wage  earners  of  the  State  were  canvassed:  7.8 
per  cent  of  the  estimated  number  of  wage  earners 
in  these  cities  were  found  to  be  unemployed,  and 
18,292  for  the  entire  State.  These  figures  were 
corroborated  by  returns  from  manufacturers  in¬ 
dicating  for  Feb.  28,  1908,  a  decrease  of  19,000 
employed  from  the  figure  for  1907.  This  census 
did  not  take  any  account  of  men  working^  on 
short  time,  and  it  was  alleged  that  men  employed 
for  a  few  hours  a  day  on  charity  work  were 
included  among  the  employed. 

Much  information  on  the  numbers  of  those 
seeking  work  can  be  obtained  from  statistics  of 
labor  exchanges.  Nineteen  states  and  a  number 
of  municipalities  have  established  labor  ex¬ 
changes  furnishing  free  service  in  bringing  em¬ 
ployer  and  the  seeker  after  work  together. 
Statistics  of  these  offices  are  not  statistics  of 


the  unemployed  alone;  they  are  rather  statistics 
of  the  labor  market — i.e.,  of  the  offer  and  de¬ 
mand  for  labor,  for  a  certain  percentage  of  those 
who  register  have  positions  and  file  applications 
simply  in  the  desire  to  change.  Further  infor¬ 
mation  of  a  fragmentary  sort  can  be  obtained 
from  the  records  of  public  poor  departments 
and  charitable  societies,  especially  where  a  record 
is  kept  of  the  cause  of  destitution.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  distinguish  between  the  new  appli¬ 
cations  and  the  total  number,  in  order  to  avoid 
duplication.  More  complete  data  on  unemploy¬ 
ment  and  especially  its  extent  will  be  secured 
by  the  insurance  funds  which  have  been  estab¬ 
lished  in  England  in  connection  with  compulsory 
unemployment  insurance  of  workmen  in  certain 
construction  and  engineering  trades. 

The  remedies  proposed  for  the  relief  of  un¬ 
employed  are  of  two  kinds,  those  applicable  in 
times  of  emergency  and  those  which  are  perma¬ 
nent  in  their  operation.  In  the  administration 
of  emergency  relief  difficulties  are  met,  for  it 
is  easy  to  transmute  unemployment  into  vol¬ 
untary  idleness.  Discrimination  must  be  shown, 
first,  in  the  selection  of  the  persons  to  whom  re¬ 
lief  work  is  to  be  given;  second,  in  the  choice  of 
work  to  be  undertaken;  and,  third,  in  the  or¬ 
ganization  of  the  agencies  by  which  relief  work 
is  to  be  administered.  It  is  difficult  to  separate 
the  worthy  from  the  unworthy,  and  to  prevent 
the  influx  of  the  unemployed  from  outside  dis¬ 
tricts.  Abuses  occasioned  by  lax  methods  are 
well  illustrated  by  the  soup  kitchens  and  bread 
carts  in  American  cities  in  1873,  and  by  the 
indiscriminate  distribution  of  the  Mansion  House 
Fund  in  London  in  1886.  Efforts  were  made 
to  develop  a  wiser  policy  in  the  relief  work  of 
each  country  in  1894.  It  is  now  generally  agreed 
that  emergency  funds  as  far  as  possible  should 
be  restricted  to  those  who  in  ordinary  times  are 
habitually  at  work,  to  those  personally  known, 
and  to  those  who  are  willing  to  accept  less 
wages  than  customary,  or  to  work  fewer  hours 
per  "day  or  fewer  days  per  week,  so  as  to  pre¬ 
vent  refusal  to  work  elsewhere  under  ordinary 
conditions.  In  brief,  there  must  be  investiga¬ 
tion  and  some  sort  of  test.  The  principles 
adopted  by  the  Local  Government  Board  of  Eng¬ 
land  in  1893  in  the  selection  of  work  were  as 
follows :  ( 1 )  work  which  does  not  involve  the 

stigma  of  pauperism;  (2)  work  which  all  can 
perform,  whatever  their  previous  vocations;  (3) 
work  which  does  not  compete  with  that  of 
other  laborers  at  present  in  employment;  and 
(4)  work  which  is  not  likely  to  interfere  with 
the  resumption  of  regular  employment  in  their 
own  trade  by  those  who  seek  it.  In  accordance 
with  the  foregoing  principles,  municipalities 
were  advised  to  undertake  spade  industry  on 
sewage  farms,  the  laying  out  of  open  spaces, 
recreation  grounds,  and  new  cemeteries,  the 
cleansing  of  streets  not  usually  undertaken  by 
local  authorities,  the  laying  out  and  paving  of 
new  streets,  and  the  extension  of  sewerage  work 
and  works  of  water  supply.  These  forms  of 
work,  however,  do  not  meet  the  needs  of  all — 
the  experience  of  cities  and  towns  in  the  United 
States  in  1894  showed  that  many  mill  hands 
and  artisans  were  physically  unable  to  endure 
out-of-door  work  in  the  winter  or  during  in¬ 
clement  weather — and,  of  course,  women  are 
not  provided  for. 

The  agencies  to  relieve  distress  among  the  un¬ 
employed  are  of  five  classes:  first,  special  citi¬ 
zens’  relief  committees,  organized  primarily  to 


UNEMPLOYMENT  645  UNGAVA 


aid  the  unemployed;  second,  municipal  depart¬ 
ments  having  charge  of  public  works  upon  which 
it  is  possible  to  give  employment;  third,  labor 
organizations  giving  aid  either  by  the  usual 
out-of-work  benefits  or  by  extraordinary  meth¬ 
ods;  fourth,  private  charities,  including  all  per¬ 
manent  relief-giving  organizations  not  connected 
with  State  or  municipal  governments;  fifth,  the 
permanently  established  relief  agencies  admin¬ 
istered  for  the  State  and  for  municipalities, 
such  as  poor  departments.  No  one  of  these 
agencies  is  complete  in  itself.  The  organization 
of  a  special  relief  committee  is  too  apt  to  be 
delayed  until  suffering  lias  been  acute,  and  its 
methods  are  likely  to  be  ill-considered  if  not 
injurious  to  society.  The  undertaking  of  new 
public  works  by  municipalities  is  liable,  in  the 
present  stage  of  political  development,  to  be  un¬ 
economical,  and  possibly  demoralizing  to  the 
civil  service.  Its  virtue  is  that  it  may  have  less 
of  the  demoralizing  taint  of  charity.  Trade 
unions  cannot  make  work,  and  generally  oppose 
any  reduction  in  the  standard  rates  of  wages  in 
fear  that  they  cannot  recover  the  concession  ex¬ 
cept  by  prolonged  struggle.  Nor  do  they  pos¬ 
sess  adequate  funds  to  meet  extraordinary  de¬ 
mand.  Private  charities  are  hampered  by  the 
cautious,  and  to  able-bodied  workmen  often 
irritating,  methods  of  investigation  which  must 
govern  the  ordinary  administration  of  charity. 
Illustration  of  the  work  of  all  these  agencies 
may  be  found  in  great  detail  in  the  Report  of  the 
Massachusetts  Board  to  Investigate  the  Subject 
of  the  Unemployed,  made  in  1895,  and  in  the  Re¬ 
port  on  the  Agencies  and  Methods  for  Dealing 
tcith  the  Unemployed,  made  by  the  Labor  Depart¬ 
ment  of  the  Board  of  Trade  of  Great  Britain,  in 
1893. 

The  more  permanent  agencies  which  have  been 
recommended  for  the  relief  of  unemployment  are 
as  follows :  ( 1 )  Publication  at  frequent  in¬ 

tervals  by  responsible  authorities,  either  trade 
or  governmental,  of  the  condition  of  the  labor 
market,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  workmen 
who  seek  employment,  and  of  preventing  an 
excessive  migration  from  the  country  into  the 
city.  (2)  The  establishment  of  employment 
bureaus  and  registry  offices  in  order  to  bring 
employers  and  laborers  together  more  promptly. 
Neither  of  these  agencies  can  greatly  increase  the 
amount  of  work  to  be  performed;  they  do,  how¬ 
ever,  reduce  loss  of  time  and  futile  effort.  (3) 
Establishment  of  boards  of  conciliation  and 
arbitration  in  order  to  prevent  strikes  and  lock¬ 
outs,  which  throw  men  out  of  work.  (4)  Adop¬ 
tion  of  a  shorter  day  of  work,  so  as  to  give  op¬ 
portunity  of  employment  to  a  greater  number  of 
workmen.  This  recommendation,  however,  does 
not  take  into  account  the  results  of  past  experi¬ 
ence;  either  the  productive  power  of  those  work¬ 
ing  is  proportionately  increased  by  the  reduc¬ 
tion  in  hours,  or  the  cost  of  production  is  in¬ 
creased,  thus  diminishing  the  purchasing  power 
and  standard  of  comfort  of  those  dependent 
upon  that  particular  product.  (5)  Restriction 
of  immigration.  In  some  industries,  as  the  gar¬ 
ment-making  trade  in  the  cities  of  the  Atlantic 
seaboard,  and  the  mining  industry  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  and  Illinois,  there  has  undoubtedly  been 
a  congestion  of  labor  owing  to  an  excessive  in¬ 
flux  of  workmen  from  foreign  countries;  the 
restriction  of  immigration,  however,  involves  so 
many  consequences  entirely  apart  from  that  of 
regularity  of  employment  that  its  discussion 
must  be  omitted.  (6)  Establishment  of  labor 


farms  or  colonies  for  the  purpose  of  training 
workmen  for  agricultural  life.  The  most  notable 
of  these  experiments  are  the  Labor  Colonies  of 
Germany ;  that  of  Hadleigh,  in  England,  estab¬ 
lished  by  the  Salvation  Army;  the  Jewish  colo¬ 
nies  in  Alliance  and  Woodbine,  New  Jersey;  and 
certain  land  settlements  in  New  Zealand.  Nearly 
every  country  has  experimented  along  this  line, 
but  the  results  are  not  as  a  whole  encouraging. 
It  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  methods  to  be 
utilized,  but  it  appears  to  be  unfitted  to  serve 
as  a  complete  remedy.  Agricultural  labor  is  not 
highly  paid,  and  during  the  past  half  century 
has  been  subjected  to  enormous  strains  caused 
by  the  opening  of  new  markets  of  supply.  Nor 
can  it  be  expected  that  a  miscellaneous  collec¬ 
tion  of  workmen  taken  from  the  city  will  suc¬ 
ceed  in  entirely  new  pursuits  upon  the  land. 
Again,  urban  workmen  who  have  been  unused  to 
farm  life  are  likely  to  be  attracted  by  numerous 
associations  to  the  charm  of  city  residence. 
Success  can  be  hoped  for  only  when  the  colonists 
are  inspired  by  an  earnest  spirit,  can  settle  upon 
land  of  especially  favorable  quality,  and  are 
supplied  with  a  considerable  amount  of  initial 
capital.  (7)  Insurance  against  unemployment. 
Many  municipalities  in  Europe  have  adopted  the 
so-called  Ghent  system  of  insurance  against  un¬ 
employment,  which  consists  in  subsidizing  trade 
unions  giving  unemployment  benefits  to  their 
members.  All  responsibility  for  establishing  the 
fact  of  unemployment  and  controlling  the  dis¬ 
tribution  of  the  benefits  is  placed  in  this  sys¬ 
tem  upon  the  union.  Approximately  a  quarter 
of  a  million  workers  in  various  cities  are  in¬ 
sured.  Great  Britain  enacted  in  1911  a  law 
requiring  compulsory  insurance  in  construction 
and  engineering  trades,  covering  about  2,500,000 
workmen.  Up  to  the  outbreak  of  the  great 
war,  the  insurance  fund  had  been  able  to  meet 
all  demands  for  unemployment  benefits  and  had 
a  considerable  surplus  to  its  credit.  Contribu¬ 
tions  are  required  both  from  workman  and  em¬ 
ployer,  and  the  state  adds  a  subsidy  equal  to 
one-third  of  these  contributions.  (See  Social 
Insurance.)  (8)  The  extension  of  state  in¬ 
dustrial  enterprise.  This  in  particular  is  the 
remedy  offered  by  the  Socialists.  (See  Social¬ 
ism;.)  (9)  Industrial  education.  Opposed  to 
the  Socialist  is  the  individualist  who  lays  stress 
upon  individual  training  by  which  the  workman 
will  be  enabled  to  turn  quickly  from  one  em¬ 
ployment  to  another  in  case  of  displacement. 
It  is  held  that  industrial  evolution  has  pro¬ 
ceeded  at  so  marvelous  a  rate  that  it  is  impos¬ 
sible  to  avoid  disturbance.  Distress  can  best 
be  met  by  a  thorough  preparation  of  the  indi¬ 
vidual  and  the  adoption  of  such  measures  as 
will  tend  to  strengthen  individual  effort  and  to 
widen  individual  opportunity.  Consult:  W.  H. 
Beveridge,  Unemployment :  A  Problem  of  In¬ 
dustry  (London,  1909)  ;  S.  and  B.  Webb,  Minor¬ 
ity  Report  of  the  Poor  Law  Commission  (ib., 
1909)  ;  F.  B.  Sargent,  “Statistics  of  Unemploy¬ 
ment  and  Work  of  Employment  Officers,”  in 
United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  Bulletin  No.  109 
(Washington,  1913)  ;  “The  Struggle  against 
Unemployment:  Symposium,”  in  American  La¬ 
bor  Legislation  Review,  vol.  iv  (New  York, 
1914),  including  bibliography.  See  Labor 
Colonies. 

UNGAVA,  un-ga/va  or  un-ga'va.  A  territory 
of  Canada.  In  May,  1912,  an  act  of  the  Canadian 
Parliament  authorized  its  annexation  to  the 
Province  of  Quebec,  and  the  same  year  it  was 


UNGAVA 


UNGER 


646 


erected  into  the  Territory  of  New  Quebec  by  an 
act  of  the  Legislature  of  the  Province  of  Que¬ 
bec  (Map:  Canada,  Q,  R  5).  New  Quebec  has 
an  approximate  area  of  351,780  square  miles. 
The  population,  including  Labrador,  consists  of 
about  3500  Indians,  2000  Eskimo,  and  8800 
whites.  The  population  is  expressly  excluded 
by  law  for  the  purposes  of  readjustment  of  rep¬ 
resentation  of  the  provinces  of  Canada.  It  oc¬ 
cupies,  for  the  main  part,  a  table-land  having  an 
average  elevation  of  1000  to  2000  feet,  and  com¬ 
posed  almost  wholly  of  Archean  gneisses  and 
granites,  with  some  ancient  Paleozoic,  mainly 
Silurian,  sedimentary  rocks.  In  the  northwest 
the  land  sinks  to  an  altitude  of  500  feet,  while 
the  shores  of  Ungava  Bay,  as  well  as  portions 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  coast,  are  lower.  At  Cape 
Jones,  at  the  entrance  to  James  Bay,  and  at 
several  other  places  the  plateau  approaches  the 
coast.  The  surface  of  the  plateau  is  an  undulat¬ 
ing  plain  scoured  by  glacial  action,  so  that  the 
rounded  granite  surfaces  are  exposed,  surrounded 
by  marshy  depressions.  Post-glacial  river  sys¬ 
tems  have  not  yet  developed  definitely,  and  the 
interior  is  a  maze  of  surface  streams  and  shal¬ 
low  lakes,  the  latter  being  so  numerous  that 
fully  one-third  of  the  total  area  is  covered  with 
water.  The  streams  finally  collect  in  a  num¬ 
ber  of  main  rivers,  which  have  cut  deep  valleys 
in  the  edge  of  the  plateau,  through  which  they 
descend  to  the  coast  by  falls  and  rapids.  These 
rivers  have  an  enormous  water  power,  that  of 
Hamilton  River  being  estimated  at  300,000  horse 
power.  About  90  per  cent  of  the  forests  of 
New  Quebec  are  spruce,  which  is  supplemented 
by  canoe  birch,  aspen,  cedar,  cypress,  and  poplar. 
Large  forests  of  spruce  and  birch  extend 
northward  in  the  valleys  as  far  as  the  fifty- 
seventh  parallel,  north  of  which  the  country  is 
treeless,  though  there  is  an  area  of  scrub  where 
gooseberries,  currants,  huckleberries,  and  cran¬ 
berries  are  abundant.  The  vegetation  in  the 
northern  half  consists  of  sphagnum  bogs  with 
sedges  and  Arctic  flowering  plants,  followed  in 
the  extreme  north  by  tundras,  in  which  lichens, 
especially  reindeer  moss,  are  predominant.  The 
sable  is  the  most  valuable  of  the  fur-bearing 
animals,  though  ermine,  lynx,  beaver,  and  foxes 
are  numerous.  Overhunting  has  nearly  exter¬ 
minated  the  caribou — especially  the  woodland 
species.  The  shore  fisheries  along  the  coast  of 
Hudson  Bay  are  considered  as  the  most  pro¬ 
ductive  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  Terri¬ 
tory  in  the  immediate  future.  Trout,  whitefish, 
cod,  and  salmon  are  the  most  important  fish. 
Immense  deposits  of  magnetite,  hematite,  and 
siderite  in  the  Cambrian  formation  are  wide¬ 
spread,  and  promise  to  be  of  future  economic 
importance.  Carbonate  iron  ores,  with  large 
percentages  of  manganese,  are  found  in  great 
quantities  in  the  Hudson  Bay  region,  both  along 
the  coast  and  also  on  all  the  Hopewell  islands, 
on  part  of  the  Nastapoka  and  adjoining  groups. 
The  climate  is  rigorous,  but  varies  greatly  in 
the  800  miles  of  latitude.  In  general  the  win¬ 
ters  are  colder  and  the  summers  warmer  than 
on  the  Labrador  coast.  While  minimum  win¬ 
ter  temperatures  varying  from  -—40°  to  —55° 
occur,  there  are  large  interior  areas  where  the 
summer  temperatures  rise  above  80°  each  year. 
Snow  falls  to  the  depth  of  3  to  5  feet  annually. 
Consult  Reports  on  Ungava,  recently  Added  to 
the  Province  of  Quebec,  under  the  Name  of  Neio 
Quebec  (Department  of  Colonization,  etc.,  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Quebec,  2d  ed.,  Quebec,  1915). 


UNGER,  ung'er,  Carl  Richard  (1817-97). 
A  Norwegian  philologist,  born  in  Christiania. 
He  was  educated  at  Christiania  Lniversity,  where 
he  was  lecturer  (1845-62),  and  professor  from 
1862  to  his  death.  He  became  known  through 
liis  accurate  and  discerning  work  in  editing 
numerous  Old  Norse  and  Icelandic  texts,  first 
together  with  P.  A.  Munch  and  R.  Keyser,  later 
alone.  Among  them  are  Heimskringla,  by 
Snorri  Sturluson,  Olafs  saga,  M  arkinskinna, 
Konungs  skugg-sjd,  mediaeval  romances,  legends, 
and  homilies.  He  also  edited  the  monumental 
work  Diplomat  arium  Norvegicum  (vols.  i-v, 
1847-61,  with  C.  A.  Lange,  and  vols.  vi-xv, 
1863-1900,  with  H.  J.  Huitfeldt-Kaas) . 

UNGER,  ung'er,  Franz  (1800-70).  An  Aus¬ 
trian  botanist,  born  in  Styria.  In  1836  he  be¬ 
came  professor  of  botany  at  Graz  and  in  1850 
was  called  to  Vienna.  He  was  one  of  the  pio¬ 
neers  in  paleobotany,  and  also  in  ecology,  a 
paper  of  his  on  the  relation  of  soil  to  vegetation 
being  one  of  the  classics  of  ecology.  He  also 
did  pioneer  work  in  plant  physiology. 

UNGER,  Joseph  (1828-1913).  An  Austrian 
jurist  and  statesman.  He  was  born  in  Vienna, 
studied  law  in  that  city,  and  after  holding  a 
chair  at  Prague  was  professor  of  jurisprudence 
in  the  University  of  Vienna  from  1857  till  his 
retirement  many  years,  later.  He  was  greatly  in¬ 
terested  in  the  constitutional  questions  of  Aus¬ 
tria,  and,  in  collaboration  with  Fisclihof,  pub¬ 
lished  Zur  Losung  der  ungarischen  Frage 
(1861).  He  became  a  member  of  the  Lower 
Austrian  Diet  in  1867,  and  later  of  the  Reichsrat, 
where  he  was  active  on  behalf  of  the  liberal 
programme.  In  1869  he  was  called  to  the 
House  of  Peers.  From  1871  to  1879  he  was 
Minister  without  a  portfolio,  and  in  1881  be¬ 
came  the  President  of  the  Imperial  Court.  His 
chief  work,  an  attempt  to  systematize  the  Aus¬ 
trian  private  law,  was  published  under  the  title 
System  dcs  osterreichischen  allgemeinen  Pri- 
vatrechts  (1856-59).  Among  his  other  works 
are:  Das  osterreichische  Erbrecht  (1864);  Der 
Entiourf  eines  biirgerlichen  Gesetzbuches  fur  das 
Konigreicli  Sachsen,  mit  besonderer  Riicksicht 
auf  das  osterreichische  allgemeine  burgerlichc 
Gesetzbuch  besprochen  (1853);  Die  rechtliche 
Natur  der  Inhaberpapiere  (1857);  Die  Verlas- 
senschaftsabhandlung  in  Oesterreich  (1865). 
With  Glaser  and  others,  he  published  Sammlung 
von  civilrechtlichen  Entscheidungen  des  k.  k. 
obersten  Gerichtshofes  in  Wien  (1859-92). 

UNGER,  Karoline  (1803-77).  A  Hungarian 
dramatic  soprano,  born  at  Stuhlweissenburg, 
near  Budapest.  She  received  her  musical  train¬ 
ing  from  Alovsia  Lange,  Mozart’s  sister-in-law, 
and  Johann  Vogl,  the  great  Schubert  interpreter. 
Her  debut  occurred  at  Vienna  in  1821  in  Mo¬ 
zart’s  Cost  fan  Tutte.  In  1824  she  met  Bee¬ 
thoven,  who  chose  her  to  sing  the  solos  in  the 
first  performances  of  his  Missa  Solemnis  and 
Ninth  Symphony.  The  scene  of  her  greatest 
triumphs  was  Italy,  where  Mercadante,  Pacini, 
Donizetti,  and  Bellini  wrote  many  operas  for 
her.  At  that  time  she  wrote  her  name  Ungher. 
After  her  marriage  to  a  M.  Sabatier  in  1840, 
she  retired  from  the  stage,  devoting  herself  en¬ 
tirely  to  the  concert  platform.  She  died  in 
Florence.  Her  voice  was  powerful,  but  rather 
shrill  in  the  highest  register. 

UNGER,  ung'er,  William  (1837-  ).  A 

German  etcher.  He  was  born  in  Hanover  and 
was  a  pupil  of  Josef  von  Keller  in  Diisseldorf 
and  of  Thater  in  Munich.  In  1871  he  became 


UNGNAD 


647 


UNGULATA 


in  the  development  of  a  true  herbivorous  type 
of  molar  teeth,  and  in  a  type  of  limb  adapted 
to  running  in  the  forests  and  on  the  plains, 
borne  of  tiie  oldest  forms  have  the  foot  semi¬ 
plantigrade,  but  the  change  through  the  dmiti- 
grade  to  the  unguligrade  foot,  with  only  the 
terminal  phalanx  resting  on  the  ground,  occurs 
during  the  early  part  of  the  Tertiary  period. 
Also  in  the  earliest  forms  all  the  five  digits 


professor  at  Weimar;  in  1881  at  the  Kunstge- 
werbeschule,  Vienna,  and  in  1895  at  the  Vienna 
Academy.  He  became  the  foremost  champion  of 
reproductive  etching  in  Germany— indeed,  in 
Europe  reproducing  the  great  masterpieces  of 
the  galleries  at  Brunswick,  Cassel,  Haarlem,  Am¬ 
sterdam,  and  ^  ienna,  with  an  elegance  of  drafts¬ 
manship,  delicacy  of  execution,  and  richness  of 
color  that  have  rarely  been  equaled.  His  prin¬ 
cipal  work  is  Oalerie  des 
Wiener  Belvedere,  with  text 
by  Lutzow.  Consult  Graul, 

William  TJnger  und  sein 
Radiemcerk  (Vienna,  1891). 

UNGNAD,  ung'nat,  Ar¬ 
thur  Franz  Eduard  ( 1879- 
) .  A  German  Oriental¬ 
ist,  born  at  Magdeburg.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Berlin  (Ph.D.,  1903)  ; 
served  as  an  assistant  in  the 
Royal  Museum  at  Berlin  in 
1905-09;  and  thenceforth 
was  professor  at  Jena.  Be¬ 
sides  grammars,  his  publica¬ 
tions  include:  Analogiebild- 
ungen  im  hebraischen  Ver- 
ben  (1903);  Syntax  der 

Gesetze  Hammurahis  ( 1903-04);  Selected  Baby-  were  about  equally  functional  but  be^an  very 
loman  Bumness  and  Legal  Documents  of  the  early  a  specialization  in  twi  directions-the 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  FOOT  IN  UNGULATES. 

(L Le?T^iarTv^4n^/i^Wer  TeJTtiary) ;  2,  Hyracops  (Eocene);  3.  Theosodon 
tiavy)  1  ’  4’  I  roterothenum  (Lower  Tertiary) ;  5,  Thootherium  (Lower  Ter- 


Hammurobi  Period  (1907);  Selected  Business 
Documents  of  the  Neo- Baby  Ionian  Period  ( 1908)  ; 
Hammurahis  Gesetz  (1909-11),  with  Kohler; 
Aramaische  Papyrus  aus  Elephantine  (1911); 
Praktische  Einfuhrung  in  die  hebraische  Lekture 
des  Alten  Testament  (1912). 

UFGUENT  (Lat.  unguentum,  from  unguere, 
to  anoint),  or  Ointment.  A  medicament  for 
external  application,  consisting  of  a  fatty  base 
holding  an  active  agent.  The  base  consists  of 
prepared  lard,  prepared  suet,  or  olive  or  almond 
oil,  mixed  with  white  wax,  or  of  vaseline,  or  of 
lanoline.  The  unguents  of  the  United  States 
Pharmacopoeia  are  those  of  boric  acid,  tannic 
acid,  rose  water  (cold  cream),  belladonna,  clirys- 
arobin,  diachylon  (lead  plaster),  nutgall,  mer¬ 
cury,  ammoniated  mercury,  nitrate  of  mercury, 
yellow  oxide  of  mercury,  red  oxide  of  mercury, 
iodine,  iodoform,  carbolic  acid,  tar,  potassium 
iodide,  stramonium,  sulphur,  veratrine,  zinc 
oxide,  and  zinc  stearate.  See  Ointment. 

UN'GULA'TA  (Lat.  nom.  pi.,  having  claws 
or  hoofs,  from  ungula,  claw,  hoof,  dim.  of  un¬ 
guis,  Gk.  ovv£,  onyx,  nail,  etc.,  OIr.  inga,  nail). 

An  order  of  mammals 
including  the  ele¬ 
phants,  hyracoids, 
hoofed  animals,  and 
related  forms  of  the 
past;  the  ungulates. 
The  earliest-known 
forms  from  the  basal 
Eocene  have  many  re¬ 
semblances  to  the  ear¬ 
liest  Creodonta  or 
primitive  Carnivora, 

,  in  the  small  brain, 

the  number  and  kinds  of  teeth,  the  compara¬ 
tively  short  legs  and  long  heavy  tail,  and  the 
five- toed  feet.  The  relatively  close  relationship 
of  the  earliest  ungulates  with  the  Creodonts  is 
admitted  by  all  authorities.  Both  groups  have 
probably  been  derived  from  insectivorous  placen¬ 
tal  mammals  of  the  Cretaceous  period. 

The  tendency  of  the  group  is  very  early  shown 


LEFT  FOREFOOT  OF  CORYPHO 
DON  (AMBLYPOD  TYPE). 


mesaxonic  type  with  the  axis  of  the  foot  in  the 
third  or  middle  digit,  as  in  the  perissodactyl 
or  odd-toed  forms,  and  the  paraxonic  type  with 
the  axis  between  the  third  and  fourth  digits  as 
m  the  artiodactyl  or  even-toed  forms.  The  con¬ 
necting  links  between  the  great  groups  of  un<m- 
lates  have  not  been  well  established.  The  Condy- 
larthia,  represented  by  the  Lower  Eocene 
Phenacodus,  seem  to  be  the  most  primitive. 
Ihe  ungulates  undoubtedly  began  to  radiate  in 
the  Cretaceous,  for,  though  none  have  yet  been 
recorded  for  that  era,  there  are  in  North  Amer¬ 
ica  two  well-marked  groups,  the  Condvlarthra 
and  the  Taligrade,  in  existence  at  the  very  base 
of  the  Eocene;  the  Taligrade  specialized  into  the 
clumsy  and  bizarre  Amblypoda  (caryphodonts 
and  uintatheres)  and  both  groups  became  ex¬ 
tinct  before  the  end  of  the  Eocene  period.  The 
radiation  of  ungulates  continues  through  the 
Eocene,  and  during  this  period  all  the  great 
groups  became  well  differentiated.  In  North 
America  the  Perissodactyla  are  not  found  in  the 
lowest  Eocene  formations  (Paleocene)  but  ap¬ 
pear  in  the  succeeding  Lower  Eocene,  apparentlv 
as  immigrants  from  a  northern  centre.  Of  the 
Perissodactyla  the  Palseotheriidse,  Equidte,  Tapir- 
idtP,  Lophiodontidae  and  J  itanotherida?  appear 
in  the  Lower  Eocene,  the  Hvracodontidae  in  the 
Middle  Eocene,  and  the  Amynodontidse  and  the 
Rhmocerotidae  in  the  Upper  Eocene.  It  should 
be  noted,  however,  that  the  earliest  members 
of  the  Equida?,  Tapirkhe  and  Lophiodontidae  are 
so  much  alike  that  some  authors  class  them  all 
in  the  same  family.  The  Amynodonts  and 
Rhinoceroses  are  also  derivatives  of  this  older 
group.  The  great  expansion  of  this  group  is  in 
the  Upper  Eocene  and  Oligocene.  The  Probos- 
cidea  and  Hyracoidea  probably  arose,  at  the 
latest,  in  the  Upper  Eocene  of  Asia  or  northern 
Africa.  Besides  these  forms,  which  were  com¬ 
mon  to  most  of  North  America  and  Eurasia,  there 
arose  in  South  America  an  ungulate  fauna  found 
nowhere  else,  consisting  of  four  groups,  Litop- 
terna,  Typotheria,  Toxodontia  and  Pyrotheria. 
The  first  three  of  these  seem  to  be  entirely  unre- 


UNGULED 


UNIFORMS 


648 


lated  to  other  ungulates  except  to  the  Condy- 
larthra.  They  flourished  in  the  Miocene  and 
Pliocene  and  became  extinct  in  the  Pleistocene. 
The  Pyrotheria  are  regarded  by  Loomis  as 
Proboscidea. 

The  ungulates  are  from  the  standpoint  of  hu¬ 
man  economy  the  most  important,  and  have  been 
the  chief  support  of  man  since  he  attained 
supremacy,  furnishing  him  with  most  of  the 
food,  clothing,  and  working  assistance  which  he 
derives  from  animals.  The  four  existing  sub¬ 
orders  are  the  Hyracoidea,  Proboscidea,  Artio- 
dactyla,  and  Perissodactyla.  See  Hyrax;  Ele¬ 
phant;  Proboscidea;  Ruminant;  Bovid.e; 
Horse;  Rhinoceros;  and  the  names  of  allied 
groups  and  species.  Consult:  S.  P.  Woodward, 
Vertebrate  Palaeontology  (New  York,  1898)  ;  F. 
E.  Beddard,  “Mammalia,”  in  Cambridge  Natural 
History,  vol.  x  (London,  1902)  ;  W.  K.  Gregory, 
“The  Order  of  Mammals,”  in  American  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  Bulletin  No.  27  (ib.,  1910)  ; 
H.  F.  Osborn,  The  Age  of  Mammals  (ib.,  1910). 

UN'GULED.  In  heraldry  (q.v.),  a  term  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  tincture  of  the  hoofs  of  an  animal. 
Thus  a  stag  represented  with  hoofs  of  a  certain 
color  is  unguled  of  that  color. 

UNG  VAR,  ung'var.  A  town  of  Hungary, 
capital  of  the  County  of  Ung,  172  miles  northeast 
of  Budapest,  on  the  river  Ung,  and  on  the 
Nyiregvhaza-Ungvar  Railway  (Map:  Hungary, 
H  2 ) .  The  former  castle  is  now  a  seminary. 
The  manufacture  of  pottery  and  vine  culture  en¬ 
gage  the  people.  Pop.,  1900,  14,723;  1910,  16,- 
840,  mostly  Magyars. 

UNIATES,  u'ni-ats  (Russ,  uniyatu,  member 
of  the  United  Greek  church,  from  Lat.  unus, 
one).  A  generic  term  used  to  designate  Eastern 
Christians,  who,  while  in  communion  with  Rome, 
are  allowed  to  retain  a  number  of  their  tradi¬ 
tional  local  peculiarities  in  discipline  and  wor¬ 
ship.  As  a  rule  they  have  their  own  liturgies 
in  the  Eastern  tongues;  they  use  leavened  bread 
in  the  Eucharist  (with  the  exception  of  the 
Maronites  and  the  Armenians)  ;  their  priests 
are  allowed  to  marry  once;  and  they  have  a  body 
of  canon  law  of  their  own,  partly  consisting  of 
ancient  conciliar  decrees  and  partly  of  papal  de¬ 
cisions  made  for  their  special  case.  Their  gov¬ 
ernment  is  cared  for  by  a  special  committee 
of  the  Propaganda  super  negotiis  Orientalium 
organized  by  Pius  IX  in  1862.  The  United 
Greeks  may  be  divided  according  to  the  lan¬ 
guages  employed  in  their  worship.  Those  with  a 
Greek  liturgy  are  found  principally  in  Greece, 
European  Turkey,  Italy,  and  Russia,  besides 
some  10,000  adherents  in  the  United  States. 
The  Melchites  (q.v.)  employ  the  Arabic.  There 
are  also  Rumanians  with  a  vernacular  liturgy; 
the  Slavic  is  employed  by  the  Ruthenians  and 
Bulgarians.  Under  the  name  of  Uniates  are  also 
comprehended  the  United  Copts,  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians  in  Egypt  and  Abyssinia, 
the  old  Patriarchate  of  Alexandria;  they  have 
been  united  with  Rome  since  1732,  and  number 
some  30,000.  To  the  Syrian  rite  belong  the 
Maronites  (q.v.),  the  Syrians  proper  in  Asiatic 
Turkey,  and  some  Syro-Chaldeans  in  the  same 
region  and  in  India.  There  are  also  Armenians 
in  Turkey,  Egypt,  Russia,  and  Galicia ;  these 
returned  to  communion  with  Rome  in  the  first 
half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  now  number 
150,000.  The  total  number  of  Uniates  is  up¬ 
ward  of  six  millions.  See  Nestorians. 

U'NICORN  (OF.,  Fr.  unicorne,  from  Lat. 
unicornus ,  one-liorned,  from  unus,  one  corrw, 


horn).  A  fabulous  animal  mentioned  by  ancient 
Greek  and  Latin  authors,  and  described  as  resem¬ 
bling  a  horse,  and  with  one  horn  on  the  forehead. 
The  unicorn  is  perhaps  best  known  as  a  heraldic 
charge  or  supporter.  Consult  Robert  Brown,  The 
Unicorn  (London,  1881);  Charles  Gould,  Mythi¬ 
cal  Monsters  (ib.,  1886).  See  Bestiaries. 

UNICORN.  See  Monoceros;  Oryx. 

UNICORN  FISH.  1.  A  marine  fish  (Lo- 
photes  cepedianus) ,  related  to  the  oarfisli  and 
ribbon  fishes  (qq.v.).  It  has  been  taken  both 
in  the  eastern  Atlantic  and  off  the  coast  of 
Japan,  in  rather  deep  water.  It  is  about  five 
feet  long  and  silvery  in  color,  with  lighter  spots 
and  rosy  fins.  All"  the  fins  are  minute  except 
the  dorsal,  which  extends  the  whole  length  of 
the  back,  and  is  preceded  by  the  elevation  of  the 


crown  of  the  head  into  a  high  crest,  surmounted 
by  an  exceedingly  long  and  recurved  spine,  from 
which  the  fish  receives  its  name.  Its  habits  are 
unknown.  (2)  One  of  the  filefishes  (Alutera 
scripta )  common  in  the  West  Indies,  and  known 
there  as  “lija  trompa.”  It  is  two  or  three  feet 
long,  olivaceous  in  color,  streaked  and  spotted 
with  blue  and  black,  and  has  the  snout  produced, 
and  a  long  and  slender  spine  rising  from  the  top 
of  the  head.  Consult  Gunther,  Study  of  Fishes 
(Edinburgh,  1880). 

UNICORN  PLANT.  See  Martynia. 

U'NIFOR'MITA'RIANISM.  In  geology  the 
theory  which  seeks  to  account  for  the  past  his¬ 
tory  of  the  earth  in  the  light  of  the  present.  It 
assumes  that  the  great  changes  which  the  earth 
has  undergone  are  the  results  of  slow-working 
but  persistent  processes  rather  than  of  catas¬ 
trophic  agencies.  The  theory  was  first  clearly 
stated  by  James  Hutton  and  found  its  ablest 
advocate  in  Sir  Charles  Lyell;  it  has  had  an 
important  influence  in  the  development  of  geo¬ 
logical  science.  See  Catastrophism. 

UNIFORMITY,  Act  of.  See  Act  of  Uni¬ 
formity. 

UNIFORMS,  Military  and  Naval.  A  uni¬ 
form  is  a  distinguishing  dress  of  a  certain  group 
or  organization,  as  an  army,  society,  etc.  To 
obtain  authentic  records  as  to  the  first  em¬ 
ployment  of  costume  devices,  as  they  were  then 
known,  it  is  necessary  to  go  back  to  the  Cru¬ 
saders.  Armor  (q.v.)  was  the  badge  of  caste, 
and  to  distinguish  one  armored  knight  from 
another  there  were  adopted  and  employed  shields 
bearing  what  are  now  known  as  heraldic  de¬ 
vices.  (See  Heraldry.)  Likewise  the  difficulty 
of  distinguishing  men  at  arms,  and  followers  of 
a  king  or  nobleman,  especially  in  battle,  brought 
about  the  introduction  of  a  distinctive  badge 
or  pattern  of  dress  for  all  the  retainers  of  a 


UNIFORMS 


SERVICE  UNIFORMS  AT  THE  TIME  OF  THE  EUROPEAN  WAR,  1916 


UNIFORMS 


MILITARY  DRESS  UNIFORMS.  1916 


UNIFORMS 


feudal  lord  or  monarch.  Thus  in  the  Second 
Crusade  the  French  wore  red  crosses  on  their 
sleeves  and  the  English  white.  Henry  VIII  of 
England  is  said  to  have  had  the  first  completely 
uniformed  body  of  men,  when  at  the  siege  of 
Therovame  his  archers  were  dressed  in  white 
gaberdines,  with  caps  of  uniform  color  and  de¬ 
sign.  In  1526  he  arrayed  the  yeomen  of  his 
household  in  a  uniform  of  red  and  black,  and 
this  costume  for  the  Yeomen  of  the  Guard 
(q.v. ),  or  the  Beefeaters,  as  they  were  for¬ 
merly  known,  is  still  worn  by  the  members  of 
that  distinguished  corps. 

I  ranee  speedily  followed  England  in  uniform¬ 
ing  the  different  corps  of  men  at  arms,  and  by 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  all 
the  countries  of  Europe  had  distinctive  dress 
for  their  troops.  From  then  until  the  end  of 
the  nineteenth  century  uniforms  varied  with  the 
times,  strongly  influenced  in  cut  and  design  by 
various  changes  in  civilian  costumes,  such  as 
wigs,  long  and  short  skirted  coats,  knee  breeches, 
boots,  and  similar  accessories,  and  what  were 
the  fashions  of  the  times  soon  found  their  way 
into  the  dress  regulations  prescribed  for  the 
armies.  Uniforms  probably  reached  their  height 
of  splendor  in  the  days  of  the  Napoleonic  wars, 
when  the  French  Emperor  made  use  of  all  pos¬ 
sible  spectacular  effect  to  incite  martial  en¬ 
thusiasm.  In  the  days  when  the  arms  used 
on  the  battlefield  had  but  a  limited  range,  the 
wearing  of  showy  uniforms  made  little  differ¬ 
ence,  as  the  enemy’s  troops,  even  when  plainly 
visible,  could  not  be  reached  by  fire  except  at 
short  distances.  The  improvement  of  firearms, 
however,  completely  changed  field  operations, 
and  showy  uniforms,  except  for  parade  and  gar¬ 
rison  duty,  have  almost  completely  disappeared. 
The  service  uniforms  of  the  armies  of  the  mili¬ 
tary  forces  are  now  primarily  designed  for  util¬ 
ity  and  to  meet  the  conditions  under  actual 
war  service.  ( See  War  in  Europe.  )  Such  uni¬ 
forms  were  first  used  by  the  English  in  India 
about  1880,  and  the  color  adopted  was  known 
as  khaki  (q.v.),  a  term  which  has  become  the 
recognized  name  for  describing  the  field-service 
uniform,  though  technically  khaki  is  a  color  and 
not  a  material.  It  was  not  until  the  Spanish- 
American  War  that  the  advantage  of  a  field-serv¬ 
ice  uni  form  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  United 
States,  while  the  South  African  War,  a  year 
later,  proved  to  the  world  the  necessity  of  such 
a  uniform  in  days  of  high-powered  armaments. 

The  main  character  of  the  uniforms  of  the 
armies  of  the  world  are  indicated  in  the  following 
summary : 

Austria-Hungary.  The  uniforms  of  the  Aus¬ 
trian  army  were  for  many  years  modeled  after 
the  French,  with  the  exception  that  from  as 
early  as  1650  white  was  universally  used  for 
both  coat  and  trousers  for  all  branches  of  the 
service.  Such  uniforms  made  little  difference 
as  long  as  troops  were  manoeuvred  for  battle 
at  short  distances,  but  in  the  war  with  Prussia 
in  1866,  when  more  effective  arms  began  to 
make  their  appearance,  these  conspicuous  clothes 
caused  disaster  to  the  Austrian  troops.  A  com¬ 
plete  revision  of  the  entire  uniform  regulation 
came  later,  and  in  1890  the  present  bill  of 
dress  was  adopted.  The  infantry  tunic  is  of 
dark  blue  with'  collar  patches  of  colors,  or  com¬ 
binations  of  colors,  by  which  the  regiments  are 
distinguished.  Trousers  are  of  light  blue. 
Rifle  regiments  wear  complete  uniforms  of  gray. 
Dragoons,  uhlans,  and  hussars  wear  tunics  of 


649  UNIFORMS 

dark  blue  with  red  breeches;  the  first  two  wear 
leather  helmets  and  the  last  named  shakos, 
Artillery  wear  brown  tunics  and  red  breeches 
and  the  engineers  gray  throughout.  The  army 
of  Hungary  for  many  years  followed  the  pic¬ 
turesque  national  costume  in  which  elaborate 
braiding,  fur  trimmings,  and  high  boots  were 
features.  In  1867,  with  the  consolidation  of 
the  two  kingdoms,  the  Hungarian  army  was 
uniformed  in  accordance  with  the  dress  of  the 
Austrians,  though  in  the  infantry  they  still 
retain  the  tight  braided  trousers  of  their  na¬ 
tional  dress.  Field-service  uniforms  were  first 
tried  out  in  1902  and  gradually  the  whole  army 
was  equipped  with  a  bluish-gray  uniform 
trimmed  with  distinctive  colors.  The  cavalry 
retained  their  regulation  helmets  and  shakos, 
made  less  conspicuous  for  field  work  by  a  gray 
cover,  while  other  branches  of  the  service  have 
a  cap  conforming  in  color  with  the  rest  of  the 
uniform. 

England.  As  stated  previously,  uniforms 
were  first  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
In  his  special  guards  in  1544  every  soldier  was 
required  to  have  a  coat  of  blue  “guarded”  with 
a  red  cloth.  In  1585  English  soldiers  wore  scar¬ 
let  coats  for  the  first  time,  but  during  the  Civil 
War  uniforms  became  much  more  sombre,  and 
varied  according  to  the  colors  of  the  troop  lead¬ 
ers.  King  Charles  and  Prince  Rupert  chose 
scarlet  for  their  respective  guards,  but  this  was 
not  definitely  adopted  as  the  English  color  until 
Queen  Anne’s  reign.  By  the  close  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century  nearly  the  whole  of  the  land 
forces  of  Great  Britain  were  uniformed  in  scar¬ 
let  or  blue,  the  former  color  generally  for  the 
foot,  and  the  latter  for  mounted  troops,  though 
there  were  exceptions.  The  organization  of  rifle 
regiments  in  1800  caused  the  introduction  of 
what -is  known  as  “rifle  green”  for  this  special 
corps. 

The  cut  of  the  military  clothing,  the  general 
style,  the  hats  and  equipment,  all  varied  with 
the  times.  During  the  period  when  long  tail 
coats  were  worn  the  tails  were  looped  back  for 
convenience  in  action,  thus  showing  the  lining 
of  different  colors.  Regiments  thus  became 
known  by  the  color  of  their  facings  as  these 
turn-backs  were  called,  and  when  the  uniforms 
were  modernized  these  facings  were  retained 
in  the  trimmings.  Though  English  uniforms 
have  followed  the  changes  of  dress  in  keeping 
with  the  times,  they  have,  in  many  cases,  re¬ 
tained  certain  characteristics  of  trimmings,  orna¬ 
ments,  etc.,  that  have  kept  to  certain  tradi¬ 
tions.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  High¬ 
land  regiments.  They  have  always  refused  to 
give  up  their  kilts,  even  when  it  was  necessary 
to  equip  them  in  field-service  jackets  and  caps. 
These  privileges  are  regarded  as  inalienable 
rights  in  many  organizations  and,  as  they  con¬ 
duce  strongly  to  esprit  de  corps,  they  have  a 
value  which  offsets  the  strictly  military  views 
of  the  War  Office. 

The  British  army  was  first  entirely  equipped 
with  a  field-service  uniform  in  the  South  Afri¬ 
can  War  of  1899-1902.  The  color  adopted  was 
the  same  as  the  khaki-colored  uniforms  which . 
had  been  used  in  India.  The  cut  was  loose  and 
comfortable;  the  coat  supplied  with  patch 
pockets:  the  trousers  and  breeches  were  tight 
at  the  knee,  and  the  lower  legs  were  protected 
by  boots  or  leggings  of  brown  leather  or  a 
strip  of  woolen  material,  called  puttees,  wound 
around  the  leg.  Though  varying  in  color  and 


UNIFORMS 


UNIFORMS 


650 


details  this  type  of  uniform  has  been  practi¬ 
cally  copied  by  all  nations  in  their  present  field- 
service  uniforms. 

France.  Uniforms  were  first  worn  in  France 
by  the  entire  army  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII. 
In  1670,  when  the  wearing  of  the  prescribed 
uniform  was  made  compulsory,  the  infantry 
were  ordered  to  wear  white  coats,  faced  with 
red.  The  cavalry  had  a  similar  uniform  with 
leather  breeches  and  high  boots.  Under  Louis 
XVT  the  uniforms  were  modified,  the  infantry 
wearing  white,  the  light  cavalry  blue,  and  the 
heavy  cavalry  green.  With  the  Revolution  the 
uniforms  were  simplified — consisting  of  dark- 
blue  coats,  white  breeches,  and  high  gaiters. 
Napoleon,  on  accoimt  of  the  difficulty  of  ob¬ 
taining  dyestuff,  returned  to  white,  but,  sub¬ 
stitutes  for  the  old  dyes  being  found,  the  col¬ 
ored  coats  were  again  introduced.  During  this 
period  the  French  uniforms,  particularly  those 
of  the  officers,  were  probably  the  most  elaborate 
ever  worn.  In  1815,  with  the  restoration  of 
Louis  XVIII,  the  white  uniforms  were  again 
taken  up,  only  to  give  way  to  the  blue  in  1820. 
At  the  same  time  the  famous  red  trousers  were 
universally  adopted  for  all  branches  of  the 
service  except  riflemen,  artillery,  and  engineers, 
who  all  wore  blue.  During  the  Second  Empire 
a  return  was  made  to  the  extremely  elaborate 
dress  of  the  Napoleonic  days,  but  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  of  1870  proved  the  uselessness 
of  many  of  these  uniforms  for  modern  warfare. 
With  the  reconstruction  of  the  army  after  the 
war  the  general  scheme  of  color  (blue  and  red) 
was  retained  and  the  uniforms  wTere  put  on  a 
more  practical  basis  which,  except  for  slight 
modifications,  are  as  worn  at  the  present  time. 
The  dragoons  and  cuirassiers  still  wear  their 
metal  helmets,  and  the  latter  also  the  cuirass. 
France  is  the  only  country  to  retain  their  relics 
of  former  military  glory  for  service  in  the  field. 

Until  the  great  war  the  French  had  never 
adopted  any  official  field-service  uniform  for 
their  army  as  a  whole.  Troops  on  duty  in 
Africa  had  been  supplied  with  khaki,  while 
several  experimental  uniforms  had  been  tried 
in  sections  of  the  home  army.  When  the  war 
broke  out  in  1914  the  troops  went  into  service 
in  their  historic  blue  and  red;  the  heavy  cav¬ 
alry,  however,  concealed  their  helmets  and  cui¬ 
rasses  with  grayish-brown  covers.  The  imprac¬ 
ticability  of  the  uniform  was  soon  discovered, 
and  a  colored  cloth  of  light  grayish  blue  was 
adopted.  This  was  said  to  blend  better  with 
the  surroundings  in  the  field  in  northern  France 
than  the  khaki  worn  by  the  English.  Tradi¬ 
tion  is  still  strong  in  the  French  service,  and 
though  the  army  has  been  equipped  with  the 
above  color  for  caps,  coats,  and  overcoats,  they 
still  retain  the  red  trousers  in  regiments  for 
which  they  are  prescribed.  A  further  innova¬ 
tion  in  the  field-service  uniform  in  the  war 
was  the  equipment  of  infantry  with  a  steel 
shrapnel-proof  helmet,  the  use  of  which  was 
so  beneficial  to  the  men  engaged  in  trench 
work  that  the  English  experimented  with  a 
similar  device  to  be  issued  /to  their  advance 
infantry. 

Germany.  Any  historical  sketch  of  the  uni¬ 
forms  of  the  armies  of  Germany  previous  to  the 
formation  of  the  Empire  in  1870  would  exceed 
the  space  limits  of  this  article.  Each  king 
and  ruler  of  petty  states  maintained  his  own 
army,  uniforming  and  equipping  it  according  to 
his  own  or  his  government’s  ideas.  The  army 


of  Prussia,  under  Frederick  the  Great,  was 
brought  to  a  splendid  standard  of  efficiency,  and 
its  styles  of  uniforms  soon  after  began  to  show 
themselves  in  the  armies  of  the  smaller  Ger¬ 
man  states.  With  the  unity  of  Germany  in 
1871  the  army  was  reorganized  as  an  Imperial 
one  and  the  Prussian  uniform  was  adopted 
throughout  the  Empire  except  in  Bavaria,  where 
a  lighter  blue  was  used  instead  of  the  dark 
blue  worn  by  the  army  in  general.  The  mod¬ 
ern  German  uniforms  may  be  described  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  Infantry — blue  tunics,  black  trousers ; 
facings  according  to  regiments,  scarlet,  white, 
or  light  blue.  Black  leather  helmets  with  metal 
spikes.  Rifle  regiments  wear  dark  green  in¬ 
stead  of  blue,  and  leather  shakos.  Cuirassiers 
— tunics  of  white.  Dragoons  and  uhlans — blue, 
the  former  wearing  helmets  of  metal,  the  two 
latter  of  leather.  The  hussars’  tunics  are  of 
various  colors  according  to  regiments — their 
headdress  busbies  of  brown  fur.  Artillery  and 
engineers  wear  uniforms  of  blue  throughout, 
Avith  trimmings  of  black  and  scarlet. 

Experiments  with  a  field-service  uniform  were 
begun  immediately  after  England’s  war  with 
South  Africa,  but  it  was  not  until  1908  that  a 
definite  uniform  was  decided  upon.  The  army 
has  since  then  been  gradually  equipped  with 
these:  field  uniforms  of  brownish  gray,  the  cut 
and  color  of  trimmings  as  prescribed  for  the 
ordinary  uniforms  retained,  as  well  as  the  hel¬ 
met,  busbies,  and  shakos.  These  are  concealed 
for  service  by  a  covering  of  the  same  color  as 
the  uniform.  Military  critics  of  the  great  war 
agreed  that  it  was  the  most  practical  of  the 
uniforms  now  in  the  field  as  far  as  adaptability 
for  concealment  is  concerned,  though  the  tight- 
fitting  tunics  and  heavy  helmets  are  unsuited 
for  modern  warfare. 

Italy.  The  uniforms  of  the  Italians  have 
been  rather  French  in  character,  particularly 
since  the  Napoleonic  conquest  of  Italy,  but  of 
an  endless  variety  of  colors.  Previous  to  the 
unity  of  the  country  in  1861  each  separate 
kingdom  and  state  maintained  and  dressed  its 
army  as  it  saw  fit.  Many  attempts  to  estab¬ 
lish  uniformity  were  made  previous  to  1870, 
but  it  was  not  until  that  date  that  the  entire 
army  came  under  one  dress  regulation.  These 
regulations  were  changed  in  1890,  at  which 
time  the  present  uniform  was  adopted.  Infan¬ 
try — dark -blue  tunic,  gray  trousers,  cloth  shako; 
cavalry — dark-blue  tunic,  gray  breeches;  lan¬ 
cers — busbies;  dragoons — helmets;  artillery  and 
engineers — dark-blue  tunic  and  trousers.  The 
distinctive  corps  of  the  Italian  service  is  the 
Bersaglieri  ( q.v. ) .  The  Italian  field  uniform 
is  extremely  practical,  the  color  being  brownish 
gray,  the  cut  loose  and  comfortable.  It  was 
first  introduced  about  1908,  the  entire  army 
being  equipped  at  the  time  of  the  war  with 
Tripoli,  in  1911. 

Russia.  The  early  Russian  uniforms  followed 
closely  the  costumes  of  the  people  imtil  the  re¬ 
organization  of  the  army  by  Peter  the  Great 
when  it  was  modeled  after  that  of  the  Germans. 
With  certain  modifications  this  practice  has 
continued  except  that  the  ground  color  has  been 
green  instead  of  blue  and  the  helmets  have  been 
superseded  in  recent  years  by  hats  of  a  more 
distinctive  Russian  character.  The  infantry 
uniform  in  1916  was  dark  gTeen,  with  facings 
of  red,  blue,  or  yellow  according  to  regiments. 
Cavalry  wore  green  or  blue  coats  with  gray 
breeches.  Artillery  and  engineers  wear  the  same 


UNIFORMS 


UNIFORMS 


as  infantry  except  for  distinctive  markings.  All 
branches  of  the  service,  both  foot  and  mounted, 
wear  knee  boots  in  which  the  trousers  are  tucked. 
The  distinctive  corps  of  the  Russian  service  is 
the  Cossacks  (q.v. ).  Nothing  was  done  in  re¬ 
gard  to  a  field-service  uniform  until  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  in  1905,  when  in  this  respect 
the  Japanese  had  a  great  advantage  over  their 
adversary.  The  Russian  troops  in  the  field 
were  gradually  supplied  with  makeshift  serv¬ 
ice  uniforms,  and  on  the  reorganization  of  the 
army  after  the  conclusion  of  hostilities  a  field- 
service  outfit  was  adopted,  the  color  of  which 
is  olive  drab,  similar  to  that  worn  by  the  Eng¬ 
lish,  but  the  general  cut  and  color  markings 
of  the  regular  uniforms  have  been  preserved. 

The  uniforms  of  the  smaller  nations  of  Europe 
reflect,  in  a  general  way,  those  in  use  bv  their 
more  powerful  neighbors.  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark  incline  to  German  styles.  Belgium, 
Holland,  Switzerland,  Spain,  and  Portugal  all 
favor  the  French ;  while  in  the  Balkan  region 
Rumania  follows  the  French,  Serbia  Austrian, 
Bulgaria  Russian,  and  Greece  French  with  a 
leaning  to  English  for  field  service.  Turkey  has 
been  so  long  under  German  domination  that 
their  uniforms  are  distinctly  on  the  line  of  the 
army  of  that  country,  with  the  exception  of 
the  universal  wearing  of  the  fez. 

Of  the  two  military  nations  of  Asia  the  Jap¬ 
anese  on  the  reorganization  of  their  army  on 
European  lines  largely  copied  the  French,  though 
their  field-service  uniform  is  modeled  after  that 
worn  by  the  British  army.  They  were  thus 
uniformed  for  the  field  in  the  war  with  Russia 
in  1905,  since  which  time  the  field  uniforms 
have  become  the  regular  uniform  of  the  army, 
the  old  colored  uniforms  being  worn  only  by 
a  few  regiments  of  the  Imperial  Guard  for  oc¬ 
casions  of  ceremony.  When  China  reorganized 
its  army  on  European  lines  in  1902  it  first 
adopted  a  mixed  uniform,  half  Chinese  and  half 
European,  but  this  speedily  gave  way  to  a  more 
practical  outfit  of  blue  for  dress  and  of  khaki 
for  service,  the  latter  being  rather  German  in 
cut  and  pattern,  though  many  features  were 
copied  from  the  United  States. 

The  principal  South  American  countries  all 
maintain  armies,  the  organization  of  which  was 
generally  effected  under  the  guidance  of  officers 
from  European  countries  and  the  uniforms  re¬ 
flect  the  ideas  of  these  organizers  and  early  in¬ 
structors,  those  of  Brazil  and  Argentina  being 
French  and  that  of  Chile,  German.  The  uni¬ 
forms  of  the  smaller  countries  play  but  a  small 
part  in  the  armies — in  many  cases  only  the  of¬ 
ficers  wear  them.  Mexico  was  distinctly  French 
until  the  revolution  following  the  fall  of  Diaz 
when  the  uniforms,  such  as  they  were,  became 
American  in  general  appearance. 

UNITED  STATES 

The  dress  of  the  United  States  army  pre¬ 
scribed  in  orders  has  in  practice  been  marked 
by  irregular  and  unauthorized  modifications. 
This  has  arisen  partly  from  the  American  tend¬ 
ency  to  sacrifice  display  to  utility.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  American  Revolution  each  regi¬ 
ment  provided  its  own  uniforms,  and  later  it  be¬ 
came  necessary  at  times  to  call  upon  the  in¬ 
habitants  to  contribute  cast-off  clothing  to 
clothe  the  patriotic  soldiers.  Such  uniforms  as 
were  worn  were  English  in  design,  substituting 
blue  for  scarlet  coats.  The  close  of  the  Revo- 
Vol.  XXII.  —42 


651 

lution  found  the  troops,  generally,  in  a  condi¬ 
tion  not  unlike  Falstaff’s  recruits.  Measures 
were  at  once  taken  to  uniform  properly  the  few 
troops  retained  in  service  and  the  uniforms  then 
selected  closely  followed  the  French,  that  of 
the  infantry  being  blue  faced  with  white,  and 
the  artillery,  blue  faced  with  red,  these  being 
then  the  only  two  arms  in  the  composition  of 
the  army.  Later  cavalry  was  added,  wearing 
green  coats  with  white  facings,  which  soon  af- 
tei  changed  to  black.  Since  that  time  the  uni¬ 
forms  of  the  army  can  be  divided  into  periods, 
each  of  which  dates  back  to  the  close  of  one 
of  the  wars. 

Various  changes  were  made  in  the  bill  of 
dress  until  the  War  of  1812,  when  the  large 
number  of  militia  organizations  were  hastily 
summoned  into  the  service  with  their  distinc¬ 
tive  uniforms  and  the  necessity  of  hastilv  equip¬ 
ping  a  large  number  of  volunteer  recruits  made 
it  impossible  to  adhere  to  the  dress  regulations, 
and  the  close  of  the  war  again  found  the  army 
uniforms  in  a  chaotic  state.  The  reconstruction 
again  brought  in  the  French  style  of  the  period, 
and  the  dark-blue  coat  for  all  branches  of  the 
service  was  then  adopted,  the  trousers  or  breeches 
being  white  or  light  blue.  A  later  innovation 
was  the  clothing  of  the  rifle  regiments  in  gray. 
The  different  branches  of  the  service,  staff  de¬ 
partments,  etc.,  were  each  designated  by  a 
distinctive  color  or  combination  of  colors  in 
their  trimmings.  These  varied  at  different 
times,  as  did  the  details  until  the  Mexican  War 
period,  when  after  conclusion  of  hostilities  the 
uniform  regulations  were  again  completely  re¬ 
vised.  Color  trimmings  were  then  positively 
adopted.  Cavalry,  yellow;  infantry,  light  blue; 
artillery,  red;  medical  department,  green.  All 
staff  departments,  black.  As  new  departments 
were  organized  the  following  colors  were  added: 
engineers,  red,  piped  with  white;  signal  corps, 
orange,  piped  with  white;  ordnance  department, 
black,  piped  with  red;  quartermaster  corps, 
buff..  The  infantry  color  was  changed  to  white, 
but  in  1902  returned  to  light  blue.  At  the  same 
time  maroon  was  substituted  for  green  in  the 
medical  department.  The  colors  given  above 
are  as  used  at  present. 

The  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  on  account 
of  the  influx  of  State  organizations,  found  the 
army  again  clothed  in  a  variety  of  uniforms, 
but  before  the  termination  of  the  conflict  the 
undress,  or  service  uniform,  of  the  time  (dark- 
blue  coat,  light-blue  trousers  with  prescribed 
trimmings)  was  universally  worn  by  both  reg¬ 
ulars  and  volunteers.  Full-dress  and  show  uni¬ 
forms  had  entirely  disappeared  during  the  four 
years  of  active  campaigning,  and  it  was  nec¬ 
essary  to  reconstruct  the  army  bill  of  dress 
at  the  close  of  the  war.  The  French  style  and 
cut  were  again  copied,  but  no  change  was  made 
in  the  colors  or  color  trimmings.  At  the  close 
of  the  Franco-Prussian  War  in  1870  there  was 
a  strong  feeling  that  the  uniform  of  a  nation 
successful  in  war  should  be  copied,  and  the 
new  bill  of  dress  prescribed  the  German  cut  of 
clothing  with  the  spiked  and  plumed  helmets. 

The  Spanish  War  of  1898  again  brought  into 
service  large  bodies  of  volunteers,  but  the  State 
troops  in  recent  years  had  been  more  or  less 
uniformed  in  accordance  with  the  army  uni¬ 
form  regulations,  and  consequently  there  was 
less  variety  of  dress  than  on  former  occasions 
of  the  calling  in  of  volunteers.  The  heavy  blue 
uniforms  were  found  to  be  very  unsuited  for 


UNIFORMS 


UNIFORMS 


652 


service  in  the  tropics,  and  a  service  uniform 
of  khaki  cotton  was  introduced.  The  necessity 
of  speed  in  equipping  troops  caused  the  gov¬ 
ernment  to  supply  clothing  that  varied  in  many 
ways  from  the  regulations,  and  it  was  found 
impossible  after  the  close  of  the  war  to  readjust 
this  state  of  affairs  by  alterations  or  reissues. 
The  whole  dress  regulation,  as  it  then  was, 
wras  therefore  wiped  out  in  1902.  The  new  reg¬ 
ulations  made  such  radical  changes  that  it  was 
necessary  to  uniform  anew  the  entire  army. 
These  regulations,  except  for  minor  changes,  re¬ 
main  in  force.  In  the  new  dress  the  result 
of  the  experience  of  all  nations  as  to  utility 
and  ornamentation  was  considered.  Officers’ 
uniforms  are  classed  as  full  dress,  dress,  and 
service.  The  full-dress  coat  for  an  officer  is 
a  double-breasted  tunic  with  a  collar  of  the 
color  of  his  respective  branch.  Rank  is  desig¬ 
nated  on  the  shoulder  knots  and  by  braiding 
on  the  sleeve.  The  dress  coat,  except  for  gen¬ 
eral  officers,  is  a  dark-blue  sack  coat  with  con¬ 
cealed  hooks  instead  of  buttons  and  trimmed 
with  broad  black  braid.  Rank  is  indicated  on 
the  shoulder  straps.  Trousers  are  of  a  lighter 
shade  of  blue  with  the  proper  colored  stripes. 
Officers  also  have  a  special  dress  for  evening- 
wear  which,  in  the  case  of  the  coat,  is  cut  on 
the  lines  of  a  civilian  dress  coat,  trimmed  as  pre¬ 
scribed  for  the  full-dress  uniform  coat  and  worn 
with  a  civilian  dress  shirt  and  white  waistcoat. 
The  enlisted  men  have  but  two  uniforms — dress 
and  service.  The  former  is  a  single-breasted 
sack  coat  with  facings  of  the  branch  of  the 
service.  Trousers  or  breeches  are  of  a  lighter 
blue,  noncommissioned  officers  .  only  having 
stripes  of  the  proper  color.  Caps  for  officers 
and  men  are  of  the  same  design,  the  band  being 
decorated  with  the  proper  colors,  those  of  the 
officers  having  additional  trimmings  of  gold  lace. 

In  the  1902  dress  regulations  the  olive-drab 
service  uniform  wTas  first  officially  included. 
The  color  is  a  trifle  darker  and  nearer  a  green 
shade  than  that  known  as  khaki,  and  the 
uniform  is  prescribed  in  both  woolen  and  cot¬ 
ton  material  according  to  the  climate  for  which 
it  is  intended.  The  cut  of  these  uniforms  is 
similar  for  both  officers  and  men,  and  follows 
closely  the  English  model  used  in  the  South 
African  War.  The  coat  is  cut  with  a  loose  and 
comfortable  fit,  supplied  with  four  outside  patch 
pockets,  and  the  breeches  (worn  by  all  branches) 
confined  below  the  knees  with  laces  or  buttons. 
The  lower  legs  are  protected  by  boots,  or  leg¬ 
gings  of  tan  leather  for  officers,  and  canvas 
leggings  for  men.  Overcoats,  campaign  hats, 
service  caps,  and  other  articles  of  equipment 
conform  in  color  to  the  uniform.  Designations 
of  organizations,  buttons,  and  other  metal  orna¬ 
ments  are  made  of  bronze-colored  metal.  Of¬ 
ficers  wear  their  insignia  of  rank  on  the 
shoulder  straps.  See  Military  Insignia,  and 
Plates  under  Infantry. 

The  National  Guard,  or,  as  it  is  officially 
known,  the  “organized  Militia,”  of  the  United 
States,  is  now  completely  organized,  uniformed, 
and  equipped  in  accordance  with  the  army  regu¬ 
lations.  There  are  a  few  historic  organizations 
which  for  reasons  of  sentiment  and  tradition 
are  allowed  to  retain  their  distinctive  full-dress 
uniforms.  These  are  provided  and  maintained 
at  the  expense  of  the  members,  are  worn  for 
parade  purposes  only,  and  never  are  used  when 
ordered  into  the  State  or  Federal  service.  The 
principal  organizations  which  have  retained 


their  distinctive  uniforms  are  the  First  and  Sec¬ 
ond  Troops,  Philadelphia  City  Cavalry;  Seventh, 
Twenty-third,  and  Seventy-first  Infantry  and 
Squadron  A  Cavalry,  New  York;  First  Corps  of 
Cadets,  Massachusetts;  Fifth  Infantry,  Mary¬ 
land;  and  Richmond  Light  Infantry  Blues, 
Virginia. 

Bibliography.  Eduard  D6taille,  L’Armte 
frangaise  (Paris,  1889)  ;  Catalogue  illustre  de 
V  exposition  retrospective  militaire  du  minis- 
tere  de  la  guerre  (ib.,  1890)  ;  Richard  Knotel, 
Handbuch  der  Uniformkunde  (Leipzig,  1896)  ; 
H.  A.  Ogden,  Uniforms  of  the  Army  of  the 
United  States,  1779-1888  (Washington,  1908); 
and  'later  publications  by  the  same  author 
through  the  United  States  War  Department 
bringing  the  subject  to  date;  Handbooks  of 
the  Armies  of  the  World  (rev.  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1913)  ;  Dress  Regulations  of  the  British  Army 
(rev.  ed.,  London,  1914)  ;  J.  S.  Farmer,  Regi¬ 
mental  Records  (London). 

NAVAL  UNIFORMS 

Modern  naval  uniforms  are  marked  by  the 
same  general  characteristics  throughout  the 
navies  of  the  world,  and  resemble  each  other 
closely.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  naval  offi¬ 
cers  and  men  are  exposed  to  the  same  conditions 
and  that  the  ceremonies  and  usages  at  sea 
obtain  in  much  the  same  form  under  different 
flags.  The  uniforms  of  the  United  States  navy, 
described  below,  may  be  considered  fairly  typical, 
and  the  deviations  are  usually  in  such  details 
as  epaulets,  gold  lace,  insignia,  etc.,  for  which 
each  service  has  its  own  minute  regulations. 

The  uniform  for  the  British  navy  closely  re¬ 
sembles  that  of  the  United  States  navy.  For 
officers  there  are  eight  different  suits  to  be  worn 
on  specific  occasions,  as  follows:  full  dress, 
ball  dress,  frock  coat  with  epaulets,  frock  coat, 
undress,  mess  dress,  mess  undress,  white  un¬ 
dress.  The  undress  uniform  differs  from  that 
worn  in  the  United  States  navy  in  that  it  has  a 
double-breasted  coat  with  brass  buttons  instead 
of  the  blouse  trimmed  with  braid.  On  all  uni¬ 
forms  the  distinctive  marks  of  rank  are  stripes 
on  the  sleeves  and  appropriate  devices  on  the 
shoulder  strap  or  epaulet.  The  significant  de¬ 
grees  on  the  latter  are  as  follows:  admiral  of 
the  fleet,  crown,  and  crossed  cannon  surrounded 
by  a  wreath;  admiral,  crown,  crossed  sword  and 
baton,  and  three  stars;  vice  admiral,  the  same, 
with  two  stars;  rear  admiral,  the  same,  with  one 
star;  a  commodore  or  senior  captain  has  a  crown 
and  anchor  and  two  stars,  while  a  junior  captain 
lias  the  same  with  one  star;  a  commander  has  a 
crown  and  anchor,  a  senior  lieutenant  a  star  and 
anchor,  and  a  junior  lieutenant  an  anchor. 

The  Russian  navy  in  its  dress  resembles  the 
British,  but  is  less  elaborate  and  has  some 
peculiarities.  Officers  (in  winter)  wear  a  dark- 
blue  frock  coat,  a  reefer  jacket,  or  a  monkey 
jacket;  in  summer,  white.  The  cap  is  high, 
flat-topped,  and  of  the  color  of  the  dress  worn. 
Cocked  hats  are  required  for  full  dress.  In 
winter  both  officers  and  men  wear  a  browm  woolen 
cape,  also  goloshes  over  the  boots.  The  Russian 
officer  out  of  quarters  is  always  in  uniform. 
The  enlisted  man  in  wnnter  wears  a  short  gray 
overcoat,  belted  at  the  waist.  On  shore  duty 
he  wears  a  military  tunic  and  leggings. 

The  uniform  of  officers  of  the  United  States 
navy  consists  of  three  classes — dress,  undress, 
and  service  dress.  The  dress  uniforms  are,  spe¬ 
cial  full  dress,  full  dress,  dress,  evening  dress 


UNIFORMS 


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DEVELOPMENT  OF  UNIFORMS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY 


IPX  fr'^HY 

of  oU 

L NIVLKSi'f V  Uc  ILLINOIS 


i 


UNIFORMS 


053  UNION 


,  evening  dress  B,  mess  dress.  The  undress 
uniforms  are  undress  A  and  undress  B.  Service 
dress  is  either  blue  or  white.  The  special  full- 
dress  uniform  consists  of  a  double-breasted  blue 
broadcloth  coat  with  standing  collar  and  18 
gilt  buttons,  nine  in  each  row ;  blue  trousers 
with  a  stripe  of  gold  lace  down  the  outside  seam ; 
epaulets,  cocked  hat,  sword,  and  full-dress  belt. 
The  undress  A  uniform  consists  of  a  double- 
breasted  blue  frock  coat  similar  in  cut  to  the 
civilian’s  coat,  but  having  10  gilt  buttons,  five 
each  side,  and  with  shoulder  fixtures  for 
epaulets;  a  blue  waistcoat  with  seven  gilt  but¬ 
tons,  cap,  sword,  plain  leather  belt,  and  plain 
blue  trousers.  The  service  suit  consists  of  a 
blue  or  white  blouse  with  standing  collar  and 
trimmed  with  braid;  blue  or  white  waistcoat 
with  seven  gilt  buttons;  plain  blue  or  white 
trousers.  The  evening  dress  suit  is  similar  in 
cut  to  the  civilian  evening  dress  suit,  but  the 
buttons  are  gilt  and  the  coat  is  fitted  with 
shoulder  fixtures  for  epaulets;  the  waistcoat 
may  be  blue  or  white  as  ordered.  The  mess 
dress  consists  of  the  white  mess  jacket,  cut  like 
the  evening  dress  coat  without  the  tails,  white 
waistcoat,  and  blue  or  white  trousers. 

Ihe  various  styles  of  uniform  are  made  up 
from  these.  The  special  full  dress  is  used  on 
occasions  of  special  ceremony.  The  full  dress 
is  used  on  less  important  occasions.  It  consists 
of  the  frock  coat  with  epaulets,  cocked  hat,  full- 
dress  belt,  and  special  full-dress  trousers.  The 
dress  uniform,  used  for  particular  official  calls, 
consists  of  frock  coat,  epaulets,  cocked  hat,  plain 
belt,  blue  trousers.  Undress  A  is  the  same  as 
dress  except  that  epaulets  are  not  worn  and  the 
blue  cap  is  substituted  for  the  cocked  hat;  it 
is  used  for  service  on  courts-martial,  reporting 
for  duty,  etc.  .  Undress  B  differs  from  undress 
A  only  in  omitting  the  sword  and  belt.  It  is 
used  for  ordinary  official  and  semiofficial  calls, 
etc.  Service  dress  is  worn  at  all  times  when 
some  other  special  uniform  is  not  provided. 
The  mess  dress  is  worn  at  dinner  when  ordered. 

On  all  except  white  uniforms  the  rank  of  an 
officer  is  indicated  by  gold  lace  on  the  sleeve  and 
devices  on  the  collar,  epaulet,  or  shoulder  mark. 
Ensigns  and  officers  of  that  rank  wear  one 
stripe  of  half-inch  gold  lace;  lieutenants  of  the 
junior  grade,  a  stripe  of  half-inch  lace  and  a 
stripe  of  one-quarter  inch  lace  above  it;  lieu¬ 
tenants,  two  stripes  of  half-inch  lace;  lieuten¬ 
ant  commanders,  two  stripes  of  half-inch  lace 
and  a  stripe  of  one-quarter-inch  lace  between 
them;  commanders,  three  stripes  of  half-inch 
lace;  captains,  four  stripes  of  half-inch  lace; 
rear  admirals,  one  stripe  of  two-inch  lace  and 
one  of  half-inch  lace  above  it;  admiral,  two 
stripes  of  two-inch  lace  and  one  stripe  of  half¬ 
inch  lace  between  them.  All  officers  of  the  line 
or  executive  branch  wear  a  gold  star  on  the 
sleeve  above  the  lace.  On  the  overcoat  and 
white  service  coat  the  lace  is  worn  on  the  shoul¬ 
der  marks  instead  of  on  the  sleeve.  The  orna¬ 
ments  indicating  rank,  which  are  worn  on  the 
collar  and  epaulet,  consist  of  the  corps  device 
and  rank  emblem.  The  former  consists  of  a  sil¬ 
ver  foul  anchor  for  line  officers,  sprig  of  silver 
oak  leaves  for  pay  corps,  gold  oak  leaf  and  sil¬ 
ver  acorn  for  medical  corps,  a  silver  oak  leaf 
and  acorn  for  professors  of  mathematics,  silver 
cross  for  chaplains,  two  gold  live-oak  leaves  and 
acorn  for  naval  constructors,  and  the  letters 
C.  E.  in  silver  for  civil  engineers.  The  rank 
emblem  for  an  admiral  is  four  silver  stars  with 


a  gold  foul  anchor  under  the  outer  ones;  for  a 
reai  admiral,  two  silver  stars  and  a  silver  foul 
anchor  or  other  corps  device  between  them;  for  a 
captain,  a  silver  eagle;  for  a  commander,  a  sil¬ 
ver  oak  leaf;  for  a  lieutenant  commander,  a 
gold  oak  leaf;  for  a  lieutenant,  two  silver  bars; 
for  a  lieutenant  of  the  junior  grade,  one  bar. 
Ensigns  and  officers  of  that  rank  wear  only  the 
corps  device. 

White  uniforms  are  worn  in  hot  weather.  The 
overcoat  is  of  the  ulster  type  with  very  broad 
collar  and  black  rubber  buttons.  Rank  is  indi¬ 
cated  by  the  shoulder  mark  and  mohair  stripes 
on  the  sleeve.  Warrant  officers  wear  no  stripes 
on  the  sleeve  and  no  shoulder  ornaments.  The 
collar  ornaments  are  a  crossed  anchor  for  boat¬ 
swains,  a  bursting  shell  for  gunners,  a  gold 
chevron  for  carpenters,  and  a  gold  propeller^for 
warrant  machinists.  When  commissioned  after 
six  years’  service,  chief  warrant  officers  wear  a 
half-inch  gold  stripe  with  an  inset  of  blue 
silk  and  silver  collar  ornaments. 

The  uniform  of  enlisted  men  consists  of  dress, 
undress,  and  working  dress;  each  of  these  may 
be  white  or  blue.  Chief  petty  officers  wear 
double-breasted  blue  or  white  coats  with  gilt 
buttons.  Other  enlisted  men  wear  a  blue  shirt 
or  white  dress  jumper  for  dress,  with  blue  cloth 
trousers.  Undress  is  merely  less  neat  or  new 
uniform,  if  blue;  but  white  undress  has  a 
narrow  white  collar  instead  of  a  broad  blue 
one;  working  dress  is  old  blue  or  white  uniform 
and  is  worn  without  a  neckerchief.  Rating 
badges  for  _  petty  officers  are  worn  upon  the 
sleeve.  Chief  petty  officers  wear  caps  with 
visors  and  an  ornament  consisting  of  a  gold  foul 
anchor;  other  enlisted  men  wear  round  blue 
caps  with  a  flat  top  projecting  beyond  the  band 
all  around  the  head  when  in  blue  uniform  and 
a  white  canvas  hat  when  in  white. 

U'NIGEN'ITUS.  A  papal  bull  issued  in  1713 
condemning  the  principles  of  Jansenism  (q.v. ). 

UNIMAK,  od/ne-mak/.  The  largest  and  east¬ 
ernmost  of  the  Aleutian  islands  (Map:  Alaska, 
E  8).  It  is  separated  from  the  southwest  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  Alaska  Peninsula  by  a  narrow, 
unnavigable  channel.  It  is  70  miles  long; 
average  breadth,  20  .miles.  Barren  and  moun¬ 
tainous,  it  contains  two  volcanoes,  Pogromni, 
0500  feet,  and  Shishaldin,  9387  feet,  occasionally 
showing  signs  of  life.  There  is  a  scant  and 
shifting  population  of  Aleuts. 

U'NIO.  The  type  genus  of  the  family  Unioni- 
doe,  which  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  fresh¬ 
water  mussels  ( q.v. ) . 

UNION.  See  Trade-Unions. 

U'NION.  A  town  in  Hudson  Co.,  N.  J.,  ad¬ 
joining  Weehawken  and  West  Hoboken,  on  the 
Rahway  Valley  Railroad  (Map:  New  York  City, 
Greater  New  York  and  Vicinity,  B  4 ) .  It  is 
of  considerable  importance  as  an  industrial 
centre,  being  interested  largely  in  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  silk  and  embroidered  goods.  There  are 
also  breweries  and  a  shirt  factory.  Union  has  a 
Carnegie  library.  Pop.,  1900,  15,187;  1910,  21,- 
023;  1915  (State  census),  21,739;  1920,  20,651. 

UNION.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Union 
Co.,  S.  C.,  65  miles  northwest  of  Columbia,  on 
the  Southern  and  the  Union  and  Glenn  Springs 
railroads  (Map:  South  Carolina,  C  2).  It  is  the 
commercial  centre  of  a  farming  and  cotton-grow¬ 
ing  region,  which  also  has  truck  and  fruit  in¬ 
terests.  There  are  four  large  cotton  mills,  an 
oil  mill,  and  two  knitting  mills.  Noteworthy 
features  are  the  Carnegie  Library,  high  school, 


UNION 


UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA 


county  courthouse,  and  Federal  building.  Pop., 
1900/5400;  1910,  5623. 

UNION,  Brotherhood  of  the.  See  Secret 
Societies. 

UNION,  Evangelical.  See  Evangelical 
Union. 

UNION,  oo'ng-on',  La.  A  town  of  Murcia, 
Spain,  near  the  Mediterranean  coast,  5  miles 
east  of  Cartagena  ( Map :  Spain,  E  4 ) .  The 
country  is  a  mineral  region,  producing  iron, 
manganese,  sulphur,  and  carbonate  of  lead.  The 
town  was  founded  in  the  second  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Pop.,  1900,  28,479;  1910, 
30,249. 

UNION,  La.  A  province  of  northern  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands  (Map:  Philippines,  C  2). 
Area.  634  square  miles.  The  province  is  moun¬ 
tainous  and  forested,  but  much  of  the  land  is 
well  cultivated,  producing  tobacco,  rice,  cotton, 
corn,  sugar,  and  cacao,  while  stock  raising  is 
also  important.  A  telegraph  line,  as  well  as 
the  main  highroad  and  the  unfinished  railroad 
from  Manila  to  Laoag,  runs  through  the  prov¬ 
ince.  Pop.,  1903,  137,839,  chiefly  Ilocanos  and 
Igorots.  Capital,  San  Fernando  (q.v.). 

UNION,  La.  A  port  of  the  Republic  of  Sal¬ 
vador  and  capital  of  the  Department  of  La 
Union,  situated  at  the  southeast  extremity  of 
the  country,  on  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca, 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  volcano  of  Conchagua. 
It  exports  minerals  and  carries  on  an  active 
trade  with  the  interior  (Map:  Central  America, 
D  4).  Pop.  (est.),  5352. 

U'NION,  National.  See  National  Union. 

UNION  CITY.  A  city  in  Randolph  Co.,  Ind., 
and  adjoining  Union  City  in  Darke  Co.,  Ohio, 
84  miles  northeast  of  Indianapolis,  on  the  Cleve¬ 
land,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  the 
Dayton  and  Union,  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Ohio  Electric 
railroads  ( Map :  Indiana,  IT  4 ) .  It  lias  a 
Carnegie  library  and  the  Ford  Hospital.  The 
leading  manufactured  products  are  automobiles, 
carriages,  wheels,  butter,  furniture,  and  hoops. 
Pop.,  1900,  2716;  1910,  3209  (Union  City,  Ohio, 
1910,  1595). 

UNION  CITY.  A  borough  in  Erie  Co.,  Pa., 
26  miles  southeast  of  Erie,  on  the  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Erie  railroads  ( Map :  Pennsylvania, 
B  2).  There  are  three  large  chair  factories, 
planing  and  grist  mills,  a  powdered-milk  plant, 
and .  several  furniture  factories.  Pop.,  1900, 
3104;  1910,  3684. 

UNION  CITY.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Obion  Co.,  Tenn.,  112  miles  by  rail  north  by 
east  of  Memphis,  on  the  Nashville,  Chattanooga, 
and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  rail¬ 
roads  (Map:  Tennessee,  B  2).  It  is  important 
as  a  shipping  point  for  farm  produce,  chiefly 
wheat,  corn,  and  hay,  and  manufactures  flour, 
brooms,  mattresses,  decoy  ducks,  raincoats,  and 
foundry  and  lumber  products.  Union  City 
has  a  Carnegie  library  and  the  Nailling  Hospi¬ 
tal.  Pop.,  1900,  3407;  1910,  4389. 

UNION  COLLEGE.  A  coeducational  insti¬ 
tution  of  higher  education  at  College  View, 
Neb.,  founded  in  1890,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Seventh  Day  Adventists.  The  campus 
consists  of  22  acres,  on  which  are  the  main 
college  buildings.  The  college  curriculum  in¬ 
cludes  a  department  of  Bible  study,  history, 
English,  ancient  and  modern  languages,  mathe¬ 
matics,  commerce,  agriculture,  education  and 
normal  training,  expression,  art,  and  music. 


654 

,  The  total  enrollment  of  students  in  the  autumn 
of  1915  was  420,  and  the  faculty  numbered  26. 
The  library  contains  about  6000  volumes.  The 
college  property  is  valued  at  about  $200,000. 

J  The  president  in  1916  was  Harvey  A.  Morrison. 

UNION  COLLEGE.  An  institution  of  higher 
education  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  incorporated  in 
’  1795.  It  was  the  second  college  incorporated 

’  in  the  State,  and  received  its  name  from  the 
cooperation  of  several  denominations  in  its 
’  organization.  In  1828  a  scientific  course  was 
^  established  parallel  with  the  classical  course. 

The  progressive  policy  of  Union  at  this  period 
’  was  due  chiefly  to  the  genius  of  Dr.  Eliphalet 
Nott,  president  from  1804  to  1866.  The  college 
’  fraternity  system  originated  at  Union  (1825). 

*  In  1873  the  Law  School,  Medical  College,  and 
'  Dudley  Observatory  in  Albany  were  associated 
3  with  Union  College  under  the  title  of  Union 
’  University,  and  the  Albany  Course  of  Pharmacy 
s  was  added  in  1881.  The  degrees  conferred  in 
3  course  are  B.A.,  Ph.B.,  B.S.,  B.E.,  M.A.,  M.S., 
1  M.C.E.,  M.E.E.,  and  Ph.D.  The  students  in 

the  college  in  1915-16  numbered  494,  and  the 
1  faculty  41.  The  library  contained  45,000  vol¬ 
umes,  the  invested  assets  were  $98,000,  the 
property  valuation  was  $1,500,000,  and  the  in- 
3,  come  $145,000.  The  president  in  1916  was 
f  Charles  A.  Richmond,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

.,  UNION  JACK.  The  combined  crosses  of 
St.  Andrew,  St.  George,  and  St.  Patrick,  used  as 
e  the  flag  of  Great  Britain.  See  Colors;  Flag; 
,,  Jack;  National  Flags,  Great  Britain. 

UNION  LABEL.  A  trade-mark  or  adver¬ 
tisement  owned  and  registered  by  a  trade- 
,  union  and  attached  to  articles  of  sale,  signi- 
,  fying  that  they  have  been  made  in  establish¬ 
ments  employing  union  labor  only,  and  under 
e  conditions  stipulated  by  the  union.  The  label 

,  seems  to  have  been  first  used  by  the  California 

c  cigar  makers  about  1874.  It  appeals  with  par- 

a,  ticular  force  to  the  more  conservative  trade- 
e  unionists,  who  praise  it  as  a  peaceable  and 
>,  inexpensive  way  of  increasing  the  power  of  the 
5.  unions;  they  frequently  describe  it  as  the  legal 
1,  boycott.  Its  use  is  spreading  rapidly.  In 
most  States  statutes  impose  penalties  for  counter- 
.,  feiting  the  label  or  knowingly  using  a  counter- 
a  feit.  In  several  trades,  e.g.,  cigar  makers,  print- 
1,  ing,  and  the  hatters’  trade,  the  label  has  become 
5,  a  factor  of  first  importance. 

;,  UNION  LEAGUE  CLUB  OF  THE  CITY 
),  OF  NEW  YORK,  The.  One  of  the  leading,  so¬ 

cial  and  political  organizations  of  the  United 
t  States.  It  was  incorporated  by  the  New  York 
y  State  Legislature,  Feb.  16,  1865.  The  quali- 
1,  fications  for  membership  are  United  States  citi- 
l-  zenship  and  absolute  and  unquestioned  loyalty 
t  to  the  government  of  the  United  States,  flhe 
y  club  has  been  a  stronghold  of  Republicanism  and 
r,  its  influence  has  been  repeatedly  exerted  for  the 
cl  Republican  party  in  national  and  local  elections, 
y  The  number  of  annual  resident  members  is 
i-  limited  to  2000,  and  100  members  constitute  a 
quorum  at  all  meetings.  The  club  has  quarters 
i-  at  Fifth  Avenue  and  Thirty-ninth  Street  in 
7  New  York  City.  Similar  institutions  of  the 
■s  same  name  and  purposes  have  sprung  up  in 
is  other  cities,  notably  in  Philadelphia  and  Chicago, 
n  UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA.  A  state  of 
1-  the  British  Empire,  formed  May  31,  1910,  by  the 
Y,  uniting  of  the  self-governing  colonies  of  the 
e-  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal,  the  Transvaal,  and 
d  the  Orange  River  Colony  (now  Orange  River 
3.  Free  State),  which  became  provinces  of  the 


UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA 


union.  For  a  description  of  the  physiography 
and  other  natural  features,  see  under  South 
Africa,  and  under  the  individual  titles  of  the 
provinces. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Resources.  The  dis¬ 
covery  of  diamonds  and  gold  had  a  profound 
effect  upon  the  condition  and  prospects  of  South 
Africa,  bringing  the  country  in  a  few  years 
into  universal  notice.  Many  millions  of  dollars 
have  been  disbursed  in  wages  and  local  expenses 
at  the  mines.  ( For  geology,  gold,  and  diamonds, 
see  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Transvaal;  Kim¬ 
berley;  etc.)  The  copper  mines  of  Naina- 
qualand  are  unsurpassed  in  richness  of  yield. 
The  principal  silver  mine  worked  is  50  "miles 
east  of  Johannesburg,  6  miles  from  coal  fields, 
but  indications  of  silver  have  been  found  in 
many  parts  of  South  Africa.  Enormous  de¬ 
posits  of  coal  and  iron  have  been  discovered  in 
Cape  Colony  and  Natal  in  close  proximity. 
Coal  is  also  mined  in  the  Transvaal  and  the 
Orange  River  colonies,  and  at  the  Wankie 
coal  fields  in  Rhodesia,  southeast  of  Victoria 
Falls.  Platinum,  plumbago,  manganese,  and  the 
finest  of  marble,  building  stone,  and  lime  are 
also  among  the  mineral  resources. 

Agriculture.  The  soil  is  extraordinarily  pro¬ 
ductive  wherever  rainfall  is  sufficient;  but  the 
chief  interest  is  stock  raising,  the  country,  as  a 
whole,  being  better  suited  for  pastoral  pursuits 
than  for  agricultural  operations.  Wool  is  the 
staple  source  of  wealth,  the  grasses  of  the 
veldt  and  the  pasture  plants  of  the  karroos 
being  well  suited  for  growing  the  finest  wools. 
Many  millions  of  sheep  are  pastured  in  the 
Cape  Province,  Natal,  Orange  Free  State,  the 
Transvaal,  Bechuanaland,  etc.  Angora  goats 
and  cattle  also  abound.  The  “Cape  horse”  is 
not  handsome,  but  is  hardy  and  keeps  in  good 
condition  on  the  veldt.  Across  the  south  end 
of  the  country  is  a  strip  of  fine  farming  land, 
where  wheat,  maize,  and  all  the  crops  of  the 
temperate  zone  are  very  successful.  The  best 
wheat  is  grown  along  the  southern  border  of 
the -Orange  Free  State.  In  the  Cape  Province 
fruits  are  largely  exported,  and  ostrich  farming 
and  cattle  raising  are  important.  It  is  to  the 
advantage  of  South  Africa  that  its  great  variety 
of  climate  enables  it  to  grow  nearly  every  culti¬ 
vated  crop.  Sugar  growing  and  tea  planting  in 
Natal  have  passed  beyond  experiment  :  sugar  is 
now  exported,  and  the  tea  is  excellent.  Coffee 
and  arrowroot  thrive  on  the  moist  coastlands. 

Manufactures.  Little  attention  has  been 
given  to  manufacturing,  chiefly  on  account  of 
the  sparsity  of  the  white  population.  A  large 
quantity  of  Cape  wine  and  brandy  is  produced; 
they  are  of  inferior  quality,  though  improving 
from  year  to  year.  The  chief  centres  of  the 
manufacturing  industries  are  in  the  Cape  Prov¬ 
ince,  where  flour  mills,  tobacco  factories,  tan¬ 
neries,  diamond  washing,  and  gold  and  copper 
reduction  works  are  most  prominent;  and  in  the 
Transvaal,  where  there  are  saw  mills,  brick  and 
lime  works,  machine  shops,  etc. 

Commerce.  Prominent  among  the  “makers” 
of  the  country  are  still  the  traders,  who  load 
their  heavy  wagons,  carrying  three  to  four  tons, 
with  all  kinds  of  goods  desired  by  the  black 
population,  and  trek  from  tribe  to  tribe,  return¬ 
ing  to  town  or  port  after  many  months  to  dis¬ 
pose  of  the  ivory,  horns,  skins,  and  feathers  re¬ 
ceived  in  exchange  for  their  wares.  The  trek¬ 
king  trade  has  been  the  means  of  diverting  most 
of  the  commerce,  even  of  the  Zambezi  region,  to 


655  UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA 

the  southern  ports.  The  circulation  of  goods 
is  to  and  from  the  seacoast,  there  being  little 
trade  between  town  and  town,  as  all  are  sup¬ 
plied  from  the  seaport  centres.  Except  during 
the  Boer  War  the  “Cape  trade”  has  steadily 
grown.  Imports  and  exports,  exclusive  of  specie, 
were  valued  in  1908  at  £24,532,520  and  £43,- 
910,451 ;  in  1913,  £41,828,841  and  £60,569,364. 
Great  Britain  controls  nearly  all  exports,  those 
which  reacli  other  countries  being  mainly 
tli rough  British  channels.  Gold,  diamonds,  and 
wool  are  the  great  export  staples,  with  ostrich 
feathers,  hides  and  skins,  coal,  and  mohair 
next  in  importance.  The  exports  of  1914  in¬ 
cluded  gold,  £35,664,000;  diamonds,  £5,487,000; 
wool,  £4,238,000';  and  ostrich  feathers,  £1,343,000. 
Many  of  the  imports  (general  manufactures, 
machinery,  etc.)  come  from  countries  other  than 
Great  Britain.  During  1913  the  imports  from 
the  United  States  amounted  to  over  $18,350,000, 
while  the  exports  to  it  were  $2,609,500. 

Transportation  and  Communication.  In 
the  more  settled  districts  there  are  fairly  good 
roads  with  substantial  bridges  across  the  rivers. 
Mail  carts,  coaches,  or  bullock  wagons  ply  be¬ 
tween  the  railroad  stations  and  ail  the  larger 
towns  not  on  the  rail  lines.  There  is  now  rail 
connection  between  all  the  important  ports  of  the 
south  and  east  coasts  and  the  larger  interior 
towns  and  mining  districts.  One  may  travel  by 
rail  from  Cape  Town  to  Salisbury,  in  Mashona- 
land,  and  thence  to  the  port  of  Beira.  It  is 
expected  that  before  many  years  the  railway 
system  of  South  Africa  will  be  connected  with 
that  of  Egypt.  The  length  of  government  rail- 
way  (the  South  African  railways)  in  operation 
at  the  end  of  1914  was  8486  miles.  Post  and 
telegraph  offices,  2790;  telegraph  line,  15,021 
miles;  wire,  50,352  miles.  Regular  communica¬ 
tion  is  maintained  with  Europe,  America,  and 
Australia. 

Population.  The  population  in  1904  was 
5,175,824;  1911,  5,973,394  (3,069,392  male,  2,- 
904,002  female).  In  1911  the  population  com¬ 
prised  1,276,242  whites,  4,019,006  natives,  and 
567,962  other  colored  persons.  Of  the  total 
population  in  1904,  21.58  per  cent  were  white; 
in  1911,  21.37  per  cent.  Of  the  1911  population 
of  5,973,394,  about  one-half  was  in  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  Province. 

Government.  The  central  government  is  in 
the  hands  of  a  Union  Parliament  which  exer¬ 
cises  supreme  control  subject  only  to  the  will 
of  the  British  Parliament  in  London.  In  each 
of  the  four  provinces  there  is  a  local  assembly 
with  power  over  purely  local  matters.  The 
constitution  of  the  Union  is  amended  in  the 
same  way  as  an  ordinary  bill  is  passed,  except 
in  special  matters,  such  as  those  relating  to  the 
equality  of  the  Dutch  and  English  languages 
and  native  rights  in  Cape  Colony;  such  matters 
require  a  two-thirds  majority  of  both  Houses 
sitting  in  joint  session. 

The  Parliament  is  composed  of  two  Houses, 
a  Senate  of  40  members  and  a  House  of  As¬ 
sembly  of  121  members. 

In  the  House  of  Assembly  the  provinces  are 
not  represented  strictly  in  proportion  to  popu¬ 
lation.  From  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  51  mem¬ 
bers  are  sent,  from  the  Transvaal  36,  from 
Natal  17,  and  from  Orange  Free  State  17.  The 
conditions  for  voting  are  determined  by  each 
province;  in  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free 
State  there  is  virtual  manhood  suffrage,  in  the 
Cape  and  in  Natal  there  are  property  and  edu- 


UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA  656  UNION  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 


rational  qualifications.  In  the  Cape  natives  are 
permitted  to  vote,  but  are  disfranchised  in  the 
others. 

The  Union  has  two  capitals;  the  Parliament 
sits  at  Cape  Town  but  the  centre  of  administra¬ 
tion  is  at  Pretoria.  The  executive  consists  of 
a  cabinet  of  seven  members  appointed  by  Parlia¬ 
ment  and  responsible  to  it.  The  prevailing 
law  in  the  Union  is  the  Roman  Dutch  system, 
although  the  English  common  law  is  gradually 
superseding  it. 

The  first  Governor-General  appointed  was 
Viscount  Gladstone,  son  of  the  famous  statesman, 
and  the  first  Premier  was  General  Botha  at 
the  head  of  a  cabinet  composed  entirely  of 
Boers,  the  leading  ones  being  Smuts,  Hertzog, 
and  Fischer. 

History.  Almost  from  the  very  start  the 
chief  question  before  the  Union  was  the  treat¬ 
ment  of  the  Dutch  language.  General  Hertzog 
became  an  uncompromising  advocate  of  the 
rights  of  Dutch  to  at  least  equal  treatment  with 
English.  The  matter  was  compromised  by  the 
use  of  both  languages  in  all  official  communica¬ 
tions.  In  the  schools,  the  mother  tongues  of  the 
pupils  were  to  be  used  in  the  lower  grades, 
and  in  the  upper,  English  and  Dutch  were  to 
be  used  alternately. 

In  1912  a  ministerial  crisis  was  brought  about 
by  General  Hertzog  who  accused  Premier  Botha 
of  imperialism  or  too  much  leaning  to  the  side 
of  the  British  Empire  as  against  the  interests 
of  South  Africa.  The  question  whether  Im¬ 
perial  or  South  African  interests  should  domi¬ 
nate  came  to  the  front  as  a  result  of  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  many  Hindoo  laborers  against  whom 
restrictive  legislation  had  been  passed.  A  strike 
of  Hindoos  took  place  and  serious  rioting 
was  the  result.  Their  cause  was  taken  up  by 
patriots  in  India  who  prevailed  on  the  British 
government  to  protest  against  the  discriminat¬ 
ing  legislation.  The  matter  was  serious  and 
the  Botha  cabinet  favored  a  repeal  or  modifica¬ 
tion  of  these  laws.  The  Nationalist  party  broke 
into  two  factions,  one  supporting  Botha  and 
the  other  Hertzog.  The  latter,  with  the  sup¬ 
port  of  the  Unionists,  attempted  to  wreck  the 
ministry  but  failed,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
resign.  ’  The  matter  was  partially  settled  by 
removing  many  of  the  disabilities  of  the  Hin¬ 
doos,  such  as  the  special  poll  tax;  and  the 
restriction  of  emigration  of  Hindoos  to  South 
Africa  was  promised  by  the  Indian  government. 

In  1913  came  the  great  strike  of  the  miners 
on  the  Rand.  The  men  demanded  an  eight-hour 
day,  recognition  of  their  union  and  a  share  in 
the  appointment  of  mine  inspectors,  all  of  which 
were  refused  by  the  mine  owners.  The  strike 
was  accompanied  with  great  violence  and  the 
troops  were  called  out  to  suppress  it.  General 
Botha  intervened  and  brought  about  a  rein¬ 
statement  of  the  miners  pending  an  investiga¬ 
tion  by  the  government.  During  the  following 
year  (1914)  an  attempt  was  made  by  the 
union  to  bring  about  a  great  general  strike 
of  all  the  miners.  The  government  arbitrarily 
arrested  the  leaders  of  the  movement  and  as  a 
result  the  strike  collapsed.  It  then  forcibly 
deported  to  England  the  leading  labor  agitators 
on  the  Rand  in  order  to  prevent  a  recurrence 
of  labor  troubles. 

The  Union  Parliament  then  voted  an  act  of 
indemnity,  exonerating  the  government  for  their 
arbitrary  acts.  Laws  were  passed  prohibiting 
all  forms  of  picketing,  peaceful  and  otherwise; 


strikes  on  public  works  were  made  punishable  by 
severe  penalties.  A  resolution  was  also  passed 
permitting  the  government  to  deport  any  one 
convicted  of  sedition  or  public  violence.  As  a 
result  of  these  antilabor  laws,  the  working 
classes  of  South  Africa  organized  a  Labor  party 
to  oppose  both  the  Nationalists  and  the  Union¬ 
ists.  In  the  great  war  which  began  in  1914, 
the  forces  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa  suc¬ 
cessfully  put  down  a  revolt  under  General  De 
Wet  and  also  conquered  many  of  the  possessions 
of  Germany  in  Africa.  See  War  in  Europe; 
Boer;  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Natal;  Orange 
Free  State;  South  African  War;  Transvaal. 

Bibliography.  The  South  African  Year 
Book  ( NewT  York).  History  and  government: 
J.  II.  B.  Browne,  South  Africa:  Glance  at 
Current  Conditions  and  Politics  (New  York, 
1905)  ;  A.  H.  Keane,  Africa,  vol.  ii  (2d  ed., 
London,  1907)  ;  I.  D.  Colvin,  South  Africa  (New 
York,  1909)  ;  R.  H.  Brand,  Union  of  South 
Africa  (Oxford,  1909)  ;  W.  F.  Butler,  Sir  Wil¬ 
liam  Butler:  An  Autobiography  (New  York, 
1911);  W.  B.  Worsfold,  Reconstruction  of  the 
Colonies  under  Lord  Milner  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1914)  ; 
P.  J.  Sampson,  Capture  of  De  Wet  and  the 
South  African  Rebellion  of  1,911}  (London,  1915). 
See  also  references  under  South  Africa. 

UNION  SPRINGS.  A  city  and  the  county 
seat  of  Bullock  Co.,  Ala.,  40  miles  east-south¬ 
east  of  Montgomery,  on  the  Central  of  Georgia 
and  the  Birmingham  and  Southeastern  railroads 
(Map:  Alabama,  D  3).  Cotton,  cottonseed  oil, 
spokes  and  handles,  guano,  and  foundry  and 
machine-shop  products  are  manufactured.  The 
city  has  a  Carnegie  library.  It  was  incorporated 
in  1844.  Pop.,  1900,  2634;  1910,  4055. 

UNION  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY  IN 
THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK,  The.  An  insti¬ 
tution,  Presbyterian  in  origin  but  independent 
of  all  ecclesiastical  control,  founded  in  1836 
and  open  to  students  of  every  denomination 
of  Christians.  It  offers  a  three  years’  course 
leading  to  a  diploma  with  the  degree  of  bachelor 
of  divinity,  a  three  years’  course  leading  to  a 
diploma  wuthout  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  divin¬ 
ity,  a  graduate  course  of  not  less  than  three 
years  leading  to  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity, 
and  other  special  graduate  courses.  Candidates 
must  be  graduates  of  colleges  of  recognized 
standing,  must  complete  satisfactorily  40  two- 
year  hours  of  class-room  work  and  must  satisfy 
departmental  requirements  in  Old  Testament, 
New  Testament,  Church  history,  systematic 
theology,  religious  education,  and  practical 
theology.  The  requirements  for  candidates  for 
the  diploma  without  the  degree  are  the  same  as 
those  for  the  diploma  with  degree,  with  the 
exception  that  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
Departments  English  substitutes  may  be  offered 
for  Greek  and  Hebrew  exegesis.  To  obtain  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  candidates  must 
be  bachelors  of  divinity  of  five  years’  standing, 
must  spend  three  years  of  graduate  theological 
study,  must  be  able  to  read  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew,  and  use  French  and  German  with  entire 
facility,  must  devote  three  years  of  study  to 
a  major  subject,  must  choose  two  minors  under 
the  direction  of  the  faculty,  must  pass  search¬ 
ing  examinations  in  the  subjects  chosen,  and 
must  publish  a  book  which  shall  constitute  in 
the  judgment  of  the  faculty  a  real  contribution 
to  theological  science. 

The  seminary  offers  a  number  of  merit  scholar¬ 
ships  with  incomes  of  $100  to  $175,  prize  scholar- 


UNIONTOWN 


UNITARIANISM 


657 


ships  of  $250,  a  limited  number  of  graduate 
scholarships,  and  two  fellowships  of  $000  ap¬ 
propriated  to  the  use  of  incumbents  prosecuting 
special  studies  for  two  years  either  in  the 
United  States  or  Europe.  The  seminary  build¬ 
ings  are  on  Broadway  at  120th  to  122d"  streets. 
The  library  in  1915  contained  123,000  volumes, 
64,700  pamphlets,  and  224  manuscripts.  There 
were  32  professors  and  instructors  in  the  same 
year,  and  275  students. 

UNIONTOWN.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Fayette  Co.,  Pa.,  70  miles  by  rail  south  by 
east  of  Pittsburgh ;  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroads  (Map:  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  B  8).  Ihe  city  is  the  commercial 
centre  of  a  region  containing  extensive  deposits 
of  coal  and  iron.  Its  industrial  establishments 
include  coke  ovens,  a  foundry,  brick  vards,  and 
manufactories  of  glass,  flour,  etc.  it  was  in¬ 
corporated  as  a  borough  in  1796,  and  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1915.  Pop.,  1900,  7344;  1910,  13- 
344;  1915  (U.  S.  est.),  19,960;  1920,  15,692. 

UNION  UNIVERSITY.  See  Union  Col¬ 


lege. 

UNION  VETERAN  REGION.  See  Veteran 
Legion,  Union. 

UNION  VETERAN  UNION.  See  Veteran 
Union,  Union. 

U 'NISON  (from  ML.  unisonus,  having  one 
sound,  from  Lat.  unus,  one  4-  sonus,  sound). 
In  music,  a  tone  of  the  same  pitch  as  another. 
In  this  sense  the  term  unison  is  identical  with 
the  interval  of  the  prime.  The  term  has,  how¬ 
ever,  been  extended  so  as  to  include  all  parts 
performing  the  same  melody. 

UNIT  (formerly  also  unite,  unitie,  unity, 
from  Lat.  unitas,  oneness,  from  unus,  one).  A 
certain  fixed  quantity  employed  for  measuring 
other  quantities  and  for  stating  their  magnitude. 
Ordinarily  a  unit  is  the  smallest  complete 
measure  of  value,  extension,  duration,  mass, 
etc.  An  arbitrary  unit  is  one  which  may  be 
employed  in  the  form  of  a  concrete  standard 
and  which  is  generally  available  for  reproduc¬ 
tion.  An  example  of  such  a  unit  is  the  distance 
between  two  marks  in  gold  plugs  on  a  bronze 
bar  in  the  possession  of  the  British  Board 
of  Trade,  or  the  British  Standard  Yard.  Simi¬ 
larly  the  meter  of  the  Archives  at  Paris  (see 
Metric  System)  is  an  arbitrary  unit.  Funda¬ 
mental  units  are  those  selected  arbitrarily  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  ease  with  which  standards  can  be 
constructed  or  reproduced  and  from  which  other 
units  can  be  derived.  In  the  C.  G.  S.  system 
(q.v.)  the  fundamental  units  are  those  of  length, 
mass,  and  time,  from  which  units  have  been 
derived  for  area,  volume,  velocity,  force,  work, 
etc.,  magnetic  units,  electro-magnetic  units,  etc. 
In  certain  instances  the  derived  units  in  the 
C.  G.  S.  system  may  be  in  such  shape  that 
they  are  not  available  for  general  use  and 
either  a  multiple  or  a  fraction  must  be  employed. 
Such  units  are  known  as  practical  units.  Ex¬ 
amples  of  practical  units  in  common  use  are 
the  ohm,  the  volt,  and  the  ampere.  See  C.  G.  S. 
System;  Electrical  Units;  Mechanical 
Units;  Metric  System;  Money;  Weights  and 
Measures;  etc. 


U  NITA'RIANISM.  The  word  is  sometimes 
used  in  a  restricted  sense  as  the  belief  that 
God  is  a  single  undivided  personality  (as  con¬ 
trasted  with  trinitarianism,  which  is  the  belief 
that  in  God  there  are  three  persons).  In 
this  sense  it  applies  not  only  to  part  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  but  to  many  non-Christian  religions. 


More  correctly  it  means  the  system  of  religion 
of  certain  churches  and  individuals  whose 
Christianity  is  of  the  liberal  tj^pe.  The  essen¬ 
tial  characteristic  of  Unitarianism  is  its  em¬ 
phasis  on  spiritual  religion  as  contrasted  with 
all  material  expressions  of  it.  All  minor  char¬ 
acteristics  are  implications  of  that.  Its  princi¬ 
pal  thesis  is  that  at  the  core  of  all  religions 
is  the  communion  of  the  human  soul  'with 
God,  the  life  of  God  within  the  spirit  of  man ; 
that  all  religions  have  this  religion  of  the  spirit. 
Religion  is,  then,  an  experience  and  an  inner 
life.  All  forms,  ceremonies,  creeds,  organiza¬ 
tions,  etc.,  in  which  this  religion  of  the°  spirit 
expresses  itself  are  of  only  secondary  impor¬ 
tance.  Hence  Unitarianism  insists  on  emphasiz¬ 
ing  the  inner  reality  of  religion  above  all 
other  things.  It  uses  "forms  of  worship,  and  or¬ 
ganizes  itself  in  various  ways,  but  always  sub¬ 
ordinates  these  things  to  the  religion  "of  the 
spirit.  The  attitude  of  Unitarianism  on  all 
religious  questions  is  to  be  seen  from  this  point 
of  view. 

Creeds. — Unitarians  have  no  creed.  They  hold 
that  a  fixed  statement  of  belief  is  an  obstruction 
to  faith,  and  that  as  the  life  of  God  within  the 
human  spirit  is  a  growing  life,  the  consciousness 
of  that  life,  which  is  faith,  is  to  be  allowed 
to  grow  continually.  For  purposes  of  instruc¬ 
tion  the  beliefs  of  Unitarians  are  sometimes 
stated  in  definite  form,  but  always  with  the 
proviso  that  the  statement  is  not  final.  Church. 
— The  church  is  regarded  as  the  voluntary 
association  of  those  who  find  fellowship  in  the 
religion  of  the  spirit.  It  is  not  the  source  from 
which  religion  is  to  be  drawn,  rather  is  it  a 
product  of  religion;  an  organization  for  com¬ 
radeship  in  the  growing  life  of  the  spirit. 
Bible. — The  Bible  is  regarded  as  an  endeavor 
of  the  religion  of  the  spirit  to  express  itself 
in  literature;  the  record  of  the  growing  spiritual 
consciousness  of  a  race.  Authority  in  Religion. — 
The  attitude  of  Unitarianism  towards  authority 
is  central.  As  it  regards  the  church  and  the 
Bible  as  outer  expressions  of  the  inner  reality, 
the  religion  of  the  spirit,  it  refuses  to  grant 
to  either  an  authority  over  the  human  mind, 
though  both  are  useful  in  an  exalted  degree  in 
the  growth  of  spiritual  consciousness.  Here  is 
an  essential  contrast  with  other  divisions  of 
Christianity:  Catholicism  which  assigns  to  the 
church  the  final  authority,  and  the  various  forms 
of  Protestantism  which  regard  the  Bible  as  the 
final  authority.  Unitarianism  insists  strongly 
that  the  final  authority  in  religion  is  in  the 
inner  life,  that  God  Himself  speaks  there  to  the 
living  spirit;  that  He  speaks  in  reason,  con¬ 
science,  experience,  and  the  highest  perceptions 
of  the  spirit  and  the  fullness  of  human  thought. 

It  holds  that  the  religion  of  the  spirit  has 
not  only  a  priority  in  time  but  a  present  logical 
priority  to  the  church  and  the  Bible,  and  that 
these,  being  the  outcome  of  the  inner  life,  can¬ 
not  have  a  supreme  authority  over  it.  Free¬ 
dom. — Unitarianism  asserts  freedom  as  an 
absolute  essential  of  religion.  No  forms  of 
worship  are  binding,  no  statements  of  faith 
are  final,  no  tradition  even  of  spiritual  experi¬ 
ence  is  the  last  word.  Higher  Criticism. — The 
higher  criticism  of  the  Bible  is  welcome,  as 
throwing  light  on  the  progressive  expression  of 
spiritual  consciousness.  Science. — Unitarianism 
finds  no  conflict  between  science  and  religion, 
holding  that  science  is  discovering  divine  truth 
and  that  it  cannot  contradict  the  truths  of 


UNITARIANISM 

religion.  God  and  Jesus. — Unitarianism  re¬ 
gards  the  inner  experience  of  God  as  being  an 
undifferentiated  experience  of  one  God;  and  it 
identifies  the  Divine  Power  of  the  universe  with 
the  God  of  inner  experience.  God  was  to  Jesus 
an  inner  experience,  and  Jesus  was  fully  obedi¬ 
ent  to  the  will  of  God.  Thus  Jesus  was  a  man 
through  whom  men  have  learned  much  about 
God,  and  in  whom  they  have  seen  an  ideal 
of  human  life;  but  Unitarians  do  not  regard 
Jesus  as  deity  or  one  of  the  persons  in  a 
Trinity,  but  hold  that  the  God  in  him  is  the 
one  God  of  spiritual  experience  and  the  In¬ 
visible  Presence  of  the  whole  world.  Jesus 
is  regarded  as  the  highest  expression  of  the 
religion  of  the  spirit. 

These  important  characteristics  of  Unitarian- 
ism  are  thus  grouped  around  its  supreme  em¬ 
phasis  on  God  in  the  inner  life  of  man.  ^  It 
is  modernism  in  its  most  thorough  form.  The 
history  of  Unitarianism  is  best  read  in  the 
light  of  its  progress  towards  this  end;  for, 
putting  aside  .outer  compulsion,  there  is  a  gen¬ 
eral  agreement  in  this  position  not  only  among 
individuals  and  churches  in  their  voluntary  as¬ 
sociations  but  among  the  Unitarians  of  all 
lands. 

Unitarians  trace  the  history  of  the  movement 
from  the  monotheism  of  Judaism  through  Jesus 
and  the  whole  course  of  Christianity.  They 
hold  that  when  the  religion  of  Judaism  attained 
to  the  faith  in  a  universal  God,  God  was  con¬ 
ceived  as  a  single  personality.  They  accept 
the  teaching  of  the  higher  criticism  of  the  Old 
Testament  that  there  were  two  systems  of  reli¬ 
gion:  the  “religion  of  the  spirit”  which  the 
prophets  taught,  each  prophet  carrying  the 
truth  one  step  further  as  spiritual  consciousness 
cleared;  and  the  religion  of  outer  forms,  with 
the  system  of  blood  sacrifice,  which  came  down 
from  primitive  times.  They  find  in  Jesus  the 
greatest  in  the  succession  of  the  prophets  of  tne 
religion  of  the  spirit  and  hold  that  he  believed 
in  one  God:  they  hold  that  Unitarianism  is 
the  religion  of  Jesus,  laying  great  emphasis  on 
the  saying  “Hear,  O  Israel,  Jehovah  our  God 
is  one,"  and  thou  shalt  love  Jehovah  thy  God 
with  all  thy  heart  .  .  .  and  thy  neighbor  as 
thyself.” 

They  interpret  Jesus  as  being  in  the  succes¬ 
sion  of  the  prophets  of  the  religion  of  the 
spirit  and  reject  the  idea  that  his  primary 
purpose  was  to  fulfill  the  sacrifices  of  blood; 
hence  they  reject  the  idea  of  a  blood  atonement, 
as  they  regard  the  sacrificial  system  of  the 
Jews  as  an  unworthy  form  of  religion.  Con¬ 
sistently  with  this  they  reject  the  doctrine 
of  the  virgin  birth  and  of  the  resurrection  of 
the  body  of  Jesus,  holding  that  it  was  his 
spirit  which  entered  into  immortal  life.  The 
miracles  are  not  regarded  as  a  setting  aside 
of  any  law. 

They  hold  that  the  faith  in  God’s  single  per¬ 
sonality  was  the  common  faith  of  the  early 
church;  that  in  the  fourth  century  the  Arians, 
who  held  this  view,  constituted  nearly  one-half 
of  Christendom,  and  that  it  was  only  physical 
force  which  gave  the  trinitarian  formula,  a 
late  invention,  its  hold  on  later  centuries.  It 
traces  a  continuity  of  the  Arian  faith,  even 
in  the  face  of  persecution,  through  the  whole 
course  of  Christianity.  . 

Among  the  first  expressions  of  that  spirit 
which  resulted  in  the  Protestant  Reformation 
was  the  Unitarian  idea.  It  is  impossible  defi- 


6*8  UNITARIANISM 

nitely  to  separate  the  antipathy  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  from  the  revolt  against  all 
ecclesiastical  authority — authority  which  en¬ 
forced  that  doctrine.  At  the  same  time,  early 
in  the  Reformation  period  men  who  held  the 
Unitarian  theological  position  were  persecuted 
and  even  martyred,  e.g.,  Michael  Servetus,  who 
was  burned  at  the  stake  in  1553,  after  more 
than  20  years  of  writing,  by  which  he  had 
stimulated  thought  in  the  direction  of  Unitarian 
doctrine.  The  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the 
language  of  the  European  nations,  the  inven¬ 
tion  of  the  printing  press,  and  the  consequent 
multiplication  of  the  copies  of  the  Bible,  mak¬ 
ing  it  easily  accessible  to  the  common  people, 
had  an  enormous  influence  upon  the  course 
which  the  Reformation  took.  In  the  revolt 
against  the  authority  of  the  church  many  of 
the  reformers  substituted  the  authority  of  the 
book,  and  thus  created  the  position  which 
several  Protestant  denominations  of  the  present 
day  hold.  But  from  the  very  beginnings  of  the 
Reformation  there  were  those  who  took  dis¬ 
tinctly  the  position  of  modern  Unitarianism  in 
regard  to  authority  in  religion,  declaring  that 
authority  is  in  the  inner  life,  conscience,  reason, 
experience,  spiritual  intuition,  and  the  voice  of 
God  speaking  through  these  higher  powers,  of 
the  soul,  and  that  over  this  life  of  the  spirit 
no  organization  and  no  book  can  have  absolute 
authority. 

In  the  Unitarian  movements  of  the  Reforma¬ 
tion  period  there  are  four  important  character¬ 
istics:  first,  the  spirit  of  toleration;  second, 
the  minimizing  of  the  importance  of  outer 
religious  things  as  being  nonessential;  third, 
the  repugnance  to  any  formulated  creed  which 
could  restrict  the  growing  thought  of  man; 
and  fourth,  the  historical  study  of  Scripture 
and  the  right  of  human  reason  to  judge  of  the 
spiritual  value  of  the  Bible  or  any  part  of  it. 

Martin  Cellarius,  1499  to  1564,  is  commonly 
regarded  as  the  first  writer  of  the  movement. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Luther,  but  differed  from 
him  on  this  fundamental  position  of  the  au¬ 
thority  of  Scripture.  A  number .  of  leading 
scholars  of  northern  Italy  met  in  1546  at 
Vicenza  and  made  a  definite  affirmation  of  Uni¬ 
tarian  doctrines.  They  were  persecuted  vigor¬ 
ously,  and  those  who  were  not  killed  fled  to 
Switzerland,  Transylvania,  and  Poland,  scatter¬ 
ing  the  seed  of  their  thought  far  and  wide. 
Socinus  settled  in  Poland  in  1579.  In  1600 
there  were  more  than  400  Socinian  churches 
in  Poland.  A  printing  press  disseminated  Uni¬ 
tarian  views;  more  than  1000  students  were 
gathered  in  a  Unitarian  college  in  Rakow.  In 
1658  persecution  of  these  Unitarians  began. 
Thousands  died,  other  thousands  fled,  and  in 
1670  the  organizations  had  been  utterly  obliter¬ 
ated  in  Poland,  and  Unitarianism  ceased,  ex¬ 
cept  as  it  continued  as  the  theological  convic¬ 
tion  and  spiritual  life  of  individuals  and  obscure 
groups. 

In  Transylvania  and  Hungary,  Francis  David 
was  the  first  Unitarian  Bishop.  Persecutions 
broke  out  and  Francis  David  was  thrown  into 
prison  at  Deva,  and  died  in  1579.  It  was  in 
Poland  and  in  Hungary  that  religious  com¬ 
munities  were  formed  which  took  the  definitely 
antitrinitarian  position.  In  this  and  other  lands 
the  persecution  which  Unitarianism  had  to  en¬ 
counter  was  from  two  sources:  Catholicism, 
against  which  the  whole  reformation  movement 
was  a  revolt;  and  Protestantism,  which  still 


UNITARIANISM 


659  UNITARIANISM 


held  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  also  was 
gradually  adopting  the  dogma  of  the  authority 
of  the  Bible.  1  hus  the  Unitarian  movement 
was  caught  between  the  upper  and  the  nether 
millstone.  In  Hungary,  Unitarianism  was 
tenacious,  and  survived  two  centuries  of  bitter 
persecution.  Though  in  1791  religious  tolera¬ 
tion  was  decreed  by  the  king,  as  late  as  1857 
a  last  eflort  was  made  to  crush  Unitarianism. 
At  present  there  are  16G  congregations,  with 
80,000  members.  They  have  still  a  bishop,  and 
the  theological  school,  founded  about  1556  by 
John  Sigismund,  is  in  Kolozsvar,  where  Francis 
David,  the  first  bishop,  preached  so  effectively. 
Four  periodicals  are  published. 

In  England,  from  the  period  of  the  Reforma¬ 
tion,  Unitarian  thought  was  at  work,  and  the 
teachings  of  Socinus  and  Servetus  were  in¬ 
fluential.  Such  men  as  John  Milton,  John 
Locke,  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton  were  Unitarians. 
The  open  expression  of  opinion  and  organization 
were  checked  by  persecution.  The  last  Christian 
martyrs  in  England  were  Unitarians.  When 
in  1689  the  Act  of  Toleration  permitted  the 
building  of  even  orthodox  nonconformist  chapels, 
a  number  of  English  Presbyterian  churches  left 
their  trust  deeds  open  and  gave  freedom  of 
theological  opinion.  This  freedom  was  the  at¬ 
mosphere  for  the  Unitarian  emphasis  on  the 
religion  of  the  spirit,  and  in  time  many  of  these 
churches  became  Unitarian  in  spirit  and  theol¬ 
ogy.  In  1774  Theophilus  Lindsey,  on  the  denial 
of  a  petition  of  a  group  of  clergy  in  the  Church 
of  England  for  latitude  of  opinion,  left  the 
church  and  went  to  London  and  established  the 
first  avowedly  Unitarian  church  in  England. 
Many  existing  churches  grouped  themselves 
in  a  new  fellowship  and  new  Unitarian  churches 
were  formed.  In  1825  the  British  and  Foreign 
Unitarian  Association  was  formed  and  now  in¬ 
cludes  about  400  churches  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  with  headquarters  on  the  site  of 
Lindsey’s  church  in  Essex  Street.  During  the 
nineteenth  century  the  leader  of  Unitarian 
thought  in  England  was  Dr.  James  Martineau, 
of  Oxford. 

The  first  seeds  of  Unitarianism  in  America  are 
to  be  found  in  the  spirit  of  the  Pilgrims  who 
went  from  England  to  Leyden,  Holland,  and 
thence  to  America.  Their  church  in  Plymouth 
had  a  spiritual  covenant  instead  of  a  creed. 
That  covenant,  though  brief,  set  forth  the 
thought  that  the  revelation  of  God’s  truth  is 
a  growing  revelation.  Other  early  churches 
in  New  England,  notably  the  First  Church  in 
Salem,  were  similarly  organized  with  a  cove¬ 
nant  instead  of  a  creed.  Through  all  the  early 
life  of  the  American  Colonies  the  attitude  of 
many  of  the  churches  was  thus  expressed. 
There  was  latitude  within  the  same  church  for 
both  Trinitarian  and  Unitarian  opinion.  There 
is  a  curious  relation  between  the  Wesleyan 
revival  and  the  definite  organization  of  Uni¬ 
tarianism  in  New  England.  In  the  early  years 
of  the  revival  George  Whitefield  worked  with 
the  Wesleys,  but  when  Whitefield’s  thought  led 
him  into  what  Wesley  regarded  as  extreme 
Calvinism,  they  separated.  Whitefield  went  to 
New  England,  and  there  as  a  preacher  of  Cal¬ 
vinism  stimulated  the  Trinitarian  party  in  the 
Congregational  churches  to  an  intenser  dogmatic 
expression.  This  was  one  of  the  influences  to¬ 
wards  the  drawing  of  sharp  lines  of  distinction 
between  Trinitarian  and  Unitarian  theology, 
forcing  ministers  and  churches  to  decide  that 


they  must  choose  the  fellowship  of  one  party 
or  the  other,  and  leading  the  two  parties  to 
organize  as  separate  denominations.  From  1785 
to  1800  many  of  the  Congregational  churches 
took  a  distinctly  Unitarian  position,  and  these 
years  were  followed  by  decades  of  bitter  contro¬ 
versy. 

The  first  church  in  America  to  become  defi¬ 
nitely  Unitarian  was  King’s  Chapel  in  Boston, 
which  had  been  Church  of  England.  In  1787 
it  excised  the  trinitarian  phrases  from  its 
liturgy,  and  ordained  James  Freeman,  avowedly 
&  Unitarian.  Joseph  Priestley,  the  discoverer  of 
oxygen,  was  driven  out  of  England  in  1794  by 
persecution  for  preaching  Unitarianism,  and 
established  Unitarian  churches  in  Philadelphia 
and  Northumberland,  Pa.  In  the  same  decades 
several  other  new  churches  distinctly  Unitarian 
were  organized.  In  1805  Henry  Ware,  a  Uni¬ 
tarian,  was  made  professor  of  theology  in 
Harvard;  lines  of  division  led  to  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  orthodox  Andover  Theological 
School  (which,  after  just  a  century,  moved  to 
Cambridge  and  affiliated  itself  with  Harvard). 
In  1819  Dr.  W  illiam  Ellery  Channing  of  Boston 
preached  the  Baltimore  sermon  which  contrasted 
Unitarianism  and  Calvinism  so  clearly  that 
within  a  year  nearly  150  of  the  New  England 
Congregational  churches  declared  their  adhesion 
to  Channing’s  position.  Every  church  in  Boston 
but  one  declared  itself  Unitarian  in  this  period. 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  and  Theodore  Parker 
were  leaders  of  Unitarian  thought.  In  1825 
the  American  Unitarian  Association  was  organ¬ 
ized,  and  there  were  in  1916  about  488  Unitarian 
churches  in  the  United  States.  To  James  Free¬ 
man  Clarke  is  attributed  the  authorship  of  the 
“five  points  of  Unitarian  faith”  as  contrasted 
with  Calvinism:  The  Fatherhood  of  God,  the 
Brotherhood  of  Man,  the  Leadership  of  Jesus, 
Salvation  by  Character,  and  the  Progress  of 
Mankind  onward  and  upward  forever. 

The  essential  spirit  of  Unitarianism  is  in¬ 
compatible  with  any  narrow  sectarian  zeal ; 
hence  Unitarians  have  done  more  in  public 
service  than  in  building  a  denomination.  In 
philanthropy,  education,  national  life,  literature, 
and  other  work  for  humanity  the  members  of 
these  churches  have  been  conspicuous  out  of 
all  proportion  to  their  numbers.  Among  the 
poets,  Bryant,  Longfellow,  Lowell,  and  Holmes; 
among  educators,  Horace  Mann  and  C.  W.  Eliot; 
the  Presidents,  Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams, 
John  Quincy  Adams,  Fillmore,  and  Taft;  states¬ 
men,  Sumner  and  Webster;  in  philanthropy  the 
pioneer  Tuckerman — are  a  few  names  from 
scores. 

The  International  Council  of  Unitarian  and 
other  liberal  religious  thinkers  and  workers  was 
organized  in  1900  and  has  held  congresses  in 
London,  Amsterdam,  Geneva,  Boston,  Berlin, 
and  Paris.  Two  thousand  representatives  of 
30  nationalities  and  60  religious  communions 
have  been  enrolled. 

The  declaration  of  the  Unitarian  General 
Conference  in  America  is  “These  churches  ac¬ 
cept  the  religion  of  Jesus,  holding  in  accordance 
with  his  teaching  that  practical  religion  is 
summed  up  in  love  to  God  and  love  to  man.” 
The  American  Unitarian  Association  (Boston) 
is  the  executive  organization  and  promotes  reli¬ 
gious  education,  social  service,  evangelism,  pub¬ 
lishing,  building,  and  support  of  churches,  and 
other  enterprises.  Unitarian  ministers  are 
trained  in  America  at  the  Harvard  Divinity 


UNIT  CHARACTERS 


School  (endowed  by  Unitarians),  Meadville 
Theological  School,  Pacific  Unitarian  School  for 
the  Ministry  (Berkeley)  ;  in  England,  Man¬ 
chester  College,  Oxford,  Unitarian  Home  Mis¬ 
sionary  College,  Manchester;  in  Wales,  Presby¬ 
terian' College,  Carmarthen;  Hungary,  Unitarian 
College,  Klausenburg. 

Bibliography.  History:  E.  H.  Hall,  Ortho¬ 
doxy  and  Heresy  (Boston,  1883)  ;  G.  Bonet- 
Maury,  Early  Sources  of  Unitarian  Christianity 
in  England  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1884)  ;  J. 
Stoughton,  Religion  in  England,  1800—1850  ( ib., 
1884);  J.  H.  Allen,  Historical  Sketch  of  the 
Unitarian  Movement  (New  \ork,  1894)  ;  A. 
Gordon,  Heads  of  English  Unitarian  History 
(London,  1895)  ;  W.  C.  Bowie,  Liberal  Religious 
Thought  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Twentieth  Cen¬ 
tury  (ib.,  1901);  G.  W.  Cooke,  Unitarianism 
in  America  (Boston,  1902);  J.  H.  Allen,  Our 
Liberal  Movement,  and  Sequel  (ib.,  1905)  ;  Ever- 
ard  Bierer,  Evolution  of  Religions  (New  York, 
1906)  ;  F.  B.  Mott,  Short  History  of  Unitarian¬ 
ism  (London,  1906);  S.  A.  Eliot,  Heralds  of  a 
Liberal  Faith  (3  vols.,  Boston,  1909)  ;  W.  G. 
Tarrant,  Story  of  the  Significance  of  the  Uni¬ 
tarian  Movement  (London,  1910).  Doctrine: 
F.  H.  Hedge,  Reason  in  Religion  (Boston,  1875)  ; 
J.  F.  Clarke,  Essentials  and  Nonessentials  in 
Religion  (ib.,  1878)  ;  R.  B.  Drummond,  Free 
Thought  and  Christian  Faith  (Edinburgh, 
1890)  ;  James  Martineau,  The  Seat  of  Authority 
in  Religion  (London,  1890)  ;  W.  G.  Tarrant, 
Unitarianism  Restated  (ib.,  1904)  ;  Ephraim 
Emerton,  Unitarian  Thought  (New  York,  1911)  ; 
also  publications  of  the  American  Unitarian  As¬ 
sociation  (Boston)  ;  British  and  Foreign  Uni¬ 
tarian  Association  (London)  ;  the  works  of 
W.  E.  Channing,  Theodore  Parker,  J.  F.  Clarke, 
M.  J.  Savage,  and  the  biographies  of  W.  E. 
Channing,  Theodore  Parker,  R.  W.  Emerson, 
E.  S.  Gannett,  and  Dorothea  L.  Dix.  Periodi¬ 
cals:  Christian  Life  and  Enquirer  (London)  ; 
Christian  Register  (Boston)  ;  Beacon  (ib.)  ; 
Word  and  Work  (ib.)  ;  Unitarian  Advance 
(Chicago)  ;  Unity  (ib.)  ;  Pacific  Unitarian  (San 
Francisco)  ;  Unitarian  Kozlony  (Klausenburg, 
Hungary)  ;  also  Unitarian  Year  Book  (Boston). 

UNIT  CHARACTERS.  See  Mendel’s  Law. 

UNITED  AMERICAN  MECHANICS, 
Junior  Order  of.  A  secret,  patriotic,  political, 
beneficiary  society,  formed  in  1853  at  German¬ 
town,  Pa.,  as  a  branch  of  the  Order  of  United 
American  Mechanics,  to  prepare  young  Ameri¬ 
cans  for  membership  in  the  latter.  It  became' 
an  independent  organization  in  1885  without  the 
junior  age  limitation  as  to  eligibility  for  mem¬ 
bership.  It  declared  for  restricted  immigration, 
protection  to  Americans,  the  American  flag  on 
and  the  reading  of  the  Bible  in  the  public 
schools,  and  has  the  picture  of  the  “little  red 
school  house”  among  its  emblems.  It  pays 
sick  and  funeral  benefits  to  members  and  their 
beneficiaries,  more  than  $10,000,000  having  been 
so  paid  out  since  the  society  was  formed.  It 
has  state  or  governing  councils  in  26  States, 
2300  subordinate  councils,  and  a  total  member¬ 
ship  (1915)  of  about  236,000.  Membership  is 
most  numerous  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
and  nearby  States.  See  Secret  Societies,  Pa¬ 
triotic-Political. 

UNITED  AMERICAN  MECHANICS, 

Order  of.  A  patriotic,  political,  benevolent 
secret  society,  founded  at  Philadelphia  in  1845, 
an  outgrowth  of  the  native  American  political 
agitation  and  disturbances  of  that  period. 


66o  UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST 

>  “Only  native  Americans  or  men  born  under  the 
•  American  flag”  were  eligible  as  members.  The 
word  Mechanics  was  used,  apparently,  symbol¬ 
ically.  The  society  stands  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  American  flag  on  the  public  schools, 
i  opposition  to  union  of  church  and  state,  offers 
aid  to  Americans  in  a  business  way,  nas  a  fund 
for  the  relief  of  widows  and  orphans  of  members, 
and  opposes  injurious  competition  from  im- 
/  migration.  It  is  the  parent  of  the  Junior  Order, 
United  American  Mechanics  (q.v.),  which  has 
,  since  become  independent  of  the  mother  organ- 
s  ization,  which  it  greatly  exceeds  in  number  of 
members.  It  has  governing  or  state  councils  in 
j  17  States,  464  subordinate  councils,  and  nearly 
s  37,000  members.  See  Secret  Societies,  Patri¬ 
otic-Political. 

%  UNITED  BAPTISTS.  See  Baptists. 

r  UNITED  BRETHREN,  The.  See  Mora¬ 

vians. 

UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST,  The. 
A  religious  denomination  which  arose  among 
x  the  Germans  of  Pennsylvania,  under  the  preach¬ 
ing  of  Philip  William  Otterbein  (q.v.),  an  or¬ 
dained  pastor  of  the  German  Reformed  church, 

:  and  Martin  Boehm,  a  preacher  among  the  Men- 

;  nonites.  As  their  converts  increased,  laymen 
i  were  licensed  to  preach.  Their  first  formal  con- 
e  ference  met  in  Baltimore  (1789),  and  their  first 
,  annual  conference  at  Frederick,  Md.,  in  1800. 
\j  Here  their  name  was  chosen,  and  Otterbein  and 
Boehm  were  elected  first  bishops.  The  first 
a  General  Conference  met  in  1815,  when  a  Confes- 
;  sion  of  Faith  and  a  Discipline  were  adopted. 

-  The  organization  of  the  United  Brethren  in 
Christ  includes  quarterly  and  annual  confer- 
f  ences,  and  a  quadrennial  general  conference, 
:,  which  is  the  only  legislative  body,  and'  since 
I.  1901  has  been  composed  of  an  equal  number 
i,  of  ministers  and  laymen.  The  superintendency 
i-  of  the  church  is  vested  in  the  bishops,  who, 

;  with  the  general  church  officers,  are  elected 
;  every  four  years  by  the  general  conference. 

e  Since  1889  women  have  been  eligible  to  the 
n  ministry.  All  ordained  preachers  are  elders, 
the  only  order  recognized.  Members  are  for¬ 
bidden  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors,  and 
\  must  not  traffic  in  them.  Slavery  was  prohibited 
!,  after  1821.  Their  theology  is  Arminian.  They 
l,  accept  two  sacraments,  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
i-  Supper.  The  mode  of  baptism  is  left  to  the 
d  choice  of  the  candidate.  Infant  baptism  is  prac- 
i-  ticed.  The  spiritually  dynamic  presence  of 
e'  Christ  in  the  Lord’s  Supper  is  acknowledged, 
e  The  practice  of  foot  washing  is  discretionary, 
l-  The  government  of  the  church  is  democratic, 
l,  The  itinerant  system  is  enjoined,  but  pastorates 
n  are  not  limited  as  to  time. 

c  A  commission  appointed  by  the  General  Con- 
d  ference  of  1885  prepared,  without  doctrinal 
'S  change,  a  restatement  of  the  Confession  of  Faith 
ir  and  a  revision  of  the  Constitution,  which,  having 
n  been  approved  by  the  members,  was  adopted  and 
it  proclaimed  by  the  General  Conference  of  1889. 
s,  It  provided  for  lay  delegates  to  the  General  Con- 
r-  ference  and  set  aside  a  rule  prohibiting  mem- 
is  bership  in  secret  societies.  At  this  time  Bishop 
y,  Milton  Wright  and  14  of  the  125  delegates  com- 
posing  the  conference  withdrew  and  formed  a 
branch  of  the  church,  which  adheres  to  the 
5,  former  unrevised  Confession  of  Faith  and 
it  Constitution. 

5,  The  larger  division  of  the  church,  which  ac- 
il  cepted  the  new  Constitution,  had,  in  1915,  39  an- 
d.  nual  conferences  and  mission  districts,  including 


UNITED  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  661  UNITED  IRISHMEN 


those  in  Germany,  Japan,  Ontario,  West  Africa, 
China,  Japan,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines, 
eight  bishops,  2395  ministers,  341,845  members, 
about  448,975  pupils  in  the  Sunday  schools,  3556 
church  houses,  and  it  contributed  for  all  pur¬ 
poses  $3,102,871.  It  has  a  theological  seminary  at 
Daj'ton,  Ohio,  10  colleges,  and  several  academies. 
It  has  a  publishing  house  at  Dayton,  and  issues 
from  its  presses  26  different  publications,  ag¬ 
gregating  over  10,000,000  copies  annually.  There 
are  a  Board  of  Education ;  Home,  Frontier,  and 
Foreign  Missionary  Societies;  a  Woman's  Mis¬ 
sionary  Association,  conducting  missions  in 
Africa,  China,  and  the  Philippines;  a  Church 
Erection  Society;  a  Young  People’s  Christian 
Union;  and  a  Historical  Society.  The  combined 
missionary  contributions  for  1915  amounted  to 
over  $200,000.  The  total  value  of  property  held 
by  the  denomination  is  over  $12,000,000. 

The  branch  which  retains  the  old  Constitution 
had,  in  1915,  32  annual  conferences,  4  bishops, 
310  preachers,  515  churches,  21,172  members, 
about  30,000  pupils  in  the  Sunday  schools,  540 
church  houses,  and  aggregate  contributions 
amounting  to  over  $150,000.  There  are  a  Home, 
Frontier,  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  sus¬ 
taining  missions  in  16  conferences  and  mission 
districts,  and  a  Woman’s  Missionary  Associa¬ 
tion,  a  Board  of  Education,  and  colleges  at 
Huntington,  Ind.,  Albion,  Wash.,  and  in  Oregon. 

Bibliography.  The  Religious  Telescope 
(weekly),  The  Watchword  (weekly),  and  The 
F  ear  Book  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ, 
besides  missionary  and  Sunday-school  publica¬ 
tions,  are  issued  by  the  New  Constitution  branch 
at  Dayton,  Ohio.  The  Old  Constitution  church 
issues  The  Christian  Conservator  (weekly),  The 
Missionary  Monthly ,  and  a  Year  Book  at  Hunt¬ 
ington,  Ind.  For  the  history  of  the  church, 
consult  also:  L.  Davis,  Life  of  Bishop  David 
Edwards  (Dayton,  1883)  ;  A.  W.  Drury,  Life 
of  Rev.  Philip  William  Otterbein  (ib.,  1884)  ; 
id.,  Life  of  Bishop  J.  J.  Glossbrenner  (ib.,  1889)  ; 
Daniel  Berger,  History  of  the  Church  of  the 
United  Brethren  in  Christ  (ib.,  1897);  E.  L. 
Shuey,  Handbook  of  the  United  Brethren  in 
Christ  (ib.,  1901);  H.  A.  Thompson,  Biography 
of  Jonathan  Weaver  (ib.,  1901);  M.  R.  Drury, 
Life  of  Bishop  J.  W.  Hott  (ib.,  1902). 

UNITED  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH,  The. 
A  religious  organization  formed  in  1894  as  the 
result  of  a  division  which  had  occurred  in  the 
Evangelical  Association  (q.v.).  A  meeting  at¬ 
tended  by  delegates  from  six  annual  conferences 
was  held  at  Naperville,  Ill.,  in  November  of 
that  year,  and  constituted  the  first  general 
conference  of  the  United  Evangelical  church. 
The  legislation  necessary  to  perfect  the  organ¬ 
ization  of  an  independent  church  was  enacted ; 
a  book  of  discipline  was  adopted,  based  upon 
the  old  discipline  of  the  Evangelical  Association, 
with  certain  changes,  such  as  the  introduction 
of  lay  representation  into  the  conferences. 

In  1914  the  United  Evangelical  church  had 
10  conferences  (including  seven  mission  con¬ 
ferences),  975  organized  congregations,  2 
bishops,  528  preachers,  86,635  church  members, 
and  85,000  pupils  in  Sunday  schools.  Besides 
assisting  the  seven  mission  conferences,  the 
General  Missionary  Society  has  three  missions 
in  Honan,  China;  and  the  Woman’s  Missionary 
Society  cooperates  with  it.  The  church  raises 
about  $100,000  for  missions  yearly.  A  Church 
Extension  Society  was  established  in  1902.  The 
educational  institutions  are  Albright  Colleo-e 


Meyerstown,  Pa.;  Dallas  College  and  La  Creole 
Academy,  Dallas,  Oreg. ;  Western  Union  Col- 
lege,  Le  Mars,  Iowa.  Besides  S.unday-school 
and  similar  publications  the  church  periodicals 
are  The  Evangelical  (weekly),  Die  evangelische 
Zj eit seh rift  (weekly),  and  The  Missionary  Tid¬ 
ings,  all  issued  at  Harrisburg.  Consult  Ammon 
Stapleton,  Annals  of  the  Evangelical  A  ssociation 
of  North  America  and  History  of  the  United 
Evangelical  Church  (Harrisburg,  1900). 

UNITED  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH,  The 
(  in  Germany  ) .  A  church  established  in  Ger¬ 
many  in  1817  by  the  union  of  portions  of  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches.  Such  a  union 
had  been  attempted  without  success  in  1529, 
1631,  1661,  and  by  Frederick  I  of  Prussia  (1703- 
22).  Frederick  William  I  published  several 
decrees  having  the  same  object  in  view.  It  was 
favored  also  towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  by  the  progress  of  theological  thought. 
Schleiermacher  proposed  to  establish  an  out¬ 
ward  church  unity,  leaving  disputed  points  in 
scientific  theology  still  open  for  discussion.  At 
the  tercentenary  of  the  Reformation  in  1817  a 
visible  union  was  established,  limited,  however, 
at  first,  as  many  of  its  advocates  supposed,  to  a 
common  church  government  and  a  common 
celebration  of  the  Lord’s  Supper.  In  this  move¬ 
ment  the  government  of  Prussia  has  always  been 
the  leader,  and  the  United  Evangelical  church 
is  the  state  church  there,  although  dissensions 
have  arisen  at  various  times.  A  similar  union 
of  Lutherans  with  the  Reformed  church  has 
been  accomplished  in  several  other  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  states;  while  of  the  rest  some  are  too 
exclusively  Lutheran,  and  some  too  exclusively 
Reformed  to  warrant  the  attempt.  In  the 
United  States  a  branch  of  the  United  Evangeli¬ 
cal  church  was  established  near  St.  Louis  in 
1840.  See  German  Evangelical  Synod  of 
North  America;  also  German  Evangelical 
Protestant  Church. 

UNITED  FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOT¬ 
LAND.  See  Presbyterianism  and  the  Pres¬ 
byterian  Churches. 

UNITED  IRISH  LEAGUE  OF  AMERICA. 

An  association  of  Irish-Americans  which  is  prac¬ 
tically  the  successor  of  the  Parnell  Land  League 
and  of  the  Irish  Federated  Societies  in  sym¬ 
pathy  with  the  Land  League  Movement.  It  was 
provisionally  established  in  New  York,  Dec.  4, 
1901,  and  was  ratified  at  the  first  National  Con¬ 
vention  of  the  United  Irish  League  held  at 
Boston,  Oct.  20-21,  1902.  Its  purpose  is  to 
act  as  an  auxiliary  in  America  to  the  national 
organization  in  Ireland  to  secure  its  aims. 
These  include  self-government  for  Ireland,  the 
abolition  of  landlordism  there,  and  other  re¬ 
forms  of  political  and  economic  conditions. 
Membership  in  the  league  is  open  to  all  Irish- 
American  Nationalists  without  distinction  of 
class  or  creed,  and  to  all  sympathizers  with  the 
national  claims  of  Ireland.  The  general  man¬ 
agement  of  the  league  when  not  in  convention  is 
vested  in  a  national  committee,  consisting  of  the 
president,  two  vice  presidents,  treasurer,  and  sec¬ 
retary,  and  31  members  at  large.  The  national 
convention  is  held  biennially  or  oftener  at  the 
discretion  of  the  national  committee. 

UNITED  IRISHMEN,  Society  of.  An  Irish 
revolutionary  society  founded  in  1791.  It  was 
an  outgrowth  of  the  sentiments  inspired  in  Ire¬ 
land  by  the  French  Revolution,  which  found 
earliest  acceptance  among  the  Presbyterians  of 
Ulster,  especially  Belfast.  Its  object  was  to 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


662 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


obtain  complete  political  emancipation  of  both 
Catholics  and  Dissenters  and  to  reform  the  Irish 
Parliament.  It  soon  spread  among  the  Catho¬ 
lics  of  the  south,  and  even  members  of  the 
Established  church  joined  the  movement.  The 
government  in  1783  passed  the  Relief  Act  in 
the  Irish  Parliament.  This  gave  the  suffrage 
to  Catholics,  but  did  not  qualify  them  for  office. 
An  attempted  measure  of  parliamentary  reform 
was,  however,  rejected  in  1794,  and  the  recall 
of  Lord  Fitzwilliam  removed  hopes  of  reform 
through  parliamentary  means.  The  society 
then  became  more  revolutionary,  collected  arms 
and  became  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  mili¬ 
tary  organization.  It  promised  confiscation  of 
the'  land  of  hostile  landlords  to  the  peasants 
and  sent  emissaries  to  France  for  aid.  Its  num¬ 
bers  were  greatly  increased  in  the  south  by  the 
action  of  the  Orangemen  of  Ulster  (Peep  o’ 
Day  Boys)  in  expelling  the  Catholic  inhabitants, 
who  were  forced  to  find  refuge  in  the  south. 
In  1796  Wolfe  Tone  (q.v.),  the  chief  agent  in 
the  organization  of  the  society,  was  sent  to 
France  for  military  aid,  and  an  expedition  of 
15,000  troops  under  the  command  of  Hoche 
(q.v.)  was  fitted  out.  A  violent  tempest  pre¬ 
vented  the  French  from  landing  and  the  expedi¬ 
tion  accomplished  nothing.  The  society,  never¬ 
theless,  remained  ready  for  an  invasion.  Two 
directories  were  established,  one  in  Belfast  and 
the  other  in  Dublin.  They  were  reputed  to 
have  200,000  recruits,  but  this  was  certainly 
an  exaggeration.  Meanwhile  the  government 
resolved  to  repress  the  movement  before  an  in¬ 
vasion  by  France,  and  under  the  pretext  of 
repressing  disorder  the  leaders  in  Ulster  were 
arrested,  and  the  Protestant  militia  and  yeo¬ 
manry  let  loose  on  the  population  of  the  south. 
This  irregular  force  committed  great  brutalities, 
it  being  evidently  the  intention  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  to  incite  the  peasantry  to  open  rebellion 
before  preparations  for  a  revolution  could  be 
completed.  The  rebellion  broke  out  on  May 
3,  1798,  and  was  confined  to  parts  of  Leinster. 
As  it  necessarily  assumed  the  aspect  of  a  reli¬ 
gious  war,  the  Presbyterians  of  Ulster  took  no 
part  in  it.  The  rebellion  wTas  suppressed  before 
the  arrival  of  the  French,  and  shortly  after¬ 
ward  Wolfe  Tone  himself  was  captured  and 
was  sentenced  to  be  hanged  but  committed 
suicide.  The  constitution  and  oath  of  the  so¬ 
ciety  are  printed  in  Plowden,  History  of  Ireland, 
vol.  iii  (Philadelphia,  1806).  Consult  also  The 
Proceedings  of  the  Dublin  Society  (Philadelphia, 
1795).  The  most  complete  work  on  the  subject 
is  R.  R.  Madden,  The  United  Irishmen  (Dublin, 
1858).  For  a  brief  account  consult  Hassencamp, 
History  of  Ireland  (London,  1888). 

UNITED  KINGDOM.  The  United  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  is  a  constitutional 
monarchy,  consisting  of  the  islands  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  and  various  smaller  adja¬ 
cent  isles,  as  the  Hebrides,  the  Orkneys,  the 
Shetlands,  the  Scilly  Isles,  Anglesey,  and  the 
Isle  of  Wight.  The  term  “Great  Britain”  is 
often  used  to  designate  the  United  Kingdom, 
as  is  also  the  term  “England”  when  the  govern¬ 
ment  rather  than  the  country  is  in  mind.  The 
island  of  Great  Britain,  the  largest  island  of 
Europe,  with  an  area  of  88,746  square  miles, 
is  divided  into  England  (50,874  square  miles), 
Wales  (7466  square  miles),  and  Scotland  (30,- 
406  square  miles).  Politically  the  Scilly  Isles 
and  the  Isle  of  Wight  are  part  of  England, 
Anglesey  of  Wales,  and  the  Hebrides,  Orkneys, 


and  Shetlands  of  Scotland;  their  areas  are  in¬ 
cluded  in  the  figures  just  given.  The  area  of 
Ireland  is  32,586  square  miles.  Thus  the  area 
of  the  United  Kingdom  is  121,331  square  miles. 
The  island  of  Great  Britain  lies  between  lat. 
50°  and  60°  N.  and  is  surrounded  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  or  some  of  its  divisions — the 
North  Sea,  English  Channel,  St.  George’s  Chan¬ 
nel,  and  Irish  Sea. 

Topography.  The  seas  surrounding  Great 
Britain  are  very  shallow,  rarely  exceeding  300 
feet  in  depth.  The  fact  that  the  island  stands 
on  the  continental  shelf  has  two  great  ad¬ 
vantages:  (1)  it  is  protected  from  the  cold 
waters  of  the  deep  Arctic  currents  and  thus 
is  spared  the  chilling  influences  of  the  northern 
ocean;  (2)  the  shallow  surrounding  waters 
are  fitted  in  temperature  and  in  abundant  sup¬ 
plies  of  fish  food  to  support  myriads  of  the  best 
varieties  of  fish. 

The  coasts  are  extremely  long  in  proportion 
to  the  area  of  the  land.  Great  Britain  has  1 
mile  of  coast  to  less  than  20  miles  of  area. 
England  has  a  coast  line  nearly  2000  miles  in 
length,  while  that  of  Scotland  is  considerably 
longer.  No  part  of  the  island  is  more  than  70 
miles  from  the  coast.  Two  causes  have  con¬ 
tributed  to  increase  the  value  of  the  numerous 
indentations  as  harbors.  One  is  the  subsidence 
or  depression  of  the  entire  western  side  of  the 
island,  causing  the  sea  to  form  drowned  valleys; 
the  other  is  the  rise  of  the  tides  all  around  the 
coasts,  from  6  to  30  feet,  which  converts  the 
mouths  and  lower  parts  of  many  rivers  into 
deep  bays  or  channels.  The  deep-sea  lochs  of 
the  west  coast  of  Scotland  are  similar  in  ap¬ 
pearance  and  origin  to  the  fiords  of  Norway. 
Here,  as  on  the  west  coast  of  England,  all  the 
softer  rocks  have  been  washed  away;  and  on 
the  Scottish  coast  there  is  left  an  outer  barrier 
of  islands  and  an  inner  wall  of  very  hard  rocks 
penetrated  by  these  deep  fiords.  The  east  coast 
of  Scotland,  however,  composed  mainly  of  sand¬ 
stone  and  clay,  has  been  easily  worn  into  deep 
estuaries  at  the  mouths  of  rapid  rivers  like 
the  Tay;  and  the  east  side  of  England,  composed 
of  soft  rocks,  has  been  worn  into  a  low  monoto¬ 
nous  line  of  shore,  broken  only  by  the  estuaries 
of  rivers  whose  current  is  too  sluggish  to  wear 
away  deep  channels.  Most  of  the  good  harbors 
are  therefore  along  the  west  and  south  shores 
of  the  island.  The  south  coast  is  picturesque, 
with  lofty  cliffs  and  rocky  shores  dotted  with 
summer  resorts. 

The  highlands  and  lowlands  of  Great  Britain 
may  roughly  be  divided  into  four  well-defined 
areas:  (1)  the  Scottish  Highlands,  a  mountain¬ 
ous  and  comparatively  barren  region,  lie  north¬ 
west  of  a  line  drawn  from  Dumbarton  to  Aber¬ 
deen:  (2)  the  Scottish  Lowlands,  an  expanse  of 
fertile  lowland,  and  the  Southern  Uplands,  lie 
southeast  of  this  line;  (3)  the  mountains  of 
England  and  Wales  lie  northwest  of  a  line  drawn 
from  Exeter  to  Berwick;  (4)  the  lowlands  of 
England  lie  to  the  southeast  of  this  line. 

There  are  in  the  Scottish  Highlands  a  number 
of  parallel  ranges  of  mountains,  the  highest 
mountain  being  Ben  Nevis  (4406  feet),  the  cul¬ 
minating  point  of  the  island.  The  only  pas¬ 
sageways  are  at  their  extremities.  At  these 
extremities  are  the  two  roadways  through  Scot¬ 
land  from  south  to  north,  the  east  coast  form¬ 
ing  the  easiest  and  most  traveled  route. 

The  Scottish  Lowlands,  which  connect  the 
Highlands  with  the  Southern  Uplands,  are  a 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


663  UNITED  KINGDOM 


plain,  of  the  rift-valley  type,  diversified  by  many 
hills  of  hard  igneous  rocks,  covered  with  fertile 
soil,  and  abounding  with  natural  advantages  that 
have  concentrated  in  them  most  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  of  Scotland.  The  Southern  Uplands,  among 
which  the  Clyde  rises,  are  a  plateau  where  the 
heights  are  massed  into  different  groups  by 
the  rivers  that  have  excavated  the  valleys. 

From  the  middle  of  England  a  broad  peninsula 
(Wales)  pushes  out  towards  Ireland.  The  whole 
of  Wales  and  the  part  of  England  lying  to  the 
northwest  of  the  line  from  Exeter  to  Berwick 
are  a  highland.  This  hilly  and  mountainous  re¬ 
gion  is  composed  of  very  old  sedimentary  rocks 
with  masses  of  crystalline  rocks  at  various 
centres.  Thus  the  mountains  have  been  partly 
weathered  from  the  plateau  surface  into  their 
present  forms  or  were  pushed  up  from  below  by 
terrestrial  convulsion.  The  mountains  are  not 
so  high  as  those  of  Scotland.  It  may  be  said 
of  the  island  as  a  whole  that  it  becomes  lower 
and  flatter  as  it  widens  out  towards  the  south. 
The  main  direction  of  the  mountain  ranges  of 
England  and  Wales  is  from  north  to  south  or 
from  northeast  to  southwest,  and  they  thus 
interpose  no  obstacles  to  communication  with 
the  Scottish  Lowlands  except  among  the  Cheviot 
Hills,  which,  extending  along  the  border,  belong' 
to  Scotland  more  than  to  England  and  offer  an 
easily  protected  frontier  by  which  to  maintain 
a  separate  political  existence. 

The  Cheviot  Hills  are  separated  from  the 
Pennine  Chain  by  a  low  strip  between  Carlisle 
and  Newcastle.  The  Pennine  Chain  is  a  suc¬ 
cession  of  moors  and  hills  of  Carboniferous 
formation,  the  latter  from  1000  to  2900  feet 
high,  the  backbone  of  northern  England,  extend¬ 
ing  south  150  miles  and  forming  the  water  part¬ 
ing  between  east  and  west  flowing  rivers.  The 
Cumbrian  group  of  mountains,  a  region  also 
known  as  the  English  Lake  District,  is  in  the 
northwest  of  England  and  is  joined  to  the  Pen- 
nines  by  the  high  moorland  of  Shap  Fell.  This 
ring  of  peaks,  rising  to  over  3000  feet,  is  in 
its  scenic  aspects  the  grandest  and  most  beauti¬ 
ful  part  of  England.  Its  deep  valleys  have  been 
eroded  from  the  original  high  plateau  of  igneous 
and  old  sedimentary  rocks,  and  in  these  valleys 
are  the  long  narrow  lakes  that  have  made  this 
district  famous  for  its  picturesque  charm.  The 
Welsh  or  Cambrian  mountains,  in  which  the 
Welsh  tribes  were  long  able  to  maintain  an  inde¬ 
pendent  and  separate  existence,  cover  Wales  and 
are  mostly  of  very  old  sedimentary  strata  with 
crystalline  rocks  at  various  points.  Unlike  the 
Scottish  Highlands,  these  mountains  do  not 
impart  great  ruggedness  to  the  coast,  because 
the  rivers  have  brought  down  vast  quantities 
of  sediment,  spreading  it  out  into  delta  plains 
and  largely  filling  the  fiords  that  formerly 
existed.  The  high  peninsula  of  Devon  and  Corn¬ 
wall,  forming  the  extreme  southwestern  exten¬ 
sion  of  England,  is  the  fifth  and  last  feature 
of  the  highlands  of  South  Britain.  It  is  sepa¬ 
rated  from  Wales  by  the  Bristol  Channel,  while 
another  great  depression  on  the  south,  the  Eng¬ 
lish  Channel,  severs  it  from  Brittany,  France, 
with  which  it  is  closely  related  in  its  crystalline 
and  primary  rocks,  its  high  unfertile  moorland, 
and  its  climate. 

To  the  southeast  of  this  great  highland  region 
extend  the  fertile  lowlands  of  England,  a  coastal 
plain,  less  than  500  feet  above  sea  level  as  a 
rule,  comparatively  flat,  composed  of  younger 
sedimentary  (Mesozoic  and  Tertiary)  rocks,  the 


harder  of  which  stand  above  the  general  level, 
for!n.in8'  Sl'veral  bands  of  higher  ground,  the 
oolitic  and  chalk  bands  being  most  prominent. 
I  he  oolitic  belt  of  higher  ground  extends  to 
the  northeast  from  Portland  Bill  in  the  south 
to  YY  hitbv  in  the  north,  forming,  among  the 
various  elevations,  the  Cotswold  Hills  and  the 
North  Yorkshire  moors,  the  latter  (nearly  1500 
feet  in  height)  being  the  loftiest  part  of  the 
plain  region  of  England.  Directly  east  of  this 
Jurassic  formation  and  extending*  parallel  with 
it  is  the  chalk  country,  whose  ridges  of  hills 
form  the  Salisbury  plateau,  the  Chiltern  Hills, 
and  other  elevations.  These  chalk  heights  also 
extend  along  the  south  of  England  (the  North 
and  South  Downs),  and  are  seen  in  the  white 
cliffs  fronting  the  English  Channel  and  abutting 
on  the  North  Sea  in  the  North  and  South  Fore¬ 
lands.  Between  the  North  and  South  Downs  the 
weald,  a  dissected  dome,  once  heavily  wooded, 

•  wedge-shaped,  penetrates  westward  from  the 

•  North  Sea;  and  between  the  north-extending 
chalk-  lands  and  the  North  Sea  extends  the  Lon¬ 
don  Basin,  low,  remarkably  fertile,  whose  coast 
is  broken  by  several  estuaries,  among  which 
that  of  the  Thames  is  most  prominent.  One 
more  distinctive  feature,  about  midway  on  the 
east  coast  of  England,  is  the  marshy  expanse 
of  the  Fenland,  almost  at  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Hydrography.  The  water  parting  is  situated 
much  nearer  the  west  than  the  east  coast,  with 
the  result  that  the  larger  number  of  rivers 
flow  to  the  east;  with  the  exception  of  the  west¬ 
ern  Severn,  the  eastern  rivers  are  the  longest, 
and  their  basins  larger  than  the  western  basins. 
As  the  eastern  rivers  of  England  flow  sluggishly 
down  the  gentle  slope  of  the  coastal  plain  and 
drain  the  leeward  slopes,  it  is  natural  that 
they  should  be  least  liable  to  floods  and  most 
important  for  navigation.  Their  value  for  com¬ 
merce  is  somewhat  impaired,  however,  by  the 
fact  that,  crossing  the  softer  rocks  of  the  plain, 
they  carry  down  a  great  deal  of  alluvium  with 
which  their  mouths  are  often  seriously  clogged. 
The  Tyne,  Wear,  and  Tees  of  northeastern  Eng¬ 
land  have  a  course  of  only  70  or  80  miles,  and 
their  commercial  importance  depends  upon  the 
great  coal  fields  (Tyne  and  Wear)  and  the  iron 
and  salt  deposits  (Tees)  near  them.  The  basin 
of  the  Humber  embraces  10,000  square  miles, 
from  the  mineral  beds  of  the  Pennine  slopes 
through  the  rich  agricultural  plains;  the  Aire, 
Ouse,  Trent,  and  other  tributaries  help  to  make 
it  one  of  the  most  useful  river  systems  in  Eng¬ 
land.  The  Thames  rises  only  300  feet  above 
the  sea,  but  it  has  a  long  course  of  about  200 
miles.  Its  sluggish  current,  its  well-protected 
estuary,  and  the .  tides  which  carry  numerous 
ocean  vessels  50  miles  up  to  London  Bridge, 
help  to  make  the  Thames  one  of  the  largest 
commerce  carriers  among  the  world’s  rivers. 
The  important  western  rivers  of  south  Britain 
are  limited  to  the  Severn  and  the  Mersey. 
The  Severn  is  the  longest  British  river  (nearly 
250  miles),  with  tides  of  extraordinary  height, 
and  empties  through  one  of  the  largest  and 
richest  coal  fields  in  Europe.  It  is  navigable 
for  a  long  distance  and  is  a  great  commerce  car¬ 
rier.  The  Mersey  is  a  short  river,  rising  on 
the  Pennine  slopes  and  obstructed  at  its  mouth 
by  a  shifting  bar,  but  its  proximity  to  a  rich 
coal  field  and  to  the  great  manufacturing  dis¬ 
trict  of  England  gives  it  immense  importance  in 
commerce.  The  western  rivers  of  Scotland,  ex¬ 
cepting  the  Clyde,  are  only  short,  torrential,  and 


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664 


commercially  valueless  streams;  but  the  Clyde, 
artificially  widened  and  deepened  in  its  lower 
part  at  enormous  expense,  is  the  most  important 
river  in  Scotland,  and  all  the  industries  of  the 
Lowlands  and  Southern  Uplands — agricultural, 
mineral,  and  manufacturing — are  represented  in 
its  trade.  With  this  exception  the  longer  and 
more  gently  flowing  eastern  rivers  are  most  use¬ 
ful.  The  Tay,  Spey,  and  Tweed  are  all  about 
100  miles,  and  the  Dee  and  the  Don  about  80 
miles  long.  The  Tay  and  the  Forth  are  great 
water  highways,  commanding  all  the  river  traffic 
passing  through  the  eastern-central  portion  of 
Scotland.  The  two  famous  lake  regions  of  Great 
Britain  are  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  where 
here  and  there  in  the  valleys  the  rivers  have 
spread  out  into  long  and  narrow  lakes,  or  lochs, 
which  follow  the  curves  of  the  hillsides  and 
contribute  much  to  the  beauty  and  charm  of 
this  picturesque  region,  and  the  Lake  District  of 
the  Cumbrian  Mountains  in  northwest  England, 
already  mentioned. 

Climate.  Warm  winters,  cool  summers,  and 
large  rainfall  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  climate.  The  island  of  Great  Britain  owes 
these  advantages  to  the  surrounding  seas,  which 
are  unusually  warm  considering  their  latitude. 
The  westerly  winds  (the  southwest  antitrades, 
or  westerlies),  blowing  most  of  the  time  from 
off  the  broad  expanse  of  the  Atlantic,  moderate 
the  temperature  of  the  winter  months,  mitigate 
the  heat  of  summer,  and  cover  the  skies  for  a 
great  part  of  the  year  with  clouds  which  often 
hang  upon  the  land  as  fog.  Icebound  harbors 
are  unknown.  There  is  no  great  variety  of 
climate,  because  the  country  is  not  of  great 
extent,  and  its  surface,  even  to  the  mountain 
tops,  does  not  reach  a  high  elevation.  The  dif¬ 
ference  of  summer  temperature  between  the  ex¬ 
treme  north  and  south  of  the  island  is  about  10 
degrees.  The  copious  rains  which  the  westerly 
winds  bring  fall  largely  over  the  highland  re¬ 
gions  of  the  west,  which  makes  them  among  the 
richest  in  rainfall  of  all  parts  of  Europe;  while 
the  plains  of  the  east  receive  a  far  smaller  quan¬ 
tity  of  rain.  All  parts  of  the  country,  however, 
receive  sufficient  rain  for  agricultural  needs ;  and 
the  numerous  valleys  extending  southwest  and 
northeast  permit  the  sea  air  to  carry  much 
moisture  far  inland  before  it  falls  as  rain.  The 
annual  range  of  temperature  is  smallest  in  the 
west  because  it  is  more  exposed  to  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  the  Atlantic.  The  western  regions  have 
more  sunshine  than  the  plains,  where  cloud  and 
fog  are  more  prevalent.  The  average  tempera¬ 
ture  of  Great  Britain  for  the  year  is  48°  F.  with 
extremes  of  53°  F.  (Scilly  Isles)  and  45°  F. 
(Shetland).  Snow  falls  on  the  higher  lands  and 
sometimes  covers  most  of  the  country,  but  no 
mountain  is  so  high  as  to  be  snow-capped  in 
summer.  The  islands  are  exposed  to  the  great 
cyclonic  storms  which  sometimes  sweep  in  from 
the  Atlantic. 

Soils.  Soils  formed  from  the  immediately  un¬ 
derlying  rocks  are  not  the  most  common  in  Great 
Britain,  and  where  they  are  so  formed  they  are 
usually  poor.  Thus  the  hard  crystalline  rocks 
of  the  western  mountains  yield  a  comparatively 
poor  soil;  and  the  soil  is  not  very  fertile  south 
of  the  Thames,  where  the  local  chalk  and  flint 
enter  so  largely  into  its  composition.  The  very 
fertile  soils  of  most  of  the  plains,  particularly 
north  of  the  Thames,  are  the  mixed  components 
of  many  kinds  of  rocks  ground  up  by  glacial 
ice,  carried  a  considerable  distance  and  spread 


over  the  surface.  The  rivers  also,  passing  over 
many  varieties  of  rocks,  spread  this  mixed  rock 
waste  along  their  valleys,  and  these  alluvial 
soils  are  very  fertile.  The  soil  of  Scotland  is 
naturally  fertile,  aside  from  mountain  districts. 

Flora.  The  native  flora  of  Great  Britain  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  the  neighboring 
portion  of  continental  Europe;  some  mainland 
species,  however,  do  not  appear.  In  early  times 
the  island  was  almost  completely  covered  with 
forests,  but  to-day  little  of  the  original  wood¬ 
lands  remains,  and  only  3.6  per  cent  of  the  sur¬ 
face  is  covered  with  forests.  The  chief  native 
trees  are  the  oak  and  beech  in  the  lower  lands, 
and  the  Scotch  pine  and  birch  in  the  high  and 
more  northern  districts.  The  great  rainfall 
on  the  steeper  mountain  slopes  has  generally 
washed  away  the  soil,  showing  the  rock  skeleton 
unrelieved  by  vegetation.  On  the  gentler  slopes 
of  the  Scottish  and  Welsh  highlands,  little  ex¬ 
cept  moss,  fern,  and  heather  can  grow  in  the 
thin  soil.  All  the  cultivated  plants  that  thrive 
in  the  lower  lands  have  been  introduced  from 
the  neighboring  Continent  and  America.  The 
mild,  moist  climate  gives  a  peculiarly  rich  and 
fresh  aspect  to  the  vegetation.  The  pastures 
and  hay  lands  are  luxuriant,  and  the  fields  look 
like  well-kept  gardens. 

Fauna.  As  the  British  Isles  until  geologically 
recent  times  were  an  integral  part  of  the  Con¬ 
tinent,  they  partake  of  the  general  fauna  of 
western  Europe  and  present  few  differences  ex¬ 
cept  such  as  are  due  to  man.  All  the  larger 
animals  were  long  ago  exterminated  (see  Ex¬ 
tinct  Animals),  or  have  been  preserved  only 
as  curiosities  on  private  estates,  with  the  ex¬ 
ception  of  the  red  deer.  Otters,  badgers,  pole¬ 
cats,  and  weasels  survive  free  persecution ;  foxes 
persist  under  protection.  The  hare,  squirrel, 
hedgehog,  vole,  some  wild  mice,  moles,  shrews, 
and  bats  nearly  complete  the  list  of  remaining 
British  land  mammals.  Seals  of  two  or  three 
species  are  found  on  the  northern  coasts,  and 
the  cetaceans  of  the  North  Atlantic  visit  the 
shores  from  time  to  time.  Certain  common  ani¬ 
mals  of  northern  and  western  Europe,  such  as 
the  reindeer,  elk,  roedeer,  lemming,  hamster,  etc., 
have  had  no  place  in  Great  Britain  within-  his¬ 
toric  times;  neither  have  several  mammals  of 
southern  France. 

The  birds  more  fully  represent  the  European 
air  fauna,  for  the  British  Isles  lie  upon  a  path 
of  coastal  migration  between  tropical  and  north¬ 
ern  latitudes.  This  brings  regularly  to  Great 
Britain  most  of  the  European  birds,  but  some 
species  are  exceedingly  rare  there  which  occur 
commonly  in  the  Rhone-Rhine  valley.  Laws  have 
long  afforded  protection  to  all  birds,  resident 
or  migratory,  preserving  many  species  that  were 
formerly  threatened  with  extinction,  yet  some 
have  been  lost.  The  principal  British  birds  are 
the  raven,  hooded  and  carrion  crows,  rook,  jack¬ 
daw,  magpie,  chough,  and  jay — the  last  two  be¬ 
coming  very  scarce;  the  starling,  the  chaffinch, 
goldfinch,  linnet,  bullfinch,  house  sparrow,  vari¬ 
ous  buntings,  and  other  seed  eaters;  the  skylark 
and  woodlark,  with  several  related  wagtails, 
pipits,  etc. ;  a  nuthatch  and  several  varieties 
of  titmouse,  shrike,  and  waxwing.  Thrushes  are 
represented  by  the  nightingale,  blackbird,  mavis, 
missel  thrush,  and  redwing — famous  songsters; 
and  lesser  insect  eaters  are  the  two  chats,  the 
wheatear,  the  redbreast,  and  several  small  war¬ 
blers,  accentors,  wrens,  flycatchers,  etc.  Several 
swallows  are  familiar  about  buildings  and  river 


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665  UNITED  KINGDOM 


banks,  and  two  or  three  woodpeckers.  The 
cuckoo,  nightjar,  swift,  and  kingfisher,  one  spe¬ 
cies  each,  carry  the  list  to  the  birds  of  prey. 
These  include  the  brown,  barn,  and  several  other 
small  owls,  with  the  great  snowy  owl  as  a  winter 
visitor.  The  osprey  is  rare.  Among  the  falcons 
are  the  peregrine,  kestrel,  gerfalcon,  merlin,  and 
pigeon  and  sparrow  hawks.  Honey  buzzards, 
kites,  eagles,  and  vultures  are  seen  only  at  long 
intervals,  when  they  wander  over  from  the 
Continent.  The  buzzards,  goshawk,  and  marsh 
harrier  complete  a  long  list.  Fishing  birds  are 
represented  by  cormorants,  gannets,  etc.,  on  the 
coast,  and  by  the  bittern  inland.  Waterfowl 
include  tame  swans,  the  wild  bernicle,  greylag, 
bean,  and  pink-footed  geese,  and  a  series  of 
ducks  to  a  large  degree  identical  with  those  of 
Canada.  Four  species  of  typical  pigeons  include 
the  wild  stock  of  domestic  doves  and  the  wide¬ 
spread  turtledove.  The  game  birds  are  the 
capercailzie,  blackgame,  red  grouse  (one  of  the 
few  birds  peculiar  to  the  British  Islands),  arid 
the  introduced  pheasant;  but  sportsmen  find  a 
long  list  of  visiting  shore  birds,  most  of  which 
are  known  also  in  America;  while  the  sea  birds 
are  those  of  the  North  Atlantic  coasts  generally. 

Fish  abound  in  the  four  seas  about  Great 
Britain,  and  their  capture  supports  a  large 
maritime  population  (see  Fisheries );  certain 
species,  as  the  sole,  turbot,  and  whitebait,  are 
local  and  of  wide  repute  for  excellence.  Salmon 
still  ascend  the  northerly  rivers  of  the  Kingdom 
under  legal  protection,  and  trout,  grayling,  and 
various  fresh-water  fishes  of  interest  to  anglers 
are  similarly  preserved.  Oysters  and  various 
other  shellfish  abound  and  are  largely  fished 
for  or  cultivated  for  food.  Of x  reptiles,  Great 
Britain  contains  but  four — a  small  viviparous 
lizard,  a  blindworm,  a  small  colubrine  snake 
( Tropidonotus  natrix) ,  and  the  adder  ( Pelias 
berus ) .  Several  frogs,  two  toads,  and  some 
newts  comprise  the  amphibians.  The  insects, 
mollusks,  and  lower  invertebrates  are  as  nu¬ 
merous  and  varied  as  is  usual  in  a  mild  and 
moist  climate,  and  have  been  more  thoroughly 
studied  than  anywhere  else  on  the  globe. 

Geology.  Great  Britain  may  be  roughly 
classified,  from  the  standpoint  of  rock  formation, 
into  areas  older  than  the  coal  measures  and 
areas  younger.  The  Highlands  in  the  north  and 
west  are  the  remnants  of  the  very  ancient 
crystalline  and  sedimentary  rock  masses  that 
were  greatly  disturbed  in  early  geological  epochs 
and  have  since  been  largely  reduced  in  height 
and  area  by  erosion.  These  regions  of  ancient 
rocks  were  subjected  to  much  faulting  and  fold¬ 
ing;  and  interspersed  among  them  are  areas 
which  volcanic  outflows,  occurring  in  various 
ages  and  as  late  as  Tertiary  times,  covered  with 
igneous  deposits  that  were  also  greatly  dis¬ 
turbed  by  dynamical  energy.  These  elevated 
lands  are  not  marked  by  sharp  and  jagged 
peaks,  but  the  mountains  have  been  worn  away 
into  rounded  outlines,  and  among  them  are  inter¬ 
spersed  a  number  of  broad,  plainlike  moors 
broken  here  and  there  by  more  elevated  masses 
of  harder  and  particularly  of  eruptive  rocks. 
The  Highland  regions  may  be  compared  in 
height  with  the  Catskill  Plateau  and  its  sur¬ 
mounting  elevations. 

In  sharp  contrast  with  these  ancient  crystal¬ 
line,  sedimentary,  and  eruptive  masses  forming 
the  Highlands  are  the  younger  rocks  of  the 
Lowlands,  the  widely  distributed  Old  Red  Sand-  ’ 
stone  of  Devonian  formation,  the  chalk  and  sand¬ 


stones  and  the  clays  of  the  Carboniferous  era. 
Towards  the  south  and  east  of  the  old  elevated 
rock  masses  are  the  Carboniferous  strata  con¬ 
taining  the  coal  deposits  which  have  contributed 
so  much  to  the  material  greatness  of  Great 
Britain.  None  of  the  younger  and  lower  lands 
has  been  much  affected  by  faulting  and  folding. 
These  lower  lands  extend  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Tee  to  the  south  of  the  island,  widening 
with  their  south  extension  till  they  cover  the 
larger  part  of  England,  Exeter  being  their  west¬ 
ern  limit  on  the  south  coast,  Ihey  are  mostly 
flat,  trough-shaped,  or  rolling  surfaces  of  the 
Triassic,  Jurassic,  Cretaceous,  and  Tertiary  for¬ 
mations.  The  greatest  diversity  of  surface  and 
the  finest  scenery  are  thus  in  the  north  and 
west,  while  the  lowest  and  most  uniform  surface 
is  in  the  south  and  east.  The  extreme  south 
of  England  escaped  glacial  action,  but  elsewhere 
many  of  the  minor  features  of  the  land  were 
produced  by  the  ice  sheet  and  glaciers  of  the 
Ice  age.  In  scarcely  any  other  part  of  the 
world  is  there  so  wide  a  range  of  geological 
strata  in  so  limited  an  area  as  in  Great  Britain ; 
only  the  broader  aspects  of  the  subjects  are  here 
indicated. 

Minerals  and  Mining.  The  industrial  his¬ 
tory  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  its  present 
position  and  outlook  are  intimately  connected 
with  the  possession  and  exploitation  of  unusu¬ 
ally  abundant  resources  of  coal  and  iron,  par¬ 
ticularly  coal.  They  have  largely  determined  the 
distribution  of  population  (see  Population)  and 
have  made  possible  the  country’s  highly  de¬ 
veloped  industrial  life  and  extraordinary  wealth. 
There  was  no  mineral  production  on  a  large 
scale  until  the  industrial  revolution  of  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  Collieries 
were  first  opened  at  Newcastle  in  1238,  and  the 
coal  was  shipped  by  sea  to  London  and  other 
towns  on  navigable  rivers. 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  coal  was 
used  in  smelting  iron,  but  primitive  mining 
methods,  and  particularly  the  lack  of  means  for 
pumping  water  out  of  the  mines,  limited  its 
use.  The  inventions  of  James  Watt  (c.1770) 
eliminated  this  difficulty  and  greatly  increased 
production,  thereby  making  practicable  the 
blast-furnace  method  of  iron  smelting,  which 
had  already  been  introduced  but  was  impeded 
by  insufficient  supplies  of  wood  and  coal.  In 
the  later  years  of  the  eighteenth  century  there 
was  a  constant  succession  of  improvements — to 
wit,  in  mining,  in  the  manufacture  of  iron,  in 
internal  means  of  communication — all  facilitat¬ 
ing  increased  production  of  coal  and  iron.  The 
annual  output  of  coal  in  the  last  years  of  the 
eighteenth  century  is  estimated  to  have  exceeded 
10,000,000  tons.  The  introduction  of  the  steam¬ 
boat  about  1812  and  of  the  steam  railway  about ' 
1830  created  a  new  demand  for  coal  and  iron 
and  made  domestic  and  foreign  distribution 
more  practicable,  thus  enormously  extending 
the  market.  Production  increased  throughout 
the  nineteenth  century,  the  average  annual  abso¬ 
lute  gain  continuing  undiminished.  The  value 
of  mining  products  aside  from  coal  and  iron  is 
comparatively  small. 

The  supremacy  of  Great  Britain  in  total  min¬ 
eral  product  is  the  more  remarkable  since  the 
product  includes  virtually  neither  gold  nor'  silver. 
In  1820  Great  Britain’s  coal  production  was  two 
and  one-half  times  as  much  as  the  rest  of  the 
civilized  world,  and  as  late  as  1840  the  iron-ore 
production  was  more  than  all  other  countries 


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UNITED  KINGDOM  666 


combined.  The  United  States  first  excelled  Great 
Britain  in  mineral  production  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century  and  is  constantly  in¬ 
creasing  its  lead.  Great  Britain’s  iron  output 
was  first  surpassed  by  the  United  States  in 
1890  and  its  coal  in  1899.  The  output  of  the 
British  iron  mines  is  insufficient  for  local  needs, 
and  increasing  quantities,  equaling  in  value  that 
produced  at  home,  are  imported,  chiefly  from 
Spain ;  while  coal  for  the  whole  period  has  been 
exported  in  increasing  quantities.  The  export 
of  coal,  coke,  and  patent  fuel  increased  from 
46,098,228  tons  in  1900  to  67,035,848  in  1912. 
Iron  being  much  more  easily  imported  than 
coal,  Great  Britain  fares  better  than  it  would 
if  the  status  of  the  production  of  the  two  min¬ 
erals  were  reversed. 

Coal  and  iron  ore  respectively  have  been  pro¬ 
duced  in  the  United  Kingdom  as  follows:  in 
1860,  81.000,000  tons  and  8,155,000  tons;  in 
1870,  112,000,000  and  14,606,000;  in  1890,  188,- 
000,000  and  14,066,000;  in  1900,  225,181,300  and 
14,257,344;  in  1910,  264,433,028  and  15,226,015. 
The  following  table  shows  for  recent  years  the 
coal  and  iron  produced  in  the  United  Kingdom 
and  their  values  (in  thousands  of  pounds  ster¬ 
ling). 


YEAR 

COAL 

IRON  ORE 

Tons 

£1000 

Tons 

£1000 

1895 

189,661,362 

225,181,300 

236,128,936 

264,433,028 

287,430,473 

57,231.2 

121.652.6 
82,038.6 

108.377.6 

145.535.7 

1900 

1905 . 

1910 . 

1913 . 

14,590,703 

15,226,015 

15,997,328 

3,482.2 

4,022.3 

4,543.6 

About  two-thirds  of  the  coal  is  mined  in  Eng¬ 
land,  the  remainder  being  almost  equally  divided 
between  Scotland  and  Wales.  The  principal  pro¬ 
ductive  districts,  beginning  at  the  north,  are 
the  Scottish  Lowlands,  or  the  neighborhood  of 
Glasgow,  the  Newcastle  district,  the  two  fields 
on  the  east  and  west  slopes  of  the  Pennine  Range 
in  southwest  Yorkshire,  and  to  the  southeast¬ 
ward  and  in  eastern  Lancashire,  the  Staffordshire 
fields  farther  south,  and  the  South  Wales  field 
occupying  Glamorganshire  and  parts  of  the  ad¬ 
joining  counties.  The  third  of  these  districts 
lias  the  largest  output.  The  output  by  districts 
was  as  follows  in  1912: — in  England:  Durham, 
37,890,404  tons;  Yorkshire,  38,298,080;  Lan¬ 
cashire,  22,790,472;  Staffordshire,  13,698,357; 
Derbyshire,  16,573,157;  Northumberland,  13,- 
381,787;  Nottinghamshire,  11,122,832;  Mon¬ 
mouthshire,  13,391,742;  other  districts,  13,685,- 
300; — in  Wales:  Glamorganshire,  33,727,100; 
other  districts,  6,248,171; — in  Scotland:  Lanark¬ 
shire.  16,624,363;  other  districts,  22,894,266;  — 
in  Ireland,  90,307 ;  total  260,416,338.  Iron  ore 
is  obtained  most  abundantly  in  connection  with 
the  coal  measures  of  Yorkshire  and  other  re¬ 
gions.  Red  hematite  ores  are  obtained  in  north 
Derbyshire  and  in  Cumberland. 

In  mediaeval  and  ancient  times  in  Great 
Britain  other  varieties  of  minerals  were  rela¬ 
tively  of  much  greater  importance  than  coal 
and  iron.  According  to  tradition,  centuries  be¬ 
fore  the  Christian  era  Phoenician  merchants 
visited  England  and  traded  in  the  products  of 
the  tin  mines  of  Cornwall.  It  is  certain  that 
the  Cornish  mines  have  been  worked  from  a  very 
early  period.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  down  to 


the  time  when  the  tin  mines  of  Bohemia  and 
Saxony  were  discovered,  England  supplied  al¬ 
most  all  the  tin  used  in  Christendom.  Copper 
and  silver  were  also  mined.  The  revenue  from 
the  Devonshire  tin  and  lead  mines  paid  the  ex¬ 
penses  of  the  French  wars  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  great  modern  improvements  in 
transportation  have  since  made  it  more  econom¬ 
ical  in  many  cases  to  import  the  ore.  English 
clays  have  always  been  used  in  making  pottery, 
especially  after  the  introduction  of  improved 
methods  by  Dutch  and  Huguenot  immigrants. 
The  country’s  abundant  supply  of  useful  stone 
has  always  been  drawn  upon,  increasingly  so  in 
recent  years.  In  1912  the  total  spot  value  of  the 
metallic  minerals  produced  in  the  United  King¬ 
dom  was  £5,211,746;  of  the  nonmetallic  min¬ 
erals,  £126,009,107;  total,  £131,220,853.  Of  the 
mineral  output  in  1912,  the  value  of  £88,897,556 
was  raised  in  England,  £23,744,169  in  Yales, 
£18,344,112  in  Scotland,  and  £208,042  in  Ire¬ 
land;  included  in  the  total  is  £26,974,  value  of 
minerals  raised  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  table  shows  the  quantity  of  metal  pro¬ 
duced  in  the  United  Kingdom,  from  British  ores 
(and,  in  the  case  of  pig  iron,  also  from  foreign 
ores),  with  estimated  value  at  the  place  of 
production. 


ORE 

1901 

1906 

1912 

Pig  iron,*  tons . 

4,091,908 

5,040,360 

4,451,636 

£12,826,622 

17,623,966 

16,419,298 

Pig  iron,t  tons . 

3,836,739 

5,143,500 

4,299,828 

£12,026,762 

17,984,603 

15,859,372 

Fine  copper,  tons . . . 

532 

749 

291 

£37,661 

69,385 

22,714 

Metallic  lead,  tons. . 

20,034 

22,335 

19,154 

£254,599 

392,445 

349,561 

White  tin,  tons . 

4,560 

4,522 

5,254 

£556,571 

819,377 

1,116,738 

Zinc,  tons . 

8,418 

8,539 

6,062 

£149,174 

235,819 

158,622 

Silver,  ounces . 

174,466 

148,341 

122,998 

£19,764 

19,083 

14,382 

Bar  gold,  ounces.  .  . 

6,225 

1,871 

1,546 

£22,042 

6,569 

5,103 

Total . 

£25,893,195 

37,151,247 

33,945,790 

*  From  British  ores.  t  From  foreign  ores. 


In  1912  there  were  3910  mines  in  operation, 
with  1,117,148  persons  employed,  of  whom  895,- 
485 ‘were  males  working  underground,  and  215,- 
001  males  and  6662  females  aboveground.  In 
quarries  79,887  persons  were  employed. 

Fisheries.  The  natural  resources  of  the 
United  Kingdom  include  very  profitable  fish¬ 
eries.  The  herting  fisheries  off  the  Norfolk  coast 
have  always  been  important  and  were  until  the 
seventeenth  century  largely  in  the  hands  of 
the  Dutch.  But  as  the  government  fostered  the 
fishing  industry,  the  Dutch  were  supplanted,  and 
to-day  the  United  Kingdom  is  equaled  only  by 
the  United  States  in  the  value  of  its  annual 
catch.  The  value  of  the  fish  (exclusive  of 
salmon)  landed  on  the  coasts  of  the  United  King¬ 
dom,  distinguishing  the  English,  Welsh,  Scot¬ 
tish,  and  Irish  coasts,  is  shown  on  page  667. 
The  herring  fishery  is  the  most  important  on 
both  English  and  Scottish  coasts.  Its  principal 
centre  is  Great  Yarmouth.  The  North  Sea  fish¬ 
eries  yield  shellfish,  mackerel,  and  codfish.  Sar¬ 
dine  fishing  is  of  some  importance  in  Cornwall 
and  Devonshire.  Oyster  fisheries  are  widely 
distributed  along  the  coasts.  Value  for  the 
United  Kingdom  of  the  principal  catches  in 
1913:  herring,  £4,572,295;  cod,  £2,300,119;  had- 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


667 


dock,  £1,891,005;  hake,  £678,981;  soles,  £474,- 
127;  whiting,  £390,980;  turbot,  £302,411;  skates 
and  rays,  £292,972;  mackerel,  £230,161.  On  Eng¬ 


1900 

England 
and  Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

United 

Kingdom 

Fish,  wet .  . 
Shellfish... 

£6,610,268 

334,882 

£2,325,994 

75,906 

£306,229 

61,426 

£9,242,491 

472,214 

Total .  .  . 

£6,945,150 

£2,401,900 

£367,655 

£9,714,705 

1913 

Fish,  wet.  . 
Shellfish... 

£10,009,326 

327,363 

£3,925,360 

72,357 

£294,625 

63,922 

£14,229,311 

463,642 

Total .  . . 

£10,336,689 

£3,997,717 

£358,547 

£14,692,953 

lish  and  Welsh  coasts  plaice  were  landed  to 
the  value  of  £1,051,016.  At  the  end  of  1912 
there  were  registered  in  the  United  Kingdom 
24,012  boats  as  engaged  in  fishing,  giving  em¬ 
ployment  to  98,894  persons,  but  there  was  also 
a  large  number  of  small  craft  not  registered. 
In  recent  years  the  general  tendency  towards 
centralization  in  important  industries  has  been 
very  evident  in  the  fishing  industry,  and  the 
population  engaged  in  fishing  has  centred  to  a 
large  extent  at  a  few  important  points,  especially 
Great  Yarmouth,  Grimsby,  Hull,  and  Peterhead. 

Agriculture  and  Stock  liaising.  Compared 
to  other  industries  agriculture  is  of  far  less  im¬ 
portance  in  the  United  Kingdom  than  in  any 
of  the  other  great  nations.  The  fact  that  the 
country  is  not  producing  sufficient  food  to  supply 


nate  than  its  European  neighbors  as  regards 
natural  facilities  for  agriculture,  having  a 
smaller  cultivable  area  and  a  soil  of  only  mod¬ 
erate  fertility.  At  one  time  an  exporter  of  food 
products,  the  decline  of  the  country’s  agricul¬ 
ture  dates  from  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  though  protected  for  a  while  by  high 
import  duties  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  of 
1846  opened  the  British  market  to  foreign  com 
petition. 

Foreign  competition  has  caused  a  complete 
change  in  agricultural  methods.  A  decided  de¬ 
crease  in  the  production  of  grains,  particularly 
of  wheat,  was  followed  by  an  increase  in  market 
gardening  and  the  pastoral  industries.  The  dis¬ 
tribution  of  crops  varies  within  the  different  sec¬ 
tions,  being  determined  largely  by  physical  con¬ 
ditions.  Mountainous  districts  in  north  and 
south  Scotland,  in  western  England,  and  in  a 
large  portion  of  Wales  are  unavailable  for  til¬ 
lage,  while  there  are  extensive  lowlands  and 
swampy  regions,  which  even  with  extensive 
drainage  have  not  been  entirely  brought  under 
cultivation.  The  subjoined  table  shows,  accord- 


YEAR 

Great 

Britain 

Ireland 

United 

Kingdom 

Total  acres . 

Cultivated,  1900.  .  .  . 

“  1910 _ 

“  1913 _ 

56,804,166 

32,437,386 

32,145,930 

31,927,301 

20,734,124 

15,234,693 

14,661,045 

14,691,147 

77,724,044 

47,795,120 

46,931,637 

46,740,904 

ing  to  British  agricultural 

statistics, 

the  total 

area  in  acres  (including  rivers  and  lakes,  but 


AREA,  CROPS,  ETC. 

Great  Britain 

1895 

1905 

1912 

Cultivated  area . 

32,577,513 

32,286,832 

31,996,024 

Corn  crops: 

Wheat . 

1,417,483 

1,796,995 

1,925,737 

Barley  or  bere  .... 

2,166,279 

1,713,664 

1,648,201 

Oats . 

3,296,063 

3,051,376 

3,029,054 

Rye . 

68,713 

62,197 

60,943 

Beans . 

242,665 

254,765 

285,989 

Peas . 

209,024 

175,235 

202,319 

Total . 

7,400,227 

7,054,232 

7,152,243 

Green  crops: 

Potatoes  . 

541,217 

608,473 

612,671 

Turnips  and  swedes 

1,915,902 

1,589,273 

1,512,535 

Mangold . 

334,861 

404,123 

488,486 

Cabbage,  kohl-rabi 

and  rape . 

153,053 

179,226 

173,538 

Vetches  or  tares  . .  . 

165,804 

136,429 

137,420 

Other  crops . 

114,925 

159,518 

190,854 

Total . 

3,225,762 

3,077,042 

3,115,504 

Flax . 

2,023 

441 

811 

Hops . 

58,940 

48,967 

34,829 

Small  fruit . 

74,547 

78,825 

85,141 

Bare  fallow . 

475,650 

349,313 

280,746 

Clover,  sainfoin,  and 
grasses  under  ro¬ 
tation  : 

For  hay . 

2,303,431 

2,189,286 

1,978,501 

Not  for  hay . 

2,426,370 

2,228,232 

2,012,528 

Total . 

4,729,801 

4,477,518 

3,991,029 

Permanent  pasture:  * 

For  hay . 

4,760,889 

4,688,520 

5,108,269 

Not  for  hay . 

11,849,674 

12,511,974 

12,227,452 

Total . 

16,610,563 

17,200,494 

17,335,721 

Orchards  f . 

218,428 

244,323 

246,527 

• 

Ireland 

United  Kingdom 

1895 

1905 

1912 

1895 

1905 

1912 

15,179,382 

15,262,949 

14,673,778 

47,883,797 

47,673,115 

46,793,747 

36,532 

171,789 

1,216,401 

11,520 

2,355 

497 

37,860 

154,645 

1,066,806 

10,155 

1,471 

253 

44,855 

165,367 

1,046,000 

7,765 

1,421 

279 

1,456,045 

2,346,371 

4,527,930 

80,296 

245,129 

209,608 

1,836,598 

1,872,305 

4,137,406 

72,480 

256,383 

175,624 

1,971,801 

1,816,426 

4,096,111 

68,779 

287,511 

202,742 

1,439,094 

1,271,190 

1,265,687 

8,865,379 

8,350,796 

8,443,370 

710,486 

313,281 

53,027 

616,755 

282,105 

72,570 

595,184 

271,771 

t81,700 

1,262,863 

2,237,686 

388,442 

1,236,768 

1,879,384 

477,540 

1,219,583 

1,792,523 

11571,451 

45,286 

4,250 

25,424 

45,695 

2,566 

24,682 

41,060 

2,008 

30,366 

198,488 

170,371 

142,271 

225,315 

139,285 

186,082 

215,346 

139,748 

223,474 

1,151,754 

95,203 

1,044,373 

46,158 

1,022,089 

54,931 

4,400,121 

97,226 

58,940 

74,920 

494,430 

2,952,619 

3,108,541 

4,144,374 

46,599 

48,967 

83,941 

353,742 

2,831,305 

2,948,018 

4,162,125 
55,742 
34,829 
**  100,747 
281,231 

2,908,233 

3,760,468 

4,531 

4,195 

628,635 

626,478 

§15,218 

18,431 

635,586 

649,792 

II  916,976 
11,713,519 

1,285,378 

1,255,113 

2,630,495 

6,061,160 

5,779,323 

6,668,701 

1,558,890 

9,630,632 

1,665,871 

9,971,518 

11,570,373 

18,114,985 

6,328,052 

21,503,569 

6,361,439 

22,503,934 

6,684,945 

20,362,067 

11,189,522 

11,637,389 

9,685,358 

27,831,621 

28,865,373 

27,047,002 

*  Exclusive  of  heath  or  mountain  land.  t  Arable  or  grass  land  used  also  for  fruit  trees, 

t  Inclusive  of  beetroot.  §  Including  orchards. 

!l  The  large  apparent  change  in  area  is  chiefly  due  to  greater  care  and  to  a  different  method  in  classification, 

l  Inclusive  of  Irish  beetroot.  **  Inclusive  of  Irish  orchards 


its  own  needs  makes  the  question  of  food  provi¬ 
sion  one  of  great  importance.  It  is  less  fortu- 
Vol.  XXII.— 43 


not  including  foreshore  and  tidal  waters)  and 
the  total  cultivated  area  in  Great  Britain,  in 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


668 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


Ireland,  and  in  the  United  Kingdom,  including 
the  Isle  of  Man  and  the  Channel  Islands. 

The  share  of  England,  of  Wales,  and  of  Scot¬ 
land  in  the  total  cultivated  area  of  the  island  of 
Great  Britain  is  shown  below. 


LAND 

England 

Wales 

Scotland 

Total  acres* . 

32,559,355 

24,960,192 

24,611,186 

4,778,182 

2,842,616 

2,794,661 

19,459,584 

4,895,715 

4,880,985 

Cultivated,  1886-90  . 
“  1905 _ 

*  The  figures  here  given  do  not  exactly  agree  with  the  total 
for  Great  Britain  in  the  preceding  table  on  account  of  differ¬ 
ing  official  calculations. 


The  area  in  acres  under  the  principal  crops, 
in  the  first  week  of  June,  is  reported  on  page  667 
(figures  for  the  United  Kingdom  include  those 
for  the  Isle  of  Man  and  the  Channel  Islands).  _ 
The  true  significance  of  British  agriculture  is 
not  shown  so  much  by  the  acreage  as  by  the  yield 
per  acre.  Intensive  cultivation,  application  of 
modern  scientific  principles,  and  the  liberal  use 
of  natural  and  artificial  fertilizers  cause  the  re¬ 
luctant  soil  to  produce  unsurpassed  quantities. 
Thus,  while  the  area  of  cultivation  has  remained 
practically  stationary,  the  product  has  con¬ 
stantly  increased.  (See  England;  Ireland.) 
The  production  of  principal  crops  in  Imperial 
bushels,  long  tons,  or  hundredweights,  and  the 
average  yield  per  acre  in  1912,  were  officially 
estimated  for  Great  Britain  and  for  Ireland  as 
follows. 


CROPS 

GREAT  BRITAIN 

IRELAND 

Production 

Per 

acre 

Production 

Per 

acre 

In  bushels: 

Wheat . 

55,838,360 

29.00 

1,563,942 

34.87 

Barley  and  bere . 

51,238,728 

31.09 

6,968,470 

42.14 

Oats . 

109,935,064 

36.29 

54,865,569 

52.45 

Beans . 

7,724,640 

27.63 

59,405 

41.81 

Peas . 

3,916,680 

22.55 

7,814 

28.01 

In  tons: 

Potatoes . 

3,179,632 

5.19 

2,546,710 

4.28 

Turnips  and 

swedes . 

20,278,639 

13.41 

3,783,218 

13.92 

Mangold . 

8,836,718 

18.09 

tl, 301,048 

t  15.92 

Hay* . 

2,675,208 

1.35 

1,701,027 

1.86 

Hay  f . 

6,343,423 

1.24 

3,295,564 

2.10 

In  hundredweights 

Hops .  . 

373,438 

10.72  ( 

*  From  clover,  sainfoin,  and  grasses  under  rotation, 
t  From  permanent  pasture, 
t  Inclusive  of  beetroot. 


Great  Britain  has  originated  many  of  the 
finest  breeds  of  stock  (see  England;  Scotland), 
the  purity  of  which  is  zealously  guarded.  It  is 
a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  United  Kingdom  has 
more  than  half,  and  Great  Britain  almost  ex¬ 
actly  half,  as  many  sheep  as  are  found  in  the 
United  States.  The  following  table  shows  the 


STOCK 

Great 

Britain 

Ireland 

United 

Kingdom 

1912* 

United 
Kingdom 
1900  * 

Horses.  . 

1,441,023 

544,332 

1,994,607 

2,000,415 

Cattle  .  . 

7,026,096 

4,848,498 

11,914,635 

11,455,009 

Sheep . . . 

25,057,732 

3,828,829 

28,967,495 

31,054,726 

Swine . .  . 

2,655,797 

1,323,957 

3,992,549 

3,663,716 

*  Including  Isle  of  Man  and  Channel  Islands 


number  of  live  stock  in  the  first  week  of  June, 
1912,  and,  for  the  United  Kingdom,  in  1900  (the 


figures  for  horses  include  only  horses  used  for 
agriculture,  unbroken  horses,  and  brood  mares). 

In  June,  1913,  horses  numbered  1,874,264; 
cattle,  11,936,600;  sheep,  27,629,206;  swine, 
3,305,771. 

The  following  figures  show  the  distribution 
of  live  stock  in  the  three  divisions  of  Great 
Britain  and  in  Ireland  in  1905. 


STOCK 

England 

Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Horses.  .  .  . 

1,204,124 

161,923 

206,386 

534,875 

Cattle . 

5,020,936 

738,789 

1,227,295 

4,645,215 

Sheep . 

14,698,018 

3,534,967 

7,024,211 

3,749,352 

Swine . 

2,083,226 

211,479 

130,214 

1,164,316 

The  characteristics  of  British  land  ownership 
and  tenure  are,  briefly,  centralization  of  owner¬ 
ship,  capitalistic  tenants  who  pay  money  rent 
on  long-time  tenures,  and  a  large  laboring  class 
who  are  on  a  low  economic  and  social  plane. 
Primogeniture  has  kept  the  large  estates  intact, 
and  in  1876  two-thirds  of  the  entire  landed  prop¬ 
erty  of  England  and  Wales  was  owned  by  about 
10,000  individuals.  In  Scotland,  in  1871,  42.1 
per  cent  of  the  total  area  was  owned  by  only  68 
persons.  The  status  with  regard  to  ownership  in 
Great  Britain  has  not  greatly  changed,  although 
some  tendency  in  late  years  is  to  be  noted  among 
the  agricultural  laboring  class  to  acquire  small 
holdings  as  provided  by  recent  parliamentary 
enactments. 

Cultivation  is  in  the  hands  of  tenants,  and 
renting  therefore  is  well-nigh  universal,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  following  table,  giving  the  num¬ 
ber  of  acres  under  crops  and  grass  occupied  by 
tenants  and  owners  in  1912. 


DIVISIONS 

By  tenants 

By  owners 

Total 

England . 

21,733,533 

2,486,666 

4,346,209 

2,680,960 

273,531 

475,125 

24,414,493 

2,760,197 

4,821,334 

Wales . 

Scotland . 

Great  Britain . 

28,566,408 

3,429,616 

31,996,024 

Details  of  holdings  of  one  acre  and  upward 
for  1912  are  shown  below,  with  average  size  in 
acres  of  holding  in  that  year  and  in  1895. 


DIVISIONS 

No.  of 
holdings 

Cultivated 

acreage 

Average  size 

1912 

1895 

England . 

374,809 

24,414,493 

65.1 

65.3 

Wales . 

61,077 

2,760,197 

45.1 

47.1 

Scotland . 

77,662 

4,821,334 

62.0 

61.5 

Great  Britain . 

513,548 

31,996,024 

62.3 

62.6 

Ireland . 

521,345 

14,673,778 

28.1 

*29.5 

*  1896  figures. 

The  various  sizes  of  these  holdings  in  1912 
are  shown  in  table  on  page  669. 

While  the  average  size  of  farms  is  compara¬ 
tively  small,  the  intensive  cultivation  makes 
the  us’e  of  capital,  machinery,  etc.,  an  economic 
advantage.  The  long-term  renting  system,  where 
the  tenancy  often  descends  in  the  same  family 
for  generations,  induces  the  farmer  to  improve 
his  land  rather  than  to  exhaust  it.  By  the  Agri¬ 
cultural  Holdings  Acts  of  1875  the  tenant  se- 


UNITED  KINGDOM  660  UNITED  KINGDOM 


euies  compensation  for  whatever  improvements 
lie  has  placed  on  the  land  at  the  end  of  his 
tenancy.  Laws  passed  in  1882,  1887,  1890,  1892, 
and  1894  provided  that  under  certain  conditions 
a  demand  in  any  locality  for  small  holdings, 
either  for  rent  or  ownership,  might  be  secured 


DIVISIONS 

1-5 

acres 

5-50 

acres 

50-300 

acres 

Over 

300 

acres 

England . 

81,884 

10,314 

17,778 

IRQ  HQQ 

110,657 

17,937 

23,151 

14,230 

342 

2,645 

Wales . 

lUO,Uoo 
Q9  iQA 

Scotland .... 

34,088 

Great  Britain 

109,976 

234,610 

151,745 

17,217 

Ireland . 

62,266 

770 

*81,980 

19,440 

*  50—200  acres.  f  Over  200  acres. 


legally  by  compulsion  if  necessary.  Under  the 
Small  Holdings  and  Allotments  Act  of  1908  and 
the  Irish  Land  Act  of  1903  the  prospects  of  the 
agricultural  laborer  have  been  improved,  and 
under  the  latter  Act  state  advances  are  made  to 
the  tenants  to  purchase  their  holdings. 

Manufactures.  Until  the  recent  industrial 
development  in  the  United  States  no  other  na¬ 
tion  had  for  more  than  a  century  approached 
Gieat  Biitain  in  the  amount  of  manufactured 
products.  But  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the 
nation’s  history  manufacturing  was  of  minor 
importance  and  did  not  begin  to  equal  that  of 
the  Dutch,  the  Flemish,  or  the  French.  Chief 
among  the  factors  which  have  brought  Great 
Britain  up  from  industrial  insignificance  to  its 
present  prominence  are  ( 1 )  its  comparative  free- 


a  great  impetus  to  the  old  industry,  but  intro¬ 
duced  new  ones,  such  as  silk  weaving,  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  cutlery,  cloak  making,  and  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  hats  and  pottery.  A  century  later 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  led 
to  the  emigration  to  England  of  a  large  number 
1  -ii  r,eilch.  HuoUenots,  representing  the  most 
•  ar^lsans  of  France.  I11  the  latter  part 
of  this  period  manufacturing  industry,  which 
had  early  spread  well  over  the  east  and  west  of 
England,  developed  extensively  in  the  lomr-deso- 
lated  region  of  the  north. 

I  hen  came  the  great  industrial  revolution  be¬ 
ginning  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
t'Uiy,  due  largely  to  the  mechanical  inventions 
which  affected  practically  every  branch  of  the 
manufacturing  industry.  (See  Industrial 
Revolution.)  The  use  of  machinery,  and  espe¬ 
cially  its  necessary  installation  in  a  single  plant 
under  the  application  of  steam  power,  led  to 
the  factory  system  and  the  almost  complete 
overthrow  of  the  old  domestic  system. 

^  EV  significant,  too,  were  the  resulting' 
changes  in  the  location  of  the  weaving  industry. 
The  textile  machines  were  at  first  generallv  pro¬ 
pelled  by  water  power.  The  north  region— York¬ 
shire  and  Lancashire — afforded  superior  facili¬ 
ties  of  this,  kind  and  consequently  enjoved  a 
lemarkable  increase  in  textile  manufacturing  at 
the  expense  of  the  old  centres  farther  south. 
Similarly  the  coal  resources  of  the  same  region 
drew  the  iron  manufacturing  away  from  Suffolk 
and  Norfolk  when  coal  supplanted  wood  as  a 
uel.  Birmingham,  which  had  formerly  de- 
pended  upon  the  neighboring  forests  of  Arden 
tor  the  fuel  used  in  its  smelting  industry,  was 


1 


1 


! 


t 


1 

\ 

s 


1 

( 


i 


GROUP  OF  TRADES 


Mining  and  quarrying . 

Iron  and  steel  engineering,  and  shipbuilding 
Metal,  other  than  iron  and  steel 

Textile . 

Clothing . ’  ’ 

Food,  drink,  and  tobacco. . 

Chemical,  etc . 

Paper,  printing,  stationery,  etc . 

Leather,  canvas,  and  India  rubber 
Timber . 

stone,  building,  and  contracting. . .  . 

Miscellaneous . 

Public-utility  services . . 

Total . 


wrtiH,  its  eariy  superiority  as  a 
wool  producer,  (3)  the  favorable  climate,  (4) 
great  abundance  of  coal  and  iron,  (5)  pre- 
eminence  of  shipping  interests  and  the  acquisition 
of  territorial  possessions  in  extending  markets 

and  (6)  improved  methods  and  labor-savin^ 
inventions. 

From  a  very  early  period  Great  Britain  far 
excelled  other  Northern  European  countries  in 
the  production  of  wool.  Edward  III,  near  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  took  advan¬ 
tage  of  internal  troubles  in  Flanders  and  se- 
cured  the  migration  of  a  considerable  number 
of  Flemish  artisans  to  England.  The  woolen 
industry  grew  apace,  centred  chiefly  in  the 
towns  of  east  England,  but  was  not  supreme 
until  the  Elizabethan  period.  The  wars  and  per¬ 
secutions  on  the  Continent  and  the  welcome  by 
the  English  authorities  resulted  at  this  time  in 
a  great  influx  of  Flemings,  who  not  only  gave 


Value  of 
products 

Value  of 
materials 
used 

Horse 
power  of 
machinery 

£148,026,000 

375,196,000 

93,456,000 

333,561,000 

107,983,000 

287,446,000 

75,032,000 

6 1.30S, 000 
34,928,000 
46,390,000 
116,692,000 
8,288,000 
77,051,000 

£28,495,000 

212,224,000 

81,341,000 

235,038,000 

58,185,000 

197,734,000 

53,466,000 

26,611,000 

26,229,000 

24,780,000 

49,679,000 

3,778,000 

30,786,000 

2,495,134 

2,437,481 

83,974 

1,987,765 

84,806 

380,171 

214,770 

237,573 

54,891 

173,813 

433,279 

9,417 

2,059,737 

1,765,366,000 

1,028,346,000 

10,653,811 

AVERAGE  PERSONS 
EMPLOYED 


1 


Wage 

earners 


947,178 

1,432,489 

101,687 

1,210,777 

681,305 

400,617 

110,107 

287,222 

75,666 

214,764 

674,579 

42,132 

313,800 


Total 


6,492,323 


965,230 

1,539,415 

114,473: 

1,253,044 

756,466 

463,701 

127,842 

325,475 

84,724 

239,195 

725,240 

46,874 

342,491 


6,984,170 


fortunately  near  enough  to  the  new  coal  fields 
to  place  it  at  a  great  industrial  advantage,  and 
it  has  remained  the  largest  centre  of  the  iron 
industry.  When  steam  power  supplanted  water 
power  in  the  textile  industries,  the  factories  were 
no  longer  compelled  to  locate  upon  the  streams 
and  along  watercourses.  But  as  the  coal  supplv 
was  in  the  same  district  and  the  industry  was 
otherwise  favored  there,  as  has  been  pointed  out, 
it  continued  to  develop  in  the  north  of  England' 
Improved  methods  were  applied  first  to  manu- 
factmes  of  cotton  and  subsequently  to  woolens 
and  linens. 

The  value  of  the  annual  cotton  manufactured 
product  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  100  times 
gi eater  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  centurv  than 
at  the  beginning.  Before  1850  it  had  surpassed 
wool.  The  value  of  the  annual  woolen  product 
was  three,  and  linen  five,  times  as  great  at  the 
end  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  Some 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM  670 


idea  of  the  importance  of  these  two  products 
may  be  gathered  from  the  figures  of  the  increase 
of  "their  exportation.  (See  under  Commerce.) 
Lancashire  is  the  largest  centre  of  the  cotton 
industry.  Glasgow  is  another  important  centie. 
The  woolen  industry  is  largely  confined  to  west 
Yorkshire.  Both  Ireland  and  Scotland  exceed 
England  in  the  production  of  linen.  (See  Eng¬ 
land;  Scotland.)  The  manufacture  of  ma¬ 
chines  and  metal  ware  is  centred  principally  in 
north  England,  the  different  branches  of  this 
industry  being  largely  localized  in  special  dis¬ 
tricts.  '  (See  England.)  The  Clyde  district  of 
Scotland  leads  the  world  in  the  building  of  ships. 
(See  Scotland.)  Scotland  and  Ireland  are 
noted  for  the  manufacture  of  whiskies,  and  Eng¬ 
land  has  a  very  large  brewing  industry.  (See 
England;  Ireland;  Scotland.)  The  table  on 
page  669  is  a  summary  of  the  census  of  produc¬ 
tion  of  1907.  See  also  Friendly  Society;  Trade- 
Unions. 

Transportation  and  Communication.  Prior 
to  the  industrial  revolution  (see  Manufactures) 
inland  transportation  was  much  inferior  to  that 
in  other  European  countries.  As  early  as  1423 
the  English  government  began  the  improvement 
of  the  Thames  River  and  other  natural  water¬ 
courses  for  purposes  of  navigation.  The  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  were  periods  of  remarkable 
development  in  the  construction  of  canals,  then 
industrially  important.  With  the  advent  of 
railroads  the  canals  were  partly  superseded. 
However,  the  ship  canals  are  quite  impor¬ 
tant,  as  the  largest  and  most  famous  of  which, 
the  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  from  Manchester  to 
the  Mersey  port  of  Liverpool,  was  only  com¬ 
pleted  in  its  present  form  in  1894.  The  Glou¬ 
cester  and  Berkeley  and  the  Exeter  canals  are 
also  ship  canals  of  some  importance,  and  the 
Thames,  Severn,  Aire,  and  Weaver  rivers  are 
canalized.  Bearing  this  and  the  insularity  of 
Great  Britain  in  mind,  its  inland  shipping  facili¬ 
ties  are  remarkable.  In  1915  there  were  about 
4700  miles  of  canals  in  the  United  Kingdom,  of 
which  3640  were  in  England  and  Wales.  The 
tonnage  carried  in  1905  amounted  to  43,161,927. 

Another  method  of  meeting  the  demands  of  a 
growing  industry  upon  transportation  was  the 
turnpike.  Tramways  have  since  about  1700  been 
used  at  the  mines,  and  about  1800-05  one  was 
constructed  from  Wandsworth  to  Croydon  and 
Reigate.  Shorter  ones  were  completed  in  other 
parts  of  the  country.  Finally,  in  1825  a  rail¬ 
way  line  that  was  operated  by  steam,  14  miles  in 
length,  was  opened  for  passenger  traffic  from 
Stockton  to  Darlington.  The  first  important 
railway  line  in  the  world,  that  from  Liverpool 
to  Manchester,  was  opened  in  1830.  (See  Rail¬ 
ways.)  The  mileage  for  the  United  Kingdom  in 
1850  was  6620;  in  1870,  15,540;  in  1900,  21,855; 
in  1912,  23,441.  Of  the  last  amount  16,223  miles 
were  in  England  and  Wales,  3815  in  Scotland, 
and  3403  in  Ireland.  London  is  the  focal  point 
for  the  principal  lines  of  England.  The  increase 
in  the  number  of  passengers  conveyed  (exclusive 
of  season-ticket  holders)  is  indicated  in  the 
table  in  the  next  column. 

In  1905  the  tonnage  of  minerals  conveyed  was 
358,076,000,  and  of  general  merchandise  103,- 
063,000;  in  1912,  401,564,000  and  118,715,000. 
The  combined  capital  of  all  the  railways  greatly 
exceeded  the  national  debt  in  amount.  In  1912 
the  total  gross  receipts  of  the  railways  of  the 
United  Kingdom  were  £128,553,417 ;  working  ex¬ 


penses,  £81,224,343;  net  receipts,  £47,329,074; 
proportion  of  working  expenditure  to  gross  re¬ 
ceipts,  63,  as  compared  with  62  in  1905  and  in 
1900.  There  are  many  small  lines,  but  these 
are  nearly  all  operated  by  one  of  the  large  com¬ 
panies.  Of  these,  the  Great  Western  has  the 


YEAR 

England  and 
Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

1862  . 

152,437,000 

17,610,000 

10,436,000 

1880  . 

540,669,000 

45,956,000 

17,259,000 

1900 . 

992,426,000 

122,201,000 

27,650,000 

1905 . 

1,054,416,000 

115,580,000 

29,026,000 

1912 . 

1,161,993,000 

103,182,000 

29,162,000 

_ 

greatest  mileage,  the  largest  tonnage  of  goods 
is  booked  by  the  North  Eastern,  and  the  largest 
number  of  passengers  is  carried  by  the  Great 
Eastern.  Parliament  recognizes  nothing  in  the 
nature  of  a  vested  interest  as  attaching  to  rail¬ 
ways,  and  privileges  granted  may  be  withdrawn 
when  they  cease  to  be  consistent  with  the  gen¬ 
eral  advantage.  No  official  step  has  been  taken 
towards  government  ownership.  A  railway  com¬ 
mission  of  three  members  has  final  decision  in 
questions  of  fact  that  arise  in  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  the  railways.  Their  decisions  on  ques¬ 
tions  of  law  are  subject  to  appeal. 

Curiously  enough,  the  tramways,  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  antedate  the  railway,  went  into  disuse 
when  the  railways  developed,  and  it  was  only 
about  1870  that  they  were  successfully  reinstated 
in  the  form  of  street  railways,  on  the  model  of 
the  American  system.  They  have  not  yet  become 
nearly  so  common  as  in  the  United  States,  car¬ 
riage  transportation  still  being  mainly  depended 
upon  in  the  cities.  In  1905  the  mileage  of  tram¬ 
ways  and  light  railways  in  the  United  Kingdom 
was  2177,  about  two-thirds  belonging  to  local 
authorities;  in  1912,  2642.  The  necessity  for 
some  means  of  rapid  transit  to  meet  the  needs 
of  agricultural  and  other  interests  not  served  by 
the  regular  system  of  railway  transportation  re¬ 
sulted  in  the  construction  of  light  railways  dur¬ 
ing  1885-1900.  The  greater  part  of  these  lines 
are  modeled  after  the  ordinary  railway,  while 
the  remainder  are  nearer  to  the  type  of  the 
American  interurban  street  railways. 

The  United  Kingdom  has  highly  efficient 
postal  and  telegraph  services,  both  of  which  are 
in  the  hands  of  the  government.  The  postal 
system  was  revolutionized  by  laws  of  1837  and 
1839,  the  penny  postage  for  letters  being  estab¬ 
lished  in  1839.  The  revenue  from  the  postal 
service  exceeds  the  expenditure  by  nearly  £5,000,- 
000  annually.  A  parcel  post,  run  in  connection 
with  the  post-office  system,  has  largely  sup¬ 
planted  private  express  companies  in  the  carry¬ 
ing  of  light  packages  to  all  parts  of  the  King¬ 
dom.  Postal  savings  banks  and  a  system  of 
life  insurance  are  connected  with  the  postal 
system.  (See  Savings  Banks.)  During  1868-70 
the  government  assumed  the  ownership  and  con¬ 
trol  of  all  telegraph  lines  in  the  United  King¬ 
dom  and  made  them  a  part  of  the  post-office  sys¬ 
tem.  The  charges  for  service  were  greatly  re¬ 
duced,  with  a  consequent  enormous  increase  in 
the  number  of  messages  sent.  Telegrams  may  be 
sent  to  any  part  of  the  United  Kingdom  for  6d. 
for  the  first  12  words  and  1  halfpenny  for  each 
additional  word.  The  operation  of  the  telegraph 
service  creates  a  large  deficit  each  year. 

The  government  also  developed  the  policy  of 
purchasing  and  controlling  the  telephone  lines 
as  a  part  of  the  post-office  system.  During  1892- 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


07  all  the  main  lines  were  acquired,  but  a  pri¬ 
vate  company  still  had  a  monopoly  of  the  local 
or  town  lines.  In  1809  the  government  began 
to  compete  with  the  lines  inside  the  towns,  and 
on  Jan.  1,  1912,  took  over  these  lines,  which 
had  been  amalgamated  into  the  National  Tele¬ 
phone  Company.  Great  Britain  is  connected 
with  Ireland  by  a  large  number  of  submarine 
cables  and  thence  with  America,  and  there  are 
several  cables  connecting  with  the  continent  of 
Europe. 

Commerce.  The  industrial  supremacy  which 
the  United  Kingdom  has  so  long  enjoyed  has 
probably  been  most  manifest  in  its  commerce. 
The  protection  and  expansion  of  trade  are  the 
hopes  of  the  British  manufacturer  and  are  the 
secret  of  British  colonial  expansion  and  zeal  in 
maintaining  a  naval  supremacy.  In  acquiring 
and  maintaining  this  position  Great  Britain  has 
perhaps  more  natural  conditions  in  its  favor 


671  UNITED  KINGDOM 

markets.  From  1782  to  1792  the  trade  increased 
in  value  from  £23,300,000  to  £44,500,000,  and  by 
1810  it  had  reached  a  value  of  £82,870,000.  In 
1780  the  East  Indian  trade  formed  but  one 
thirty-second  part  of  the  total  foreign  trade; 
but  after  the  abolition  of  the  monopoly  feature 
of  the  rights  of  the  East  India  Company  as  ap¬ 
plied  to  India  in  1813  and  later  in  China,  this 
commerce  rapidly  increased. 

Commercial  treaties  tending  towards  free  trade 
were  concluded  witli  various  powers,  and  finally 
(1846)  an  out-and-out  free-trade  policy  was 
adopted.  The  development  of  the  commerce  of 
the  United  Kingdom  during  the  last  half  cen¬ 
tury  is  indicated  in  the  following  table,  which 
shows  total  imports  of  merchandise;  net  im¬ 
ports,  i.e.,  total  imports  less  reexports;  exports 
of  United  Kingdom  produce  and  of  foreign  and 
colonial  produce ;  and  total  exports  of  mer¬ 
chandise. 


YEAR 

• 

IMPORTS 

EXPORTS 

Total  imports 

Net  imports 

United  Kingdom 
produce 

Foreign  and 
colonial  produce 

Total 

exports 

1862 . 

£225,716,976 

411,229,565 

416,689,658 

523,075,163 

565,019,917 

678,257,024 

768,734,739 

696,635,113 

£123,992,000 

223,060,000 

226,128,246 

291,911,996 

329,816,614 

430,384,772 

525,245,289 

430,721,357 

£42,175,000 

63,354,000 

59,704,161 

63,181,758 

77,779,913 

103,761,045 

109,575,037 

£166,168,134 

286,414,466 

285,832,407 

354,373,754 

407,596,527 

534,145,817 

634.820,326 

526,195,523 

1880 . 

1895 . 

1900 . 

£459,893,405 

487,240,004 

574,495,979 

659,159,702 

1905 . 

1910 . 

1913 . 

1914 . 

*  \ . 

than  any  other  country.  An  island  off  the  west 
coast  of  Europe,  it  was  free  from  the  disturbing 
international  conflicts  that  afflicted  continental 
trade  centres.  The  importance  of  its  strategic 
central  position  increased  with  the  growing  com¬ 
mercial  importance  of  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
Again,  Great  Britain  has  been  favored  by  her 
coast  line.  She  is  favored  also  by  her  abundant 
natural  resources,  the  energy,  ingenuity,  and  per¬ 
severance  of  her  people,  her  democratic  institu¬ 
tions,  and  the  activity  of  the  government  in  fos¬ 
tering  and  protecting  trade  interests. 

The  supremacy  of  English  commerce  is,  how¬ 
ever,  of  comparatively  recent  times.  Until  the 
reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  the  trade  of  England 
had  been  almost  wholly  in  the  hands  of  for¬ 
eigners.  The  fostering  of  English  commerce  and 
shipping  was  one  of  the  expedients  devised  to 
help  in  the  acquisition  of  precious  metals;  for, 
according  to  the  mercantilists  of  that  era,  in¬ 
crease  in  trade  would  result  in  the  natural  in¬ 
flow  of  metals.  Trading  companies  were  en¬ 
couraged  by  the  granting  of  monopolies.  Though 
at  this  stage  competition  in  both  East  and  West 
was  very  great,  England  succeeded  in  extending 
its  trade,  the  total  for  imports  and  exports  in¬ 
creasing  from  £4,628,000  in  1613  to  £12,428,000 
in  1699.  Out  of  trade  rivalry  grew  the  Naviga¬ 
tion  Laws  of  Cromwell  and  subsequent  acts, 
which  tended  to  limit  colonial  trade  to  English 
or  colonial  vessels  and  greatly  restricted  colonial 
manufactures  witli  a  view  to  fostering  English 
trade  and  shipping  interests  and  extending  the 
market  for  English  goods.  The  policy  operated 
with  great  severity  against  both  Scottish  and 
Irish  trade  and  industries.  The  union  of  Scot¬ 
land  with  England  in  1707  and  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  free  trade  between  the  two  greatly  bene¬ 
fited  British  commerce.  Through  the  wars  of 
the  eighteenth  century  Great  Britain  extended 
its  colonial  territory  and  thereby  broadened  its 


From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  imports  were 
increasing  faster  than  the  exports.  The  United 
Kingdom  had  the  largest  imports  and  exports  in 
the  world,  Germany  and  the  United  States  stand¬ 
ing  next. 

Prior  to  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  wool  consti¬ 
tuted  the  bulk  of  English  exports,  while  manu¬ 
factures  of  wool  and  other  products  constituted 
most  of  the  imports.  But  soon  England  became 
a  shipper  of  wool  manufactures,  and  these  be¬ 
came  the  leading  export.  Later,  with  the  great 
development  in  sheep  raising  in  British  colonies, 
wool  came  to  be  extensively  imported,  and  the 
manufactures  and  exports  thereof  greatly  in¬ 
creased.  The  exports  of  woolen  and  worsted 
manufactures  and  yarn  amounted  to  £31,386,355 
in  1906  and  £37,773,504  in  1912.  Cotton  manu¬ 
factures  did  not  figure  among  exports  before 
the  industrial  revolution.  But  in  1802  they 
exceeded  the  exports  of  woolen  goods  and  rapidly 
increased  until  they  were  three  times  the  value 
of  the  latter  and  made  up  the  largest  single  item 
of  exportation;  in  1906  the  exports  of  cotton 
yarn  and  manufactures  amounted  to  £99,598,915 
and  in  1912  to  £122,219,939.  Raw  cotton  like¬ 
wise  became  the  greatest  item  of  importation. 
At  first  cotton  was  obtained  from  Brazil  and  the 
West  Indies,  but  during  the  nineteenth  century 
the  bulk  of  it  was  supplied  by  the  United  States, 
although  Egypt  now  shares  largely  in  the  supply. 
Cotton  imports  from  India,  which  became  promi¬ 
nent  during  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States, 
are  now  of  minor  importance.  (See  India.) 
About  1800  the  exports  of  metal  products  were 
still  small,  but  they  rapidly  increased.  In  1907 
the  exports  of  iron  and  steel  and  their  manufac¬ 
tures  amounted  to  £46,563,386  and  in  1912  to 
£48,597,677 ;  hardware,  cutlery,  etc.,  in  1912 
amounted  to  £8,108,878;  and  niachinerv  in  1907 
to  £31,743,253  and  in  1912  to  £33,158,015.  As 
British  iron  mines  become  more  difficult  to  work, 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM  672 


and  superior  ores  are  found  elsewhere,  imports 
of  iron  ore  may  be  expected  to  increase.  Im¬ 
ports  of  iron  ore  and  scrap  in  1912  were  valued 
at  £6,219,050.  The  aggregate  of  other  metals 
exceeds  iron  in  import  value,  but  is  much  less 
in  export  value.  The  value  of  coal  exports 
doubled  during  1891-1900,  being  £36,409,614  in 
1900  and  ranking  next  to  cotton  manufactures. 
The  coal  export  declined  in  value  to  £24,859,129 
in  1905  and  then  rose  to  £40,494,274  in  1912. 

The  preponderating  increase  of  British  im¬ 
ports  over  exports  is  due  largely  to  the  returns 
from  the  enormous  foreign  investments  and  the 
profits  accruing  from  the  carrying  trade.  The 
imports  of  grain  and  flour  increased  in  value 
from  about  £34,000,000  in  1870  to  £69,200,285 
in  1905  and  £88,496,284  in  1912.  Of  the  grain 
articles  wheat  constituted  over  half  the  total 
in  1912,  about  one-half  of  which  was  from  the 
United  States.  Corn  is  next  in  importance. 
The  imports  of  meats  and  animals  for  food 
amounted  to  £49,431,748  in  1905  and  to  £49,- 
079,559  in  1912.  Sugar  originally  came  almost 
wholly  from  England’s  West  Indian  possessions, 
but  the  bounty-produced  beet  sugar  of  the  Conti¬ 
nent  has  taken  its  place.  Tea,  wheat,  and  jute 
are  the  principal  imports  from  British  India, 
and  wheat  and  lumber  from  Canada.  Gold  is 
the  leading  import  from  the  British  South  Afri¬ 
can  possessions,  and  it  is  also  extensively  im¬ 
ported  from  Australia. 

The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  mer¬ 
chandise  consigned  from  and  to  foreign  coun¬ 
tries  and  British  possessions  in  1904  and  1912, 
in  thousands  of  pounds  sterling;  imports  for 
consumption,  or  net  imports,  are  discriminated 
from  total  imports,  and  domestic  exports,  or 
exports  of  United  Kingdom  produce  and  manu¬ 
facture,  from  total  exports : 


CLASS 

Total  imports 

Net  imports 

1905 

1912 

1905 

1912 

From,  foreign  countries 
From  British  posses- 

438,368 

558,627 

395,677 

503,174 

sions . 

126,652 

186,013 

91,616 

129,800 

Total* . 

565,020 

744,641 

f487,240 

1632,903 

Total  exports 

Domestic  exports 

1905 

1912 

1905 

1912 

To  foreign  countries .  . 

284,050 

407,418 

215,599 

310,131 

To  British  possessions 

123,547 

191,543 

114,217 

177,093 

Total . 

407,597 

598,961 

329,817 

487,223 

*  Exclusive  of  the  value  of  diamonds  from  the  Union  of 
South  Africa. 

t  Reexports  in  excess  of  imports  to  unknown  countries  were 
about  £53,000  in  1905  and  £71,000  in  1912. 

Trade  with  the  principal  countries  in  1905 
and  in  1912  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  in 
thousands  of  pounds  sterling;  the  import  figures 
indicate  the  net  value  of  merchandise  consigned 
to  and  retained  in  the  United  Kingdom ;  the 
export  figures  indicate  the  value  of  the  produce 
and  manufacture  of  the  United  Kingdom  con¬ 
signed  abroad. 

Shipping.  British  expansion  is  due  largely 
to  British  shipping.  British  shipping  expansion 
dates  from  the  time  of  the  mercantilists.  (See 


Commerce.)  The  Navigation  Laws  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century  were  intended  to  give  English 
vessels  a  maximum  of  the  carrying  trade.  Fish¬ 
ing  wTas  encouraged  and  trained  men  in  a  sea¬ 
faring  life,  and  great  pains  were  taken  with 
marked  success  by  the  government  to  develop 
skill  in  shipbuilding.  Naval  victories  in  the 
Napoleonic  wars  gave  British  vessels  almost  a 


COUNTBY 

Imports 

Exports 

1905 

1912 

1905 

1912 

United  States . 

105,433 

123,401 

23,916 

30,066 

Germany . 

50,947 

65,841 

29,841 

40,363 

British  India . 

25,499 

40,419 

42,996 

57.626 

France . 

41,481 

40,108 

16,046 

25,586 

Argentina . 

24,409 

39,352 

12,997 

20,550 

Russia . 

33,086 

38,091 

8,169 

13,738 

Canada . 

23,341 

25,694 

11,909 

23,531 

Australia . 

17,803 

23,787 

16,991 

34,841 

Belgium . 

15,904 

14,988 

22,772 

21,938 

8,595 

12,193 

Denmark . 

4,129 

5,798 

Netherlands . 

13,308 

20,846 

9,671 

14,282 

Egypt . 

12,489 

19,608 

7,849 

9,448 

New  Zealand . 

10,620 

16,094 

6,426 

10,390 

Spain . 

13,179 

13,557 

4,246 

6,887 

Sweden . 

10,056 

12,740 

5,195 

7,137 

Japan* . 

1,583 

3,419 

9,662 

12,229 

Chinaf . 

962 

3,176 

13,137 

10,780 

Total,  including 

487,223 

others! . 

487,240 

632,903 

329,817 

*  Including  Formosa. 

t  Exclusive  of  Hongkong,  Macao,  and  Weihaiwei. 


complete  monopoly  in  the  world’s  carrying  trade. 
About  that  time,  however,  British  shipping  met 
a  formidable  rival  in  the  American  merchant 
fleet.  Favored  by  superior  forest  resources,  the 
American  fleet  developed  very  rapidly,  until  its 
tonnage  in  1860  almost  equaled  that  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  American  Civil  War  and 
the  change  from  wood  to  iron  in  shipbuilding  re¬ 
sulted  in  greatly  benefiting  British  shipping  and 
almost  ruining  that  of  the  United  States. 

In  1913  American  tonnage  was  about  two- 
thirds  as  large  as  British,  but  most  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  shipping  was  in  foreign  trade  and  very  little 
of  the  American.  Over  50  per  cent  of  Chinese 
external  trade  is  carried  in  British  ships,  and 
they  hold  foremost  rank  also  in  Japanese  over¬ 
sea  trade.  Two-thirds  of  the  tonnage  passing 
through  the  Suez  Canal  is  British.  Registered 
vessels  employed  in  the  home  and  foreign  trade 
in  1912  (not  including  vessels  employed  on 
rivers  and  in  inland  navigation)  :  3386  sailing 
vessels,  of  569,038  tons  net,  and  9672  steamers, 
of  11,145,160  tons;  total,  13,058  vessels,  of  11,- 
714,198  tons.  In  1900  there  were  7480  sailing 
vessels,  of  1,989,731  tons,  and  7455  steamers,  of 
7,405,476  tons;  total,  14,935  vessels,  of  9,395,207 
tons.  Persons  employed  in  1912,  286,806;  in 
1900,  247,448. 

Shipping  has  been  greatly  facilitated  by  river 
and  harbor  improvements,  as,  e.g.,  by  the  broad¬ 
ening  of  the  river  Clyde  to  Glasgow  and  the  con¬ 
struction  of  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal.  Lon¬ 
don  receives  and  distributes  the  greater  portion 
of  the  Continental  and  Oriental  trade.  Cardiff, 
as  a  result  of  its  growing  exports  of  coal,  is  now 
next  to  London  and  Liverpool  in  the  amount  of 
its  annual  shipping  tonnage.  Liverpool,  ranking 
next  to  London,  is  favored  by  its  position  for  the 
trade  with  America.  Other  'important  ports  are 
Newcastle  (with  North  and  South  Shields),  Hull, 
Grimsby,  Leith,  Glasgow,  Southampton,  and  Cork 
(including  Queenstown). 


UNITED  KINGDOM 

Banking.  Banking  was  introduced  into  Great 
Britain  by  the  goldsmiths  of  London  in  the  sev¬ 
enteenth  century.  The  banking  systems  of  Eng¬ 
land  and  Scotland  have  developed  independently 
and  naturally  along  somewhat  divergent  lines. 
In  England  the  first  connection  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  with  banking  occurred  in  1694,  when  the 
financial  exigencies  of  the  nation  made  necessary 
the  advancement  of  a  loan,  and  the  Bank  of 
England  was  chartered  in  order  that  a  loan 
might  be  secured.  This  bank,  through  special 
privileges  granted  it  by  the  government — as,  e.g., 
the  management  of  the  national  debt,  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  being  the  bank  of  the  government,  and 
until  1826  of  being  the  only  joint-stock  bank 
in  England,  and  the  power  to  issue  notes — has 
attained  an  overshadowing  prominence  among 
the  banks  of  that  country  and  among  the  banks 
of  the  world.  The  monopoly  rights  implied  re¬ 
strictions  on  other  banks,  so  that  provincial 
banking  in  Great  Britain  is  generally  admitted 
to  have  been  inadequately  provided  for.  The 
Bank  of  Scotland  was  organized  one  year  later 
(1695)  than  the  Bank  of  England,  and  it,  too, 
at  first  (for  21  years)  enjoyed  monopoly  rights; 
but,  unlike  the  English  bank,  it  did  not  secure  a 
renewal  of  its  patent  rights.  This  gave  an  op¬ 
portunity  for  the  growth  of  other  banks,  which 
have  cooperated  to  secure  a  uniform  system  of 
banking  throughout  Scotland.  The  formation  of 
joint-stock  companies  was  also  permitted  with 
liberal  privileges  in  respect  of  note  issue.  The 
authorized  note  issues  of  Scottish  banks  may  be 
exceeded,  providing  there  is  a  specie  reserve 
equal  in  amount  to  the  excess  of  the  issues — a 
precaution  which,  of  course,  strengthens  the  cir¬ 
culation.  This  reserve  is  considered  as  part  of 
the  cash  balance  of  the  bank.  The  Scottish  banks 
do  not  lose  their  rights  of  issue  in  Scotland  when 
they  open  offices  or  branches  in  London  or  in  the 
English  provincial  towns.  In  England  laws  were 
passed  in  1826  which  admitted  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  joint-stock  banks  beyond  a  radius  of  65 
miles  from  London,  the  number  of  partners  not 
to  exceed  six.  This  number  was  increased  in 
1862  to  10,  except  for  banks  of  issue;  the  latter 
are  still  limited  to  six. 

By  the  Bank  Charter  Act  of  1844  the  issue  de¬ 
partment  was  separated  from  the  banking  de¬ 
partment  of  each  bank,  and  the  issue  of  bank 
notes  was  limited  to  those  banks  already  exercis¬ 
ing  that  privilege.  .  These  institutions'  were  re¬ 
stricted  to  a  fixed  issue,  and  if  they  established 
themselves  within  a  radius  of  65  miles  from  Lon¬ 
don  they  forfeited  their  rights  to  issue  notes. 
Under  these  laws  the  number  of  note-issuing 
banks  is  decreasing,  and  this  function  will  prob¬ 
ably  become  the  exclusive  right  of  the  Bank  of 
England  unless  the  laws  are  changed.  The  Bank 
of  England  notes  are  legal  tender  for  all  sums 
over  £5  except  at  the  bank  and  its  branches  and 
in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The  English  and  Scot¬ 
tish  bankers  pursue  different  policies  in  matters 
of  interest  and  commission,  the  English  being  in¬ 
clined  to  cut  rates  and  to  underbid  for  business, 
while  the  Scottish  adhere  to  uniform  terms  in 
accordance  with  an  agreement  between  them. 
The  policies  also  differ  in  respect  of  the  de¬ 
pendence  placed  upon  different  sources  of  profit. 
In  England  the  directors  have  more  to  do  in 
the  management  than  in  Scotland,  while  in  Scot¬ 
land  the  agents  play  a  more  important  part 
than  in  England.  The  Scottish  bankers  have 
become  famous  for  the  perfection  attained  in 
bookkeeping  methods. 


673  UNITED  KINGDOM 

In  1827  there  were  465  private  and  6  joint- 
stock  banks  in  England  and  Wales;  in  1905  the 
private  banks  had  decreased  to  12  and  the  joint- 
stock  banks  had  increased  to  62.  In  1914  there 
were  44  English  joint-stock  banks  with  5802 
branches.  In  Scotland  there  were  in  1914  only 
9  banks  (all  joint-stock),  with  1240  branches. 
In  December,  1914,  the  Bank  of  England  (bank¬ 
ing  department)  had  capital  and  “rest”  amount¬ 
ing  to  £17,830,000;  deposits  and  post  bills, 
£155,190,000;  securities,  £121,050,000;  notes  in 
reserve,  £51,340,000.  In  the  issue  department, 
notes  issued,  £87,480,000;  securities,  £18,450,- 
oOO; .  gold  coin  and  bullion,  £69,030,000.  The 
English  joint-stock  banks  at  the  beginning  of 
1914  had  paid-up  capital,  £63,023,000;  reserve 
funds  and  undivided  profits,  £41,618,000;  notes 
in  circulation,  £29,735,000;  deposit  and  current 
accounts,  £880,694,000;  cash  in  hand  and  at  call, 
£270,941,000;  discounts,  advances,  etc.,  £591,937,- 
000;  total  assets,  £1,081,821,000;  total  liabili¬ 
ties,  the  same.  The  Scottish  joint-stock  banks 
had  paid-up  capital,  £9,241,000;  reserve  funds 
and  undivided  profits  £9,243,000;  notes  in  cir¬ 
culation,  £7,744,000;  deposit  and  current  ac¬ 
counts,  £125,887,000;  cash  in  hand  and  at  call, 
£3,961,000;  discounts,  advances,  etc.,  £77,764,000. 
The  Irish  joint-stock  banks  had  the  correspond¬ 
ing  figures:  £7,309,000;  £4,283,000;  £8,074,000; 
£70,657,000;  £17,189,000;  £48,600,000.  The 

colonial  and  the  foreign  joint-stock  banks  with 
London  offices  have  added  largely  to  the  total 
banking  business  of  the  Kingdom. 

#  Savings  Banks. — A  savings  bank  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  Scotland  in  1810,  and  soon  after  such 
institutions  became  established  in  different  parts 
of  Great  Britain.  Under  the  Law  of  1817  and 
subsequent  laws  these  banks  were  placed  under 
the  regulation  of  the  government,  and  during 
the  second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century 
they  enjoyed  a  rapid  growth.  The  deposits  of 
these  banks  are  turned  over  to  the  Bank  of  Eng¬ 
land,  which  allows  a  specified  rate  of  interest 
upon  them.  The  rate  of  interest  paid  depositors 
varies,  but  is  in  excess  of  that  ordinarily  paid 
by  banks  to  their  depositors.  The  trustees  are 
prohibited  from  receiving  any  profits.  The 
growth  of  the  old,  or  trustees,  savings  banks 
was  checked  by  the  establishment  of  the  postal 
savings  banks. 

The  scheme  for  the  operation  of  postal  savings 
banks  went  into  effect  in  1861.  Deposits,  in¬ 
cluding  interest,  have  a  maximum  limit  of  £200. 
Depositors  cannot  deposit  more  than  £50  in 
any  one  year.  Two  and  one-half  per  cent  in¬ 
terest  is  allowed  on  deposits.  The  depositor 
may  withdraw  his  money  at  once  through  any 
postal  savings  bank  in  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  number  of  depositors  in  the  postal  savings 
banks  increased  from  2,184,972  in  1880  to  9- 
673,717  in  1904  and  13,198,609  in  1913;  and 
the  amount  they  invested  increased  from  £11  - 
079,137  in  1880  to  £44,108,600  in  1904,  and 
to  £55,541,010  in  1913.  The  number  of  deposi¬ 
tors  in  the  trustees  savings  banks  also  showed 
an  increase  during  the  before-mentioned  period, 
being  1,519,805  in  1880,  1,704,766  in  1904,  and 
1,912,816  in  1913.  The  amount  invested  in 
the  latter  banks  amounted  to  £9,008,315  in 
1880,  £12,560,322  in  1904,  and  £14,284,386 

in  1913.  Penny  savings  banks  and  special  sav¬ 
ings  banks  for  soldiers  and  seamen  have  been 
established.  The  granting  of  annuities  and  the 
insuring  of  lives  are  also  provided  for  through 
the  postal  service.  See  War  in  Europe. 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM  674 


Finance.  The  ordinary  expenditures  incurred 
in  the  maintenance  of  the  national  government 
are  increasing  rapidly,  necessitating  a  corre¬ 
spondingly  greater  national  income.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  table  shows  the  revenue  and  expenditures 
for  years  ending  March  31. 


YEAR 

Revenue 

Expenditures 

1895  . 

£101,697,304 

129,804,566 

153,182,782 

131,696,456 

188,801,999 

198,242,897 

£100,931,963 

143,678,068 

151,768,875 

157,944,611 

188,621,930 

197,492,969 

1900  . 

1905  . 

1910  . 

1913  . 

1914  . 

Below  are  shown  the  principal  heads  of 
revenue  (exchequer  receipts  for  years  ending 
March  31). 


included  in  those  for  national  debt  services; 
the  figures  for  law  and  justice,  for  education, 
and  for  charitable  services  are  included  in 
those  for  civil  services.  The  table  discloses  the 
great  burden  of  the  national  debt  and  the  rapid 
increases  in  recent  years  for  the  army,  the 
navy,  education,  old-age  pensions,  and  the  post- 
office  services  (which  include  telegraphs  and  tele¬ 
phones). 

As  a  result  of  the  changed  tariff  policy,  cus¬ 
toms  duties  are  relatively  less  important  than 
in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  although 
they  have  almost  held  their  own  absolutely. 
Collections  from  excise  duties,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  about  doubled  during  the  same 
period.  The  death  duties  and  income  tax  have 
latterly  become  very  important  sources  of 
revenue. 

The  British  budget  is  noted  for  its  adjust- 


ITEMS 


Customs . 

Excise . ; . 

Estate,  etc.,  duties . 

Stamps  * . 

Land  tax . 

House  duty. . . . 

Property  and  income  tax 
Land-value  duties . 

Total . 

Post  office . 

Telegraph  service . 

Crown  lands  f . 

Suez  Canal,  etc.  t . 

Miscellaneous  § . 

Total  revenue . 


1895 

1905 

1913 

1914 

£20,310,675 

30,714,088 

10,872,059 

5,721,000 

1,015,000 

1,435,000 

15,600,000 

£35,907,746 

36,065.673 

16,668,959 

7,700,000 

750,000 

2,000,000 

31,250,000 

£33,485,000 

38,000,000 

25,248,000 

10,059,000 

700,000 

2,000,000 

44,806,000 

455,000 

£35,450,000 

39,590,000 

27,359,000 

9,966,000 

700,000 

2,000,000 

47,249,000 

715,000 

£85,668,542 

10,760,000 

2,580,000 

410,000 

412,976 

1,865,786 

£130,342,378 

16,100,0001 
3,830,000  j 
470,000 
1,014,303 
1,426,101 

£154,753,000 

29,175,000 

530,000 

1,418,900 

2,925,099 

£163,029,000 

30,800,000 

530,000 

1.579,972 

2,303,925 

£101,697,304 

£153,182,782 

£188,801,999 

£198,242,897 

*  Exclusive  of  fee  and  patent  stamps.  t  Net  receipts. 

j  Receipts  from  Suez  Canal  shares  and  sundry  loans.  §  Including  fee  and  patent  stamps 


For  the  same  years  the  expenditure  ( exchequer 
issues),  under  the  principal  heads .  thereof,  was 
as  follows  (the  figures  in  parenthesis  show  items 
in  the  principal  head  preceding). 

In  the  following  table  the  figures  for  interest 
of  funded  debt  and  for  new  sinking  fund  are 


ment  of  the  burden  of  taxation  in  such  a  manner 
as  will  make  it  least  felt,  i.e.,  in  accordance  with 
the  ability  of  people  to  pay.  The  income  tax 
was  first  resorted  to  in  1798  as  a  special  means 
of  raising  revenue  for  war  purposes.  In  181 5— 
42  it  was  abolished,  but  was  revived  in  1842  be- 


- - '  1 

CLASSIFICATION 

1895 

1905 

1913 

1914 

I.  Consolidated  fund  services: 

National  debt  services . 

(Interest  of  funded  debt) . 

(New  sinking  fund) . 

Local  taxation  accounts,  etc . 

Annuities  and  pensions . 

Salaries  and  allowances . 

Courts  of  justice . 

Miscellaneous . 

£25,000,000 

(16,220,544) 

(1,718,263) 

7,013,542 

407,774 

316,758 

81,618 

514,633 

281,638 

£27,000,000 

(15,938,911) 

(2,237,679) 

10,969,245 

470,000 

248,845 

79,190 

514,001 

296,594 

£24,500,000 

(15,000,752) 

(4,620,303) 

9,653,299 

470,000 

320,883 

56,468 

523,450 

321,625 

£24,500,000 

(14,787,109) 

(5,228,485) 

9,734,128 

470,000 

316,576 

56,547 

533,042 

317,725 

Total . 

II.  Supply  services: 

Army  (including  ordnance  factories) . 

Navy.  .  .  . . 

Civil  services . . 

(Law  and  justice) . 

(Education) . .  •  •  •  • 

(Charitable  services,  etc.,  including  old-age 

£33,655,963 

17,900,000 

17,545,000 

18,915,000 

£39,577,875 

29,225,000 

36,830,000 

27,450,000 

(3,760,000) 

(15,575,000) 

(653,000) 

908,000 

2,185,000 

15,593,000 

%  £37,017,930 

28,071,000 

44,365,000 

51,944,000 

(4,470,000) 

(19,531,000) 

(13,006,000) 

2,324,000 

1,876,000 

23,024,000 

t  £37,322,969 

28,346,000 

48,833,000 

53,901,000 

(4,491,000) 

(19,450,000) 

2,431,000 

2,052,000 

24,607,000 

Customs  * . 

Inland  revenue  * . 

Post-office  services . 

835,000 

1,811,000 

10,270,000 

Total . 

£67,276,000 

£112,191,000 

£151,604,000 

£160,170,000 

Grand  total  t . 

£100,931,963 

£151,768,875 

£188,621,930 

£197,492,969 

t 

t 


Excise  was  transferred  from  inland  revenue  to  customs  in  the  fiscal  year  1910. 

rhat  is,  total  expenditure  chargeable  against  revenue.  ......  ,  ,  .  A  ,  , 

Includes  for  road-improvement  fund  £1,172,205  in  1913  and  £1,394,951  in  1914,  not  shown  m  table. 


/ 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


cause  of  the  reduction  of  the  corn  (grain)  taxes. 
The  income  tax  has  now  become  a  permanent 
feature  in  the  national  budget.  Incomes  not 
exceeding  flGO  are  exempt  from  the  tax,  and 
the  moderate  incomes,  or  those  below  £700, 
are  favored  by  abatements.  The  income  tax  is 
made  to  fluctuate  more  or  less  as  the  annual 
exigencies  of  the  budget  may  demand.  The 
income-tax  rate  has  gradually  increased  from  2d. 
per  pound  in  1874,  until  in  1913  it  ranged 
from  9d.  to  Is.  2d.  in  the  pound.  Like  the 
income  tax,  the  death  rates  favor  the  masses. 
The  most  important  fiscal  change  made  during 
1875—1900  was  the  readjustment  of  the  death 
rates  in  1894  so  as  to  increase  them  and  extend 
their  application  to  all  the  estates  probated, 
thus  adding  greatly  to  the  returns  of  the  tax. 
The  most  important  of  this  class  of  taxes  are 
the  estate  duties  and  the  legacy  duties.  Since 
1851  there  has  been  an  inhabited-house  duty 
(levied  in  Great  Britain  only),  taking  the  place 
of  the  old  window  tax  assessed  prior  to  that 
date.  This  tax  is  not  levied  upon  property 
rented  for  less  than  £20  per  year,  thus  exempting 
the  houses  of  the  working  classes. 

In  1840,  before  the  introduction  of  the  free- 
trade  policy  (the  sweeping  Corn  Laws  were 
passed  in  1846,  and  the  policy  became  fully 
operative  about  1860),  1046  articles  were  taxed. 
In  1913  the  number  had  been  reduced  to  21 
articles  (or  classes  of  articles;  the  category 
sugar,  e.g.,  includes  many  confections).  The 
articles  now  taxed  are  those  not  produced  in  the 
United  Kingdom  or  such  as  are  considered  lux¬ 
uries.  The  latest  article  in  the  category  of 
necessary  products,  sugar,  was  placed  upon  the 
free  list  in  1874,  but  the  exigencies  of  the  South 
African  War  led  to  the  reimposition  of  a  duty 
upon  sugar,  the  raising  of  the  duty  upon  tea, 
tobacco,  spirits,  and  beer,  and  the  assessment  of 
an  export  duty  on  coal.  This  last  was  discon¬ 
tinued  in  1907.  Tobacco  and  tea  are  the  chief 
customs  revenue  producers,  yielding  respectively, 
in  the  fiscal  year  1913,  £17,254,125  and  £6,151,- 
879.  Other  dutiable  articles  are  spirits,  wine, 
beer,  coffee,  currants,  raisins,  and  cocoa.  The 
principle  of  protection  is  generally  considered 
to  have  been  wholly  abandoned  in  the  British 
revenue  policy,  but  the  tariff  is  still  in  a 
limited  way  highly  protective  and  is  shaped  ex¬ 
pressly  to  aid  British  manufacturers.  Thus  a 
distinction  is  made  between  raw  cacao  and  the 
manufactured  cocoa,  roasted  and  unroasted  cof¬ 
fee,  manufactured  and  unmanufactured  tobacco; 
and  the  distinction  is  sufficiently  large  to  guar¬ 
antee  the  importation  of  the  raw  products  and 
render  possible  the  prosperity  of  the  home  in¬ 
dustries  based  upon  them.  In  1913  the  import 
duty  on  unmanufactured  tobacco  was  from  3s. 
8d.  to  4s.  l%d.  per  pound  and  on  manufactured 
tobacco  from  4s.  8d.  to  7s.  per  pound;  the  7s. 
duty  was  for  cigars.  Haw  coffee  was  taxed  at 
14s.  per  hundredweight,  while  kiln-dried  or 
roasted  was  taxed  at  2d.  per  pound.  The  tea 
duty  was  5d.  per  pound.  The  foregoing  applies 
to  conditions  existing  before  the  great  war  which 
began  in  1914.  The  enormous  additional  revenue 
required  for  the  war  made  necessary  the  im¬ 
position  of  import  and  export  duties  on  many 
articles.  See  War  in  Europe. 

The  British  fiscal  system  applies  uniformly 
to  England  and  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
but  Ireland  is  exempt  from  the  land  tax  and 
the  inhabited-house  duty.  The  burden  of  the  in¬ 
direct  taxes  is  relatively  much  heavier  in  Scot¬ 


675 

land  and  Ireland  than  in  England.  The  income 
tax  had  a  total  net  produce  of  £18,828,958  in 
the  fiscal  year  1900,  £30,966,404  in  1905,  and 
£41,574,277  in  1913.  The  latter  amount  was 
derived  from  a  total  income  of  £755,577,547 ;  the 
total  income  brought  under  the  review  of  the 
inland-revenue  department  for  the  year  was  £1,- 
111,456,413,  of  which  the  share  of  England  and 
Wales  was  £970,093,437,  Scotland  £99,884,044, 
and  Ireland  £41,478,932.  Of  the  total  revenue 
in  the  fiscal  year  1913,  about  81.8  per  cent  was 
contributed  by  England  and  Wales,  about  10.6 
per  cent  by  Scotland,  and  about  5.7  per  cent 
by  Ireland. 

The  local  taxes  are  annually  supplemented  by 
appropriations  from  the  Imperial  revenues.  The 
levying  and  collecting  of  the  local  rates  are  in 
the  hands  of  the  elected  local  overseers,  the 
valuation  list  being  made  to  include  every  class 
of  property.  The  rates  for  real  property  are 
based  upon  the  annual  value  of  the  property  as 
determined  by  the  amount  it  will  rent  for.  The 
town  councils,  boards  of  guardians,  and  school 
boards  are  the  local  spending  bodies.  In  recent 
years  local  expenditure  and  indebtedness  have  in¬ 
creased  rapidly.  British  municipalities  have  be¬ 
come  noted  for  their  activity  in  assuming  the 
ownership  and  control  of  productive  properties, 
ofttimes  receiving  the  net  revenue  from  this 
source. 

National  Debt.  The  United  Kingdom  sus¬ 
tains  the  burden  of  a  heavy  debt  which  is  ex¬ 
ceeded  only  by  the  debts  of  France  and  Russia. 
The  beginning  of  the  debt  dates  from  the  reign 
of  Charles  II  and  in  1688  amounted  to  £664,263. 
The  wars  of  William  III  raised  it  to  £12,767,225, 
and  by  the  commencement  of  the  American  war 
in  1775  it  had  increased  to  £126,842,811.  The 
war  with  the  American  Colonies  almost  doubled 
this  figure,  leaving  it  in  1784  at  £243,063,145. 
This  was  followed  by  the  enormously  expensive 
Napoleonic  wars,  which  augmented  the  debt 
until  in  1815  it  was  £861,039,049.  At  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  the  Crimean  War  in  1854  it  had 
been  reduced  to  £804,226,354,  and  at  the  end 
of  that  war  it  stood  at  £836,144,597.  From 
that  time  it  decreased  until  1899;  at  the  end 
of  that  fiscal  year  it  stood  at  £628,021,572.  The 
expenditure  for  the  Boer  War  raised  it  again 
until  it  reached  £770,778,762  in  1903.  It  de¬ 
clined  to  £702,687,897  in  1909,  rose  to  £713,245, 
408  in  1910,  and  declined  to  £661,473,765  at 
the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1913.  The  figure 
for  the  debt  in  1913  included:  nominal  amount 
of  funded  debt,  £593,453,857 ;  estimated  capital 
liability  in  respect  of  terminable  annuities,  £31,- 
519,908;  unfunded  debt,  £36,500,000.  In  addi¬ 
tion  to  this  debt  of  £661,473,765,  there  were 
capital  liabilities  in  respect  of  sums  borrowed 
under  various  acts  amounting  to  £54,814,656,  so 
that  the  aggregate  gross  liabilities  of  the  state 
were  £716,288,421  (as  compared  with  £798,349,- 
190  in  1907  and  £635,393,734  in  1899).  The  debt 
services  for  the  fiscal  year  1913  aggregated 
£24,500,000,  including  £15,000,752  interest  of 
funded  debt,  £3,540,175  terminable  annuities, 
£1,171,863  interest  of  unfunded  debt,  £166,907 
management  of  the  debt,  and  £4,620,303  new 
sinking  fund.  The  estimated  assets  at  the  end 
of  the  year  included :  Suez  Canal  shares,  esti- 
mated  at  £39.015,000;  other  estimated  assets, 
£3,707,733;  exchequer  balances  at  the  Bank  of 
England  and  Bank  of  Ireland,  £6,329,160.  From 
March  31,  1913,  to  March  31,  1914,  the  public 
debt  decreased  from  £661,473,765  to  £651,270,- 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM 

091;  but  by  March  31,  1916,  as  a  result  of  the 
great  war,  it  had  increased  to  the  enormous 
total  of  £2,140,000,000. 

Weights,  Measures,  and  Coinage.  Two 
systems  of  weights  and  measures  are  legal  not 
only  in  the  United  Kingdom  but  throughout  the 
British  Empire,  viz.,  the  Imperial  and  the 
metric.  The  Imperial  system  is  constituted  from 
a  variety  of  ancient  and  of  customary  trade  de¬ 
nominations  and  was  legalized  in  1824.  Ihe 
metric  system  was  permitted  to  be  used  for 
retail  trade  in  1897,  though  it  had  been  em¬ 
ployed  for  many  years  prior  to  that  by  chemists, 
physicists,  and  manufacturers.  Standards  of 
weight  and  measure  are  kept  at  the  standards 
department,  Old  Police  Yard,  Westminster, 
under  the  custody  of  the  Board  of  Trade;  with 
these  standards  other  standards  must  be  com¬ 
pared  and  verified.  In  practice  the  ancient 
native  weights,  measures,  and  coinage  are  still 
in  common  use  in  India.  See  India. 

Defense.  Navy. — The  British  navy  is  con¬ 

trolled  by  a  Board  of  Admiralty,  which  consists 
of  six  members,  viz.,  the  first  lord,  the  first  naval 
lord,  the  second  naval  lord,  the  third  naval  lord 
and  controller,  the  fourth  or  junior  naval  lord, 
and  the  civil  lord.  Two  other  officers,  not  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  board,  are  the  parliamentary  and 
financial  secretary  and  the  permanent  secretary. 
The  system  of  defense  and  the  military  and  naval 
arrangements  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  pecu¬ 
liarly  distinctive  of  that  country.  The  predomi¬ 
nating  factors  are  its  insular  position  and  the 
vast  extent  of  foreign  domains  that  need  protec¬ 
tion.  Both  of  them  unite  in  making  the  country’s 
safety  dependent  upon  the  strength  of  its  navy, 
and  accordingly  this  has  received  chief  attention 
from  the  government.  A  rule  which  has  been 
adopted  is  to  keep  the  fleet  as  strong  as  the 
combined  naval  forces  of  any  two  other  countries. 
All  the  principal  ports  are  provided  with  forti¬ 
fications,  but  protection  against  attack  is  left 
to  the  fleet,  to  mine  fields,  booms  (carrying 
wire  nets),  wire  nets  supported  by  buoys,  and 
the  defense  mobile.  In  time  of  war  the  latter 
consists  of  torpedo  boats  (including  submarines) 
and  the  naval  patrol.  The  character  of  the  de¬ 
fense  in  all  cases  depends  upon  the  local  pe¬ 
culiarities  and  the  general  war  conditions.  The 
wire  nets  are  intended  to  entangle  submarines 
and  are  watched  by  the  patrol.  In  the  present 
(1916)  war  they  have  proved  very  efficient  as 
a  protection  to  the  ports  and  to  the  great  fleet 
which  has  its  headquarters  at  Rosyth.  Since 
the  nets  have  been  in  position  no  German  sub¬ 
marines  are  known  to  have  passed  through  or 
over  them  and  a  large  number  have  been  caught 
in  their  meshes  and  destroyed. 

The  personnel  of  the  navy  consists  of  the 
active  force  and  the  reserve.  (See  Naval  Re¬ 
serve.)  The  education  of  officers  is  fully  de¬ 
scribed  under  Naval  Schools  of  Instruction. 
The  enlisted  force  is  recruited  by  voluntary  en¬ 
listment.  Preparation  for  the  service  begins 
between  the  ages  of  15  and  16^4  years,  a  term 
of  two  years  being  served  in  the  training  ships, 
at  the  end  of  which  period  the  recruit  may  be 
drafted  into  the  fleet  to  serve  for  a  period  of  12 
years,  when  he  may  leave  the  service  or  reenlist 
for  an  additional  period  of  10  years. 

On  Jan.  1,  1914,  the  personnel  was  as  follows: 
three  admirals  of  the  fleet,  12  admirals,  22  vice 
admirals,  56  rear  admirals,  683  captains  and 
commanders,  2414  other  line  officers,  563  mid¬ 
shipmen  at  sea,  848  engineer  officers,  593  medical 


676 

officers,  685  pay  officers,  118  naval  constructors, 
151  chaplains,'  2693  warrant  officers,  .  115,208 
enlisted  men,  471  marine  officers,  21,033  marines 
and  coast  guard;  total,  145,553.  The  naval 
estimates  for  1913—14  increased  the  number  to 
about  151,000.  Successive  additions  since  then 
have  brought  the  total  to  300,000.  The  naval 
budget  for  1914-15  was  £52,705,779.  The  war 
has  greatly  increased  the  expenditure,  but  the 
exact  amount  is  of  course  unknown. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the  fleet  was  or¬ 
ganized  as  follows: 

Home  Waters 

First  Fleet  (except  4th  Cruiser  squadron) 

1.  1st  Battle  squadron:  8  dreadnoughts 
(1  with  10  13.5-inch  guns;  7  with  10  12-inch) 

2.  2d  Battle  squadron:  8  dreadnoughts 
(all  carried  13.5-inch  guns) 

3.  3d  Battle  squadron:  8  predreadnoughts 
( King  Edward  type,  4  12-inch) 

4.  4th  Battle  squadron:  3  dreadnoughts,  1  predreadnought 
(all  carried  12-inch  guns) 

5.  1st  Battle  Cruiser  squadron:  4  battle  cruisers 

6.  2d  Cruiser  squadron:  4  armored  cruisers 

7.  3d  Cruiser  squadron:  4  armored  cruisers 

8.  1st  Light  Cruiser  squadron:  4  light  cruisers 
Second  Fleet 

1.  5th  Battle  squadron:  8  predreadnoughts 
( Bulwark  type,  4  12-inch) 

2.  6th  Battle  squadron:  5  predreadnoughts 
(. Duncan  type,  4  12-inch) 

3.  5th  cruiser  squadron:  armored  cruisers 
(county  class) 

4.  6th  Cruiser  squadron:  armored  cruisers 
{Drake  class) 

Third  Fleet 

1.  7th  Battle  squadron:  predreadnoughts 
( Majestic  type,  4  12-inch) 

2.  8th  Battle  squadron;  predreadnoughts 

3.  7th,  8th,  9th,  10th,  11th,  12th  Cruiser  squadrons 
(cruisers  of  all  sorts) 

Mediterranean  Fleet 

1.  2d  Battle  Cruiser  squadron:  3  battle  cruisers 

2.  1st  Cruiser  squadron:  4  armored  cruisers 

3.  2d  Light  Cruiser  squadron:  4  light  cruisers 
Far  East 

1  battleship 

2  light  cruisers 

2  cruisers  (armored  and  unarmored) 

8  destroyers 

3  submarines 
Pacific 

1  battleship 
1  battle  cruiser 

5  light  cruisers 

6  cruisers  (armored  and  unarmored) 

3  destroyers 

4  submarines 
Atlantic 

6  cruisers  (armored  and  unarmored) 

The  principal  dockyards  are  at  Chatham, 
Devonport,  Pembroke,  Portsmouth,  Rosyth,  and 
Sheerness.  Rosyth  is  the  great  naval  base^  and 
repair  station  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland. 
Smaller  dockyards  are  located  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  'Esquimault  (Vancouver  Island), 
Gibraltar,  Halifax  (Nova  Scotia),  Haulbowline 
(Cove  of  Cork),  Hongkong,  Jamaica,  Melbourne, 
Malta,  and  Sydney.  Naval  stations,  some  with 
shops,  exist  at  Ascension  Island,  Bombay,  Cal¬ 
cutta,  Colombo,  Dartmouth,  Delagoa  Bay,  Dept¬ 
ford,  Greenwich,  Plymouth,  Portland,  Sydney, 
Trincomali,  Weihaiwei,  and  London  (West  India 
Docks) . 

The  naval  schools  are  at  Dartmouth,  Osborne, 
Greenwich,  Keyham,  etc.,  and  are  fully  described 
under  Naval  'Schools  of  Instruction,  Great 
Britain. 

The  Australian  navy  consists  of  1  battle 
cruiser  of  18,800  tons,' 2  fast  cruisers  of  5400 
tons,  1  cruiser  of  5880  tons,  1  cruiser  of  2200 
tons,  3  destroyers  of  700  tons.  Two  submarines 
of  810  tons  were  lost  during  the  war.  One 
fast  cruiser  of  5400  tons  and  3  destroyers  of 
700  tons  are  under  construction  at  the  dockyard 
on  Cockatoo  Island,  Sydney  Harbor.  This  dock- 


UNITED  KINGDOM  677  UNITED  KINGDOM 


yard  is  the  principal  one  in  the  state,  hut  there 
are  naval  bases  and  repair  stations  in  Cockburn 
Sound  and  Port  Western.  In  1915  the  personnel 
of  the  Australian  navy  consisted  of:  permanent 
force,  3700;  naval  reserve  (marines),  493;  naval 
reserve  and  cadets,  5024;  royal  naval  reserve, 
750;  total,  9967. 

The  Canadian  navy  is  of  considerably  less 
importance  than  the  Australian,  largely  owing 
to  its  being  nearer  England.  It  consists  of 
the  protected  cruisers  Niobe,  11,000  tons  (com¬ 
pleted  1897),  and  Rainbow  (completed  1891). 
They  are  both  used  as  training  ships — the  Niobe 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  Rainbow  on  the 
Pacific.  As  Great  Britain  maintains  dockyards 
at  Halifax  and  Esquimault,  no  others  are  neces¬ 
sary.  The  vessels  of  the  revenue  service,  sur¬ 
veying  department,  and  fisheries  protection  can 
be  put  in  service  for  the  defense  mobile,  and 
one  mine  layer  and  one  transport  were  in  re¬ 
serve  when  the  war  broke  out. 

Army. — The  military  forces  of  Great  Britain 
fall  under  several  categories.  The  principal 
divisions  are  the  regular  army  and  the  ter¬ 
ritorial  army.  The  regular  army  in  India, 
South  Africa,  and  the  colonies  is  designated  as 
the  British  army,  to  distinguish,  it  from  the 
native  Indian  army  in  India  (q.v. )  and  the 
local  forces  in  South  Africa  ( q.v. )  and  in  the 
British  colonies.  In  addition  to  the  forces  al¬ 
ready  enumerated  the  self-governing  countries, 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Canada  (qq.v. ), 
maintain  considerable  and  efficient  forces  of 
militia.  Large  contingents  for  the  European 
War  were  furnished  by  the  three  countries  named. 

The  regular  army  in  peace  is  divided  into 
three  classes:  the  permanent  or  standing  army, 
called  the  regular  army;  the  army  reserve;  and 
the  special  reserve.  Service  in  all  categories 
is  voluntary  and  as  follows:  with  the  colors  or 
regular  army,  from  3  to  9  years;  in  the  army 
reserve,  9  to  3  years;  total,  12  years,  which  may 
be  extended  to  21  years.  Age  of  enlistment  is 
between  18  and  25  years.  The  army  reserve  and 
special  reserve  furnish  the  men  to  bring  the 
peace  units  to  war  strength. 

The  regular  army  prior  to  the  great  war  was 
composed  of  31  cavalry  regiments  (19  at  home), 
25  horse  artillery  batteries  (13  at  home),  147 
field  batteries  (99  at  home),  9  mountain  bat¬ 
teries  (all  abroad),  99  companies  of  garrison 
artillery  (43  at  home),  77  companies  of  engineers 
(56  at  home),  9  battalions  of  foot  guards,  148 
battalions  of  infantry  (74  at  home),  besides 
administrative  troops. 

The  special  reserve  was  created  out  of  the 
militia  abolished  in  1907;  it  is  available  for 
service  abroad  in  war.  Of  the  101  infantry  bat¬ 
talions  of  this  reserve  74  are  attached  to' regu¬ 
lar  regiments  as  depot  battalions  to  supply  va¬ 
cancies  in  the  regular  regiments.  The  remain¬ 
ing  27  battalions  are  extra  reserve  battalions, 
which  upon  mobilization  are  filled  up  as  separate 
organizations  and  sent  into  the  field.  In  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  101  battalions  of  infantry  there 
are  3  cavalry  regiments,  2  regiments  of  garrison 
artillery,  and  2  battalions  of  engineers  in  the 
special  reserve.  Service  in  this  reserve  is  for 
6  years.  Recruits  have  5  months’  preliminary 
training,  a  subsequent  annual  training  of  3 
weeks,  and  6  days  additional  for  infantry  target 
practice. 

The  territorial  army  of  Great  Britain,  for 
home  defense  of  the  British  Islands,  corresponds 
to  the  United  States  organized  militia.  Service 


is  voluntary,  for  4  years;  enlistments  are  be¬ 
tween  17  and  35  years  of  age.  Two  weeks’ 
annual  camp  and  a  certain  number  of  drills 
and  target  practice  are  required.  The  officers 
are  civilians  with  few  exceptions.  The  organiza¬ 
tion  corresponds  to  that  of  the  regulars.  The 
bulk  of  this  force  is  organized  as  14  divisions 
and  14  mounted  brigades.  A  large  part  of  this 
force  volunteered  for  service  abroad  during  the 
European  War. 

Higher  Organisation. — The  regular  troops 
within  the  British  Islands  are  organized  for  war 
as  the  expeditionary  force;  which  is  composed 
of  a  cavalry  division,  6  infantry  divisions,  army 
troops,  and  line  of  communication  troops;  total 
strength,  165,000.  The  cavalry  division  consists 
of  4  brigades  of  3  regiments  each,  2  horse  artil¬ 
lery  brigades  (battalions),  4  engineer  troops,  1 
signal  squadron,  and  4  signal  troops,  1  aero¬ 
plane  squadron,  1  cavalry  train,  and  4  field 
ambulance  companies;  total,  486  officers,  9410 
men,  10,195  horses,  24  guns. 

An  infantry  division  is  composed  of  3  in¬ 
fantry  brigades  of  4  battalions  each,  4  field  artil¬ 
lery  brigades  (battalions,  1  of  which  is  a  how¬ 
itzer  brigade),  1  heavy  field  battery,  1  ammuni¬ 
tion  column,  2  companies  of  engineers,  1  signal 
company,  1  squadron  of  cavalry,  1  aeroplane 
squadron,  1  divisional  train,  3  field  ambulance 
companies;  total,  598  officers,  18,075  men,  6161 
horses,  76  guns.  British  infantry  regiments  are 
organized  only  for  recruiting  purposes  and  nor¬ 
mally  are  not  used  as  tactical  units.  Such  a 
regiment  consists  of  from  2  to  4  regular  bat¬ 
talions  (half  at  home  and  half  abroad)  and  1 
or  2  special  reserve  battalions.  An  infantry 
brigade  commanded  by  a  brigadier  general  con¬ 
sists  of  4  battalions.  The  battalion  of  4  com¬ 
panies  is  commanded  by  a  lieutenant  colonel,  a 
company  by  a  major  or  captain.  War  strength 
of  a  battalion  is  29  officers  and  995  enlisted  men, 
which  will  give  about  900  rifles  on  the  firing 
line. 

The  British  artillery  (all  branches)  is  known 
as  the  Royal  Regiment  of  Artillery.  The  regi¬ 
ment  is  divided  into  the  Royal  Horse  Artillery, 
the  Royal  Field  Artillery,  and  the  Royal  Gar¬ 
rison  Artillery.  The  British  field  artillery,  as 
is  the  case  with  their  artillery  in  general,  has 
an  unusual  organization.  Batteries  are  com¬ 
manded  by  majors  and  contain  6  guns,  except 
the  heavy  field-gun  batteries,  which  have  4 
guns.  Horse  and  field  batteries  are  grouped 
as  brigades  (battalions)  of  2  and  3  batteries 
respectively.  Heavy  gun  batteries  are  not  bri¬ 
gaded.  Brigades  are  grouped  under  a  general 
officer  to  form  divisional  artillery.  There  are 
76  guns  with  the  infantry  division.  Cavalry 
divisions  have  24  guns.  Peace  strength  of  bat¬ 
teries  varies  from  4  officers  and  87  men  to 
5  officers  and  179  men;  war  strength,  horse 
batteries,  5  officers  and  203  men;  field  batteries, 

5  officers  and  198  men;  heavy  field  battery,  6 
officers  and  224  men;  siege  battery,  5  officers 
and  124  to  181  men.  A  coast  artillery  company 
varies  from  4  to  7  officers  and  from  100  to 
230  men.  Total  coast  artillery,  British  Isles, 
colonies,  and  India,  81  companies,  14,965  officers 
and  men. 

A  cavalry  regiment,  consisting  of  3  squadrons, 
at  war  strength  musters  25  officers  and  537 
men  and  is  a  little  less  than  half  the  strength 
of  a  United  States  regiment.  Regiments  are 
grouped  in  brigades  of  three  each.  The  squadron 
corresponds  to  the  troop  in  the  United  States. 


UNITED  KINGDOM  67* 

It  counts  about  150  sabres  in  war  and  is  com¬ 
manded  by  a  major.  Technical  duties,  which  m 
the  United  States  pertain  to  the  engineers  and 
to  the  signal  corps,  are  performed  by  the  Royal 
Engineers.  The  company  is  the  unit  of  organ¬ 
ization  and  varies  in  war,  according  to  duties, 
from  3  officers  and  106  men  to  6  officers  and 
386  men.  An  army  service  corps  provides  the 
supply  train  troops.  Sanitary  troops  and  a 
veterinary  corps  are  also  provided. 

The  total  peace  establishment  before  the  Eu¬ 
ropean  War,  including  the  regular  army  at  home 
and  abroad,  the  army  reserve,  the  special  re¬ 
serve,  and  the  territorial  force,  aggregated  803,- 
037  of  all  ranks.  The  peace  budget  was  $144,- 
225,000.  After  this  original  estimate  for  1914- 
15  the  army  was  increased  to  war  strength  at 
the  end  of  1915  by  voluntary  enlistment  to 
about  3,000,000  men,  exclusive  of  those  serving 
in  India.  This  figure  did  not  include  the  ter¬ 
ritorial  army  serving  at  home. 

Army  Administration. — For  the  purposes  of 
command  and  recruiting  the  United  Kingdom  is 
divided  into  seven  territorial  districts.  At  the 
head  of  each  is  a  general  officer  with  necessary 
assistants.  The  land  forces  are  administered  by 
an  army  council,  composed  of  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  War,  the  Chief  of  the  Imperial  General 
Staff,  the  Adjutant  General,  the  Quartermaster- 
General,  the  Master-General  of  the  Ordnance,  the 
Parliamentary  Undersecretary  of  State,  the 
Finance  Member.  The  Inspector  General  of  the 
Forces  keeps  this  council  informed  of  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  army. 

Infantry  and  cavalry  have  the  Lee-Enfield 
rifle,  calibre  0.303  inch.  Light  field  artillery 
is  armed  with  the  18-pounder,  horse  artillery 
with  the  13-pounder,  and  heavy  field  artillery 
with  the  40-pounder  field  howitzer  and  a  60- 
pounder  gun.  Aviation,  especially  by  aero¬ 
planes,  has  been  greatly  developed  and  improved 
by  the  experiences  of  the  European  War.  The 
Royal  Flying  Corps  (military  wing)  was  or¬ 
ganized  Jan.  16,  1915.  The  number  of  squadrons 
and  number  of  aeroplanes  in  each  had  not  been 
made  public  in  1916.  Before  the  reorganization 
in  1915,  8  aeroplane  squadrons,  each  of  18 
aeroplanes,  had  been  organized. 

Population.  The  first  official  census  taken  of 
Great  Britain  was  in  1801.  According  to  esti¬ 
mates  made  upon  the  basis  of  the  Domesday 
record  the  total  population  of  England  in  1050— 
1100  was  a  little  less  than  2,000,000.  Over 
half  of  the  population  was  then  centred  in 
southeast  England — in  the  counties  north  and 
south  of  London— the  Norman  Conquest  having 
depopulated  vast  districts  in  north  England. 
Investigators  claim  that  it  took  over  five  cen¬ 
turies  to  double  this  figure.  Lack  of  communica¬ 
tion  resulted  in  frequent  starvation  periods  in 
numerous  localities.  This,  together  with  oc¬ 
casional  plagues,  prevented  a  regular  and  normal 
increase.  The  great  modern  growth  in  popu¬ 
lation  dates  from  the  industrial  evolution  and 
the  improvement  in  means  of  communication. 
The  most  remarkable  feature  in  this  develop¬ 
ment  is  the  drift  of  the  population  from  the 
south  to  the  north.  This  was  the  result  of  im¬ 
proved  inventions  and  methods  which  secured 
for  manufacturing  the  aid  of  water  power  sup¬ 
plied  by  the  streams  of  Lancashire  and  York¬ 
shire.  Still  later,  when  coal  and  iron  were 
extensively  used,  these  minerals  also  were  found 
most  abundant  in  this  northern  district.  The 
greater  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  in  this  re- 


}  UNITED  KINGDOM 

gion  increased  its  desirability  as  a  textile  manu¬ 
facturing  centre  and  encouraged  the  growth  of 
its  population.  The  manufacturing  and  mining 
district  around  Manchester  and  extending  south¬ 
ward  to  Birmingham  is  the  most  densely  popu¬ 
lated  district  of  equal  area  in  Great  Britain  or 
in  the  world,  with  the  possible  exception  of  cer¬ 
tain  districts  of  China.  The  table  below  shows 
by  divisions  the  area  (including  inland  water) 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  population  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  censuses  of  April  1,  1901,  and 
April  °3,  1911,  together  with  the  density  per 
square  mile  on  the  latter  date;  figuies  also 
are  shown  for  the  Isle  of  Man  and  the  Channel 
Islands,  which,  though  not  politically  a  part 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  are  included  in  the 
British  Isles. 


DIVISION 

Square 

Population 

Population 

Den- 

miles 

1901 

1911 

sity 

England . 

50,874 

30,813,043 

34,045,290 

669 

Wales . 

7,466 

1,714,800 

2,025,202 

271 

Scotland . 

30,406 

4,472,103 

4,760,904 

156 

Great  Britain. .  .  . 

88,746 

36,999,946 

40,831,396 

460 

Ireland . 

32,586 

4,458,775 

4,390,219 

135 

United  Kingdom . 

121,331 

41,458,721 

45,221,615 

373 

Isle  of  Man . 

227 

54,752 

52,016 

229 

Channel  Islands. . .  . 

75 

95,618 

96,899 

1,292 

British  Isles . 

121,633 

41,609,091 

45,370,530 

374 

The  foregoing  population  figures  do  not  include 
army,  navy,  and  merchant  seamen  abroad,  num¬ 
bering,  in  1901,  224,211. 

The  population  of  England  at  various  periods, 
as  calculated  from  the  numbers  of  baptisms, 
burials,  and  marriages,  is  stated  as  follows:  in 
1570,  4,160,000;  in  1600,  4,812,000;  in  1630, 
5,601,000;  in  1670,  5,774,000;  in  1700,  6,045,- 
000;  in  1750,  6,517,000.  The  population  present 
in  the  British  Isles  has  been  returned  by  the 
several  censuses  as  shown  in  the  table  below. 


England 

and 

Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

United 

Kingdom 

Man 

and 

Chan¬ 

nel 

Islands 

1801 

1811 

1821 

1831 

1841 

1851 

1861 

1871 

1881- 

1891 

1901 

1911 

8,892,536 

10,164,256 

12,000,236 

13,896,797 

15,914,148 

17,927,609 

20,066,224 

22,712,266 

25,974,439 

29,002,525 

32,527,843 

36,070,492 

1,608,420 

1,805,864 

2,091,521 

2,364,386 

2,620,184 

2,888,742 

3,062,294 

3,360,018 

3,735,573 

4,025,647 

4,072,103 

4,760,904 

6,801,827 

7,767,401 

8,175,124 

6,552,385 

5,798,967 

5,412,377 

5,174,836 

4,704,750 

4,458,775 

4,390,219 

20,893,584 

24,028,584 

26,709,456 

27,368,736 

28,927,485 

31,484,661 

34,884,848 

37,732,922 

41,458,721 

45,221,615 

143,126 

143,447 

144,638 

141,260 

147,842 

150,370 

148,915 

Of  the  total  population  of  the  British  Isles 
in  1911,  22,016,661  were  males  and  23,353,869 
females;  in  England  the  number  of  males  was 
16,421,298  and  of  females  17,623,992;  in  Wales, 
1,024,310  and  1,000,892;  in  Scotland,  2,308,839 
and  2,452,065;  in  Ireland,  2,192,048  and  2,198,- 
171;  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  23,937  and  28,079;  in 
the  Channel  Islands,  46,229  and  *50,670.  The 
increasing  importance  of  manufacturing  and 
mining  as  against  agriculture  has  given  Eng¬ 
land  a  larger  percentage  of  urban  population 
than  any  other  country. 

In  England  and  Wales  the  population  of  urban 
districts  in  1901  was  25,058,355  and  of  rural 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


679 


districts  7,469,488;  in  1911,  28,162,936  and  7,- 
907,556.  In  Scotland  the  urban  population 
(which  in  that  country  includes  localities  with 
over  1000  inhabitants)  numbered  3,591,276.  In 
Ireland  the  civic  population  in  1911  numbered 
1,470,595.  For  many  years  the  rural  increase 
of  population  in  Great  Britain  has  been  in¬ 
significant  as  compared  with  the  urban. 

The  gain  in  the  population  of  the  United  King¬ 
dom  has  been  made  notwithstanding  the  great 
emigration  to  its  colonial  possessions  or  to 
other  countries.  The  largest  was  in  1880-93, 
when  the  English  emigration  averaged  over  150,- 
000  annually.  The  United  States  received  about 
two-thirds  of  the  whole  number.  The  number 
of  outward-bound  passengers  of  British  nation¬ 
ality  from  the  United  Kingdom  to  countries  out 
of  Europe  was  8,864,756  in  the  period  1853— 
1900;  in  1901-05,  1,170,839;  in  1906-10,  1,670,- 
625;  in  1911,  454,527;  in  1912,  467,666,  in  addi¬ 
tion  to  which  outward-bound  alien  passengers  to 
non-European  countries  numbered  189,169,  the 
total  outward  bound  in  1912  being  656,835.  In- 
ward-bound  passengers  in  1912  from  non-Euro¬ 
pean  countries  numbered  340,696  (199,181  British 
and  141,515  alien),  the  balance  outward  for  the 
year  being  316,139.  The  Aliens  Act  of  1905 
aims  to  keep  out  undesirable  immigrants  with¬ 
out  infringing  on  the  traditional  right  of  asylum 
to  religious  and  political  refugees.  The  birth 
and  death  rates  are  decreasing;  the  marriage 
rate  remains  more  nearly  stationary.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  table  shows  the  rate  per  thousand  of 
population,  of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages 
(i.e.,  persons  married). 


England 
and  Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

United 

Kingdom 

Births 

1900 . 

28.7 

29.6 

22.7 

28.2 

1910 . 

25.1 

26.2 

23.3 

25.0 

1913 . 

23.9 

25.5 

22.9 

23.9 

Deaths 

1900 . 

18.2 

18.5 

19.6 

18.4 

1910 . 

13.5 

15.3 

17.1 

14.0 

1913 . 

13.7 

15.5 

17.1 

14.2 

Marriages 

1900 . 

16.0 

14.6 

9.5 

15.1 

1910 . 

15.0 

13.0 

10.1 

14.3 

1913 . 

15.5 

14.3 

10.2 

14.9 

In  Wales  and  Monmouthshire  persons  of  three 
years  of  age  and  upward  speaking  Welsh  only 
constituted  in  1901  about  13.9  per  cent  of  the 
population  and  in  1911,  7.9  per  cent;  speaking 
Welsh  and  English,  32.2  in  1901  and  32.5  in 
1911;  thus  about  40.6  per  cent  could  speak 
Welsh  in  1911,  as  compared  with  46.1  in  1901 
and  about  70  in  1881; — in  Scotland,  speaking 
Gaelic  only,  0.6  per  cent  in  1901  and  0.4  per 
cent  in  1911;  speaking  Gaelic  and  English,  4.5 
and  3.9 ; — in  Ireland,  speaking  Irish  only,  0.4 
per  cent  in  1911;  speaking  Irish  and  English, 
12.9.  For  further  details  of  population,  see 
England;  Scotland;  Ireland. 

Religion.  In  England  and  Wales,  in  Scot¬ 
land,  and  in  Ireland,  different  churches  are 
dominant;  in  the  first  the  Protestant  Episcopal, 
in  the  second  the  Presbyterian,  and  in  the  third 
the  Roman  Catholic.  In  the  first  two  the  re¬ 
spective  churches  are  the  Established  state 
churches.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  church  was 
also  the  Established  church  of  Ireland  during 
1801-61.  The  religious  reformation  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century  was  received  differently  and  fol¬ 
lowed  different  courses  in  each  of  the  three 


political  divisions.  In  England  and  Wales  the 
Church  maintained  its  organization  unbroken, 
simply  severing  its  connection  with  Rome.  The 
movement  in  Scotland  was  more  radical,  neces¬ 
sitating  a  new  organization.  In  Ireland  the 
native  Irish  element  remained  loyal  to  Rome, 
only  the  limited  English  population  revolting. 
But  while  the  respective  churches  which  the 
Reformation  left  in  power  in  the  three  kingdoms 
are  still  the  predominant  organizations,  their 
majorities  have  been  reduced,  and  the  present 
religious  status  differs  much  from  that  of  the 
earlier  time. 

The  changes  have  been  most  marked  in  Eng¬ 
land  and  Wales.  From  the  first  there  were  dis¬ 
senters  (Nonconformists)  from  the  state  church ; 
and  the  Presbyterians,  Congregationalists  (or 
Independents),  and  Baptists  date  from  this  early 
period.  Just  prior  to  the  rise  of  Cromwell  the 
Nonconformists  had  apparently  secured  consid¬ 
erable  power;  but  the  attempt  to  make  the 
Presbyterian  church  the  Established  church 
(1648)  failed.  The  Puritan  element  was  domi¬ 
nant  during  Cromwell’s  rule.  In  the  following 
reaction  the  ranks  of  the  Nonconformists  were 
much  reduced,  and  it  was  not  until  the  Metho¬ 
dist  revival  that  they  again  became  prominent. 
In  1700  it  was  estimated  that  the  Nonconform¬ 
ists  numbered  less  than  one-twentieth  of  the 
English  population.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
religious  indifference  settled  upon  the  country, 
from  which  it  was  aroused  by  the  preaching  of 
Wesley  and  his  Methodist  following.  Wesley 
himself  remained  a  member  of  the  state  church 
and  desired  that  his  followers  should  not  be 
separated  from  it;  but  divergence  from  the  Es¬ 
tablished  church  was  carried  too  far,  and  after 
his  death  the  Methodists  became  organized 
(1795)  as  a  separate  body.  The  spirit  of  the 
movement  was  taken  up  in  a  degree  by  other 
bodies,  and  the  older  Nonconformist  churches, 
particularly  the  Congregationalists,  enjoyed  a 
considerable  growth  in  membership.  Later  there 
were  a  number  of  divisions  within  the  Methodist 
church,  but  the  Wesleyan  Methodists,  with  a 
little  over  half  of  the  entire  Methodist  following, 
are  stronger  than  any  other  Nonconformist 
church.  In  the  absence  of  any  religious  census 
the  strength  of  the  different  elements  is  esti¬ 
mated  upon  some  such  basis  as  the  percentage  of 
marriages  celebrated  according  to  the  rites  of 
the  different  bodies. 

In  1911,  in  England  and  Wales,  the  Episcopal 
rites  were  used  in  61  per  cent  of  the  marriages, 
the  Roman  Catholic  rites  in  4.4  per  cent,  while 
the  ceremonies  in  the  registered  places  of  other 
Christian  denominations  numbered  nearly  14  per 
cent,  and  the  civil  marriages  20.9  per  cent.  It 
is  estimated  that  the  number  of  people  not  in 
the  Established,  Roman  Catholic,  or  Jewish 
churches,  who  are  therefore  presumably  Noncon¬ 
formists  in  sympathy,  is  considerably  over  one- 
fifth  of  the  total  population.  After  the  Metho¬ 
dists,  the  Congregationalists  and  the  Baptists 
are  strongest,  the  Presbyterians  following  with  a 
much  smaller  number,  the  members  of  this 
church  being  most  numerous  in  the  northern 
counties  of  England.  The  Nonconformists 
strongly  predominate  in  the  northern  counties 
of  Wales,  and  attempts  have  been  made  to  se¬ 
cure  the  disestablishment  of  the  Episcopal  church 
in  Wales.  The  Roman  Catholic  church  had 
remained  small  in  England  and  Wales  until  the 
influx  of  the  Irish  in  the  famine  years  from  1845 
on.  More  recently  the  Roman  Catholics  have 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM  680 


secured  many  converts  from  the  Established 
church.  Their  number  is  estimated  at  about  1,- 
800,000.  The  Church  of  England,  on  account 
of  its  latitudinarian  policy,  retains  widely  di¬ 
verse  factions  within  its  organization.  Since 
about  1850  the  High  Church  element,  inclined 
towards  a  greater  ceremonial,  has  become  pre¬ 
ponderant,  while  the  Broad  Church  movement, 
which  stands  especially  for  a  more  liberal  theol¬ 
ogy,  has  also  grown  at  the  expense  of  the  old 
Low  Church. 

Presbyterianism  is  much  stronger  in  Scotland 
than  Episcopacy  is  in  England.  But  the  Epis¬ 
copal  and  the  'dissenting  churches  in  Scotland 
show  a  comparatively  small  increase.  Latterly 
the  Roman  Catholics  have  grown  in  Scotland, 
and  their  number  is  estimated  at  about  550,000. 
However,  Presbyterianism  itself  has  undergone  a 
number  of  schisms.  The  Established  branch, 
though  numbering  over  half  of  Scottish  Presby¬ 
terians,  contains  less  than  half  of  Scottish 
Church  communicants.  When,  after  the  union 
with  England,  Parliament  gave  lay  patrons  the 
right  to  present  clergymen  to  vacant  benefices, 
the  ensuing  dispute  resulted,  early  in  the  eight¬ 
eenth  century,  in  two  divisions,  the  seceding 
bodies  afterward  forming  the  United  Presbyter¬ 
ian  Church  of  Scotland;  and  finally  in  1843  the 
same  question  caused  another  division  from  the 
Established  church,  which  gave  rise  to  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland.  In  1900  this  body  joined 
the  United  Presbyterian  branch  under  the  name 
of  the  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  Of  the 
minor  Presbyterian  divisions  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  is  the  Reformed  Presbyterian.  Neither  the 
Established  church  in  England  nor  the  Estab¬ 
lished  Presbyterian  church  in  Scotland  receives 
any  state  financial  aid.  The  support  of  the 
Episcopal  church  is  secured  mainly  from  the 
local  endowments  of  the  individual  churches. 

In  Ireland  the  Celtic  element  has  persistently 
stood  by  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  but  the  early 
influx  of  Scottish  Presbyterians  and  English 
Episcopalians  and  the  very  heavy  emigration  of 
the  Roman  Catholics  in  the  nineteenth  century 
have  resulted  in  appreciably  reducing  the  Roman 
Catholic  percentage.  The  Episcopalians,  who  in 
1911  numbered  about  577,000,  are  mainly  in  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  island.  The  Presbyte¬ 
rians,  numbering  about  441,000,  are  confined 
largely  to  the  northeastern  part.  There  are 
about*  62,000  Methodists. 

Jews  are  not  numerous  in  the  United  King¬ 
dom,  245,000  being  given  as  their  number  in 
1915.  They  are  confined  to  London  and  a  few 
of  the  other  large  towns.  The  organization  of 
the  different  denominations  represented  in  the 
United  Kingdom  will  be  given  under  the  respec¬ 
tive  titles  of  those  bodies.  See  also  Ireland. 

Education.  The  educational  systems  in  Eng¬ 
land  and  Wales  and  in  Scotland  respectively 
have  developed  along  widely  divergent  lines. 
The  former  had  no  public-school  system  until 
late  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and  its  develop¬ 
ment  then  was  hampered  hy  religious  contro¬ 
versy.  Scotland  provided  for  public  schools  be¬ 
fore  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
the  system  was  free  from  religious  interference. 
In  earlier  times  a  large  number  of  endowments 
had  been  established  in  England,  usually  by 
some  religious  sect;  but  the  instruction  went 
little  beyond  the  dead  languages  and  was  given 
to  comparatively  few.  The  administration  of 
endowments  was  defective,  and  many  endow¬ 
ments  were  lost  or  diverted  into  other  channels. 


Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  an  interest  in 
general  education  was  aroused  mainly  by  two 
rival  organizations:  the  British  and  Foreign 
School  Society,  dating  from  1808,  representing 
the  dissenting  religious  elements;  and  the  Na¬ 
tional  Society  (1811),  representing  the  Estab¬ 
lished  church.  In  1816  and  1818,  respectively, 
elementary  education  and  educational  charities 
were  investigated  by  the  government,  but  no 
money  was  granted  them  until  1833,  when  $100,- 
000  was  divided  between  the  educational  societies. 
Government  inspection,  subject  to  approval  of 
each  inspector  by  one  of  the  rival  factions,  was 
the  condition  of  receiving  the  grant.  In  1856 
an  educational  department  was  founded  to  ad¬ 
minister  the  grant.  The  funds  were  distributed 
according  to  results  of  the  examinations  held  hy 
the  inspector  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 
In  1869  the  school  accommodations  were  only 
half  those  required,  though  they  had  doubled 
during  1859-69.  In  1870  the  Elementary  Edu¬ 
cation  Act  established  the  basis  of  the  general 
educational  system  still  in  force.  It  applied  to 
all  children  between  5  and  14.  Other  leading 
features  were  annual  parliamentary  grants  to 
public  and  private  schools  on  the  same  terms; 
a  central  administrative  agency;  wherever  neces¬ 
sary,  school  boards  to  be  elected  and  board  or 
public  schools  to  be  established ;  in  board  schools 
no  religious  catechism  to  be  taught,  though  re¬ 
ligious  instruction  might  or  might  not  be  given; 
in  the  voluntary  schools  religious  instruction 
not  to  be  forced  upon  a  child  if  its  parents  ob¬ 
jected.  In  1872  a  similar  system  was  established 
for  Scotland,  but  with  elected  school  boards  for 
every  parish,  and  these  in  charge  of  both  higher 
and  elementary  education.  Scotland  has  its  own 
central  administrative  board.  In  1900  improved 
secondary  and  technical  instruction  in  England 
was  secured  by  uniting  under  a  board  of  educa¬ 
tion  the  former  separate  department  of  educa- 
tion  £tncl.  science. 

The  Education  Act  of  1902,  reactionary  at  some 
points,  was  at  other  points  a  great  advance  in 
the  conditions  prevailing  since  1870.  It  caused 
acute  political  differences;  it  contributed  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  Conservatives  in  1905  and  led 
to  the  introduction  of  the  Birrell  Education  Bill 
of  1906,  which  caused  great  popular  disapproval 
by  its  provision  for  support  of  the  voluntary  or 
religious  schools  by  local  taxes,  while  leaving 
their  control  with  religious  bodies.  The  Birrell 
Bill  was  withdrawn  because  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons  refused  to  accept  amendments  made  by  the 
House  of  Lords.  The  voluntary  or  Church 
schools  are  mainly  in  rural  regions  or  small 
towns  and  are  most  controlled  by  the  Estab¬ 
lished  church.  In  1912  the  number  of  voluntary 
schools  in  England  and  Wales  was  12,704,  with 
accommodations  for  2,797,636  pupils,  while  the 
number  of  council  schools  was  8196,  with  accom¬ 
modations  for  4.065,240  pupils.  Of  the  volun¬ 
tary  schools,  10,877  schools  (2,227,431  pupils) 
were  controlled  by  the  Church  of  England,  1082 
schools  (377,859  *pupils)  were  Roman  Catholic, 
214  schools  (65,749  pupils)  were  Wesleyan,  and 
the  remainder  were  divided  among  various  de¬ 
nominations,  including  the  Jewish,  or  were  un¬ 
denominational.  The  chief  benefit  of  the  Act  of 
1902  was  the  substitution  of  an  educational  unit 
of  administration  (the  county  council)  for  the 
numerous  bodies  that  enforced  the  Law  of  1870. 
Thus  two  great  features  hitherto  absent  from  the 
English  system  were  obtained:  first,  a  public 
authority  *  charged  with  educational  interests ; 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


68 1  UNITED  KINGDOM 


second,  these  councils  have  the  power  of  coordi¬ 
nating  every  branch  of  education,  elementary, 
secondary,  and  technical.  They  are  empowered 
to  levy  taxes,  may  borrow  money,  and  can  turn 
over  the  control  of  each  local  school  to  a  board 
of  six  managers,  one  of  whom  is  appointed  by 
the  religious  body  furnishing  the  school  building 
and  equipment. 

Education  is  now  compulsory  in  both  England 
and  Scotland  for  the  age  period  from  5  to  14, 
though  total  or  partial  exemption  may  be  se¬ 
cured  at  the  age  of  11  in  England  and  of  12  in 
Scotland.  Kindergarten  work  is  given  a  promi¬ 
nent  place  in  the  elementary  system.  Women 
may  be  elected  members  of  the  school  boards.  In 
England  and  Wales,  on  July  31,  1912,  depart¬ 
ments  in  the  ordinary  public  elementary  schools 
numbered  32,234;  accommodations,  6,862,876; 
teachers,  41,307  men,  122,676  women;  pupils  en¬ 
rolled,  3,044,384  boys,  2,992,986  girls;  average 
attendance,  88.79  per  cent.  There  were  51  higher 
elementary  schools,  with  464  teachers  and  10,806 
pupils  (average  during  the  year).  In  Scotland, 
for  the  year  ended  Aug.  31,  1912,  there  were  3164 
public  primary  schools  in  receipt  of  grants,  with 
accommodations  for  1,042,703  pupils, "820, 171  pu¬ 
pils  enrolled,  and  733,792  in  average  attendance; 
196  higher  grade  schools  in  receipt  of  grants, 
with  24,544  pupils  enrolled  and  24,201  in  average 
attendance;  1152  continuation  classes,  with  144,- 
815  pupils.  Teachers,  including  those  in  the 
liiglier -grade  schools,  numbered  5362  men  and 
15,096  women.  In  Ireland,  on  Dec.  31,  1912, 
public  primary  schools  in  operation  numbered 
8255,  with  13,213  teachers,  accommodations  for 
769,697  pupils,  an  enrollment  of  668,974,  and  an 
average  attendance  of  499,038.  The  public 
schools  for  which  statistics  are  here  given  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  many  private  Eng¬ 
lish  institutions  known  as  the  public  schools. 

Secondary'  and  Technical  Education. — The  sec¬ 
ondary  public  school  is  not  thoroughly  estab¬ 
lished.  In  England  and  Wales,  on  Jan.  31,  1912, 
there  were  995  secondary  schools  recognized  for 
grant,  having  full-time  teachers  5106  men  and 
4974  women;  part-time  teachers  3326,  and  full¬ 
time  pupils  89,004  boys  and  76,613  girls.  At 
evening  and  similar  schools  pupils  enrolled  in 
1912  numbered  784,984;  in  day  technical  classes, 
11,758;  in  technical  institution  courses,  1289;  in 
art  classes,  3250;  in  schools  of  art,  41,677  (20,- 
359  males,  21,318  females).  In  Scotland,  for  the 
year  ended  Aug.  31,  1912,  there  were  56  second¬ 
ary  schools  claiming  grant,  with  1175  teachers, 
20,484  pupils  enrolled  (11,956  boys,  8528  girls), 
and  19,458  in  average  attendance.  There  is  a 
large  number  of  secondary  schools  maintained  by 
private  enterprise,  endowment,  subscription,  etc. 
These  schools  emphasize  distinctions  based  upon 
social  caste,  and  some  of  them  are  very  exclu¬ 
sive.  In  Wales  each  county  has  an  educational 
council,  and  over  all  is  a  central  board  with 
powers  of  inspection  and  examination  of  the  sec¬ 
ondary  schools.  In  Scotland  school  boards  may 
establish  secondary  schools. 

The  Scottish  provision  for  evening  continua¬ 
tion  schools  is  almost  identical  with  that  of 
England.  In  England  and  Wales  there  is  no 
thoroughly  defined  system  of  technical  instruc¬ 
tion,  although,  through  the  assistance  of  special 
grants,  manual  training  and  the  industrial  arts 
and  sciences  are  given  much  attention,  while  the 
municipalities  have  been  active  in  building 
technical  institutions.  In  Scotland  technical 
schools  may  be  established  by  school  boards. 


Universities .- — Great  Britain  does  not  provide 
so  amply  for  university  education  as  do  some 
other  large  European  countries.  Within  the 
last  few  decades,  however,  the  number,  atten¬ 
dance,  and  influence  of  universities  have  in¬ 
creased.  The  new  colleges  are  free  from  the 
traditional  restrictions  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
and  their  courses  have  better  met  the  demands 
of  science  and  local  industries.  London  Univer¬ 
sity,  constituted  an  examining  body  in  1836,  be¬ 
came  also  a  teaching  body  in  1900,  comprehend¬ 
ing  in  1913-14  over  30  colleges,  with  an  enroll¬ 
ment  of  5840.  In  1878  colleges  situated  at  Man¬ 
chester,  Leeds,  and  Liverpool  were  federated  un¬ 
der  the  title  of  Victoria  University.  The  Dur¬ 
ham  University,  established  in  1832,  was  ex¬ 
tended  in  1871  so  as  to  include  the  colleges  of 
medicine  and  science  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Birmingham  University  was  constituted  in  1900. 
All  of  these,  established  first  by  private  bene¬ 
ficence,  now  receive  government'  aid.  Birming¬ 
ham  rejected  the  widely  adopted  plan  of  affiliated 
collegiate  institutions  and  was  the  first  autono¬ 
mous,  compact,  self-centred  institution,  similar 
to  those  of  the  United  States  and  continental 
Europe.  This  institution  was  equipped  for 
teaching,  research,  and  examination  from  the 
first  and  was  imitated  in  other  large  industrial 
cities.  In  1903  the  University  of  Liverpool  was 
founded  on  the  basis  of  the  old  college,  which 
had  been  a  constituent  part  of  Victoria  Univer¬ 
sity.  In  the  next  two  years  Manchester,  Leeds, 
and  Sheffield  followed  this  example  and  estab¬ 
lished  independent  universities.  See  articles  on 
the  universities  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  London, 
Wales,  St.  Andrews,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and 
Edinburgh. 

Charities.  Charitable  functions,  at  first  ex¬ 
ercised  by  the  Church  as  a  religious  duty,  were 
gradually  taken  oyer  by  the  parishes,  and  when 
the  towns  and  guilds  became  powerful  they  es¬ 
tablished  charitable  institutions  for  the  benefit 
of  their  members.  It  was  not  until  the  Refor¬ 
mation,  however,  that  the  state  began  to  deal 
with  the  problem  of  pauperism.  The  relief  sup¬ 
plied  formerly  by  the  monasteries  had  to  be  re¬ 
placed,  so  that  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII 
and  Elizabeth  a  general  state  policy  was  rapidly 
developed.  By  an  Act  of  1601  a  regularly  as¬ 
sessed  poor  rate  became  compulsory,  laying  the 
foundation  principles  of  the  poor-law  policy. 
Children  were  provided  for  through  apprentice¬ 
ship,  and  adults  able  to  work  were  compelled  to 
do  so,  while  to  others  relief  was  given.  A  law 
passed  in  1723  made  possible  the  establishing 
of  workhouses  and  the  application  of  the  prin¬ 
ciple  that  those  might  be  used  as  a  test  of  need, 
and  outside  relief  refused  to  the  able-bodied. 
Many  persons  failed  to  adapt  themselves  to  the 
changed  conditions  brought  on  by  the  industrial 
revolution  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  and  the  pauper  element  rapidly  increased. 

The  Gilbert  Act  of  1782,  while  creating  the 
Poor-Law  Union  and  introducing  other  adminis¬ 
trative  improvements,  violated  the  workhouse 
test  by  making  outdoor  money  aid  possible.  In 
1795  this  was  further  violated  by  supplementing 
the  ordinary  wage  of  the  laborer  with  money  aid, 
the  amount  of  which  was  increased  by  the  num¬ 
ber  of  members  in  the  family.  These  aids  tended 
to  weaken  the  sense  of  personal  responsibility,  a 
large  portion  of  the  agricultural  laborers  became 
pauperized,  relief  was  expected,  and  disgrace  no 
longer  attached  to  it.  In  1802-03,  28  per  cent 
of  the  population  in  England  and  Wales  re- 


UNITED  KINGDOM  68 

ceived  permanent  or  occasional  aid.  Conditions 
became  very  bad,  and  in  1834,  as  the  result  of 
the  investigations  of  a  parliamentary  commis¬ 
sion,  measures  were  passed  which  marked  a  new 
epoch  in  poor-law  administration. 

A  commission  was  established  which  became  a 
permanent  government  department  in  1867  and 
fn  1871  was  known  as  the  Local  Government 
Board.  The  board  consists  of  a  president  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  King  and  a  number  of  ex-o(licio 
members.  It  not  only  enforces  law  but  also  is¬ 
sues  orders  and  regulations.  It  establishes 
unions  and  determines  district  boundai  ies  and 
exercises  administrative  and  financial  conti  ol 
over  guardians.  Assistant  commissioners  weie 
appointed  as  agents,  and  later  these  weie  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  inspectors.  Auditors  examine  accounts 
and  disallow  improper  expenditures,  while  guar¬ 
dians  have  absorbed  most  of  the  former  functions 
of  overseers  and  are  the  chief  local  officei  s  of 
poor  relief. 

The  unit  of  administration  of  the  board  of 
guardians  is  the  poor-law  union,  a  combination 
of  parishes.  Each  parish  selects  one  or  more 
guardians,  and  these  may  choose  two  additional 
members.  In  the  rural  districts  the  poor  law^  is 
administered  by  the  district  councilors.  The 
most  important  of  the  appointed  officers  are  the 
relieving  officer,  who  investigates  and  deals  im¬ 
mediately  with  the  case  at  hand,  the  clerk,  who 
is  the  secretary  of  the  board,  and  the  assistant 
overseers  and  collectors.  W  hile  the  poor  l  ate 
is  levied  upon  the  parish,  the  cost  of  relief  is  de¬ 
frayed  from  the  common  fund  of  the  union.  Pro¬ 
vision  is  made  for  the  combination  of  unions  into 
larger  districts  for  special  purposes,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  maintenance  of  pauper  institutions. 

Since  1830  the  policy  pursued  has  been  to  limit 
relief  as  much  as  practicable  to  indoor  methods. 
Asylums,  infirmaries,  ancl  hospitals  are  provided 
for  the  classes  needing  such  treatment  as  these 
institutions  afford;  schools  and  training  ships 
for  children ;  and  workhouses  for  the  able-bodied. 
In  the  care  of  children  considerable  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  operation  of  the  placing-out 
system. 

The  experience  of  Scotland  has  been  much  dif¬ 
ferent  from  that  of  England,  particularly  in  its 
lack  of  continuity.  The  Scottish  Parliament 
passed  laws  for  poor  relief  as  far  back  as  15 to, 
but  compulsory  taxes  were  not  generally  col¬ 
lected  until  the  nineteenth  century.  An  Act 
was  passed  in  1845  providing  a  system  of  poor 
relief,  resembling  that  of  England  and  Wales, 
which  is  still  operative. 

The  mean  number  of  paupers  and  the  ratio  per 
thousand  of  estimated  population  relieved  on  Jan¬ 
uary  1  and  on  July  1  preceding  (exclusive  of 
casual  paupers  and  insane)  are  reported  as  fol¬ 
lows  for  England  and  Wales: 


TEAR 

INDOOR 

OUTDOOR 

TOTAL* 

No. 

Ratio 

No. 

Ratio 

No. 

Ratio 

1900. . . 

188,423 

5.9 

500,214 

15.8 

688,505 

21.7 

1905. . . 

222,217 

6.6 

542,891 

16.1 

764,589 

22.7 

1910. . . 

256,523 

7.2  * 

534,933 

15.1 

790,496 

22.3 

1914. . . 

234,510 

6.4 

382,734 

10.4 

617,128 

16.7 

*  Deductions  are  made  from  total  for  paupers  who  re¬ 
ceived  both  indoor  and  outdoor  relief  on  the  same  day. 


A  number  of  paupers,  especially  outdoor 
paupers,  ceased  to  be  dependent  on  poor  relief 


j  UNITED  KINGDOM 

in  1911  in  consequence  of  the  partial  removal 
of  the  pauper  disqualification  for  old-age  pen- 
sions. 

In  parishes  in  Scotland  the  poor  of  all  classes 
(including  lunatic  poor)  in  receipt  of  relief  on 
Jan.  15,  1914,  were  66,832  paupers  and  38,413 
dependents.  In  unions  in  Ireland  the  number 
of  paupers  in  receipt  of  relief  at  the  close  of  the 
first  week  of  January,  1914,  was  74,841  (of  whom 
3915  were  able-bodaed  adults  receiving  indoor 
relief).  Throughout  Great  Britain  private  char¬ 
ity  is  very  active  and  is  thoroughly  organized. 
There  is  a  very  clear  distinction  between  state 
and  private  charities,  and  the  two  cooperate  har¬ 
moniously.  The  state  aims  only  to  allet  iate 
actual  distress,  regardless  of  its  cause  or  the 
character  of  the  individual,  and  it  does  not  un¬ 
dertake  to  prevent  poverty.  Private  charities 
cover  a  much  wider  scope,  attending  to  many 
questions  of  public  welfare,  aiming  to  pi  event 
and  improve  conditions  that  are  not  necessarily 
due  to  immediate  distress. 

Colonies.  While  directly  after  the  repeal  of 
the  Corn  Laws  of  1846  many  persons,  both  in 
the  mother  country  and  in  the  colonies,  consid¬ 
ered  a  complete  separation  of  the  colonies  and 
Great  Britain  desirable  and  probable,  since  about 
1870  the  tendency  has  been  towards  a,  closer 
union  of  the  various  members  of  the  British  Em¬ 
pire.  The  mutual  interest  existing  between  the 
colonies  rests  not  only  upon  a  feeling  of  racial 
and  cultural  kinship,  but  upon  such  practical 
matters  as  trade  and  defense.  The  first  impor¬ 
tant  step  taken  to  strengthen  this  bond  was  in 
the  conference  held  at  London  in  1884  by  the 
Imperial  Federation  League.  Numerous  con¬ 
ferences  have  been  held  since,  and  were  given 
mainly  to  the  discussion  of  closer  Imperial  co¬ 
operation  and  unity.  For  a  statement  of  the 
varying  methods  of  government  and  the  area  and 
population  of  the  colonies,  see  British  Empire 
and  the  articles  on  the  different  colonies. 

Government.  The  constitution  of  the  United 
Kingdom  is  the  result  of  long  historical  growth. 
It  is  more  largely  unwritten  than  that  of  any 
other  country  of  western  Europe.  What  is  writ¬ 
ten  is  not  in  a  single  instrument,  but  is  scat¬ 
tered  through  various  acts  of  Parliament  and 
solemn  agreements  from  the  Middle  Ages  to  the 
present.  The  unwritten  part  consists  of  customs, 
maxims,  and  institutions  which,  in  virtue  of 
long  acquiescence  of  the  nation,  have  acquired 
the  force  of  written  law.  The  British  constitu¬ 
tion  is  not,  therefore,  the  artificial  creation  of  a 
single  constituent  body  organized  to  incorporate 
in  legal  institutions  the  results  of  a  violent  and 
bloody  revolution.  See  Parliament. 

The  House  of  Commons  at  present  (1916)  con¬ 
sists  of  670  members,  of  whom  England  chooses 
465,  Wales  30,  Scotland  72,  and  Ireland  103,  and 
they  are  elected  by  secret  ballot  for  a  term  of 
five  years.  The  voter  in  an  English  county  or 
borough  must  be  a  male  citizen  21  years  of  age, 
a  freeholder  of  the  annual  value  of  40s.,  or  a 
copyholder  or  leaseholder  of  the  annual  value 
of  £5.  But  if  he  has  no  such  interest  in  real 
estate  he  must  be  a  householder  of  the  annual 
value  of  £10  or  a  lodger  of  the  same  value.  In 
Scottish  and  Irish  counties  the  qualifications  are 
substantially  the  same.  The  more  important  dis¬ 
qualifications  relate  to  the  holding  of  incom¬ 
patible  offices  at  the  same  time,  conviction  of 
certain  crimes,  and  receipt  of  poor  relief.  Voters 
with  sufficient  property  in  different  districts  may 
vote  in  each  district.  Members  are  distributed 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


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683 


according1  to  population  and  are  chosen  by  dis¬ 
tricts  and  on  single  ticket.  Members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  must  be  male  citizens  not 
under  21  years  of  age.  Disqualified  are  English 
and  Scottish  peers,  representative  Irish  peers, 
Roman  Catholic  priests,  clergymen  of  the  Es¬ 
tablished  church,  judges,  sheriffs,  and  other  re¬ 
turning  officers,  government  contractors,  bank¬ 
rupts,  and  persons  convicted  of  certain  crimes. 

The  House  of  Lords  consists  of  ( 1 )  English 
hereditary  peers  whose  ancestors  have  received 
a  royal  summons  to  Parliament  since  1295,  or 
who  have  themselves  received  a  patent  of  no¬ 
bility  in  the  United  Kingdom;  (2)  16  Scottish 
representative  peers  chosen  for  the  term  of  Par¬ 
liament  by  a  majority  of  all  the  Scottish  peers, 
i.e.,  those  whose  ancestors  sat  in  the  Scottish 
House  of  Lords  before  the  union;  (3)  28  Irish 
peers  chosen  for  life  by  all  the  Irish  peers;  (4) 

2  archbishops  and  24  bishops  by  virtue  of  their 
office;  and  (5)  4  judicial  members,  known  as 
Lords  of  Appeals  in  Ordinary,  appointed  by  the 
crown  for  life.  The  full  House  (in  1915)  would 
consist  of  654  members.  The  crown  may  create 
an  unlimited  number  of  English  hereditary  peers, 
but  this  is  not  true  of  life  peers  and  of  Scottish 
and  Irish  peers.  The  only  qualification  for  mem¬ 
bership  in  the  House  of  Lords  is  male  sex,  citi¬ 
zenship,  and  attainment  of  the  age  of  21  years, 
while  bankruptcy  and  conviction  of  felonious 
crime  disqualify. 

The  members  of  both  Houses  are  privileged 
from  arrest  except  for  indictable  offenses — the 
Commons  during  the  session,  and  40  days  before 
and  after,  the  Lords  at  all  times.  They  cannot 
be  questioned  outside  of  Parliament  for  opin¬ 
ions  expressed  or  votes  cast  in  that  body;  but 
the  courts  have  held  (Stockdale  and  Hansard) 
that  if  the  Commons  have  their  speeches  pub¬ 
lished  and  circulated  they  are  amenable  to  the 
law  of  libel  and  slander  as  private  individuals 
are.  Up  to  1911  members  of  neither  House  re¬ 
ceived  pay  for  their  services,  except  that  an  oc¬ 
casional  constituency  undertook  to  pay  its  mem¬ 
ber  a  salary.  In  August  of  that  year  a  resolu¬ 
tion  of  the  House  of  Commons  provided  for  an 
annual  salary  of  £400  to  members  other  than, 
those  already  in  receipt  of  salaries. 

Parliament  must  assemble  at  least  once  in 
three  years.  It  usually  meets  annually,  in  Feb¬ 
ruary,  and  remains  in  session  until  midsummer. 
It  is  summoned,  opened,  and  prorogued  by  the 
crown  and  upon  the  advice  of  the  Prime  Minis¬ 
ter.  It  is  dissolved  either  by  legal  expiry  of  the 
term  of  the  Commons  or  by  order  of  the  crown, 
with  the  advice  of  the  ministry.  Parliament 
has  seldom  lasted  through  its  full  term,  disso¬ 
lution  usually  resulting  from  the  action  of  the 
crown.  Dissolution  ends  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons  without  affecting  the  Lords,  except  the 
Scottish  peers  elected  for  the  term  of  Parliament, 
while  prorogation  ends  the  session  merely. 
Formerly  the  sovereign’s  death  dissolved  Parlia¬ 
ment,  but  a  recent  law  abolished  this  custom. 
Either  House  may  adjourn  for  short  periods  of 
time  independently  of  the  other  or  of  the  crown. 
The  internal  organization  of  Parliament  is  left 
partly  to  the  action  of  each  House.  Thus  the 
Commons  choose  their  own  Speaker,  although  by 
custom  the  presiding  officer  in  the  House  of  Lords 
is  the  Lord  Chancellor,  a  member  of  the  ministry. 
But  as  he  may  be  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  his  seat  is  placed  without  the  limits 
of  the  chamber  in  which  the  Lords  hold  their 
sessions.  The  other  officers  of  Parliament  are 

Vol.  XXII.— 44 


appointed  by  the  crown.  Over  its  discipline  and 
procedure  each  House  has  full  control,  and  may 
expel  a  member  or  punish  an  outsider  for  con¬ 
tempt.  A  quorum  necessary  for  doing  business 
is  fixed  at  40  in  the  British  Commons  and  three 
in  the  Lords.  The  constitution  places  no  legal 
limitations  upon  the  power  of  the  British  Par¬ 
liament.  Its  power,  however,  is  a  present  one 
and  cannot  bind  future  parliaments.  See 
Lords,  House  of;  Parliament. 

The  executive  power  is,  nominally  at  least, 
in  the  crown,  which  is  legally  and  theoretically 
irresponsible,  immaculate,  and  immortal.  It  is 
hereditary,  according  to  lineal  primogenial  de¬ 
scent,  with  preference  for  males  over  females 
among  brothers  and  sisters.  The  ruler  must  not 
be  a  Roman  Catholic,  must  be  a  communicant  of 
the  Established  church,  and  apparently  by  cus¬ 
tom  must  be  18  years  old  before  exercising  the 
royal  powers.  At  present  the  powers  of  the 
crown  include  the  declaration  of  war;  the  nego¬ 
tiation  of  treaties;  the  appointment  and  recep¬ 
tion  of  diplomatic  officers;  the  issuance  of  pass¬ 
ports;  the  command  of  the  army  and  navy,  with 
a  large  power  over  the  appointment,  promotion, 
and  dismissal  of  officers,  and  the  promulgation 
of  rules  for  the  government  and  disposition  of 
the  forces;  the  appointment  of  all  the  civil  offi¬ 
cers  of  the  government  and  the  removal  of  most 
of  them;  the  appointment  of  the  high  clerical 
officers  of  the  Established  church,  and  full  power 
of  control  over  the  ecclesiastical  parliament  or 
convocation;  and  the  granting  of  pardons.  The 
power  of  the  crown  in  legislation  has  already 
been  discussed  in  connection  with  the  subject  of 
Parliament.  The  power  of  the  crown  to  veto 
all  legislative  measures  passed  by  the  Houses 
of  Parliament  has  not  been  exercised  since  1707 
and  has  practically  fallen  into  disuse. 

As  already  stated,  the  crown  is  irresponsible. 
It  therefore  exercises  its  powers  through  a  re¬ 
sponsible  ministry  selected  from  the  members  of 
Parliament  belonging  to  the  political  party  which 
has  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons.  They 
are  also  the  heads  of  the  executive  departments 
and  members  of  the  King’s  Privy  Council.  The 
King  appoints  the  Premier,  who  is  the  leader  of 
the  party  in  power  and  who  selects  the  other 
members  of  the  cabinet  from  his  own  party. 
They  may  be  members  of  either  House,  but  com¬ 
moners  must  resign  their  seats  and  be  reelected. 
The  cabinet  is  an  extra-legal  institution,  having 
never  been  recognized  by  act  of  Parliament;  the 
names  of  the  members  are  never  officially  an¬ 
nounced  to  the  public,  and  no  record  is  kept  of 
its  meetings  or  acts.  The  size  of  the  cabinet 
varies  according  to  the  prominence  which  cer¬ 
tain  interests  are  likely  to  assume  in  the  Par¬ 
liament.  Strictly  speaking,  it  need  not,  accord¬ 
ing  to  custom,  include  more  than  11  members, 
viz.,  the  First  Lord  &f  the  Treasury,  the  Lord 
Chancellor  of  England,  the  Lord  President  of  the 
Council,  the  Lord  Privy  Seal,  the  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer,  the  Secretaries  of  State  for  Home 
Affairs,  for  Foreign  Affairs,  for  the  Colonies,  for 
India,  and  for  War,  and  the  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty.  To  these  may  be  added  the  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Local  Government  Board,  the  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  Chief  Secretary 
to  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  the  Lord 
Chancellor  of  Ireland,  the  Secretary  for  Scotland, 
the  First  Commissioner  of  Works,  the  President 
of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  the  President  of 
the  Board  of  Education,  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Duchy  of  Lancaster,  the  Postmaster-General,  and 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


684 


the  Attorney-General.  A  minister  of  munitions 
and  a  minister  of  war  trade  were  added  to  the 
cabinet  after  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war.  The 
legislative  duties  of  the  cabinet  are  to  urge  the 
adoption  of  government  measures  in  the  House 
of  Commons  and  to  defend  the  government’s 
policy  against  the  opposition,  and  for  that  pur¬ 
pose  the  members  have  seats  in  Parliament.  It 
initiates  public  legislative  measures  and  leads 
the  majority  in  debate.  The  ministers  are  re¬ 
sponsible  to  the  Commons  for  their  policy,  and 
if  defeated  on  any  important  measures,  or  if  the 
House  votes  lack  of  confidence  in  them,  they  re¬ 
sign,  and  another  ministry  is  formed  from  the 
new  majority.  If,  however,  the  defeated  cabinet 
think  they  still  represent  the  popular  will,  they 
can  ask  the  King  to  dissolve  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons  and  order  a  new  election.  If  the  electorate 
pronounces  against  them,  they  must  resign. 
Their  responsibility  is  collective,  and  therefore 
they  all  go  out  together  unless  the  conduct  of  a 
particular  minister  has  been  such  that  the  re¬ 
sponsibility  for  the  objectionable  policy  may  be 
fixed  on  him,  in  which  event  he  alone  resigns. 
This  happened  in  1851  in  the  case  of  Lord  Pal¬ 
merston,  the  Foreign  Secretary,  who  was  forced 
to  resign. 

In  addition  to  their  legislative  functions  the 
ministers  act  as  heads  of  the  various  depart¬ 
ments  of  administration.  The  Prime  Minister 
usually  takes  the  portfolio  of  the  Treasury  De¬ 
partment  with  the  title  of  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury.  There  are  few  duties,  however,  at¬ 
tached  to  the  First  Lordship  of  the  Treasury, 
the  actual  head  being  the  Chancellor  of  the  Ex¬ 
chequer,  the  chief  financial  officer  of  the  govern¬ 
ment.  He  prepares  annually  and  submits  to 
Parliament  the  budget  or  statement  of  the  esti¬ 
mated  receipts  and  expenditures  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  for  the  ensuing  year,  together  with  sug¬ 
gestions  for  the  increase  or  reduction  of  taxation 
in  case  of  expected  deficit  or  surplus.  The  duties 
of  the  Foreign,  Colonial,  War,  and  India  secre¬ 
taries  are  sufficiently  clear  from  the  names.  The 
Secretary  for  Home  Affairs  supervises  the  police 
and  certain  local  administration,  advises  the 
sovereign  in  the  matter  of  granting  pardons, 
and  in  part  concerning  labor  legislation.  The 
Admiralty  administers  naval  affairs  and  is  con¬ 
trolled  by  six  lords.  The  Board  of  Trade  super¬ 
vises  commercial,  railway,  marine,  and  statistical 
affairs,  coinage,  weights  and  measures,  and  the 
post  office. 

The  judicial  system  has  only  two  tribunals 
which  are  in  any  sense  constitutional  courts:  the 
House  of  Lords  and  the  Judicial  Committee  of 
the  Privy  Council.  The  House  of  Lords  acts  as 
a  criminal  court  for  the  trial  of  peers,  as  a  gen¬ 
eral  court  of  impeachment,  and  as  the  highest 
court  of  appeal  for  the  United  Kingdom.  In  the 
last-mentioned  capacity  only  the  Lord  Chancel¬ 
lor,  who  presides,  the  Lords  of  Appeal  in  Ordi¬ 
nary  (four  life  lords  of  high  judicial  standing 
provided  for  by  statute),  and  such  members  as 
have  formerly  held  high  judicial  office,  take  part 
in  the  hearing.  The  jurisdiction  of  this  court 
includes  cases  appealed  from  any  appellate  court 
in  England,  or  from  any  court  in  Scotland  or 
Ireland,  from  which  appeals  were  allowed  to  the 
House  of  Lords  previous  to  1876.  The  Judicial 
Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  is  a  court  of 
last  resort  for  India,  the  colonies,  the  Isle  of 
Man,  the  Channel  Islands,  and  the  vice-admiralty 
courts  abroad.  Its  personnel  is  substantially  the 
same  as  that  of  the  House  of  Lords  when  sitting 


as  highest  court  of  appeal.  Apart  from  these 
tribunals  the  general  courts  of  the  Kingdom  are 
the  High  Court  of  Justice  and  the  Court  of 
Appeal.  The  former  consists  of  three  sections, 
known  as  the  Chancery  Division,  of  six  judges, 
the  King’s  Bench  Division,  of  15  judges,  and  the 
Probate,  Divorce,  and  Admiralty  Division,  of 
two  judges.  Appeals  lie  from  this  court  to  the 
Court  of  Appeal,  a  tribunal  consisting  of  the 
Master  of  the  Rolls,  five  justices,  and  the  three 
presidents  of  the  divisions  of  the  High  Court. 
The  principal  criminal  courts  are  the  petty  ses¬ 
sions  and  quarter  sessions,  held  by  the  justices 
of  the  peace;  the  assize  courts,  held  four  times  a 
year  in  certain  towns,  usually  by  judges  of  the 
King’s  Bench  Division ;  and  the  Central  Criminal 
Court,  which  is  the  court  of  oyer  and  terminer 
and  jail  delivery  for  the  city  of  London  and 
surrounding  territory. 

The  English  system  of  local  government  is 
highly  complex  and  difficult  of  explanation.  The 
parliamentary  Acts  of  1888  and  1894  somewhat 
simplified  the  system.  The  more  important  lo¬ 
cal  units  are  now  counties,  county  boroughs, 
municipal  boroughs,  urban  districts,  rural  dis¬ 
tricts,  parishes,  and  school  districts.  The  chief 
county  officers  are  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  the 
sheriff,  the  justices  of  the  peace,  the  clerk,  and 
the  coroner.  The  Lord  Lieutenant  represents 
the  crown  in  the  county  and  is  the  keeper  of  the 
records.  The  sheriff,  who  formerly  wielded  large 
powers,  is  now  a  ministerial  officer  whose  chief 
duties  relate  to  the  enforcement  of  the  judg¬ 
ments  of  the  courts  and  the  holding  of  parlia¬ 
mentary  elections.  The  justices  of  the  peace 
were  in  1888  stripped  of  most  of  their  former 
administrative  and  financial  powers  by  the  Lo¬ 
cal  Government  Act  of  that  year  and  are  now 
chiefly  judicial  functionaries  who  attend  to  the 
preliminary  investigation  of  all  crimes.  The 
Lord  Chancellor  appoints  them  upon  nomination 
by  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of  the  county  in  which 
they  reside.  They  try  minor  offenses  without  a 
jury.  As  a  criminal  court  of  first  instance  they 
all  sit  together  in  a  court  of  quarter  sessions, 
and  without  a  jury  they  are  a  court  of  appeal 
from  orders  and  decisions  of  justices  acting  in¬ 
dividually  or  in  petty  or  special  sessions.  They 
still  retain  some  administrative  duties,  such  as 
issuing  liquor  licenses,  appointing  overseers  of 
the  poor,  and  assisting  in  police  administration. 

By  the  Act  of  1888  there  wTas  created  in  each 
of  the  62  administrative  counties  (except  the 
administrative  county  of  London)  into  which 
England  and  Wales  are  divided  a  popularly 
elected  County  Council  of  councilors  and  aider- 
men,  the  latter  selected  by  the  councilors,  usually 
from  their  own  body.  Councilors  sit  for  three 
years,  the  aldermen  for  six,  one-half  their  num¬ 
ber  retiring  every  third  year.  They  all  sit  to¬ 
gether  under  the  presidency  of  a  county  chair¬ 
man,  chosen  from  the  aldermen;  he  alone  re¬ 
ceives  compensation.  The  powers  and  duties  of 
the  County  Council  include  ( 1 )  care  and  ad¬ 
ministration  of  county  property;  (2)  selection 
and  supervision  of  most  of  the  minor  county  of¬ 
ficers;  (3)  assessment  of  rates  and  raising  of 
loans;  (4)  management  of  highways;  (5)  grant¬ 
ing  of  licenses  to  music  and  dancing  houses; 
(6)  control  of  the  police  (except  in  London) 
through  a  committee  of  the  Council;  and  (7) 
a  variety  of  other  local  matters.  Like  the  simi¬ 
lar  county  authority  in  the  United  States,  the 
English  County  Council  is  restricted  to  enum¬ 
erated  powers. 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


685 


Below  the  county  is  the  district,  either  rural 
or  urban.  The  Act  of  1894  provided  that  each 
rural  district  should  consist  of  a  group  of  rural 
parishes,  and  its  chief  organ  a  council  elected 
for  three  years  by  the  parish  assembly,  and 
vested  with  administration  of  the  poor  law,  the 
public  health,  and  the  highway  acts.  The  urban 
district  consists  of  a  group  of  urban  parishes 
in  unincorporated  boroughs,  and,  like  the  rural 
district,  has  a  council  with  the  same  powers, 
except  that  the  poor-law  administration  is  left 
to  a  board  of  guardians.  Below  the  district  is 
the  parish,  urban  or  rural.  In  1894  the  rural 
parishes  were  reorganized,  but  the  urban  were 
only  slightly  changed.  By  that  act  every  rural 
parish  of  not  more  than  300  people  has  a  parish 
meeting,  or  assembly,  at  which  every  elector 
lias  the  right  to  vote.  Rural  parishes  of  more 
than  300  people  have  also  a  parish  council  of 
from  5  to  15,  elected  for  one  year.  The  councils 
have  taken  over  the  civil  powers  of  the  old 
vestries,  which  after  1894  were  ecclesiastical  bod¬ 
ies  merely,  and  besides  have  duties  relating  to 
charities,  water  supply,  public  health,  highways, 
and  other  matters. 

Incorporated  towns,  including  county  bor¬ 
oughs  (i.e.,  boroughs  which  are  treated  some¬ 
what  as  a  county),  are  governed  by  a  mayor, 
aldermen,  and  councilors,  which  together  consti¬ 
tute  a  municipal  corporation,  known  as  the 
council.  The  councilors  are  elected  practically 
by  the  ratepayers  for  three  years,  one-tliird  re¬ 
tiring  annually;  the  aldermen,  by  the  council 
for  six  years,  one-half  retiring  every  third  year; 
and  the  mayor  by  the  council  for  one  year.  He 
alone  is  salaried,  and  is  an  ex-officio  justice  of 
the  peace.  The  municipal  corporation  has  only 
enumerated  powers,  substantially  the  same  as 
the  urban  council,  but  provision  is  made  for 
a  separate  quarter  session  and  a  separate  police 
force. 

London,  by  the  Local  Government  Act  of  1888, 
was  made  an  administrative  county  with  its  own 
council,  sheriff,  and  other  officers.  In  1901  the 
County  of  London,  aside  from  the  city,  was  di¬ 
vided  into  28  metropolitan  boroughs,  each  with 
its  mayor,  aldermen,  and  councilors,  which  take 
the  place  of  the  old  parish  vestries,  formerly  the 
chief  local  governing  bodies  of  the  metropolis. 

The  recent’  parliamentary  legislation  has  shown 
a  marked  tendency  towards  greater  central  con¬ 
trol  over  the  local  administration.  The  chief 
organ  of  supervision  is  the  Local  Government 
Board,  created  in  1871,  the  president  of  which 
is  usually  a  cabinet  minister.  It  can  approve  or 
disapprove  many  acts  of  the  local  organs,  can 
audit  the  accounts  of  the  local  authorities,  com¬ 
pel  them  to  act  in  certain  particulars,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  can  discipline  local  civil  servants. 

Scotland. — The  government  of  Scotland,  since 
the  union  with  England  in  1707,  has  been  part 
of  the  general  administration  of  Great  Britain. 
The  connection  was  maintained  chiefly  through 
the  Home  Office  until  1885,  when  the  office 
of  Chief  Secretary  for  Scotland  was  created,  and 
duties  previously  discharged  by  different  depart¬ 
ments  were  transferred  to  the  new  office.  The 
Chief  Secretary  is  usually  a  cabinet  minister,  and 
the  chief  cabinet  spokesman  in  the  House  of 
Commons  in  regard  to  Scottish  business.  The 
Lord  Advocate,  the  chief  law  officer  of  the  crown 
for  Scotland,  is  the  legal  adviser  of  the  crown  in 
Scottish  affairs.  He  serves  as  Attorney-Gen¬ 
eral  for  Scotland,  controls  the  whole  criminal 
business  of  that  country,  also  the  preparation 


for  Parliament  of  all  Scottish  bills,  and  is  as¬ 
sisted  by  a  Solicitor-General  for  Scotland,  whose 
duties  resemble  those  of  the  similar  officer  for 
England.  Local  government  in  Scotland  is  regu¬ 
lated  chiefly  by  Acts  passed  in  1889  and  1894. 
By  the  former  elective  county  councils  were 
created  similar  to  those  provided  for  English 
counties  in  1888.  They  took  over  most  of  the 
duties  of  the  old  county  boards,  the  chief  of 
which  was  the  Commission  of  Supply.  The  Act 
of  1894,  like  the  Act  passed  the  same  year  in 
England,  provided  for  an  elective  parish  council 
in  each  parish  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  paro¬ 
chial  boards  and  to  exercise  substantially  the 
same  powers  as  the  English  parish  councils.  The 
same  Act  created  a  local  government  board  for 
Scotland,  consisting  of  the  Secretary  for  Scot¬ 
land  as  President,  the  Solicitor-General,  the  Un¬ 
dersecretary  for  Scotland,  and  three  other  mem¬ 
bers  appointed  by  the  crown.  Scottish  muni¬ 
cipal  administration  differs  little  from  that  of 
England.  Some  burghs  have  a  little  more  local 
autonomy  than  others.  The  municipal  officer 
corresponding  to  the  English  alderman  is  known 
in  Scotland  as  the  baillie,  while  the  Scottish 
provost  corresponds  to  the  English  mayor. 

The  Scottish  Court  of  Sessions  corresponds 
to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  in  England. 
It  is  the  highest  Scottish  civil  tribunal,  consists 
of  13  judges,  and  is  divided  into  chambers  and 
subdivided  into  divisions  for  the  dispatch  of  busi¬ 
ness.  The  Supreme  Criminal  Court  for  Scot¬ 
land  is  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary,  consisting 
of  all  the  judges  of  the  Court  of  Sessions.  It 
sits  part  of  the  time  in  Edinburgh  and  part  of 
the  time  goes  on  circuit.  Circuits  are  held  twice 
a  year,  for  which  purpose  Scotland  is  divided 
into  three  districts.  For  the  trial  of  criminal 
cases,  usually  one  judge  with  a  jury  of  15  men 
constitutes  the  court.  The  High  Court  has  ex¬ 
clusive  jurisdiction  in  cases  of  treason,  murder, 
robbery,  rape,  and  the  other  more  serious  of¬ 
fenses.  The  more  important  inferior  courts  of 
Scotland  are  held  by  county  sheriffs,  appointees 
of  the  crown,  for  a  good  behavior  tenure.  They 
have  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  the  county  courts  and  courts 
of  quarter  sessions  in  England,  and  cases  tried 
by  them  with  a  jury  cannot  be  appealed.  For 
the  government  of  Ireland,  see  Ireland. 

history 

Development  of  Cabinet  Government,  1688- 
1760.  The  legislative  union  of  England  and 
Scotland  was  formally  consummated  on  May  1, 
1707.  There  had  been  much  opposition  to  the 
union  in  Scotland  on  account  of  the  unwilling¬ 
ness  of  the  English  Parliament  to  grant  a  trade- 
union  with  equality  of  commercial  privileges ;  but 
the  threatening  measures  of  the  Scottish  Parlia¬ 
ment  looking  towards  an  absolute  separation 
overcame  this  unwillingness,  and  Scotland  was 
received  as  an  equal  in  all  respects,  with  a  pro¬ 
portional  representation  in  both  Houses  of  the 
new  British  Parliament.  Ireland  was  less  for¬ 
tunate.  The  Protestant  Parliament  there,  in  di¬ 
rect  violation  of  the  Treaty  of  Limerick,  made 
the  position  of  the  Catholic  population,  which 
was  the  great  majority,  almost  intolerable.  The 
English  Parliament,  by  forbidding  the  import  of 
Irish  meat  and  cattle  into  England,  and  the  ex- 
port  of  Irish  woolen  goods  to  any  country  other 
than  England  in  1699,  effectually  destroyed  Irish 
trade.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Anne  the  Tories,  under  the  leadership  of  Harley 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM  686 


(Earl  of  Oxford)  and  St.  John  (Earl  of  Boling- 
broke)  ,  ruled  the  country.  The  Tories  did  all 
they  could  to  preclude  their  opponents  from  the 
possibility  of  future  success.  The  Occasional 
Conformity  Act  and  the  Schism  Act  further  dis¬ 
qualified  Dissenters  from  voting  or  holding  of¬ 
fice.  The  creation  of  12  new  peers  in  1711  gave 
the  Tories  a  majority  in  the  Lords  and  was  a 
most  important  constitutional  measure,  since  it 
demonstrated  that  in  case  of  disagreement  be¬ 
tween  the  two  Houses  the  Commons  could  always 
prevail  by  the  creation  of  the  requisite  number 
of  peers  to  constitute  a  majority.  Harley  and 
St.  John  even  contemplated  the  restoration  of 
the  house  of  Stuart  in  Order  to  prevent  the 
Whigs  from  returning  to  power;  but  their  plans 
were  thwarted  by  the  refusal  of  James  the  Pre¬ 
tender  to  declare  himself  a  Protestant  and  by  the 
sudden  death  of  the  Queen  in  1714.  The  Treaty 
of  Utrecht,  which  terminated  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  gave  Gibraltar  and  Acadia 
to  England,  together  with  Minorca,  which  was 
finally  restored  to  Spain  in  1783. 

With  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Hanover 
(or  of  Brunswick),  in  the  person  of  George  I, 
came  a  long  supremacy  of  the  Whig  party,  which 
was  a  combination  of  the  great  landed  aristoc¬ 
racy  with  the  industrial  classes  of  the  towns, 
while  the  strength  of  the  Tories  consisted  in  the 
support  of  the  country  gentry.  The  Whigs  de¬ 
rived  their  strength  from  the  boroughs,  the  more 
important  of  which  numbered  Dissenters  among 
their  industrial  population,  while  the  pocket 
boroughs,  often  inconsiderable  hamlets,  were 
either  directly  under  the  control  of  the  neigh¬ 
boring  magnates,  usually  Whigs,  or  else  pur¬ 
chasable  by  them.  As  the  Tories  favored  the 
house  of  Stuart,  the  first  Georges  were  com¬ 
pelled  to  choose  their  ministers  from  the  Whigs. 
They  were  more  interested  in  their  German  than 
in  their  English  possessions,  and  as  long  as  they 
were  supported  by  England  in  their  continental 
designs  they  were  quite  willing  to  allow  the  Eng¬ 
lish  ministry  to  do  as  it  pleased  in  regard  to 
home  affairs.  The  cabinet  ceased  to  hold  ses¬ 
sions  in  the  King’s  presence,  and  by  degrees  his 
place  as  head  of  the  council  came  to  be  filled  by 
one  of  its  members.  This  member  was  usually 
the  guiding  spirit  of  the  cabinet.  He  chose  the 
ministry  and  distributed  the  royal  patronage. 
He  and  his  ministry  were  responsible  to  Parlia¬ 
ment  alone. 

The  first  act  of  the  Whig  Parliament  of  1715 
was  the  impeachment  of  Tory  leaders  for  treason¬ 
able  correspondence  with  the  exiled  house  of 
Stuart.  Oxford  was  sent  to  prison,  Bolingbroke 
and  Ormond  fled  to  France.  The  rebellion  of 
1717,  in  favor  of  the  son  of  James  II,  was  easily 
suppressed  in  Scotland  and  northern  England. 
In  1716  the  same  Parliament  prolonged  its  power 
by  an  Act  providing  for  septennial  parliaments, 
and  in  1710  it  provided  relief  for  the  Dissenters 
by  the  repeal  of  the  Occasional  Conformity  Act 
and  the  Schism  Act.  In  1720  a  mad  wave  of 
speculation  in  shares  of  the  South  Sea  Company 
swept  over  the  country,  based  on  exaggerated 
notions  of  the  value  of  the  trade  with  the  Span¬ 
ish  colonies  in  South  America.  The  ministry 
had  allowed  the  national  debt  to  be  incorporated 
with  the  stock  of  the  company,  with  a  promise 
that  the  debt  should  be  extinguished  in  25  years, 
and  when  the  bubble  burst  it  was  forced  to  re¬ 
sign.  A  partial  relief  for  the  sufferers  was  pro¬ 
vided  by  the  able  administration  of  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  (q.v. ),  who  was  the  virtual  head  of  the 


new  cabinet.  For  21  years  this  astute  man  was 
the  guiding  spirit  in  English  politics.  By  his 
ability  as  a  financier  he  greatly  promoted  trade 
and  commerce,  and  incidentally  he  made  cabinet 
government  a  working  system  and  caused  the 
House  of  Commons  to  become  more  important 
than  the  House  of  Lords.  He  avoided  exciting 
popular  feeling,  even  withdrawing  measures  of 
undoubted  excellence  because  of  the  prejudice 
against  them;  as,  e.g.,  his  Excise  Bill  in  1733, 
which  provided  for  the  regulation  of  import 
duties  in  government  warehouses.  With  great 
reluctance  he  permitted  the  popular  feeling  in 
1739  to  involve  the  nation  in  the  Spanish  War, 
but  resigned  in  1742  rather  than  embark  in  a 
second  war,  that  of  the  Austrian  Succession.  In 
his  previous  peace  policy  he  had  had  the  sup¬ 
port  of  the  nation,  although  he  had  never  hesi¬ 
tated  to  maintain  his  majorities  by  making  use 
of  corruption.  Carteret  was  the  actual  head 
of  the  next  ministry,  a  short-lived  one.  His 
participation  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succes¬ 
sion  was  indeed  fortunate  for  Hanover,  but 
brought  neither  glory  nor  profit  to  England. 
During  this  war  occurred  the  daring  invasion 
of  the  Young  Pretender,  Charles  Edward  Stuart. 
At  the  head  of  the  Highland  clans  he  gained  a 
brilliant  victory  over  the  royal  forces  at  Pres- 
tonpans  in  1745  and  advanced  into  England  as 
far  as  Derby,  but  was  finally  forced  to  with¬ 
draw  to  Scotland  and  was  overthrown  at  Cullo- 
den  in  1746.  In  1745  began  the  struggle  between 
England  and  France  for  dominion  in  India. 

After  Carteret  had  been  compelled  to  resign, 
and  the  great  Whig  family  of  Pelham  had  shown 
its  incapacity,  and  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  had 
demonstrated  his  incompetence  to  rule  by  cor¬ 
ruption,  Pitt  entered  the  cabinet  in  1756.  Al¬ 
though  nominally  a  Whig,  he  was  in  reality 
above  party  ties.  The  middle  class  trusted  him 
and  formed  his  strongest  support.  He  was 
hostile  to  France  and  took  active  part  with 
Frederick  the  Great  in  the  Seven  Years’  War, 
in  which  the  French  were  deprived  of  Canada, 
which  became  English,  and  of  Louisiana,  as  well 
as  of  their  power  in  India.  He  resigned  in  1761 
because  the  cabinet  refused  to  follow  him  in  the 
declaration  of  war  with  Spain,  which  he  consid¬ 
ered  inevitable.  In  the  course  of  the  Seven 
Years’  War  and  the  ensuing  years  Clive  laid 
the  foundation  of  a  great  British  empire  in 
India. 

The  Struggle  against  Democracy,  1760- 
1820.  Meanwhile  in  1760  George  III  had  as¬ 
cended  the  throne,  with  the  fixed  design  of  re¬ 
storing  as  far  as  practicable  the  royal  preroga¬ 
tives  which  his  two  predecessors  had  allowed  to 
slip  from  their  grasp.  He  was  determined  to 
break  up  the  party  system  as  it  then  existed, 
to  destroy  the  Whig  oligarchy,  and  by  selecting 
his  own  ministers  exert  a  determining  influence 
in  English  politics.  Resuming  the  royal  patron¬ 
age,  he  had  soon  formed  a  party  of  adherents, 
the  “"King’s  friends,”  who  looked  to  him  for 
political  guidance.  Availing  himself  of  dissen¬ 
sions  within  the  Whig  party,  he  forced  Lord 
Bute,  his  favorite,  into  the  cabinet  as  Prime 
Minister,  but  the  latter  showed  incapacity  and 
had  to  resign.  At  last  the  King  found  in  Lord 
North  a  minister  through  whom  he  could  carry 
out  his  ideas.  Under  the  North  ministry  the 
American  War  of  the  Revolution  was  waged, 
and  England,  through  stubborn  adherence  to  her 
old  colonial  policy,  lost  her  most  valuable  colo¬ 
nies.  With  the  greatest  reluctance  the  King 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


687 


ft 


allowed  the  Rockingham  ministry,  with  Fox  as 
its  leading  spirit,  to  be  formed.  He  was  op¬ 
posed  to  Fox’s  grant  of  legislative  independence 
to  Ireland,  and  the  actions  of  Shelburne,  backed 
by  the  King’s  influence,  caused  the  disruption  of 
the  ministry  before  the  completion  of  the  nego¬ 
tiations  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1783,  conferring 
independence  upon  America.  By  his  personal  in¬ 
fluence  again  the  King  overthrew  the  coalition 
ministry  of  Fox  and  North,  and  in  the  face  of 
a  hostile  majority  appointed  the  younger  Pitt 
Prime  Minister. 

Although  the  King  did  not  always  approve 
Pitt’s  measures,  they  were  agreed  in  the  general 
policy  to  be  pursued.  Pitt’s  India  Bill  in  1784 
reduced  the  power  of  the  East  India  Company 
by  submitting  its  political  measures  to  the  con¬ 
trol  of  a  commission  named  by  the  King.  Al¬ 
though  at  first  he  was  not  in  favor  of  the  war 
against  the  French  Republic,  he  soon  became  its 
principal  advocate.  He  was  joined  by  a  major¬ 
ity  of  the  Whig's,  the  most  influential  of  whom 
was  Burke.  Fox,  however,  remained  his  oppo¬ 
nent,  arguing  that  the  demands  of  the  democracy 
should  be  met  by  reforms  at  home.  The  revolt 
in  Ireland,  in  connection  with  this  war,  resulted 
in  the  Act  of  Union  in  1800,  but  Pitt  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  resign  because  the  King  was  unwilling 
to  sanction  Catholic  emancipation  in  that  coun¬ 
try,  which  was  one  of  the  terms  upon  which 
Pitt  proposed  the  union.  He  soon  resumed 
power,  however,  and  the  war  against  Napoleon 
was  prosecuted  vigorously  and  with  success. 
Nelson  conquered  at  Trafalgar,  and  Wellington 
drove  the  French  out  of  Spain.  The  Congress  of 
Vienna  allowed  England  to  retain  a  large  part 
of  the  territories  (Cape  Colony,  Ceylon,  British 
Guiana),  gave  her  Mauritius,  Tobago,  and  St. 
Lucia,  and  confirmed  her  in  the  possession  of 
Malta,  which  she  had  wrested  from  the  French  in 
the  course  of  the  French  wars.  But  while  the 
war  against  Napoleon,  simultaneously  with 
which  a  less  successful  conflict  was  waged  with 
the  United  States  (1812-15),  confirmed  the 
naval  supremacy  of  England,  it  entailed  upon 
the  country  an  enormous  debt,  at  a  time  when 
the  great  body  of  common  laborers  were  in  dire 
distress  as  a  first  result  of  the  industrial  revo¬ 
lution  that  followed  from  the  introduction  of 
the  spinning  machine  (1764),  the  weaving  ma¬ 
chine  (1785),  and  the  steam  engine.  For  five 
years  following  Waterloo  it  was  the  policy  of 
the  government  to  suppress  the  unrest,  while 
the  masses,  on  the  other  hand,  were  threatening 
political  revolt.  In  1815  the  first  Corn  Law, 
in  the  interest  of  the  landowners,  forbade  the 
importation  of  corn  until  the  price  of  the  domes¬ 
tic  product  should  rise  to  10s.  a  bushel.  In  1817 
the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  was  suspended;  in  1819 
occurred  the  Manchester  Massacre,  and  the  no- 
torious  Six  Acts,  by  which  meetings  for  the  con¬ 
sideration  of  grievances  were  suppressed,  were 
enacted.  In  1820  George  IV,  who  had  been  ap¬ 
pointed  Regent  for  his  insane  father  in  1811, 
ascended  the  throne. 

Democracy  and  Reform,  1820  till  the  Pres¬ 
ent  Time.  With  the  accession  of  Canning  to  the 
Foreign  Office  in  1822,  England  again  entered 
upon  a  more  liberal  policy  by  opposing  the  Holy 
Alliance  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia 
for  the  suppression  of  democracy.  In  1824  she 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  Spanish 
colonies.  Assistance  was  afforded  to  the  Greek 
patriots  in  their  uprising  against  Turkey  in  1827. 
In  1823,  under  Sir  Robert  Peel,  an  enlightened 


Tory,  the  criminal  law  was  radically  reformed 
by  the  abolition  of  the  death  penalty  for  about 
100  crimes,  most  of  which  were  trivial  offenses. 

The  combination  laws,  which  prohibited  any 
workingmen’s  associations,  were  repealed  in  1825, 
and  thus  the  way  was  paved  for  the  trades-unions 
that  followed.  In  1823  and  again  in  1825  the 
import  duties  were  materially  reduced.  Both  of 
these  measures  were  brought  about  through  the 
instrumentality  of  John  Huskisson,  President  of 
the  Board  of  Trade. 

During  its  long  exclusion  from  office  the  Whig 
party  had  changed  from  the  close  oligarchy  of 
the  eighteenth  century  and  had  become  the  advo¬ 
cate  of  democratic  reforms.  Lord  John  Russell, 
its  most  energetic  leader,  waged  a  long  struggle 
in  Parliament  for  liberal  measures,  and  it  was 
largely  owing  to  his  efforts  that  the  Corporation 
Act  and  the  Test  Act,  under  which  Catholics 
and  Dissenters  had  been  excluded  from  all  cor¬ 
porate  offices,  were  repealed  in  1828  by  a  Tory 
ministry,  headed  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 
In  1829,  in  consequence  of  the  O’Connell  agita¬ 
tion  for  the  separation  of  Ireland  from  Great 
Britain,  Catholic  emancipation  was  granted.  At 
length,  in  1830,  a  few  months  after  the  accession 
of  William  IV,  the  Whigs,  by  a  fusion  with  the 
more  advanced  Conservatives  (Canningites) ,  re¬ 
turned  to  power  with  Earl  Grey  as  Premier. 
His  ministry  was  celebrated  for  the  number  of 
reforms  it  introduced.  In  1831  Lord  John  Rus¬ 
sell  introduced  the  first  Reform  Bill  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  which,  after  an  appeal  to 
the  country,  was  indorsed  by  an  overwhelming 
majority  and,  notwithstanding  the  opposition 
of  the  Lords,  becamq  a  law  in  1832.  In  its  final 
form  this  law  took  away  the  franchises  of  56 
boroughs  and  reduced  -  the  membership  of  32 
others,  distributing  this  representation  among 
the  larger  towns  and  more  populous  counties, 
and  it  increased  the  number  of  voters  from  430,- 
000  to  650,000.  By  these  measures  it  transferred 
the  balance  of  political  power  to  the  middle 
classes  of  the  towns. 

In  the  next  election  the  Ministerialists  received 
an  overwhelming  majority.  This  majority  was 
composed  of  two  groups,  the  Radicals  and  the 
Whigs,  who  assumed  the  common  name  of  Lib¬ 
erals.  A  number  of  important  reforms  were  in¬ 
troduced.  The  number  of  bishops  of  the  Estab¬ 
lished  church  of  Ireland  was  reduced  from  22 
to  12,  and  certain  ecclesiastical  taxation  was 
levied  on  the  clergy,  instead  of  being  levied  on 
the  population  at  large.  In  1833  slavery  was 
abolished  in  the  colonies,  and  a  compensation 
of  £20,000,000  was  given  to  slaveowners.  In 
the  same  year  the  first  Factory  Act,  limiting 
the  labor  of  children  to  eight  hours  a  day, 
was  passed  through  the  efforts  of  Lord  Ashley, 
and  in  1834  the  new  Poor  Law,  abolishing  out¬ 
door  relief  and  charity  to  the  able-bodied,  was 
enacted.  The  Liberal  ministry  of  Lord  Mel¬ 
bourne,  which  came  to  power  in  1835,  also 
enacted  a  Municipal  Corporations  Act  providing 
for  the  election  of  corporations  by  the  rate¬ 
payers,  in  place  of  the  old  method  of  self-elec¬ 
tion.  In  1837  a  rebellion  in  Canada  gave  occa¬ 
sion  for  uniting  the  provinces  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada  into  one  province,  under  a  new 
constitution  which  embodied  the  essentials  of 
internal  self-government.  In  1838  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  the  English  Poor  Law  were  extended  to 
Ireland,  and  a  Tithe  Act  was  passed,  levying 
the  tithes  on  the  landlord  instead  of  on  the  ten¬ 
ants.  During  this  reform  period  the  foreign 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


688 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


policy,  which  was  directed  by  the  brilliant  Lord 
Palmerston,  acted  as  a  check  on  the  absolute 
governments  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia. 
His  support  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  against 
Egypt,  howeyer,  brought  about  an  estrange¬ 
ment  with  France.  With  the  accession  of  Queen 
Victoria  in  1837  the  Kingdom  of  Hanover,  not 
allowing  a  woman  to  occupy  the  throne,  became 
detached  from  England. 

In  1839  the  Chartists  (see  Chartism),  a  body 
of  radical  reformers,  presented  to  the  House  of 
Commons  their  petition  for  manhood  suffrage, 
vote  by  ballot,  annual  parliaments,  the  abolition 
of  property  qualification,  the  payment  of  mem¬ 
bers,  and  equal  electoral  districts.  In  1841  the 
new  Conservative  party  came  to  power  under 
Sir  Robert  Peel.  It  was  composed  of  the  Tories 
and  of  the  more  conservative  Whigs  under  the 
leadership  of  Lord  Stanley,  afterward  the  Earl 
of  Derby,  who  had  left  the  Liberal  party.  By 
anticipating  the  plans  of  the  Liberals  the  Con¬ 
servatives  sought  to  make  reforms,  but  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  their  own  principles.  In  1842 
and  1845  Peel  further  reduced  the  protective 
tariffs,  providing  an  income  tax  to  meet  the 
ensuing  deficiency  in  the  revenue.  The  condi¬ 
tions  of  women  and  children  employed  in  the 
mines  were  improved  by  the  efforts  of  Lord  Ash¬ 
ley  in  Parliament.  In  consequence  of  the  spir¬ 
ited  campaign  against  the  Corn  Laws  by  the 
Anti-Corn-Law  League,  which  was  headed  by 
Richard  Cobden  and  John  Bright,  and  under 
the  stress  of  the  Irish  famine,  Peel  went  so  far 
as  entirely  to  repeal  the  import  duties  on  corn 
in  1846.  In  this  measure  he  was  supported  by 
the  Liberals,  but  opposed  by  the  majority  of  his 
own  party,  which  represented  the  land  interests. 
He  was  consequently  overthrown;  but  the  Lib¬ 
eral  ministry  of  Lord  John  Russell,  which  fol¬ 
lowed,  introduced  no  measures  of  importance, 
either  to  relieve  the  tenant  farmers  in  Ireland 
or  to  enlarge  the  suffrage  in  accordance  with 
the  demands  of  the  Chartists  in  England.  The 
foreign  policy  of  all  reform  ministries  had  been 
one  of  hostility  to  Russia.  The  invasion  of 
Afghanistan  in  1839,  intended  as  a  measure 
against  Russian  aggression,  resulted  in  the  disas¬ 
trous  retreat  from  Kabul  and  the  annihilation 
of  a  British  army  in  1842 — a  humiliation  in  a 
measure  retrieved  by  the  subsequent  successes 
of  the  British.  England’s  alliance  with  France 
in  the  Crimean  War  (1854-56),  by  which  Rus¬ 
sian  aggression  against  Turkey  was  checked, 
was  actuated  by  the  same  motives.  The  leading 
statesman  identified  with  this  aggressive  policy 
was  Lord  Palmerston.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Victoria  the  British  Empire  in  India 
expanded  with  giant  strides,  Sind,  the  Punjab, 
and  Oudh  being  annexed  between  1843  and  1846. 
The  Opium  War  with  China  (1840-42)  gave 
Hongkong  to  England.  In  1857  occurred  the 
terrible  mutiny  of  the  Indian  Sepoys,  the  native 
troops  in  British  employ.  On  the  suppression 
of  the  mutiny  Parliament  put  an  end  to  the 
authority  of  the  East  India  Company  by  making 
India  a  crown  colony.  Its  Governor-General 
(henceforth  Viceroy)  was  brought  directly  under 
the  British  monarch. 

During  the  third  Derby  ministry  Disraeli,  its 
real  leader,  carried  the  Second  Reform  Act, 
by  the  aid  of  the  Liberals,  in  1867.  This  Act 
established,  practically,  household  suffrage  in 
the  towns,  thus  giving  to  the  workingmen  a  voice 
in  political  affairs,  and  greatly  enlarged  the  suf¬ 
frage  in  the  country.  The  first  ministry  of 


Gladstone,  which  followed  (1868-74),  resembled 
the  ministry  of  Earl  Grey  in  the  number  of  re¬ 
forms  it  inaugurated.  The  attempted  Irish  revo¬ 
lutions  of  1848  and  1867  (see  Fenian  Society) 
had  convinced  Gladstone  of  the  necessity  of 
the  redress  of  Irish  grievances.  In  1869-71  the 
Irish  church  was  disestablished  and  disendowed. 
A  Land  Act  in  1870  compelled  landlords  to  com¬ 
pensate  tenants  for  improvements  in  cases  of 
eviction  and  provided  for  government  loans  to 
tenants  wishing  to  buy  their  holdings.  For¬ 
ster’s  Education  Act  provided  for  national  pri¬ 
mary  schools  and  for  compulsory  attendance, 
in  place  of  the  public  aid  which  had  previously 
been  given  to  private  institutions.  The  purchase 
of  positions  in  the  army  was  abolished  in  1871, 
and  the  Ballot  Act  of  1872  instituted  secret  vot¬ 
ing  at  elections.  Gladstone’s  foreign  policy  was 
weak  but  pacific.  He  allowed  Russia  to  abro¬ 
gate  her  treaty  obligations  guaranteeing  neutral¬ 
ity  in  the  Black  Sea,  and  he  settled  the  Alabama 
claims  by  the  payment  of  $15,000,000  to  the 
United  States,  in  accordance  with  the  decision  of 
a  court  of  arbitration  which  sat  at  Geneva  in 
1871. 

The  second  ministry  of  Disraeli  (1874-80),  on 
the  other  hand,  was  noted  chiefly  for  its  aggres¬ 
sive  foreign  policy.  He  had  Queen  Victoria  pro¬ 
claimed  Empress  of  India  in  1877.  His  interfer¬ 
ence  robbed  Russia  of  the  fruits  of  her  victory 
over  Turkey  in  1878  and  secured  Cyprus  for  Eng¬ 
land,  and  in  the  same  year  he  made  war  upon 
Afghanistan,  whose  sovereign  was  leaning  to¬ 
wards  Russia.  In  Africa  a  controlling  interest 
in  the  Suez  Canal  was  acquired,  the  Transvaal 
was  annexed  (soon,  however,  to  be  set  free),  and 
the  Zulus  were  subdued.  In  his  second  ministry 
(1880-85)  Gladstone  also  was  compelled  to  ex¬ 
tend  the  Empire  by  suppressing  the  revolt  of 
the  native  Egyptians  under  Arabi  Pasha  against 
the  dual  control  of  the  finances  of  Egypt  by 
France  and  England.  As  a  result  of  this  war 
Egypt  came  under  British  control.  Forster’s 
Land  Act  of  1881  provided  for  free  sale,  fair 
rents,  and  fixity  of  tenure  in  Ireland,  and  the 
Third  Reform  Act  in  1884  gave  to  the  country 
the  universal  suffrage  already  practically  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  towns. 

Subsequent  legislation  has  been  largely  demo¬ 
cratic  in  character.  The  local  government  meas¬ 
ures  (1888,  1892,  1899)  took  the  local  govern¬ 
ment  out  of  the  hands  of  the  gentry  by  the 
establishment  of  county  councils  (q.v.)  elected 
by  the  people.  Under  this  act  Greater  London 
at  last  received  the  self-government  it  had  so 
long  deserved  by  being  organized  as  a  county. 
The  proposed  Home  Rule  acts  were  a  result  of 
the  demands  of  the  great  majority  of  the  Irish 
people  under  the  leadership  of  Charles  Stewart 
Parnell.  Gladstone’s  first  act,  in  1885,  was  re¬ 
jected  by  the  Commons,  and  caused  the  disrup¬ 
tion  of  the  Liberal  party.  A  strong  minority, 
under  the  leadership  of  Lord  Hartington  and 
Joseph  Chamberlain,  revolted  and,  assuming  the 
name  of  Liberal  Unionists,  joined  the  Conserva¬ 
tives.  Gladstone’s  second  Home  Rule  measure 
(1895)  was  accepted  by  the  Commons,  but  re¬ 
jected  by  the  Lords,  and  the  next  general  election 
returned  the  Conservatives  to  power  with  Salis¬ 
bury  as  Premier.  The  aggressive  policy  of 
Joseph  Chamberlain,  the  Colonial  Secretary,  in¬ 
volved  the  nation  in  a  bloody  war  with  the  two 
Dutch  republics  of  South  Africa  in  1899.  (See 
South  African  War.)  The  struggle  which 
opened  with  serious  British  reverses  nevertheless 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


689 


ended  in  the  subjugation  of  the  Boers.  In  the 
course  of  this  struggle  Queen  Victoria  died,  Jan. 
22,  1901,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  son,  Ed¬ 
ward  VII. 

In  1902  a  new  Education  Bill  was  enacted  in 
spite  of  violent  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
Liberal  and  Nonconformist  elements  aroused  by 
the  extensive  favors  the  new  measure  conferred 
on  the  Anglican  denomination.  In  1903  a  Land 
Act  for  Ireland  was  passed,  providing  the  sum  of 
£100,000,000  for  distribution  in  the  form  of  long¬ 
term  loans  to  tenants  for  the  purpose  of  ena¬ 
bling  them  to  acquire  ownership  of  the  land 
they  occupied. 

In  1903  Joseph  Chamberlain  injected  a  mo¬ 
mentous  question  into  the  sphere  of  party  poli¬ 
tics  by  bringing  forward  suggestions  for  an 
alteration  in  the  fiscal  arrangements  of  the 
country,  equivalent  to  the  abandonment  of  the 
time-honored  system  of  free  trade.  For  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  bringing  about  closer  relations  between 
the  United  Kingdom  and  its  colonies  so  as  to 
enable  British  interests  more  effectually  to  com¬ 
pete  with  the  growing  rivalry  of  Germany  and 
the  United  States  in  the  commercial  field,  as 
well  as  to  establish  an  effective  system  of  Im¬ 
perial  defense,  he  proposed  that,  in  exchange  for 
preferential  tariff  treatment  of  British  manu¬ 
factures  by  the  colonies  as  against  foreign  manu¬ 
factures  the  United  Kingdom  should  impose  a 
duty  on  food  imports  from  foreign  countries  and 
admit  colonial  produce  free.  The  tariff  question 
was  debated  extensively  in  Parliament  through¬ 
out  1904  and  1905  with  no  other  result  than 
that  of  emphasizing  the  unpopularity  of  Cham¬ 
berlain’s  views.  In  December,  1905,  the  Balfour 
cabinet  found  its  position  untenable  and  re¬ 
signed.  A  Liberal  ministry  was  organized  by 
Sir  Henry  Campbell-Bannerman  (q.v. ),  who  im¬ 
mediately  thereafter  appealed  to  the  country. 
The  general  election  of  January,  1906,  was 
fought  out  on  the  issues  of  tariff  reform,  repeal 
of  the  Education  Bill  of  1902,  and  the  policy 
of  the  Unionist  government  in  the  matter  of 
admitting  Chinese  labor  into  the  Transvaal,  and 
resulted  in  an  overwhelming  defeat  for  the 
Unionist  party,  the  Liberals  receiving  a  major¬ 
ity  of  over  300.  In  April,  1906,  the  government 
introduced  an  Education  Bill  which  dealt  radi¬ 
cally  with  the  question  of  religious  instruction 
in  the  schools  and  in  a  spirit  acceptable  to  those 
who  had  opposed  the  bill  of  1902.  The  measure 
was  passed  by  a  large  majority  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  but  in  the  House  of  Lords  it  was  bit¬ 
terly  assailed  by  the  Anglicans  and  so  radically 
amended  that  it  was  dropped,  not,  however,  with¬ 
out  producing  strained  relations  between  the 
Lords  and  the  government  and  agitation  on  the 
part  of  the  Radicals  for  the  abolition  of  the 
Upper  House. 

In  the  sphere  of  foreign  politics  British  pres¬ 
tige,  which  had  suffered  badly  in  the  course  of 
the  South  African  War,  reached  a  higher  point 
than  ever  in  the  three  years  following  the  con¬ 
clusion  of  peace  with  the  Boers.  In"  the  East 
Great  Britain  appears  as  the  ally  of  triumphant 
Japan,  with  which  treaties  were  concluded  in 
1902  and  1905.  (See  Japan.)  Its  position  in 
India  was  strengthened  by  the  second  of  these 
two  treaties,  by  the  confirmation  of  treaty  rela¬ 
tions  with  the  Ameer  of  Afghanistan  in  1905, 
and  the  establishment  of  trade  relations  with 
Tibet  (q.v.)  in  1904.  Its  position  in  Egypt  was 
improved  by  the  agreement  of  April  8,  1904,  with 
France,  in  which  the  latter  power  gave  its  con¬ 


sent  to  the  indefinite  continuance  of  the  status 
quo,  and  by  the  enforcement  of  British  claims 
to  the  Sinai  territory  against  Turkey  in  1906 
The  agreement  of  i904  with  France  was  of 
primary  importance  for  European  politics  also 
as  marking  the  establishment  of  peculiarly  in¬ 
timate  relations  between  the  two  Powers  in 
their  opposition  to  German  policy. 

The  strained  relation  between  the  government 
and  the  House  of  Lords  continued  unabated,  and 
in  1907  the  government  resolved  that  the  powers 
of  the  Lords  in  rejecting  and  delaying  legislation 
ought  to  be  checked.  The  same  year  Herbert 
Henry  Asquith,  in  preparing  the  budget,  re¬ 
duced  the  tax  on  incomes  directly  earned  in 
comparison  with  that  on  incomes  derived  from 
real  property  and  from  investments.  When 
Campbell-Bannerman  died,  in  1908,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Asquith,  there  was  another  failure 
to  pass  an  Education  Bill,  and  although  the 
Lords  agreed  to  an  Old  Age  Pension  Bill,1  which 
had  been  formerly  promised  by  the  Unionists, 
they  rejected  a  bill  from  the  Commons  for  re¬ 
ducing  by  one-third  the  number  of  houses  li¬ 
censed  to  sell  intoxicating  liquors.  In  1909 
David  Lloyd-George,  the  new  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  in  preparing  a  budget  that  would 
enable  England  to  meet  the  increasing  naval 
efficiency  of  foreign  powers,  greatly  increased 
the  tax  on  liquor  licenses,  increased  the  tax  on 
incomes  exceeding  £5000  a  year,  and  laid  a 
tax  on  land  calculated  to  appropriate  to  the  use 
of  the  state  a  portion  of  the  unearned  increment. 
The  Lords,  accepting  this  budget  as  a  challenge, 
threw  it  out.  The  government  went  twice  to 
the  country  in  1910  with  the  issue  and  was 
sustained  each  time.  The  same  year  Edward 
VII,  who  was  one  of  the  most  sagacious  occupants 
of  the  English  throne  since  William  III,  died 
and  was  succeeded  by  George  V.  In  1911  the 
House  of  Commons,  considering  itself  authorized 
to  settle  its  difficulty  with  the  House  of  Lords, 
passed  a  Parliament  Bill  depriving  the  Lords 
of  practically  all  power  over  money  bills  and 
providing  that  any  other  bill  which  passes  the 
House  of  Commons  unchanged  in  three  succes¬ 
sive  sessions  of  the  same  or  successive  parlia¬ 
ments  does  not  require  the  assent  of  the  Lords 
to  become  a  law.  The  Parliament  Bill  passed 
the  Lords  under  a  threat  to  create  new  peers 
if  necessary,  and  the  first  important  measures 
to  pass  into  laws  under  the  operation  of  this 
somewhat  revolutionary  Act  were  a  Bill  dises¬ 
tablishing  the  Anglican  church  in  Wales  (1914) 
and  a  Home  Rule  Bill  for  Ireland  1914).  (See 
Government.)  To  meet  the  threatening  violent 
opposition  to  the  latter  Act  by  the  Protestants 
of  Ulster  the  House  of  Commons  passed  in  1914 
an  Amending  Bill  allowing  the  electors  of  each 
county  of  Ulster  to  decide  whether  or  not  their 
county  shall  be  excluded  from  the  operation  of 
Home  Rule  for  a  period  of  six  years.  Another 
part  of  the  radical  programme  of  the  Liberals 
was  the  National  Insurance  Bill,  passed  in 
1912,  and  providing  both  national  health  in¬ 
surance  and  unemployment  insurance.  For  sev¬ 
eral  years  the  militant  branch  of  the  woman's 
suffrage  movement  had  been  a  disturbing  factor 
in  political  and  social  England,  but  apparently 
without  enhancing  the  cause. 

The  great  war  which  began  in  1914  came  at 
a  most  inauspicious  moment  for  the  United 
Kingdom.  Ireland  was  on  the  verge  of  civil 
war,  the  army  was  in  a  poor  condition,  and  the 
vast  increase  in  naval  appropriations,  together 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM  690 


with  the  disagreement  with  the  colonies  over  the 
naval  policy,  presented  serious  internal  prob¬ 
lems.  A  Suspensory  Bill  was  passed  which  sus¬ 
pended  from  operation  the  Home  Rule  Act  and 
the  Welsh  Disestablishment  Act  until  12  months 
from  the  passage  of  the  acts  or  until  such 
later  date  ( not  being  later  than  the  end  of  the 
present  war)  as  mav  be  fixed  by  His  Majesty 
by  Order  in  Council.”  In  1915  the  operation  of 
the  Acts  was  definitely  suspended  until  the  close 
of  the  war.  War  measures  were  passed  pro¬ 
viding  for  authorization  of  war  credits;  a  De¬ 
fense0  of  the  Realm  Act,  aimed  against  espio¬ 
nage  ;  government  control  of  the  railroads  and  a 
strict  censorship  of  the  press. 

Three  great  problems  faced  the  British  gov¬ 
ernment  in  1915,  viz.,  finances,  supply  of  muni¬ 
tions,  and  the  recruitment  of  the  army.  (For 
a  full  treatment  of  the  first  of  these,  see  War 
in  Europe.)  By  April,  1915,  750,000  men  of 
“Kitchener’s  Army”  had  been  sent  to  the  front. 
However  it  was  soon  evident  that  Great  Britain 
was  not  supplying  enough  men  to  meet  the  task 
assigned  her  in  western  Europe.  Conscription, 
as  opposed  to  volunteer  enlistment,  was  proposed 
by  many  prominent  men,  although  the  cabinet 
seemed  loath  to  take  it  up.  The  last  three 
months  of  1915  witnessed  a  great  campaign  for 
recruits,  known  as  the  Derby  Recruiting  Cam¬ 
paign.  It  was  conducted  by  Lord  Derby*  and 
was  the  final  effort  of  the  government  to  avoid 
forcing  conscription  on  the  unwilling  workmen. 
Lord  Derby  estimated  that  his  campaign  yielded 
831,062  men.  In  January,  1916,  the  Military 
Service  Bill  was  introduced,  which  provided  that 
all  bachelors  and  widowers  (having  no  children 
dependent  on  them),  between  the  ages  of  18  and 
41,  were  liable  for  military  service.  Ireland 
was  excluded.  The  Laborites  and  Miners’  Fed¬ 
eration  were  bitterly  opposed  to  the  Bill.  It 
was  passed  by  a  majority  of  4  to  1  on  its  fiist 
reading.  Premier  Asquith  postponed  action  on 
the  Conscription  Bill  until  May,  1916,  when  it 
was  again  introduced,  and  passed. 

The  supply  of  munitions  was  undeniably  in¬ 
adequate  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  new  army, 
although  the  rate  of  production  was  rapidly 
increased.  Agreements  were  made  with  the 
labor  unions  by  which  semiskilled  and  female 
labor  could  be  used  without  any  discriminations 
against  the  unions.  The  government  took  over 
the  control  of  all  factories  which  were  capable  of 
producing  war  munitions.  Nevertheless  strikes 
and  lockouts  caused  serious  losses  of  time  and 
supplies.  A  Munitions  Act  was  passed  which 
provided  for  government  supervision  of  all 
manufacturing  and  which  made  strikes  and 
lockouts  illegal  and  proposed  government  arbi¬ 
tration  for  all  disputes. 

In  May,  1915,  a  cabinet  crisis  occurred  over 
the  quarrel  between  Winston  Churchill,  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  Lord  Fisher,  First 
Sea  Lord.  The  result  was  the  formation  of  a 
coalition  cabinet.  Eight  members  of  the  cabinet 
were  asked  to  resign,  and  eight  Unionists  were 
brought  in.  Two  new  positions  were  created. 
(S ee"  Government.)  The  new  cabinet  consisted 

*  Edward  George  Villiers  Stanley,  seventeenth  Earl 
Derby,  born  (1865)  in  London;  educated  at  Wellington  Col¬ 
lege-  lieutenant,  Grenadier  Guards  (1885-95);  aid  to  the 
Governor  General  of  Canada  (1889—91);  in  South  Africa  as 
chief  press  censor  and  private  secretary  to  Lord  Roberts 
(1899-1901) ;  a  Lord  of  the  Treasury  (1895-1900) ;  Financial 
Secretary  to  the  War  Office  (1900-03);  Postmaster-general 
(1903-05);  member  of  Parliament  (1892-1906);  took  seat  in 
House  of  Lords  (1908);  appointed  director  of  recruiting 
(1915);  Undersecretary  for  War  (1916). 


of  12  Liberals,  8  Unionists,  1  Labor  member,  and 
Lord  Kitchener,  who  lost  his  life  on  June  5 
when  the  Hampshire  was  lost  off  the  Orkney 
Islands.  In  the  course  of  the  year  Winston 
Churchill  and  Sir  Edward  Carson  resigned.  In 
December,  1915,  Parliament  introduced  a  Bill 
to  prolong  its  life  for  12  months.  By  a  later 
compromise  this  was  reduced  to  eight  months. 

In  April,  1916,  a  serious  outbreak  occurred 
in  Ireland.  It  was  presumably  engineered  by 
Sir  Roger  Casement  t  in  Germany.  He  was  cap¬ 
tured  as  he  was  about  to  land  in  Ireland  from 
a  German  vessel,  tried  by  court-martial,  and  sen¬ 
tenced  to  death.  The  Irish  organization  behind 
the  revolution  was  the  Sinn  Fein  (the  Celtic 
equivalent  for  “ourselves  alone” ) .  It  is  a  revival 
of  the  Young  Irish  movement  of  1848  and  opened 
a  branch  in  New  York  City  in  1907.  It  is  a 
society  whose  purpose  is  purely  national  and  is 
opposed  to  Home  Rule  for  Ireland  on  the  grounds 
that  it  is  too  conservative.  Being  nonsectarian, 
it  hoped  for  an  Irish  republic  which  would  ap¬ 
peal  both  to  the  Irish  Catholics  and  the  Ulster 
Protestants.  The  rebels  seized  many  buildings 
in  Dublin,  and  several  insurrections  broke  out 
in  other  parts  of  the  country.  Martial  law 
was  declared  and  troops  were  immediately  sent 
over  from  England.  After  several  days  of 
street  fighting  and  the  destruction  of  many 
buildings,  the  government  troops  were  in  con¬ 
trol  of  the  situation.  Some  of  the  leaders  were 
taken  to  England,  tried  by  court-martial,  and 
shot. 

As  a  result  of  the  activities  of  spies,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  violent  popular  excitement 
caused  by  German  Zeppelin  raids  and  submarine 
warfare,  a  strong  tide  of  anti-German  feeling 
swept  over  the  British  Empire.  For  the  diplo¬ 
matic,  military,  economic,  and  financial  aspects 
of  the  war,  see  War  in  Europe. 

Bibliography.  Antiquities:  Thomas  Codring- 
ton,  Roman  Roads  in  Britain  (London,  1903)  ; 
G.  B.  Brown,  Arts  in>  Early  England  (vols.  i,  ii, 
New  York,  1903;  vols.  iii,  iv,  ib.,  1915)  ;  T.  R. 
Holmes,  Ancient  Britain  and  the  Invasions  of 
Julius  C  cesar  (Oxford,  1907);  John  Ward, 
Romano-British  Buildings  and  Earthworks  (Lon¬ 
don,  1911)  ;  id.,  The  Roman  Era  in  Britain  (ib., 

1911) ;  Walter  Johnson,  Byways  in  British 
Archceology  (New  York,  1912)  ;  John  Aber- 
cromby,  Study  of  the  Bronze  Age  Pottery  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  its  Associated 
Grave-Goods  (2  vols.,  Oxford,  1912)  ;  A.  H. 
Lyell,  Bibliographical  List  Descriptive  of  Ro¬ 
mano-British  Architectural  Remains  in  Great 
Britain  (New  York,  1912)  ;  F.  J.  Haverfield, 
Romanization  of  Roman  Britain  (2d  ed.,  Oxford, 

1912)  ;  E.  T.  Leeds,  Archceology  of  the  Anglo- 

Saxon  Settlements  (ib.,  1913)  ;  F.  J.  Haverfield, 
Roman  Britain  in  1913  (ib.,  1914)  ;  Robert 

Munro,  Prehistoric  Britain  (New  York,  1914)  ; 
also  The  Archceological  Journal  (London,  1845, 
annually)  ;  British  Archaeological  Association, 
Journal  (ib.,  1846,  annually)  ;  The  Archceologi¬ 
cal  Review:  A  Journal  of  Historic  and  Prehis¬ 
toric  Antiquities  (4  vols.,  ib.,  1888—90). 

Constitutional  history:  E.  A.  Freeman, 
Groioth  of  the  English  Constitution  (3d  ed., 


t  Sir  Roger  Casement,  born  in  1864;  held  consular  office 
1  various  parts  of  the  world  and  in  1909—13  was  British 
onsul  General  at  Rio  de  Janeiro;  during  the  early  part  of 
ie  European  War  made  sensational  anti-English  utterances, 
ad  was  suspected  of  plots  to  aid  Germany  and  gain  Ger- 
ian  help  for  an  “emancipation”  of  Ireland;  escaped  to 
ontinent  and  reward  of  £5000  was  offered  by  British 
overnment  for  his  arrest. 


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London,  1876)  ;  Sir  E.  S.  Creasy,  Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  English  Constitution  (rev.  ed., 
New  York,  1895)  ;  Sir  J.  H.  Ramsay,  Founda¬ 
tions  of  England  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1898-1902)  ; 
Sir  William  Stubbs,  Select  Charters  and-  Other 
Illustrations  of  English  Constitutional  History 
to  1307  (8th  ed.,  Oxford,  1900)  ;  id.,  Historical 
Introductions  to  the  Rolls  Series  (New  York, 
1902)  ;  Hannis  Taylor,  Origin  and  Growth  of 
the  British  Constitution  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1904)  ; 
Hunt  and  Poole,  Political  History  of  England 
(12  vols.,  New  York,  1905-09);  S.  R.  Gardiner, 
Constitutional  Documents  of  the  Puritan  Revo¬ 
lution  (3d  ed.,  Oxford,  1906)  ;  L.  O.  Pike,  Pub¬ 
lic  Records  and  the  Constitution  (ib.,  1907)  ; 
G.  B.  Adams,  Origin  of  the  English  Constitu¬ 
tion  (New  Haven,  1912)  ;  T.  P.  Taswell-Lang- 
mead,  English  Constitutional  History  from  the 
Teutonio  Conquest  to  the  Present  Time  (7th 
ed.,  Boston,  1912)  ;  T.  E.  Macy,  Constitutional 
History  of  England  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  New  York, 

1912)  ;  J.  H.  B.  Masterman,  History  of  the 
British  Constitution  (ib.,  1912)  ;  D.  J.  Medley, 
Student’s  Manual  of  English  Constitutional  His¬ 
tory  (5th  ed.,  ib.,  1913)  ;  J.  A.  R.  Marriott, 
English  Political  Institutions  (2d  ed.,  Oxford, 

1913)  ;  Henry  Hallam,  Constitutional  History  of 
England  (new  ed.,  in  Everyman’s  Library,  3 
vols.,  New  York,  1913)  ;  A.  V.  Dicey,  Introduc¬ 
tion  to  the  Study  of  the  Law  of  the  Constitution 
(8th  ed.,  ib.,  1915). 

Social  life  and  customs:  Thomas  Wright,  Cari¬ 
cature  History  of  the  Georges  (London,  1868)  ; 
John  Ashton,  Social  Life  in  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Anne  (ib.,  1882)  ;  id.,  The  Dawn  of  the  Nine¬ 
teenth  Century  in  England:  A  Social  Sketch  of 
the  Times  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1886)  ;  id.,  Social  Eng¬ 
land  under  the  Regency  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1890)  ; 
J.  A.  A.  J.  Jusserand,  English  Wayfaring  Life 
in  the  Middle  Ages  (Eng.  trans.  by  L.  T.  Smith; 
2d  ed.,  ib.,  1889)  ;  E.  P.  Cheyney,  Social  Changes 
in  England  in  the  Sixteenth  Century  as  Reflected 
in  Contemporary  Literature  (Boston,  1895)  ; 
Joseph  Strutt,  Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the 
People  of  England  (New  York,  1899)  ;  P.  H. 
Ditchfield,  Old  English  Customs  Extant  at  the 
Present  Time  (London,  1901);  Leslie  Stephen, 
English  Literature  and  Society  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  Ford  Lectures,  1903  (ib.,  1904)  ;  W.  C. 
Hazlitt,  Brand’s  Popular  Antiquities  of  Great 
Britain:  Faiths  and  Folklore  ...  (2  vols.,  ib., 
1905).;  F.  A.  Gasquet,  Parish  Life  in  Mediceval 
England  (ib.,  1906)  ;  A.  S.  Green,  Town  Life  in 
the  Fifteenth  Century  (new  ed.,  New  York, 
1907)  ;  C.  G.  Harper,  Half-Hours  with  the  Higli- 
ivaymen  (2  vols.,  London,  1908)  ;  Stephen  Rey¬ 
nolds,  A  Poor  Man’s  House  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1910)  ; 
T.  S.  Knowlson,  Origins  of  Popular  Superstitions 
and  Customs  (New  York,  1910)  ;  Traill  and 
Mann,  Social  England  (12  vols.,  London,  1910)  ; 
A.  F.  Dodd,  Early  English  Social  History  from 
the  Chronicles  (ib.,  1913)  ;  R.  H.  Gretton,  A 
Modern  History  of  the  English  People  (2d  ed., 
2  vols.,  ib.,  1913  et  seq. )  ;  H.  G.  Wells,  Social 
Forces  in  England  and  America  (New  York, 

1914)  ;  also  contemporary  letters  and  diaries. 

Politics  and  government:  William  Cobbett, 

Parliamentary  History  of  England  (36  vols., 
London,  1806-20),  followed  by  Hansard’s  Parlia¬ 
mentary  Debates,  published  in  three  series  end¬ 
ing  with  the  year  1891;  Sir  John  Fortescue, 
Governance  of  England  (Oxford,  1885);  W.  E. 
Hall,  Treatise  on  the  Foreign  Powers  and  Juris¬ 
diction  of  the  British  Crown  (ib.,  1894)  ; 

Wright  and  Hobhouse,  Outline  of  Local  Gov¬ 


ernment  and.  Local  Taxation  in  England  and 
Wales  (London,  1898)  ;  Goldwin  Smith,  The 
United  Kingdom:  J  Political  History  (ib., 
1899)  ;  J.  A.  Hobson,  Imperialism  (ib.,  1902)  ; 
Butler-Jobnstone,  Imperial  Federation  and 
Polity  (ib.,  1902);  M.  R.  I1.  Dorman,  History 
of  the  British  Empire  in  the  Nineteenth •  Century 
(4  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1904);  H.  M.  Chadwick, 
Studies  in  Anglo-Saxon  Institutions  (New  York, 
1905)  ;  A.  L.  Lowell,  Government  of  England 
(2  vols.,  ib.,  1908)  ;  T.  F.  Moran,  Theory  and 
Practice  of  English  Government  (ib.,  1908); 
H.  E.  Maxwell,  Century  of  Empire,  ISO  1-1900 
(3  vols.,  ib.,  1909-11);  A.  I.  Dasent,  Speakers 
of  the  House  of  Commons  from  the  Earliest 
Times  to  the  Present  Day  (ib.,  1911);  Acland 
and  Ransome,  Handbook  in  Outline  of  the  Politi¬ 
cal  History  of  England  to  1913  (9th  ed.,  ib., 

1913)  ;  P.  H.  Brown,  Legislative  Union  of  Eng¬ 
land  and  Scotland  (Oxford,  1914)  ;  Henry  Higgs, 
Financial  System  of  the  United  Kingdom  (New 
York,  1914)  ;  Charles  Seymour,  Electoral  Re¬ 
form  in  England  and  Wales  (New  Haven,  1915). 

History,  Sources:  G.  C.  Lee,  Source  Book  of 
English  History  (New  York,  1900)  ;  Adams  and 
Stephens  (eds. ),  Select  Documents  of  English 
Constitutional  History  (ib.,  1901);  H.  Hall 
(ed.),  Studies  in  English  Official  Historical 
Documents  (ib.,  1908)  ;  Leonard  Rice-Oxley, 

Memoirs  as  a  Source  of  English  History  (Ox¬ 
ford,  1914)  ;  N.  L.  Frazer,  English  History 
Illustrated  from  Original  Sources  (4  vols.,  New 
York,  1915)  ;  Charles  Gross,  Sources  and  Litera¬ 
ture  of  English  History  from  the  Earliest  Times 
to  about  U’i85  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1915)  ;  White  and 
Notestein  (eds.),  Source  Problems  in  English 
History  •  (ib.,  1915);  also  Anglo-Saxon  Laws, 
edited  by  Thorpe  (London,  1840)  ;  the  various 
collections  in  the  Rolls  Series,  the  publication  of 
which  was  begun  at  London  in  1856;  the  Calen¬ 
dar  of  State  Papers,  embracing  all  state  docu¬ 
ments,  home  and  foreign,  now  extending  from 
1509  to  1701;  the  official  Journals  of  the  House 
of  Lords  (London,  1577,  to  the  present  day) 
and  of  the  House  of  Commons  (beginning 
1547)  ;  Statutes  of  the  Realm  (Record  Commis¬ 
sion,  1810-22)  ;  the  Publications  of  the  Camden 
Society,  and  of  other  historical  and  antiquarian 
societies. 

General:  A.  T.  Story,  Building  of  the  British 
Empire  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1898)  ;  Thomas 
Hodgkin,  History  of  England  from  the  Earliest 
Times  (London,  1906)  ;  A.  W.  Jose,  Growth 
of  the  Empire  (New  York,  1907);  C.  R.  L. 
Fletcher,  Introductory  History  of  England  from 
the  Earliest  Times  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  ib.,  1911)  ; 
R.  H.  Gretton,  Modern  History  of  the  English 
People  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1913)  ;  H.  T.  Buckle, 
History  of  Civilization  in  England  (new  ed.,  4 
vols.,  New  York,  1913)  ;  A.  D.  Innes,  History  of 
England  and  the  British  Empire  (4  vols.,  ib., 
1913-15)  ;  Herbertson  and  Howarth,  Oxford  Sur¬ 
vey  of  the  British  Empire  ( 6  vols.,  Oxford, 

1914)  ;  T.  B.  Macaulay,  History  of  England 
(new  ed.,  New  York,  i 9 1 4— 15)  ;  J.  R.  Green, 
Short  History  of  the  English  People  (new  ed., 
2  vols.,  ib.,  1915)  ;  L.  M.  Larson,  Short  History 
of  England  and  the  British  Empire  (ib.,  1915). 
To  Tudor  period;  J.  M.  Kemble,  The  Saxons 
in  England  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  London,  1876)  ; 
John  Rhys,  Celtic  Britain  (New  York,  1882); 
H.  W.  C.  Davis,  England  under  the  Normans 
and  Angevins  (ib.,  1905)  ;  W.  G.  Collingwood, 
Scandinavian  Britain  (London,  1908)  ;  E.  A. 
Freeman,  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest  (3d 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


UNITED  KINGDOM 


692 


ed.,  abridged  ed.,  Oxford,  1008)  ;  K.  B.  ^  ickers, 
England  in  the  Later  Middle  Ages  (New  York, 
1013)  ;  C.  H.  Haskins,  The  Norm ans  in  Euro¬ 
pean  History  (Boston,  1015).  Tudor  and  Stuart 
periods:  S.  R.  Gardiner,  History  of  the  Great 
Civil  War,  1642-1649  (New  York,  1804)  ;  id., 
History  of  the  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate 
(4  vols.,  ib.,  1001)  ;  A.  D.  Innes,  England  under 
the  Tudors  (ib.,  1005)  ;  G.  M.  Trevelyan,  England 
under  the  Stuarts  (ib.,  1005)  ;  II.  A.  L.  Fisher, 
History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  Henry 
VII  to  the  Death  of  Henry  VIII  (ib.,  1006)  ;  F.  C. 
Montague,  History  of  England  from  the  Acces¬ 
sion  of  James  I  to  the  Restoration  (ib.,  1007)  ; 
Lecky,  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (pop¬ 
ular  *  ed.,  7  vols.,  ib.,  1013);  F.  W.  Bewsher, 
The  Reformation  and  the  Renaissance,  1485- 
154 7  (London,  1013).  1700  to  date:  W.  J.  Cory, 
Guide  to  Modern  English  History  (2  vols.,  New 
York,  1880-82)  ;  Justin  McCarthy,  History  of 
the  Four  Georges  (4  vols.,  ib.,  1001)  ;  id.,  His¬ 
tory  of  our  own  Times  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1001-05)  ; 
H.  W.  Paul,  History  of  Modern  England,  1846- 
1896  (5  vols.,  New  YMrk,  1004-06)  ;  William 
Hunt,  History  of  England,  from  the  Accession  of 
George  II  to  .  .  .  1801  (ib.,  1005);  Low  and 
Sanders,  History  of  England  during  the  Reign 
of  Victoria  (ib.,  1007)  ;  I.  S.  Leadam,  History 
of  England  from  the  Accession  of  Anne  to  the 
Death  of  George  II  (London,  1000)  ;  H.  E. 
Maxwell,  A  Century  of  Empire,  1801-1900  (3 
vols.,  New  York,  1000-11)  ;  Richard  Lodge,  His¬ 
tory  of  England  from  the  Restoration  to  the 
Death  of  William  111  (ib.,  1010)  ;  C.  G.  Robert¬ 
son,  England  under  the  Hanoverians  (ib.,  1011)  ; 
C.  W.  C.  Oman,  England  in  the  nineteenth 
Century  (ib.,  1015). 

Colonial  history:  R.  C.  Jebb,  Studies  in 
Colonial  nationalism  (New  York,  1005)  ;  Victor 
Berard,  British  Imperialism ,  and  Commercial 
Supremacy  (ib.,  1006)  ;  Ellison  and  Walpole 
(eds. ),  Church  and  Empire  (ib.,  1007);  G.  L. 
Beer,  British  Colonial  Policy,  1754—1765  (ib., 

1007);  id.,  Origins  of  the  British  Colonial 
System,  1578-1660  (ib.,  1008)  ;  H.  C.  Morris, 
History  of  Colonisation  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1008)  ; 
Charles  Bruce,  The  Broad  Stone  of  Empire  (2 
vols.,  ib.,  1010)  ;  J.  E.  Barker,  Great  and  Greater 
Britain  (ib.,  1010)  ;  W.  J.  Ashley,  British  Do¬ 
minions:  Their  Present  Commercial  and  In¬ 
dustrial  Condition  (ib.,  1011);  A.  M.  Milner, 
The  nation  and  the  Empire  (Boston,  1013); 
E.  G.  Wakefield,  View  and  Art  of  Colonization 
(Oxford,  1014)  ;  C.  P.  Lucas,  Historical  Geog¬ 
raphy  of  the  British  Colonies  (3d  ed.,  6  vols., 
ib.,  1014)  ;  Beinting  and  Collen,  Geography  of 
the  British  Empire  (New  York,  1014)  ;  A.  L. 
Cross,  History  of  England  and  Greater  Britain 
(ib.,  1014)  ;  J.  A.  Cramb,  Origins  and  Destiny 
of  Imperial  Britain  (ib.,  1015). 

Economic  conditions :  G.  P.  Bevan,  English 
Manufacturing  Industries  (13  vols.,  London, 
1876)  ;  J.  E.  T.  Rogers,  Six  Centuries  of  Work 
and  Wages  (ib.,  1800)  ;  Charles  Gross,  The 
Gild  Merchant  (2  vols.,  Oxford,  1800)  ;  Henry 
Allsopp,  Introduction  to  English  Industrial  His¬ 
tory  (New  York,  1802)  ;  Cassell’s  Gazetteer  (6 
vols.,  London,  1803-08)  ;  R.  C.  T.  Jones,  British 
Merchant  Service  (ib.,  1808)  ;  G.  T.  Warren, 
Landmarks  in  English  Industrial  History  (4th 
ed.,  New  York,  1800)  ;  A.  L.  Bowley,  Wages 
in  the  United  Kingdom  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen¬ 
tury  (London,  1000)  ;  E.  P.  Cheynev,  Introduc¬ 
tion  to  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England 
(New  York,  1001);  Sidney  and  Beatrice  Webb, 


Industrial  Democracy  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1002)  ;  Wil¬ 
liam  Cunningham,  The  Groictli  of  English  In¬ 
dustry  and  Commerce  in  Modern  Times  (4th  ed., 
ib.,  1004)  ;  H.  J.  Mackinder,  Britain  and  Brit¬ 
ish  Seas  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1007);  W.  J.  Ashley, 
British  Industries  (ib.,  1007)  ;  W.  H.  Macrosty, 
The  Trust  Movement  in  British  Industry  (ib., 
1007);  W.  C.  D.  and  C.  D.  Whetham,  The 
Family  and  the  Nation  (ib.,  1000)  ;  Cunningham 
and  M’Arthur,  Outlines  of  English  Industrial 
History  (ib.,  1010)  ;  William  Smart,  Economic 
Annals  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (ib.,  1010)  ; 
William  Cunningham,  The  Growth  of  English 
Industry  and  Commerce  during  the  Early  and 
Middle  Ages  (5th  ed.,  ib.,  1010)  ;  Sidney  and 
Beatrice  Webb,  History  of  Trade  Unionism  (new 
ed.,  ib.,  1011);  H.  de  B.  Gibbins,  Industry  in 
England:  Historical  Outlines  (ib.,  1014)  ;  F.  W. 
Tickner,  Social  and  Industrial  History  of  Eng¬ 
land  (ib.,  1015);  H.  L.  Burrows,  English  In¬ 
dustry  and  Trade  (London,  1015)  ;  E.  C.  Stevens, 
English  Railways:  Their  Development  and  their 
Relation  to  the  State  (ib.,  1016). 

Finance:  Robert  Giffen,  Essays  in  Finance  (2 
series,  London,  1870-80,  1886)  ;  S.  C.  Buxton, 
Finance  and  Politics:  A  Historical  Study  1783— 
1885  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1888)  ;  Walter  Bagehot,  Lom¬ 
bard  Street:  A  Description  of  the  Money  Market 
(new  ed.  by  E.  Johnstone,  ib.,  1806)  ;  C.  A. 
Conant,  History  of  Modern  Banks  of  Issue  (ib., 
1806)  ;  B.  B.  Turner,  Chronicles  of  the  Bank  of 
England  (ib.,  1807);  T.  A.  Stephens,  Contribu¬ 
tions  to  Bibliography  of  the  Bank  of  England 
(ib.,  1807)  ;  J.  W.  Root,  Studies  in  British 
National  Finance  (Liverpool,  1000)  ;  Henry 
Higgs,  Financial  System  of  the  United  Kingdom 
(London,  1914)  ;  S.  B.  Terry,  Financing  of  the 
Hundred  Years’  War,  1337-1360  (ib.,  1914)  ; 
E.  FI.  Young,  System  of  National  Finance  (ib., 
1915)  ;  W.  R.  Lawson,  British  War  Finance, 
1914-15  (ib.,  1915)  ;  also  the  Blue  Books  and 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Statistical  Society  (Lon¬ 
don,  quarterly). 

Defense,  army:  Wolseley,  The  Standing  Army 
of  Great  Britain  (London,  1893)  ;  Clarke,  Im¬ 
perial  Defence  (ib.,  1897)  ;  Fortescue,  History 
of  the  British  Army  (ib.,  1899);  David  Han- 
nay,  Naval  Courts  Martial  (New  York,  1914)  ; 
and,  for  the  Volunteers,  Wilkinson,  The  Volun¬ 
teers  and  the  National  Defence  (London,  1806). 
Navy:  Lord  Brassey,  The  British  Navy  (5  vols., 
ib.,  1882-83)  ;  James,  The  Naval  History  of 
Great  Britain  (6  vols.,  ib.,  1886)  ;  A.  T.  Mahan, 
The  Influence  of  Sea  Power  upon  History  (ib., 
1800)  ;  Eardley-Wilmot,  Our  Fleet  To-Day  and 
its  Development  during  the  Past  Half  Century 
(ib.,  1000)  ;  W.  L.  Clowes  and  Others,  The 
Royal  Navy  (5  vols.,  ib.,  1807-1900)  ;  E.  Pro- 
thero,  The  British  Navy:  Its  Making  and  its 
Meaning  (New  York,  1015). 

Education:  James  Lyte  and  Others,  Great 
Public  Schools  (London,  1806)  ;  C.  Morley, 
Studies  in  Board  Schools  (ib.,  1807)  ;  J.  E.  G.  de 
Montmorency,  State  Intervention  in  English 
Education  (Cambridge,  1002)  ;  Graham  Balfour, 
Educational  Systems  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire¬ 
land  (2d  ed.,  Oxford,  1003)  ;  J.  C.  Greenough, 
Evolution  of  Elementary  Schools  of  Great 
Britain  (New  York,  1003)  ;  A.  F.  Leach,  Educa¬ 
tional  Charters  and  Documents  from  598  to  1909 
(ib.,  1011)  ;  Athelstan  Riley  and  Others,  The  Re¬ 
ligious  Question  in  Public  Education  (ib.,  1911)  ; 
Margaret  McMillan,  The  Child  and  the  State 
(Manchester,  1011);  Irene  Parker,  Dissenting 
Academies  in  England:  Their  Rise  and  Progress 


UNITED  METHODIST  CHURCHES  693  UNITED  PROVINCES 


and  their  Place  among  the  Educational  Systems 
of  the  Country  (Cambridge,  1914)  ;  J.  B.  Coissac, 
Les  institutions  scolaires  de  VEcosse  depuis  les 
origines  jusqu’en  1560  (Paris,  1914);  A.  F. 
Leach,  Schools  of  Medieval  England,  in  ‘‘Anti¬ 
quary’s  Books”  (  London,  1915)  ;  also  “Educa¬ 
tion  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,”  in  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education,  Reports  ( Washing¬ 
ton,  1889  et  seq.  )• 

Religion:  J.  1L  Pattison,  Rise  and  Progress  of 
Religious  Life  in  England  (London,  1864)  ; 
J.  Stoughton,  History  of  Religion  in  England 
(new  ed.,  6  vols.,  ib.,  1881);  id.,  Religion  in 
England:  First  Half  of  the  Present  Century 
(2  vols.,  ib.,  1884)  ;  F.  Makower,  Constitutional 
History  of  the  Church  of  England  (Eng.  trans., 
ib.,  1895)  ;  Henry  Gee,  Documents  Illustrative 
of  English  Church  History  (ib.,  1896)  ;  William 
Hunt,  The  English  Church  in  the  Middle  Ages 
( ib.,  1899)  ;  S.  R.  Maitland,  The  Reformation  in 
England  (New  York,  1906)  ;  F.  A.  Gasquet, 
Henry  ^  III  and  the  English  Monasteries  (ib., 
1906)  ;  H.  N.  Birt,  Elizabethan  Religious  Senti¬ 
ment  (ib.,  1907);  Hugh  Williams,  Christianity 
in  Early  Britain  (Oxford,  1912)  ;  W.  H.  Flecker, 
British  Church  History  to  A.D.  1000  (ib.,  1913)  ; 
also  bibliography  under  England,  Church  of. 

Fauna  and  flora:  Sir  W.  J.  Hooker,  Mus- 
cologia  Britannica  (2d  ed.,  London,  1827);  id., 
British  Flora  (6th  ed.,  ib.,  1850);  id.,  British 
Ferns  (ib.,  1861);  W.  MacGillivray,  British 
Birds  (new  ed.,  5  vols.,  ib.,  1852)  ;  W.  Yarrell, 
History  of  British  Birds  (3d  ed.,  3  vols.,  ib., 
1856)  ;  E.  F.  Staveley,  British  Insects  (ib., 
1871);  H.  A.  Nicholson,  Natural  History:  Its 
Rise  and  Progress  in  Britain  (Edinburgh,  i 886 )  ; 
J.  Bentham,  Handbook  of  British  Flora  (5th 
ed.  by  J.  D.  Hooker,  ib.,  1887)  ;  Turnbull,  Index 
of  British  Plants  (ib.,  1890)  ;  Richard  Lyd- 
dekker,  Handbook  to  the  British  Mammalia,  in 
Allen’s  Naturalists’  Library  (ib.,  1895)  ;  Kappel 
and  Kirby,  Handbook  of  British  and  European 
Butterflies  and  Moths  (ib.,  1895)  ;  Index  Ke- 
wensis,  compiled  under  the  direction  of  Sir  J.  D. 
Hooker  (London,  1895  et  seq.,  supplement  3 
issued  in  1913)  ;  W.  J.  Bean,  Trees  and  Shrubs 
Hardy  in  the  British  Isles  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1915)  ; 
also  publications  of  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London  and  the  Entomological  Society  of  Lon¬ 
don. 

Natural  resources:  R.  L.  Galloway,  History  of 
Coal  Mining  in  Great  Britain  (London,  1882)  ; 
E.  Hull,  Contributions  to  the  Physical  History 
of  the  British  Isles  (ib.,  1882)  ;  E.  W.  H.  Holds- 
worth,  Sea  Fisheries  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire¬ 
land  (ib.,  1883);  Jukes-Brown,  Building  of  the 
British  Islands  (ib.,  1888)  ;  Sir  A.  C.  Ramsay, 
Physical  Geography  and  Geology  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  (ed.  by  H.  B.  Woodward, 
ib.,  1894)  ;  R.  M.  Boyd,  Coal  Pits  and  Pitmen: 
Legislation  (2d  ed.,  ib.,  1895);  A.  Johnstone, 
Mineralogical  Geology  (Edinburgh,  1897)  ;  Sir 
Archibald  Geikie,  Rivers  of  Greo+  Britain  (Lon¬ 
don,  1897)  ;  E.  Hull,  Our  Cot  serves  at  the 
Close  of  the  Nineteenth  Cenx  y  .(ib.,  1897); 
Sir  John  Lubbock,  Scenery  of  *  /■  nd  and  the 

Causes  to  which  it  is  Due  (i  ^02)  ;  also 
Geological  Survey  of  the  United  ¥  -dom.  Re¬ 
ports  (ib.,  annually)  ;  Journal  e  Royal 

Geographical  Society  (ib.,  annually 

UNITED  METHODISE  REE 
CHURCHES.  See  Methodism. 

UNITED  MINE  WORKERS  01  "ER¬ 
ICA.  See  Mine  Workers  of  Amer  The 
United.  ;V 


UNITED  PRESBYTERIANS.  See  Presby¬ 
terianism  and  the  Presbyterian  Churches. 

UNITED  PROVINCES.  See  Netherlands. 

UNITED  PROVINCES  OF  AGRA  AND 
OUDH,  formerly  Northwestern  Provinces 
and  Oudii.  A  province  of  British  India,  in 
Hie  Upper  Ganges  valley  (Map:  India,  D  3). 
Total  area,  107,267  square  miles,  of  which  83,- 
109  belong  to  the  Territory  of  Agra,  24,158 
to  Oudh.  They  surround  the  native  states  of 
Garhwal,  4180  square  miles,  and  Rampur,  899 
square  miles.  Except  the  extreme  northern 
part,  which  is  a  wild  and  elevated  mountain  re¬ 
gion  of  the  Himalaya,  the  province  is  a  low 
alluvial  plain  watered  by  the  Ganges  and  its 
numerous  large  parallel  tributaries,  chief  of 
which  is  the  Juma.  The  climate  is  hot  and 
unhealthful,  especially  in  the  large  jungle  re¬ 
gion  below  the  mountains.  The  soil  is  fertile, 
but  the  western  and  southern  parts  of  the 
province  have  a  very  uncertain  rainfall,  and 
are  subject  to  severe  droughts,  so  that  these 
regions  would  be  practically  a  desert  were  it 
not  for  many  large  streams. 

Extensive  irrigation  works  have  been  con¬ 
structed.  The  total  area  cropped  in  1912-13 
was  reported  as  44,431,737  acres,  of  which 
9,646,374  acres  were  irrigated.  The  area  irri¬ 
gated  by  wells  was  5,514,379  acres  and  that 
by  government  canals  2,234,207  acres,  the  latter 
being  entirely  in  Agra.  The  principal  crops 
are  of  more  nearly  equal  importance  than  in 
the  other  provinces.  The  United  Provinces 
rank  next  to  the  Punjab  as  a  wheat  producer, 
the  area  under  wheat  in  1912-13  being  7,442,486 
acres.  Rice,  though  of  much  less  relative  im¬ 
portance  than  in  Bengal  and  some  other  parts 
of  India,  covered  6,812,004  acres.  Other  acreages 
in  1912—13  were:  barley,  4,643,334;  grain,  5,- 
507,486;  spiked  millet,  2,6 17,439 ;  great  millet, 
2,169,370.  The  United  Provinces  have  an  area 
under  sugar  cane  nearly  four  times  as  large 
as  that  of  the  Punjab,  which  stands  second,  the 
area  under  sugar  cane  in  the  former  being,  in 
1912-13,  1,424,064  acres  and  in  the  latter  367,- 
373  acres.  Other  crops  include  maize,  cotton, 
opium,  and  indigo.  The  people  eat  little  animal 
food,  and  stock  raising  is  of  subsidiary  impor¬ 
tance.  Cattle  and  buffaloes  take  the  place  of 
horses.  Mining  is  of  little  value. 

Modern  methods  of  manufacturing  have  been 
seldom  adopted.  For  1912  there  were  reported 
201  factories,  with  54,803  employees  (of  whom 
6328  were  women,  1693  children).  The  more  im¬ 
portant  factories  are  cotton  mills,  especially 
in  Cawnpore.  The  Ganges  affords  a  means 
of  water  transportation.  The  province  is 
better  supplied  with  railroads  than  any  other  in 
India.  It  exports  large  quantities  of  oil  seeds, 
wheat,  raw  cotton,  hides,  sugar,  indigo,  and 
opium,  and  imports  cotton  goods,  metals,  rail¬ 
road  materials,  coal,  and  salt.  A  frontier  trade 
is  carried  on  with  Tibet  and  Nepal. 

The  United  Provinces  are  under  the  adminis¬ 
trative  control  of  a  Lieutenant-Governor,  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  Governor-General,  with  the 
approval  of  the  crown.  There  is  a  legislative 
council  of  50  members  (21  official,  27  unofficial, 
2  experts).  The  provinces  are  divided  into 
municipalities  and  districts  administered  by 
boards,  a  large  part  of  whose  membership  is 
elective.  The  police  force  in  1912  had  a  sanc¬ 
tioned  strength  of  35,926  officers  and  men.  The 
capital  of  the  United  Provinces  is  Allahabad. 

The  population  of  the  United  Provinces  was 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES  694 


46,905,512  in  1891,  47,692,277  in  1901  (increase 
1.7  per  cent),  and  47,182,044  in  1911  (decrease 
1.1  per  cent).  Agra  in  1911  bad  34,624,040  in¬ 
habitants,  and  Oudh  12,558,004.  The  population 
of  the  United  Provinces  native  states  was  792,- 
491  in  1891,  802,097  in  1901  (increase  1.2  per 
cent),  and  832,036  in  1911  (increase  3.7  per 
cent).  In  the  United  Provinces  and  the  native 
states  respectively,  Hindus  numbered,  in  1911, 
40,253,433  and  583,599;  Mohammedans,  6,658,- 
373  and  246,358;  Christians,  177,949  and  1745; 
Jains,  75,427  and  308;  Sikhs,  15,160  and  26. 
There  are  more  large  cities  in  the  United  Prov¬ 
inces  than  in  any  other  division  of  British  India. 
City  populations,  with  cantonments,  were  as 
follows  in  1911:  Lucknow,  259,798;  Benares, 
203,804;  Agra,  185,449;  Cawnpore,  178,557;  Al¬ 
lahabad,  171,697;  Bareilly,  129,462;  Meerut, 
116,227. 

UNITED  STATES.  The  order  of  treatment 
and  scope  of  the  article  are  indicated  by  the  fol¬ 
lowing  main  topics:  Natural  Features,  Climate, 
Flora,  Fauna,  Geology,  Soils,  Fisheries,  Mineral 
Resources,  Agriculture,  Manufactures,  Transpor¬ 
tation,  Commerce  (Foreign  and  Domestic),  Ship¬ 
ping  ( Foreign  and  Interior ) ,  Government,  Fi¬ 
nances,  Army,  Navy,  Population  (including  In¬ 
terstate  Migration,  Sex,  Density,  etc. ) ,  Religion, 
History.  Much  of  the  material  is  treated  to  a 
greater  extent  and  in  more  minute  detail  in 
other  parts  of  the  work  under  separate  headings. 
Adequate  cross  references  are  provided  through¬ 
out,  which  should  be  followed  up  should  the 
reader  desire  to  make  a  more  exhaustive  study 
of  the  whole  subject  or  any  one  phase  of  it. 

The  territory  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
exclusive  of  Alaska  and  colonial  dependencies, 
lies  in  the  temperate  portion  of  North  America, 
but  reaches  to  within  one  degree  of  the  tropical 
zone.  It  extends  approximately  from  long.  67° 
to  125°  W.  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  (whose  great 
arm,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  forms  half  of  the 
southern  boundary)  to  the  Pacific.  The  north¬ 
ern  boundary  is  somewhat  arbitrary  in  the  east 
between  New  England  and  the  lower  St.  Law¬ 
rence  region,  but  from  northern  New  York  it 
follows  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  middle  line  of 
the  Great  Lakes  to  northern  Minnesota.  Be¬ 
yond  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  the  boundary  fol¬ 
lows  the  49th  parallel  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Key 
West,  the  southern  point  of  Florida,  has  a  lati¬ 
tude  of  24°  33',  and  the  southern  part  of  Texas 
about  26°,  north  latitude.  The  parallel  49°  is 
about  that  of  Paris,  while  the  latitude  of  Key 
West  reaches  south  into  the  Sahara.  New 
York  is  on  the  parallel  of  Naples  and  Constanti¬ 
nople,  and  Memphis  on  that  of  Gibraltar.  The 
length  of  the  boundary  of  the  United  States  pro- 

Sq.  miles 


Continental  United  States .  3,026,789 

Alaska .  590,884 

Hawaiian  Territory .  6,449 

Porto  Rico .  3,435 

Philippines  (estimated) .  115,026 

Guam .  210 

Samoa .  77 

Panama  Canal  Zone  (leased) .  527 

Virgin  Islands .  132 


Total .  3,743,529 


per  is  given  by  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  as 
10,758  miles.  This  is  divided  as  follows:  At¬ 
lantic  Ocean,  1883;  Pacific  Ocean,  1316;  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  1639;  Canada,  3900;  Mexico,  1975. 
The  country  has  preponderatingly  a  natural 
boundary  of  salt  and  fresh  waters.  On  the  side 
of  Mexico  and  of  British  Columbia  the  boundary 


crosses  the  Cordilleran  ranges.  The  land  and 
water  area  of  the  United  States  proper  and  its 
noncontiguous  territory  is  shown  by  preceding- 
figures.  This  article  treats  of  the  United  States 
proper  except  when  otherwise  stated.  Alaska  and 
also  the  colonial  dependencies  are  treated  under 
their  respective  heads. 

NATURAL  FEATURES 

General  Description.  The  lands  of  the 

United  States  are  crossed  from  north  to  south 
by  the  four  principal  physiographic  provinces  of 
the  North  American  continent:  (1)  on  the  east, 
bordering  the  Atlantic,  coastal  plains  and  pla¬ 
teaus;  (2)  west  of  these,  the  Appalachian  high¬ 
lands  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  into 
Labrador;  (3)  a  great  system  of  plains  and 
plateaus  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
northward  to  the  Arctic,  bordered  on  the  east  by 
the  Appalachians  and  on  the  west  by  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  (4)  a  group  of  mountain  chains 
and  ranges  on  the  west  side  of  the  country,  in¬ 
cluding  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Sierra  Nevada, 
Cascade,  etc.  (called  the  Cordilleras).  These 
western  highlands  are  so  prominent  and  so 
extensive  that  the  United  States  may  be  viewed 
as  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  100th  meridian 
— the  eastern  part  being  a  lowland  plain  with 
slight  elevations  in  the  Appalachian  system,  and 
the  western  standing  at  an  elevation  of  4000 
to  6000  feet,  with  large  areas  over  10,000  feet. 

Atlantic  Lowland. — This  region,  although 
not  large,  contains  a  vast  population  and  is 
historically  the  most  important.  It  made  the 
interior  of  the  continent  accessible  to  discovery 
from  the  east,  offered  hospitable  ground  to  the 
colonists,  and  in  the  north  is  rich  in  the  har¬ 
bors  that  have  led  to  the  building  of  cities  and 
the  growth  of  commerce.  The  Atlantic  lowland 
includes  the  piedmont  plain.  The  latter  ex¬ 
tends  south  from  New  York  to  Florida  Strait, 
including  southern  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and 
a  broad  belt  of  all  the  South  Atlantic  States. 
It  is  a  smooth  land,  without  projecting  masses 
of  rocky  hills,  and  slopes  gently  up  from  the  tide 
levels  to  the  rougher  lands  of  the  Appalachian 
belt.  It  is  intersected  by  Delaware  and  Chesa¬ 
peake  bays  and  their  rivers  and  by  more  south¬ 
erly  streams.  It  is  often  known  as  the  tide¬ 
water  country  because  the  sea  enters  its  estua¬ 
rine  rivers  for  scores  of  miles.  It  is  covered  with 
fields  of  tobacco,  cotton,  rice,  and  fruit  orchards 
or  with  pastures  or  native  forest.  The  region  is 
in  greater  part  a  sea  bottom  uncovered  at  a 
comparatively  recent  period  and  becomes  con¬ 
tinuous,  beneath  the  Atlantic  waters,  with  the 
continental  shelf  which  lies  between  the  land 
border  and  the  deep  seas.  North  of  New  York 
in  New  England  and  west  of  this  plain  is  a 
much  denuded  belt  of  ancient  Appalachian  moun¬ 
tains  which  is  known  as  the  piedmont  plain. 
New  England,  which  is  generally  treated  as  a 
distinct  physiographic  province,  is  a  rough  low¬ 
land  rising  from  sea  level  to  the  height  of  400 
or  500  feet.  It  is  naturally  dissected,  upland 
country.  By  the  piedmont  plain  is  usually  un¬ 
derstood  the  land  between  the  coastal  plain 
and  the  Blpe  Ridge.  See  Piedmont  Plain. 

One  feature  of  the  entire  Atlantic  coast  is 
that  the  rivers  are  tidal.  They  may  occupy  nar¬ 
row  channels  to  the  sea  border,  like  the  Hudson, 
or  they  may  enter  at  the  head  of  deep  and  spa¬ 
cious  bays,  as  do  the  Delaware  and  the  Sus¬ 
quehanna.  Such  a  water  system  with  the  above 
rivers,  the  Potomac,  James,  and  other  streams, 


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is  well  called  a  drowned  river  system.  By  this 
is  meant  that  the  trunk  valley  and  its  branches 
were  submerged  by  the  sea  entering  their  lower 
parts  because  of  a  sinking  of  the  edge  or,  of 
larger  parts  of  the  continent.  The  historical 
meaning  of  these  conditions  can  hardly  be 
reckoned.  It  is  enough  here  to  observe  that 
nearly  all  the  harborages  and  quiet  salt  waters 
of  the  Atlantic  border  have  this  origin,  and  that 
thus  have  grown  the  great  seaboard  cities,  where 
ships  may  ride  safely  at  the  mouth  of  tidal 
streams  whose  waters  offer  gateways  to  the  in¬ 
terior  of  the  continent. 

Appalachian  Mountains. — From  the  physical 
point  of  view  these  may  be  taken  as  the  eastern 
part  of  the  rocky  skeleton  of  the  country  and 
the  continent.  In  their  highest  points,  the  White 
Mountains  in  the  north  and  the  Black  Moun¬ 
tains  in  the  middle  south,  they  attain  elevations 
exceeding  6000  feet  in  the  loftiest  projections 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Historically  they 
form  the  Appalachian  barrier,  with  large  conse¬ 
quences  in  Colonial  annals  and  in  the  opening 
of  the  lands  that  lie  westward.  See  Appa¬ 
lachians. 

Central  Lotolands. — The  central  part  of  the 
United  States  between  the  Appalachians  and  the 
100th  meridian  is  commercially  a  unit  and  a 
great  agricultural  section.  The  plains  in  this 
region  pass  gradually  up  into  the  plateau  on  the 
east.  To  the  north  they  merge  with  the  smooth 
lowlands  about  the  Great  Lakes,  to  the  south 
they  are  continuous  with  the  Gulf  lands,  and 
to  the  west  they  pass  gradually  into  the  high 
plains  west  and  south  of  the  Missouri  River. 
The  region  is  roughly  coterminous  with  the 
prairies.  See  Prairie. 

Great  Lake  Region. — The  lands  about  the 
Great  Lakes  have  considerable  variety.  During 
the  recession  of  the  continental  glacier  the  lakes 
had  higher  water  levels  and  often  much  greater 
extent  than  now.  During  this  flooded  condition 
what  are  now  the  bordering  lands  received  a 
cover  of  such  fine  muds  as  are  spread  upon  the 
bottom  of  all  great  bodies  of  water.  To  some 
extent  previous  inequalities  are  masked,  and  the 
resulting  surface  is  often  very  smooth  and  almost 
level.  This  is  especially  true  of  Lakes  Ontario, 
Erie,  Huron,  and  Michigan.  Some  of  these  lands 
were  treeless  and  hence  were  properly  called 
prairies,  although  modern  physiography  prefers 
to  designate  them  as  lake  plains.  Lake  Superior 
is  surrounded  by  older  rocks,  which  have  been 
greatly  disturbed  and  metamorphosed,  and  the 
remnants  of  these  ancient  mountains  form  a 
higher  and  rougher  land  than  about  the  lower 
lakes.  This  is  true  of  the  northern  peninsula 
of  Michigan,  of  Wisconsin,  and  of  northeastern 
Minnesota.  Naturally,  therefore,  these  rocks 
hold  vast  stores  of  iron  and  copper,  while  the 
strata  of  the  prairies  offer  little  in  the  way  of 
mineral  resources  except  coal.  See  Great 
Lakes. 

Gulf  Plains. — These  are  most  simply  defined 
as  a  continuation  of  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain, 
or  another  part  of  the  younger  fringe  of  the 
continent.  In  central  Georgia  and  Alabama  the 
younger  formations  abut  on  the  older  rocks 
of  the  southern  Appalachians  and  mark  approxi¬ 
mately  the  encroachment  of  the  later  seas.  By 
gentle  uplift  the  marginal  sea  bottoms  of  the 
Gulf  were  laid  bare  and  form  the  flat  lowlands 
of  this  semitropical  region.  Before  the  uplift 
Florida  existed  as  an  extension  of  the  subma¬ 
rine  platform  which  probably  extended  to  Cuba 


and  beyond.  Its  limestone  strata  have  resulted 
in  cavernous  openings  in  the  rocks,  underground 
streams,  and  springs  of  great  volume.  The  sea¬ 
ward  edge  of  this  land  abounds  in  sand  bars, 
coral  reefs,  and  mangrove  swamps,  and  this  sin¬ 
gle  State,  counting  its  main  shores,  its  bays  and 
numberless  islands,  has  more  than  4000  miles  of 
shore  line. 

Westward  from  Alabama  the  Mississippi  River 
(q.v.)  becomes  the  controlling  feature  in  the 
topography  of  the  Gulf  region.  The  broad  Gulf 
plain  occupies  a  large  part  of  southern  and  east¬ 
ern  Texas.  As  in  the  region  to  the  eastward,  the 
younger  rocks  have  been  made  into  land  by  uplift 
and  retreat  of  the  sea.  As  a  rule  the  surface 
slopes  gently  towards  the  Gulf,  but  with  escarp¬ 
ments  and  great  local  variations  of  topography. 
Some  areas  are  prairie,  while  others  are  heavily 
forested,  and  the  rise  to  the  northwest  leads 
first  to  the  great  plateau,  or  Llano  Estacado, 
and  then  to  the  mountains  of  the  Rocky  Moun¬ 
tain  Range.  The  shore  line  is  a  long  crescent, 
bordered  by  extensive  barrier  beaches  and  sand 
bars,  which  inclose  stretches  of  quiet  water. 
Galveston  is  on  one  of  these  beaches,  and  it  is 
thus  exposed  to  the  Gulf  hurricanes. 

Great  Plains. — This  is  the  name  usually  given 
to  the  lands  which  rise  gradually  from  the 
prairies  to  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Moun¬ 
tains.  But  the  altitude  of  these  lands  is  such 
that  they  are  often  called  the  high  plains. 
From  altitudes  of  about  1000  feet  along  the 
Missouri  River  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  they 
rise  to  heights  of  5000  to  6000  feet  at  the  foot 
of  the  western  mountains.  In  general  this  rise 
is  imperceptibly  gradual,  but  its  continuity  is 
sometimes  interrupted  by  escarpments,  and  the 
easterly  flowing  rivers  have  incised  shallow  val¬ 
leys  upon  the  region.  The  strata  are  little  dis¬ 
turbed,  and  thus  the  country  resembles  the 
prairie  region,  but  the  underlying  beds  are 
geologically  younger  and  are  overlain  in  many 
areas  by  large  bodies  of  waste,  which  in  part 
may  have  been  deposited  in  lakes  and  in  part 
was  no  doubt  distributed  by  torrents  from  the 
mountains.  Climatic  causes  have  also  made  the 
region  different  in  aspect  from  the  prairies. 
The  plains  have  from  10  to  20  inches  of  rain 
per  year;  therefore  forests  are  infrequent,  the 
vegetation  consists  largely  of  sparse  grasses,  and 
agriculture  is  altogether  dependent  on  irriga¬ 
tion.  Over  large  areas  the  water  supply  for  this 
purpose  is  deficient  and  grazing  is  the  only  re¬ 
maining  resource.  This  region  is  a  vast  one, 
having  the  east  and  west  limits  already  given 
and  reaching  from  central  Texas  to  the  north 
border  of  the  country,  where  it  merges  into  the 
great  western  plains  of  Canada.  In  the  north 
the  most  prominent  break  in  the  plains  is  the 
Black  Hills  mountain  area.  Here  an  elevated 
mass  of  ancient  rocks  protrudes  through  the 
younger  strata,  giving  a  region  of  rugged  relief, 
hard  rocks,  mines,  and  forests.  In  the  Black 
Hills  region,  in  much  of  the  western  Dakotas, 
and  in  Montana  and  western  Nebraska,  are  the 
Bad  Lands  (q.v.). 

Uplands  of  Missouri  and  Arkansas. — The  most 
extensive  body  of  elevated  land  between  the  Ap¬ 
palachians  and  the  higher  levels  of  the  great 
plains  lies  in  southern  Missouri  and  in  northern 
and  central  Arkansas  and  westward.  In  Mis¬ 
souri  and  northern  Arkansas  these  uplands  are 
of  moderate  height,  dissected  by  the  rivers,  cov¬ 
ered  with  forests,  and  known  as  the  Ozark  pla¬ 
teau.  Still  better  known,  owing  to  their  metallic 


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deposits,  are  some  low  mountains  of  very  ancient 
rocks,  outliers  of  the  Ozarks,  familiar  as  Iron 
Mountain  and  Pilot  Knob.  Running  through 
southern  Arkansas  are  the  Ouachita  Mountains. 
These  rise  from  below  the  young  sediments  of 
the  Mississippi  valley  and  trend  westward,  pass¬ 
ing  through  Indian  Territory  and  Oklahoma  into 
northern  Texas.  This  upland  region  south  of 
the  Missouri  River,  therefore,  is  associated  on 
various  sides  with  the  prairies,  the  alluvial 
plains  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Gulf  plains  of  the 
South,  and  the  great  plains  of  the  West. 

Rocky  Mountains. — The  name  is  properly  ap¬ 
plied  only  to  the  eastern  ranges  of  the  Cordil¬ 
leras.  The  ranges  with  numerous  peaks  rising 
above  14,000  feet  extend  through  Idaho,  Mon¬ 
tana,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and  New  Mexico  and 
send  some  outlying  ridges  into  Texas.  See 
Rocky  Mountains. 

Colorado  Plateaus. — West  of  the  Rocky  Moun¬ 
tains,  in  Colorado,  Utah,  New  Mexico,  and  Ari¬ 
zona,  are  the  Colorado  plateaus.  The  promi¬ 
nent  and  general  characteristics  of  the  plateaus 
are  the  flat  but  partially  dissected  upper  sur¬ 
faces  of  the  various  parts,  the  distinct  bounda¬ 
ries  of  the  individual  plateaus  as  marked  by 
fault  scarps,  and  the  great  canons  that  ramify 
through  almost  every  section.  The  most  strik¬ 
ing  feature  of  the  plateaus  is  the  Colorado  River 
with  its  world-famed  canon.  This  great  stream 
confines  its  drainage,  save  near  its  mouth,  to 
an  upland  several  thousand  feet  above  the  sea. 
Having  abundant  sources  in  the  rains  and  snows 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Range  and  rising  at  great  altitudes,  it  has  both 
velocity  and  volume  and  hence  has  cut  deeply 
into  the  plateaus.  This  being  an  arid  region,  the 
abundant  waters  are  of  remote  derivation  and 
sunk  in  the  canons,  while  the  sparse  rainfall 
causes  desert  conditions  to  be  general,  with 
much  exposed  rock,  little  vegetation,  and  a  gen¬ 
eral  absence  of  conditions  favorable  to  civilized 
life.  Closely  associated  with  these  great  pla¬ 
teaus  are  two  short  lofty  ranges  of  mountains. 
One  of  these  is  the  Wasatch,  marking  the  bound¬ 
ary  between  the  plateaus  and  the  Great  Basin 
in  central  Utah.  The  other  is  the  Uinta  Range, 
about  150  miles  in  length  and  extending  from 
northwestern  Colorado  through  the  borderlands 
of  Wyoming  and  Utah.  Its  chief  development  is 
in  the  latter  State,  and  in  its  east  and  west 
trend  it  departs  from  the  usual  direction  of 
American  mountain  axes. 

Great  Basin. — This  is  an  area  of  interior 
drainage,  made  up  of  many  minor  basins,  of 
which  the  chief  is  that  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake 
in  Utah.  See  Great  Basin. 

Columbia  and  Snake  River  Plateaus. — Large 
areas  drained  by  these  streams  in  Idaho,  Oregon, 
and  Washington  are  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
along  the  Snake  River  in  Idaho  and  Oregon  the 
lavas  form  plateaus  about  4000  feet  in  altitude. 
They  are  a  natural  desert,  since  the  region  is 
arid,  but  are  capable  of  great  development  under 
the  process  of  irrigation. 

Mountains  and  Valleys  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 
— The  features  to  which  reference  is  here  made 
belong  to  three  States,  California,  Oregon,  and 
Washington.  They  will  be  best  understood  if 
it  is  observed  that  a  single  lofty  range,  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  forms  the  eastern  border  of  Cali¬ 
fornia,  and  that  it  extends,  under  the  name  of 
the  Cascade  Range,  northward  through  central 
Oregon  and  Washington.  Its  loftiest  peak,  in 
California,  is  Mount  Whitney  (14,502  feet), 


which  is  the  highest  point  of  the  entire  United 
States  south  of  Alaska.  Bordering  the  sea  are 
lower  mountains,  in  the  form  of  a  series  of 
ranges  known  as  the  Coast  Ranges,  parts  of 
it  being  known  as  the  Klamath  Mountains  in 
Oregon  and  the  Olympic  Mountains  in  Washing¬ 
ton.  (See  Sierra  Nevada;  Cascade  Range; 
etc.)  Between  these  parallel  ranges  are  lowland 
valleys  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  region.  They  include  in  California 
the  great  valley  drained  by  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  rivers,  the  centre  of  the  fruit  and 
grain  culture  of  the  State;  in  Oregon  the  Willa¬ 
mette  valley;  and  still  farther  north  the  Puget 
Sound  valley  in  the  State  of  Washington.  In 
these  mountain  ranges  the  extinct  volcanic  cones 
of  Shasta,  Hood,  Rainier,  and  Baker  are  promi¬ 
nent  features,  and  Lassen  in  active  eruption  adds 
a  new  character.  The  coast  line  of  the  Pacific  is 
not  nearly  so  great  as  that  of  the  Atlantic 
coast,  because  it  is  less  indented.  It  has,  how¬ 
ever,  a  few  of  the  choicest  bodies  of  inland 
or  protected  waters  to  be  found  on  any  shore. 
Such  are  San  Francisco  Bay  and  Puget  Sound, 
while  the  deep,  tidal  Columbia  and  Willamette 
rivers  offer  similar  advantages  to  northern  Ore¬ 
gon.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  Cordilleran  sys¬ 
tem  is  made  up  of  many  parallel  ranges  of  moun¬ 
tains,  separated  in  turn  by  intermontane  areas 
of  lofty  plateaus  and  valleys,  or,  nearer  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  by  broad  and  fertile  lowlands. 

Hydrography.  The  drainage  of  the  United 
States  may  be  classed  as  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 
As  with  the  entire  continent  and  with  South 
America,  the  smaller  ocean  receives  by  far  the 
greater  contribution  of  fresh  water  from  the 
lands  now  under  review.  The  Atlantic  streams 
may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Hudson 
Bay,  the  Gulf,  or  to  open-sea  drainage.  With 
unimportant  exceptions  farther  west,  the  Red 
River  of  the  North  carries  a  small  contribution 
of  the  United  States  area  to  Hudson  Bay.  The 
open-sea  streams  are  all  of  moderate  length  and 
volume  except  the  St.  Lawrence,  which,  rising  in 
Minnesota,  expands  into  lakes  of  exceptional 
size.  (For  details  concerning  these  bodies  of 
water  see  Great  Lakes.)  All  the  streams  which 
enter  the  lakes  from  the  United  States  are  rela¬ 
tively  small.  Their  courses  are  short,  which  is 
equal  to  saying  that  the  line  of  water  partings 
between  the  Laurentian  and  Mississippi  basins 
is  close  to  the  lakes.  The  divide  is  also  nearly 
everywhere  quite  inconspicuous.  The  streams 
have  thus  small  capacity  for  transporting  land 
waste  into  the  lakes.  Such  waste  as  reaches  the 
lakes  rests  in  them,  a  condition  from  which  re¬ 
sults  the  exceeding  clearness  of  Niagara,  or  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  waters  that  pass  the  Thousand 
Islands. 

The  open  Atlantic  streams,  draining  that  part 
of  the  country  which  is  historically  oldest,  and 
being  often  tidal,  have  a  fame  and  a  commercial 
value  out  of  all  proportion  to  their  size.  To 
begin  with  the  rivers  of  New  England,  its  con¬ 
spicuous  streams — the  Penobscot,  Kennebec,  Mer- 
rimac,  Connecticut,  and  Housatonic — are  most 
of  them  entered  by  the  tides  for  many  miles. 
The  Merrimac  and  Connecticut,  above  tide  water, 
are  types  of  many  New  England  rivers  which, 
being  interrupted  by  rapids  resulting  from  the 
glacial  invasion,  furnish  a  great  store  of  water 
power. 

New  York  is  •  r  1  i  in  drainage.  The 
Hudson,  with  the  viol  '  -  ,  drains  much  of  its 
central  and  easte  n  but  is  chiefly  impor- 


THE  LIE.-;  ARY 
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115°  Longitude  C  West  110°  from  D  -Greenwich  105 


ir:r  uz?my 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


UNITED  STATES  697  UNITED  STATES 


tant  for  its  tidal  course  of  150  miles,  with  great 
harborage  at  its  mouth,  and  an  open  gateway 
to  the  west  from  the  head  of  tide  water.  The 
Genesee,  Black,  and  other  rivers  carry  to  the 
St.  Lawrence  much  of  the  run-off  of  northern  and 
western  New  York.  The  Susquehanna,  the  Dela¬ 
ware,  and  the  Mississippi  take  nearly  all  the 
remainder  of  New  York  waters.  The  Allegheny 
gathers  for  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  waters  that  fail 
within  a  few  miles  of  Lake  Erie. 

The  Delaware,  Susquehanna,  and  Potomac  are 
all  important  rivers  which  rise  in  the  Appalach¬ 
ian  plateau  and  find  their  way  across  the  various 
mountain  ridges  of  the  Appalachian  system  by 
\\  ater  gaps,  and  enter  the  seas  through  drowned 
valleys  which  are  characteristic  of  all  the  At¬ 
lantic  streams  north  of  Virginia.  In  the  pla¬ 
teau,  where  the  strata  are  nearly  horizontal,  the 
streams  are  dendritic,  or  finger-like,  in  arrange¬ 
ment.  V  ithin  the  mountain  belt  the  streams 
are  in  part  longitudinal  and  in  part  transverse. 
By  thus  running  between  the  ridges  and  cutting 
through  them  in  water  gaps  a  rectangular  or 
trellised  drainage  is  formed  which  is  widely 
found  in  the  Appalachian  region.  The  northern 
Appalachian  waters  thus  flow  mainly  to  the 
open  Atlantic.  In  the  south,  however,  or  beyond 
the  Potomac,  the  coastal  rivers  head  in  the  east¬ 
ern  edge  of  the  mountains,  while  the  Kanawha 
and  the  Tennessee,  with  their  branches,  head  far 
across  the  mountains  and  carry  the  waters  to  the 
Ohio  River.  The  great  core  of  the  southern 
Appalachians  in  western  North  Carolina,  so  con¬ 
venient  it  would  seem  to  the  sea,  is  thus  drained 
by  a  circuitous  route  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  entire  belt  of  Appalachian  uplands  has  for 
the  most  part  arrived  at  the  stage  of  mature 
dissection,  with  abundant  valleys,  sunk  from 
500  to  1500  feet  below  the  prevailing  level  of 
the  uplands. 

Many  rivers  of  local  importance  rise  on  the 
east  slope  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and  cross  the  pied¬ 
mont  plateau  and  the  coastal  plain  to  the  sea. 
Such  are  the  James  and  other  rivers  of  Virginia, 
the  Roanoke,  Cape  Fear,  Great  Pedee,  Savannah’ 
and  Altamaha  of  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia. 
The  rivers  of  Florida  are  mainly  small,  but  have 
important  tidal  courses.  The  other  Gulf  drain¬ 
age  is  overshadowed  in  magnitude  by  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi.  The  greater  streams  aside  "from  this 
are  the  Chattahoochee,  Alabama,  and  Tombigbee 
on  the  east,  and  the  Colorado  (of  Texas)  and 
Brazos  on  the  west,  and  the  international  Rio 
Grande,  rising  in  Colorado. 

Mississippi  River. — See  Mississippi  River. 
Pacific  Drainage. — The  Rocky  Mountains,  es¬ 
pecially  in  Colorado  and  northward,  are  the 
sources  of  many  streams,  part  of  which  empty 
into  the  Pacific.  To  the  south  they  send  forth 
the  Rio  Grande.  To  the  east  flows  the  Arkansas, 
while  to  the  north  and  east  pass  important 
branches  of  the  Missouri.  From  the  southwest 
issues  the  San  Juan,  while  farther  north  the 
Grand,  White,  and  Yampa  rivers  rise  in  Colo¬ 
rado.  All  of  these  join  the  Colorado  River 
(q.v. )  and  thus  introduce  us  to  the  most  south¬ 
erly  of  rivers  in  the  United  States  that  reach 
the  Pacific  Ocean  by  way  of  the  Gulf  of  Cali¬ 
fornia.  Some  of  the  chief  facts  concerning  this 
river  have  been  given  in  the  description  of  the 
topography  of  the  region.  Its  ultimate  sources 
are  in  the  Wind  River  Mountains  of  Wyoming. 
The  only  remaining  master  stream  is  the’ Colum¬ 
bia,  with  its  widespread  sources  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  These  largely  belong  to  its  tribii- 


tary,  the  Snake  River,  which  after  passing  the 
lava  plateaus  joins  the  trunk  stream  in  south 
\\  ashington.  The  Columbia  has  an  important 
tidal  course  before  it  enters  the  ocean,  and  this 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  are  the  only  rivers  of  the 
United  States  which  receive  great  accessions 
to  their  waters  from  foreign  territory. 

The  Hudson  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  that 
great  number  of  streams,  especially  on  the  At¬ 
lantic  side,  which  have  a  tidal  course.  Within 
the  glaciated  district  most  rivers  show  serious 
inequalities  in  their  beds,  causing  innumerable 
rapids  and  waterfalls.  Such  concentration  of 
descent  does  not  occur  elsewhere,  save  in  the 
mountainous  belts.  The  greatness  and  destruc¬ 
tiveness  of  floods  depend  upon  rainfall,  gradient, 
the  porosity  of  the  rocks  or  soil,  and  other  fea¬ 
tures.  Thus  the  Ohio  has  steep  slopes,  an  im¬ 
perious  bed,  and  a  moist  climate,  when  com¬ 
pared  with  the  Missouri  taken  as  a  whole.  In 
its  long  course  across  the  plains  the  latter  loses 
jy  seepage,  by  evaporation,  and  by  abstraction 
of  water  for  irrigation. 

The  rivers  exhibit  great  diversity  in  relation 
to  human  uses.  The  Merrimac  and  many  other 
sti  earns  within  the  glacial  belt  are  mainly  useful 
for  manufacturing  or  for  water  supply.  The 
Mississippi  is  chiefly  of  value  theoretically,  but 
actually  its  importance  is  decreasing  as  a  high¬ 
way,  while  the  Hudson  combines  transportation, 
water  and  ice  supply,  and  the  furnishing  of 
power.  .  The  Colorado  is  thus  far  almost  purely 
scenic  in  its  relation  to  man,  arousing  interest 
by  the  origin  and  magnificence  of  its  canons. 
The  streams  of  the  West  are  largely  used  for 
irrigation.  See  Irrigation. 

tt  c-te‘  The  &reater  Part  of  the  area  of  the 
l  nited  States  proper  has  a  climate  pertaining  to 

the  temperate  zone.  The  average  annual  temper¬ 
atures  vary  from  somewhat  less  than  40°  on 
the  northern  border  to  75°  in  the  extreme  south¬ 
east.  The  average  temperature  for  July  is  about 
65°  on  the  north  border,  and  for  January  it  is 
about  20°.  The  whole  country  is  exposed  to 
much  greater  annual  oscillations  of  temperature 
than  occur  in  Europe.  The  extreme  maximum 
temperatures  are  as  high  as  115°  to  120°  in  the 
drier  portions  of  Texas  and  Arizona,  and  the 
average  minimum  falls  as  low  as  —  G0°  in  north¬ 
ern  Montana.  The  climate  of  the  United  States 
is  controlled  very  largely  by  its  characteristic 
winds  and  by  its  topography.  In  general  the 
prevailing  winds  are  from  the  west,  coming  to 
the  west  coast  off  the  Pacific  Ocean.  To  that 
coast  they  bring  the  moisture  and  uniform  tem¬ 
perature  of  the  sea.  If  the  land  is  cooler  than 
the  sea,  as  in  winter,  they  bring  copious  rains. 
If  the  land  is  warmer,  as  in  summer,  they  bring 
little  or  no  rain,  and  the  moist-air  currents  pass 
on  eastward  to  water  the  Rocky  Mountain  re¬ 
gion.  Hence  the  winter  is  the  rainy  season  on 
the  1  acific  coast  and  the  summer  is  the  rainy 
season  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region. 

The  majority  of  the  storms  originating  in  the 
northwest  or  over  the  northern  Pacific  Ocean, 
travel  at  first  southeastward  to  the  Mississippi 
valley  and  then  with  an  east-northeastward 
course  pass  over  New  England  or  down  the  St. 
Lawrence  valley.  The  winds  <5f  these  cyclones 
blow  spirally  inward  towards  the  storm’s  centre; 
thus,  over  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  the 
winds  in  advance  of  such  storms  are  from  the 
east-southeast  and  south,  and  draw  warm,  moist 
air  from  the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
After  the  passage  of  the  storm  centre  the  winds 


UNITED  STATES  698  UNITED  STATES 


shift  to  the  west  and  northwest  and  are  cold, 
coming  from  the  north  interior  of  the  continent. 
Occasionally  more  violently  whirling  storms 
come  up  from  the  West  Indies,  the  tropics, 
and  invade  the  east  United  States.  These  are 
commonly  more  intense  and  severe,  but  affect 
sfiialler  areas  than  those  of  the  westerly  winds 
and  resemble  closely  the  typhoons  of  the  Philip¬ 
pines.  The  absolute  annual  range  of  tempera¬ 
ture  is,  of  course,  greatest  in  the  interior  of 
the  country,  being  about  150°  in  the  upper  por¬ 
tion  of  the  Missouri  valley  and  diminishing  to 
60°  in  the  southern  part  of  Florida  and  the 
northwestern  part  of  Oregon.  The  suddenness 
with  which  the  air  temperature  falls  is  an^im- 
portant  consideration.  Thus  changes  of  20°  in 
24  hours  occur  far  more  frequently  in  the  lake 
region  than  in  the  Ohio  valley  and  there  again 
oftener  than  of  the  south  coast. 

The  average  date  of  killing  frosts  in  the  spring 
and  autumn  determines  the  average  length  of 
the  growing  season  for  most  of  the  important 
crops.  The  autumnal  date  is  September  15 
for  the  region  from  North  Dakota  to  Lake  Huron 
and  October  15  for  the  region  from  Colorado  to 
Pennsylvania  and  northeastward  along  the  New 
England  coast.  The  latest  spring  frosts  occur 
on^May  20  from  Idaho  to  Lake  Superior  and 
February  15  along  the  South  Atlantic  and  Last 
Gulf  coasts.  The  growing  season  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  the  interval  between  the  last  frost  of 
spring  and  the  first  of  autumn,  or  it  may  also 
be  defined  as  the  season  within  which  the  average 
daily  temperature  does  not  fall  below  40°.  h  rom 
this  point  of  view  the  growing  season  diminishes 
as  one  goes  northward  and  amounts  to  about  120 
days  at  the  north  border  of  the  United  States. 
By  a  natural  process  of  selection,  stimulated  by 
culture,  plants  that  formerly  required  this  length 
of  time  for  maturity  are  now  pushing  north¬ 
ward  beyond  the  borders  into  Canadian  regions 
where  the  growing  period  is  as  much  as  20  days 
shorter. 

One  of  the  most  notable  features  in  the  climate 
of  the  United  States  is  the  great  contrast  be¬ 
tween  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  prevailing  winds  are 


LATI- 

January 

July 

TUDE 

NORTH 

Atlantic 

Pacific 

A  P 

Atlantic 

Pacific 

A— P 

coast 

coast 

coast 

coast 

48°.  .  . 

14°F. 

39°F. 

—  25°F. 

63°F. 

55°F. 

+  8°F. 

46. . . . 

18 

39 

-21 

63 

60 

+  3 

44. .  .  . 

20 

40 

-20 

65 

65 

+  0 

42. .  .  . 

30 

44 

-14 

70 

65 

+  5 

40. .  .  . 

32 

45 

-13 

73 

60 

+  13 

38. .  .  . 

40 

49 

-  9 

75 

65 

+  10 

36 ... . 

45 

50 

-  5 

77 

65 

+  12 

34 ... . 

47 

50 

-  3 

80 

65 

+  15 

32.... 

50 

50 

-  0 

82 

70 

+  12 

from  the  west  and  northwest.  The  land  is 
heated  quickly  and  as  quickly  cools.  The  sea 
is  heated  slowly,  and  as  the  water  has  circula¬ 
tion  it  tends  to  obtain  a  uniform  temperature. 
Hence  the  west  winds  blowing  off  the  Pacific 
give  the  west  coast  a  mild  and  uniform  climate. 
The  winds  coming  from  the  interior  of  the  con¬ 
tinent  to  the  east  coast  give  it  a  hot  climate  in 
summer  and  a  cold  climate  in  winter,  Jhe  con¬ 
trast  between  the  mean  temperatures  on  the  im¬ 
mediate  coast  of  the  United  States  in  January 
and  July  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  table. 


The  temperatures  here  given  are  as  read  off  on 
charts  of  isotherms  and  refer  to  locations  on  the 
land  at  sea  level  near  the  shore.  These  tem¬ 
peratures  are  controlled  largely  by  the  prevail¬ 
ing  winds  and  the  adjacent  oceans.  A  similar 
great  contrast  prevails  between  the  temperatures 
on  the  east  side  of  Asia  and  west  side  of  Eu¬ 
rope,  but  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  the  cor¬ 
responding  contrasts  are  not  so  marked,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  the  great  Southern  Ocean  and 
the  small  area  and  low  altitude  of  the  lands. 

Another  striking  peculiarity  in  the  climate  of 
the  United  States  is  the  great  contrasts  of  dry¬ 
ness  and  rainfall.  The  heaviest  precipitation 
(100  inches  and  over)  and  humidity  prevail  on 
the  coast  of  Oregon  and  Washington,  due,  as 
noted  above,  to  the  prevailing  westerly  winds 
and,  since  nearly  all  of  it  comes  in  the  winter, 
to  the  fact  that  'the  land  is  then  colder  than  the 
sea.  This  winter  rainfall  diminishes  southward, 
and  in  southern  California  it  is  slight.  In  the 
Great  Basin  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  the 
rainfall  is  slight  (5  to  20  inches),  and  the  coun¬ 
try  is  in  greater  or  less  degree  a  desert.  Yuma 
in  Arizona,  Sante  Fe  in  New  Mexico,  and  Pueblo 
in  Colorado  have  mean  relative  humidities  of 
43,  45,  and  46  per  cent  respectively.  The  amount 
of  evaporation  from  the  soil  is  correspondingly 
large  in  these  regions,  and  artificial  irrigation  is 
quite  essential  for  successful  agriculture.  Even 
the  summits  of  the  mountains  of  this  portion  of 
the  continent  show  but  little  permanent  snow, 
and  that  in  sheltered  spots.  What  would  remain 
on  the  ground  in  an  ordinary  moist  climate  is 
rapidly  evaporated  in  this  dry  air.  Here  the 
scanty  rainfall  comes  mainly  in  the  summer, 
being,  as  noted  above,  derived  from  the  Pacific. 

The  eastern  parts  of  the  country  derive  their 
rain  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  the  former  supplying  most  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  valley  and  the  latter  the  Atlantic  plain. 
The  heaviest  rainfall  in  this  part  of  the  country 
is  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
where  the  saturated  warm  south  winds  reach  the 
land.  Here  the  annual  rainfall  exceeds  60 
inches.  Thence  northward  up  the  Mississippi 
valley  the  amount  diminishes,  until  about  the 
Great  Lakes  the  precipitation  does  not  exceed 
30  to  35  inches.  Westward  also  it  becomes 
lighter,  until  at  the  east  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  it  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  15  inches. 
On  the  Atlantic  coast  it  is  abundant,  being  sup¬ 
plied  from  the  Atlantic  by  easterly  winds.  At 
Cape  Hatteras  it  is  60  inches,  diminishing  north¬ 
ward  along  the  coast  to  45  inches  and  diminish¬ 
ing  also  inland. 

Thus  the  three  sources  of  water  supply  to  the 
country  are  the  Pacific,  which  supplies  the  en¬ 
tire  Cordillera  region ;  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  which 
supplies  the  Mississippi  valley  and  the  region  of 
the  Great  Lakes;  and  the  Atlantic,  which  sup¬ 
plies  the  Atlantic  plain.  The  areas  supplied  by 
these  three  sources  are,  roughly  estimated  in 
percentages  of  the  total  area :  Pacific,  45  per  cent ; 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  44  per  cent;  and  Atlantic,  11 
per  cent.  The  proportions  of  the  total  rainfall 
which  are  contributed  by  these  three  bodies  of 
water  are  quite  different,  being  roughly  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Pacific,  29  per  cent;  Gulf,  56  per  cent; 
and  Atlantic,  15  per  cent. 

Vegetation  and  Flora.  The  eastern  and 
western  portions  of  the  United  States  differ 
greatly  in  their  vegetation.  A  small  area  on 
mountain  summits  in  northern  New  England  and 
New  York  is  too  cold  for  trees  and  has  herbs  and 


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699 


low  shrubs  of  arctic  aspect.  A  large  part  of 
the  eastern  United  States  north  of  lat.  44°, 
with  isolated  patches  on  the  mountains  farther 
south,  where  the  annual  snowfall  exceeds  50 
inches,  is  characterized  by  dense  forests  of  spin¬ 
dle-shaped  conifers,  such  as  spruce,  fir,  tamarack, 
arbor-vita1,  and  jack  pine,  very  similar  in  aspect 
to  the  forests  of  the  colder  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  interspersed  with  many  peat  bogs  or  mus¬ 
kegs  in  depressions  and  hardwood  forests  on  the 
richer  soils.  In  these  forests  there  are  no  broad¬ 
leaved  evergreen  trees,  but  many  evergreen 
shrubs,  largely  of  the  heath  family.  Berry- 
bearing  plants  are  abundant,  and  s'edges  are 
more  numerous  than  grasses.  All  such  conifer¬ 
ous  forests  are  subject  to  fire,  once  or  twice  in 
a  long  period  of  years,  killing  the  trees,  which 
are  then  temporarily  replaced  by  birch,  aspen, 
and  other  short-lived  hardwoods,  together  with 
various  shrubs  and  coarse  herbs  characteristic  of 
such  situations,  known  collectively  as  fireweeds. 

A  little  farther  south,  and  at  lower  altitudes 
on  the  mountains,  usually  in  better  soil,  are  for¬ 
ests  of  white  pine,  hemlock,  and  numerous  hard¬ 
woods  characteristic  of  cool-temperate  regions. 

Most  of  the  country  between  southern  New 
England  and  central  Mississippi,  as  far  .  inland 
as  the  Alleghany  plateau  and  coastward  to  the 
edge  of  the  coastal  plain  or  a  little  way  into  it, 
including  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains,  has  pines  and  deciduous  hardwoods 
in  varying  proportions,  with  a  great  variety  of 
species  in  different  parts.  Something  like  half 
the  forest  in  this  area  is  now  replaced  by  fields 
and  pastures.  The  forests  of  the  Ozark  region 
of  Missouri  and  Arkansas  are  similar,  but  with 
fewer  species. 

From  western  New  York  and  central  Minne¬ 
sota  to  Indiana^  and  Tennessee  was  originally 
the  great  hardwood  region  of  the  continent,  with 
over  90  per  cent  of  the  trees  deciduous.  Hand¬ 
some  spring  flowers  are  very  noticeable  in  the 
forests,  which  now  cover  only  a  small  part  of 
the  region,  the  rest,  on  account  of  the  very  fer¬ 
tile  soil,  being  given  over  to  agriculture. 

A  belt  averaging  about  100  miles  wide  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  River  to  the  Gulf  is  the 
Mississippi  embayment  of  the  coastal  plain, 
mostly  alluvial  bottoms,  originally  densely 
wooded  (except  near  the  coast)  with  cypress, 
sweet  gum,  cottonwood,  sycamore,  elm,  pecan, 
several  oaks,  and  other  deciduous  trees,  with 
comparatively  few  shrubs  and  herbs. 

In  the  sandy  coastal  plain  from  Cape  Cod  to 
southeast  Louisiana,  pines  of  several  species  con¬ 
stitute  the  bulk  of  the  forests.  These  pine  bar¬ 
rens  are  interspersed  with  numerous  swamps, 
shallow  ponds,  bays,  pocosins,  hammocks,  scrubs, 
marshes,  and  prairies.  There  are  more  ever¬ 
green  hardwoods  or  broad-leaved  evergreens  in 
the  coastal  plain  than  in  any  region  previously 
mentioned.  The  pine  forests  have  been  reduced 
about  one-third  by  lumbering  and  farming.  Fire 
sweeps  through  the  grassy  undergrowth  nearly 
every  winter,  but  cfohs  little  damage  to  the  trees. 

An  area  of  a  few  hundred  square  miles  near 
the  coast  in  extreme  eastern  and  southern  Flor¬ 
ida,  where  frost  is  practically  unknown,  is 
characterized  by  dense  tropical  jungles  of  broad¬ 
leaved  evergreens,  of  many  species,  mostly  with 
crooked  trunks  and  fleshy  fruits.  In  such  for¬ 
ests  fires  are  rare,  but  very  destructive.  A  few 
tropical  trees  are  found  also  in  extreme  southern 
Texas. 

A  narrow  strip  of  salt  marsh  and  dune  vege- 
Vol.  XXII.— 45 


tation  is  nearly  continuous  along  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts  from  Maine  to  Texas,  except  in 
south  Florida,  where  there  are  mangrove  swamps 
instead  of  marshes  and  almost  no  dunes. 

The  great  American  prairie  region  extends 
from  west  Indiana  to  North  Dakota  and  Texas. 
Trees  (nearly  all  of  them  deciduous)  are  chiefly 
confined  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  streams, 
and  the  predominant  vegetation  is  grasses  and 
other  coarse  herbs,  which  make  a  great  display 
of  flowers  in  late  summer.  Prairie  fires  were 
the  terror  of  the  early  settlers,  but  are  no  longer 
dreaded,  for  the  area  is  now  nearly  all  in  cul¬ 
tivation. 

The  Great  Plains  are  higher  and  drier,  with 
more  diversified  topography  and  soil  and  less 
luxuriant  vegetation.  The  Rocky  Mountains 
(q.v.),  extending  from  Canada  to  New  Mexico, 
with  a  little  interruption  in  Wyoming,  have 
considerable  areas  above  timber  line.  The  slopes 
bear  a  rather  sparse  growth  of  spindle-shaped 
conifers  of  several  species,  varying  with  altitude, 
similar  in  aspect  to  those  of  the  Northeastern 
States.  Deciduous  trees  are  chiefly  confined  to 
banks  of  streams  and  recently  burned  areas. 
There  are  many  natural  meadows  and  parks, 
with  diversified  herbaceous  vegetation. 

The  Colorado  plateau,  southwest  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  is  mostly  dotted  with  sagebrush, 
greasewood,  shad  scale,  and  other  low  hoary 
shrubs,  giving  the  vegetation  a  gray  tone.  But 
there  are  vast  open  forests  of  yellow  pine  ( Pimis 
pond&i'osa  scopulorum) ,  somewhat  resembling 
the  southeastern  pine  barrens,  near  its  southern 
edge  in  Arizona,  and  scattered  junipers  and  nut 
pines  or  pinons  ( Piwus  edulis)  on  rocky  slopes. 

The  hot  deserts  from  western  Texas  to  south¬ 
eastern  California  are  characterized  by  scrubby 
spiny  plants  with  reduced  or  thickened  foliage, 
such  as  cacti  of  many  species,  yucca,  sotol, 
lecheguilla,  ocotillo,  palo  verde,  mesquite,  acacia, 
and  creosote  bush.  In  some  places,  especially 
at  higher  altitudes,  there  is  enough  grass  to  sup¬ 
port  large  herds  of  cattle,  but  elsewhere  grass 
is  scarce.  Willows  and  cottonwoods  are  com¬ 
mon  along  some  of  the  streams.  Some  of  the 
mountains  in  the  desert  region  are  high  enough 
to  be  rather  cool  and  moist  and  support  forests 
much  like  those  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  Great  Basin,  which  covers  nearly  all  of 
Nevada  and  parts  of  the  adjoining  States,  is 
similar  in  topography  to  the  hot  deserts  just 
described,  and  equally  arid,  but  cacti  and  other 
spiny  and  fleshy  plants  are  rare,  and  sagebrush 
and  other  gray  bushes  make  up  the  bulk  of  the 
vegetation.  Junipers  and  pinons  occur  on  moun¬ 
tain  slopes,  as  in  the  Colorado  plateau.  There 
are  some  vast  plains  of  salt  and  alkali  nearly  de¬ 
void  of  vegetation,  such  as  the  salt  desert  of 
western  Utah  and  Death  Valley  in  California, 

The  arid  Columbia  plateau  and  Snake  River 
lava  desert  are  mostly  treeless,  with  sagebrush 
and  greasewood  at  lower  altitudes  (below  1500 
feet),  bunch -grass  prairie  higher  up,  a  few  wil¬ 
lows  and  cottonwoods  along  streams,  and  yellow 
pines  on  mountain  slopes. 

The  Cascade  and  Sierra  Nevada  Range,  ex¬ 
tending  from  Washington  to  southern  California, 
with  the  heaviest  snowfall  in  the  United  States, 
is  treeless  at  higher  altitudes,  but  mostly  cov¬ 
ered  with  magnificent  coniferous  forests,  inter¬ 
spersed  with  meadows  or  natural  parks,  some¬ 
what  like  those  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  North¬ 
ward  the  forests  consist  mostly  of  Douglas 
spruce,  lodgepole  pine,  western  hemlock,  various 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES  _  700 


species  of  fir,  etc.,  similar  in  aspect  to  the  north¬ 
eastern  conifers  but  larger.  Southward  and 
eastward  and  at  lower  altitudes  and  on  gra¬ 
nitic  soils  the  forests  are  more  open,  with  yellow 
pine,  sugar  pine,  and  incense  cedar  the  prevail¬ 
ing  trees,  and  fires  are  more  frequent  and  less 
destructive,  being  chiefly  ground  fires.  The 
noted  Big  Tree  {Sequoia  gigantea)  is  confined 
to  a  few  groves  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Sierras 
in  California. 

The  Coast  Range,  which  borders  the  Pacific 
coast  of  the  United  States  with  slight  inter¬ 
ruptions,  naturally  has  a  varied  vegetation  on 
account  of  the  great  range  of  annual  precipita¬ 
tion,  from  over  100  inches  in  west  Washington 
to  less  than  10  inches  in  south  California. 
Northward  dense  coniferous  forests  similar  to 
those  of  the  Cascade  Range  prevail.  The  char¬ 
acteristic  tree  of  this  region  in  California,  from 
the  north  boundary  of  the  State  to  about  100 
miles  south  of  the* Golden  Gate,  is  the  redwood 
{Sequoia  sempervirens) .  Several  other  conifers 
are  endemic  to  the  same  region,  some  of  them  re¬ 
stricted  to  only  a  few  square  miles.  There  are 
more  broad-leaved  evergreens  here  than  any¬ 
where  else  in  the  W7est,  characteristic  species 
being  the  madrona  {Arbutus  menziesii) ,  Califor¬ 
nia  laurel  ( Umbellularia) ,  tanbark  oak  {Pasania 
densiflora) ,  and  California  live  oak  or  encina 
{Quercus  agrifolia).  Southward  with  increas¬ 
ing  aridity  the  forests  give  way  to  chaparral 
( q.v. ) ,  a  characteristic  vegetation  composed  of 
stiff  evergreen  shrubs,  and  to  grass  lands. 

For  additional  details,  see  the  articles  on  the 
several  States;  also  Adirondacks,  America, 
Black  Hills,  Everglades,  Great  American 
Desert,  Okefinokee  Swamp,  Rocky  Moun¬ 
tains,  White  Mountains,  Chaparral,  Desert, 
Forest,  Hammock,  Pocosin,  Prairie,  Swamp, 
etc. 

Fauna.  The  fauna  of  the  United  States  is  an 
integral  part  of  that  of  the  Nearctic  Province 
(q.v.)  and  is  fully  representative  of  that  of 
North  America  described  in  the  paragraph 
Fauna  under  America.  (See  also  Distribution 
of  Animals;  Fauna  under  Rocky  Mountains.) 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  strictly  boreal 
species,  such  as  the  muskox  (q.v.),  almost  all 
the  genera  and  species  of  North  American  ani¬ 
mals  of  every  kind  are  represented  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  United  States  and  its  adja¬ 
cent  waters;  and  most  of  the  Arctic  absentees 
are  found  in  Alaska  ( q.v. ) .  Reference  to  the 
articles  cited  above  and  to  such  articles  as  Bear, 
Beaver,  Bison,  Dinosauria,  Eagle,  Extinct 
Animals,  Fossil,  Fur-Bearing  Animals, 
Grouse,  Horse,  Oyster,  Pronghorn,  Puma, 
Quail,  Rattlesnake,  Salmon,  Skunk,  Turkey, 
Whale,  Whitefish,  and  others,  will  give  a  con¬ 
spectus  of  the  fauna  of  the  country. 

Geology.  North  America,  like  other  conti¬ 
nents,  combines  very  ancient  areas  with  those 
that  are  geologically  young.  The  primitive 
framework  of  the  continent  was  drawn  some¬ 
what  upon  the  lines  of  the  existing  mountain 
systems  of  the  east  and  west,  forecasting  the 
Appalachian  and  Cordilleran  uplands  and  the 
Mississippi  lowlands  of  to-day.  The  oldest  rock 
systems  belong  to  pre-Cambrian  times  and  are 
represented  to  the  northward  by  an  irregular 
V-shaped  area  inclosing  Hudson  Bay  between  its 
arms  and  resting  its  blunted  apex  upon  the  north 
border  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Extensions  of  this 
early  nucleus  are  found  along  the  Appalachians 
to  Alabama,  and  consist  of  hard  crystalline  rocks 


of  igneous  and  metamorphic  origin,  granites, 
gneisses,  schists,  marbles,  and  quartzites  being 
among  the  common  kinds.  Such  areas  are  the 
Adirondacks,  some  tracts  in  New  England,  the 
Highlands  of  the  lower  Hudson  and  of  New  Jer¬ 
sey,  South  Mountain  in  Pennsylvania,  with  the 
Blue  Ridge  and  Unakas  of  the  Southern  States. 
Other  primitive  masses  are  found  in  Wisconsin 
and  Minnesota  and  form  a  straggling  archipelago 
in  the  West,  as  in  the  core  of  the  Black  Hills, 
along  the  axis  of  the  present  Rocky  Mountain 
Range,  and  in  the  Wasatch  and  Sierran  regions. 
It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  the  pres¬ 
ent  boundaries  of  these  belts  of  ancient  rock 
mark  the  shores  of  the  ancient  islands,  but  the 
lands  now  belonging  to  the  United  States  began 
thus  in  narrow  strips  and  patches,  east  and 
west. 

The  next  younger  but  still  very  old  formations 
belong  to  the  Paleozoic  era.  this  interval  of 
geological  time  was  very  long  and  includes  an 
extended  succession  of  periods,  with  their  sub¬ 
divisions  or  epochs.  The  rocks  of  the  Cambrian, 
or  earliest  of  these  periods,  are  mainly  sand¬ 
stones,  conglomerates,  and  shales,  and  are  found 
in  limited  outcrops  about  the  borders  of  the 
earlier  crystalline  rocks.  The  Ordovician,  Silu¬ 
rian,  Devonian,  and  Carboniferous  formations, 
on  the  other  hand,  cover  wide  areas,  especially 
in  the  eastern  United  States.  They  constitute 
the  bed  rocks  of  a  region  extending  from  the 
Archean  axis  of  the  Appalachians,  beyond  the 
Mississippi  River,  reaching  into  eastern  Ne¬ 
braska,  central  Kansas,  and  far  into  Texas. 
From  the  Great  Lake  region  they  are  found 
southward  to  middle  Georgia  and  Alabama,  but 
do  not  appear  along  the  Mississippi  south  of  the 
Ohio  River.  Thus  at  the  close  of  the  Paleozoic 
era  the  territory  of  the  United  States  was  a  semi¬ 
continent  on  the  east,  sending  lobate  areas  south¬ 
ward,  with  the  Mississippi  embayment  between 
them.  There  were  also  rock  accumulation  and 
land  growth  in  the  Cordilleran  region,  but  it 
still  held  a  group  of  islands  rather  than  a  con¬ 
tinental  area.  The  largest  western  lands  of 
Paleozoic  age  are  in  the  region  of  the  Great 
Basin,  but  the  regions  of  the  Colorado  plateaus 
and  of  the  coastal  Pacific  States  were  still  sea, 
the  Rocky  Mountain  belt  was  a  chain  of  islands, 
and  an  unhindered  sea  swept  from  the  tropical 
waters  to  the  Arctic. 

The  Paleozoic  era  closed,  in  North  America, 
with  what  is  known  as  the  Appalachian  revolu¬ 
tion,  i.e.,  with  the  disturbances  which  created 
the  great  series  of  folds  which  now  extend  from 
eastern  New  York  to  central  Alabama.  There 
had  long  been  mountains  in  the  east,  as  the 
Adirondacks  and  Blue  Ridge.  What  their  height 
may  have  been  is  not  known.  During  Paleozoic 
time  also  the  Green  and  Berkshire  ranges  of  New 
England  were  formed.  But  there  were  then  no 
mountains  west  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  During  all 
the  periods  of  the  Paleozoic  era  the  waste  of  the 
older  lands  on  the  east  and  north  was  swept  into 
an  interior  sea  that  rangedMrom  central  New 
York  far  to  the  west  and  southwest.  Thus  origi¬ 
nated  the  sandstones,  shales,  and  limestones  of 
the  Cambrian  and  succeeding  periods,  to  which 
reference  has  been  made.  Along  the  old  Appa¬ 
lachian  border  these  formations  acquired  a  thick¬ 
ness  of  several  miles.  In  the  mountain  build¬ 
ing  which  ensued,  these  thick  beds  were  crumpled 
and  built  into  a  range  of  high  mountains.  These 
mountains,  having  wasted  away  during  the  long 
periods  which  have  since  elapsed,  leave  to  the 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


United  States  the  low  ranges  found  now  in  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  and  west  of  the  Blue  Ridge  in  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  more  southern  States.  With  the 
building  of  the  mountains  there  was  a  general 
uplift  in  the  east,  which  banished  the  sea  waters 
from  the  eastern  and  central  States  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  basin,  except  in  the  south. 

During  the  Mesozoic  era  and  the  succeeding 
Tertiary  period,  the  additions  to  the  land  areas 
of  the  east  were  confined  to  the  Atlantic  border 
and  the  Gulf  region.  From  the  enlarged  lands 
of  the  east,  following  the  Appalachian  uplift,  ma¬ 
terials  were  available  for  further  extensions.  In 
the  west  the  growth  was  interior  as  well  as  on 
the  border,  and  these  later  times  are  marked  by 
the  filling  in  of  partially  inclosed  seas  and  by 
retreat  of  waters,  due  to  massive  continental 
uplift.  Thus  gradually  the  western  interior  sea 
of  the  Great  Plains  region  disappeared  (as  did 
that  of  the  Colorado  basin ) ,  and  the  Pacific 
shore  line  was  pushed  to  its  present  position. 

Some  of  the  important  episodes  of  Mesozoic 
and  Tertiary  continental  evolution  may  now  be 
noted.  The  eastern  border  region  has  a  series  of 
areas  of  red  and  brown  shale  and  sandstone,  of 
Triassic  age.  These  formations  underlie  the 
lowlands  of  the  Connecticut  valley  in  Massachu¬ 
setts  and  Connecticut.  Another  belt  extends 
from  the  Palisades  of  the  Hudson  into  Virginia, 
and  there  are  other  and  smaller  areas.  Asso¬ 
ciated  with  these  rocks  are  the  lava  sheets  which 
form  the  Orange  Mountains  of  New  Jersey,  the 
Palisades  of  the  Hudson,  and  the  Mount  Holyoke 
Range  of  Massachusetts.  The  Cretaceous  and 
Tertiary  beds  of  the  Atlantic  border  form  south¬ 
ern  New  Jersey,  and  the  outside  lowlands  of  all 
the  States  southward  to  Florida,  and  make  the 
coastal  plain  of  this  region.  They  slant  gently 
down  and  become  continuous  with  the  beds  that 
lie  below  the  marginal  waters  of  the  Atlantic. 
Owing  to  their  comparative  recency,  they  are 
often  partially  or  wholly  unconsolidated  and  oc¬ 
cur  as  sands,  gravels,  clays,  and  marls.  But 
they  may  consist  also  of  well-indurated  sand¬ 
stones  and  limestones. 

Similar  statements  may  be  made  concerning 
the  formations  and  the  lands  that  border  the 
Gulf.  Here  belongs  the  entire  State  of  Florida, 
which  is  low  not  because  of  denudation,  but  be¬ 
cause  of  gentle  and  limited  uplift  of  the  undis¬ 
turbed  and  youthful  strata  which  lie  beneath  its 
surface.  As  has  been  intimated,  the  ancient  Mis¬ 
sissippi  discharged,  not  far  from  the  present 
mouth  of  the  Ohio,  into  a  gulf  that  thus  lay 
between  south -reaching  lands  on  the  east  and 
west.  Its  successive  burdens  of  land  waste 
served  gradually  to  fill  the  embayment,  and  its 
delta  reached  more  and  more  to  the  south,  en¬ 
croaching,  as  it  is  still,  upon  the  Gulf. 

Mesozoic  deposits  of  Triassic,  Jurassic,  and 
Cretaceous  age  are  found  along  the  eastern  base 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  they  are  up¬ 
turned  at  various  angles,  as  in  the  vertical  or 
highly  inclined  strata  of  the  Garden  of  the  Gods. 
Eastward,  at  a  little  remove  from  the  mountains, 
these  beds,  which  have  yielded  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  series  of  fossil  vertebrate  remains 
that  have  been  obtained  in  any  country,  become 
horizontal  and  are  often  covered  with  still 
younger  stratified  formations,  which  all  together 
make  the  underlying  masses  of  the  Great  Plains. 
The  breaking  and  upturning  of  the  strata  seen 
in  the  Rocky  Mountain  foothills  points  to  the 
main  uplift  of  these  mountains  which  took 
place  at  the  close  of  the  Mesozoic  era. 


After  the  Rocky  Mountain  revolution,  the 
Great  Plains  area  ceased  to  be  a  region  of  salt¬ 
water  deposition  and  was  characterized  by 
swamps  and  great  lakes  of  brackish  or  fresh 
water.  The  Laramie  formation  belongs  to  this 
era  of  low-lying  lands  in  that  region  when  the 
sea  was  excluded,  and  some  of  the  largest  coal 
deposits  of  the  West  were  accumulated  in  the 
marshes  of  the  time. 

Over  many  thousands  of  square  miles  in  Colo¬ 
rado,  Kansas,  Wyoming,  and  Nebraska  are  sheets 
of  incoherent  or  partly  consolidated  gravels, 
sands,  and  clays,  which  have  usually  been  at¬ 
tributed  to  sedimentation  in  such  lakes.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  in  part,  at  least,  these 
beds  are  due  to  torrents  carrying  down  enor¬ 
mous  volumes  of  waste  from  the  mountains  and 
distributing  it  in  their  wanderings  over  the 
plains.  Present  conditions  were  not  approached 
in  this  region  until  the  late  Tertiary.  By  that 
time  the  entire  belt,  including  the  plains  and 
Rocky  Mountains,  had  received  a  massive  uplift, 
by  which  the  lakes  were  drained  and  the  plains 
given  an  eastward  slant,  from  altitudes  of  5000 
to  6000  feet  at  the  base  of  the  mountains,  to  the 
low  prairies  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

The  rocks  of  the  Colorado  plateaus  consist  of 
some  thousands  of  feet  of  sedimentary  beds  of 
Mesozoic  and  younger  rocks,  overlying  a  Paleo¬ 
zoic  and  Pre-Cambrian  foundation.  The  Colo¬ 
rado  River  has  for  some  distance  sunk  its  chan¬ 
nel  through  the  Paleozoic  strata  and  cut  far 
down  into  the  basal  granites.  Like  the  Great 
Plains,  this  was  long  a  region  of  marine  depo¬ 
sition;  here,  too,  great  and  widespread  uplifts 
took  place,  in  which  the  strains  were  so  great 
as  to  produce  profound  fractures  and  disloca¬ 
tions  or  faults  and  attended  at  times  by  large 
outflows  of  lava.  These  upflows  sometimes 
stopped  below  the  surface  and  domed  up  the 
overlying  strata,  making  a  kind  of  mountain 
known  as  laccolithic,  of  which  the  Henry  Moun¬ 
tains  in  Utah  are  the  type. 

The  initial  uplifts  of  the  Sierran  mountain 
belt  were  made  in  Mesozoic  time,  and  the  strata 
involved  were  formed  from  the  waste  of  the  older 
lands  in  the  present  Great  Basin  region  to  the 
eastward.  But  it  was  not  until  late  Tertiary 
time  that  the  entire  block  or  mass  of  the  Sierras 
was  lifted  to  a  great  height  and  tilted  to  the 
west.  In  connection  with  this  uplift  a  lofty 
fault  scar.p  developed,  which  now  forms  the  steep 
eastern  front  of  the  mountains.  This  crest, 
therefore,  is  towards  the  east,  and  the  principal 
drainage  is  down  the  gentler  western  slope  into 
the  valley  of  California.  The  Sierras  continue 
northward  as  the  Cascade  Mountains  of  Oregon 
and  Washington.  The  Willamette  valley  in 
Oregon  and  the  Puget  Sound  valley  in  Washing¬ 
ton  are  the  analogues  of  the  valley  of  California, 
and  they  are  separated  from  the  ocean  by  a 
young  range  of  mountains,  known  as  the  Coast 
Range  and  in  parts  as  the  Klamath  Mountains 
and  the  Olympic  Mountains. 

Thus  it  appears  ttiat  the  western  United 
States  has  had  a  composite  history.  It  began 
with  island  nuclei  which  grew  by  sedimentation 
and  uplift.  The  several  great  ranges  of  moun¬ 
tains  mark  several  periods  of  folding,  faulting, 
and  uplift,  while  both  mountains  and  plains  rose 
by  massive  and  wide-ranging  or  continental  move¬ 
ments,  thus  adding  to  the  height  of  the  moun¬ 
tains  and  making  the  plains  into  plateaus  of 
from  3000  to  8000  feet  in  altitude.  With  these 
disturbances,  especially  in  Tertiary  times,  were 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


702 


the  most  extensive  outflows  of  lava  of  which 
this  continent  shows  any  record.  These  are 
found  either  as  remnant  sheets  and  volcanic 
necks,  or  as  vast  sheets  scarcely  changed  since 
their  outflow.  They  occur  in  nearly  every  Cor- 
dilleran  State,  as  on  both  sides  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  Colorado,  in  New  Mexico,  in  Utah, 
in  Mount  Shasta,  and  the  great  cones  of  the 
Cascades,  and  especially  in  the  lava  plateaus  of 
the  Snake  and  Columbia  rivers  in  Idaho,  Wash¬ 
ington,  and  Oregon.  As  a  lingering  episode  of 
their  interior  volcanic  energy  we  may,  perhaps, 
recognize  the  geyser  phenomena  of  the  Yellow¬ 
stone  Park. 

Through  all  the  periods  which  have  been  passed. 

in  review,  the  process  of  land  sculpture  was 

active  and  all  varieties  of  relief  have  been  shown, 

even  in  the  same  area,  in  successive  cycles  of 

denudation  and  uplift.  Thus  New  England  is 

everywhere  mountainous  in  structure,  although 

much  of  its  surface  is  now  reduced  to  hills,  and 

to  valleys  whose  bottoms  are  not  far  above  base 
«/ 

level. 

The  strata  of  the  Mississippi  basin  have  for 
the  most  part  never  been  raised  to  considerable 
heights,  and  the  streams  have  not  had  sufficient 
vigor  to  be  the  instruments  of  largest  denudation. 
But  among  the  mountains  and  plateaus  of  the 
Cordilleran  region  the  land  forms  owe  their  re¬ 
liefs  to  long-continued  denudation,  conditioned 
by  the  composition  and  structure  of  the  rocks. 

The  principal  reliefs  were  given  to  the  country 
prior  to  the  glacial  invasion.  But  within  the 
field  of  glacial  movement  important  changes 
were  effected,  and  in  some  cases  the  combined 
effect  of  the  wearing  of  hill  and  mountain  tops 
and  of  the  filling  of  valleys  was  to  diminish  the 
total  relief  by  several  hundred  feet.  The  terri¬ 
tory  affected  includes  all  of  New  England,  the 
Middle  States  into  northern  New  Jersey  and 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Central  States  to  lines 
not  far  from  the  Ohio  and  Missouri  rivers. 
Eastern  Nebraska  was  included,  with  much  of 
the  Dakotas,  Montana,  and  the  more  northern 
Cordilleras.  Small  remnant  glaciers  are  still 
found  in  the  high  Sierras,  on  the  volcanic  cones 
of  the  Cascades,  and  in  Montana  and  Colorado. 
The  general  effects  of  the  ice  sheet  were  the 
grinding  and  transport  of  rocky  waste,  coarse 
and  fine,  the  commingling  of  this  material  with 
the  preexistent  soils,  the  formation  of  moraines 
and  other  bodies  of  drift  during  retreat,  the 
blockading  of  ancient  valleys  causing  innumer¬ 
able  changes  of  drainage,  and  the  formation  of 
thousands  of  lakes. 

Since  the  departure  of  the  ice,  or  during  post¬ 
glacial  time,  many  of  the  ‘smaller  or  more  shal¬ 
low  lakes  have  been  filled  by  sediment,  or  by 
deposits  of  vegetable  origin,  sometimes  forming 
beds  of  peat.  In  the  larger  lakes  deltas  and 
marshy  areas  have  been  formed  in  the  same  man¬ 
ner.  The  interrupted  streams  have  resumed 
their  flow  along  the  lowest  line  of  levels  that 
they  could  find,  and  in  so  doing  have  often  cut 
through  the  veneer  of  drift  and  worn  deeply  into 
the  underlying  rock.  This  is  the  origin  of  most 
of  the  gorges  of  the  Northern  States.  They  are 
young  postglacial  valleys,  and  the  old,  buried 
channels  are  often  to  be  found  not  far  away. 
These  conditions  have  not  only  produced  striking 
scenic  results,  in  the  gorges  and  waterfalls  of 
the  Northern  States,  but  have  created  nearly 
all  the  available  water  power  of  the  same  re¬ 
gion.  Before  the  ice  invasion  many  streams 
flowed  at  lower  levels,  in  the  deep  and  mature 


valleys  of  the  time.  But  the  obstruction  of  these 
valleys  has  compelled  the  streams  to  flow  at 
greater  altitudes,  and  the  rocky  masses  and 
spurs  encountered  in  their  downcutting  have 
caused  a  concentration  of  descent  in  rapids  or 
falls  and  thus  have  made  the  streams  a  source 
of  power,  while  at  the  same  time  obstructing 
the  otherwise  open  ways  of  commerce. 

Soils.  Broadly  considered,  the  soils  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  differing  from  each 
other  in  manner  or  origin.  One  class  includes 
the  sedentary  soils,  formed  in  place,  of  which 
the  larger  proportion  have  resulted  from  the 
decay  of  the  rocks  underlying  them ;  their  nature 
depends  primarily  upon  the  character  of  the  rocks, 
whether  sandstone,  limestone,  granite,  etc.,  but 
is  also  influenced  by  the  climate  and  the  length 
of  time  the  soil  has  been  exposed  to  the  weather. 
Compared  with  the  rocks  from  which  they  have 
been  derived  the  soils  of  this  class  contain  larger 
proportions  of  the  more  insoluble  minerals,  like 
quartz,  and  less  of  the  soluble  ingredients,  like 
calcium  carbonate.  The  soils  that  have  origi¬ 
nated  in  this  way  occur  over  a  large  section 
outside  of  the  glaciated  district.  They  are  the 
prevalent  soils  of  the  South.  The  second  class 
consists  of  the  transported  soils  and  includes 
those  of  glacial,  seolian,  and  alluvial  derivation. 
The  glacial  soils  are  found  in  the  northern  tier 
of  States  that  were  covered  by  the  Pleistocene 
ice  sheet.  Where  unmodified  they  consist  largely 
of  heavy  clay,  but  they  have  often  been  worked 
over  by  water  and  then  are  likely  to  be  sandy 
or  loamy  in  character.  JEolian  soils  are  re¬ 
stricted  to  parts  of  the  Middle  West;  they  con¬ 
sist  of  exceedingly  fine  sands  with  more  or  less 
lime  and  clay  as  binder  and  are  very  deep  and 
fertile.  Alluvial  soils  occur  in  many  of  the 
stream  valleys,  particularly  those  subject  to 
periodic  inundations,  and  are  best  illustrated 
by  the  fine  silty  black  soils  of  the  Lower  Mis¬ 
sissippi  basin ;  they  are  perhaps  the  most  fer¬ 
tile  of  all,  but  for  the  best  results  usually  have 
to  be  drained.  See  articles  on  the  individual 
States  for.  further  details. 

Fisheries^  Marine  fisheries  are  practically 
limited  to  the  submerged  coastal  plain  fringing 
the  continent.  The  principal  fishing  grounds 
of  the  United  States  are  the  Grand  Banks  of 
Newfoundland,  the  Georges  Banks  off  Cape  Cod, 
the  Great  Bahama  Bank  off  Florida,  and  the 
Campeche  Bank  off  Yucatan.  The  northern 
waters  are  remarkable  for  the  enormous  quan¬ 
tities  of  a  few  species,  while  the  southern  are 
characterized  by  smaller  numbers  of  individuals, 
but  greater  variety  of  species.  Ordinarily  the 
fishing  industry  concentrates  at  the  nearest  point 
to  each  of  these  fishing  banks  offering  a  pri¬ 
mary  market.  The  total  first  value  is  approxi¬ 
mately  $75,000,000  annually;  capital  invested, 
$90,000,000;  persons  employed,  200,000.  Boston 
— next  to  Grimsby,  England,  the  largest  fresh 
fish  market  in  the  world — distributes  chiefly 
herring,  haddock,  cod,  pollock,  mackerel,  hali¬ 
but,  swordfish,  and  lobsters.  The  fisheries  were 
the  basis  of  the  early  wealth  of  New  England. 
Approximately  175,000,000  pounds  of  fish  are 
annually  handled;  of  these  75  per  cent  comes 
from  the  coast  of  Massachusetts.  Savannah  and 
Pensacola  are  centres  of  distribution  for  the 
southern  fisheries  (red  snapper,  bluefish,  bass, 
pompano).  Of  the  Gulf  States  Florida  leads 
in  variety,  volume,  and  value.  Here  also  sponge 
fishery  is  important.  On  the  Pacific  coast  Se¬ 
attle,*  San  Francisco,  and  Portland  are  the  great 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


703 


markets  for  salmon  (value,  in  1921,  $29,000,- 
000).  The  fishery  products  taken  in  Puget  Sound 
and  landed  in  Seattle  in  1920  aggregated  9,813,- 
9GG  pounds,  valued  at  $881,0GG.  This  quantity  in¬ 
cluded  7,911,820  pounds  of  salmon,  valued  at 
$765,145,  a  considerable  decrease  from  the  pre¬ 
vious  year. 

Of  the  anadromous  fish,  alewives,  shad,  and 
striped  bass  were  originally  especially  abundant 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  while  the  salmon  and 
sturgeon  were  abundant  in  both  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  rivers.  Unwise  methods  of  fishing  have 
already  resulted  in  commercial  extinction  of  the 
salmon  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  sturgeon, 
striped  bass,  shad,  and  alewife  are  decreasing. 
To  a  large  extent  the  original  beds  of  oysters 
and  other  edible  mollusks  have  been  extirpated 
in  the  Northern  sections  nearest  the  primary 
markets,  but  in  the  Southern  waters  extensive 
natural  beds  still  obtain.  Artificial  propaga¬ 
tion  produces  mollusks  of  better  quality  and 
cheaper.  At  present  more  than  one-half  of 
the  market  supply  of  oysters  comes  from  culti¬ 
vated  areas.  Tire  annual  mollusk  crop  ranks 
first  in  food  and  in  market  values  (among  the 


in  1906  at  $11,446,671,  and  in  1921  at  $29,041,- 
707.  The  value  of  exports,  chiefly  to  Europe 
and  the  West  Indies,  in  1906  was  $6,422,748, 
and  in  1921,  $15,950,501. 

For  details,  see  Fish,  Fish  Culture,  Fish¬ 
eries,  Fishing  Laws,  Sealing,  Whaling,  etc.; 
on  the  various  species  of  fishes,  Cod,  Mackerel, 
Menhaden,  etc.;  also  the  various  State  ar¬ 
ticles. 

Mineral  Resources.  Prior  to  the  nineteenth 
century  the  mining  industry  in  the  United 
States  was  quite  insignificant,  but  it  was  not 
until  nearly  1850  that  it  began  to  be  impor¬ 
tant.  Since  that  period  the  industry  has  de¬ 
veloped  with  a  rapidity  equal  to  that  of  manu¬ 
factures  and  transportation.  It  is  significant 
that  the  production  of  the  mines  constitutes 
over  one-half  of  the  total  freight  tonnage  handled 
by  the  railroads.  By  1905  the  United  States 
had  advanced  to  first  rank  in  the  production  of 
most  of  the  useful  minerals,  and  the  total  value 
of  the  combined  mineral  output  was  far  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  country.  The  growth 
of  the  industry  since  1880  is.  seen  in  the  accom¬ 
panying  table. 


PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE  OF  PRINCIPAL  MINERALS  FOR  1880  TO  1920 

EXPRESSED  IN  THOUSANDS 


1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

1920 

Am’t 

Value 

Am’t 

Value 

Am’t 

Value 

Am’t 

Value 

Am’t 

Value 

Aluminum,  pounds.  . 
Copper,  “.... 

Gold,  fine  ounces. .  .  . 
Iron,  pig;  long  tons. . 

Lead,  short  tons . 

Silver,  fine  ounces .  . . 

Zinc,  short  tons . 

Cement,  barrels . 

Clay  products . 

60,480 

1,741 

3,375 

96 

30,319 

23 

2,073 

$11,491 

36,000 

89,316 

9,573 

34,717 

2,277 

1,853 

61 

259,763 

1,589 

9,203 

140 

54,516 

64 

7,777 

$61 

40,523 

32,845 

151,200 

12,575 

57,242 

7,005 

4,527* 

7,150 

606,117 

3,830 

13,789 

261 

57,647 

124 

17,231 

$1,920 

98,494 

79,171 

259,944 

22,961 

35,741 

10,902 

13,284 

96,212 

306,688 

47,443 

6,797 

23,699 

75,989 

6,945 

36,971 

88 

47,734 

1,080,160 

4,657 

26,674 

375 

57,138 

252 

77,785 

$8,956 

137,180 

92,269 

412,162 

41,384 

30,855 

27,268 

68,752 

70,116 

629,557 

99,743 

14,088 

70,756 

129;900 

7,900 

76,521 

4,605 

1,209,061 

2,395 

35,683 

476 

56,564 

450 

96,944 

$41,375 

222,467 

49,509 

1,137,926 

76,296 

57,420 

72,907 

194,513 

364,220 

98,500 

33,325 

Coal,  tons . 

Coke,  “ . 

Lime . 

Natural  Gas . 

71,482 

3,338 

95,640 

6,631 

19,000 

157,771 

11,508 

176.804 

23,215 

8,288 

18,793 

35,365 

4,752 

49,761 

40 

269,684 

20,533 

501,596 

41,709 

3,506 

1,950,000 

51,888 

3,350 

Petroleum,  bbls . 

Salt . “ . 

Stone . 

26,286 

5,961 

24,601 

4,830 

20,626 

21 

45,824 

8,877 

63,621 

20,869 

209,557 

30,306 

443,402 

6,965 

68,500 

1,517 

1,360,000 

30,539 

120,500 

30,000 

Sulphur,  long  tons . . . 

0.5 

i 

3 

255 

Total  metallic . 

185,649 

173,279 

292,650 

312,827 

511,633 

594,399 

749,876 

1,241,040 

1,724,300 

4,977,500 

Total  nonmetallic  .  .  . 

Total  mineral  prod¬ 
ucts  . . 

364,928 

606,476 

1,107,031 

1,991,216 

6,707,000 

United  States  fisheries)  and  exceeds  that  of  all 
other  nations  combined.  The  chief  centres  of 
the  oyster  industry  are  Baltimore,  Norfolk, 
Providence,  New  Haven,  and  New  Orleans. 

The  most  important  manufactured  fisheries 
products  in  addition  to  the  food  specialties  of 
Gloucester  are  oil  and  fish  scrap  from  menhaden, 
oil  from  the  blackfish  and  dolphin,  glue  and  fish 
scrap  from  the  wastes. 

The  great  inland  rivers  are  prolific  producers 
of  catfish,  buffalo  fish,  and  German  carp,  which 
are  even  shipped  to  New  York  and  Boston  in 
competition  with  local  fish.  Fresh-water  mus¬ 
sels  are  exploited  in  the  manufacture  of  pearl 
buttons. 

The  import  trade,  largely  through  New  York 
and  Boston,  consists  chiefly  of  pickled  herring 
and  canned  sardines  and  mackerel  from  Europe, 
and  fresh  haddock,  cod,  and  lobsters  from  Can¬ 
ada;  from  Japan  canned  crab  meat  and  sardines. 
In  1892  the  imports  were  valued  at  $5,457,785, 


To  the  above  should  be  added  an  unspecified 
sum  amounting  in  value  to  $6,000,000  in  1880,  to 
$1,000,000  in  1890  and  1900,  to  $300,000  in  1910, 
and  $5,200,000  in  1920.  The  United  States  prob¬ 
ably  has  more  mineral  lands  in  proportion  to 
its  total  area  than  any  other  country.  Nearly 
every  mineral  that  is  used  in  the  arts  is  mined. 
These  are  discussed  under  their  own  heads,  as 
Coal,  Iron,  Gold,  etc.,  and  in  the  sections  on 
Mining  in  the  articles  on  the  various  States. 
The  following  paragraphs,  however,  summarize 
the  production  of  the  more  important  minerals. 

Coal. — Coal  is  the  most  widely  distributed 
mineral  and  is  far  in  advance  of  any  other 
in  the  annual  value  of  its  output.  It  is  regu¬ 
larly  mined  in  30  States.  The  area  of  the 
coal  fields  exceeds  300,000  square  miles,  of 
which  only  a  small  portion  consists  of  anthra¬ 
cite  (q.v. )  ;  this  is  almost  wholly  confined  to 
the  middle-eastern  portion  of  Pennsylvania. 
Bituminous  coal  mining  began  regularly  in  1750, 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


704 


while  anthracite  mining  did  not  begin  until  50 
years  later.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  indus¬ 
try  began  after  the  Civil  War  and  was  such 
that  the  output  of  bituminous  coal  doubled 
for  each  decade  from  1870  to  1890  and  since 
that  time  has  increased  at  a  rate  but  little 
smaller.  The  output  of  anthracite  increased  from 
967,108  tons  in  1840  to  15,664,275  tons  in  1870 
and  to  89,100,000  tons  in  1920.  The  total  pro¬ 
duction  of  coal  in  short  tons  in  1870  was  33,035,- 
580;  in  1880,  71,481,570;  in  1890,  157,770,963; 
in  1900,  269,684,027;  in  1910,  501,596,378;  in 
1920,  556,563,000.  The  accompanying  table  shows 
in  short  tons  the  production  of  coal  in  the  lead¬ 
ing  States  in  the  years  1870,  1880,  1890,  1900, 
1910,  and  1920. 


ing  range,  Mesaba,  the  ore  is  sometimes  found 
so  near  the  surface  that  with  the  removal  of  a 
few  feet  of  earth  it  is  mined  by  the  open-pit 
method,  the  ore  being  scooped  by  huge  steam 
shovels  directly  from  the  pit  to  the  car.  Prob¬ 
ably  in  no  other  mines  in  the  world  does  mas¬ 
sive  machinery  play  so  great  a  part  in  min¬ 
ing  operations  and  hand  labor  so  little.  See 
Iron;  Iron  and  Steel,  Metallurgy  of. 

Gold. — The  mining  of  gold  on  an  extensive 
scale  did  not  begin  until  the  discovery  of  the 
placer  gold  in  California  in  1848.  Between 
1820  and  1830  some  interest  had  developed  in 
the  States  of  Virginia  and  North  and  South 
Carolina,  and  for  a  number  of  years  the  output 
averaged  about  $1,000,000.  In  1850,  within  two 


STATE 

1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

1920 

Pennsylvania  (anthracite) . . . 
Pennsylvania  (bituminous) . . 

Illinois . 

Ohio . 

West  Virginia . 

Alabama . 

Indiana . 

Kentucky . 

15,650,275 

7,798,517 

2,624,163 

2,527,284 

618,878 

10,999 

437,870 

150,582 

26,249,711 

21,280,000 

4,480,000 

7,840,000 

1,404,008 

380,000 

1,680,000 

1,120,000 

46,468,640 

43,302,173 

15,274,727 

13.203,522 

6,002,800 

4,090,409 

3,305,737 

2,483,144 

57,367,915 

79,842,326 

25,767,981 

18,988,150 

22,647,207 

8,394,275 

6,484,086 

5,328,964 

84,485,236 

150,521,526 

45,900,246 

34,209,668 

61,671,019 

16,111,462 

18,389,815 

14,623,319 

163,000,000 

90,050,000 

45,000,000 

87,500,000 

16,700.000 

30,420,000 

31,000,000 

In  1918  the  total  coal  production  in  the 
United  States  was  678,211,904  tons,  the  record 
output  for  one  year.  See  Coal. 

Petroleum. — The  production  of  petroleum  be¬ 
gan  in  western  Pennsylvania  in  1859.  The 
United  States  soon  became  the  chief  source  of 
the  world’s  supply  and,  except  for  a  few  years 
when  Russia  surpassed  it,  has  held  the  primacy. 
The  principal  producing  States  and  their  pro¬ 
duction  in  barrels  in  1920  were:  California,  105.- 
668,000;  Oklahoma,  105,725,000;  Illinois,  10,772,- 
000;  Texas,  96,000,000;  Louisiana,  35,649,000; 
West  Virginia,  8,173,000;  Pennsylvania,  7,454,- 
400;  Ohio,  7,412,000;  Wyoming,  17,071,000;  Kan¬ 
sas,  38,501,000.  See  Petroleum. 

Iron. — Iron  making  ranks  in  importance  next 
to  coal,  iron  ore,  like  coal,  being  very  widely 
distributed  in  the  United  States,  26  States  re¬ 
porting  its  production  in  1920.  The  mining  of 
iron  began  in  early  Colonial  days,  but  it  did 
not  rise  into  importance  until  near  the  middle 


years  after  the  California  discoveries,  the  out¬ 
put  was  $50,000,000,  and  it  did  not  fall  below 
this  figure  until  1860.  The  product  greatly  ex¬ 
ceeded  in  total  value  all  other  minerals  mined 
during  that  period.  As  ordinary  placer  mining 
became  unprofitable,  quartz  mining  and  hydrau¬ 
lic  mining  were  resorted  to,  and  California  con¬ 
tinued  to  be  an  important  gold-mining  State. 
The  production  of  gold  in  1921  was  2,375,479 
fine  ounces,  valued  at  $49,105,500.  See  Gold. 

Silver. — The  development  of  silver  mining  in 
the  United  States  was  almost  as  sudden  as  was 
that  of  gold.  The  production  of  this  metal  had 
been  quite  insignificant  until  the  discovery  of 
the  Comstock  Lode  (q.v.)  in  western  Nevada 
in  1859.  The  United  States  then  became  the 
leading  silver-mining  country  of  the  world.  The 
only  other  nation  that  now  competes  with  it 
in  this  industry  is  Mexico.  The  output  of  the 
Comstock  Lode  declined  rapidly  after  1877. 
Nevertheless  other  mines  were  developing,  and 


PRODUCTION  OF  IRON  ORE  IN  LONG  TONS 


STATE 

1850 

1891 

1901 

1910 

1920 

Minnesota . 

645,105 

6,127,001 

1,986,830 

1,272,928 

665,116 

1,017,216 

11,109,537 

9,654,067 

2,801,732 

1,040,684 

925,394 

420,218 

31,966,769 

13,303,906 

4,801,275 

739,799 

903.377 

1,287,209 

1,149,551 

40,274,000 

18,715,000 

5,769,000 

675,000 

296,000 

978,000 

1,067,000 

Michigan . 

2,700 

1,838 

877,283 

67,319 

46,385 

Alabama . 

Pennsylvania . 

Virginia . 

New  York . 

Wisconsin . 

of  the  nineteenth  century.  Of  the  total  output 
in  1918  the  hematite  variety  amounted  to  65,- 
894,709  long  tons  (maximum  output,  70,743,- 
513  long  tons  in  1917).  The  Lake  Superior  ore 
is  almost  wholly  red  hematite,  which  represents 
about  nine-tenths  of  the  ore  mined  in  the  United 
States.  rlhe  development  of  the  Lake  Superior 
iron  region  is  one  of  the  most  significant  of 
recent  industrial  movements  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  been  rendered  possible  largely 
through  the  advantage  afforded  by  the  Great 
Lakes  for  transportation.  In  the  principal  min- 


the  silver  product  of  the  country  continued  to 
increase,  Montana  leading  in  1920  with  13,583,- 
164  fine  ounces.  The  two  largest  contributing 
sources  to  this  increase  were  the  lead  mines  of 
Colorado,  and  later  the  copper  mines  of  Idaho, 
Arizona,  Utah,  and  Montana.  The  production  of 
silver  in  1921  was  50,364,389  fine  ounces,  valued 
at  $1  per  ounce.  See  Silver. 

Copper. — Very  little  copper  was  mined  prior 
to  the  development  of  the  Lake  Superior  copper 
mines,  which  began  operations  in  1845.  From 
that  year,  when  the  production  was  224,000 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


705 


pounds,  the  product  has  continued  to  increase 
steadily  and  rapidly.  In  18G6  the  famous  Calu¬ 
met  and  Hecla  mine  was  opened.  In  1917  the 
smelter  output  had  grown  to  1,886,120,721 
pounds.  In  1920  it  amounted  to  1,209,061,040 
pounds.  The  chief  producing  States  are  Arizona, 
Montana,  Michigan,  Utah,  Nevada,  New  Mexico, 
and  Tennessee.  The  smelter  production  of  Alaska 
in  1920  was  66,093,924  pounds,  as  compared 
with  a  production  of  56,534,992  pounds  in  1919. 
In  1918  Arizona  produced  769,521,721  pounds. 
See  Copper. 

Lead. — The  United  States  ranks  first  among 
the  countries  of  the  world  in  the  production 
of  lead.  The  mining  of  this  mineral  began  as 
early  as  1720  in  the  southwestern  part  of  what 
is  now  Missouri,  but  it  was  not  until  a  century 
later  that  operations  assumed  much  importance. 
For  a  number  of  years  the  mining  of  lead  was, 
after  iron,  the  most  important  metal-mining  in¬ 
dustry  in  the  United  States.  Lead  was  mined  in 
Utah  in  1858.  About  1877  work  began  on  the 
Leadville  mines,  Colorado.  The  Leadville  ores 
are  argentiferous,  and  the  silver  obtained  in  the 
early  days  of  mining  was  of  greater  value  than 
the  lead  itself.  A  little  later  argentiferous  lead 
mines  were  developed  in  Idaho  (Cceur  d’Alene) 
and  other  Cordilleran  States.  See  Lead. 

Stone. — Stone  suitable  for  building  and  other 
industrial  purposes  is  abundant  in  almost  every 
State.  Because  of  its  bulk  and  the  consequent 
shipping  expenses,  its  production  is  largely  lim¬ 
ited  to  a  comparatively  local  market.  Hence 
in  many  of  the  States  which  have  the  most  val¬ 
uable  resources  of  stone  the  quarrying  indus¬ 
try  has  scarcely  more  than  begun.  The  utiliza¬ 
tion  of  stone  varies  with  the  economic  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  country,  the  total  value  having 
fallen  from  $53,035,620  in  1889  to  $31,346,171 
in  1896,  and  advanced  steadily  to  $120,500,000 
in  1920.  See  Building  Stone. 

AGRICULTURE 

The  United  States  produces  a  larger  value  of 
agricultural  products  than  any  other  country. 
In  1919  the  total  value  of  crops  and  animal  prod¬ 
ucts  was  about  $17,000,000,000.  Until  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  agriculture 
strongly  predominated  in  the  industrial  life  of 
the  nation.  It  still  employs  a  much  greater 
number  of  individuals  than  any  other  industry. 
Owing  to  the  vast  area  and  great  variety  of 
physical  and  climatic  conditions,  most  of  the 
staple  products  known  to  the  world  can  be 
raised.  To  the  Mississippi  valley,  which  stands 
preeminent  for  agricultural  purposes,  are  be¬ 
ing  added  vast  areas  of  the  West  and  Northwest 
which  are  being  rapidly  brought  under  culti¬ 
vation.  If  to  the  arable  portion  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  drainage  basin  be  added  the  area  drained 


into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  other  streams,  it 
would  include  about  one-third  of  the  country’s 
total  area.  In  this  division,  almost  unbroken  by 
mountain  or  swamp,  the  soil  is  generally  fertile. 

The  Appalachian  and  Atlantic  seaboard  re¬ 
gion  contains  much  broken  and  rocky  land,  and 
soil  of  only  moderate  or  of  inferior  quality. 
Throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States 
the  rainfall  is  ordinarily  sufficient  for  growth 
of  crops.  Westward,  however,  in  the  longitude 
of  central  Kansas,  the  rainfall  is  greatly  di¬ 
minished  and  irrigation,  dry  farming,  and  graz¬ 
ing  are  followed.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico  has  a 
decidedly  moderating  effect  on  the  climate  of 
the  Gulf  States,  particularly  Florida.  But 
there  is  no  protection  in  this  region  against 
the  cold  winds  from  the  north  which  occasion¬ 
ally  sweep  southward  and  bring  frosts  even  to 
that  State.  Although  much  farther  south  than 
south  Europe,  the  Gulf  region  is  less  adapted  to 
the  growing  of  subtropical  products.  The  Ap¬ 
palachian  Mountains  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to¬ 
gether  have  a  somewhat  moderating  effect  upon 
the  Carolina-Virginia  region  and  the  region  far¬ 
ther  north ;  hence  this  area  has  an  advantage 
in  the  raising  of  some  products,  especially  fruit. 
In  the  north  the  lakes  have  a  moderating  in¬ 
fluence,  making  some  sections  of  that  territory 
also  favorable  for  fruit  growing.  On  the  Pa¬ 
cific  coast  the  ocean  currents  and  the  mountains 
together  afford  the  most  highly  protected  por¬ 
tion  of  the  United  States  and  make  it  well 
adapted  as  a  fruit  region. 

Area  of  Farms  and  Improved  Land.  In  the 
following  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  total 
farm  area  of  the  United  States  increased  from 
1860  to  1920  nearly  500,000,000  acres. 


ACRES  OF  LAND  IN  FARMS 


CENSUS  TEAR 

Total 

Improved 

I860 . 

407,212,538 

407,735,041 

536,081,835 

623,218,619 

841,201,546 

878,798,325 

955,883,715 

163,110,720 

188,921,099 

284,771,042 

357,616,755 

414,793,191 

478,451,750 

503,073,007 

1870 . 

1880. . 

1890 . 

1900 . 

1910. , . 

1920 . 

The  largest  absolute  increase  in  the  acreage 
of  farm  land  between  1910  and  1920  occurred 
in  the  West  North  Central  division,  which  at 
both  censuses  comprised  a  larger  area  than  any 
other  division.  The  highest  rate  of  increase  was 
in  the  Mountain  division,  50  per  cent.  More 
than  five-sixths  of  the  improved  farm  land  of 
the  United  States  in  1920  was  in  the  two  North 
Central  and  the  two  South  Central  divisions. 
The  following  table  shows  the  acreage  of  im¬ 
proved  land  and  the  total  land  area  in  1920. 


DIVISION 

Total 
land  area 
(acres) 

Total 

land  in  farms 
(acres) 

Improved  land 
in  farms 
(acres) 

United  States . 

1,903,289,600 

39,664,640 

64,000,000 

157,160,960 

326,914,560 

172,205,440 

114,885,760 

275,037,440 

549,840,000 

203,580,800 

955,883,715 

16,990,642 

40,572,901 

117,735,179 

256,973,229 

97,775,243 

78,897,463 

173,449,127 

117,337,226 

56,152,705 

503,073,007 

6,114,601 

26,562,107 

87,894,835 

171,394,439 

48,509,886 

44,380,132 

64,189,606 

30,105,868 

23,921,533 

New  England . 

Middle  Atlantic . 

East  North  Central . 

West  North  Central . 

South  Atlantic . 

East  South  Central . 

West  South  Central . 

Mountain . 

Pacific . 

UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


706 


The  most  noteworthy  fact  shown  is  the  great 
importance,  absolutely  and  proportionately,  of 
the  North  Central  divisions.  Nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  total  farm  area  in  this  section 
is  improved.  There  are  but  few  large  regions 
in  the  world  so  easily  and  uniformly  adaptable 


The  percentage  of  rented  farms  and  the  rate 
of  increase  of  these  are  greatest  in  the  South. 
The  greater  proportionate  number  of  rented 
farms  in  that  section  results  from  the  industrial 
change  incident  to  the  overthrow  of  slavery, 
many  negroes  becoming  renters,  although  an 


AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  ACRES  PER  FARM  BY  GEOGRAPHIC  DIVISIONS 


GEOGRAPHIC  DIVISION 

1920 

1910 

1900 

1890 

1880 

1870 

1860 

The  United  States . 

148.2 

138.1 

146.2 

136.5 

133.7 

153.3 

199.2 

North  Atlantic . 

101.9 

112.9 

96.5 

95.3 

97.7 

104.3 

108.1 

South  Atlantic . 

84.4 

93.3 

108.4 

133.6 

157.4 

241.1 

352.8 

North  Central . 

17.1 

105.1 

144.5 

133.4 

121.9 

123.7 

139.7 

South  Central . 

124.5 

236.2 

155.4 

144.0 

150.6 

194.4 

321.4 

Western . 

360.2 

296.9 

386.1 

324.1 

312.9 

336.4 

366.9 

to  cultivation.  In  Iowa  over  95  per  cent  of  the 
total  land  area  was  in  farms  in  1920,  and  of 
this  over  25  per  cent  was  improved.  Illinois 
makes  almost  an  equally  good  showing,  and 
Indiana,  Ohio,  North  Dakota,  Missouri,  and 
Minnesota  are  other  States  in  this  group  which 
have  a  large  percentage  of  improved  land. 

Size  of  Farms.  From  the  table  above  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  size  of  farms  varies  greatly  in 
different  parts  of  the  country. 

The  most  fundamental  principle  in  determin¬ 
ing  the  size  of  the  American  farm  is  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  land  and  the  type  of  farming.  The 
average  size  of  farms  is  smaller  in  the  older 
sections  of  the  country  than  in  the  newer  and 
is  smaller  in  the  South  where  leased  to  tenants 
than  in  the  North.  The  recent  settlement  of 
the  West,  in  which  the  average  homestead  (160 
acres)  was  adapted  to  the  average  family,  has 
tended  to  establish  this  unit.  In  the  South, 
where  the  plantation  system  formerly  prevailed, 
a  rapid  breaking  up  is  taking  place  to  suit  the 
family  unit.  The  size  of  farm  that  a  family 
can  cultivate  varies  with  the  type  of  farming. 
Thus  the  same  labor  that  will  suffice  for  a  grain 
or  stock  farm  of  a  given  size  is  sufficient  for 
only  one-half  or  less  of  that  amount  when  a 
cotton  farm  is  in  question. 

Farm  Tenure.  As  the  country  becomes  older 
there  is  a  rapidly  increasing  and  almost  univer¬ 
sal  tendency  towards  the  renting  system,  though 
this  is  much  more  marked  in  some  regions  than 
in  others.  In  the  earlier  period  of  development 
the  man  of  small  means  took  a  claim,  but  now 
he  is  forced  to  rent.  The  frontier,  as  it  pushed 
across  the  country,  has  been  characterized  by 
the  fact  that  most  of  its  farms  were  operated 
by  owners.  In  the  table  below  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  highest  percentage  of  owned  farms  is 
in  the  West,  but  the  renting  of  farms  began  at 
once  and  steadily  increased. 


TEAR 

Total 

farms 

NUMBER  OF  FARMS  OPERATED  BY 

Owners 

Cash 

tenants 

Share 

tenants 

1920 . 

6,448,343 

3,925,090 

480,009 

1,117,721 

1910 . 

6,361,502 

3,948,722 

712,294 

1,528,389 

1900 . 

5,739,657 

3,713,371 

752,920 

1,273,366 

1890 . 

4,564,641 

3,269,728 

454,659 

840,254 

There  is  an  increased  tendency  to  delegate  the 
management  of  farms.  In  the  South  and  North 
Central  States  especially  a  large  number  of  the 
owners  are  absentees.  The  table  in  the  next  col¬ 
umn  shows  the  number  of  owned  and  rented 
farms  and  the  tenancy  in  each  class. 


increasing  number  are  acquiring  land.  (See 
Negro  in  America.)  Rented  farms  average  less 
in  size  than  the  owned  farms,  and  a  larger  per¬ 
centage  of  the  rented  farms  is  improved.  This 
is  particularly  true  in  the  South  and  is  most 
noticeable  in  share-rent  farms.  Farms  in  that 
section  are  leased  mainly  for  raising  crops. 


Total 

number 

NUMBER  OF  FARMS  OPERATED  BY 

of 

farms 

Owners  and 
managers 

Cash 

tenants 

Share 

tenants 

New 

England  ' 
1920 . 

156,564 

144,962 

8,071 

2,698 

1910 . 

188,802 

173,787 

12,188 

2,827 

1900 . 

191,888 

173,930 

13,022 

4,936 

1890 . 

189,961 

172,243 

10,906 

6,812 

Middle 
Atlantic 
1920 . 

425,147 

336,957 

32,879 

51,174 

1910 _ 

468,379 

364,108 

47,081 

57,190 

1900 . 

485,618 

362,794 

53,339 

69,485 

1890 . 

468,608 

365,133 

41,214 

62,261 

East  North 
Central 
1920 . 

1,084,744 

780,337 

76,945 

182,283 

1910 . 

1,123,489 

819,892 

99,334 

204,263 

1900 . 

1.135,823 

837,537 

95,165 

203,121 

1890 . 

1,009,031 

778,517 

74,486 

156,028 

West  North 
Central 
1920 . 

1,096,951 

721,932 

107,568 

186,704 

1910 . 

1,109,948 

767,330 

124,539 

218,079 

1900 . 

1,060,744 

746,304 

112,567 

201,873 

1890 . 

914,791 

695,569 

72,762 

146,460 

South 
Atlantic 
1920 . 

1,158,976 

616,888 

139.907 

186,986 

1910 . 

1,111,881 

601,452 

200,931 

309,498 

1900 . 

962,225 

536,627 

172,699 

252,890 

1890 . 

749,600 

461,057 

96,098 

192,445 

East  South 
Central 
1920 . 

1,051,600 

529,314 

124,478 

175,441 

1910 . 

1.042,480 

513,742 

208,260 

320,478 

1900 . 

903,313 

468,382 

190,153 

244,778 

1890 . 

655,766 

404,350 

103,583 

147,833 

West  South 
Central 
1920 . 

996,088 

469,341 

59,799 

288,797 

1910 . 

943,186 

445,601 

106,220 

391,365 

1900 . 

754,853 

384,238 

95,938 

274,677 

1890 . 

431,006 

264,622 

48,318 

118,066 

Mountain 
1920 . 

244,109 

206,651 

10,916 

23,968 

1910 . 

183,446 

163,756 

8,726 

10,964 

1900 . 

101,327 

88,918 

4,730 

7,679 

1890 . 

49,398 

45,895 

1,094 

2,409 

Pacific 

1920 . 

187,177 

234,164 

24,442 

19,670 

1910 . 

189,981 

157,158 

19,008 

13,725 

1900 . 

141,581 

113,678 

14,052 

13,851 

1890 . 

96,480 

82,342 

6,198 

7,940 

Farms  in  the  United  States  are  usually  rented 
for  short  periods,  one  year  at  a  time  being  the 
most  common.  In  Great  Britain,  by  contrast, 
the  long-term  system  of  tenure  prevails. 

Methods.  See  Agriculture. 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


707 


Irrigation.  Within  the  territory  now  com¬ 
prising  the  arid  region  of  the  United  States  ir¬ 
rigation  has  been  practiced  to  a  limited  extent 
from  prehistoric  times.  When  the  Spanish  ex¬ 
plorers  entered  the  territory  now  forming  the 
States  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  they  came 
across  the  remains  of  ancient  aqueducts  and 
found  the  natives  watering  their  crops.  The 
Spaniards  who  settled  in  this  territory  con¬ 
tinued  and  extended  this  practice,  as  the  coun¬ 
try  was  uninhabitable  without  it.  The  area  ir¬ 
rigated  was  very  limited,  however,  being  con¬ 
fined  principally  to  the  pueblos  of  the  Indians 
and  the  missions  of  the  Roman  Catholic  fathers, 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  American  settlers  began  to  go  into  the 
West  from  the  East  and  North.  The  beginning 
of  irrigation  in  the  United  States  by  Americans 
is  usually  attributed  to  Brigham  Young  and 
the  Mormon  pioneers  who  settled  in  the  Salt 
Lake  valley  in  1847.  The  fact  is  that  in  many 
parts  of  the  West  irrigation  was  necessary  for 
obtaining  subsistence,  and  wherever  permanent 
settlements  were  made  the  settlers  began  apply¬ 
ing  water  to  the  soil  for  the  production  of  crops. 
The  settlement  of  the  Mormons  in  Utah  and  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  California  occurred  at  about 
the  same  time,  and  both  the  Mormon  farmers 
and  the  California  miners  were  compelled  to 
use  irrigation  in  order  to  subsist. 

In  1870  the  first  colony  of  any  considerable 
size  depending  on  irrigated  agriculture,  aside 
from  the  Mormon  colony,  was  founded  at  Greeley, 
Colo.,  under  the  patronage  of  Horace  Greeley. 
The  first  period  of  active  construction  of  ir¬ 
rigation  works  on  a  large  scale  occurred  in  the 
late  eighties  and  early  nineties,  when  many  large 
enterprises  were  undertaken  by  promoters  who 
hoped  to  profit  by  the  great  increase  in  land 
values  created  by  irrigation.  Few  of  these  un¬ 
dertakings  were  successful  financially.  This 
boom  in  irrigation  construction  was  followed  by 
a  long  period  of  depression,  lasting  until  1902 
or  1903,  during  which  little  construction  took 
place.  In  1902  Congress  enacted  the  Reclama¬ 
tion  Law,  providing  for  the  construction  of  ir¬ 
rigation  works  by  the  Federal  government  with 
the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  public  lands,  and 
at  about  the  same  time  construction  by  private 
enterprises  was  renewed. 

The  first  statistics  of  irrigated  lands  in  the 
United  States  were  collected  in  connection  with 
the  census  of  1890,  and  they  have  since  been 
compiled  for  each  census  period  of  ten  years,  in¬ 
cluding  1920.  These  figures  show  the  great 
development  of  irrigated  lands. 

The  census  of  irrigation,  as  taken  both  in  1920 
and  in  1910,  covered  the  States  of  North  Dakota, 
South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas  in  the 
West  North  Central  division,  and  all  of  the 
West  South  Central,  Mountain,  and  Pacific  divi¬ 
sions.  In  that  part  of  the  United  States  east 
of  the  territory  covered,  small  areas  of  truck 
and  fruit  crops  are  irrigated  at  times,  but 
they  were  not  included  in  the  canvass. 

The  total  area  reported  as  irrigated  in  1919 
was  19,191,716  acres,  an  increase  of  4,758,431 
acres,  or  33  per  cent,  over  the  area  irrigated 
in  1909.  The  total  area  to  which  existing  enter¬ 
prises  were  capable  of  supplying  water  in  1920 
was  26,020,477  acres,  an  excess  of  6,828,761 
acres  over  the  area  irrigated  in  1919.  These 
figures  indicate  the  extent  to  which  existing 
irrigation  works  were  utilized  in  1919,  about 
74  per  cent  of  the  effective  capacity  being  used. 


In  1910  existing  irrigation  works  were  capable 
of  irrigating  20,285,403  acres,  an  excess  of  5,- 
852,118  acres  over  the  area  irrigated,  indicating 
that  in  1910  about  71  per  cent  of  the  effective 
capacity  was  utilized.  The  absolute  excess  of 
capacity  over  utilization,  however,  was  greater 
in  1920  than  in  1910. 

The  area  of  land  in  irrigation  enterprises  re¬ 
ported  as  available  for  settlement  in  1920  was 
2,257,981  acres. 

The  total  capital  invested  in  irrigation  enter¬ 
prises  to  January  1,  1920,  was  $697,657,328,  an 
average  of  $26.81  per  acre,  based  on  the  area  to 
which  the  enterprises  were  capable  of  supplying 
iwater  in  1920.  The  capital  invested  to  July  1, 
1910,  was  $321,454,008,  and  the  average  per 
acre  was  $15.85,  based  on  the  area  enterprises 
wrere  capable  of  irrigating  in  1910.  The  in¬ 
crease  from  1910  to  1920  in  the  total  capital 
invested  was  117  per  cent,  and  in  the  average 
investment  per  acre,  69.1  per  cent. 

The  total  value  of  crops  reported  as  grown  on 
irrigated  land  in  1919  was  $801,005,326,  an 
average  of  $76.41  per  acre  for  the  acreage  of 
crops  reported. 

The  irrigated  land  of  the  United  States  is 
supplied  with  water  principally  from  streams, 
94  per  cent  of  the  acreage  irrigated  in  1909 
being  supplied  from  this  source,  3.3  per  cent  be¬ 
ing  supplied  from  wells,  1.4  per  cent  from 
springs,  and  the  remainder  from  reservoirs  and 
lakes.  The  normal  summer  flow  of  most  of 
the  streams  of  the  arid  region  is  utilized.  Ir¬ 
rigation  works  have  been  constructed  by  indi¬ 
viduals,  cooperative  companies,  commercial  enter¬ 
prises,  irrigation  districts,  and  the  Federal 
government.  The  cooperative  companies  are  us¬ 
ually  joint-stock  companies;  irrigation  districts 
are  organized  under  State  laws  authorizing  the 
issuing  of  bonds,  to  obtain  funds  to  meet  the 
cost  of  works  and  the  levy  and  collection  of 
taxes  on  the  lands  composing  the  districts  to 
pay  the  bonds,  interest,  and  operating  expenses. 
The  Carey  Act  is  a  Federal  law  granting  lands 
to  the  States  containing  arid  lands  on  con¬ 
dition  that  the  States  provide  for  reclamation 
by  irrigation ;  and  the  Reclamation  Law  pro¬ 
vides  for  the  construction  of  irrigation  works 
by  the  Federal  government  with  the  proceeds 
of  the  sale  of  public  lands  and  for  the  repay¬ 
ment  of  the  cost  of  such  works  by  the  users 
of  the  water  supplied  by  the  works. 

Crops.  The  table  on  page  708  shows  value  of 
all  farm  crops  by  divisions  and  States  in  1909 
and  1919,  as  returned  by  the  Bureau  of  the 
Census.  The  most  important  crops  are  corn, 
hay,  wheat,  and  oats. 

Corn. — The  largest  and  most  valuable  Ameri¬ 
can  crops  are  corn  and  hay.  They  are  at  the 
basis  of  the  great  stock-raising  interests  of 
the  country.  Corn  stands  without  a  rival  either 
in  respect  to  area  or  value.  It  is  indigenous 
to  America,  and  the  United  States  produces 
about  four-fifths  of  the  world’s  supply.  The 
production  of  corn  in  1921  was  about  3,081,251,- 
000  bushels,  valued  at  $1,305,624,000.  See 
Maize. 

Hay. — As  compared  with  corn,  hay  is  of 
greater  relative  importance  in  regions  which 
are  not  well  adapted  for  the  growing  of  corn, 
but  where  the  demand  for  stock  food  is  never¬ 
theless  great.  Thus  in  the  North  Atlantic 
States  the  acreage  of  hay  is  twice  the  total  area 
devoted  to  cereals,  and  in  the  western  division 
of  States  the  acreage  of  hay  is  over  16  times 


VALUE  OF  ALL  FARM  CROPS  BY  DIVISIONS  AND  STATES  — 1919  AND  1909 

(Not  including  forest  products  or  nursery  and  greenhouse  products.) 


UNITED  STATES 


708 


UNITED  STATES 


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total  value  of  hay  and  forage. 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


709 


that  of  corn  and  nearly  30  per  cent  greater 
than  that  of  all  cereals  combined.  In  the  lat¬ 
ter  region  a  large  part  of  the  crop  has  the  ad¬ 
vantage  of  irrigation.  In  most  of  the  North 
Central  States  hay  is  the  second  crop  in  re¬ 
spect  to  acreage  and  value.  In  the  cotton  States 
less  attention  is  given  it,  although  there  has 
been  a  significant  increase  in  this  section  in  re¬ 
cent  years.  The  increase  in  the  acreage  of  hay 
has  been  especially  rapid  since  1880,  the  area 
devoted  to  it  having  doubled  since  that  time. 
The  principal  variety  of  hay  is  timothy,  its 
production  being  confined  largely  to  the  North 
Central  and  the  North  Atlantic  States.  The 
production  of  hay  in  1921  was  about  96,802,000 
tons  valued  at  $1,090,776,000.  Next  in  importance 
are  wild,  salt,  and  prairie  grasses,  which  are 
produced  in  regions  in  which  timothy  is  little 
grown — the  salt  and  other  marshes,  and  the 
more  arid  prairie  region  and  westward.  Al¬ 
falfa  stands  closely  in  acreage  to  timothy.  Its 
production  is  largest  in  the  North  Central  and 
the  Western  States.  Two  or  more  cuttings  of 
this  crop  are  obtained  annually,  and  it  stands 
first  in  yield  per  acre.  Clover  grown  alone  ranks 
next  to  alfalfa  in  acreage,  but  a  larger  area  is 
devoted  to  clover  and  timothy  as  a  mixed  hay 
crop.  In  the  Far  West,  especially  California, 
large  quantities  of  grain  are  cut  green  for  hay. 
Millet  and  other  hay  and  forage  crops  are 
grown  in  most  parts  of  the  country. 

Wheat. — The  United  States  wheat  crop  varies 
in  amount  from  one-third  to  one-half  that  of 
Europe.  Wheat  can  be  successfully  grown  in 
every  State  of  the  Union.  However,  the  com¬ 
petition  of  certain  favored  regions  has  limited 
its  cultivation  in  others.  A  hardy  crop  and  of 
quick  growth,  it  is  the  principal  crop  in  the 
North  and  the  West.  The  climate  and  soil  are 
less  favorable  to  its  growth  in  the  South.  The 
extensive  wheat  farms  of  former  years  have 
been  gradually  broken  up  and  mixed  farming 
has  taken  their  place.  During  the  period  from 
1870  to  1890  wheat  cultivation  developed  in 
Argentina,  India,  and  other  regions,  and  these 
countries  came  into  competition  with  the  United 
States  in  the  European  market.  This  fact, 
coupled  with  the  high  production  of  the  United 
States,  caused  a  decrease  in  the  price  of  wheat 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  country.  In  the 
regions  where  the  winters  are  rigorous,  especially 
where  the  snowfall  is  not  heavy  enough  to  pro¬ 
tect  vegetation  or  where  the  rainfall  may  be 
inadequate  in  the  autumn,  the  wheat  crop  is 
sown  in  the  Spring.  In  1921  a  little  less  than 
one  half  of  the  total  wheat  acreage  was  winter 
wheat.  Wheat  benefited  even  more  than  corn 
from  the  improved  machinery  which  came  into 
use  about  1850  and  subsequently.  This,  to¬ 
gether  with  the  improvement  of  transportation 
and  the  adaptability  of  the  prairie  soils  to  wheat 
culture,  resulted  in  a  rapid  increase  in  the 
acreage  devoted  to  the  crop.  The  total  production 
of  wheat  in  1921  was  794,893,000  bushels,  valued 
at  $737,068,000. 

Cotton. — Nearly  65  per  cent  of  the  world’s 
supply  of  cotton  is  produced  in  the  United 
States,  where  it  is  one  of  the  leading  crops.  The 
area  devoted  to  cotton  and  the  production  have 
been  greatly  extended  in  the  past  half  century. 
According  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  the 
Census  the  acreage  of  cotton  harvested  by  re¬ 
cent  census  years  was:  1879,  14,480,019;  1889, 
20,175,270;  1899,  24,275,101;  1901,  32,044,000; 
and  1919,  33,740,106.  The  production  of  cotton 


lint  for  the  same  dates,  by  running  bales,  was  5,- 
575,359,  7,472,51 1,  9,393,242,  10,072,731,  and 

11,376,130  respectively.  The  production  of  cot¬ 
ton  in  1921  was  8,340,000  bales,  and  the  amount 
reported  ginned  on  Jan.  1,  1922  was  7,884,272 
bales.  Linters  to  the  amount  of  439,637  bales 
were  produced  in  1921,  and  the  total  amount  of 
the  cottonseed,  which  was  crushed  for  its  oil, 
hulls  and  cake,  was  $4,060,604  tons.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  area  of  cotton  production  is  the  region 
between  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  the  sea, 
beginning  with  the  southern  tier  of  counties  in 
Virginia  and  including  more  than  two-thirds  of 
North  Carolina,  practically  all  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Arkansas, 
and  Oklahoma,  most  of  Texas,  and  all  of  Louisi¬ 
ana  except  the  sugar  and  rice  parishes.  Most 
of  the  cotton  area  is  devoted  to  the  growing  of 
upland  types  of  cotton  ( Gossypium  liirsutum 
and  various  hybrids ) ,  but  the  finest  and  most 
expensive  cotton  is  the  Sea  Island  ( Gossypium 
barbadense) ,  which  is  grown  in  the  coast  region 
of  South  Carolina,  southeastern  Georgia,  and 
northern  Florida.  Locally  produced  strains  of 
Egyptian  cotton  are  grown  in  Arizona,  and  a 
very  superior  upland  cotton  in  California. 

The  cotton-boll  weevil  menace,  which  grew  to 
serious  proportions  in  the  last  decade  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  has  been  a  disturbing  factor 
in  cotton  production.  First  appearing  in  Texas, 
it  gradually  spread  until  it  reached  nearly  to 
the  northern  limit  of  cotton  production  in  Okla¬ 
homa  and  eastward  until  in  1922  it  covered 
nearly  all  the  cotton  area  of  North  Carolina. 
The  presence  of  the  boll  weevil  has  probably 
done  more  to  revolutionize  methods  of  produc¬ 
tion  and  to  diversify  agriculture  in  the  infested 
regions  than  any  other  agency.  . 

Oats. — The  only  other  crop  which  is  grown 
on  a  scale  comparable  with  the  foregoing  crops 
is  oats.  The  acreage  of  oats  is  indeed  greater 
than  that  of  cotton,  but  the  value  is  much  less. 
In  New  York,  Wisconsin,  and  some  other  Com¬ 
monwealths  oats  has  the  largest  area  of  all 
cereals.  In  a  number  of  other  States  it  ranks 
second,  including  the  two  largest  oats-growing 
States,  Illinois  and  Iowa,  in  each'  of  which  it 
is  much  more  extensively  grown  than  wheat. 
The  United  States  produces  less  than  one-third 
the  oats  of  the  world.  The  production  in  1921 
was  1,060,739,000  bushels,  valued  at  $321,540,- 
000. 

Rice. — Although  rice  was  introduced  as  early 
as  1700,  and  has  been  grown  ever  since,  it  was 
not  until  near  the  year  1900  that  its  cultiva¬ 
tion  began  to1  assume  large  proportions.  South 
Carolina  ranked  first  in.  its  production  until  1880. 
A  new  epoch  in  rice  cultivation  began  in  1 897— 
98,  when  it  was  successfully  grown  by  the  aid  of 
irrigation  in  the  coastal  prairie  lands  of  south¬ 
west  Louisiana.  The  cultivation  of  rice  in  that 
region  developed  with  remarkable  rapidity,  and 
the  production  of  the  country  increased  from 
21,838,580  bushels  in  1909  to  39,653,000  bushels 
in  1921.  Of  this  last  amount,  which  was  only  a 
little  short  of  the  consumption  of  the  country, 
Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  and  California  to¬ 
gether  produced  by  far  the  largest  amount. 

Other  Cereals. — Other  varieties  of  cereals  than 
those  mentioned  flourish,  but  have  not  become 
favorites  as  in  some  other  countries.  The  United 
States  produces  only  one-tenth  of  the  barley 
crop  of  the  world  and  prior  to  the  World  War 
was  exceeded  by  European  Russia.  It  is  an 
important  crop  in  California,  where  it  is  used  as 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


710 


a  stock-food  substitute  for  corn.  The  other 
States  in  which  it  is  most  grown  are  Minnesota, 
Wisconsin,  lowa,  and  the  Dakotas.  The  pro¬ 
duction  of  rye  is  greatest  in  Wisconsin,  Penn¬ 
sylvania  and  other  northern  States.  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  and  New  York  produce  over  five-eighths 
of  the  buckwheat  of  the  country.  Kafir  corn  and 
other  nonsaccharine  sorghums  are  adapted  to  the 
semiarid  regions  and  are  grown  chiefly  in  western 
Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas. 

Vegetables. — Vegetables  are  grown  commer¬ 
cially  on  three  classes  of  farms:  intensively  cul¬ 
tivated  gardens  adjoining  the  large  centres  of 
population  and  devoted  to  the  more  perishable; 
general  farms  which  include  the  staple  fall  and 
winter  vegetables  in  their  planting  scheme;  and 
truck  farms  located  in  mild  regions  along  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  as  well  as  in 
southern  California,  where  large  quantities  of 
perishable  vegetables  can  be  grown  in  green¬ 
houses.  The  reported  acreage  of  vegetables,  not 
including  potatoes  and  sweet  potatoes,  increased 
from  2,162,130  acres  in  the  census  year  1899 
to  2,763,269  in  1909  but  decreased  in  1919  to 
1,475,000.  The  South  Atlantic  States  lead  in 
both  acreage  and  value,  having  planted  337,379 
acres  in  vegetables  in  1919.  Of  the  individual 
States,  the  leading  ones,  judged  by  area  of  vege¬ 
tables  planted,  were  New  York  with  132,000 
acres,  Ohio  with  60,860  acres;  Pennsylvania  with 
54,283  acres,  Illinois  with  60,705  acres,  Virginia 
with  47,307  acres,  Kentucky  with  16,124  acres, 
and  Maryland  with  119,922  acres. 

Potatoes. — The  most  extensively  grown  and 
most  valuable  of  the  vegetables  are  potatoes, 
yet  the  production  is  small  as  compared  with 
that  of  Europe.  About  78  per  cent  of  both  acre¬ 
age  and  production  was  in  the  Northern  States. 
Among  the  individual  States  New  York  led  in 
production  in  1919  with  32,470,847  bushels,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  Wisconsin  with  26,376,021  bushels, 
Maine  with  25,531,470  bushels,  and  Michigan 
with  23,929,560  bushels. 

Sweet  Potatoes. — More  than  nine-tenths  of  the 
sweet  potato  crop  is  grown  in  the  South.  The 
total  acreage  in  1919  was  803,727  as  compared 
with  641,255  in  1909.  The  total  production  was 
78,091,913  bushels,  compared  with  59,232,079  in 
1909.  New  Jersey,  the  most  important  sweet- 
potato  State  in  the  North,  planted  15,427  acres. 
The  Southern  States  grew  sweet  potatoes  in 
large  quantities,  especially  Georgia,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina  and  Florida. 
California  had  7632  acres,  or  more  than  nine- 
tenths  of  the  acreage  for  the  entire  West. 

Fruits. — The  most  remarkable  development  of 
all  phases  of  American  agriculture  in  the  three 
decades,  1890-1920,  was  made  in  fruit  culture. 
This  industry  nearly  doubled  in  magnitude  in 
that  period.  The  number  of  orchard  trees,  e.g., 
increased  from  193.452,588  to  226,153,971  (not 
including  subtropical  varieties).  Most  varieties 
of  temperate-zone  fruits  are  grown  in  every 
State.  The  use  of  refrigerator  cars  has  made 
it  possible  to  transport  fruits  long  distances, 
and  thus  all  parts  of  the  country  have  the  ad¬ 
vantage  of  the  general  market.  However,  cli¬ 
matic  differences  tend  to  localize.  From  the 

ORCHARD  FRUITS,  TREES  OF  BEARING  AGE 

IN  1920 


Apples .  115,309,165 

Peaches  and  nectarines .  65,646,101 

Pears .  44,647,412 

Plums  and  prunes .  20,452,293 


accompanying  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  apple 
has  a  decided  primacy  among  American  fruits. 

Formerly  the  apple  received  most  attention  in 
the  Northeastern  and  North  Central  group  of 
States,  but  its  commercial  culture  has  rapidly 
extended  southward  to  northern  Georgia  and 
west  to  the  plains  region  and  to  the  north¬ 
western  States.  New  York,  on  account  of  its 
old  orchards,  is  still  the  largest-producing  State. 
The  total  production  of  apples  in  1921  was 
96,881,000  bushels.  The  peach  crop  amounted 
to  32,733,000,  the  pear  crop  to  10,705,000 
bushels  and  the  orange  crop  to  30,700,000 
bushels.  Peaches  are  grown  generally  throughout 
the  country,  but  the  greatest  development  has 
been  in  the  production  of  early  peaches  in  the 
South  and  in  California,  where  the  rapid  de¬ 
velopment  of  the  dried-fruit  industry  has  further 
stimulated  the  production  of  all  orchard  fruits. 
In  fresh  deciduous  fruits  California  shipped  in 
1921  over  40,000  carloads,  the  largest  ship¬ 
ment  being  of  grapes,  28,000  carloads.  In  dried 
fruits  California  shipped  277,660  tons,  a  de¬ 
crease  from  330,370  tons  in  1920.  The  Pacific 
coast,  particularly  California,  leads  in  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  plums,  prunes,  apricots,  and  grapes. 
The  total  number  of  grapevines  of  bearing  age 
in  the  United  States  in  1920  was  225,754,285, 
of  which  California  had  nearly  two-thirds.  The 
raisin  industry  is  confined  to  California.  Be¬ 
sides  California,  the  chief  region  for  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  table  grapes  is  the  Lake  Erie  region  in 
northern  Ohio  and  western  New  York.  Cherries 
and  pears  are  grown  throughout  the  country. 

The  production  of  the  three  most  important 
varieties  of  small  fruits — strawberries,  raspber¬ 
ries,  and  blackberries — is  well  extended  over  the 
country.  Cranberries  require  boggy  lands  and 
are  principally  limited  to  the  Cape  Cod  region, 
southern  New  Jersey,  and  central  Wisconsin. 
Massachusetts  produces  over  60  per  cent  of  the 
pfoduct.  California  is  unsurpassed  as  a  region 
for  the  growing  of  all  kinds  of  subtropical  fruits, 
as  the  remarkable  development  of  that  region 
during  the  period  1880-1920  fully  demonstrates. 
This  region  is  also  the  chief  centre  of  produc¬ 
tion  of  almonds  and  English  walnuts.  South 
Florida  is  also  a  large  centre  of  orange  culture 
and  is  the  only  important  centre  of  pineapple 
culture  of  continental  United  States.  (See  Cali¬ 
fornia;  Florida.)  Arizona  and  New  Mexico 
also  give  promise  of  becoming  important  centres 
for  the  growth  of  subtropical  plants.  The  total 
acreage  in  small  fruits  in  1920  was  249,084,  and 
the  production  was  324,988,968  quarts.  Straw¬ 
berries  aggregated  119,395  acres,  with  176,- 
931,550  quarts,  raspberries  and  loganberries 
amounted  to  66,333,509  quarts,  blackberries  and 
dewberries  39,945,078  quarts. 

Tobacco. — Virginia  maintained  the  primacy 
in  tobacco  production  until  1850,  when  it  was 
surpassed  by  Kentucky.  The  latter  State  has 
steadily  increased,  until  it  represents  over  twice 
the  acreage  and  value  represented  by  the  former. 
The  total  production  in  1921  was  1,117,682,000 
pounds,  compared  with  1,582,225,000  in  1920. 
The  other  principal  States  producing  tobacco 
are  Ohio,  Tennessee,  South  Carolina,  Wisconsin, 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Connecticut. 

Sugar  and  Sugar-Producing  Crops. — The  rais¬ 
ing  of  sugar  cane  in  the  United  States  proper 
is  largely  confined  to  Louisiana.  The  area  de¬ 
voted  to  sugar  cane  in  the  United  States  in 
1919  aggregated  372,938  acres.  The  produc¬ 
tion  of  cane  sugar  in  1921  amounted  to  over 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


711 


1,121,000  tons.  Sorghum  cane  is  grown  very 
generally  throughout  the  United  States.  The 
total  acreage  in  1919  was  482,043,  and  the 
sirup  produced  amounted  to  21,523,025  gallons. 
In  the  early  history  of  the  country  a  large 
part  of  the  sugar  and  sirup  consumed  was 
manufactured  from  the  sap  of  the  maple 
tree.  The  maple  sugar  made  in  1919  amounted 
to  9,691,854  pounds.  About  two-thirds  of  this 
was  made  in  Vermont  and  New  York.  The 
maple-sirup  product  in  the  same  year  amounted 
to  3,507,745  gallons,  Ohio  being  the  leading 
State  in  sirup  production.  Since  1890  there 
has  been  a  rapid  development  of  the  beet-sugar 
industry.  The  production  of  beet  sugar  in¬ 
creased  from  2203  tons  in  1889-90  to  900,000 
tons  in  1921.  The  latter  amount  was  produced 
from  636,000  acres  of  beets.  Over  two-thirds 
of  this  acreage  was  in  Colorado,  California,  and 
Michigan,  and  the  remainder  was  distributed 
through  a  number  of  States.  Unlike  sugar  cane, 
the  sugar  beet  is  usually  grown  as  an  incidental 
to  other  farming  operations.  Owing  to  their 
high  value  per  acre,  they  are  both,  however,  im¬ 
portant  to  the  sections  in  which  they  are  grown. 

Stock  Raising.  Compared  with  crop  growing, 
stock  raising  is  of  much  more  importance  in 
the  United  States  than  in  European  countries. 
The  per  capita  number  of  horses,  cattle,  and 
hogs  is  much  greater  in  the  United  States  than 
in  any  of  the  principal  European  countries. 
The  total  value  of  all  live  stock  on  farms  in 
the  United  States  in  1910  was  $4,925,174,000. 
Of  the  total,  the  value  of  domestic  animals,  $4,- 
760,060,000,  represented  96.6  per  cent  and  the 
value  of  poultry  most  of  the  remainder.  The 
accompanying  table  shows  the  number  of  live 
stock  on  farms  and  ranges  in  1900,  1910,  and 
1920. 


world.  Vermont  early  became  well  known  for 
the  raising  of  driving  horses,  but  the  blue-grass 
region  of  Kentucky  contains  a  large  number  of 
the  most  famous  breeding  farms  of  driving 
horses  in  America.  ( See  Horse.  )  From  the 
trotting  stock  are  bred  roadsters  and  coach 
horses,  the  European  breed  of  coach  horse  not 
being  extensively  bred  in  the  country.  The 
United  States  has  not  developed  any  new  breeds 
of  draft  horses,  but  imports  stock  horses  of  this 
kind  from  Europe.  The  favorite  breeds  are  the 
Percheron,  Shire,  and  Clydesdale.  The  steady 
growth  in  the  demand  for  horses  prior  to  about 
1890  resulted  in  the  breeding  of  the  low-grade 
as  well  as  the  better  class.  In  recent  years 
the  premium  paid  for  high-grade  horses  has 
checked  the  breeding  of  inferior  animals,  and 
since  1890  the  grade  of  horses  has  improved 
much  faster  than  before. 

Cattle. — The  nineteenth  century  was  well  ad¬ 
vanced  before  stock  cattle  from  Europe  had  been 
imported  to  any  considerable  extent.  Short¬ 
horns  were  for  several  years  imported  in  the 
largest  numbers,  and  there  are  more  shorthorns 
in  the  United  States  to-day  than  of  any  other 
breed.  The  hustling  qualities  of  the  Herefords 
made  them  favorites  in  the  range  States.  The 
Aberdeen-Angus  were  introduced  later  (1870), 
but  have  become  rivals  of  the  Herefords  for 
beef  purposes,  especially  in  the  North  Cen¬ 
tral  States.  These  are  the  three  principal 
breeds  used  in  the  United  States  for  breed¬ 
ing  and  for  grading  up  native  cattle  for  beef 
purposes.  In  feeding  and  breeding  beef  cattle 
it  has  been  the  aim  to  reduce  the  time  neces¬ 
sary  to  prepare  the  animal  for  market  and 
the  tendency  has  been  to  produce  earlier  ma¬ 
turing  animals.  In  the  North  Central  division 
cattle  are  being  finished  for  market  at  from 


LIVE*  STOCK 

United 

States 

North 

Atlantic 

division 

South 

Atlantic 

division 

North 

Central 

division 

South 

Central 

division 

Western 

division 

Neat  cattle 

1920 . 

35,288,100 

388,452 

2,088,898 

15,758,125 

8,501,829 

8,550,796 

1910 . 

53,997,327 

4,699,130 

4,264,112 

23,694,947 

12,908,805 

8,831,053 

1900 . 

52,403,828 

5,081,616 

3,490,301 

23,309,460 

13,823,384 

6,699,067 

Cattle 

1920 . 

31,264,459 

4,801,061 

2,613,805 

15,313,087 

6,215,764 

2,480,632 

1910 . 

20,125,432 

3,439,350 

1,810,754 

10,157,133 

3,877,614 

1,340,581 

1900 . 

17,135,633 

3,496,266 

1,383,319 

8,490,284 

2.899,236 

866,528 

Horses 

1920 . 

19,767,161 

1,584,441 

1,111,187 

11,056,149 

3,206,144 

3,066,002 

1910 . 

19,220,338 

1,572,229 

1,082,963 

10,854,451 

3,388,814 

2,351,881 

1900 . 

16,952,191 

1,641,395 

1,014,543 

9,070,366 

3,175,869 

2,050,018 

Mules 

1920 . 

5,432,391 

70,678 

1,079,033 

1,157,374 

2,935,080 

190,226 

1910 . 

4,206,210 

54,800 

749,898 

954,603 

2,283,411 

163,498 

1900 . 

3,127,152 

46,033 

545,840 

652,360 

1,677,607 

111,147 

Swine 

1920 . 

59,346,409 

2,314,485 

6,535,700 

35,589,474 

11,965,247 

2,633,407 

1910 . 

58,185,676 

2,187,463 

5,963,920 

35,442,568 

12,460,551 

1,831,174 

1900 . 

62,868,041 

2,322,206 

5,562,762 

40,474,289 

13, 04/, 827 

1,460,957 

Sheep 

1920 . 

35,033,516 

1,340,614 

1,209,424 

10,023,008 

4,227,332 

18,227,291 

1910 . 

39,144,046 

1,566,898 

1,552,698 

10,059,603 

3,176,278 

23,288,569 

1900 . 

39,144,046 

2,533,579 

1,706,199 

10,055,721 

3,328,848 

22,228,620 

Little  was  done  prior  to  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century  to  improve  the  breeds. 
By  the  year  1900  the"  rate  of  improvement  had 
become  very  rapid,  and  at  the  present  has  been 
extended  to  all  classes  of  live  stock  in  prac¬ 
tically  all  sections  of  the  country. 

Horses. — The  most  distinctive  success  attained 
in  American  horse  raising  has  been  in  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  a  new  and  superior  breed  of  race 
horses.  American  racers  are  the  best  in  the 


12  to  18  months  and  known  as  baby  beeves. 

The  method  of  cattle  raising  in  the  range 
region  has  greatly  changed  since  about  1900. 
Formerly  cattle  were  pastured  and  driven  about 
without  hindrance  over  government  lands.  To¬ 
day  much  of  the  range  area  is  inclosed  by  wire 
fences.  Part  of  the  former  range  area  has  been 
settled  by  small  farmers,  but  produces  more 
cattle  than  under  the  old  system.  Instead  of 
letting  range  cattle  shift  for  themselves  in 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


712 


winter,  as  formerly,  it  is  common  to  provide 
food  and  protection  for  them. 

The  recent  remarkable  development  in  the 
dairying  industry  has  exercised  a  decided  in¬ 
fluence  ever  cattle  raising.  The  number  of 
milk  or  dairy  cows  increased  from  6,385,000  in 
1850  to  31,364,459  in  1920,  while  the  increase 
in  dairy  value  of  these  cattle  was  proportion¬ 
ately  much  greater.  See  Cattle;  Dairying. 

Stoine. — The  United  States  has  accomplished 
more  in  the  development  of  new  and  superior 
breeds  of  hogs  than  in  that  of  any  other  farm 
animal.  Indeed,  in  both  the  quality  of  the 
breed  and  in  absolute  number  the  United  States 
stands  almost  alone  in  this  branch  of  industry. 

Until  towards  1850  the  most  common  grade 
was  the  half-wild,  long-legged,  thin  animals 
known  as  razor-backs.  They  are  still  common 
in  the  Southern  States,  but  before  1830  a  dis¬ 
tinct  breed,  the  Chester  White,  had  been  devel¬ 
oped  in  Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  and  about  1840  another 
new  breed,  the  Poland  China,  originated  in  south¬ 
western  Ohio.  The  Duroc-Jersey,  another  na¬ 
tive  breed,  first  became  common  in  New  Jersey, 
and  is  now  well  known  over  the  country. 
Through  these  and  other  improved  native  breeds, 
together  with  the  imported  Berkshires,  the  grade 
of  hogs  in  the  North  Central  States  has  been 
improved  until  it  has  reached  a  very  high  stand¬ 
ard.  Stockmen  have  aimed  at  securing  a  breed 
that  will  fatten  quickly  and  at  an  early  age. 
The  Poland  China  does  this,  and  its  imprint  is 
most  noticeable  among  American  hogs. 

Sheep. — Sheep  hold  a  much  lower  rank  in  the 
agricultural  economy  of  the  United  States  than 
in  that  of  most  modern  nations.  The  industry 
has  labored  under  the  disadvantages  of  a  vacil¬ 
lating  tariff  policy.  During  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  merino  was  the  pre¬ 
vailing  breed,  but  in  1900  it  was  estimated  that 
30  per  cent  of  the  flocks  in  the  range  country 
were  of  mutton  breeds,  and  that  from  70  to  80 
per  cent  of  those  in  the  farming  States  had  a 
predominance  of  English  blood.  The  merino 
blood  still  predominates  in  the  range  States. 
The  number  of  sheep  in  the  United  States  in 
1910,  outside  of  the  Western  division  of  States, 
was  not  so  great  as  in  1850.  Sheep  raising  be¬ 
gan  to  spread  rapidly  in  the  Western  division 
about  1870.  Since  1890  there  has  been  remark¬ 
able  development  in  that  region.  The  foremost 
sheep-raising  States  of  the  Western  division  are 
Wyoming,  Montana,  New  Mexico,  and  Idaho. 
In  New  England  the  dairy  industry  has  sup¬ 
planted  sheep  raising,  so  that  the  number  of 
sheep  in  1910  was  less  than  one-third  the  num¬ 
ber  in  1850.  Since  1880  there  has  been  a  de¬ 
cline  in  the  North  Central  States,  particularly 
Ohio.  Texas  in  1890  had  attained  first  rank, 
but  in  1920  had  less  than  one-third  the  number 
of  sheep  reported  for  the  earlier  year. 

Poultry. — The  importance  of  the  production 
of  eggs  and  poultry  in  the  United  States  is 
not  generally  realized.  The  value  of  the  poultry 
and  the  egg  products  in  1920  was  $373,395,057 
respectively,  an  increase  of  115.6  per  cent.  The 
different  kinds  of  fowls  in  1920  numbered  as  fol¬ 
lows:  chickens,  359,537,127;  turkeys,  3,627,028; 
geese,  2,939,203;  ducks,  2,817,624.  The  total 
value  of  live  stock  products  in  1919  was  $2,667,- 
072,273,  compared  with  $1,177,974,703  in  1909. 
The  value  of  dairy  products  was  $1,481,462,097, 
of  eggs  and  chickens  $1,047,323,170,  of  wool  and' 
mohair  $124,006,859,  and  of  honey  and  wax 
$14,280,153. 


Forests  and  Forest  Products.  See  For¬ 
estry;  Lumber  Industry. 

MANUFACTURES 

The  United  States  is  the  foremost  manufac¬ 
turing  country  in  the  world.  Manufacturing  in 
the  -United  States  is  of  coordinate  importance 
with,  if  not  of  greater  importance  than,  either 
of  the  two  other  leading  American  industries, 
agriculture  and  trade  and  transportation.  A 
statistical  summary  from  the  thirteenth  census 
for  the  more  important  American  manufacturing 
industries  will  be  found  under  Manufactures 
(q.v. ).  In  the  export  of  manufactures  the 
United  States  in  1919  led  all  countries  with  a 
record  of  $4,063,354,637,  as  compared  with  about 
$1,500,000,000  for  Great  Britain.  Germany’s  re¬ 
sources  have  been  so  crippled  by  the  war  that 
her  foreign  commerce  has  been  practically  de¬ 
stroyed.  Her  trade  with  the  United  States  is 
therefore  seriously  reduced.  Previous  to  the 
European  War  Germany  also  exceeded  the  United 
States  in  its  export  of  manufactured  goods,  the 
total  amount  averaging  slightly  in  excess  of 
$1,500,000,000.  With  the  revival  of  business  it 
is  estimated  that  new  records  in  exports  will  be 
made. 

The  following  are  the  general  statistics  of 
manufactures  in  1919,  as  obtained  by  the  1919 

census. 


Number  of  establishments .  290,105 

Capital .  $44,688,093,771 

Wage  earners .  9,096,372 

Wages .  $10,531,600,340 

Value  of  materials .  $37,376,3S0,283 

Value  of  products .  $62,418,078,773 


In  a  preliminary  analysis  of  the  1919  census 
returns  for  manufactures  an  increase  in  prod¬ 
ucts  amounting  in  value  to  some  $41,000,000,- 
000  was  indicated,  as  compared  with  $24,000,- 
000,000  reported  for  1910,  and  $11,500,000,000 
in  the  1899  census.  These  figures  may  be  com¬ 
pared  with  the  total  returns  of  the  census  of 
production  of  Great  Britain  for  1907,  viz.,  some 
$8,000,000,000,  estimates  of  $17,500,000  in  1922, 
and  the  approximate  figures  of  between  $11,000,- 
000,000  and  $12,000,000,000  for  1913  in  Germany, 
and  an  estimated  output  from  France  running 
about  the  same  as  that  of  Great  Britain,  before 
the  war. 

Natural  Advantages.  The  abundance  of  raw 
material  required  by  the  manufacturing  indus¬ 
tries,  the  degree  of  availability,  including  trans¬ 
portation  facilities,  and  the  capabilities  of  the 
producers  are  unequaled.  Both  food  supplies 
and  agricultural  materials  for  manufacture  are 
cheaper,  more  abundant,  and  more  varied  in 
the  United  States  than  in  any  other  manufac¬ 
turing  country.  The  well-distributed  forests 
contain  most  varieties  of  timber  needed  in  large 
quantities  and  in  amounts  that  admit  of  heavy 
exportation.  In  the  production  of  the  two  min¬ 
erals  which  constitute  the  basis  of  modern  man¬ 
ufactures,  coal  and  iron,  the  United  States 
ranks  foremost  and  indeed  produces  more  than  a 
third  of  the  world’s  output  of  each.  Moreover, 
the  deposits  of  these  minerals,  together  with  de¬ 
posits  of  limestone,  which  is  needed  in  fluxing 
the  iron  ore,  frequently  have  been  found  in  the 
same  or  a  neighboring  locality. 

The  transportation  facilities  include  26,410 
miles  of  navigable  streams  and  a  railway  mile¬ 
age  (264,000  miles  in  1922)  that  is  greater  than 
that  of  all  Europe  and  is  36.5  per  cent  of  the 
railroad  mileage  of  the  world.  The  competition 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


713 


of  the  waterways  with  the  railways  has  had  its 
effect  in  giving  to  the  country  the  advantage 
of  cheap  rates.  Another  advantage  about  which 
little  is  said,  but  which  nevertheless  is  great, 
is  the  freedom  of  interstate  commerce,  with  a 
Federal  Interstate  Commission  to  prevent  un¬ 
fair  discrimination  and  generally  to  regulate 
transportation.  In  no  other  equally  large  area 
in  the  civilized  world  is  trade  unrestricted  by 
customs,  excises,  or  national  prejudice.  The 
freedom  which  the  United  States  enjoys  from 
tradition  is  another  factor  of  prime  importance. 

At  the  same  time  the  manufacturing  industry 
has  profited  by  reason  of  the  contribution  of 
ideas  of  people  schooled  under  different  indus¬ 
trial  systems.  The  immigrant,  like  the  native 
born,  is  animated  by  the  prospects  of  large 
possibilities,  and  greater  energy  and  ingenuity 
pervade  industrial  society  in  the  United  States 
than  are  known  in  the  European  countries.  As 
a  result  the  individual  laborer  usually  accom¬ 
plishes  more  in  the  United  States  than  he  does 
in  Europe. 

Mulhall,  the  statistician,  once  said  that  nearly 
all  American  manufactures  were  produced  by 
machinery,  while  in  Europe  more  than  one-half 
were  hand  work.  This  statement  as  regards 
Europe  hardly  would  hold  true  to-day,  but  in 
many  industries  as  regard  the  completeness 
of  organization,  the  minuteness  of  subdivision, 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  work  is  expedited, 
the  United  States  excels.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  with  the  newer  industries,  such  as 
electrical  machinery  and  motor  vehicles.  The 
United  States  early  developed  a  system  of  in¬ 
terchangeable  mechanism,  followed  later  by  vari¬ 
ous  schemes  of  industrial  efficiency,  which  have 
proved  of  inestimable  value  to  the  progress  of 
the  manufacturing  industry. 

Localization.  The  manufacturing  industry 
is  very  unevenly  distributed  over  the  country. 
There  is  a  decided  tendency  to  centralize  in 
limited  localities.  The  greater  part  of  the 
manufacturing  is  carried  on  in  the  region  north 
of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio  rivers  and  east  of 
the  Mississippi.  The  centre  of  manufactures  has 
always  been  well  to  the  north  and  east  of  the 
centre  of  population,  but  has  at  every  decade 
moved  westward  and  was  nearer  the  centre  of 
population  in  1922  than  in  1850. 

There  has  been  an  increasing  tendency  in  re¬ 
cent  years  toward  a  concentration  of  industries 
in  the  -Eastern  and  East  North  Central  States 
which  may  be  in  part  accounted  for  by  the  con¬ 
centration  of  population  in  the  larger  cities ;  the 
necessity  for  keeping  transportation  charges 
low;  and  the  better  credit  facilities  available 
to  manufacturers. 

In  the  localization  of  industries  the  factor  of 
transportation  in  its  relation  to  the  supply 
of  raw  materials  and  the  market  has  been  one 
of  primary  importance.  This  applies  especially 
to  bulky  and  heavy  products  which  are  shipped 
with  difficultv.  Thus  Pennsvlvania,  eastern 
Ohio,  and  Illinois  have  become  the  iron-manufac¬ 
turing  region,  since  coal  and  iron  are  brought 
together  here  at  a  minimum  cost.  Live  animals 
cannot  be  so  easily  shipped  as  packed  meats, 
and  hence  the  slaughtering  and  meat-packing  in¬ 
dustry  is  confined  mainly  to  the  West.  The 
saving  in  the  cost  of  transportation  is  a  chief 
reason  for  the  development  of  cotton  manufac¬ 
turing  in  the  cotton-growing  region.  Proximity 
to  the  supply  of  wood  and  iron  and  convenience 
to  the  market  give  the  Lake  States  the  ad¬ 


vantage  of  manufacturing  agricultural  imple- 
ments%at  a  minimum  transportation  cost,  though 
in  1922  New  York  ranked  second  to  Illinois 
in  this  field,  while  Ohio  was  third.  The  densely 
populated  Atlantic  Coast  region  from  Baltimore 
to  Maine  enables  manufactures  located  in  that 
section  to  reach  a  large  market,  including  con¬ 
venient  export  ports,  with  a  minimum  trans¬ 
portation  cost. 

Another  important  natural  condition  affecting 
localization  of  industries  is  water  power.  This 
was  formerly  an  important  consideration  and 
was  more  prominent  in  determining  the  exact 
spot  than  the  general  section.  Often,  however, 
the  natural  advantages  mentioned  were  of 
secondary  importance,  and  this  consideration  de¬ 
clined  in  relative  importance  after  an  industry 
was  well  established. 

Latterly,  with  hydroelectric  developments, 
location  adjacent  to  a  cheap  and  reliable  source 
of  water  power  again  has  become  an  important 
consideration,  though  by  means  of  long-dis¬ 
tance  transmission  lines  electrical  energy  can 
be  delivered  at  convenient  locations  within  a 
certain  radius.  Electrochemical  industries  in 
particular  have  been  located  with  this  considera¬ 
tion  in  view,  and  it  has  been  estimated  that 
there  are  some  50,000,000  horse  power  available 
for  water  power  in  the  United  States.  Much 
of  this  water  power  has  been  governed  in  its 
use  by  Federal  restrictions  and  reservations,  but 
will  be  developed  with  more  liberal  legislation. 

In  many  industries  technical  training  and 
labor  supply  are  of  greater  importance  than  ac¬ 
cessibility  to  raw  materials,  and  efficient  organ¬ 
ization  and  scientific  control  are  being  developed 
by  the  more  important  manufacturing  corpora¬ 
tions.  Abundance  of  capital  and  labor  are  other 
prominent  advantages  that  may  vary  with  eco¬ 
nomic  conditions,  but  are  usually  available  for 
the  American  manufacturer.  For  the  growth 
and  extent  of  manufactures,  see  Manufactures, 
and  the  separate  articles  on  the  various  manu¬ 
facturing  industries,  such  as  Cotton  ;  Flour  ; 
Iron  and  Steel,  Metallurgy  of;  etc.  Also  see 
the  paragraph  on  Manufactures  under  the  vari¬ 
ous  States. 

Textiles.  The  group  of  industries  called  tex¬ 
tiles  in  1919  ranked  first  in  the  number  of 
wage  earners  employed  and  third  in  the  value 
of  products.  The  following  table  shows  for 
1919  the  product  of  each  of  the  chief  elements 
of  textile  manufacture. 


Cotton .  $2,125,272,193 

Woolen  Goods .  364,896,590 

Silk .  688,469,523 

Knit  Goods .  713,139,689 

Cordage  and  twine .  133,366,476 

Shoddy .  23,254,398 

Dyeing  and  finishing  textiles .  323,967,683 


The  cotton-manufacturing  industry  has  de¬ 
veloped  in  recent  years  with  great  rapidity  and 
has  placed  the  United  States  first  with  respect 
to  the  number  of  bales  of  cotton  consumed. 

In  1921  the  number  of  cotton  spindles  in  the 
United  States  was  estimated  at  36,843,000,  out 
of  a  total  for  the  world  of  about  150,000,000. 
The  wool  consumption  for  1920  in  the  United 
States  was  724,633,201  pounds,  of  which  297, 155- 
GOO  pounds  were  domestic  and  427,578,038  were 
foreign.  In  1921  the  amount  of  foreign  wool 
imported  had  reached  nearly  320,665,751  pounds. 

The  value  of  the  products  of  woolen  and 
worsted  goods  in  1919  was  1,065,434,072.  In 
that  year  there  were  166,787  wage  earners  em¬ 
ployed  in  852  establishments.  The  manufac- 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


714 


ture  of  worsteds  dates  back  to  1843.  The  tex¬ 
tile  and  woolen  industries  are  expanding  at  a 
rapid  rate,  owing  to  increased  demands,  to  im¬ 
proved  processes  of  manufacturing,  and  to  the 
high  artistic  qualities  of  the  goods  made.  The 
hosiery  and  knit-goods  industry  is  also  of  com¬ 
paratively  recent  development.  From  a  prod¬ 
uct  valued  at  $1,028,102  in  1850  it  grew  until  it 
amounted  to  $713,139,689  in  1919.  In  that  year 
the  United  States  led  in  the  value  of  silk  manu¬ 
factured,  which  amounted  to  $688,469,523.  Al¬ 
most  the  entire  supply  is  imported  from  Japan, 
China,  and  Italy.  The  industries  of  cordage, 
twine,  jute,  and  linen  manufacture  had  products 
valued  at  $182,025,000  in  1909.  There  were  28,- 
144  wage  earners  employed  in  188  establish¬ 
ments.  Binder  twine  (value,  in  1921,  $27,000,- 
000)  and  rope  (value,  in  1921,  $39,000,000) 
together  constitute  over  one-half  of  the  total 
product.  See  Flax;  Jute;  Knitting;  Silk; 
Textile  Manufacturing;  Wool  and  Worsted 
Manufactures. 

Clothing.  The  production  of  men’s  ready¬ 
made  or  factory-made  clothing  was  already  well 
advanced  by  1850,  but  the  manufacture  of  wo¬ 
men’s  ready-made  clothing  has  developed  almost 
wholly  since  then.  The  total  value  of  men’s 
clothing  (factory  product)  in  1919  was  $1,162,- 
985,633,  an  increase  of  24  per  cent  since  1909, 
when  it  amounted  to  $485,677,493.  In  1889  it 
was  $251,019,609;  in  1879  it  was  $209,548,460; 
in  1869,  $61,865,547;  and  in  1859  $80,830,555. 
The  value  of  women’s  factory-made  clothing 
meanwhile  increased  from  $159,339,539,  in  1899, 
to  $1,208,543,128,  in  1919,  or  a  great  increase. 
In  1889  the  output  of  this  industry  was  valued 
at  $68,164,019,  in  1879  at  $32,004,794,  in  1869 
at  $12,900,583,  and  in  1859  at  $7,181,039.  There 
are  few  other  important  branches  of  industry 
that  employ  so  many  wage  earners  in  propor¬ 
tion  to  the  value  of  the  product.  In  1919  there 


to  New  York;  while  Illinois,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Maryland  follow  in  the  order  named.  Other 
important  items  of  clothing  manufacture  for 
the  year  1919  were:  shirts,  $205,327,133;  men’s 
furnishing  goods,  $107,834,695;  hats  and  caps, 
other  than  straw  and  fur  felt,  $44,539,861. 

Iron  and  Steel.  The  United  States  is  abun¬ 
dantly  provided  by  nature  with  resources  that 
are  necessary  for  the  production  of  iron  and  its 
manufacture.  (See  Iron.)  No  other  industry 
compares  with  it  in  the  absolute  growth  made 
since  1880.  In  1890  the  United  States  led  the 
world  in  the  production  of  pig  iron  and  steel, 
and  in  1905  its  production  of  pig  iron  was 
more  than  double  that  of  Great  Britain  and  its 
production  of  steel  was  more  than  three  times 
as  great  as  that  of  the  rival  country.  In  1920 
the  United  States  produced  36,925,987  long  tons 
of  pig  iron.  The  production  of  pig  iron  by  grades 
in  the  years  1915,  1919,  and  1920  is  given  in 
the  accompanying  table. 


PRODUCTION  OF  PIG  IRON  BY  GRADES 
1915-20,  gross  tons 


GRADES 

1915 

1919 

1920 

Basic . 

13,093,214 

14,494,131 

16,737,722 

Bessemer . 

10,523,306 

9,975,934 

12,062,084 

Foundry . 

4,864,348 

4,916,758 

5,957,782 

Malleable . 

829,921 

1,009,049 

1,310,951 

F  orge . 

316,214 

271,286 

318,048 

All  other . 

289,210 

347,206 

539,500 

Total . 

29,916,213 

31,015,364 

36,925,987 

In  1920  the  steel  output  of  the  United  States 
exceeded  50,000,000.  In  1921  the  United  States 
was  attaining  close  to  a  production  of  58,000,000 
tons  per  annum. 

The  following  are  statistics  for  blast  furnaces 
from  the  time  of  their  being  reported  first  in 
1849  to  the  fourteenth  census  in  1919. 


YEAR 

Number  of 
establish¬ 
ments 

Wage 

earners 

Average 

number 

Wages 

Cost  of 
material 

Value  of 
product 

Value  added  by 
manufacture 

1919 . 

2,905 

175,270 

$197,821,990 

$603,031,493 

$1,162,985,633 

$560,000,000 

1899 . 

223 

39,241 

18,484,400 

131,503,655 

206,756,557 

75,252,902 

1889 . 

304 

33,415 

14,614,458 

110,098,615 

145,643,153 

35,544,538 

1879 . .  . 

341 

41,695 

12,655,428 

58,619,742 

89,315,569 

30,695,827 

1869 . 

3S6 

27,554 

12,475,250 

45,498,017 

69,640,498 

24,142,481 

1859 . 

286 

15,927 

4,545,430 

12,293,030 

20,870,120 

8,577,090 

1849 . 

404 

21,054 

5,011,300 

7,538,118 

13,491,898 

5,953,780 

were  175,270  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
men’s  clothing  and  165,649  in  that  of  women’s 
clothing.  After  about  1876  a  revolution  in  the 
system  of  manufacturing  men’s  clothing,  result¬ 
ing  from  the  greater  division  of  labor  and  the 
use  of  machinery,  brought  about  a  decrease  of 
nearly  one-fourth  in  the  number  of  wage  earners, 
but  this  was  made  good  after  1900  by  the  natu¬ 
ral  increase  in  the  industry. 

In  1919,  out  of  5,258  establishments  devoted 
to  the  manufacture  of  men’s  clothing,  600,  with 
a  product  valued  at  $108,072,822,  were  contract 
shops,  as  compared  with  4,658  regular  factories, 
with  a  product  valued  at  $1,162,985,633.  More 
skill  is  required  in  the  manufacture  of  women’s 
clothing,  and  the  task  system  has  not  been  ap¬ 
plied  much  in  cloak  manufacture.  In  1909  al¬ 
most  one-half  of  the  total  product  of  men’s 
ready-made  clothing  and  over  two-thirds  of 
women’s  ready-made  clothing  were  made  in 
New  York  City.  The  business  formerly  done 
in  Massachusetts  has  been  largely  transferred 


The  production  of  Bessemer  and  low  phos¬ 
phorous  pig  iron  reached  a  maximum  of  13,- 
840,518  long  tons  in  1906,  falling  to  12,062,084 
in  1920,  while  that  produced  by  the  basic  open- 
hearth  method  amounted  to  16,737,722  tons. 
The  value  of  steel  rails  manufactured  increased 
from  $37,892,075  in  1880  to  $60,272,575  in  1890, 
and  to  $100,000,000  in  1920,  the  tonnage  in  that 
year  being  2,604,116.  Immediately  following  the 
war,  there  was  a  large  demand  for  iron  and 
steel  products.  Early  in  1921  this  demand  had 
been  met  and  there  was  a  decline  in  the  value 
of  the  ore  mined  and  a  decrease  in  the  products 
of  the  steel  manufactures.  However,  in  anticipa¬ 
tion  of  increased  demands  in  the  immediate 
future,  extensive  improvements  have  been  made 
both  at  the  mines  and  in  the  manufacturing 
mills  to  meet  calls  for  increased  capacities.  Sev¬ 
eral  important  factories  have  been  built  for  the 
manufacture  of  tinplates,  structural  steel,  and 
other  forms.  There  are  a  number  of  others 
projected  for  construction  in  1923.  These  will 


UNITED  STATES 


715 


UNITED  STATES 


all  be  well  equipped,  modern  works,  designed 
to  turn  out  materials  of  the  highest  quality. 

The  leading  steel  corporations  have  lately 
taken  steps  through  atiiliated  companies  to  be¬ 
come  interested  in  the  large  industries  which 
consume  a  large  part  of  the  domestic  production 
of  iron  and  steel.  They  have  been  particularly 
attracted  to  the  automobile  and  farm  tractor 
industries.  See  Iron  and  Steel. 

Shipbuilding.  Shipbuilding  was,  after  agri¬ 
culture,  the  first  industry  to  develop  in  Colonial 
America.  The  possession  of  an  abundance  of 
timber  has  always  given  the  United  States  a 
great  advantage  in  the  building  of  wooden  ves¬ 
sels.  Vessels  constructed  in  the  United  States 
carried  the  bulk  of  the  American  trade  until 
after  1860.  After  the  Civil  War  for  many  years 
American  shipyards  did  little  more  than  supply 
vessels  for  the  large  domestic  water-borne  trade, 


VESSELS  OF  1000  GROSS  TONS  AND  OVER  BUILT 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1911-20 


1911 

1914 

1920 

TYPE 

No. 

Gr.  tons 

No. 

Gr.  tons 

No. 

Gr.  tons 

Seaboard: 
Ocean  steel 

steamers . 

18 

76,490 

29 

133,234 

457 

2,327,100 

Steel  ferryboats, 

steam  dredges, 
river  and  bay 

steamers . 

8 

14,463 

120 

11,917 

Wooden  steam- 

ers . 

3 

3,320 

1 

1,008 

92 

53,100 

Wooden  schoon- 

ers . 

1 

1,352 

4 

6,462 

91 

112,000 

Steel  schooners. 
Steel  unrigged 

1 

1,29C 

4 

6,462 

1 

1,189 

vessels . 

1 

1,133 

1 

1,505 

49 

24,000 

Total . 

32 

98,048 

35 

142,209 

761 

2,531,305 

Great  Lakes: 
Steel  steamers, 
for  Lake  trade 
Steel  unrigged 

14 

71,276 

8 

37,780 

1 

169,811 

vessels . 

Steel  steamers, 
Ocean  trade .  . 
Steel  schooner 

3 

7,459 

3 

10,000 

barges,  ocean 
trade . 

Total . 

14 

71,276 

11 

45,239 

4 

179,811 

Grand  total.  . 

46 

,  169,324 

46 

187,448 

765 

2,711,116 

which  has  by  law  been  restricted  to  vessels 
built  in  the  United  States,  but  changes  in  con¬ 
ditions  due  to  the  European  War  led  to  in¬ 
creased  activity  in  1915  when  ship  manufac¬ 
turers  were  well  supplied  with  orders  and  looked 
for  continued  prosperity.  The  figures  for  the 
construction  of  iron  and  steel  vessels  have  been 
greatly  swTollen  in  recent  years  in  meeting  the 
requirements  of  the  Navy  Department.  While 
ships  for  the  navy  have  been  and  are  built  at 
the  large  navy  yards,  the  greater  part  of  the 
orders  for  warships  have  been  placed  with  do¬ 
mestic  firms,  in  the  belief  that  it  would  lead 
to  the  equipment  of  plants  in  a  way  that  would 
enable  them  successfully  to  engage  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  large  steel  merchant  vessels.  Much 
of  the  total  tonnage  built  in  the  United  States 
is  constructed  on  the  Great  Lakes.  Shipbuild¬ 
ing  suffered  severely  from  the  world-wide  de¬ 
pression  in  trade  in  1921.  The  American 
industries  were  particularly  hard  hit  and  very 
few  orders  for  new  construction  were  placed  with 
them.  The  United  States  Shipping  Board,  which 


was  interested  in  several  of  the  largest  American 
yards,  disposed  of  its  interests  in  1921.  It  was, 
in  1922,  the  largest  owner  of  shipping  tonnage, 
and  as  that  tonnage  comprised  some  of  the 
finest  vessels  afloat,  it  was  estimated  that  there 
will  be  little  activity  in  American  shipyards 
until  existing  tonnage  is  used  up. 

Automobiles.  In  1900  the  manufacture  of 
these  vehicles  was  conducted  in  57  establish¬ 
ments,  employing  2241  people,  with  a  production 
of  $4,748,000.  In  1919  there  were  315  establish¬ 
ments,  employing  over  210,000  workmen,  with  a 
product  valued  at  $2,387,903,287.  In  1921  the 
exports  of  automobiles  manufactured  in  the 
United  States  exceeded  $81,922,357.  The  manu¬ 
facture  of  motor  vehicles  has  become  very  im¬ 
portant,  and,  in  addition  to  the  normal  demand 
for  home  consumption  with  its  regular  increase, 
there  were  manufactured  for  the  belligerent 
armies  during  the  European  War  a  vast  number 
of  motor  trucks  and  other  motor  vehicles.  The 
industry  in  1921-22  enjoyed  prosperity.  (See 
Motor  Vehicle.  )  Registration  of  cars  and 
trucks  in  all  the  States  showed  large  increases 
over  previous  years.  The  total  registration  of 
passenger  cars  and  trucks  at  the  beginning  of 
1922  exceeded  10,000,000.  Notwithstanding  the 
great  prosperity  of  the  industry,  prices  were 
reduced  so  that  the  average  wholesale  price  of 
a  motor  car  at  the  beginning  of  1922  was  $700 
as  compared  with  $897  at  the  beginning  of  1920. 
The  average  wholesale  price  of  a  motor  truck  in 
1922  was  $950  as  compared  with  $1280  in  1921. 

Alcoholic  and  Malt  Liquors.  The  produc¬ 
tion  of  liquors  in  the  United  States  has  been 
greatly  changed  by  the  adoption  of  the  prin¬ 
ciple  of  prohibition.  In  1919  the  value  of 
malt  liquors  produced  was  reported  at  $379,- 
905,085,  distilled  liquors  at  $31,854,085,  and 
vinous  liquors  at  $17,454,194.  The  manufacture 
of  wine  is  relatively  small  and  is  confined  to 
the  grape-growing  regions.  The  total  number 
of  establishments  producing  liquors  of  all  kinds 
in  1919  was  1105,  and  the  total  workers  em¬ 
ployed,  34,773.  See  Liquors. 

Slaughtering  and  Meat  Packing.  In  1850 
slaughtering  and  meat  packing  was  of  little 
importance  as  a  specialized  industry,  the  value 
of  the  product  for  that  year  being  only  $11,981,- 
642.  Before  1890,  however,  the  industry  had 
become  the  most  important  of  the  industries 
manufacturing  food  products,  and  in  1919  was 
far  in  the  lead  with  a  total  value  of  products 
of  $4,246,290,614.  There  was  a  proportional  in¬ 
crease  of  the  capital  invested,  which  amounted 
to  $1,176,483,643. 

The  number  of  wage  earners  employed  in  the 
industry  in  1919  totaled  163,600.  There  were 
1004  establishments  reported  in  1919.  About 
40  per  cent  were  engaged  primarily  in  slaught¬ 
ering  and  packing,  and  these  employed  90.7  per 
cent  of  the  total  number  of  wage  earners,  and 
their  output  was  valued  at  $3>, 736, 500, 000,  or 
87.9  per  cent  of  the  total  for  the  industry.  See 
Packing  Industry. 

In  addition  to  the  above  see  Carriage;  Bi¬ 
cycle;  Motor  Cycle;  Implements,  Agricul¬ 
tural;  Paper;  Lumber  Industry;  Glass; 
Leather;  Shoes;  etc. 

transportation 

Railways.  The  great  industrial  progress  that 
began  soon  after  1850  was  made  possible  largely 
by  railways.  The  construction  of  railways  in 
the  United  States  began  towards  the  close  of 


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716 


the  decade  1820-30.  Their  introduction  had 
been  preceded  by  the  inauguration  of  a  vast 
system  of  canals,  the  Erie  Canal,  which  was  to 
remain  long  the  principal  artery  of  transporta¬ 
tion  between  the  East  and  West,  having  been 
opened  in  1825.  The  growth  of  the  railway  sys¬ 
tem  was  extremely  rapid  from  the  beginning. 
The  mileage  increased  from  23  in  1830  to  2818 
in  1840  and  9021  in  1850.  Over  much  of  the 
country  railways  preceded  industries,  and  certain 
industrial  developments,  such  as  those  of  iron 
and  coal  and  of  agriculture  in  the  West,  could 
not  have  taken  place  on  any  great  scale  without 
railway  advantages.  The  growth  of  American 
railways,  in  which  it  is  estimated  from  one- 
seventh  to  one-fifth  of  the  country’s  capital  is 
now  invested,  is  shown  in  the  following  table 
(mileage) . 


Among  the  factors  that  hastened  railway  de¬ 
velopment  were  the  business  rivalry  between 
cities  or  sections,  subsidies  in  one  form  or  an¬ 
other,  and  the  small  cost  of  right  of  way.  State 
grants  in  aid  (many  of  them  land  grants)  were 
common  until  1861,  when  the  Federal  govern¬ 
ment  began  to  make  land  grants  directly  to 
the  companies.  The  first  line  reaching  the 
Pacific  received  grants  of  33,000,000  acres  in 
addition  to  a  large  loan  based  upon  mileage  and 
difficulty  of  construction.  The  total  congres¬ 
sional  land  grants  between  1850  and  1871 
amounted  to  155,000,000  acres,  but  of  these  only 
97,976,637  acres  were  patented  up  to  190.2. 

In  general  American  railways  have  been  con¬ 
structed  more  cheaply  than  British  or  western 
European,  but  improvements  have  been  made  as 
warranted  by  traffic.  Thus  there  is  great  in- 


DISTRICT 

1850 

1860 

1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

1919 

Eastern . 

Southern . 

Western . 

Total  United  States . 

6,888 

2,133 

19,596 

9,190 

1,840 

29,772 

11,587 

11,563 

46,233 

15,469 

31,560 

47,210 

27,667 

88,719 

43,506 

34,566 

106,275 

56,310 

44,003 

140,126 

64,028 

52,571 

145,155 

9,021 

30,626 

52,922 

93,262 

163,597 

193,346 

240,438 

263,707 

The  figures  previous  to  1890  have  been  taken 
from  Poor’s  Manual,  but  have  been  combined  to 
approximate  the  groupings  of  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  as  given  in  their  annual 
report  of  1919.  The  divisions  correspond  to  the 
three  great  freight  classification  territories  and 
are  as  follows:  the  Eastern  District,  comprising 
that  portion  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  north 
and  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  to  Chicago, 
thence  by  a  broken  line  whose  corners  are  Peoria 
and  East  St.  Louis,  and  down  the  Mississippi 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  River;  on  the  south 
by  the  Ohio  River  to  Parkersburg,  W.  Va., 
thence  by  a  line  to  the  southwest  corner  of  Mary¬ 
land  and  down  the  Potomac  to  its  mouth.  The 
Southern  District  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Eastern  District  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Mississippi ;  the  remainder  of  the  country  ex¬ 
clusive  of  the  noncontiguous  territory  comprises 
the  Western  District. 

The  rate  of  growth  has  fluctuated  greatly. 
Checked  by  the  Civil  War,  the  mileage  nearly 
doubled  between  1865  and  1873.  From  the  latter 
year  to  1879  construction  was  reduced,  but  it 
then  revived  and,  with  a  short  interruption  in 
1884-85,  advanced  rapidly  until  1893  and  again 
continued  after  1898.  The  year  1887  exceeded 
all  others,  with  12,876  miles.  Prior  to  1850 
construction  was  mainly  in  the  Atlantic  Coast 
States,  but  in  1850-60  noteworthy  gains  were 
made  in  the  North  Central  States  and  in  the 
South.  In  1852  rail  connection  was  established 
between  Chicago  and  the  Atlantic  coast  and  in 
1869  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts. 
In  1870-80  there  were  important  gains  in  the 
upper  Mississippi  valley  and  in  eastern  Texas, 
which  was  the  first  southern  State  to  show  Ac¬ 
tivity  in  railway  construction  after  the  war. 
In  1880-90  the  Southern  States  doubled  their 
mileage.  Since  1895  (in  which  year  there  was 
the  least  construction  after  the  Civil  War, 
1650  miles)  the  most  rapid  progress  has  been 
between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Kansas  and 
Missouri  rivers.  The  greatest  railway  density 
is  in  the  region  north  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac 
rivers.  New  Jersey  leads  with  30  miles  of  line 
for  each  100  square  miles  of  area. 


equality  in  the  condition  of  American  roads. 

The  tendency  towards  railway  consolidation 
appeared  soon  after  1850.  Keen  competition 
did  not  come  until  after  the  Civil  War,  notably 
in  1869,  when  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  and 
the  New  York  Central  made  their  connections 
with  Chicago.  The  development  of  the  parallel 
lines,  or  two  or  more  railways  connecting  the 
same  points,  so  intensified  competition  that 
the  companies  were  forced  to  seek  among  them¬ 
selves  some  relief.  Thus  arose,  between  1870 
and  1880,  the  pools,  or  agreements  between  com¬ 
panies  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  traffic  or 
the  benefits  of  trade.  The  prohibition  of  pools 
by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  of  1887  renewed 
competition,  to  escape  which  the  railway  com¬ 
panies  came  to  secret  understandings,  and  traffic 
associations  were  formed  to  fix  a  fair  proportion 
of  the  traffic  for  each  railroad  involved.  In 
1897  this  form  of  cooperation  was  declared  il¬ 
legal  by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  There¬ 
after  agreements  between  companies  as  to  rates 
and  the  distribution  of  traffic  benefits  were  more 
informal,  but,  according  to  the  Interstate  Com¬ 
merce  Commission,  the  court  decisions  have  had 
“no  practical  effect  upon  the  railway  operations 
of  the  country,”  while,  in  respect  to  the  organ¬ 
ization  of  railways,  the  inconveniences  in  the 
way  of  mutual  understandings  accelerated  con¬ 
solidation,  notably  after  1898.  Thus  in  1902 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  total  mileage  of 
the  United  States  was  included  in  eight  groups 
of  railway  interests. 

Systems. — There  were  263,301  miles  of  rail¬ 
way  in  the  United  States,  or  an  average  of  25.64 
miles  of  railway  to  each  10,000  inhabitants  in 
1919.  The  history  of  the  building  of  these  rail¬ 
ways  covers  a  period  beginning  in  1826.  As 
in  other  countries,  the  railway  system  of  the 
LTnited  States  may  be  compared  to  a  net,  but 
the  main  routes  for  freight  and  passengers  can 
be  briefly  summarized  as  follows:  (1)  the  lines 
radiating  from  New  York  and  connecting  that 
city  with  Boston  and  the  rest  of  New  England 
on  the  north,  Chicago  on  the  west,  and  the 
South  Atlantic  seaports  on  the  south;  (2)  the 
roads  running  from  the  various  Missouri  River 


UNITED  STATES 


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717 


crossings  to  the  Mississippi  River  crossings;  (3) 
the  roads  running  north  and  south  from  Chicago, 
serving  the  Mississippi  valley;  (4)  the  transcon¬ 
tinental  railroads,  so  called,  running  from  the 
Mississippi  River  crossings  to  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  main  routes,  connecting  New  York  and 
Chicago,  are  the  New  York  Central  Railroad, 
which  runs  north  from  New  York,  following  the 
Hudson  River  to  Albany,  where  it  turns  west, 
following  the  Mohawk  valley,  and  then  the 
shores  of  Lake  Erie  to  Buffalo,  and  from  there 
continuing  west  to  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michi¬ 
gan ;  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  which  runs  90 
miles  south  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia, 
there  turns  west  crossing  the  Alleglianies  to 
Pittsburgh,  running  from  there  slightly  north 
of  west  to  Chicago ;  and  the  Erie  Railroad, 
which  runs  about  west  from  New  York  to 
Chicago,  but  which  is  a  little  longer  than  either 
of  the  other  two  routes  because  of  the  number 
of  curves  necessitated  by  the  mountainous  char¬ 
acter  of  the  country  traversed. 

Chicago  is  the  greatest  railway  centre  in  the 
country.  It  is  the  western  terminus  of  the 
three  great  eastern  roads  which  run  out  of 
New  York,  the  northern  terminus  of  the  Il¬ 
linois  Central,  which  runs  down  the  Mississippi 
valley  to  New  Orleans,  the  southeastern  ter¬ 
minus  of  the  systems  reaching  the  great  north¬ 
western  wheat  and  grain  country.  These  roads 
include  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul, 
the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  and  the  Chicago, 
Burlington,  and  Quincy.  It  is  the  eastern  ter¬ 
minus  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe, 
the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific,  and 
through  it  passes  the  traffic  which  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  Railway  delivers  to  the  Union 
Pacific  at  Omaha,  Neb. 

The  twin  cities  of  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul 
are  the  railway  centre  of  the  northwestern  roads, 
which  include,  besides  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
and  St.  Paul  previously  mentioned,  the  Northern 
Pacific  and  the  Great  Northern.  South  of 
Chicago  the  two  great  railway  centres  are  St. 
Louis,  at  the  juncture  of  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Missouri  rivers,  and  Kansas  City,  on  the 
Missouri  River.  Kansas  City  is  the  northern 
gateway  for  the  roads  which  spread  out  over 
the  States  of  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas,  and 
which  include  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and 
Pacific,  the  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas,  and 
the  Kansas  City  Southern.  Still  farther  south 
New  Orleans  is  the  southernmost  Mississippi 
crossing;  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Illinois 
Central ;  the  southeastern  terminus  of  the 
Southern  Railway  system,  which  spreads  like 
a  net  over  the  Southeastern  States ;  and  the 
eastern  terminus  of  the  Southern  Pacific,  which 
skirts  along  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
United  States  from  the  Mississippi  River  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  all  these 
cities  except  Kansas  City  are  situated  on  im¬ 
portant  waterways,  their  railroad  facilities  have 
had  the  greater  influence  in  their  commercial 
development.  The  cities  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
as  far  as  California,  have  been  entirely  depend¬ 
ent  on  the  railroads,  and  the  development  of 
California  has  been  shaped  to  a  far  greater  ex¬ 
tent  by  north  and  south  railway  lines  in  that 
State  than  by  the  coastwise  steamship  lines. 

The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  the 
principal  railway  systems  of  the  United  States, 
with  their  affiliated  and  subsidiary  lines : 

The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  system  runs  from 


Philadelphia  via  Pittsburgh  to  Chicago,  and 
from  Pittsburgh  to  St.  Louis,  and  from  Phila¬ 
delphia  north  to  New  York,  and  from  Phila¬ 
delphia  south  to  Washington.  Nearly  half  of 
the  total  tonnage  of  freight  of  that  part  of  the 
system  lying  between  Philadelphia  and  Pitts¬ 
burgh  is  coal,  and  a  considerable  percentage 
of  the  remainder  is  products  of  the  steel  mills 
at  Pittsburgh.  Financing  for  the  road  has  been 
done  principally  by  Kuhn,  Loeb  &  Co. 

The  New  York  Central  lines  run  from  New 
York  via  Albany  to  Buffalo  and  Chicago,  and 
from  Cleveland  to  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis,  with 
a  line  from  Buffalo  to  Pittsburgh.  A  consider¬ 
ably  smaller  proportion  of  its  freight  tonnage 
consists  of  coal,  and  a  much  larger  proportion 
of  merchandise  and  manufactured  products. 

The  Southern  Railway  runs  south  from  Wash¬ 
ington  and  spreads  like  a  net  over  the  South¬ 
eastern  States. 

The  New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford 
forms  a  network  over  the  New  England  States 
as  far  north  as  Boston  and  is  supplemented 
north  of  Boston  by  the  Boston  and  Maine, 
which  it  at  one  time  controlled. 

The  Great  Northern  runs  from  St.  Paul  along 
the  northern  border  of  the  United  States  to 
Spokane,  Portland,  and  Seattle;  lumber  and 
agricultural  products  of  California  form  its 
east-bound  freight  traffic,  moving  over  the  entire 
line.  It  also  has  a  very  large  business  furnished 
by  grain  in  the  Northwestern  States,  and  a 
large  tonnage  of  ore  moving  from  the  Mesabe 
Range  to  Duluth,  Mich. 

The  Northern  Pacific  runs  from  St.  Paul 
through  the  Dakotas  and  Montana  to  Portland 
and  to  the  cities  of  northern  California. 

The  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  runs 
from  Chicago  via  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul, 
through  the  Dakotas  and  Montana  to  Portland 
and  Seattle;  the  Rockefellers  have  a  controlling 
interest  in  the  company,  and  its  financing  has 
been  done  by  various  banking  houses. 

The  Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy  runs 
from  Chicago  west  to  Denver  and  northwest  to 
Billings,  Mont.,  where  it  connects  with  the 
Northern  Pacific;  it  has  also  a  line  running 
south  from  Denver  to  Houston,  Tex. 

The  Union  Pacific  runs  west  from  Omaha  to 
Salt  Lake  City,  where  it  connects  with  the 
Southern  Pacific,  which  extends  west  to  San 
Francisco  and  northwest  from  Denver  into 
northern  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington. 

The  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  runs 
from  Chicago  west  to  Denver  and  southwest 
through  Arizona  to  California;  it  has  lines  run¬ 
ning  the  length  of  California  north  and  south. 
No  one  interest  controls  the  Atchison,  Topeka, 
and  Santa  Fe. 

The  Southern  Pacific  runs  from  New  Orleans 
through  Texas  to  Los  Angeles  and  up  the  Pacific 
coast  to  Washington,  and  from  Salt  Lake  City 
to  San  Francisco;  the  system  was  built  up  by 
Collis  P.  Huntington  and  was  sold  to  the  Union 
Pacific  in  1901.  In  1913  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  ordered  the  sale  of  the  control¬ 
ling  interest  in  the  Southern  Pacific  stock  by 
the  Llnion  Pacific. 

The  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  runs 
from  Chicago  southwest  through  Kansas  and 
Oklahoma  into  Texas,  west  from  Chicago  to 
Denver,  and  north  from  Chicago  into  Wisconsin 
and  Minnesota. 

The  Illinois  Central  runs  from  Chicago  south 
to  New  Orleans. 


UNITED  STATES 


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718 


The  Wabash,  the  Missouri  Pacific,  the  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande,  and  the  Western  Pacific  form 
a  system  running  from  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  to  San 
Francisco,  Cal. 

President  Wilson  took  over  control  of  the 
United  States  railroads  on  Friday,  December 
28,  1917,  by  proclamation,  and  he  appointed 
William  G.  McAdoo,  Director  General  of  rail¬ 
roads.  The  government  was  forced  to  take  over 
control  of  the  United  States  railroad  systems 
for  military  purposes  and  because  they  had 
ceased  to  function  efficiently.  Numerous  reforms 
were  introduced  under  this  unified  management, 
many  of  which  are  permanently  retained.  Private 
management  was  restored  on  March  1,  1920.  At 
this  time  there  were  numerous  labor  troubles,  the 
roads  were  short  of  capital  and  their  credit  was 
impaired,  while  there  was  great  transportation 
activity.  Both  rates  and  wages  were  advanced, 
the  government  loaned  money  to  the  roads  ur¬ 
gently  needing  it  under  a  new  law  known  as 
the  Transportation  Act  of  1920.  All  records 
were  broken  for  volume  of  freight  traffic  moved 
in  1920,  despite  shortness  of  equipment. 

Large  claims  were  made  against  the  govern¬ 
ment  for  final  settlements  of  accounts  arising 
during  the  period  of  Federal  control.  In  many 
cases  the  government  made  counter  claims  for 
improvements  made. 

Competitive  conditions  necessitated  the  dis¬ 
continuance  of  many  of  the  changes  and  innova¬ 
tion's  introduced  during  the  unified  control  by 
the  Railroad  Administration.  There  have  been 
many  varied  opinions  expressed  with  regard  to 
the  effects  of  government  control.  All,  however, 
are  agreed  that  under  the  existing  conditions  it 
was  a  necessity  and  that  it  proved  its  effective¬ 
ness  in  certain  directions  was  shown  by  the  roads 
continuing  its  new  practices  when  they  resumed 
control  of  their  systems. 

Consolidated  ticket  offices  and  joint  railroad 
and  shippers’  committees  on  rates  have  been 
quite  generally  continued  by  the  roads.  The 
pooling  of  cars  is  abandoned  and  also  joint 
freight  and  passenger  stations;  but  the  unifica¬ 
tion  of  terminals  has  been  retained  in  part. 
Many  of  the  routine  improvements  introduced  by 
the  government  experts  have  been  found  equally 
sound  under  conditions  of  private  operation,  and 
are  proving  very  beneficial  to  the  companies. 

The  railroad  brotherhoods  endeavored  to  sus¬ 
tain  the  high  rates  of  wages  paid  during  the 
war  period  after  the  railroads  resumed  control 
of  their  systems.  Numerous  controversies  arose 
between  the  representatives  of  the  various 
unions,  the  railroads,  and  the  Interstate  Com¬ 
merce  Commission  regarding  working  hours  and 
wages.  There  were  numerous  strikes  during  the 
years  1919-22.  See  Canal;  Express  Company; 
Interstate  Commerce  Act;  Post  Office;  Rail¬ 
ways  ;  Steam  Navigation  ;  Street  Railways  ; 
Telegraph;  Telephone;  Transportation. 

COMMERCE 

Foreign  Commerce.  Early  Development. — 
The  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States  has 
passed  through  those  various  stages  which  usu¬ 
ally  accompany  the  transition  of  a  country  where 
manufacturing  succeeds  agriculture  as  the  pre¬ 
dominating  industry.  The  section  of  the  United 
States  first  developed  was  densely  forested  and 
had  also  certain  mineral  deposits  available.  This 
was  the  section  lying  east  of  the  Alleghany  and 
Cumberland  mountains.  When  the  section  west 


of  those  mountains  was  developed,  it  was  found 
especially  fitted  for  the  production  of  live  stock, 
wheat,  corn,  and  other  cereals;  at  the  south  cot¬ 
ton,  and  at  the  extreme  north  copper  and  iron. 
With  the  extension  of  railways  to  the  west  of 
the  Mississippi  the  grain  and  live-stock  area 
gradually  enlarged,  the  mineral  products  were 
materially  increased,  and  the  population  able  to 
contribute  to  foreign  commerce  rapidly  devel¬ 
oped,  partly  by  immigration  from  abroad  and 
partly  by  movement  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 
With  the  occupancy  of  the  Pacific  coast  the 
large  production  of  gold  increased  the  power  to 
purchase  imports  and  developed  industries  which 
contributed  to  the  export  trade,  while  the  wheat 
and  fruits  of  that  section  found  ready  markets 
abroad.  Meantime  the  development  of  great  coal 
beds  in  the  eastern  and  central  sections  of  the 
country  had,  in  conjunction  with  the  domestic 
cotton,  wool,  iron,  and  copper,  developed  a  great 
manufacturing  industry,  which  was  strengthened 
by  labor  supplied  by  the  heavy  immigration 
from  the  European  countries.  These  industries 
supplying  the  exports  in  turn  demanded  the 
products  of  other  countries — some  of  them  for 
the  consumption  of  the  people  engaged  in  pro¬ 
duction,  some  of  them  for  use  in  manufacturing. 

Thus  every  stage  of  the  development  of  the 
country  contributed  to  commerce,  and  this  de¬ 
velopment  extended  to  every  line  of  production, 
forestry,  agriculture,  mining,  and  manufactures. 
The  outside  world  came  to  recognize  the  United 
States  as  a  source  of  supply  for  lumber,  cotton, 
copper,  wheat,  corn,  meats,  and  finally  manufac¬ 
tures;  and  the  United  States  came  to  recognize 
certain  sections  of  the  outside  world  as  the 
source  which  could  supply  the  foodstuffs  and 
manufacturing  materials  required  by  its  busy 
and  prosperous  population. 

The  growth  in  commerce  has  therefore  been 
steady  and  consistent  with  the  development  of 
producing  and  consuming  powers  of  a  great  fer¬ 
tile  country  enlarged  from  time  to  time  by  great 
additions  of  territory  and  an  increase  to  its 
population  of  over  30,000,000  immigrants.  True 
there  have  been  certain  occasions  in  which  the 
growth  in  exports  was  temporarily  disturbed, 
having  been  checked  by  the  embargo  which  ac¬ 
companied  the  war  with  Great  Britain  in  181 2 — 
14  and  again  stimulated  by  a  large  importation 
of  merchandise  for  reexportation  during  the 
period  of  the  Napoleonic  wars,  but  they  were 
but  mere  incidents  produced  by  temporary  causes 
and  disappeared  with  their  termination. 

The  commerce  of  the  Colonies  prior  to  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  largely  with 
Great  Britain.  This  was  quite  natural,  both  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  people  were  of  British 
birth  or  parentage  and  thus  accustomed  to  the 


COMMERCE  OF  THE  THIRTEEN  COLONIES  IN  1769 


Imports  from 

Exports  to 

Great  Britain . 

£1,604,973 

789,754 

151,998 

76,684 

£1,531,516 

747,910 

20,278 

552,736 

West  Indies . 

Africa . 

South  of  Europe . 

£2,623,412 

£2,852,441 

products  of  that  country  and  that  England  sys¬ 
tematically  encouraged,  by  legislation  and  other¬ 
wise,  a  reliance  upon  the  mother  country  for 
every  class  of  merchandise  which  it  could  supply. 


UNITED  STATES 


719 


UNITED  STATES 


Gradually,  however,  there  grew  up  the  custom 
of  drawing  upon  other  countries  of  Europe,  es¬ 
pecially  for  wines  and  fruits  and  for  colfee,  tea, 
spices,  and  silks,  which  they  had  drawn  from  the 
Orient,  while  sugar,  molasses,  and  rum  were 
obtained  from  the  West  Indies. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  the  13  Colonies  in 
1769  is  stated  by  Macplierson,  Annals  of  Com¬ 
merce,  in  the  table  on  page  718  which,  not  com¬ 
plete,  closely  approximates  the  total  trade  in 
that  year. 


It  is  not  until  1821,  however,  that  we  get  a 
clear  view  of  the  real  trade  condition  of  the 
United  States.  Prior  to  that  time,  by  reason 
of  the  war  complications  abroad,  much  foreign 
merchandise  from  the  West  Indies  and  elsewhere 
was  sent  to  the  United  States  for  reexportation, 
much  of  this  merchandise  merely  passing  from 
one  vessel  to  another.  The  further  fact  that  the 
official  statement  of  imports  and  exports  prior 
to  1821  did  not  state  the  values  of  the  various 
articles  forming  the  trade  in  sufficient  detail 


FOREIGN  COMMERCE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AT  DECENNIAL  YEARS  1790-1920 


FISCAL 

YEARS 

IMPORTS 

EXPORTS 

Free 

Dutiable 

Total 

Per 

capita 

Domestic 

Foreign 

Total 

Per 

capita 

1790 

1800 

1810 

1S20 

1830 

1840 

1850 

1860 

1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

*1915 

1920 

$4,590,000 

48,313,000 

18,082,000 

73,741,000 

20,141,000 

208,302,000 

265,669,000 

367,237,000 

755,311,000 

1,033,526,000 

3,117,010,682 

$58,131,000 

49,945,000 

155,428,000 

279,875,000 

415.818,000 

459,653,000 

523,642,000 

482,704,000 

801,636,000 

640,643,000 

2,161,470,808 

$20,000,000 

91,253,000 

85,400,000 

74,450,000 

62,721,000 

98,259,000 

173,510,000 

353,616,000 

435,958,000 

667,955,000 

789,310,000 

849,941,000 

1,556,947,000 

1,674,170,000 

5,278,481,490 

$6.51 

17.19 

11.80 

7.71 

4.87 

5.76 

7.48 

11.25 

11.06 

12.51 

12.16 

10.93 

16.54 

16.32 

$31,840,000 

42,367,000 

51,684,000 

58,524,000 

111,661,000 

134,900,000 

316,242,000 

376,616,000 

823,946,000 

845,294,000 

1,370,764,000 

1,710,084,000 

2,716,178,000 

8,080,480,825 

$39,131,000 

24,791,000 

18,008,000 

13,145,000 

12,008,000 

9,475,000 

17,334,000 

16,155,000 

11,692,000 

12,535,000 

23,720,000 

34,901,000 

52,410,000 

147,535,486 

$26,481,000 

70,972,000 

66,758,000 

69,692,000 

71,070,000 

123,669,000 

144,376,000 

333,576,000 

392,772,000 

835,639,000 

857,829,000 

1,394,483,000 

1,744,985,000 

2,768,589,000 

8,228,016,307 

$8.66 

13.37 

9.22 

7.22 
5.57 
7.25 

6.23 
10.61 

9.77 

16.43 

13.43 
17.76 
18.28 
27.16 

*  Figures  for  this  year  are  abnormal  because  of  the  European  War. 


Then  followed  the  War  of  the  Revolution,  in 
which  commerce  with  England  was  practically 
suspended  and  that  with  other  countries  greatly 
interrupted.  Owing  to  the  loose  commercial  or¬ 
ganization  of  the  Colonies  during  this  period  and 
immediately  after  the  war  no  satisfactory  record 
of  the  commerce  is  available.  The  total  value  of 
the  merchandise  exported  from  the  United  States 
in  the  first  year  under  the  Constitution,  from 
August,  1789,  to  September,  1790,  is  $20,205,156, 
of  which  about  $9,000,000  was  sent  to  Great 
Britain,  approximately  $4,000,000  to  the  West 
Indies,  $2,000,000  to  Spain  and  its  colonies, 
$2,000,000  to  the  Netherlands  and  its  colonies, 
and  over  $1,000,000  to  Portugal  and  its  colonies. 
The  imports  were  $25,000,000,  of  which  about 
one-half  came  from  Great  Britain,  one-fourth 
from  Spain  and  her  colonies,  and  most  of  the 
remainder  from  other  European  countries  and 
their  colonies.  The  chief  exports  in  the  begin¬ 
ning  were  wheat,  corn,  tobacco,  meats,  pot  and 
pearl  ash,  resin,  turpentines,  tar,  and  pitch.  The 
chief  imports  were  clothing,  wines,  sugar,  coffee, 
and  miscellaneous  merchandise.  By  1800  imports 
had  grown  to  $91,000,000  and  the  exports  to 
$72,000,000,  but  over  one-half  of  the  exports  was 
merchandise  from  the  West  Indies  and  other 
countries  reexported  to  Europe,  the  domestic  ex¬ 
ports  of  the  year  1800  amounting  to  only  $32,- 
000,000.  This  large  influx  of  foreign  goods  for 
reexportation  was  but  temporary,  and  by  the 
year  1820  foreign  merchandise  formed  but  25  per¬ 
cent  of  the  total  exports,  10  per  cent  in  1840, 
5  per  cent  in  1860,  about  4  per  cent  in  1870, 
and  in  more  recent  years  less  than  2  per  cent 
of  the  total  merchandise  exported.  The  table 
above  shows  the  total  foreign  trade  of  the 
United  States  at  10-vear  intervals  from  1790 
to  the  latest  date  available,  the  figures  being  for 
fiscal  years  except  for  1920,  which  is  for  the 
calendar  year. 


renders  impossible  any  close  analysis  of  the 
trade  prior  to  1821.  Beginning  with  that  date, 
however,  the  imports  and  exports  by  greater 
groups  of  articles  are  as  stated  in  the  tables 
herewith. 

Modern  Conditions. — The  tables  give  an  op¬ 
portunity  to  study  the  growth  in  the  national 
trade  and  the  changes  in  its  character.  Espe¬ 
cially  suggestive  in  determining  the  changes  in 
the  character  of  the  trade  are  the  figures  which 
show  the  percentage  which  each  group  of  products 
forms  of  the  total  value  of  the  trade.  The  value 
of  the  domestic  manufactures  produced  has  grown 
from  $1,000,000,000  in  1850,  the  earliest  census 
of  manufactures,  to  over  $62,500,000,000  in  1919, 
and  for  these  purposes  much  material  was  re¬ 
quired  from  other  countries.  The  raw  material 
imported  for  manufacturing  includes  fibres,  silk, 
Egyptian  cotton,  and  India  rubber.  The  partly 
manufactured  material  includes  such  articles  as 
tin,  copper,  wood  pulp,  and  timber.  The  crude 
foodstuffs  imported  include  coffee,  tea,  cocoa, 
fruits,  and  rice,  while  those  classed  as  part  or 
whole  manufactures  include  sugar,  canned  and 
dried  or  salted  fish,  dried  fruits,  and  other  arti¬ 
cles  of  this  character.  On  the  export  side  the 
raw  materials  for  manufacturing  are  chiefly  cot¬ 
ton  and  lumber.  Those  classified  as  crude  food¬ 
stuffs  are  chiefly  wheat,  oats,  corn,  and  other 
cereals ;  those  classified  as  part  or  whole  manu¬ 
factures  are  flour,  meats,  dried  and  preserved 
fruits,  canned  fish,  breakfast  foods,  dairy  prod¬ 
ucts,  etc.  The  manufactures  exported  under  the 
classification  of  manufactures  for  further  use  in 
manufacturing  include  pig  copper,  pig  and  bar 
iron,  structural  materials,  leather,  lumber,  and 
builders’  hardware.  The  manufactures  exported 
in  condition  ready  for  use  include  agricultural 
machinery,  cars,  carriages,  automobiles,  boots 
and  shoes,  clothing,  cotton  and  wool  manufac¬ 
tures,  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  refined  min- 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


720 


eral  oils,  and  many  other  articles  of  a  miscellane¬ 
ous  character.  The  group  entitled  miscellaneous 
includes  animals,  except  those  for  food,  seeds, 
trees,  plants,  etc.  The  very  large  increase  of 
this  group  in  1915  is  due  to  the  exportation  of 
a  large  number  of  horses  and  mu.es  to  Europe 
for  war  purposes. 


United  States  to  the  southern  frontage  of  South 
America  is  about  the  same  as  from  western 
Europe  to  the  South  American  frontage,  while 
prior  to  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  United  States  had  no  ad¬ 
vantage  over  those  of  western  Europe  in  the  dis¬ 
tance  to  the  western  part  of  South  America. 


IMPORTS  AND  DOMESTIC  EXPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  DECENNIAL  YEARS  AND  THE  SHARE 

WHICH  EACH  GROUP  FORMED  OF  THE  TOTAL,  1821-1920 


IMPORTS 


FIS¬ 

CAL 

TEAR 

Crude 
material 
for  manu¬ 
facturing 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

Food¬ 

stuffs 

crude 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

Food¬ 

stuffs 

manu¬ 

factured 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

Manufac¬ 
tures  for 
manufac- 
facturing 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

Manu¬ 
factures 
ready 
for  use 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

Miscel¬ 

laneous 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

Total 

1821 

1830 

1840 

1850 

1860 

1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

*1915 

1920 

$1,983,706 

4,214,825 

11,510,245 

11,711,268 

39,691,797 

55,615,202 

131,861,617 

170,637,250 

276,241,152 

566,270,770 

575,357,144 

1,528,520,348 

3.64 

6.72 

11.71 

6.75 

11.22 

12.76 

19.74 

21.62 

32.50 

36.37 

34.38 
48.04 

$6,081,641 
7,382,274 
15,273,321 
18,011,659 
45,743,826 
54,081,091 
100,297,040 
128, 4S0, 142 
97,916,293 
144,776,636 
223,929,564 
513,116,967 

11.15 

11.77 

15.54 

10.38 
12.94 
12.41 
15.01 
16. 2S 
11.52 

9.30 

13.38 
16.46 

$10,820,814 

9,653,971 

15,188,845 

21,465,776 

59,837,674 

96,081,635 

118,125,216 

133,332,031 

133,027,374 

181,566,572 

285,725,091 

124,313,714 

19.85 

15.39 

15.46 

12.37 

16.92 

22.03 

17.69 

16.89 

15.65 

11.66 
17.07 

3.99 

$4,079,064 

5,152,486 

11,359,196 

26,163,152 

34,899,303 

55,569,071 

110,779,516 

116,924,080 

134,222,045 

285,138,373 

237,176,522 

380,702,032 

7.48 

8.22 

11.56 

15.08 

9.87 

12.75 

16.59 

14.81 

15.79 

18.31 

14.17 

12.21 

$30,998,900 

35,734,837 

44,300,005 

95,312,499 

172,128,991 

173,614,888 

196,587,405 

230,685,581 

203,126,341 

376,723,367 

335,876,628 

547,307,792 

56.86 

56.97 

45.09 

54.93 

48.68 

39.82 

29.43 

29.23 

23.90 

23.62 

20.04 

17.56 

$556,719 

582,563 

630,094 

845,174 

1,314,528 

996,512 

10,303,952 

9,251,325 

5,407,979 

11,471,712 

16,104,791 

23,049,829 

1.02 

0.93 

0.64 

0.49 

0.37 

0.23 

1.54 

1.17 

0.64 

0.74 

0.96 

0.74 

$54,520,834 

62,720,956 

98,258,706 

173,509,526 

353,616,119 

435.958.408 
667,954,746 

789.310.409 
849,941,184 

1,556,947,430 

1,674,169,740 

5,278,481,490 

DOMESTIC  EXPORTS 


1821 

1830 

1840 

1850 

1860 

1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

*1915 

1920 


31,246,382  89.46  2,474,822 

36,482,266  62.34  2,724,181 

75,488,521  87.61  4,564,532 

83,984,707  62.26  7,535,764 

216, 009, 64S  63.31  12,166,447 
213,439,991  56.64  41,852,630 
238,787,934  28.98  266, 108,950 
304,586,922  36.03  132,073,183 
325,244, 296123. 73j22  5, 906, 246 
565,934,957,33.10,109,828,320 
510,455,540  1S.S0!506,993,179 
1, 870, 767, 00412 1. 66 19 17, 990, 828 


4.79 

4.65 

4.09 

5.59 

3.85 

11.12 

32.30 

15.62 

16.48 

6.42 

18.66 

11.36 


10,085,366 

9,556,992 

15,936,108 

20,017,162 

38,624,949 

50,919,666 

193,352,723 

224,756,588 

319,696,334 

259,259,654 

454,575,404 

1,116,605,173 


19.51 

4,867,379 

9.42 

16.32 

4,117,606 

7.04 

14.27 

4,841,101 

4.34 

14.84 

6,060,900 

4.49 

12.21 

12,641,625 

3.99 

13.53 

13,711,708 

3.66 

23.47 

29,044,159 

3.52 

26.59 

46,454,992 

5.50 

23.32 

153,275,660 

11.18 

15.16 

267,765,910 

15.66 

16.74 

355,862,329 

13.10 

13.82 

958,496,878 

11.86 

3, 


2,925,165 

5.66 

84,526 

0.16 

5,461,589 

9.34 

182,244 

0.30 

10,584,079 

9.47 

246,320 

0.22 

17,162,206 

12.72 

139,494 

0.10 

35,811,383 

11.33 

988,371 

0.31 

56,329,137 

14.96 

363,341 

0.09 

92,774,139 

11.26 

3,878,448 

0.47 

132,527,050 

15.68 

4,915,101 

0.58 

331,746,896 

24.20 

14,894,539 

1.09 

499,215,329 

29.19 

8,079,822 

0.47 

807,465,511 

29.73 

480,826,502 

2.98 

204,857,759 

39.66 

18,763,129 

0.15 

51,863,640 

58,524,578 

111,660,561 

134,900,233 

316,242,423 

376,616,473 

823,946,353 

845,293,828 

1,370,763,571 

1,710,083,998 

2,716,178,465 

8,228,016,307 


*  See  footnote  on  table,  page  719. 

From  the  table  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  the 
share  which  manufacturing  materials  form  of 
the  imports  is  increasing,  that  the  share  which 
finished  manufactures  form  of  the  total  imports 
is  declining,  and  that  foodstuffs,  while  increas¬ 
ing  in  the  total,  show  no  marked  change  in  the 
share  which  they  form  of  the  grand  total.  On 
the  export  side  manufacturing  material,  which 
is  chiefly  cotton,  shows  a  large  increase  in  ex¬ 
ports  and  a  slight  increase  in  the  share  of  the 
total,  foodstuffs  show  a  slight  decline  in  value 
of  exports  and  a  marked  decline  in  the  share 
which  thev  form  of  the  total,  and  manufactures 
show  a  marked  increase  both  in  the  total  value 
and  in  the  share  which  they  form  of  the  grand 
total  of  exports.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  the 
hope  for  further  growth  in  the  exports  of  the 
United  States  lies  chiefly  in  manufactures.  The 
large  population  requires  the  bulk  of  the  food¬ 
stuffs  and  a  growing  share  of  the  manufactur¬ 
ing  material,  while  manufactures  are  increasing 
more  rapidly  than  domestic  requirements. 

The  conditions  above  noted,  the  increasing  im¬ 
port  of  manufacturing  material  and  tropical  food¬ 
stuffs,  and  the  increasing  export  of  manufactures 
have  had  before  1920  a  marked  effect  upon  trade 
with  the  various  sections  of  the  world,  as  shown 
in  the  table. 

One  feature  of  the  trade  of  the  United  States 
which  has  received  much  attention  in  recent 
years  is  that  with  South  America.  This  conti¬ 
nent  is  looked  upon  by  many  as  a  field  in  which 
the  United  States  should  rapidly  increase  its 
trade  by  reason  of  what  is  usually  considered  its 
close  proximity.  In  fact,  however,  the  distance 
by  steamship  from  the  eastern  parts  of  the 


t  Chiefly  horses  and  mules  to  Europe. 

The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  coupled  with 
the  suspension  of  the  activities  of  the  European 
exporters  and  European  shipping  during  the  War 
of  1914-18,  resulted  in  a  material  increase  in 
the  share  which  the  United  States  supplied  to 
the  imports  of  South  America  in  the  calendar 
year  1920.  Another  factor  in  the  increase  of 
commerce  with  South  America  is  found  in  the 
disposition  of  American  exporters  to  grant  longer 
credits  than  they  had  formerly  given,  while  the 
establishment  of  branch  banks  in  several  South 
American  countries  by  the  National  City  Bank 
of  New  York  aided  in  a  closer  trade  and  financial 
relationship  between  the  United  States  and 
South  America. 

Another  feature  of  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States  which  has  greatly  developed  during  recent 
years  is  the  trade  with  its  noncontiguous  terri¬ 
tory.  The  exports  to  Alaska  in  1904  were 
$9,510,000  and  $36,870,855  in  1920;  the  imports 
therefrom  were  $10,229,000  in  1903  and  $60,939,- 
061  in  1920.  To  Porto  Rico  the  exports  of  1897, 
before  the  beginning  of  the  war  with  Spain,  were 
$2,252,000  and  $67,799,541  in  1920;  the  imports 
therefrom  were  $1,690,000  in  1897  and  $158,322,- 
08.3  in  1920.  To  Hawaii  the  exports  of  1897,  the 
year  before  annexation,  were  $6,800,000  and  $74,- 
552,453  in  1920;  the  imports  therefrom  $15,962,- 
000  in  1897  and  $192,383,185  in  1920.  Thus 
exports  to  the  noncontiguous  territories,  which 
aggregated  $16,690,000  in  the  years  above  named, 
were  $232,766,913  in  1920,  while  the  imports 
therefrom  grew  in  the  same  period  from  $31,711,- 
000  to  $411,644,329. 

The  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States  in  the 
period  of  the  great  European  War  (1914-18) 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


721 


showed  many  striking  changes.  The  beginning 
of  the  war  period  was  one  of  great  confusion  in 
trade  matters.  Exports  of  cotton  greatly  de¬ 
clined  owing  to  the  dangers  of  ocean  transpor¬ 
tation,  and  the  manufacturers  of  the  United 
States,  uncertain  as  to  the  future  of  trade,  re¬ 
duced  their  importation  of  manufacturing  mate¬ 
rials.  Soon,  however,  heavy  demands  were  made 
by  the  warring  nations  for  foodstuffs,  horses, 
and  then  for  war  material,  while  cotton  exports 


against  $22,145,000  in  1913.  To  Norway,  Swe¬ 
den,  and  Denmark,  the  exports  of  1920  aggre¬ 
gated  $294,626,052  against  $41,460,000  in  1913. 

Shipping.  The  American  shipping  industry 
was  revolutionized  in  1917  when  war  was  de¬ 
clared  against  Germany,  and  in  1919,  the  year 
following  the  peace.  The  great  destruction  of 
world  shipping  by  German  submarines  during 
those  years  threatened  not  only  the  commerce  of 
the  Allied  nations  but  their  very  existence.  The 


IMPORTS  FROM  AND  EXPORTS  TO  EACH  GRAND  DIVISION,  AND  SHARE  WHICH  THEY 
RESPECTIVELY  FORMED  OF  THE  TOTAL,  AT  DECENNIAL  YEARS  1800-1920 


IMPORTS 


FIS¬ 

CAL 

YR. 

Europe 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

North 

America 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

South 

America 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

Asia 

1 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

Oceania 

Per 

cent 

of 

total 

Africa 

Per 

cent] 

of 

total 

1800 

$46,857,960 

51.35 

$32,116,092 

35.19 

$11,560,810 

12.67 

$142,969 

0.16 

$551,496 

0.60 

1830 

40,S41,420 

57.63 

17,548,892 

24.76 

$6,239,176 

8.80 

5,531,737 

7.80 

384,887 

0.54 

308,797 

0.44 

1840 

64,146,814 

59.87 

22,627,639 

21.12 

9,420,586 

8.79 

9,695,639 

9.05 

602,447 

0.56 

646,869 

0.60 

1850 

124,954,302 

70.14 

24,136,879 

13.55 

16,647,637 

9.35 

10,315,486 

5.79 

1,401,340 

0.79 

682,151 

0.38 

1860 

216,831,353 

59.99 

75,082,583 

20.78 

35,992,719 

9.96 

26,201,603 

7.25 

3,495,726 

0.97 

3,7ys,5i8 

1.05 

1870 

249,540,283 

53.98 

126,544,611 

27.42 

43,596,445 

9.41 

31,413,378 

6.78 

1,423,212 

0.31 

9,860,058 

2.10 

1880 

370,821,782 

55.52 

130,077,225 

19.47 

82,126,922 

12.30 

67,008,793 

10.02 

14,130,604 

2.13 

3,789,420 

0.56 

1890 

449,987,266 

57.14 

148,368,706 

18.84 

90,006,144 

11.43 

67,506,833 

8.57 

28,356,568 

3.60 

5,084,892 

0.42 

1900 

440,567,314 

51.84 

130,035,221 

15.30 

93,666,774 

11.02 

139,842,330 

16.45 

34,611,108 

4.07 

11,218,437 

1.32 

1910 

806,270,280 

51.76 

306,767,486 

19.69 

196,164,786 

12.59 

193,155,344 

12.45 

37,099,795 

2.38 

17,489,739 

1.13 

1915 

1920 

614,354,645 

1,227,842,745 

36.70 

473,079,796 

1,662,663,071 

28.26 

261,489,563 

760,999,295 

15.84 

247,770,103 

1,283,725,317 

14.80 

52,522,552 

192,965,868 

3.14 

24,953,081 

150,285,194 

1.49 

EXPORTS 


1800 

41,348,088 

5S.26 

27,208,608 

38.34 

1810 

46,853,851 

70.09 

16,066,899 

24.07 

1820 

48,116,538 

69.04 

16,810,597 

24.12 

1830 

48,175,248 

65.24 

18,886,434 

25.57 

1840 

9S, 930, 684 

74.89 

23,737,078 

17.97 

1850 

113,862,253 

74.96 

24,722,610 

16.271 

1860 

310,272,818 

77.54 

53,325,937 

13.33 

1870 

420,184,014 

79.35 

68,962,006 

13.06 

1880 

719,433,788 

86.10 

69,437,738 

8.31 

1890 

683,731,397 

79.74 

94,100,410 

10.98 

1900 

1,010,167,766 

74.60 

187,594,625 

13.45 

1910 

1,135,914,551 

65.10 

385,520,069 

22.09 

1915 

1,971,434,187 

71.21 

477,075,727 

17.23 

1920 

4,466,090,927 

1,920,162,758 

1,177,846 

1.66 

14,112 

1,611,738 

2.41 

556,881 

0.83 

227,560 

1,133,689 

1.63 

3,289,000 

4.72 

8,906 

4,5S7,391 

6.21 

1,845,224 

2.50 

93,668 

5,969,517 

4.52 

2,256,290 

1.73 

454,814 

9,076,724 

5.98 

3,051,720 

2.01 

208,129 

16,782,100 

4.18 

11,067,921 

2.77 

5,373,497 

21,651,459 

4.09 

10,972,064 

2.07 

4,334,991 

23,190,220 

2.77 

11,645,703 

1.39 

6,846,698 

38,752,648 

4.52 

19,696,820 

2.30 

16,460,269 

38,945,763 

2.79 

64,913,807 

4.66 

43,391,275 

93,246,820 

5.34 

60,861,813 

3.49 

50,890,087 

99,323,957 

3.59 

114,470,493 

4.13 

77,764,725 

623,916,990 

1 

771,748,562 

271,435,299 

0.02  1,110,374  1.56 

0.34  1,407,828  2.11 

0.01  305,968  0.44 

0.13  233,601  0.31 

0.35  717,583  0.54 

0.14  977,284  0.64 

1.34  3,227,760  0.84 

0.82,  3,414,768  0.64 

0.82  5,084,466,  0.61 

1.92  5,082,140  0.54 

3.11  19,469,849  1.39 

2.92  18,551,380  1.06 
2.81  28,519,751  1.03 

165,661,771 


increased  to  nearly  their  normal.  The  exports 
of  foodstuffs  and  'horses  enormously  increased, 
as  did  also  those  of  gunpowder  and  other  high 
explosives,  cartridges  and  shells,  guns,  automo- 
biles,  aeroplanes,  harness  and  leather,  military 
goods,  hospital  supplies,  and  other  articles  of 
this  character  required  for  war  purposes.  There 
was  also  an  enormous  increase  in  the  exportation 
of  sugar  and  other  foodstuffs.  As  a  result  the 
total  value  of  the  exports  to  Europe  rapidly 
developed  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Germany  and 
Austria-Hungary,  formerly  large  importers  of 
American  goods,  were  unable  to  obtain  supplies 
from  that  market.  The  total  value  of  merchan¬ 
dise  exported  to  Europe  in  the  calendar  year 
1915,  the  first  full  year  of  the  war,  was  $2,505,- 
660,000  against  $1,499,573,000  in  the  calendar 
year  1913,  the  latest  calendar  year  prior  to  the 
war.  This  increase  continued  after  the  war,  and 
reached  the  amazing  figures  for  1920  given  in 
the  table  above.  To  the  United  Kingdom  the  ex¬ 
ports  of  1920  were  $1,825,633,197  against  $590,- 
732.000  in  1913;  to  France  $676,190,970  against 
$153,023,000  in  1913;  to  Italy  $371,762,274 
against  $78,675,000;  to  Russia  $15,446,833 
against  $26,910,000  in  1913.  To  Germany  the 
exports  of  1915  were  $311,437,377  against  $351,- 
931,000  in  1913,  and  to  Austria  $19,237,495 


necessity  was,  therefore,  for  the  construction 
of  new  ships,  and  for  this  purpose  there  was 
created  by  Congress  the  United  States  Shipping 
Board  with  a  subsidiary  board  called  the  Emer¬ 
gency  Fleet  Corporation  which  had  special  charge 
of  the  construction  of  ships.  Under  the  opera¬ 
tion  of  this  board  there  had  been  built,  requisi¬ 
tioned  and  purchased,  on  April  30,  1919,  2431 
ships  of  a  deadweight  tonnage  of  13,953,506. 
Of  these  ships  626  were  of  wood,  18  were  com¬ 
posite,  14  were  concrete,  1379  were  steel  (built 
by  contract),  384  steel  (requisitioned),  and  15 
steel  ( purchased  from  J apan ) .  These  ships 
were  built  and  launched  with  extraordinary 
rapidity.  In  the  month  of  October,  1918,  78 
ships  were  built  with  a  total  deadweight  tonnage 
of  412,308,  and  in  May,  1919,  141  ships  were 
built,  with  a  deadweight  tonnage  of  795,700. 
The  ships  thus  produced  were  put  as  rapidly 
as  possible  into  the  service  and  were  largely 
instrumental  in  enabling  the  United  States  to 
land  troops  and  supplies  in  Europe  within  the 
time  necessary,  when  the  Allied  countries  would 
have  been  exhausted. 

When  the  war  ended  the  United  States  gov¬ 
ernment  was  thus  in  possession  of  nearly  2500 
ships  of  various  kinds.  Many  of  these  were 
unfit  for  commercial  use  but  on  April  15,  1919 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


722 


the  Shipping  Board  Was  operating  1207  vessels 
of  6,569,920  tons  deadweight.  The  Shipping 
Board  then  gave  attention  to  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  various  commercial  trades 
for  the  employment  of  American  tonnage  and 
the  furnishing  of  these  trades  with  suitable 
vessels.  Many  of  them  were  employed  in  Eu¬ 
ropean  relief,  760,348  tons  were  employed  in 
European  trade,  307,649  in  trans-Pacific  trade, 
573,567  tons  in  West  Indian  trade,  864,334 
tons  in  South  American  trade,  and  the  remain¬ 
der  in  the  coastwise  American  trade  or  in 
African  service.  The  Shipping  Board  also  gave 
its  attention  to  the  opening  up  of  new  trade 
routes  and  the  development  of  regular  lines 
to  serve  foreign  commerce.  Regular  cargo  liner 
service  was  put  in  operation  over  all  the  leading 
routes  from  American  ports,  and  many  ships 
under  the  control  of  the  Shipping  Board  were 
allocated  to  steamship  companies.  These  opera¬ 
tions  continued  through  the  following  years 
until  in  1921  the  total  American  merchant 
marine  was  18,282,136  tons,  and  the  tonnage 
in  foreign  trade  was  11,072,398.  The  Shipping 
Board  made  the  utmost  effort  to  encourage  the 
trade  of  American  steamship  companies.  In 
this  it  faced  serious  problems,  including  the 
high  cost  of  operation,  declining  freight  rates, 
representation  abroad,  solicitation  of  cargo, 
trained  personnel  and  pier  facilities.  An  im¬ 
portant  factor  in  the  success  of  an  American 
merchant  marine  must  be  the  establishment 
in  foreign  countries  of  American  concerns  to 
handle  the  vessels  and  to  solicit  return  cargoes. 
The  general  business  depression  during  1921 
seriously  affected  the  trade  with  Latin  America. 
However,  in  order  to  prepare  for  the  resumption 
of  trade,  consideration  was  given  to  an  intensive 
study  of  the  ways  and  means  of  maintaining 
services  with  Latin  America,  which  will  enable 
shippers  to  patronize  not  only  the  vessels  of 
the  board  but  all  vessels  of  the  American  flag. 
A  coastwise  service  was  established  between 
Paranagua,  Brazil  and  ports  of  the  river  Plate, 
with  the  object  in  view  of  giving  the  local 
shippers  transportation  by  American  flag  ves¬ 
sels.  The  board  was  also  alive  to  the  necessity 
of  shipping  passenger  service  and  during  the 
year  a  number  of  fast  passenger  and  cargo 
services  were  established.  A  combination  pas¬ 
senger  and  cargo  vessel  was  devised  for  this 
service.  This  was  of  two  types,  one  known  as 
the  “502”  type  and  the  other  known  as  the 
“535”  type,  the  figures  referring  to  the  respective 
lengths  of  the  vessels.  The  “502”  type  vessels 
have  accommodations  for  84  first  class  passengers 
and  465,940  cubic-foot  cargo  space,  with  a  speed 
of  14  knots.  Six  of  these  vessels  were  built  and 
maintained  regular  service  during  the  war.  The 
“535”  type  have  accommodations  fot  260  first 
class  passengers,  300  steerage  passengers,  and 
466,133  cubic-foot  cargo  space,  with  a  speed  of 
17%  knots.  Six  vessels  of  this  type  were  built 
during  the  year,  and  operating  regular  services. 
Excellent  service  was  also  established  in  1921- 
22  to  Europe  and  to  the  Orient.  The  first 
step  made  by  the  board  was  the  placing  of 
the  vessels  in  the  trade  routes  which  before 
the  war  had  been  of  major  importance,  such  as 
the  United  Kingdom,  continental  Europe,  the 
east  coast  of  South  America,  the  Far  East,  the 
West  Indies,  etc.,  as  the  congestion  in  such 
trades  was  most  severe  and  the  opportunity 
was  at  hand  for  establishing  the  American  flag 
in  the  principal  services  of  the  world.  As  vessels 


became  available,  thev  were  distributed  between 

7  V 

the  trade  routes  of  secondary  importance. 
Finally  came  the  establishment  of  new  routes 
in  which  the  American  flag  before  that  time  had 
seldom  if  ever  been  seen.  On  June  30,  1921  the 
board  had  a  total  of  410  general  cargo  berths 
of  which  393  were  between  the  United  States 
and  foreign  points  and  coastwise  services  in 
the  United  States  and  17  between  foreign  ports. 

To  insure  proper  and  adequate  protection  of 
American  shipping  interests  in  foreign  ports,  and 
to  further  the  policy  of  placing  American  mer¬ 
chant  marine  on  a  permanent  basis,  agencies  were 
established  in  the  principal  seaports  of  the  world. 

The  coastwise  and  intercoastal  trade  of  the 
United  States  affords  transportation  for  com¬ 
modities  from  one  section  of  the  country  to 
the  other,  such  as  manufactured  products, 
natural  products  indigenous  of  one  locality 
which  are  required  in  another;  for  example, 
fruit  from  the  Pacific  coast,  cotton  from  the 
South  and  steel  from  the  East  and  Middle  West. 
As  the  coastwise  trade  of  the  United  States  is 
protected,  the  Shipping  Board  made  no  effort 
to  place  ships  in  this  protected  trade,  except 
to  sell  ships  to  private  operators.  The  board 
did,  however,  make  an  active  bid  for  the  control 
of  a  large  part  of  the  commerce  between  the 
United  States  and  Central  and  South  America. 
This  trade  consists  of  exports  and  manufactured 
articles,  coal,  lumber  and  imports  of  raw  mate¬ 
rials  and  natural  products  of  the  South  and 
Central  American  countries.  Prior  to  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  services  by  the  board  between 
foreign  countries,  the  American  flag  vessels 
seldom  if  ever  before  engaged  in  such  regular 
trades,  as  the  trades  were  in  almost  every  in¬ 
stance  controlled  exclusively  by  vessels  of  for¬ 
eign  registry.  The  inauguration  of  the  general 
cargo  service  added  much  to  the  prestige  and 
permanence  of  transportation  by  American  car¬ 
riers,  as  ships  had  an  opportunity  of  ascertain¬ 
ing  from  practical  experience  what  American 
vessels  were  able  to  do  in  ocean  transportation. 
The  cargo  boats  maintained  by  the  Shipping 
Board,  or  leased  by  it,  were  admirably  suited 
for  the  work  of  cargo  carrying.  They  were,  of 
course,  obliged  to  compete  with  foreign  ships. 

The  most  extensive  coast  trade  centres  in  New 
York,  largely  with  Boston  on  the  one  side  and 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Norfolk,  Charleston,  Sa¬ 
vannah,  Jacksonville,  New  Orleans,  and  Galves¬ 
ton  on  the  other.  San  Francisco  is  an  important 
centre  of  the  coastwise  trade  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
while  the  Puget  Sound  ports,  especially  Seattle 
and  Tacoma,  play  an  important  part  in  the 
coasting  trade  with  Alaska,  and  ports  are  being 
developed  at  Los  Angeles  and  San  Diego.  In 
1914  the  Panama  Canal  (q.v. )  was  opened  and 
this  naturally  affected  the  amount  of  water¬ 
borne  freight  from  coast  to  coast,  which  pre¬ 
viously  had  been  transshipped  by  rail  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  shipping  facilities 
afforded  by  the  Great  Lakes  are  of  inestimable 
value.  See  Great  Lakes. 

Shipping  on  the  Mississippi  System. — Prior  to 
the  Civil  War  the  Mississippi  River  system 
played  a  much  more  important  part  in  the  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  interior  of  the  country  than  did 
the  Great  Lakes.  The  river  was  but  little  navi¬ 
gated  for  purposes  of  commerce  prior  to  1778, 
and  for  many  years  it  was  of  importance  to  its 
tributary  region  chiefly  as  a  means  of  market¬ 
ing  the  surplus  products  of  the  newly  settled 
region,  since  freight  could  not  be  profitably 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


723 


transported  upstream.  The  methods  used  to 
transport  the  freight  downstream  were  of  the 
crudest  kind.  The  most  common  carrier  was  the 
flatboat,  rudely  constructed  from  timber  and 
without  any  other  propelling  force  than  the  cur¬ 
rent  of  the  river.  After  it  had  carried  its  load 
to  the  New  Orleans  market  it  was  broken  up 
for  lumber  or  deserted.  In  1812  the  first  steam¬ 
boat  was  placed  upon  the  river,  and,  with  the 
improvements  that  rapidly  followed  in  steam 
navigation,  the  upstream  traffic  also  became 
large.  The  years  1840-59  constituted  the  palmy 
days  of  Mississippi  navigation.  Since  then,  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  the 
railroad  has  obtained  most  of  the  passenger  traf¬ 
fic  and  most  of  the  freight,  except  bulky  prod¬ 
ucts,  chiefly  coal  and  lumber.  See  Merchant 
Marine  of  the  United  States  for  history  of 
American  shipping;  also  Shipbuilding. 

government 

National  Government.  The  outline  of  the 
national  government  is  found  in  the  Constitu¬ 
tion,  framed  in  1787  (see  Constitution),  and 
various  acts  of  Congress  passed  in  pursuance 
thereof.  In  structure  and  character  it  is  a  rep¬ 
resentative,  federal,  coordinated,  elective,  con¬ 
gressional  government.  Its  representative  char¬ 
acter  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  organization 
of  the  State  is  separate  and  distinct  from  that  of 
the  government.  It  is  federal  in  that  it  is  part 
of  a  dual  system  under  a  common  sovereignty. 
The  distribution  of  the  legislative,  executive,  and 
judicial  powers  of  the  central  government,  among 
separate  and  distant  organs,  contributes  the 
feature  of  coordination.  The  popular  choice  of 
the  executive  and  law-making  branches  makes 
the  government  substantially  elective,  while  the 
independence  of  the  executive  as  over  against 
the  legislative  makes  the  system  congressional 
rather  than  ministerial  in  method  of  action.  In 
distributing  the  powers  of  government  the 
framers  of  the  Constitution  followed  Colonial 
and  English  precedent  and  confided  to  separate 
and  distinct  organs  the  exercise  of  those  func¬ 
tions  which  were  legislative  in  character,  those 
which  were  executive,  and  those  which  were 
judicial.  The  investment  of  the  President  with 
the  power  to  recommend  to  the  legislative  de¬ 
partment  the  enactment  of  laws,  the  right  of  a 
qualified  veto  on  its  acts  and  resolutions,  and 
the  right  of  the  lower  branch  of  the  Legislature 
to  impeach  and  the  right  of  the  upper  branch 
to  try  all  officers  of  the  United  States  for  cer¬ 
tain  offenses,  are  well-known  exceptions  to  the 
general  principle  of  the  separation  of  powers. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  power  confided  to 
the  upper  branch  of  Legislature  to  participate 
with  the  executive  in  the  appointment  of  officers 
and  negotiation  of  treaties  with  foreign  countries. 

For  the  Constitution,  see  Constitutional 
Law  ;  Constitution  of  the  United  States  ; 
Federal  Government. 

For  the  legislative  branch,  see  Committee; 
Congress  ;  Legislation  ;  Legislature  ;  Par¬ 
liamentary  Law;  Quorum;  Representation; 
Senate ;  Speaker ;  etc. 

For  the  executive  branch,  see  Cabinet;  Elec¬ 
toral  College;  President;  State,  Department 
of;  Treasury,  Department  of  the;  etc. 

For  the  judicial  branch,  see  Court;  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States. 

Congress. — The  origin  of  the  national  Legisla¬ 
ture  is  to  be  found  in  the  so-called  Second  Con¬ 
tinental  Congress  of  1775 — a  revolutionary  body 


which  was  called  to  deliberate  upon  the  state  of 
public  affairs  growing  out  of  the  dispute  with 
Great  Britain,  and  which,  with  the  acquiescence 
of  the  people,  assumed  plenary  powers  of  gov¬ 
ernment  and  the  management  of  the  war.  Al¬ 
though  its  powers  were  undefined  (there  being 
no  written  constitution ) ,  the  Congress  exercised 
many  of  the  usual  functions  of  sovereign  gov¬ 
ernments,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
organization  of  a  diplomatic  service  and  the  con¬ 
clusion  of  treaties  with  foreign  states;  the  regu¬ 
lation  of  commerce;  the  raising  and  equipment 
of  armies;  the  establishment  of  a  post  office;  the 
creation  of  a  national  currency;  etc.  Delegates 
were  usually  appointed  by  popular  conventions  of 
legislatures,  the  Congress  was  organized  in  one 
chamber,  and  the  States  enjoyed  equality  of  rep¬ 
resentation.  The  Articles  of  Confederation,  rati¬ 
fied  in  1781,  changed  the  basis  of  the  Congress 
from  a  revolutionary  assembly  to  a  constitu¬ 
tional  body  and  undertook  to  define  its  powers 
and  regulate  its  constitution.  The  principle  of 
equality  of  representation  and  the  unicameral 
form  of  organization  were,  however,  continued; 
besides,  its  efficiency  as  a  national  legislature 
was  impaired  by  other  unwise  provisions.  It  did 
not  possess  the  power  of  taxation,  nor  did  its 
commands  operate  upon  individuals,  but  rather 
upon  States  which  could  not  be  coerced.  A  few 
years’  experience  showed  that  it  was  unequal  to 
the  task  of  a  national  legislature,  and  when  the 
Constitutional  Convention  of  1787  came  to  de¬ 
liberate  upon  the  structure  and  powers  of  Con¬ 
gress  it  was  practically  unanimous  in  favor  of 
the  bicameral  organization  and  of  vesting  Con¬ 
gress  with  more  adequate  powers.  The  trouble¬ 
some  question  of  representation  was  settled  by 
an  arrangement  which  protected  the  small  States 
by  giving  them  equality  of  representation  in  one 
chamber,  and  the  large  States  by  proportional 
representation  in  the  otner. 

Congress  was  given  adequate  power  over  the 
source  of  the  national  revenue,  besides  other 
powers  inherent  in  a  national  legislature.  All  its 
powers  were  enumerated  by  the  Constitution, 
while  a  number  of  express  prohibitions  were  in¬ 
serted  in  behalf  of  individual  liberty.  Lest  an 
express  enumeration  of  its  powers  might  operate 
to  deprive  it  of  discretion  in  choosing  the  ap¬ 
propriate  means  of  carrying  into  execution  the 
powers  granted,  a  so-called  “elastic  clause”  was 
inserted  empowering  Congress  to  pass  all  laws 
deemed  necessary  and  proper  to  carry  out  the 
powers  expressed.  Compared  with  the  vast 
range  of  powers  left  with  the  States,  the  few 
powers  conferred  upon  Congress  seem  quite  in¬ 
significant,  and  this  disparity  seems  all  the 
more  noticeable  when  compared  with  the  omnip¬ 
otence  of  the  British  Parliament.  But  the  ap¬ 
parently  narrow  powers  vested  in  Congress  have 
been  rather  broadly  construed  by  the  Supreme 
Court  throughout  the  entire  period  of  the  na¬ 
tional  history.  With  the  sanction  of  the  court, 
sometimes  under  the  stress  of  emergency,  but 
more  frequently  in  time  of  peace,  Congress  has 
steadily  extended  its  powers  in  every  direction, 
exercising  functions  which  were  probably  never 
intended  by  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  to 
be  assumed  by  it.  Thus  under  the  simple  power 
to  lay  and  collect  taxes  (doubtless  for  revenue 
only),  Congress  has  employed  its  power  to  de¬ 
stroy  State  bank  currency,  to  encourage  certain 
industries  and  destroy  others,  and  to  restrict 
commercial  intercourse.  In  pursuance  of  the 
power  to  coin  money  and  pay  debts  it  has  es- 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


724 


tablished  national  banks,  issued  bills  of  credit, 
and  given  the  legal-tender  quality  to  its  treas¬ 
ury  notes.  Under  the  power  to  establish  post 
offices  and  post  roads  it  has  made  a  government 
monopoly  of  the  entire  postal  service,  established 
a  money-order  and  parcels  post  system,  and  pro¬ 
vided  for  free  delivery  of  mail  in  cities  and  in 
many  rural  communities.  Under  the  power  to 
regulate  foreign  and  interstate  commerce  it  has 
regulated  not  only  traffic,  but  telegraphic  inter¬ 
course  and  navigation  on  rivers  and  canals.  This 
power  has  been  employed  also  for  the  purposes 
of  prohibition,  reciprocity,  retaliation,  and  reve¬ 
nue.  It  has  included  the  laying  of  embargoes, 
the  enactment  of  nonintercourse  and  nonimporta¬ 
tion  and  quarantine  laws,  the  dredging  of  har¬ 
bors,  the  erection  of  lighthouses,  beacons,  buoys, 
etc.  Likewise  Congress,  without  .express  author¬ 
ity,  has  acquired  foreign  territory,  erected  it 
into  States,  and  governed  its  inhabitants  with¬ 
out  their  consent.  It  has  made  large  grants  of 
land  to  aid  in  the  construction  of  railroads, 
passed  laws  to  regulate  and  control  federal 
elections,  governed  rebellious  States  through  mili¬ 
tary  agency,  conferred  suffrage  upon  the  negroes, 
and  undertaken  to  secure  for  them  equality  of 
treatment  in  public  places.  During  the  con¬ 
troversy  over  Reconstruction  it  encroached  seri¬ 
ously  upon  the  sphere  of  the  executive  and  the 
courts  declined  to  interfere  in  the  latter’s  behalf. 

In  reviewing  the  first  century  and  a  quarter  of 
the  history  of  Congress  and  its  place  in  the 
scheme  of  government,  several  criticisms  are 
worthy  of  note.  These  are  the  practice  of  choos¬ 
ing  members  from  local  districts,  short  tenures 
of  Representatives,  the  large  and  unwieldy  size 
of  the  Lower  House,  the  long  interregnum  be¬ 
tween  the  time  of  the  election  and  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  the  Congress,  the  shortness  of  the  second 
session,  and  the  exclusion  of  the  cabinet  from 
seats  in  either  House. 

State  Government.  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  provides  that  all  powers  not  dele¬ 
gated  to  the  United  States  nor  prohibited  by  it 
to  the  States  are  reserved  to  the  States  respec¬ 
tively  or  to  the  people.  Those  powers  absolutely 
prohibited  to  the  States  are  the  conclusion  of 
treaties,  alliances,  or  confederations  among  them¬ 
selves;  the  granting  of  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal;  the  coining  of  money;  the  issue  of  bills 
of  credit;  the  making  of  anything  but  gold  and 
silver  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;  the  enact¬ 
ment  of  ex  post  facto  laws,  bills  of  attainder, 
or  laws  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts ; 
and  granting  of  titles  of  nobility.  Those  pro¬ 
hibited  except  with  the  consent  of  Congress  are 
the  levying  of  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  ex¬ 
cept  such  as  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for 
executing  inspection  laws;  the  laying  of  ton¬ 
nage  duties;  keeping  troops  or  ships  of  war  in 
time  of  peace;  entering  into  agreements  or  com¬ 
pacts  with  other  States  or  foreign  powers,  or 
engaging  in  war  unless  actually  invaded  or  when 
the  danger  is  such  as  not  to  admit  of  delay. 

Upon  examination  it  will  be  seen  that  the  re¬ 
lation  of  the  citizen  to  the  State  government 
is  far  more  close  than  with  the  national  gov¬ 
ernment.  Nearly  the  whole  domain  of  civil  and 
religious  liberty,  education,  suffrage,  domestic 
relations,  marriage,  business  transactions,  prop¬ 
erty,  professions,  trades,  contract  relations,  ad¬ 
ministration  of  the  criminal  law,  and  many  other 
social  and  business  relationships  come  within  the 
sphere  of  the  State  government.  The  funda¬ 
mental  law  of  each  State  is  embodied  in  a  writ¬ 


ten  constitution  drawn  up  by  a  constituent  con¬ 
vention  and  ratified  in  most  cases  by  the  elec¬ 
torate  at  the  polls.  The  earlier  constitutions 
were  brief  instruments  containing  little  more 
than  the  law  for  the  organization  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  and  the  necessary  safeguards  for  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  civil  liberty,  but  the  later  ones  are 
bulky  documents  containing  a  vast  amount  of 
matter  which  should  properly  appear  in  the 
statutes.  In  each  of  the  States  the  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  the  Legislature,  consisting  of 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives,  though 
in  six  States  the  latter  chamber  is  styled  the 
Assembly  and  in  three  the  House  of  Delegates. 
Both  Houses  are  chosen  by  popular  vote  and  by 
the  same  electorate,  although  there  are  varia¬ 
tions  as  to  the  mode  of  choice  and  tenure. 
Usually  the  districts  from  which  Senators  are 
chosen  are  larger  than  those  from  which  Repre¬ 
sentatives  are  elected,  and  as  a  consequence  the 
Lower  House  is  a  more  numerous  body.  The 
Senates  range  in  size  from  17  to  63  members, 
while  the  number  of  Representatives  ranges  from 
35  to  390.  The  Lower  House  is  from  two  to 
six  times  as  large  as  the  Senate.  The  tenure 
of  State  Senators  is  usually  longer  than  that  of 
Representatives.  In  a  majority  of  the  States  it 
is  four  years,  the  usual  term  of  a  Representa¬ 
tive  being  two  years.  In  many  of  the  States 
provision  is  made  for  partial  renewal  of  the 
Senate,  usually  by  halves  every  second  year. 
In  a  few  States  the  qualifications  for  eligibility 
to  the  Senate  are  higher  than  those  of  the  Lower 
House.  The  franchise  for  the  election  of  the 
Legislature  and  of  all  elective  State  officers  is 
regulated  by  the  State  constitutions  and  is  uni¬ 
versal  suffrage.  Prior  to  the  ratification  of  the 
19th  Amendment,  many  of  the  States  had  con¬ 
ferred  the  franchise  on  women,  except  that  in 
Arizona,  California,  Connecticut,  Delaware, 
Maine,  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Wash¬ 
ington,  Wyoming,  and  some  of  the  Southern 
States  slight  educational  tests  are  required. 
(For  further  details,  see  Suffrage;  Represen¬ 
tation  ;  Women’s  Suffrage.  )  In  all  the  States 
members  of  the  Legislature  receive  salaries, 
which  are  the  same  for  members  of  both  Houses. 
The  amount  ranges  from  $3  a  day  and  mileage 
in  Kansas  and  Oregon,  or  $2  and  mileage  for 
a  regular  session  in  New  Hampshire  to  $1500 
a  year  and  mileage  in  New  York  and  Pennsyl¬ 
vania.  In  most  of  the  States  the  constitution 
provides  for  biennial  sessions  of  the  Legislature. 
In  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  South  Carolina 
annual  sessions  are  required,  while  in  Alabama 
regular  sessions  occur  every  four  years.  In  most 
of  the  States  the  length  of  the  session  is  left 
to  the  discretion  of  the  Legislature,  in  others 
it  is  limited  by  constitutional  provision.  The 
powers  of  the  Legislature  relative  to  organ¬ 
ization,  procedure,  adjournment,  privileges,  etc., 
are  similar  to  those  of  Congress.  The  executive 
power  in  each  State  is  vested  in  the  Governor, 
popularly  elected  for  a  term  ranging  from  one 
year  in  Massachusetts  to  four  years  in  22  States 
and  five  in  New  Mexico.  In  about  three-fourths 
of  the  States  there  is  a  Lieutenant  Governor, 
who  succeeds  to  the  governorship  in  case  of  a 
vacancy.  The  Governor’s  salary  ranges  from 
$2500  in  Nebraska  and  Vermont  to  $10,000  in 
California,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  New 
York,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania,  and  $12,000  in 
Illinois.  In  a  few  States  he  is  ineligible  to  suc¬ 
ceed  himself.  His  duties  and  powers  include 


UNITED  STATES 


725  UNITED  STATES 


the  execution  of  the  laws,  the  furnishing  of  the 
Legislature  with  information  at  the  beginning 
of  its  session,  the  calling  of  it  together  in  ex¬ 
traordinary  session,  the  appointment  of  certain 
ollicers,  usually  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate, 
the  granting  of  reprieves  and  pardons,  the  veto 
of  legislative  measures  except  in  four  States 
(see  Veto ) ,  and  the  command  of  the  militia. 
In  several  of  the  States  where  there  has  been  a 
traditional  fear  of  the  executive  power,  the  Gov¬ 
ernor’s  prerogatives  are  very  narrow — he  has  no 
veto  power  and  but  little  power  of  appointment. 
To  aid  the  Governor  in  the  administration  there 
are  in  every  State  a  number  of  executive  depart¬ 
ments,  at  the  head  of  which  are  officers  usually 
chosen  at  the  same  time,  in  the  same  manner, 
and  for  the  same  term  as  himself.  These  are  the 
Secretary  of  State,  the  Treasurer,  the  Attorney- 
General,  the  Auditor  or  Comptroller,  and  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  Besides, 
there  are  frequently  such  officers  as  commis¬ 
sioners  of  railroads  and  of  canals,  insurance, 
agriculture,  labor,  immigration,  charities,  etc. 
Formerly  such  officers  were,  as  a  rule,  popularly 
elected,  but  in  recent  years  there  has  been  an 
increasing  resort  to  commissions,  especially  for 
the  control  of  public  utilities,  workmen’s  com¬ 
pensation,  minimum  wages,  etc.;  these  are  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  Governor  with  consent  of  the 
Legislature.  The  position  of  the  heads  of  the 
State  executive  departments  is  in  no  sense  simi¬ 
lar  to  that  of  the  President’s  cabinet,  since  the 
Governor  has  little  or  no  power  over  them. 

In  each  State  the  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a 
supreme  court  or  court  of  appeal,  one  or  more 
superior  courts  known  by  different  names,  and  a 
series  of  local  courts  of  various  kinds.  In  sev¬ 
eral  States  the  supreme  court  is  such  only  in 
name,  there  being  a  court  of  last  resort  above  it, 
usually  known  as  court  of  appeals  or  court 
of  errors  and  appeals.  Texas  has  two  supreme 
courts,  one  for  civil  and  the  other  for  criminal 
cases.  The  size  of  the  supreme  courts  ranges 
from  three  justices  to  16,  the  number  usually 
being  odd.  The  salaries  of  members  of  the  State 
supreme  courts  range  from  $2500  in  Vermont  to 
$17,500  in  New  York.  Next  below  the  supreme 
courts  are  the  superior  courts,  sometimes  called 
circuit  courts,  having  jurisdiction  over  a  group 
of  counties  with  the  power  to  hear  appeals  from 
the  lower  courts.  Usually  there  is  also  a  county 
court,  which  is  known  by  different  names  and 
which  has  a  wide  original  jurisdiction  in  both 
civil  and  criminal  matters  and  appellate  juris¬ 
diction  over  the  decisions  of  the  justices  of  the 
peace.  These  justices  of  the  peace  have  original 
jurisdiction  in  minor  civil  and  criminal  cases, 
with  power  to  impose  fines,  to  commit  to  prison 
for  short  periods,  and  to  bind  over  accused  per¬ 
sons  to  await  the  action  of  the  grand  jury.  In 
the  towns  and  cities  there  is  usually  a  separate 
class  of  municipal  courts.  (See  Municipal 
Government.)  There  are  also  probate  and  chan¬ 
cery  courts  in  some  States.  Formerly  the  State 
judges  were  generally  appointed  by  the  Governor 
or  chosen  by  the  Legislature,  but  now  in  a  great 
majority  of  the  States  they  are  popularly  elected. 
In  four  States  the  Supreme  Justices  are  still 
elected  by  the  Legislature ;  in  eight  they  are 
appointed  by  the  Governor  with  the  consent  of 
the  Council  or  Senate.  The  early  rule  was 
good-behavior  tenure,  but  now  that  rule  prevails 
only  in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  New 
Hampshire.  Elsewhere  the  term  varies  from 
two  years  in  Vermont  to  21  in  Pennsylvania. 


Local  Government.  Three  general  types  of 
local  government  prevail  in  the  United  States, 
they  are  the  town  system  in  New  England,  the 
county  system  in  the  South,  and  the  mixed  sys¬ 
tem  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and 
a  number  of  the  North  Central  States.  In  the 
town  system  the  sovereign  local  authority  is  the 
town  meeting,  or  general  assembly  of  "all  the 
qualified  voters  of  the  town.  A  regular  annual 
session  of  this  assembly  is  held  in  the  spring, 
and  extra  sessions  are  held  throughout  the  year 
as  necessity  requires.  At  the  annual  meeting, 
which  is  presided  over  by  a  moderator,  the  town 
officers  are  elected,  the  local  budget  passed,  and 
other  matters  of  local  interest  decided  upon.  The 
principal  town  officers  are  a  number  of  select¬ 
men,  ranging  from  three  to  nine,  who  are  the 
general  managers  of  the  town  affairs;  the  town 
clerk,  who  is  the  keeper  of  the  records;  the 
treasurer;  the  tax  assessors;  the  tax  collector; 
the  school  committee;  and  a  variety  of  minor 
officers  such  as  constables,  overseers  of  the  poor, 
surveyors,  fence  viewers,  etc.  Where  the  pure 
town  system  prevails  the  county  plays  but  little 
part  in  local  administration,  and  in  some  States 
like  Rhode  Island  there  are,  strictly  speaking, 
no  county  officers,  the  county  being  merely  a 
judicial  district  without  corporate  personality. 

In  the  Southern  States,  where  the  county  type 
of  local  government  prevails,  conditions  are  "re¬ 
versed.  There  the  county  is  the  political  unit, 
and  the  administration  of  all  local  matters,  ex¬ 
cept  educational  and  municipal  affairs,  is  in¬ 
trusted  to  county  officers.  The  chief  county  au¬ 
thority  is  the  board  of  county  commissioners  or 
supervisors,  each  member  of  which  represents 
one  of  the  magisterial  districts  into  which  the 
county  is  divided.  There  is  no  authority  which 
corresponds  to  the  New  England  town  meeting. 
Besides  the  commissioners,  the  chief  county  of¬ 
ficers  are  the  sheriff,  the  clerk,  the  commis¬ 
sioner  of  education,  the  coroner,  the  assessor, 
and  sometimes  a  tax  collector,  although  the  col¬ 
lection  of  the  taxes  is  a  duty  generally  imposed 
upon  the  sheriff.  The  subdivisions  of  the  county 
in  some  States  are  known  as  precincts,  in  others 
as  townships ;  in  Delaware  as  hundreds,  in 
Georgia  as  militia  districts,  in  Louisiana  (where 
the  counties  are  called  parishes)  as  wards,  in 
Maryland  as  election  districts,  in  Mississippi  as 
supervisor’s  districts,  etc.  In  the  Southern 
States  they  are  mere  judicial  or  election  dis¬ 
tricts.  In  each  are  usually  to  be  found  one  or 
more  justices  of  the  peace  and  their  ministerial 
officers  or  constables,  but  the  districts  are  in  no 
sense  political  corporations. 

The  mixed  system  which  originated  in  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  is  a  compromise  between 
the  two  types  described  above.  Here  both  the 
town  and  county  elements  exist,  but  are  com¬ 
bined  in  different  ratios.  In  New  York  the  chief 
local  authority  is  the  board  of  supervisors,  con¬ 
sisting  of  a  representative  chosen  from  each  town 
in  the  county.  In  Pennsylvania  it  is  a  board  of 
three  commissioners  elected  from  the  county  at 
large.  The  New  York  supervisor  presides  over 
the  town  administration,  while  the  Pennsylvania 
commissioner  is  in  no  sense  a  township  officer. 
In  the  mixed  type  the  town  or  township  is  a 
body  corporate  and  politic.  Each  has  its  clerk, 
assessor,  collector,  commissioner  of  highways, 
justices  of  the  peace,  constable,  etc.  In  New 
York  there  is  an  annual  town  meeting  at  which 
local  officers  are  elected  and  matters  of  poor 
relief,  taxes,  schools,  etc.,  attended  to.  In  the 


UNITED  STATES 


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726 


pure  Pennsylvania  form  the  town  meeting  does 
not  exist,  town  affairs  being  managed  by  a  corps 
of  officers  elected  by  the  people  of  the  town. 
The  New  York,  or  supervisor,  type  of  local  gov¬ 
ernment  has  been  adopted  in  Michigan,  Illinois, 
Wisconsin,  Nebraska,  New  Jersey,  and  elsewhere. 
The  Pennsylvania,  or  commissioner,  system  has 
been  transplanted  to  Ohio,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kan¬ 
sas,  and  Missouri,  and  in  a  modified  form  to 
Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas.  For  local  govern¬ 
ment  in  the  towns  and  cities,  see  Municipal 
Government. 

finances 

Statistics.  The  finances  of  the  United  States 
are  characterized  by  rapid  increase  in  magni¬ 
tude  of  fiscal  operations,  and  by  the  great  fa¬ 
cility  with  which  revenues  are  secured.  The 
federal  government  has  with  rare  exceptions 
derived  nearly  all  its  revenue  from  tariff  duties 
and  internal-revenue  taxes,  but  the  need  of 
vast  sums  during  the  war  made  it  necessary  to 
levy  other  taxes.  The  total  ordinary  receipts 
for  1922  were  $4,109,104,150.  The  principal 
sources  were:  customs,  $356,443,587,  an  increase 
over  the  estimates — $235,000,000  internal-rev¬ 
enue;  $2,068,128,192  from  income  and  profits 
tax  and  $1,145,125,064  from  miscellaneous 
sources. 

The  grand  total  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year 
1922  amounted  to  $10,126,261,803;  the  total  or¬ 
dinary  expenses  of  the  government  amounted  to 
$3,372,607,899,  and  the  grand  total  of  expendi¬ 
tures  to  $10,403,834,396.  The  total  expenditure 
on  account  of  the  public  debt  was  $7,031,226,496. 
The  total  gross  public  debt  on  June  30,  1922 
was  $22,963,381,708,  as  compared  with  $23,977,- 
450,552  on  June  30,  1921,  a  reduction  during 
the  fiscal  year  of  over  one  billion  dollars.  This 
was  brought  about  through  refunding  operations, 
by  which  various  loans  made  during  the  war 
were  reduced.  The  enormous  increase  in  the 
public  debt  as  well  as  the  increase  in  annual 
expenditures  of  course  reflects  the  financial  cost 
of  the  war,  which  was  borne  chiefly  by  the 
floating  of  bonds  sold  to  the  people.  There 
were  four  issues  known  as  Liberty  Bonds  and 
an  issue  known  as  Victory  Bonds  issued  after 
the  war.  As  these  bonds  mature,  they  must  be 
paid  or  refunded.  On  the  first  Liberty  Loan 
the  amount  issued  was  $1,989,455,550;  on  the 
second  Liberty  Loan,  $3,807,865,000;  on  the 
third  Liberty  Loan,  $4,175,650,050;  on  the 
fourth  Liberty  Loan,  $6,964,581,100;  and  on  the 
Victory  Loan,  which  was  in  notes  instead  of 
bonds,  $4,495,373,000.  The  first  Liberty  Loan 
is  redeemable  on  or  after  June  15,  1932;  the 
second  Liberty  Loan  on  or  after  November  15, 
1927;  the  third  Liberty  Loan,  September  15, 
1928;  the  fourth  Liberty  Loan,  October  15, 
1938;  and  the  Victory  Loan,  May  20,  1923. 
The  necessity  for  funds  for  carrying  on  the 
war  made  it  necessary  to  levy  income  and 
profit  taxes  which  produced  a  considerable  pro¬ 
portion  of  the  necessary  funds.  See  Finance. 

Financial  History.  Down  to  the  adoption  of 
the  Federal  Constitution  the  finances  of  the  cen¬ 
tral  government  were  in  an  extremely  chaotic 
condition.  In  1775  the  Continental  Congress 
undertook  to  establish  a  Continental  army  and 
navy,  but  no  power  had  been  delegated  to  Con¬ 
gress  to  raise  revenue  by  taxation  to  meet  the 
attendant  expenditures.  Congress  was  therefore 
forced  to  rely  upon  the  issue  of  bills  of  credit, 


the  proceeds  of  loans,  foreign  and  domestic,  and 
requisitions  upon  the  various  States,  which  the 
latter  could  honor  or  not  as  they  saw  fit.  From 
1775  to  1783  it  is  estimated  that  the  income  of 
the  Continental  Treasury,  estimated  in  specie, 
amounted  to  $65,863,825,  of  which  about  $37,- 
800,000  was  secured  through  the  issue  of  bills  of 
credit,  $19,416,000  through  loans,  and  $5,795,000 
through  requisitions  upon  the  States. 

Under  the  Articles  of  Confederation  the  finan¬ 
cial  position  of  the  central  government  was  but 
little  stronger.  It  was  provided  that  the  ex¬ 
penses  of  the  national  government  should  be 
defrayed  by  taxes  apportioned  to  the  States  in 
proportion  to  the  value  of  land  and  improve¬ 
ments.  Congress  had  power  to  emit  bills  of 
credit  and  to  contract  loans;  but  since  the  States 
levied  the  apportioned  taxes  according  to  their 
own  discretion,  there  was  no  certainty  that  such 
loans  could  be  repaid  when  due.  By  1786  the 
credit  of  the  government  had  fallen  so  low  that 
it  was  practically  impossible  to  secure  loans,, 
while  the  proceeds  of  the  apportioned  taxes  did 
not  meet  the  running  expenses  of  government. 
Efforts  to  amend  the  articles  so  as  to  make 
possible  a  national  tax  proved  unavailing,  owing 
to  the  provision  that  unanimous  consent  of  the 
States  should  be  necessary  for  amendment. 

From  this  state  of  affairs  the  country  was  res¬ 
cued  by  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitu¬ 
tion,  which  gave  Congress  wide  powers  of  taxa¬ 
tion.  By  the  Act  of  July  4,  1789,  import  duties 
were  levied;  in  the  following  year  the  national 
debt  was  reorganized  and  augmented  by  the  as¬ 
sumption  of  the  State  debts  incurred  in  the  War 
for  Independence.  In  1791  the  first  national 
bank  was  organized  to  aid  in  placing  the  govern¬ 
mental  finances  on  a  sound  footing.  (See  Bank, 
Banking.)  As  the  tariff  of  1789  did  not  furnish 
revenue  enough  to  meet  current  expenses,  includ¬ 
ing  the  interest  on  the  public  debt,  Congress  in 
1791  laid  an  excise  tax  upon  spirits,  which  was 
further  extended  in  1794  to  cover  a  considerable 
number  of  articles.  In  1798  a  direct  tax  was 
levied  upon  lands,  dwelling  houses,  and  slaves. 
Both  the  excise  and  the  direct  taxes  were  un¬ 
popular  and  unproductive,  yielding  in  all  only 
$1,582,000  in  1801.  The  customs  duties,  on  the 
other  hand,  increased  from  $4,399,000  in  1791 
to  $10,751,000  in  1801. 

From  1801  to  1811  revenue  largely  exceeded 
expenditures,  in  spite  of  the  repeal  of  the  excise 
taxes  in  1802.  The  national  debt  was  reduced 
from  $83,000,000  to  $45,200,000.  With  the  out¬ 
break  of  the  War  of  1812,  customs  duties  fell  off 
with  the  ruin  of  commerce,  while  military  ex¬ 
penditures  made  a  heavy  drain  upon  the  national 
resources.  Excise  duties  were  repugnant  to  the 
principles  of  the  Republican  party,  then  in 
power;  accordingly  it  was  necessary  to  finance 
the  war  chiefly  by  means  of  loans  and  the  issue 
of  treasury  notes.  Up  to  the  end  of  1814,  $41,- 
010,000  was  borrowed;  by  February,  1815,  $36,- 
680,000  in  treasury  notes  had  been  issued,  of 
which,  however,  part  was  issued  to  pay  off  ear¬ 
lier  issues,  the  largest  amount  outstanding  being 
$17,619,000  in  1816.  In  1813  a  direct  tax  of 
$3,000,000  was  levied,  and  in  1814  excise  taxes 
were  again  imposed.  These  taxes  were  repealed 
in  1817  with  the  increase  in  customs  revenue  at¬ 
tendant  upon  the  renewal  of  foreign  commercial 
relations.  From  1816  to  1835  revenue  exceeded 
expenditures  so  far  as  practically  to  extinguish 
the  national  debt  in  the  latter  year.  In  1836  and 
1837  a  surplus  accumulated,  which  was  distrib- 


UNITED  STATES 


727 


UNITED  STATES 


uted  to  the  States  in  the  guise  of  a  loan  in  1837, 
about  $28,000,000  being  disposed  of  in  this  way. 
An  important  item  in  the  revenues  of  1834-37 
was  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of  public  lands. 
From  1810  to  1830  the  sales  of  public  lands  had 
yielded  an  annual  income  ranging  from  $1,000,- 
*000  to  $2,000,000;  in  1834  the  yield  was  about 
$15,000,000;  1835,  $14,767,000 1836,  $24,877,- 
000;  1837,  $6,776,000. 

The  table  below  gives  receipts  and  expend¬ 
itures  for  typical  years  from  the  adoption  of 
the  Constitution  down  to  the  Civil  War. 

The  years  1837-43  showed  a  series  of  deficits 
owing  to  decline  in  revenue  through  commercial 
depression,  and  increase  in  expenditures  due 
chiefly  to  greater  expense  in  managing  Indian  af¬ 
fairs  and  the  undertaking  of  internal  improve¬ 
ments.  It  became  necessary  to  resort  again  to 
the  issue  of  treasury  notes  and  the  sale  of  bonds. 
An  increase  in  tariff  rates  in  1842  restored  the 
balance  and  created  a  surplus,  which  was  turned 
into  a  deficit  by  the  expenses  of  the  Mexican 
War.  Between  1846  and  1851  the  national  debt 


YEAR 

Total  ordi¬ 
nary  receipts 

Expenditures 

1792 . 

$3,669,000 

$8,269,000 

1801 . 

12,935,000 

9,393,000 

1811 . 

14,422,000 

8,178,000 

1814 . 

9.S00.000 

34,720,000 

1816 . 

47,677,000 

31,196.000 

1821 . 

14,573,000 

15,842,000 

1831 . 

2S, 526, 000 

15,237,000 

1841 . 

16,860  000 

26,482,000 

1850 . 

43,592,000 

40,948,000 

1860 . 

56,054,000 

63,201,000 

increased  from  $15,550,000  to  $68,304,000.  By 
1857  the  debt  had  been  reduced  to  $28,700,000. 
A  new  series  of  deficits  began  with  1858,  which 
increased  the  indebtedness  about  $50,000,000  by 
1860,  when  the  Morrill  Tariff  Act  restoring 
higher  duties  supplied  revenue  in  excess  of 
expenditures. 

For  finances  of  the  Civil  War  and  the  subse¬ 
quent  period,  see  Debt,  Public;  Finance; 
Specie  Payments,  Suspension  of;  etc. 

Money.  By  an  Act  of  March  4,  1900,  the  gold 
dollar  weighing  25.8  grains  was  made  the  stand¬ 
ard  of  value  of  the  monetary  system.  The  gold 
coins  in  common  use,  however,  are  the  5,  10, 
and  20  dollar  pieces.  Silver  dollars,  half  dol¬ 
lars,  etc.,  are  also  coined  and  accepted  as  con¬ 
venient  mediums  of  exchange.  Silver  and  gold 
certificates  are  issued  by  the  government,  for  the 
repayment  of  which  a  fund  of  $150,000,000  in 
gold  has  been  established.  For  further  particu¬ 
lars,  see  Money;  Coinage;  etc. 

Weights  and  Measures.  The  United  States 
system  of  weights  and  measures  is  fully  discussed 
in  the  general  article  on  Weights  and  Meas¬ 
ures. 

army 

Military  History.  The  first  step  towards  the 
establishment  of  a  military  force  under  the  con¬ 
trol  of  the  Continental  Congress  was  taken  June 
15,  1775,  when  that  body  resolved  that  a  general 
lie  appointed  to  command  all  the  Continental 
forces  raised  or  to  be  raised  for  the  defense  of 
American  liberty  and  unanimously  elected 
George  Washington. 

One  year  later  (June  13,  1776)  the  Con¬ 
tinental  Congress  created  a  Board  of  War,  the 


germ  of  the  modern  War  Department.  The  Revo¬ 
lution  was  a  great  war  school  for  the  crude  but 
patriotic  bands  that  rallied  under  Washington's 
standard,  and  the  regular  army  of  to-day  rests 
upon  the  foundation  then  laid,  after  European 
methods.  Thus  the  United  States  articles  of 
war  are  copied  from  the  British  military  code; 
the  principles  of  discipline,  drill,  and  account¬ 
ability  for  property  survive  as  they  were  pre¬ 
scribed  by  the  aid-de-camp  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  Baron  Steuben;  while  the  French  vol¬ 
unteer  Baron  du  Portail  became  the  first  chief 
of  engineers. 

In  September,  1776,  the  Continental  Congress 
appointed  a  committee  to  confer  with  the  general 
officers  of  the  army  with  the  view  of  creating  a 
system  of  instruction  which  would  furnish  offi¬ 
cers  educated  in  the  theory  of  military  art  and 
science.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Military 
Academy  at  West  Point,  which  institution,  how¬ 
ever,  was  not  formally  established  until  1802. 

Notwithstanding  Washington’s  wise  counsel, 
that  provision  should  be  made  for  a  permanent 
and  well-equipped  army,  the  close  of  the  Revo¬ 
lution  saw  the  seasoned  veterans  return  to  their 
farms  and  other  civil  avocations.  Congress, 
swayed  by  the  arguments  that  “standing  armies 
in  time  of  peace  are  inconsistent  with  the  princi¬ 
ples  of  republican  government  and  dangerous  to 
the  liberties  of  a-  free  people,”  and  that  “the 
United  States  being  remote  from  nations  having 
peace  establishments  and  by  being  always  in  a 
state  of  defense,  on  the  plan  of  the  confederation, 
which  provides  that  every  State  shall  always  keep 
up  a  well-regulated  and  disciplined  militia,”  di¬ 
rected  the  discharge  of  “the  troops  now  ( May  26, 
1784)  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  except 
25  privates  to  guard  the  stores  at  Fort  Pitt  and 
55  to  guard  the  stores  at  West  Point  and  other 
magazines  with  a  proportionable  number  of  offi¬ 
cers,”  no  officer  to  remain  in  service  above  the 
rank  of  captain. 

War  with  a  civilized  power  was  no  sooner 
ended  than  the  need  of  provision  against  Indian 
hostilities  became  apparent  ;  the  Articles  of  Con¬ 
federation  framed  for  protection  against  the 
greater  danger  were  found  ineffective  in  dealing 
with  the  lesser  evil.  The  recommendations  of 
Congress  fell  upon  deaf  ears ;  each  State  was 
busy  with  its  own  immediate  affairs,  and  the 
Continental  Legislature  was  compelled  (June  3, 
1784)  to  augment  its  nucleus  of  80  enlisted  men 
by  the  enrollment  and  equipment  of  a  small  regi¬ 
ment  of  foot  soldiers;  later  (Oct.  20,  1786), 
a  battalion  of  artillery  was  added,  and  so  by 
degrees  the  nucleus  of  a  national  force  was 
formed  which  in  1788  amounted  to  595  men, 
commanded  by  Lieutenant  Colonel  and  Brevet 
Brigadier  General  Josiah  Harmar. 

The  establishment  of  a  permanent  land  force 
for  the  national  defense,  otherwise  known  as 
the  regular  army,  legally  dates  from  March, 
1789,  a  few  weeks  before  the  inauguration  of 
Washington  as  President  under  the  Federal  Con¬ 
stitution.  The  troops  then  in  service  already 
mentioned  now  became  the  Regiment  of  Infan¬ 
try  and  Battalion  of  Artillery  and  eventually 
(1791)  became  known  as  the  First  Regiment  of 
Infantry  (Lieutenant  Colonel  Harmar)  and 
the  Battalion  of  Artillery  (Major  Doughty) 
respectively. 

For  more  than  100  years  after  that  date  the 
army  served  as  the  strong  right  arm  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment,  at  times  engaged  in  holding  back  the 
Indians  from  border  settlements,  protecting  the 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


728 


western  advance  of  the  nation,  and  in  five  wars 
forming  the  backbone  of  the  great  forces  called 
out  to  meet  the  emergencies.  Withal  the  regu¬ 
lar  army  performed  these  varied  duties  quietly 
but  effectually.  It  produced  Grant,  Lee,  Sher¬ 
man,  Sheridan,  Thomas,  Jackson,  and  a  host 
of  able  commanders  of  less  renown,  but  yet 
distinguished  on  the  roll  of  fame.  The  con¬ 
spicuous  traits  of  the  American  regular  are 
his  individuality,  fertility  of  resource,  and  un¬ 
swerving  loyalty  to  his  government;  the  offi¬ 
cers  especially  exhibiting,  since  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  an  unexampled  capacity  for  the 
administration  of  civil  affairs,  assuming  at  a 
moment’s  notice  duties  ranging  in  importance 
from  those  of  Governor-General  and  Judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  to  collector  of  customs  and 
chief  of  police,  and  discharging  them  with  marked 
ability  and  fidelity. 

The  Staff.  Next  to  the  training  and  equip¬ 
ment  of  the  line  and  the  selection  of  competent 
leaders,  the  question  of  a  staff  early  received 
the  attention  of  the  Board  of  War.  The  value 
of  the  services  of  the  foreign  officers  who  as 
volunteers  organized,  drilled,  and  inspected  the 
army  and  aided  materially  in  achieving  the  suc¬ 
cess  of  the  American  operations  had  deeply  im¬ 
pressed  Washington,  who  upon  the  eve  (1798)  of 
his  resuming  the  command  of  the  army  thus 
addressed  the  Secretary  of  War:  “In  forming 
an  army,  if  a  judicious  choice  is  not  made  of  the 
principal  officers,  and,  above  all,  of  the  general 
staff,  it  can  never  be  rectified  thereafter.  The 
character  then  of  the  army  would  be  lost  in 
the  superstructure.  The  reputation  of  the  com¬ 
mander  in  chief  would  sink  with  it  and  the  coun¬ 
try  be  involved  in  inextricable  expense.” 

GENERALS  COMMANDING  AND  CHIEFS  OJF  STAFF 
OF  THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FROM 
THE  FOUNDING  OF  THE  REPUBLIC 


NAME 

From 

To 

George  Washington* . 

1775 

1783 

Henrv  Knox* . 

1783 

1784 

Josiah  Harmar f . 

1783 

1791 

Arthur  St.  Clair* . 

1791 

1796 

James  Wilkinson* . 

1796 

1798 

George  Washington!. . 

1798 

1799 

James  Wilkinson! . 

1S00 

1S12 

Henrv  Dearborn* . 

1812 

1815 

Jacob  Brown* . 

1815 

1828 

Alexander  Macomb* . 

1828 

1841 

Winfield  Scott* . 

1841 

1861 

George  B.  McClellan* . 

1861 

1862 

Henry  W.  Halleck* . 

1862 

1864 

Ulvsses  S.  Grant! . 

1864 

1869 

William  T.  Sherman  t . 

1869 

1883 

Philip  H.  Sheridan! . 

1S83 

1888 

John  M.  Schofield§ . 

188S 

1895 

Nelson  A.  Miles  § . 

1895 

1903 

S.  B.  M.  Young, §  chief  of  staff... 

1903 

1903 

H.  C.  Corbin,  §  chief  of  staff . 

1906 

1906 

J.  C.  Bates,  §  chief  of  staff . 

1906 

1906 

Arthur  McArthur, §  senior  general. 

1906 

1909 

J.  Franklin  Bell,  chief  of  staff. 

1906 

1910 

Leonard  Wood,*  chief  of  staff. 

1910 

1914 

Hugh  L.  Scott,*  chief  of  staff . 

John  J.  Pershing,  general  and  chief 

1914 

1917’ 

of  staff . 

1917 

•  •  •  • 

Major  general,  f  General,  f  Brigadier  general.  Josiah 
Harmar  was  a  lieutenant  colonel  commandant  and  brigadier 
general  by  brevet.  §  Lieutenant  general. 


The  first  staff  officers  appointed  by  Washing¬ 
ton  ^  upon  assuming  command  at  *  Cambridge 
(1775)  were  an  adjutant  general  (Horatio 
Gates),  a  quartermaster-general  (Thomas  Mif¬ 
flin),  and  a  commissary  general  (Joseph  Trum¬ 


bull).  Under  them  from  time  to  time  dur¬ 
ing  the  war  were  temporarily  appointed  officers 
of  the  line  as  assistants.  As  far  back  as  1777 
the  Continental  Congress  had  “Resolved,  .  .  . 
that  it  is  essential  to  the  promotion  of  disci¬ 
pline  in  the  American  army  and  to  the  reforma¬ 
tion  of  the  various  abuses  which  prevail  in  the 
various  departments  that  an  appointment  be 
made  of  inspectors  general,  agreeable  to  the 
practice  of  the  best  disciplined  European  ar¬ 
mies.”  The  first  practical  result  of  this  action 
was  shown  in  the  selection  of  Baron  Steuben, 
who  may  justly  be  considered  the  originator  of 
much  that  is  admirable  in  the  staff  system  of  the 
United  States  army.  Although  he  had  held  the 
rank  of  lieutenant  general  in  the  Prussian  army, 
he  did  not  hesitate  to  serve  at  first  as  a  volun¬ 
teer,  pending  his  appointment  as  inspector  gen¬ 
eral  with  rank  of  major  general  (May  5,  1778). 

At  the  close  of  the  war  Baron  Steuben  resigned 
his  commission,  receiving  the  thanks  of  Congress, 
“for  the  great  zeal  and  abilities  he  has  discov¬ 
ered  in  the  discharge  of  the  several  duties  of 
his  office,”  together  with  the  gift  of  a  “gold- 
hilted  sword.”  Towards  the  close  of  his  life 
Steuben  prepared  a  manual  of  “Regulations  for 
the  order  and  discipline  of  the  troops  of  the 
United  States”  and  for  governing  the  militia 
(Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1794),  still  a  model  of  its 
kinc[. 

STATISTICS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  ARMY 

1789-1922 


Strength  of  army 


1789. .  . 

1792. .  . 

1  regiment  infantry,  1  battalion  artillery 
Indian  border  wars . 

1794. . . 

Peace  establishment . 

1801. . . 

tt  44 

1807. . . 

it  tt 

1810. . . 

it  (4 

1812. . . 

War  with  Great  Britain . 

1815. . . 

it  it  44  44 

1817-21 

Peace  establishment . 

1822-32 

it  1 1 

1833-37 

it  44 

1838-42 

Florida  War . 

1843-46 

Peace  establishment . 

1847. . . 

Mexican  War . 

1848. . . 

•it  4  4 

1849-55 

Peace  establishment . 

1856-61 

4  4  4  4 

1862. . . 

Civil  War . 

1863-66 

4  4  4  4 

1867. . . 

Peace  establishment . 

1868-69 

4  4  4  4 

1870. . . 

<4  44 

1871. . . 

44  44 

1872-74 

4‘  44 

1875-79 

<4  44 

1898. . . 

44  44 

1901. . . 

“  not  to  exceed . 

*1918. . . 

44  44 

1922. . . 

not  to  exceed . 

840 

5,120 

3,629 

5,144 

3,278 

7,154 

11,831 

9,413 

9,980 

6,184 

7,198 

12,259 

8,613 

17,812 

30,890 

10,320 

12,931 

39,273 

43,332 

54,641 

52,922 

37,313 

35,353 

32,264 

27,489 

63,000 

100,000 

4,800,000 

270,000 


*  From  1902  to  1916  the  Law  of  1901,  with  slight  modifi¬ 
cations,  remained  in  force.  This  law,  approved  Feb.  2,  1901, 
authorized  the  President  to  enlist  natives  in  colonial  posses¬ 
sions,  but  required  that  the  total  enlisted  strength  of  the  reg¬ 
ular  army,  including  natives,  should  not  exceed  at  anv  one 
time  100,000. 

Although,  from  time  to  time  during  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Revolution,  suitable  persons  were  appointed 
to  perform  staff  duties,  yet  the  existing  staff  de¬ 
partments  date  their  permanent  establishment 
as  follows:  adjutant  general’s,  March  3,  1813; 
inspector  general’s,  March  3,  1813;  judge  advo¬ 
cate-general’s  (Bureau  of  Military  Justice, 
1864),  July  5,  1884;  quartermaster’s,  March  28, 
1812;  subsistence,  April  14,  1818;  medical,  April 
14,  1818;  pay,  April  24,  1816;  engineers,  March 


UNITED  STATES  FLAGS 


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NATIONAL  FLAG 


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UNION  FLAG  AND  JACK 

ALSO  WORN  IN  BOWS  OF  BOATS 
CARRYING  DIPLOMATIC  OFFICERS 
OR  NAVAL  GOVERNORS  OF  GUAM 
OR  TUTUILA. 


FLAG  CARRIED  AT 
FOREMAST  OF  VESSELS 
OF  REVENUE  MARINE 


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M  A I  L.J’ 


MAI  L  FLAG 


★  ★★★★★★  'k  ★★★★ 


PEN  NANT 


PENNANT  REVEN  U  E  MARIN  E 


★  ★ 


SECRETARY  OF  THE  NAVY 


ASSIST.  SECY.  THE  SAME, 
SUBSTITUTING  BLUE  FOR 
WHITE  ANDWHITEFOR  BLUE. 


VI  CE-ADMIRAL 
SENIOR  IN  RANK 

JUNIORS  HAVE  RED 
IN  PLACE  OF  BLUE 


REAR-  ADM  I  RAL 
JUNIORS  IN  RANK 


SENIOR  IN 


PENNANT 

RANK 


SENIOR  OFFICERS  PENNANT 

WHEN  NO  FLAG  OFFICER 
IS  PRESENT 


REAR-ADMIRAL 


SENIOR  IN  RANK 


COPYRIOHT,  1914  BY  OOOO,  MEAD  It  COMPANY 


te:e  L  ARY 
of  t:;£ 

UNIVERSITY  Of  ILLINOIS 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES  729 


11,  1779,  (present  corps  of)  March  3,  1803;  ord¬ 
nance,  May  14,  1812;  signal  (corps),  March  3, 
1863.  The  Journal  of  the  Continental  Congress, 
Washington’s  orders,  and  the  Revised  Statutes 
teem  with  interesting  historical  and  biographical 
data  relating  to  these  staff  departments  for 
which  space  here  is  denied.  Out  of  the  crude 
measures  of  a  great  crisis  has  grown  a  govern¬ 
mental  system  which,  if  not  perfect,  has  through 
its  personnel  accomplished  wonders.  The  names 
of  Steuben,  Trumbull,  Rush,  Morgan,  Bernard, 
Townsend,  Meigs,  Ingalls,  Myer,  Fry,  and  Wes¬ 
ton  are  those  of  a  few  of  the  men  who,  in  spite 
of  imperfections  of  organization,  of  official  dry 
rot,  and  a  false  sense  of  security  from  perils  that 
at  times  threaten  the  most  favored  nations,  were 


IMPORTANT  CAMPAIGNS  AND  EXPEDITIONS 

IN  WHICH  THE  ARMY  HAS  TAKEN  PART 


1790-95  War  with  Northwestern  Indians. 

1794  Whisky  Insurrection  (Pa.). 

1808  Sabine  expedition  (La.). 

1811- 13  War  with  Western  Indians. 

1S12.  Seminole  disturbances  (Fla.). 

1812- 15  War  with  Great  Britain. 

1813- 14  Creek  Indian  War  (Ala.). 

1817-18  Seminole  War  (Fla.). 

1823  Blackfeet  Indian  campaign. 

1827  Winnebago  Indian  expedition. 

1832  Black  Hawk  War. 

1835— 42  Seminole  War  (Fla.). 

1836- 37  Creek  Indian  disturbances  (Ala.). 

1836-39  Cherokee  disturbances. 

1838-39  New  York  frontier  disturbances. 

1846-48  Mexican  War. 

1848  Cjfcyuse  Indian  War  (Oreg.). 

1849-61  Navajo  Indian  troubles  (N.  Mex.). 

1849-61  Indian  disturbances  (Tex.). 

1850  Pitt  River  expedition  (Cal.). 

1851-52  Yuma  expedition  (Cal.). 

1851-56  Snake,  Sioux,  Yakima,  Cheyenne,  and  Arapahoe 
Indian  War. 


1855-57  Seminole  War  (Fla.). 

1857  Gila  expedition  (N.  Mex.). 

1857- 58  Utah  expedition. 

1858  Puget  Sound  and  other  Indian  troubles. 

1858- 59  Wichita  (Ind.  Ter.),  Colorado  River  (Cal.),  Pecos 

and  Antelope  Hills  (Tex.),  and  Bear  River 
(Utah)  expeditions. 

1859- 60  Cortina  troubles  on  Texas-Mexican  border. 

1860  Iviowa-Comanche  (Ind.  Ter.)  and  Carson  Valley 
(Utah)  expeditions. 

1860- 61  Navajo  expedition  (N.  Mex.). 

1861- 86  Apache  Indian  War  (Ariz.  and  N.  Mex.). 

1861- 65  Civil  War. 

1862- 67  Sioux  War  (Minn,  and  Dak.). 

1863- 69  Indian  War  (Kans.,  Neb.,  Colo.,  and  Ind.  Ter.). 
.1865-68  War  with  Northwestern  Indians. 

1865-66  Fenian  raid  (N.  Y.  and  Canada). 

1867- 81  Campaigns  against  Indians  and  Mexican  border 

disturbances. 

1868- 69  Canadian  River  expedition  (N.  Mex.). 

1871  Yellowstone  expedition. 

1872-73  Modoc  War. 

1873  Yellowstone  expedition. 

1874-75  Indian  campaign  (Ind.  Ter.),  Sioux  (Wyo.  and 
Neb.),  Black  Hills  (Dak.),  and  Big  Horn 
(Wyo.)  expeditions. 

1875  Expedition  against  Indians  (Nev.). 

1876  Powder  River  expedition  (Wyo.). 

1876-77  Big  Horn  and  Yellowstone  expeditions  (Wyo.  and 


Mont.). 

1876-79  War  with  Northern  Indians. 

1877  Labor  strikes  (Pa.  and  Md.). 

1877  Nez  Perces  campaign. 

1878  Bannock  and  Piute  campaigns  (Nev.  and  Idaho), 

and  Ute  Indian  expedition  (Colo.). 

1879-84  Disturbances  in  Ind.  and  Okla.  Ter.,  and  Lte 
Indian  campaign  (Colo,  and  Utah). 

1885  Chinese  mining  and  labor  troubles  (Wyo.  Ter.). 

1890- 91  Sioux  Indian  troubles  (S.  Dak.). 

1891- 93  Garcia  troubles  (Texas-Mexican  border). 

1894  Labor  disturbances  (Ill.),  and  labor  strikes  (Ill.  to 
Pacific  coast). 

1898  War  with  Spain. 

1899-1902  Philippine  insurrection. 

1900  China  relief  expedition. 

1906-09  Cuban  pacification. 

1914  Occupation  of  Vera  Cruz. 

1911-16  Mexican  border  patrol. 

1916  Pursuit  of  Mexican  bandit  Villa. 

1917-19  Operations  in  Europe. 


equal  to  the  emergency  of  war  and  achieved  great 
distinction  in  their  several  departments.  In 
these  staff  departments  often  have  been  felt  the 
effects  of  legislation  by  Congress  and  schemes  for 
the  reorganization  of  the  army. 

Modern  Establishment.  The  war  with  Spain 
(1898)  called  public  attention  to  some  of  the 
imperfections  of  the  American  military  admin¬ 
istration,  and  discussion  of  the  shortcomings 
brought  about  a  plan  of  organization  unprec¬ 
edented  in  the  history  of  the  army.  The  Philip¬ 
pine  insurrection,  requiring  the  occupation  of 
the  archipelago  at  one  time  by  a  force  of  65,000 
men  (regulars  and  volunteers),  became  in  its 
turn  an  object  lesson  in  the  formation  of  a  per¬ 
manent  military  establishment  suited  to  the  new 
conditions.  The  regular  force  of  1897,  expanded 
by  Congress  the  following  year  to  63,000,  was 
in  1899  reenforced  by  35,000  volunteers,  excep¬ 
tionally  efficient,  as  nearly  all  had  seen  service 
in  Cuba  and  the  Philippines,  and  were  organized 
into  regiments  commanded  by  selected  regular 
officers.  During  two  years  following  these 
troops  were  incessantly  engaged  in  fighting  the 
Filipinos  under  the  unfavorable  conditions  of 
climate,  terrain,  and  the  treacherous  character 
of  the  enemy.  Besides  the  service  in  the  Philip¬ 
pines,  the  regular  contingent  there  was  drawn 
upon  for  the  China  relief  expedition  to  the  extent 
of  2000  men. 

ENROLLMENT  IN  VARIOUS  WARS 

WAR  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 


Continentals .  231,771 

Militia .  164,087 


Total .  395,858 

WAR  OF  1S12 


Regulars.  . 
Militia 
V olunteers 
Rangers.  . . 


38,186 

458,463 

10,110 

3,049 


Total 


509, SOS 


WAR  WITH  MEXICO 


Regulars . 

Volunteers . . . 

Total 


26,922 

73,532 


100,454 


CIVIL  WAR 

Regulars . .  . .  46,669 

Volunteers  and  Militia . 2,637,080 

Total . 2,683,749 

WAR  WITH  SPAIN 

Regulars  (June  30,  1898) .  6,669 

Volunteers .  232,235 

Total .  277,904 


WAR  OF  THE  NATIONS 

Regulars .  500.000 

National  Guard  and  National  Army .  4,300,000 

Total . 4,800,000 

On  Feb.  2,  1901,  Congress  authorized  a  per¬ 
manent  increase  of  the  army  (discretionary 
with  the  President  except  artillery)  not  to  ex¬ 
ceed  100,000  men,  including  12,000  native  troops 
for  service  in  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippines. 
This  force  consisted  of  15  regiments  of  cavalry, 
30  of  infantry,  3  battalions  of  engineers,  a  corps 
of  artillery,  and  the  staff  departments.  In  June 
of  that  year  all  volunteers  were  mustered  out. 
In  July,  1902,  the  President,  in  the  exercise  of  the 
discretion  vested  in  him  by  law,  the  United  States 


UNITED  STATES 


730 


UNITED  STATES 


having  recognized  the  independence  of  Cuba  and 
having  placed  the  greater  part  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  under  civil  government,  materially  re¬ 
duced  the  army  until  the  aggregate  strength  in 
1907  was  4016  officers  and  68,301  men. 

The  most  radical  change  in  the  organization 
was  that  of  the  artillery.  For  many  years  nom¬ 
inally  it  was  regimental,  but  practically  the  unit 
for  administration  and  operation  was  the  bat¬ 
tery.  The  system  of  coast  defense  lacked  co¬ 
hesion,  consisting  simply  of  a  number  of  inde¬ 
pendent  posts  commanded  by  officers  who,  hav¬ 
ing  reached  the  rank  of  field  officer  after  30 
or  40  years’  service  as  light  battery  commanders 
in  the  Civil  War  or  with  infantry  garrisons  in 
peace  were  content  to  rest  on  their  laurels. 
Under  the  influence  of  Secretary  of  War  Root 
the  seven  regiments  of  artillery  were  merged 
into  a  corps,  supervised  by  a  chief,  with  his  sta¬ 
tion  at  the  headquarters  of  the  army,  and  con¬ 
sisting  of  126  companies  of  coast  artillery  and  30 
batteries  of  field  artillery.  The  companies  were 
grouped  within  a  number  of  artillery  districts, 
and  each  district  placed  under  command  of  a 
competent  field  officer.  In  1907  the  corps  was 
reorganized  into  two  separate  branches  of  the 
service,  the  field  artillery  being  increased  and 
organized  as  six  regiments  of  two  battalions 
each,  each  battalion  consisting  of  three  batteries 
of  four  guns  each. 

Another  important  item  in  the  legislation  of 
1901  was  the  change  from  a  permanent  to  a 
detailed  staff.  By  the  law  vacancies  occurring 
in  the  adjutant  general’s  department,  the  inspec¬ 
tor  general’s  department,  the  subsistence,  pay, 
and  quartermaster  departments  (later  consoli¬ 
dated  as  the  quartermaster  corps,  q.v.),  the  ord¬ 
nance  department,  and  the  signal  corps  are  filled 
by  detailing  officers  of  the  line  for  four  years 
only,  after  which  they  return  to  the  line  regi¬ 
ments.  The  general  staff  corps  was  established 
in  1903,  the  chief  of  which,  selected  by  the  Presi¬ 
dent  for  a  term  of  four  years  only,  replaced  the 
commanding  general  of  the  army,  who  formerly 
commanded  by  virtue  of  his  seniority  and  re¬ 
tained  command  until  retired  from  active  service. 
Under  the  new  svstem  the  President,  the  com¬ 
mander  in  chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  selects 
the  general  officer,  irrespective  of  his  rank,  who 
in  his  opinion  most  satisfactorily  can  carry  out 
the  views  of  the  administration  with  respect  to 
the  army. 

After  the  creation  of  the  general  staff  corps  in 
1903  the  War  College  (q.v.)  was  established  at 
Washington,  D.  C.  For  other  schools,  see  Mili¬ 
tary  Education. 

Organization  of  the  Army  and.  Organized 
Militia.  Under  the  constitution  the  President 
is  commander* in  chief  of  the  army,  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  which  is  in  the  hands  of  a  civilian 
Secretary  of  War,  who  is  a  member  of  the  cabi¬ 
net,  and  an  Assistant  Secretary  of  War,  also  a 
civilian.  The  chief  of  the  general  staff,  a  gen¬ 
eral  officer  of  the  army,  selected  and  appointed 
by  the  President  for  a  term  of  four  years,  is 
the  military  adviser  of  the  President  and  the 
Secretary  of  War  and  has  general  supervision 
over  the  staff  bureaus  and  the  line  of  the 
army,  exercising  authority  in  the  name  of  the 
Secretary  of  War  and  not  by  virtue  of  his  rank, 
which  may  be  inferior  to  that  of  other  general 
officers. 

Higher  Organization. — For  the  first  time  in 
the  history  of  the  army  in  peace  the  President, 
on  Feb.  6,  1913,  directed  that  an  order  be  issued 


organizing  the  troops  of  the  mobile  army  into 
permanent  tactical  divisions  and  brigades.  Al¬ 
though  in  1916  the  divisions  were  incomplete, 
there  were  three  infantry  divisions  within  the 
continental  limits  of  the  United  States,  with 
headquarters  as  follows:  first  division,  Gover¬ 
nor's  Island,  N.  Y. ;  second  division,  Chicago,  Ill.; 
third  division,  San  Francisco,  Cal.  One  cavalry 
division  was  organized  with  headquarters  at  San 
Antonio,  Tex.  There  were  also  two  independent 
cavalry  brigades.  The  coast  artillery  troops  in 
the  United  States  were  organized  into  three  coast 
artillery  districts — the  North  Atlantic,  the  South 
Atlantic,  and  the  Pacific.  The  three  infantry 
regiments  in  Hawaii  were  organized  as  the  First 
Hawaiian  Brigade.  The  troops  in  the  Philip¬ 
pines  were  not  organized  as  a  tactical  division. 
In  the  Panama  Canal  Zone  was  stationed  a  re¬ 
enforced  brigade. 

The  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the 
War  of  the  Nations,  in  April,  1917,  brought 
vast  changes  in  the  military  policy  of  the 
country,  and  Congress  was  at  once  asked  by 
President  Wilson  to  pass  measures  which  would 
enable  the  necessary  increase  in  the  military 
forces.  The  National  Guard  was  mobilized 
in  accordance  with  the  legislation  already  in 
effect,  and  on  May  18,  1917,  Congress  passed 
the  Selective  Draft  Act  which  authorized  the 
President  immediately  to  increase  the  regular 
army  to  the  full  extent  provided  by  the  National 
Defense  Act  of  1916,  and  to  raise  by  draft  a 
force  of  500,000  men,  with  the  necessary  officers 
and  another  similar  force  of  equal  strength  at 
a  later  date  at  his  discretion.  The  draft  was 
made  applicable  to  all  male  citizens  or  persons 
not  alien  enemies  who  had  declared  their  in¬ 
tention  to  become  citizens,  between  the  ages  of 
21  and  30  years,  both  inclusive.  It  was  pro¬ 
vided  also  that  the  Regular  Army  and  National 
Guard  should  be  raised  to  and  maintained  at 
their  maximum  strength  by  voluntary  enlist¬ 
ment,  in  so  far  as  might  be  possible,  the  draft 
to  be  resorted  to  in  these  cases  also,  and  the 
President  might  decide  that  the  number  of  vol¬ 
unteers  was  insufficient  for  the  purpose.  For 
the  details  which  accompanied  the  carrying  out 
of  these  and  later  measures  see  the  article 
Army  Organization,  and  Volume  XXIV.  The 
army  reorganized  also  to  accord  in  as  many  re¬ 
spects  as  possible  with  the  organization  of  our 
European  allies.  The  new  organization  increased 
the  ratio  of  artillery  and  machine  gun  strength 
to  infantry.  In  place  of  the  old  division  of 
three  brigades  with  three  infantry  regiments  in 
each,  there  was  a  division  of  two  brigades  with 
two  infantry  regiments  in  each.  The  strength 
of  the  infantry  regiments  was  increased  from 
about  1,000  men  to  3,652  men,  with  103  officers. 

From  April  6,  1917  to  November  11,  1918, 
about  4,000,000  men  served  in  the  army  of  the 
United  States.  About  half  a  million  came  in 
through  the  Regular  Army,  and  about  400,000 
more  through  the  National  Guard.  More  than 
three-fourths  of  all  came  in  through  the  selec¬ 
tive  service  or  National  Army  enlistments.  Of 
every  100  men  serving  during  the  war,  ten  were 
National  Guardsmen,  13  were  Regulars,  and 
77  belonged  to  the  National  Army,  or  would 
have  belonged  if  the  services  had  not  been  con¬ 
solidated  and  distinctions  wiped  out  on  August 
7,  1918.  About  200,000  commissioned  officers 
were  required  for  the  army.  Of  this  number 
less  than  9000  were  in  the"  Federal  service  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war. 


UNITED  STATES 


731 


UNITED  STATES 

The  number  of  American  soldiers  who  reached 
France  was  2,084,000  and  of  these  1,390,000  saw 
active  service  in  the  front  line.  The  total 
number  of  divisions  reaching  France  was  42, 
each  composed  of  28,000  men.  Of  these  29  took 
part  in  active  combat  service.  American  troops 
saw  service  on  practically  every  part  of  the 
western  front  from  British  lines  in  Belgium  to 
inactive  sectors  in  the  Vosges.  They  partici¬ 
pated  in  13  major  operations,  one  of  which,  the 
Battle  of  St.  Mihiel,  was  fought  almost  entirely 
with  the  American  army.  In  this  battle  550,00*0 
Americans  were  engaged  and  in  the  Meuse-Ar- 
gonne  battle,  1,200,000  American  troops  were 
engaged. 

The  total  of  the  casualties  suffered  by  the 
American  troops  in  the  War  of  the  Nations 
was  302,612.  Of  these,  34,248  were  killed  in 
action  and  23,480  died  of  wounds,  a  total  of 
57,688.  The  wounded  numbered  221,050;  the 
missing  in  action  5  and  the  prisoners  taken 
by  the  Germans,  4432. 

The  total  expenditures  directly  attributable 
to  the  War  of  the  Nations  on  account  of  the 
army  was  $14,244,061,000. 

The  details  of  the  transportation  of  these 
armies  and  of  their  return  to  the  United  States 
following  the  war  will  be  found  in  the  articles 
mentioned  above. 

NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ACT 

Under  the  Act  signed  June  3,  1916  a  great 
increase,  accompanied  by  many  changes,  was 
authorized.  Under  this  Act,  the  army  of  the 
United  States  “consists  of  the  Regular  Army, 
the  Volunteer  Army,  the  Officers’  Reserve  Corps, 
the  Enlisted  Reserve  Corps,  the  National  Guard 
while  in  the  service  of  the  United  States, 
and  such  other  forces  as  are  now  or  may 
hereafter  be  authorized  by  law.”  The  Regular 
Army,  inclusive  of  existing  organizations,  thus 
consists  of  64  regiments  of  infantry,  exclusive 
of  the  Porto  Rican  Regiment;  25  of  cavalry;  21 
of  field  artillery;  a  coast  artillery  corps;  of  the 
staff  corps  and  department;  of  the  military 
academy;  and  of  various  other  units  and  sub¬ 
sidiary  organizations.  The  increases  contem¬ 
plated  were  to  be  made  in  five  yearly  increments, 
beginning  July  1,  1916.  The  number  of  general 
officers  was  increased  by  4  major  and  19  briga¬ 
dier  generals.  The  general  staff,  increased  to  55, 
had  its  functions  severely  limited  by  the  law. 
Increases  were  made  in  the  other  staff  corps,  and 
to  the  engineers  were  given  7  regiments  and  2 
mounted  battalions.  The  medical  corps  was  to 
consist  of  7  officers  for  every  1000  of  enlisted 
strength.  In  the  signal  corps  was  authorized 
an  aviation  section  to  consist  of  148  officers,  114 
being  first  lieutenants,  selected  from  the  army 
at  large.  The  coast  artillery  was  increased  to 
about  30,000  men,  and  the  composition  of  bri¬ 
gades,  divisions,  and  so  forth,  was  set  forth.  The 
infantry  regiment  was  to  consist  of  5  field  and 
46  subaltern  officers,  and  of  one  headquarters 
company,  one  machine-gun  company,  and  12  in¬ 
fantry  companies,  these  to  be  grouped  into  3 
battalions  of  4  companies  each.  A  similar  or¬ 
ganization  was  provided  for  the  cavalry  regi¬ 
ment,  14  troops,  of  which  12  were  to  form  3 
squadrons  of  4  troops  each.  The  number  of 
batteries  in  a  field  artillery  regiment  was  not 
fixed,  but  the  total  number  in  this  arm  was  to 
be  126,  and  each  regiment  was  to  have  such 
number  of  gun  and  howitzer  battalions  “as  the 
President  may  direct.”  To  provide  for  various 
Vol.  XXII.  — 47 


details,  the  line  of  the  army  was  increased  by 
822  extra  officers  of  infantry,  cavalry,  field  and 
coast  artillery.  The  composition  of  the  Regu¬ 
lar  Army  Reserve  was  fixed,  and  conditions  of 
service  and  pay  laid  down;  a  reserve  corps  of 
officers  was  created,  not  subject  to  call  for  serv¬ 
ice  in  time  of  peace,  the  Medical  Reserve  Corps 
abolished,  and  an  Enlisted  Reserve  Corps  created, 
to  furnish  men  to  the  engineer,  ordnance,  medi¬ 
cal,  and  other  departments  of  the  army.  By 
the  provisions  of  the  law  relating  to  the  National 
Guard,  the  number  of  enlisted  men  of  this  force 
was  ultimately  to  reach  the  ratio  of  not  fewer 
than  800  men  for  each  Senator  and  Representa¬ 
tive  in  Congress,  with  a  period  of  enlistment  of 
6  years,  3  with  the  colors  and  3  with  the  re¬ 
serve.  Moreover,  an  oath  of  enlistment  was  pro¬ 
vided,  under  which  each  affiant  bound  himself  to 
obey  the  orders  of  the  President  and  of  the 
Governor  of  the  State,  etc.  A  similar  oath,  a 
“federal”  oath,  was  to  be  required  of  officers. 
These  and  other  provisions  had  for  their  object 
the  federalization  of  the  National  Guard,  so  as 
to  make  of  it  a  Federal  as  well  as  a  State  force. 
This  feature  is  further  emphasized  by  the  admis¬ 
sion  of  officers  and  men  to  the  national  payrolls. 

Following  the  peace  with  the  Central  Powers, 
in  1919,  steps  were  taken  as  soon  as  possible  to 
reduce  the  strength  of  the  military  establish¬ 
ment.  The  Army  of  Occupation  which  formed 
a  part  of  the  Allied  garrison  of  German  ter¬ 
ritory  remained  at  Coblentz  until  1921,  when 
the  greater  part  was  returned  to  the  United 
States,  leaving  only  a  small  nominal  garrison 
of  several  thousand. 

On  June  4,  1920,  Congress  passed  an  act 
amending  the  so-called  National  Defense  Act  of 
June  3,  1916.  This  measure  practically  reor¬ 
ganized  the  regular  military  establishment  of 
the  National  Guard.  It  divided  the  United 
States  for  military  purposes  into  corps  areas 
on  the  basis  of  military  population.  Each  area 
has  at  least  one  division  of  the  National  Guard 
or  organized  reserves.  There  are  nine  of  these 
corps  areas.  The  act  also  established  an  Air 
Service,  a  Finance  Department,  and  a  Chemical 
Warfare  Service,  and  it  declared  that  “The 
organized  peace  establishment,  including  the 
Regular  Army,  the  National  Guard,  and  the 
organized  reserves  shall  include  all  of  those 
divisions  and  other  military  organizations  neces¬ 
sary  to  form  the  basis  for  a  complete  and  im¬ 
mediate  mobilization  for  the  National  defense 
in  the  event  of  a  National  emergency  declared 
by  Congress.” 

A  General  Staff  Corps  was  organized  by  this 
act,  which  consists  of  the  Chief  of  Staff,  the 
War  Department  General  Staff,  and  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Staff  of  the  Troops.  The  office  of  Assist¬ 
ant  Secretary  of  War  was  created  with  the 
general  duty  of  supervising  the  procurement  of 
all  military  supplies.  Provision  was  also  made 
for  an  Officers’  Reserve  Corps  and  for  training 
camps  under  the  direction  of  officers  of  the 
Regular  Army.  The  provisions  of  former  laws 
relating  to  the  National  Guard  were  somewhat 
altered.  The  Militia  Division  of  the  War  De¬ 
partment  became  the  Militia  Bureau,  with  a 
chief  to  be  chosen  from  the  National  Guard 
to  hold  office  for  four  years.  He  is  to  be  as¬ 
sisted  by  as  many  regular  army  officers  and 
men  as  the  President  deems  necessary.  In  ac¬ 
cordance  with  this  law,  the  army  of  the  United 
States  is  now  composed  of  three  coordinate  com¬ 
ponents;  the  Regular  Army,  the  National  Guard, 


UNITED  STATES 


732 


UNITED  STATES 


and  the  National  Reserves.  The  act  provided  for 
a  Regular  Army  of  approximately  280,000  men 
and  17,700  ollicers.  Congress,  however,  refused 
to  make  provision  for  an  army  of  this  size,  and 
in  1922  an  Army  and  Navy  Bill  carried  ap¬ 
propriations  for  about  150,000  men.  It  was 
necessary,  therefore,  to  reduce  the  army  during 
that  year  to  this  number. 

The  actual  strength  of  the  military  forces  of 
the  United  States  at  the  beginning  of  1922  was 
as  follows: 


OFFICERS 

MEN 

Regular  Army  . 

15,000 

138,000 

National  Army . 

6,700 

64,300 

128,500 

Organized  Reserves . 

261 

The  militia  numbered  about  129,000  enlisted  men 
and  about  7000  officers. 


NAVY 

Naval  History.  The  first  definite  provision 
for  a  naval  establishment  was  the  Act  of  Con¬ 
gress  of  Oct.  13,  1775,  which  authorized  the 
building  of  one  vessel  of  10  guns  and  another  of 
14  guns  to  be  equipped  as  national  cruisers. 
At  the  same  time  a  law  was  passed  establish¬ 
ing  a  marine  committee,  consisting  of  John 
Adams  (later  replaced  by  Christopher  Gadsden), 
John  Langdon,  and  Silas  Deane.  This  congres¬ 
sional  committee  was  later  enlarged  to  13  and 
given  charge  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  navy. 

On  October  30  two  more  vessels  were  author¬ 
ized,  one  of  20  and  the  other  of  36  guns;  while 
on  December  13  the  construction  of  13  ships 
was  provided  for.  On  November  10  an  Act  for 
the  “public  defense”  authorized  the  raising  of 
2  battalions  of  marines  and  established  rules 
for  the  “government  of  the  American  navy.” 
The  marines  authorized  were  in  reality  sailors, 
for  the  Act  provided  “that  particular  care  be 
taken  that  no  persons  be  appointed  to  offices, 
or  enlisted  into  said  battalions,  but  such  as 
are  good  seamen,  or  so  acquainted  with  maritime 
affairs  as  to  be  able  to  serve  to  advantage  by 
sea  when  required.”  It  is  probable,  therefore, 
that  Congress  designed  by  the  Act  to  provide 
crews  for  such  vessels  as  they  were  able  to  equip 
and  to  enlist  and  keep  the  men  together  until 
their  services  could  be  made  available. 

As  the  vessels  authorized  to  be  built  could 
not  be  completed  for  some  time,  a  number  of 
merchantmen  were  purchased  and  armed.  These 
improvised  men-of-war,  hastily  and  poorly 
equipped  and  armed  and  in  many  cases  very 
badly  officered  and  manned,  constituted  the  first 
American  naval  force,  of  which,  by  Act  of  Con¬ 
gress  of  Dec.  22,  1775,  Esek  Hopkins  was  made 
commander  in  chief. 

The  vessels  of  the  improvised  navy  were  di¬ 
rected  to  cruise  along  the  coast  and  intercept 
transports  laden  with  munitions  of  war  for  the 
British  army  and  navy.  In  March,  1776,  in 
command  of  a  small  squadron  which  included 
nearly  all  the  vessels  as  yet  in  service  and  con¬ 
sisted  of  the  Alfred  (24  guns),  Columbus  (20), 
Cabot  (14),  Andrea  Doria  (14),  Providence 
(12),  and  Wasp  (8),  Hopkins  captured  the 
British  naval  station  at  Nassau,  Bahamas,  ob¬ 
taining  a  quantity  of  military  and  naval  stores, 
including  nearly  100  cannon,  which  were  much 
needed  for  the  new  ships.  The  prisoners  in¬ 
cluded  the  Royal  Governor  of  the  island. 

On  March  23,  1776,  letters  of  marque  and 


reprisal  were  granted  against  Great  Britain, 
and  numerous  privateers  were  fitted  out.  On 
June  25  a  marine  corps  (q.v. )  was  established, 
consisting  of  1  major,  9  captains,  10  first  lieu¬ 
tenants,  and  7  second  lieutenants. 

After  the  Declaration  of  Independence  Con¬ 
gress  began  the  building  up  of  the  navy  with 
increased  vigor,  and  on  October  3  it  ordered 
another  frigate  and  two  cutters,  and  on  No¬ 
vember  9  an  Act  was  passed  authorizing  the 
construction  of  three  74-gun  ships,  five  more 
frigates,  a  sloop-of-war,  and  a  packet;  and  these 
were  to  be  supplemented  by  another  frigate  and 
another  sloop-of-war  ordered  in  January,  1777. 
But  the  plans  of  Congress  were  quite  beyond 
the  capacity  of  the  Colonies  to  carry  out.  One 
74-gun  ship  was  laid  down  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
and  completed  in  1781 — too  late  to  be  of  serv¬ 
ice.  Her  armament  was  reduced  to  56  guns, 
and  during  the  next  year  she  was  presented  to 
the  King  of  France  to  replace  the  74-gun  ship 
Magnifigue,  which  was  lost  in  Boston  harbor. 
Many  of  the  vessels  built  never  got  to  sea,  and 
the  real  work  performed  by  the  navy  during 
the  Revolution  was  done  by  a  dozen  vessels, 
most  of  which  were  small. 

On  Nov.  15,  1776,  Congress  established  the 
relative  rank  between  officers  of  the  army  and 
navy  as  follows:  admirals  to  rank  with  gen¬ 
erals,  vice  admirals  with  lieutenant  generals, 
rear  admirals  with  major  generals,  commodores 
with  brigadier  generals,  captains  of  ships  of  40 
guns  and  upward  with  colonels,  captains  of  ships 
of  20  to  40  guns  with  lieutenant  colonels,  cap¬ 
tains  of  ships  of  10  to  20  guns  with  majors, 
lieutenants  with  captains,  and  officers  of  marines 
with  officers  holding  similar  commissions  in  the 
land  service.  Notwithstanding  this  act,  no  rank 
higher  than  that  of  captain  was  created  by  law 
until  1862,  though  the  title  of  admiral  (q.v.) 
was  given  to  John  Paul  Jones  in  the  official  cor¬ 
respondence  of  the  State  Department  in  1792,  a 
short  time  previous  to  his  death. 

From  the  close  of  the  Revolution  until  1795 
the  country  was  practically  without  a  navy, 
largely  from  lack  of  money  to  support  one.  The 
cause  of  its  reestablishment  was  the  depreda¬ 
tions  of  the  Barbary  pirates.  On  March  3, 
1794,  President  Washington  sent  a  message  to 
Congress  communicating  the  facts  in  regard  to 
the  Algerian  outrages,  and  Congress  promptly 
passed  an  Act,  which  was  approved  on  March  27, 
authorizing  the  purchase  or  construction  of  six 
frigates.  It  was  provided  that  no  vessel  should 
mount  less  than  32  guns.  An  additional  provi¬ 
sion  was  that  all  proceedings  under  the  Act 
should  cease  in  case  the  Algerian  difficulty  should 
be  settled.  Measures  were  immediately  taken 
for  the  construction  of  the  vessels,  which  con¬ 
sisted  of  the  Constitution  (q.v.),  President,  and 
United  States  of  44  guns,  and  the  Chesapeake 
(q.v.),  Constellation,  and  Congress  of  38. 

In  November,  1795,  a  treaty  was  signed  with 
the  Dey  of  Algiers,  and  all  work  on  the  vessels 
was  suspended.  The  President  immediately 
called  the  attention  of  Congress  to  the  subject, 
and  an  Act  was  passed  without  delay  ordering 
the  completion  and  equipment  of  two  of  the  44’s 
and  one  of  the  38’s.  The  treaty  of  peace  with 
the  Dey  of  Algiers  cost  nearly  a  million  dollars, 
the  price  of  three  frigates,  and  the  President,  in 
his  annual  address  to  Congress  in  December, 
1796,  strongly  recommended  laws  for  the  grad¬ 
ual  increase  of  the  navy.  The  outrageous  pro¬ 
ceedings  of  the  French  cruisers  on  the  United 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


733 


States  coast  did  what  no  representations  of  the 
government  could  achieve,  and  in  April,  1798, 
Congress  grudgingly  authorized  the  President  to 
build,  purchase,  or  hire  12  vessels,  none  of  which 
was  to  exceed  22  guns,  and  see  that  they  were 
regularly  manned  and  equipped.  This  Act  was 
passed  on  April  27,  and  on  the  30th  a  regular 
Navy  Department  was  created  separate  from  the 
Department  of  War,  of  which  it  had  previously 
formed  a  part.  Benjamin  Stoddert  of  George¬ 
town,  D.  C.,  was  the  first  Secretary  and  he  en¬ 
tered  on  his  duties  in  June.  On  June  11a  new 
marine  corps  was  established,  and  during  the 
year  a  number  of  additional  small  vessels  were 
authorized. 

The  quasi  war  with  France  soon  terminated 
with  credit  to  the  newly  born  service;  never¬ 
theless  Congress  was  so  opposed  to  any  form  of 
preparedness  and  so  imbued  with  false  ideas  of 
economy  that  the  navy  would  have  been  reduced 
to  comparative  uselessness  had  not  the  Barbary 
Powers  repeated  their  acts  of  aggression.  The 
Act  of  1801  greatly  reduced  the  personnel,  and 
somewhat  more  than  half  the  ships  were  sold. 
The  operations  of  the  Tripolitan  War  were  highly 
creditable  to  the  navy  and  greatly  raised  its 
esprit  du  corps  and  efficiency.  Nevertheless  it 
underwent  another  reduction  at  the  hands  of 
Congress.  All  but  one  or  two  of  the  larger  ves¬ 
sels  were  laid  up,  and  the  few  officers  and  men 
retained  were  mostly  employed  in  small  worth¬ 
less  gunboats.  Whether  President  Jefferson  or 
Congress  devised  the  gunboat  policy  is  uncer¬ 
tain,  but  both  were  earnest  advocates  of  it. 
While  this  system  was  being  developed  the  inci¬ 
dent  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Leopard  occurred 
and  saved  the  navy  from  complete  demoraliza¬ 
tion,  though  the  incident  itself  was  discreditable 
both  to  the  country  and  to  the  naval  service. 
Neither  the  aggressions  of  England  and  France 
and  the  murder  or  imprisonment  of  thousands  of 
American  citizens  nor  the  danger  of  war  with 
Spain  could  rouse  Congress  to  a  sense  of  duty, 
to  prepare  to  resist  the  outrages  which  were 
daily  growing  worse.  The  whole  government 
seemed  to  have  adopted  a  policy  of  hopeful  wait¬ 
ing,  the  President  confining  his  efforts  of  re¬ 
sistance  to  feeble  diplomatic  protests  ending  in 
the  disastrous  embargo  which  inflicted  a  damage 
of  one  hundred  millions  upon  the  merchant 
marine  and  commerce,  while  Congress  did  noth¬ 
ing  except  to  squander  the  price  of  several  line- 
of-battle  ships  in  building  257.  gunboats.  Fi¬ 
nally,  in  January,  1809,  a  bill*  was  passed  by 
which  the  navy  was  more  than  quadrupled  in 
personnel  and  four  of  the  larger  vessels  put  in 
commission.  But  still  no  battleships  were  or¬ 
dered  until  after  the  brilliant  victories  of  the 
Constitution  and  United  States  had  roused  popu¬ 
lar  enthusiasm.  It  was  then  too  late  to  com¬ 
plete  them  before  the  war  closed.  Opposed  to 
this  pitiful  showing,  Great  Britain  had  1060 
vessels.  Notwithstanding  this  disparity  in 
force,  the  United  States  navy  achieved  world¬ 
wide  renown  and  won  the  respect  of  the  coun¬ 
try.  In  1815,  shortly  after  the  close  of  the  war, 
the  navy  was  reenforced  by  three  ships  of  the 
line  of  74  guns,  the  Independence,  Franklin,  and 
Washington ;  two  frigates  of  44  guns,  the  Guer- 
riere  and  Java •  and  the  steam  man-of-war 
Demologos. 

Immediately  after  the  close  of  the  war  with 
Great  Britain  a  squadron  under  the  command 
of  Commodore  Decatur  was  sent  to  punish  the 
Barbary  powers,  particularly  Algiers,  for  wanton 


aggressions  upon  United  States  commerce  during 
the  war,  which  prevented  action  being  taken  at 
the  time.  In  00  days  after  his  arrival  in  the 
Mediterranean  Decatur  had  captured  the  prin¬ 
cipal  vessels  of  the  Algerian  navy  and  had  forced 
treaties  on  Algiers  and  Tunis  which  compelled 
these  faithless  pirates  to  a  recognition  of  mari¬ 
time  right. 

In  considering  the  operations  of  the  War  of 
1812  it  is  interesting  to  speculate  upon  what 
might  have  occurred  had  the  war  lasted  another 


year.  In  1813  Robert  Fulton  submitted  to  Presi¬ 
dent  Madison  plans  for  a  sea-going  steam  bat¬ 
tery.  His  plans  were  accepted,  and  in  March, 
1814,  Congress  authorized  the  building  of  one  or 
more  of  such  batteries  for  the  defense  of  the 
coast.  Fulton  died  in  February,  1815  but  the 
Demologos  (voice  of  the  people)  was  completed 
in  the  following  spring  and  had  successful  trials 
in  June.  On  July  4,  1815,  she  made  a  trip  to 
sea  and  back,  steaming  53  miles  in  8  hours 
and  20  minutes.  Her  length  was  156  feet,  beam 
56  feet,  depth  20  feet,  and  she  measured  2475 
tons,  or  more  than  a  line-of -battle  ship  and  1000 
tons  more  than  the  Constitution,  although  her 
cost  ($320,000)  was  only  $17,000  more  than  the 
first  cost  of  the  latter.  Her  sides  were  5  feet 
thick  and  impenetrable  to  any  guns  carried  by 
British  ships,  while  her  battery  consisted  of  20 
guns,  which  were  heavier  than  any  then  afloat. 
A  furnace  was  fitted  for  heating  shot,  and  there 
were  pumps,  for  throwing  cold  or  hot  water  on 
the  enemy’s  deck.  The  propelling  apparatus 
of  the  Demologos  consisted  of  a  single  paddle 
wheel  in  the  centre  of  the  ship,  operating  in  a 
channel  extending  the  length  of  the  ship  below 
the  gun  deck  and  dividing  the  underwater  body 
into  two  parts,  which  were  held  together  by  the 
upper  works  and  transverse  frames  at  the  bot¬ 
tom.  Had  this  vessel  got  to  sea  before  the  con¬ 
clusion  of  hostilities  and  met  the  warships  of 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


734 


the  enemy,  it  is  tolerably  certain  that  she  would 
have  destroyed  the  heaviest  squadrons  with  ease 
and  caused  a  revolution  in  naval  affairs.  As  it 
was,  however,  her  powers  remained  unproved, 
and  the  natural  conservatism  of  the  naval  au¬ 
thorities,  accustomed  to  the  use  of  sails,  caused 
her  to  be  looked  upon  as  an  interesting  experi¬ 
ment  of  no  great  practical  value.  She  was  there¬ 
fore  tied  up  alongside  the  wharf  at  the  Brooklyn 
Navy  Yard  and  used  as  a  receiving  ship.  On 
June  4,  1829,  her  magazine  blew  up,  killing  24 
persons  and  injuring  19. 

The  successful  performance  of  the  Demologos 
(or  Fulton,  as  she  was  afterward  called  in  honor 
of  her  designer)  led  Congress  in  1816  to  au¬ 
thorize  the  construction  of  another  steam  bat¬ 
tery.  But  the  conservative  officers  at  the  head 
of  affairs  in  the  navy  could  not  understand  the 
importance  of  steam-propelled  ships,  and  it  was 
not  until  1835  that  measures  were  taken  to  carry 
out  the  provisions  of  the  law.  In  the  meantime 
a  number  of  ships  of  the  line  were  commenced, 
10  in  all,  and  some  of  them  took  part  later  in 
the  Mexican  War.  In  1835  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  acting  upon  better  advice,  directed  the 
Board  of  Commissioners  to  proceed  at  once  to 
the  construction  of  a  steam  man-of-war.  In 
1837  it  (the  Fulton)  was  completed  and  tried,  a 
speed  of  12  knots  being  realized.  The  propelling 
power  consisted  of  side  paddle  wheels  and  engines 
on  the  upper  deck.  Several  other  paddle-wheel 
vessels  were  built  in  the  next  few  years,  one  of 
which  was  the  iron  steamer  Michigan,  which  is 
still  on  the  navy  list — the  first  iron  vessel  in 
the  navy  and  also  the  first  one  afloat  on  the 
Lakes.  In  1842-43  the  screw  steamer  Princeton 
(of  about  1000  tons)  was  built  and  fitted  with 
machinery  designed  by  John  Ericsson.  She  was 
the  first  war  vessel  in  any  navy  to  be  fitted  with 
screw  propulsion,  and  likewise  the  first  to  have 
all  her  machinery  and  boilers  below  the  water 
line  and  to  have  blowing  fans  for  forcing  the 
draft  under  the  boilers.  A  congressional  com¬ 
mittee,  after  considering  the  advantages  of  the 
submerged  propeller  and  iron  hulls  recommended 
in  1846  that  13  screw  steamers  of  iron  be  imme¬ 
diately  constructed.  When  authority  for  the 
construction  of  four  war  steamers  was  granted 
in  the  following  year,  a  board  of  prominent  naval 
officers  recommended  that  three  of  the  four 
should  have  paddle  wheels.  The  fourth  was  the 
San  Jacinto,  and  it  as  well  as  the  others  was 
built  of  wood.  In  1854  Congress  ordered  the 
building  of  “six  first-class  steam  frigates  to  be 
provided  with  screw  propellers.”  These  vessels 
were  the  celebrated  ships  of  the  Merrimac,  Nia¬ 
gara,  and  Wabash  class.  They  were  of  fine 
model  for  their  day  and  should  have  had  good 
speed,  but  instead  of  having  full  steam  and 
auxiliary  sail  power  they  had  full  sail  power 
and  only  auxiliary  engines.  They  were  followed, 
however,  in  1857  by  the  steam  frigates  of  the 
Hartford  class,  in  which  the  engine  power  was 
relatively  considerably  increased. 

The  operations  of  the  navy  in  the  Civil  War 
soon  showed  the  true  importance  of  steam  and 
the  uselessness,  or  worse  than  uselessness,  of 
sails.  Even  after  the  close  of  the  war  the 
practice  of  giving  full  sail  power  to  cruising 
men-of-war  was  continued  from  mistaken  ideas 
of  economy,  though  during  the  war  the  rigged 
ships  had  been  generally  stripped  of  yards 
and  upper  masts.  The  practice  died  hard,  and 
it  was  not  until  1887  that  a  full-sail  rig  was 
abandoned  for  cruising  vessels.  The  ill-fated 


Maine  was  the  last  ship  for  general  service  to 
be  designed  to  carry  a  heavy  square  rig,  but  this 
was  changed  to  military  masts  before  her 
completion. 

The  importance  of  possessing  armored  vessels 
was  realized  as,  soon  as  the  Civil  War  com¬ 
menced,  and  on  both  sides  an  investigation  of 
the  subject  of  armored  ships  was  begun  at  once. 
The  Confederates  started  work  first,  but  the  su¬ 
perior  resources  of  the  North  enabled  the  first 
really  armored  ships  to  be  completed  on  practi¬ 
cally  the  same  day.  Both  Monitor  and  Merrimac 
(Virginia)  were  fatally  defective  in  details,  but 
many  of  the  defects  were  corrected  in  later  ves¬ 
sels  of  the  same  types.  See  Ship,  Armored. 

After  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  the  navy 
again  sank  into  decadence,  the  enormous  ex¬ 
penses  entailed  by  the  war  causing  Congress  to 
cut  down  appropriation  in  every  direction.  The 
personnel  of  the  regular  service  was  increased 
just  after  the  end  of  the  struggle,  but  it  was 
cut  down  later,  the  last  cut  being  in  1882,  just 
as  new  construction  was  about  to  commence. 
During  the  interval  1866-82  only  a  few  vessels 
were  authorized — five  monitors  of  4000  to  6000 
tons  and  about  a  dozen  wooden  cruisers,  only  one 
of  which  (the  Trenton )  was  over  2000  tons. 
Old  vessels  were  repaired  and  kept  going,  but 
nothing  new  was  attempted,  the  wooden  cruisers 
mentioned  being  out  of  date  when  put  in  service. 
So  that,  in  1880,  the  United  States  navy,  with 
its  antiquated  ships  and  no  less  antiquated  ord¬ 
nance,  was  the  laughingstock  of  the  world  and 
in  power  below  that  of  several  of  the  small  re¬ 
publics  of  South  America.  Finally,  in  1881,  a 
board  was  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  to  consider  the  needs  of  the  service.  This 
board  recommended  the  building  of  68  vessels  of 
various  types. 

Congress  appropriated  for  two  and  at  its  next 
session  increased  the  number  to  four,  but  reduced 
the  size.  The  first  of  these  Acts  was  passed 
Aug.  5,  1882,  and  in  addition  to  the  provision 
for  the  two  ships  made  a  sweeping  cut  in  the 
number  of  officers,  which  blocked  promotion  for 
10  years  and  subsequently  caused  endless  trouble 
through  the  deficiencies  in  the  numbers  pro¬ 
duced  by  it.  Five  monitors  were  started  early 
in  the  seventies,  but  work  on  them  had  long 
since  ceased  when  it  was  revived  by  the  Act  of 
1882  which  appropriated  $400,000  towards  their 
completion.  In  the  next  session  $1,000,000  addi¬ 
tional  was  appropriated,  but  the  succeeding  Con¬ 
gress  withdrew  all  unexpended  balances  of  this. 
From  this  time  on  each  Congress  made  some  ad¬ 
dition  to  the  navy.  In  1886  the  Maine  and  Texas 
were  provided  for  and  in  1890  three  battle¬ 
ships  of  the  Oregon  type.  In  deference  to  the 
very  general  prejudice  which  existed  against  the 
high-sided,  broadside  battleships  of  European 
navies,  these  ships  were  given  rather  low  free¬ 
board  and  were  called  coast-line  battleships. 
But  the  Iowa,  which  was  next  built,  was  frankly 
described  as  a  seagoing  battleship,  the  unreason¬ 
ing  prejudice  in  favor  of  the  nearly  useless  low 
freeboard  monitor  having  been  much  modified. 

The  war  with  Spain  caused  increased  attention 
to  be  given  to  naval  affairs,  not  only  because  the 
navy  had  done  well,  but  because  the  people  were 
beginning  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  a  pow¬ 
erful  navy  to  a  country  which  must  be  attacked 
from  the  sea  and  reach  its  enemies  through  its 
naval  strength.  They  learned  not  only  this,  but 
that  true  naval  defense  lies  not  in  passive  pro¬ 
tection  of  harbors  by  forts  and  harbor-defense 

«/ 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


735 


ships,  but  in  pursuing  the  enemy’s  naval  forces 
at  sea  and  destroying  them.  The  realization  of 
these  things  caused  the  navy  to  be  considerably 
expanded;  more  heavy  battleships,  armored  cruis¬ 
ers,  and  torpedo  boats  were  authorized;  and  the 
enlisted  force,  which  had  been  nearly  doubled 
since  1882,  was  now  greatly  increased.  In 
1899,  for  the  first  time  in  nearly  20  years,  Con¬ 
gress  passed  legislation  of  importance  concern¬ 
ing  the  officers.  Nearly  all  corps  were  slightly 
increased,  and  the  line  and  engineer  corps  were 
combined.  This  was  practicable,  as  nearly  all 
officers  of  both  corps  had  been  educated  at  the 
Naval  Academy,  and,  while  the  line  officers  had 
received  considerable  instruction  in  steam  engi¬ 
neering,  the  engineers  had  received  some  training 
in  line  officers’  duties.  After  17  years  of  expe¬ 
rience  the  amalgamation  of  the  two  corps  is  re¬ 
garded  as  highly  successful  and  as  adding  greatly 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  navy.  Officers  electing  to 
perform  special  duties  are  selected  for  additional 
courses  in  their  work — ordnance,  marine  engi¬ 
neering,  electrical  engineering,  aviation,  etc. 
The  senior  officers  performing  duties  in  these 
branches  are,  as  far  as  practicable,  selected  from 
those  who  have  been  specially  educated  for  the 
work. 

WAR  OF  THE  NATIONS  AND  AFTER 

The  work  of  the  United  States  Navy  in  the 
War  of  the  Nations  was  more  important  and 
decisive  than  is  generally  understood.  Without 
its  powerful  assistance  the  submarine  could  not 
have  been  so  effectively  curbed;  American  troops 
could  not  have  been  sent  to  France  without 
great  losses,  and  the  food  supplies  for  the  Allies 
might  have  failed.  The  American  navy  fur¬ 
nished  the  additional  force  which  made  the 
British  blockade  and  the  anti-submarine  war 
a  complete  success.  For  more  than  a  year  one 
division  of  the  United  States  battleship  fleet 
formed  part  of  the  British  Grand  Fleet,  and 
for  a  shorter  period  two  American  divisions 
were  so  operating.  Their  business  made  it 
possible  for  British  battleship  units  to  receive 
the  necessary  overhaul  without  reducing  the 
available  forces  to  a  point  which  might  give  the 
German  fleet  opportunity  to  come  out  without 
being  destroyed. 

The  navy  was  well  prepared  for  its  entrance 
into  the  war.  Within  a  month  after  the  dec¬ 
laration,  April  6,  1917,  nearly  all  the  larger 
American  destroyers  had  crossed  the  Atlantic 
and  were  operating  in  European  waters.  Patrol 
boats  of  all  types,  mine-layers,  and  mine¬ 
sweepers  were  dispatched  as  rapidly  as  they 
could  be  equipped  and  new  destroyers  were  laid 
down  as  fast  as  the  building  quays  could  be 
prepared  or  cleared  for  them.  More  than  250 
new  destroyers  were  built  during  1917-18.  From 
the  declaration  of  war,  April  6,  1917,  to  April 
6,  1918,  1275  vessels,  aggregating  1,055,116  tons 
were  added  to  the  navy  through  building  or  pur¬ 
chase.  One  of  the  great  exploits  of  the  war 
was  the  laying  of  the  mine  barrage  in  the  North 
Sea  by  American  naval  vessels.  Tbe  details  of 
the  operations  of  the  navy  during  the  war  are 
to  be  found  in  the  article  Navy  and  Volume 
XXIV. 

Following  the  conclusion  of  the  War  of  the 
Nations,  there  was  a  desire  to  cut  down  the 
enormous  expenses  under  which  the  governments 
were  laboring,  and  as  the  most  direct  method  of 
doing  this,  President  Harding  invited  Great 


Britain,  France,  Italy,  and  Japan  to  meet  in 
conference  in  Washington  to  consider,  among 
other  questions,  that  of  the  limitation  of  naval 
armaments.  The  deliberations  and  results  of  this 
conference  are  told  in  Volume  XXIV.  As  re¬ 
gards  the  United  States  Navy,  the  agreement 
was  reached  that  it  should  "be  equal  to  the 
British  navy  and  superior  to  the  Japanese  navy 
in  a  ratio  of  5-5-3.  The  United  States  engaged, 
under  the  terms  of  the  agreement,  to  scrap  all 
new  capital  ships  now  under  construction  and 
on  their  way  to  completion.  This  included  6 
battle  cruisers  and  7  battleships  on  the  ways 
and  building,  and  two  battleships  launched.  It 
agreed  also  to  scrap  all  battleships  up  to  but 
not  including  the  Delaware  and  North  Dakota. 
By  an  amendment,  the  battleships  Colorado  and 
Washington  were  allowed  in  place  of  the  Dela¬ 
ware  and  North  Dakota,  which  were  to  be 
scrapped.  It  was  agreed  that  no  other  new 
capital  ships  should  be  constructed  during  the 
period  of  the  agreement,  except  replacement 
tonnage  as  provided  elsewhere  in  the  argreement. 
By  the  terms  of  this  agreement  the  capital  ships 
of  the  United  States  will  include  the  Maryland , 
the  California,  Tennessee,  Idaho,  Mississippi , 
New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Pennsylvania,  Oklahoma, 
Nevada,  Texas,  New  York,  Arkansas,  Wyoming, 
Utah,  Florida,  Colorado,  and  Washington,  or  a 
total  of  18  ships  with  a  tonnage  of  525,850. 
The  agreement  also  provided  for  the  construction 
of  smaller  craft,  including  airplane  carriers. 

The  Naval  Appropriation  Act  for  1921-22  au¬ 
thorized  a  total  expenditure  of  $413,067,039  and 
fixed  the  personnel  of  the  navy  at  106,000.  The 
effective  force  of  the  navy  on  January  1,  1922 
consisted  of  18  dreadnought  battleships  of  500,- 
650  tons;  15  pre-dreadnought  battleships  of 
227,740  tons;  12  armored  cruisers  of  148,715 
tons;  11  old  protective  cruisers  of  44,087  tons; 
3  scout  cruisers  of  3750  tons;  4  gunboats  of 
5170  tons;  278  destroyers  of  about  300,000 
tons;  a  large  number  of  submarines  of  about 
80,000  tons.  The  following  table  shows  the  bat¬ 
tleships  and  battle  cruisers  under  construction 
during  1922. 


VESSELS  UNDER  CONSTRUCTION  FOR 
UNITED  STATES  NAVY 

Per  Cent  Complete  Nov.  1,  1921 


TYPE  AND  NAME 

Displacement 

(tons) 

Per  cent 
complete 

Battleships: 

Colorado . 

32,600 

83.0 

Washington . 

32,600 

69.8 

West  Virginia . 

32,600 

64.0 

South  Dakota . 

43,200 

35.2 

Indiana . 

43,200 

33.2 

Montana . 

43,200 

27.6 

North  Carolina . 

*  43,200 

36.7 

Iowa . 

43,200 

29.9 

Massachusetts . 

43,200 

10.4 

Battle  cruisers: 

Lexington . 

43,500 

26.7 

Constellation . 

43,500 

15.5 

Saratoga . 

43,500 

29.4 

Ranger . 

43,500 

2.9 

Constitution . 

43,500 

11.7 

United  States . 

43,500 

11.1 

The  number  and  tonnage  of  each  class  of  the 
less  important  vessels  (built  and  building)  will 
be  found  in  the  table  under  Navies. 

For  additional  information,  see  Merchant 
Marine;  Naval  Academy;  Naval  Aeronau- 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


736 


tics;  Naval  Reserve;  Naval  Schools  of  In¬ 
struction;  Navies;  Navy,  Department  of 
the;  Navy  Yard;  Pay  and  Allowances;  Ship 
and  Shipping;  Ship,  Armored. 

Colonies..  The  following  figures  for  area  and 
population  are  based  upon  the  census  of  1920 
and  government  estimates. 


COLONIES 

Area 

Population 

Hawaii . 

6,449 

115,026 

3,435 

255,912 

Philippine  Islands  (1918) . 

10,314,310 

Porto  Rico . 

1,299,809 

Guam  (est.) . 

210 

13,275 

American  Samoa  . 

77 

8,056 

Panama  Canal  Zone  (est.) . 

527 

22,858 

Virgin  Islands  (1917) . 

132 

26,051 

Total  for  the  colonies . 

125,856 

11,805,307 

For  details  on  commerce,  government,  history, 
etc.,  see  Hawaii;  Philippine  Islands;  Porto 
Rico;  etc. 

population 

The  population  of  the  United  States  has 
grown  from  3,929,214  in  1790  to  over  105,000,- 
000  in  1920.  It  constitutes  over  one-half  that 
of  the  Western  Hemisphere  and  greatly  exceeds 
that  of  any  European  country  except  Russia. 
The  rapidity  of  the  growth  of  the  population  is 
without  parallel  among  civilized  nations.  In 
1920  it  was  over  20  times  as  great  as  in  1800. 
During  the  same  period  the  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom  and  Germany  increased  about 
one  and  one-half  times  each,  while  that  of 
France  increased  by  less  than  half.  The  growth 
of  the  population  also  has  been  remarkably 
steady.  Except  in  the  war  decade  ( 18G0 — 
70 ) ,  the  increase  in  each  decade  since  1790  has 
been  greater  than  in  the  decade  preceding. 

An  examination  of  the  composition  and  char¬ 
acteristics  of  the  population  by  divisions  and 
States  in  1920  reveals  some  interesting  figures. 
In  the  New  England  division  the  total  male 
population  is  3,672,591  and  the  female  popu¬ 
lation  3,729,318;  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  division 
the  male  population  is  11,206,445  and  the  fe¬ 
male  11,054,699;  in  the  East  North  Central 
division  the  male  population  is  11,035,041  and 
the  female  10,440,502;  in  the  West  North  Cen¬ 
tral  division  the  male  population  is  6,459,067 
and  the  female  6,085,482;  in  the  South  Atlantic 
division  the  male  population  is  7,035,843  and 
the  female  population  6,945,429 ;  in  the  East 
South  Central  division  the  male  population  is 
4,471,690  and  the  female  4,421,617;  in  the  West 
Central  division  the  male  population  is  5,625,- 
829  and  the  female  4,976,395;  in  the  mountain 
division  the  male  population  is  1,789,299  and 
the  female  1,546,802;  in  the  Pacific  division  the 
male  population  is  2,964,626  and  the  female 
2,206,245. 

The  number  of  dwellings  in  the  New  England 
division  was  1,255,964  with  1,703,812  families; 
in  the  Middle  Atlantic,  3,566,549  dwellings  with 
5,085,080  families;  in  the  East  North  Central, 
4,385,541  dwellings  with  5,143,903  families;  in 
the  West  North  Central,  2,716,968  dwellings  with 
2,957,849  families;  in  the  South  Atlantic,  2,781,- 
684  dwellings  with  2,991,628  families;  in  the 
East  South  Central,  1,876,167  dwellings  with 
1,967,381  families;  in  the  West  South  Central, 
2,110,879  dwellings  with  2,242,810  families;  in 


the  mountain  division,  743,775  dwellings  with 
803,853  families;  in  the  Pacific  division,  1,268,- 
677  dwellings  with  1,445,350  families.  In  the 
entire  United  States  there  were  20,697,204  dwell¬ 
ings  with  24,351,676  families. 

The  North  has,  until  recent  years,  grown  much 
more  rapidly  in  population  than  the  South.  The 
more  rapid  growth  of  the  South  in  the  last  dec¬ 
ade  was  largely  due  to  the  development  in  the 
Southwest.  The  gain  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Mississippi  has  been  remarkably  regular.  The 
percentage  of  gain  west  of  the  Mississippi  was 
formerly  enormous,  but  is  rapidly  falling  to 
that  of  the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

Estimates  of  the  population  prior  to  the  first 
regular  census  place  the  figure  at  200,000  in 
1688  and  1,850,000  in  1770.  At  the  time  of  the 
first  census  the  population  was  almost  wholly 
confined  to  the  Atlantic  coast  region,  the  five 
most  populous  States  being  Virginia,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  North  Carolina,  Massachusetts,  and  New 
York,  in  the  order  named.  The  growth  of  the 
population  has  been  due  in  a  considerable  de¬ 
gree  to  the  additions  by  immigration. 

Interstate  Migration.  In  the  early  period 
of  migration  the  direction  of  the  movement  was 
determined  largely  by  the  opportunities  affored 
by  waterways  and  mountain  passes  and  later 
by  the  railroad  accommodations.  The  waterway 
system  of  the  United  States  was  admirably 
adapted  to  aid  in  the  settlement,  and  the  part  it 
played  is  not  easily  overemphasized.  Not  only 
did  many  of  the  early  settlers  secure  transporta¬ 
tion  to  their  new  homes  by  rivers,  but  they  used 
the  rivers  also  as  avenues  of  commerce,  and 
new  settlements  almost  universally  began  along 
watercourses.  In  the  North  the  immigrants 
from  New  England  and  New  York  passed  almost 
wholly  through  the  Mohawk  valley,  and  western 
New  York  developed  rapidly  along  the  line  of 
the  Erie  Canal.  By  this  route  the  Lake  region 
and  the  Northwest  in  general  were  peopled. 
Farther  to  the  south  a  large  number  of  settlers 
found  passage  west  by  way  of  the  valley  of  the 
Potomac  and  by  the  Ohio  and  its  tributaries. 
The  settlements  made  in  the  region  tributary  to 
the  Ohio  were  first  to  the  south  and  later  to 
the  north  of  that  stream.  In  the  Southeast 
the  Savannah  and  other  rivers  in  like  manner 
aided  in  opening  up  the  interior  region.  The 
influence  of  streams  in  the  Mississippi  valley 
was  very  marked.  Through  the  main  stream 
from  the  south,  and  through  the  Ohio  from  the 
east,  large  numbers  of  immigrants  passed  to  the 
centre  of  the  valley  and  thus  were  enabled  to 
reach  other  regions  watered  by  the  Mississippi 
system,  until  settlements  lined  the  main  and 
tributary  streams.  The  railroads  came  at  an 
opportune  time  and  made  possible  and  profitable 
the  settlement  of  regions  that  would  otherwise 
have  remained  unsettled  for  a  much  longer  time. 
The  gold  discoveries  in  California  drew  large 
numbers  of  immigrants  in  spite  of  the  difficulties 
of  the  route,  but,  generally  speaking,  the  Pacific 
coast  and  the  Cordilleran  region  awaited  the 
construction  of  railroads.  The  movement  of  the 
population  in  the  United  States  has  been  in  the 
main  westward,  following  the  parallels  of  lati¬ 
tude.  Almost  every  newly  settled  region,  how¬ 
ever,  received  representatives  from  all  parts  of 
the  older  settled  regions,  and  there  are  a  few 
very  marked  north  and  south  movements.  Thus, 
e.  g.,  southern  and  central  Indiana  were  filled 
largely  with  immigrants  from  North  Carolina, 
Kentucky,  and  other  Southern  States.  The  early 


UNITED  STATES 


737 


UNITED  STATES 


lead  miners  and  settlers  in  the  adjacent  corners 
of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois  on  the  Mississippi 
were  Southerners.  The  recently  settled  Okla¬ 
homa  and  Indian  Territory  received  large  num¬ 
bers  from  both  the  North  and  the  South. 

Negro  Population.  See  Negro  in  America. 

Urban  Population.  Since  1875  there  has  de¬ 


veloped  a  marked  tendency  for  the  population 
of  the  United  States  to  congregate  in  cities.  Bet¬ 
ter  transportation  and  communication  facilities 
have  enabled  trade  to  concentrate  in  the  large 
centres,  and  the  development  of  an  extensive 
factory  system  has  also  tended  in  the  same  di¬ 
rection. 


POPULATION  BY  DIVISIONS,  STATES,  1850  TO  1920 


STATES 

Land  area 
sq.  mi. 

Population 

1850 

Population 
1890  * 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

Maine . 

29,895 

583,169 

661,086 

New  Hampshire . 

9,031 

317,976 

376,530 

Vermont . 

9,124 

314,120 

332,422 

Massachusetts . 

8,039 

994,514 

2,238,943 

Rhode  Island . 

1,067 

147,545 

345,506 

Connecticut . 

4,820 

370,792 

746,258 

New  York . 

47,654 

3,097,394 

5,997,853 

New  Jersey . 

7,514 

489,555 

1,444,933 

Pennsylvania . 

44,832 

2,311,786 

5,258,014 

Total  North  Atlantic  Division 

161,976 

8,626,851 

17,401,545 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware . 

1,965 

91,532 

168,493 

Maryland . 

9,941 

583,034 

1,042,390 

District  of  Columbia . 

60 

51,687 

230,392 

Virginia . 

40,262 

1,421,661 

1,655,980 

West  Virginia . 

24,022 

. 

762,794 

North  Carolina . 

48,740 

869,039 

1,617,947 

South  Carolina . 

30,495 

668,507 

1,151,149 

Georgia . 

58,725 

906,185 

1,837,353 

Florida . 

54,861 

87,445 

391,422 

Total  South  Atlantic  Division 

269,071 

4,679,090 

8,857,920 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio . 

40,740 

1,980,329 

3,672,316 

Indiana . 

35,885 

988,416 

2,192,404 

Illinois . 

56,002 

851,470 

3,826,351 

Michigan . 

57,480 

397,654 

2,093,889 

Wisconsin . 

55,256 

305,391 

1,686,880 

Minnesota . 

80,858 

6,077 

1,301,826 

Iowa . 

55,586 

192,214 

1,911,896 

Missouri . 

68,727 

682,044 

2,679,184 

^nrt.h  T~)fl.lcnt*R  . 

70,183 

182,719 

76,868 

328,808 

NTphrRslca.  . 

76,808 

1,058,910 

"KVi/nsas  . 

81,774 

1,427,096 

Total  North  Central  Division 

756,167 

5,403,595 

22,362,279 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky . 

40,181 

982,405 

1,858,635 

Tennessee . 

41,687 

1,002,717 

1,767,518 

Alabama . 

51,279 

771,623 

1,513,017 

Mississippi . 

46,362 

606,526 

1,289,600 

Louisiana . 

45,409 

517,762 

1,118,587 

Texas . 

262,398 

212,592 

2,235,523 

Oklahoma . 

3,824 

61,834 

Arkansas . 

52,525 

209,897 

1,128,179 

Total  South  Central  Division 

609,255 

4,303,522 

11,153,075 

Western  Division: 

Montana . 

145,776 

132,159 

Wvomina . 

97,594 

60,705 

Colorado  . 

103,658 

412,198 

New  Mexico . 

122,503 

61,547 

153,593 

Arizona . 

113,840 

59,620 

Utah . 

82,184 

11,380 

207,905 

Nevada  .  . 

109,821 

45,761 

Idaho  . 

83,779 

84,385 

Washington . 

66,836 

349,390 

Oregon . 

95,607 

13,294 

313,767 

California . 

156,092 

92,597 

1,208,130 

Total  Western  Division . 

1,177,690 

178,818 

3,027,613 

Total  United  States  (proper) .  . . 

2,974,159 

23,191,876 

62,802,432 

Alaska . . . 

586,400 

Colonies . 

125,671 

Grand  total . 

3,690,714 

Population  ' 
1900  t 


694,466 

411,588 

343,641 

2,805,346 

428,556 

908,420 

7,268,894 

1,883,669 

6,302,111 


21,046,695 


184,735 

1,188,044 

278,718 

1,854,184 

958,800 

1,893,810 

1,340,316 

2,216,331 

528,542 


10,443,480 


4,157,545 

2,516,462 

4,821,550 

2,420,982 

2,069,042 

1,751,394 

2,231,853 

3,106,665 

319,146 

401,570 

1,066,300 

1,470,495 


26,333,004 


2,147,174 

2,020,616 

1,828,697 

1,551,270 

1,381,625 

3,048,710 

398,331 

1,311,564 


14,080,047 


243,329 

92,531 

539,700 

195,310 

122,931 

276,749 

42,335 

161,772 

518,103 

413,536 

1,485,053 


4,091,349 


75,994,575 

63,592 

8,757,770 


84,815,937 


Population 

1910 


742,371 

430,572 

355,956 

3,366,416 

542,610 

1,114,756 

9,113,614 

2,537,167 

7,665,111 


25,868,575 


202,322 

1,295,346 

331,069 

2,061,612 

1,221,119 

2,206,287 

1,515,400 

2,609,121 

752,619 


12,194,965 


4,767,121 

2,700,826 

5,638,191 

2,810,173 

2,333,860 

2,075,708 

2,224,771 

3,293,335 

577,056 

583,888 

1,192,214 

1,090,949 

30,288,092 


2,289,905 

2,184,789 

2,138,023 

1,797,114 

1,656,388 

3,896,542 

1,657,155 

1,574,449 

17,194,365 


376,053 

145,965 

799,024 

327,301 

204,354 

373,351 

81,875 

325,594 

1,141,990 

672,765 

2,377,549 


5,983,831 


91,972,266 

64,366 

9,010,447 


101,100,000  t 


Population 

1920 


768,014 

443,083 

352,428 

3,852,356 

604,397 

1,3S0,631 

10,385,227 

3,155,900 

8,720,017 


27,662,053 


223,003 

1,449,631 

437,571 

2,309,187 

1,463,701 

2,559,123 

1,683,724 

2,895,832 

968,470 


13,990,242 


5,759,394 

2,930,390 

6,435,280 

3,668,412 

2,632,067 

2,387,125 

2,404,021 

3,404,055 

646,872 

636,547 

1,296,372 

1,769,257 

33,929,792 


2,416,630 

2,337,8S5 

2,348,174 

1,790,618 

1,798,509 

4,663,228 

2,028,283 

1,752,204 


548,889 

194,402 

939,629 

360,350 

334,162 

449,396 

77,407 

431,866 

1,356,621 

783,389 

3,426,861 


8,902,972 


105,710,620 

55,036 

11,805,307 


117,823,165 


19,135,531 


*  1890  figures  include  Indians  in  the  Indian  Territory,  but  not  those  on  other  reservations, 
t  1900  figures  do  not  include  91,219  persons  in  military  and  naval  service, 
j  Figures  include  about  56,000  persons  in  military  and  naval  service  abroad. 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


738 

Table  A. 


[The  figures  for  1920  and  1910  relate  to  the  same  individual  places  but  not  to  the  same  classification  of  places,  since  certain 
communities  passed  during  the  decade  from  the  rural  to  the  urban  or  from  the  urban  to  the  rural  class  and  others  passed 
from  one  urban  group  to  another.] 


CLASS  OF  PLACES 

Number 
of  places 
in  1920 

POPULATION 

INCREASE 

1910-1920 

1920 

1910 

Number 

Per  cent 

United  States . 

Territory  urban  in  1920 . 

Places  having  in  1920  — 

1,000,000  or  more . 

500,000  to  1,000,000 . 

250,000  to  500,000 . 

100,000  to  250,000 . 

50,000  to  100,000 . 

25,000  to  50,000 . 

10,000  to  25,000 . 

5,000  to  10,000 . 

2,500  to  5,000 . 

25,000  or  more . 

100,000  or  more . 

250,000  or  more . 

500,000  or  more . 

1,000,000  or  more . 

Territory  rural  in  1920 . 

.... 

105,710,620 

91,972,266 

13,738,354 

14.9 

2,787 

54.304,603 

43,193,184 

11,111,419 

25.7 

3 

9 

13 

43 

76 

143 

459 

721 

1,320 

287 

68 

25 

12 

3 

10,145,532 

6,223,769 

4,540,838 

6,519,187 

5,265,747 

5,075,041 

6,942,742 

4,997,794 

4,593,953 

37,770,114 

27,429,326 

20,910,139 

16,309,301 

10,145,532 

51,406,017 

8,505,411 

4,664,460 

3,712,128 

5,087,486 

3,999,370 

3,777,417 

5,617,089 

4,051,188 

3,778,635 

29,746,272 

21,969,485 

16,881,999 

13,169,871 

8,505,411 

48,779,082 

1,640,121 

1,559,309 

828,710 

1,431,701 

1,266,377 

1,297,624 

1,325,653 

946,606 

815,318 

8,023,842 

5,459,841 

4,028,140 

3,199,430 

1,640,121 

2,626,935 

19.3 

33.4 

22.3 
28.1 
31.7 

34.4 

23.6 

23.4 

21.6 

27.0 

24.9 

23.9 

24.3 

19.3 

5.4 

Table  B. 


CLASS  OF  POPULATION 

NUMBER 

1920 

1910 

1920 

1910 

1900 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

United  States 

Total  Population  .... 

White . 

Negro . 

Indian . 

Chinese . . . 

Japanese . 

All  other . 

Native  white,  total . 

Native  parentage . 

Foreign  parentage . 

Mixed  parentage . 

Foreign-born  white . 

URBAN  POPULATION 

Total . 

White . 

Negro . 

Indian,  Chinese,  Japanese, 
and  all  other . 

Native,  white,  total . 

Native  parentage . 

Foreign  parentage . 

Mixed  parentage . 

Foreign-born  white . 

RURAL  POPULATION 

Total . 

White . 

Negro . 

Indian,  Chinese,  Japanese, 
and  all  other . 

Native  white,  total . 

Native  parentage . 

Foreign  parentage . 

Mixed  parentage . 

Foreign-born  white . 

105,710,620 

94,820,915 

10,463,131 

244,437 

61,639 

111,010 

9,488 

91,972,266 

81,731,957 

9,827,763 

265,683 

71,531 

72,157 

3,175 

75,994,575 

66,809,196 

8,833,994 

237,196 

89,863 

24,326 

53,900,431 

48,430,655 

5,209,436 

125,068 

53,891 

72,707 

8,674 

51,810,189 

46,390,260 

5,253,695 

119,369 

7,748 

38,303 

814 

47,332,277 

42,178,245 

4,885,881 

135,133 

66,856 

63,070 

3,092 

44,639,989 

39,553,712 

4,941,882 

130,550 

4,675 

9,087 

83 

81,108,161 

58,421,957 

15,694,539 

6,991,665 

13,712,754 

68,386,412 

49,488,575 

12,916,311 

5,981,526 

13,345,545 

56,595,379 

40,949,362 

10,632,280 

5,013,737 

10,213,817 

40,902,333 

29,636,781 

7,810,531 

3,455,021 

7,528,322 

40,205,828 

28,785,176 

7,884,008 

3,536,644 

6,184,432 

34.654,457 

25,229,218 

6,456,793 

2,968,446 

7,523,788 

33,731,955 

24,259,357 

6,459,518 

3,013,080 

5,821,757 

54,304,603 

50,620,084 

3,559,473 

125,046 

40,263,101 

24,556,729 

11,304,886 

4,401,486 

10,356,983 

51,406,017 

44,200,831 

6,903,658 

301,528 

40,845,060 

33,865,228 

4,3S9,653 

2,590,179 

3,355,771 

42,166,120 

39,379,294 

2,684,797 

102,029 

29,846,561 

17,621,230 

8,710,682 

3,514,649 

9,532,733 

49,806,146 

42,352,663 

7,142,966 

310,517 

38,539,851 

31,867,345 

4,205,629 

2,466,877 

3,812,812 

30,380,433 

28,305,409 

2,002,008 

73,016 

21,568,904 

12,152,924 

}  9,415,980 

6,736,505 

45,614,142 

38,503,787 

6,831,986 

278,369 

35,026,475 

28,796,438 

}  6,230,037 

3,477,312 

27,203,312 

25,373,627 

1,737,820 

91,865 

19,813,231 
12,190,465 
f  5,507,707 
(2,115,059 
5,560,396 

26,697,119 

23,057,028 

3,471,616 

168,475 

21,089,102 
17,446,316 
j  2,302,S24 
(  1,339,962 
1,967,926  j 

27,101,291 

25,246,457 

1,821,653 

33,181 

20,449,870 

12,366,264 

5,797,179 

2,286,427 

4,796,587 

24,708,898 

21,143,803 

3,432,042 

133,053 

19,755,958 

16,418,912 

2,086,829 

1,250,217 

1,387,845 

21,262,809 

19,898,950 

1,276,991 

86,868 

14,719,744 

8,778,993 

4,245,342 

1,695.409 

5,179,206 

26,069,468 

22,279,295 

3,608,890 

181,283 

19,934,713 

16,450,225 

2,211,451 

1,273,037 

2,344,582 

20,903,311 

19,480,344 

1,407,806 

.  15,161 

15,126,817 

8,842,237 

4,465,340 

1,819,240 

4,353,527 

23,736,678 

20,073,368 

3,534,076 

129,234 

18,605,138 

15,417,120 

1,994,178 

1,193,840 

1,408,230 

Table  C. 


CLASS  OF  POPULATION  AND 
ITIZENSHIP 

NUMBER 

PER  CENT 

DISTRIBUTION 

Male 

Female 

1920 

Male 

Female 

1920 

1920 

1910 

1920 

1910 

Population  21  years  of  age  and  over. . . 

White . 

Negro . 

Indian . 

Chinese . 

Japanese . 

All  other . 

Native  white . 

Native  parentage . 

Foreign  parentage . 

Mixed  parentage . 

Foreign-born  white . 

Naturalized . 

Having  first  papers . 

Alien . 

Unknown . 

31,403,370 

26,999,151 

29,483,150 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

28,442,400 

2,792,006 

61,229 

46,979 

53,411 

7,345 

21,513,948 

15,805,063 

3,956,384 

1,752,501 

6,928,452 

3,314,910 

1,116,744 

2,138,237 

358,561 

24,357,514 

2,458,873 

62,967 

60,421 

56,638 

2,738 

17,710,697 

13,211,731 

3,215,082 

1,283,884 

6,646,817 

3,034,117 

570,772 

2,266,535 

775,393 

26,671,061 

2,730,469 

55*257 

3,646 

22,316 

401 

21,100,793 

15,202,194 

4,045,947 

1,852,652 

5,570,268 

2,893,787 

77,532 

2,226,672 

372,277 

90.6 

8.9 

0.2 

0.1 

0.2 

(x) 

68.5 
50.3 

12.6 

5.6 

22.1 

10.6 

3.6 

6.8 

1.1 

90.2 

9.1 

0.2 

0.2 

0.2 

0) 

65.6 

48.9 

11.9 

4.8 

24.6 

11.2 

2.1 

8.4 

2.9 

90.5 

9.3 
0.2 

0) 

0.1 

(x) 

71.6 

51.6 

13.7 

6.3 

18.9 

9.8 

0.3 

7.6 

1.3 

UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


739 


Table  A  on  page  738  shows  the  population  of 
urban  classes,  and  of  rural  territory,  as  con¬ 
stituted  in  1920,  with  the  increase  in  1920  and 
1910. 

The  following  table  shows  the  population  of 
the  20  largest  cities  in  1920  for  the  census 
years  1860,  1900,  1910,  and  1920. 


POPULATION 


CITY 

1920 

1910 

1900 

New  York . 

7,638,424 

6,401,234 

4,603,784 

Chicago . 

2,701,705 

2,185,283 

1,698,575 

Philadelphia . 

1,823,779 

1,549,008 

1,293,697 

Detroit . 

993,678 

465,766 

285,704 

Cleveland . 

796,841 

560,663 

381,768 

St.  Louis . 

772,897 

687,029 

575,238 

Boston . 

748,060 

670,685 

560,892 

Baltimore . 

733,826 

558,485 

508,597 

Pittsburgh . 

588,343 

533,905 

451,512 

Los  Angeles . 

576,673 

319,198 

102,479 

Buffalo . 

506,776 

423,715 

352,387 

San  Francisco . 

506,676 

416,912 

342,782 

Milwaukee . 

Washington,  D.  C . 

457,417 

373,857 

285,315 

Newark . 

414,524 

347,469 

246,070 

Cincinnati . 

401,247 

263,591 

325,902 

New  Orleans . 

387,219 

339,075 

287,104 

Minneapolis . 

380,582 

301,408 

202,718 

Kansas  City . 

324,410 

248,381 

163,752 

Seattle . 

315,312 

237,198 

80,671 

Density.  In  1920  there  were  35  persons  to 
the  square  mile  in  the  United  States  as  against 
about  400  persons  in  Great  Britain,  320  persons 
in  Germany,  and  191  in  France.  The  average 
density  of  population  in  United  States  is  low 
because  of  the  vast  uninhabited  areas  in  the 
Western  section.  In  some  sections,  such  as 
Massachusetts,  or  New  Jersey,  the  density  com¬ 
pares  favorably  with  that  of  western  European 
countries.  The  number  per  square  mile  in  1920 
was  in  Rhode  Island  566,  Massachusetts  479, 
New  Jersey  420,  Connecticut  286,  New  York  218, 
Pennsylvania  194,  Ohio  141,  Illinois  116. 

Sex.  The  population  contrasts  with  that  of 
most  European  countries  in  that  the  males  out¬ 
number  the  females.  The  excess  is  greatly  in¬ 
creased  because  of  the  greater  number  of  male 
than  of  female  immigrants. 

Table  B  on  page  738  shows  the  color  or  race, 
nativity,  parentage,  and  sex,  for  the  United 
States  and  urban  and  rural  population,  1920, 
1910,  and  1900. 

Table  C  on  page  738  shows  the  population 
21  years  of  age  and  over,  by  sex,  class  of  popu¬ 
lation,  and  citizenship  for  1920  and  1910. 

Immigration.  For  a  general  discussion  of 
immigration  and  its  problems,  see  Immigration. 

The  number  of  immigrants  in  1921  was  284,- 
780. 

The  table  in  the  next  column  shows  the  total 
number  of  immigrants  and  emigrants,  and  the 
countries  from  which  they  came  during  the 
year  1921. 

Religion.  The  Colonial  Period. — The  reli¬ 
gious  life  of  the  United  States  has  been  pro¬ 
foundly  affected  by  the  fact  that  the  period  of 
the  early  settlement  of  the  continent  coincided 
with  the  great  religious  struggles  in  Europe  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  It  was  the  reform 
within  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  following 
the  great  Protestant  schism,  that  started  the 
orders  of  that  church  on  their  proselyting  cru¬ 
sades,  which  from  New  Spain  in  the  southwest 
and  New  France  in  the  north  extended  into 
territory  now  embraced  within  the  United 
States.  The  divisions  among  the  Protestants 


themselves  resulted  in  the  planting  of  most  of 
the  English  Colonies  and  determined  that  their 
future  development  should  be  along  the  line 

IMMIGRATION  AND  EMIGRATION  IN  1921. 


Countries 


Austria . 

Hungary . 

Belgium . 

Bulgaria . 

Czechoslovakia . 

Denmark . 

Finland . 

France,  including  Corsica . 

Germany . 

Greece . 

Italy,  including  Sicily  and  Sardinia . 

Netherlands . 

Norway . 

Poland . . 

Portugal,  including  Cape  Verde  and 

Azores  Islands . 

Rumania . 

Russia . 

Spain . 

Sweden . 

Switzerland . 

Turkey  in  Europe . 

United  Kingdom: 

England . 

Ireland . 

Scotland . 

Wales . 

Yugoslavia . 

Other  Europe . 


Total  Europe. 


China . 

Japan . 

India . 

Turkey  in  Asia. 
Other  Asia . 


Total  Asia. 


Africa . 

Australia,  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand 

Pacific  Islands,  not  specified . 

British  North  America . 

Central  America . 

Mexico . 

South  America . 

West  Indies . 

Other  Countries . 


Grand  total. 


Immi- 

Emi- 

grant 

grant 

4,472 

535 

5,745 

4,154 

1,521 

1,100 

297 

648 

12,457 

7,475 

2,522 

620 

2,599 

1,074 

4,025 

2,265 

16,017 

4,064 

3,441 

6,973 

40,155 

49,990 

1,799 

780 

4,829 

1,344 

27,969 

32,504 

1,857 

5,706 

9,513 

3,653 

14,422 

5,972 

603 

6,510 

6,321 

1,541 

3,268 

808 

1,602 

195 

13,843 

5,578 

9,261 

1,794 

8,097 

834 

795 

53 

6,031 

9,287 

384 

686 

203,845 

156,143 

3,794 

5,989 

5,608 

4,017 

330 

259 

1,989 

1,644 

744 

76 

12,465 

11,985 

502 

123 

837 

586 

56 

32 

41,760 

4,053 

811 

847 

15,453 

6,007 

2,455 

1,658 

6,571 

4,711 

25 

30 

284,780 


186,175 


of  multiplicity  of  sects  with  extreme  local 
independence.  Puritanism,  within  and  without 
the  Established  church,  was  the  prevailing  in¬ 
fluence  among  these  colonists.  In  Virginia  its  in¬ 
fluence  was  overthrown  soon  after  the  Cavalier 
immigration  of  the  Cromwellian  era.  Maryland, 
settled  under  Roman  Catholic  leadership,  al¬ 
ways  retained  a  dominant  Puritan  element  in 
its  population.  The  same  was  true  of  the 
Carolinas  and  later  of  Georgia,  although,  as 
in  almost  all  the  Southern  Colonies,  the  official 
class  belonged  to  the  Church  of  England.  In 
New  England  for  more  than  half  a  century 
the  Puritans,  outside  of  Rhode  Island,  consti¬ 
tuted  a  veritable  theocracy.  Those  settlers  who 
passed  from  New  England  to  the  other  Colonies 
usually  bore  with  them  a  modified  form  of 
Puritanism,  which  reappeared  in  the  early 
Presbyterian  development  of  the  Middle  Colonies 
and  in  the  Baptist  development  farther  South. 
The  religious  influence  of  the  early  Dutch  set¬ 
tlers  of  New  York  was  never  very  strong,  and 
before  the  Colony  passed  into  English  control  it 
was  known  as  a  most  mixed  sectarian  centre. 


UNITED  STATES 


740 


UNITED  STATES 


In  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  the  Quaker 
element,  although  early  abdicating  political 
control,  continued  to  be  the  leading  social 
factor. 

Throughout  the  Colonial  period  the  Congrega¬ 
tional  churches  exercised  almost  undisputed  reli¬ 
gious  sway  in  New  England,  while  members  of 
the  Established  church  nominally  did  the  same 
for  the  Southern  Colonies.  In  the  Middle  Col¬ 
onies  no  one  sect  acquired  a  hegemony.  Here 
the  diversified  English  sects  were  quickly  joined 
by  Huguenots  from  France,  Palatines,  Salz¬ 
burgers,  and  Moravians  from  Germany,  Cove¬ 
nanters  from  Scotland,  and  the  Scotch-Irish 
Presbyterians.  To  a  much  more  limited  extent 
many  of  these  immigrants  settled  in  the  Caro- 
linas  and  Georgia,  but  their  chief  irruption  into 
the  South  was  by  the  way  of  the  Appalachian 
highlands.  In  this  early  sectarian  diversity  the 
Middle  Colonies,  more  than  those  of  any  other 
section,  were  most  typical  of  the  succeeding 
development  of  the  whole  country.  During  the 
first  century  and  a  quarter  of  settlement  there 
was  naturally  little  of  common  religious  ex¬ 
periences  in  the  Colonies.  Some  conscientious 
attempts  “were  made  to  convert  the  Indians,  of 
which  the  most  important  was  the  work  of  the 
President  and  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
the  Gospel  in  New  England.  The  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts, 
a  Church  of  England  organization,  founded  in 
1701,  did  an  important  work  in  the  Middle  and 
Southern  Colonies.  The  most  important  reli¬ 
gious  experience  of  the  eighteenth  century  was 
the  Great  Awakening,  centring  about  1740, 
which  profoundly  affected  all  of  the  Colonies, 
led  to  an  extension  of  church  building,  the  found¬ 
ing  of  Princeton  College  as  the  result  of  a 
great  Presbyterian  development  in  the  Middle 
Colonies,  and  the  firm  establishment  of  Baptist 
preeminence  in  the  South.  Because  of  some  un¬ 
wise  practices  not  wholly  avoidable,  dissensions 
were  introduced  among  the  existing  sects,  yet 
the  movement  as  a  whole  was  most  beneficial, 
not  merely  because  it  stamped  upon  American 
church  life  a  strong  evangelistic  and  missionary 
character,  but  because  it  led  the  way  to  the 
later  establishment  of  full  religious  toleration. 
The  later  part  of  the  Colonial  period  was  char¬ 
acterized  by  the  rapid  development  of  Pres¬ 
byterianism,  the  formal  establishment  of  the 
Reformed  and  Lutheran  churches  among  the 
Germans,  and  the  beginning  of  Methodism — all 
within  the  Middle  and  Southern  Colonies.  See 
Congregationalism. 

The  National  Period. — The  Revolutionary 
War,  although  it  ushered  in  an  era  of  complete 
religious  toleration,  so  far  as  State  and  nation 
were  concerned,  was  not  on  the  whole  favorable 
to  the  development  of  the  religious  life  of  the 
newly  created  States.  At  the  end  of  the  century, 
when  spiritual  conditions  were  at  their  lowest 
ebb,  the  country  experienced  a  second  great  re¬ 
vival,  which  if  it  lacked  some  of  the  fervid 
manifestations  of  the  first,  was  much  more  pro¬ 
ductive  of  lasting  results.  As  in  the  former 
case  there  came  about  a  secession  of  some  of  the 
more  radical  elements  from  the  existing  de¬ 
nominations  in  the  Middle  States  and  the  South, 
and  the  severance  of  the  Unitarians  and  Uni- 
versalists  from  the  Congregational  church  in 
New  England.  Yet  in  the  main  the  first  three 
decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  may  be  termed 
the  era  of  good  feeling  in  a  religious  as  well  as 
a  political  sense.  It  was  a  period  of  great 


catholicity  among  the  various  denominations, 
with  cooperation  in  foreign  and  home  missionary 
work,  in  educational  advancement,  and  in  the 
work  of  Bible  distribution.  This  was  the  period 
also  when  the  Episcopal  and  Catholic  churches 
began  to  develop  along  American  lines  and  to 
assume  an  important  position  among  American 
denominations;  the  latter  being  recruited  most 
largely  from  foreign  immigration,  and  the 
former  from  the  other  denominations.  The 
great  missionary  movement  towards  foreign 
lands,  the  home  missionary  movement  along  the 
Western  national  border,  the  building  of  theo¬ 
logical  seminaries,  the  work  among  the  negroes 
and  Indians,  protests  against  slavery,  and  the 
first  movements  in  favor  of  total  abstinence  also 
date  from  this  period.  Early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  the  connection  between  church  and  state 
in  New  England  was  completely  severed. 

The  next  30  years  (1830-60)  were  character¬ 
ized  by  a  more  intense  denominational  align¬ 
ment,  showing  itself  in  a  withdrawal  of  the 
separate  churches  from  organizations  for  united 
effort  and  in  the  creation  of  various  denomina¬ 
tional  boards  to  carry  on  this  work;  in  a  new 
zeal  for  Church  history  along  sectarian  lines;  in 
a  general  Protestant  antipathy  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  which  even  displayed  itself  in 
the  political  world  (see  Know-Nothing),  and 
in  the  division  of  some  of  the  great  denomina¬ 
tions  along  sectional  lines,  especially  over  the 
great  slavery  question.  The  religious  element 
was  especially  helpful  on  both  sides  during  the 
Civil  War  and  was  much  in  evidence  in  the 
organization  of  associations  for  the  care  of 
soldiers  at  the  front  and  also  at  the  North 
for  the  education  of  the  freedmen. 

An  important  revival  just  preceding  the  Civil 
War  had  stirred  deeply  the  evangelical  senti¬ 
ment  of  all  the  churches,  and  this  was  quickened 
by  a  succeeding  revival  between  1870  and  1880. 
The  influence  of  these  movements  has  been  to 
increase  a  sincere  and  hearty  cooperation  of 


1916 


DENOMINATIONS 

Members 

Minis¬ 

ters 

Churches 

Adventists . 

109,952 

1,463 

1,717 

Baptists . . 

7,232,888 

49,017 

51,805 

Brethren,  Dunkers . 

129,162 

3,636 

1,621 

Brethren,  Plymouth . 

13,717 

.... 

47 

Christians . 

118,737 

1,213 

1,171 

Christian  Union . 

13,692 

211 

193 

Congregationalists . 

791,284 

6,040 

5,744 

Disciples  of  Christ . 

1,226,028 

5,938 

6,815 

Evangelical  bodies . 

138,718 

1,551 

1,752 

Friends . 

92,379 

1,282 

949 

German  Evangelical  Synod 

339,853 

1,078 

1,267 

Independent  Congregations 

54,393 

54 

462 

Jewish  Congregations . 

357,135 

721 

874 

Latter-Day  Saints . 

462,329 

5,990 

1,287 

Lutheran . 

693,354 

9,111 

13,722 

Mennonites . 

50,372 

1,398 

681 

Methodists . 

7,139,217 

45,806 

61,464 

Moravians . 

26,373 

185 

133 

Pentecostal  bodies . 

32,259 

1,179 

750 

Presbyterians . 

2,244,564 

13.602 

15,060 

Protestant  Episcopal . 

1,092,821 

5,544 

6,726 

Reformed . 

527,971 

2,213 

2,474 

Reformed  Episcopal . 

11,050 

88 

74 

Roman  Catholic . 

15,721,815 

20,287 

15,120 

Salvationists . 

35,954 

2,848 

167 

Scandinavian  Evangelical. . 

29,164 

506 

439 

Spiritualists . 

23,197 

520 

78 

United  Brethren . 

367,934 

2,319 

3,624 

Unitarians . 

82,515 

531 

399 

Universalists . 

58,566 

561 

620 

all  denominations  in  fundamental  religious  work. 
There  has  been  a  distinct  advance  in  essential 
Christian  union  expressed  in  the  federation  of  a 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


741 


large  number  of  the  Protestant  denominations. 
This  tendency  lias  been  much  strengthened  by 
such  organizations  as  the  Evangelical  Associa¬ 
tion,  the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association, 
and  the  various  young  people’s  organizations. 
(See  Christian  Endeavor;  Ep.worth  League; 
Young  Men’s  Christian  Association.)  An  in¬ 
teresting  feature  of  the  religious  development 
of  the  last  half  century  has  been  the  growth  of 
certain  nonorthodox  sects.  In  addition  to  the 
list  of  denominations  foimd  in  the  table  on 
page  740,  there  are  many  other  religious  bodies 
in  the  United  States.  One  of  the  most  interest¬ 
ing  of  these  is  the  Armenian  Church,  which 
was  established  in  1889  in  Massachusetts,  by  an 
Armenian  priest  who  was  sent  to  minister  to 
a  few  hundred  Armenians.  The  rapid  influx 
of  the  Armenians  following  the  atrocities  in 
Asia  Minor,  led  to  a  large  increase  among  the 
members  of  this  race  in  the  United  States,  and 
the  denomination  grew  in  numbers  and  strength. 
In  1016  there  were  27,450  communicants  and 
34  organizations.  All  these  organizations  used 
the  Armenian  language  only.  The  priests  num¬ 
bered  17.  The  doctrinal  system  of  the  Armenian 
Church  is  founded  on  the  Nicene  creed,  without 
the  addition  made  by  the  Western  Church  in 
regard  to  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
from  the  Son  as  well  as  from  the  Father.  Among 
the  other  smaller  denominations  are  the  Bahais, 
a  Persian  cult,  founded  in  1844  in  Shiraz,  by 
Ali  Mohammed,  who  declared  himself  to  be  the 
bab  or  forerunner  of  the  Promised  Divine  One. 
There  were  in  1916  2,844  members  of  this  sect, 
with  57  organizations.  Other  denominations 
are  the  Christadelphians,  with  2,922  members 
and  142  organizations;  and  the  Christian  and 
Missionary  Alliance,  with  about  10,000  members; 
the  Pillar  of  Fire,  formerly  the  Pentecostal 
Union  Church  with  1,129  members  and  21  or¬ 
ganizations;  the  Hutterian  Brethren,  formerly 
Bruderhof  Mennonite  Church,  with  about  1,000 
members  and  17  organizations;  the  Non-Secta¬ 
rian  Churches  of  Bible  Faith,  with  2,753  mem¬ 
bers  and  58  organizations;  the  Pentecostal 
Church  of  the  Nazarene,  with  32,259  members 
and  866  organizations;  and  the  Pentecostal 
Holiness  Church,  with  5,353  members  and  192 
organizations.  See  Christian  Science;  Mor¬ 
mons;  New  Thought. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  church  and  state  are 
entirely  distinct  in  the  United  States,  it  is 
difficult  to  obtain  accurate  information  con¬ 
cerning  religious  statistics.  The  only  figures 
available  are  those  derived  from  the  annuals 
and  yearbooks  published  by  the  several  de¬ 
nominations.  The  table  on  page  740  presents 
figures  for  the  principal  denominations  from  the 
religious  census  taken  in  1916  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  the  Census. 

Education.  This  subject  will  be  found  fully 
under  the  following  titles:  Common  Schools; 
Curriculum  ;  Education  ;  Grammar  Schools  ; 
Kindergarten;  Manual  Training;  National 
Education,  Systems  of;  Normal  Schools; 
Parochial  Schools;  Pedagogy;  Physical 
Education  ;  Public  Schools  ;  Schools,  Med¬ 
ical  Inspection  of;  Teachers’  Pensions; 
Teachers’  Salaries  ;  Evening  Schools  ;  Vaca¬ 
tion  Schools  ;  High  Schools  ;  Elective 
Courses  and  Studies;  Colleges,  American; 
University;  University  Extension;  Voca¬ 
tional  Education;  Education,  Commercial; 
Technical  Education;  Legal  Education; 
Medical  Education  ;  Mental  Defectives  ; 


Blind,  Education  of  the;  Deaf-Mute,  Meth¬ 
ods  of  Instruction ;  Negro  Education;  Educa¬ 
tion,  Commissioner  of;  Education  Associa¬ 
tion,  National;  Education,  Colonial. 

The  school  census  was  ta'ken  by  the  census 
of  January  1,  1920.  The  total  population 

of  persons  5  to  20  years  of  age  inclusive, 
the  school  age  in  the  United  States,  was  33,- 
250,870.  Of  this  number  21,373,976  had  attended 
school  at  some  time  between  December  1,  1919 
and  January  1,  1920.  This  was  an  increase  of 
5.1  per  cent  since  1910.  The  total  population 
between  7  and  13  years  of  age  numbered  15,- 
306,793.  Of  these  90.6  per  cent  or  13,869,010 
children  were  attending  school.  This  was  an 
increase  of  4.5  per  cent  over  the  corresponding 
figures  for  1910.  Among  the  individual  States, 
the  largest  proportion  attending  school  in  the 
5  to  20  age  group  is  shown  by  Utah  with  73 
per  cent  and  the  smallest  by  Louisiana  with 
53  per  cent.  For  the  7  to  13  age  group  the 
largest  proportion  of  school  attendance,  96.1 
per  cent,  is  that  for  Massachusetts,  and  the 
smallest,  75.9,  for  Louisiana.  Seven  States  show 
a  percentage  of  95  per  cent  or  more.  These 
are  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Ohio,  Iowa, 
Delaware,  Idaho  and  Utah.  The  New  England 
division  with  95.3  per  cent  ranks  first;  while 
the  West  South  Central  with  82.5  per  cent 
ranks  lowest. 

The  total  attendance  of  universities  and  col¬ 
leges  in  1918  was  290,106.  Of  these  178,060 
were  in  private  colleges  and  112,046  in  ,  public 
or  State  colleges.  The  registration  for  the  years 
following  the  war,  especially  in  1921-2,  greatly 
exceeded  that  of  any  other  previous  year.  In 
the  professional  schools  there  were  enrolled  in 
1918,  48,653  pupils  and  in  the  normal  schools, 
138,074.  In  business  schools,  both  day  and 
night,  were  enrolled  289,579  pupils,  and  in  the 
Government  Indian  schools,  28,521.  The  total 
enrollment  for  all  schools  in  the  United  States 
in  1918  was  24,027,199.  The  total  number  of 
teachers  employed  was  769,763,  including  153,- 
641  men  and  616,122  women.  The  estimated 
value  of  all  school  property  was  $1,983,508,818. 
Of  this  $1,258,933,000  were  for  city  school 
property  and  $724,575,818  for  rural  school  prop¬ 
erty.  In  all  elementary  and  secondary  schools 
the  average  annual  salary  for  teachers  was 
$635.  The  Federal  Board  of  Vocational  Educa¬ 
tion  cooperated  with  the  States  in  the  vocational 
training  of  305,224  pupils,  from  July  1,  1920  to 
June  30,  1921.  The  pupils  were  divided  among 
the  different  occupations  as  follows:  agriculture, 
42,709;  trade  or  industry,  83,532;  home  econom¬ 
ics,  63,806 ;  and  part  time  general  continuation 
schools,  115,177. 

Charities.  The  national  government  has  no 
department  coneerned  directly  with  charities, 
their  control  being  in  the  hands  of  the  State 
and  municipal  governments.  Many  private  or¬ 
ganizations  and  societies  are  also  interested  in 
the  subject.  See  under  the  several  State  articles; 
also  Charities;  Pauperism;  Charities  and 
Correction,  The  National  Conference  of;  Char¬ 
ity  Organization  Society;  etc. 


history 

Colonial  Period.  The  territory  included 
within  the  United  States  of  America  was  origi¬ 
nally  occupied  solely  by  numerous  tribes  of  In¬ 
dians.  The  northeast  coast  was  probably  vis- 


UNITED  STATES 


742 


UNITED  STATES 


ited  about  the  year  1000  a.d.  and  subsequently 
by  the  Northmen  (see  Vinland),  and  other 
navigators  may  in  the  following  five  centuries 
have  sighted  parts  of  the  coast;  but  the  existence 
of  the  American  continent  was  unknown  to  the 
world  at  large  until  after  Columbus’  discovery 
in  1492.  In  1497  John  Cabot  reached  the  coast 
of  America,  probably  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Cape  Breton.  The  Portuguese  Cortereal  explored 
the  coast  southward  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law¬ 
rence  in  1500-01,  and  probably  from  as  early 
a  date  as  1504  fishermen  from  Normandy  and 
Brittany  frequented  the  shores  of  Newfoundland. 
In  1513  Juan  Ponce  de  Ledn  explored  a  portion 
of  Florida  in  a  romantic  search  for  the  fountain 
of  youth ;  and  in  1520  some  Spanish  vessels  from 
Santo  Domingo  were  driven  upon  the  coast  of 
Carolina.  During  the  following  year,  through 
the  conquests  of  Cortes  (q.v. )  and  his  followers, 
Mexico,  including  the  territory  later  known  as 
Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  California,  became  a 
province  of  Spain.  In  the  same  decade  Ver- 
razano  explored  the  coast  between  North  Caro¬ 
lina  and  Newfoundland  and  Narvaez  made  his 
disastrous  expedition  to  Florida.  Ferdinand  de 
Soto  in  1539-42  led  a  Spanish  expedition  from 
the  coast  of  Florida  westward,  discovering  the 
Mississippi  River  early  in  1541.  Simultaneously 
with  this  expedition  Coronado’s  men  explored  a 
great  part  of  what  is  now  southwest  United 
States.  A  Spanish  settlement  was  made  at  St. 
Augustine,  Fla.,  in  1565,  and  in  1585  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  (q.v.)  sent  out  a  Colony  which  settled 
on  Roanoke  Island.  None  of  the  settlements 
attempted  during  the  sixteenth  century,  how¬ 
ever,  except  St.  Augustine,  had  any  permanence; 
and  it  was  not  until  the  seventeenth  century 
that  the  Europeans,  and  especially  the  English, 
devoted  their  enterprises  to  colonization  rather 
than  to  exploration.  King  James  in  1606  granted 
a  charter  to  two  joint-stock  companies,  the  Lon¬ 
don  Company  (q.v.)  and  the  Plymouth  Company 
(q.v.).  The  London  Company  in  1607  founded 
Jamestown,  Va.,  the  first  permanent  English 
settlement  within  the  limits  of  the  present 
United  States.  Here  in  1619  a  representative 
assembly  was  called,  the  first  in  the  New  World. 
In  1607,  also,  the  Plymouth  Company  sent  out 
an  expedition  to  the  Kennebec,  where  the  settlers 
experienced  a  severe  winter,  and  in  1608  aban¬ 
doned  the  undertaking.  In  1620  a  body  of  Puri¬ 
tan  Separatists  who  had  secured  a  grant  from 
the  London  Company  landed  by  mistake  farther 
northward  and  settled  Plymouth.  Between  these 
two  Colonies  the  Dutch  had  already  established 
themselves  (1613)  at  New  Amsterdam.  Quebec 
was  settled  in  1608,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
country  on  the  Great  Lakes  and  on  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  was  explored  by  Nicolet  (1634),  by  Mar¬ 
quette  and  Joliet  (1673),  and  by  La  Salle 
(1682),  and  settlements  were  early  made  by  the 
French  at  the  outposts  of  Kaskaskia  and  Arkan¬ 
sas  Post  and  at  Mobile  and  Vincennes.  Thus 
the  beginnings  were  made  of  two  distinct  move¬ 
ments  of  the  incoming  population,  in  the  course 
of  one  of  which  the  English  were  to  occupy 
practically  the  entire  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the 
present  United  States,  excluding  Florida,  while 
in  the  course  of  the  other  the  French  were  to 
establish  themselves  at  strategic  points  on  the 
two  great  waterways.  The  colonizing  work  of 
the  French  was  such  as  to  make  conspicuous  the 
trading  post,  the  military  element,  and  the 
bureaucratic  class,  and  to  minimize  the  features 
of  public  development,  of  local  political  life,  and 


of  permanence  in  method  and  purpose.  The 
English,  on  the  other  hand,  brought  with  them 
their  school,  their  church,  and  their  political 
forms,  and  founded  Colonies  on  lines  which  were 
adhered  to  throughout  their  later  development. 
(The  early  history  of  the  various  Colonies,  the 
union  of  which  formed  the  United  States,  will 
be  found  under  the  heads  of  the  different  States. ) 
In  some  of  the  Colonies  representative  govern¬ 
ments  were  maintained,  in  which  all  officers, 
both  executive  and  judicial,  as  well  as  the  entire 
Legislature,  were  chosen  by  the  people.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  royal  provinces,  such  as  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  New  York,  the  chief  judicial  and  ex¬ 
ecutive  officers,  as  well  as  members  of  the  upper 
branch  of  the  Legislature,  were  appointees  of 
the  crown,  the  general  population  sharing  in  the 
provincial  government  only  through  the  choice 
of  the  members  of  the  Legislature.  This  dis¬ 
tribution  of  privilege  characterized  also  the  pro¬ 
prietary  provinces,  such  as  Maryland,  in  which, 
however,  appointments  were  made  by  the  pro¬ 
prietors  instead  of  by  the  crown.  Thus  in  the 
royal  and  proprietary  provinces  the  ultimate 
authority  was  outside  of  the  province,  while  in 
corporate  Colonies  all  authority  apparently  was 
within  each  province,  and  there  was  in  the 
scheme  by  which  these  provinces  were  organized 
no  effective  means  of  subordinating  their  polit¬ 
ical  actions  to  the  power  of  the  central  adminis¬ 
tration  except  through  the  alteration  or  aboli¬ 
tion  of  their  charters. 

Originally  nearly  all  the  Colonies  were  pro¬ 
prietary,  and  while  the  crown  subsequently 
sought  pretexts  for  making  them  all  royal  prov¬ 
inces  the  people  in  both  the  proprietary  and  royal 
provinces  sought  to  increase  their  power  by 
gaining  control  of  the  public  purse  through  an¬ 
nual  and  specific  appropriations. 

During  the  Colonial  period  there  were  several 
instances  of  the  tendency  of  the  Colonies,  hav¬ 
ing  very  similar  institutions  and  ideals,  to  act 
jointly  as  a  confederate  body.  The  first  instance 
of  a  limited  union  of  Colonies  was  in  1643,  when 
Massachusetts  Bay,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and 
New  Haven  formed,  under  the  title  of  the 
United  Colonies  of  New  England,  a  confederacy, 
which  existed  for  nearly  40  years,  for  mutual 
defense  against  the  French,  Dutch,  and  Indians. 
There  was  also  some  united  action  during  the 
early  Indian  wars,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
French  and  Indian  War  (q.v.),  in  1754,  the 
Colonies  being  strongly  advised  by  the  Lords  of 
Trade  to  unite  for  general  defense,  a  formal 
plan  for  a  permanent  general  government  of  all 
the  English  Colonies  was  drawn  up  by  Benja¬ 
min  Franklin  (q.v.)  and  presented  at  the  Al¬ 
bany  Convention  (q.v.)  ;  but  it  was  rejected  by 
both  the  Colonies  and  the  crown. 

Although  the  several  Colonies  were  at  no  time 
organically  connected,  except  through  the  King, 
the  basis  for  union  was  early  laid  in  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  local  governments  in  which  the  con¬ 
trolling  principles  were  similar.  There  appeared 
also  a  substantial  identity  in  forms  and  in 
practices  of  local  government.  This  made  it 
natural  that  occasionally  during  the  Colonial 
period  there  should  appear  marked  tendencies 
towards  union.  In  some  respects,  however,  dif¬ 
ferent  types  of  population  distinguished  the  sev¬ 
eral  portions  of  settled  territory,  a  fact  due  in 
some  measure  to  the  various  classes  of  people  in 
England  from  which  the  immigrants  came.  Thus 
during  the  period  between  1620  and  1640  large 
numbers  of  dissenters  withdrew  from  England, 


The  Grant  of  1G22  to  Gorges  &  Mason  extended  inland  GO  miles, 
land  was  called  the  Province  of  Maine. 

The  .Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  Charters  extended  from 
=“  sea  to  sea.” 

(The  Grant  to  Sir  W,  Alexander  In  1G35  included  Pemaquid 
and  Marthas  ‘Vineyard,  Nantucket  and  Long  Islands;  these  with 
New  Netherlands  constituted  the  grant  to  the  Duke  of  York,  1GG4. 

Delaware  was  embraced  in  the  Maryland  grant  to  Lord 
"Baltimore,  1632  J  annexed  to  New  York,  1GG4,  and  granted  to 
Penn.  1G82,  and  known  as  the  Lower  Counties.  In  1703  it 
.received,  .a  .separate. legislature. 

Longitude  West  front  Greenwich 


C.  Cod 

tSrdtln- 1 


tro&sp IN 

/  (  j  vJyfniington  (Swedes,  1038) 
JfB<)TH  CHARTERS  .  | 

Swaanendael 


LONDON  COMPANY* ^ 


(Dutch,  1631) 


The  Grant*  of  1606  extended  loO 
inland,  »ii(J  the  territory  between  the 
38th  and  41st  parallels  was  includod  in 
both. 

In  1G09  and  1620  the.40th  parallel  waa 
established  as  the  dividing  line,  the 
Grants  to  extend  from  *  *  sea  to  sea”  . 

Roanoke  I. 

C.Ylutteras 


GRANTS  TO  THE 
PLYMOUTH  AND 
XONPON  COMPANIES. 
1G06  and  ll>09. 

p  4  90 _ 800  3P0  400 

SCALE  OF  ENGLISH  M.ILES. 

7,6’ _  Yo° 

70’ 


wz  r-'-Affl 

of  the 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


743 


and  the  settlements  in  the  North  increased  in 
number  and  population,  the  main  Colony  of 
Massachusetts  Bay  being  established  in  1628- 
30,  and  numerous  towns  in  the  neighboring  dis¬ 
trict  being  soon  founded,  while  settlements  were 
made  (1635-3G)  at  Hartford,  Wethersfield,  and 
Windsor,  the  three  towns  which  originally  con¬ 
stituted  the  Colony  of  Connecticut,  and  for  the 
administration  of  which  was  adopted  in  1639 
the  first  written  constitution  of  representative 
government.  In  1G38  the  Colony  of  New  Haven 
was  established.  In  this  period  also  the  same 
body  of  population  extended  northward  into 
what  became  New  Hampshire,  as  well  as  into 
the  northeastern  portion  of  Massachusetts.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  representative  of  the  aristo¬ 
cratic  class  founded  the  Colony  of  Maryland  in 
1634.  During  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth 
in  England  most  of  the  immigrants  were  drawn 
from  the  Cavalier  and  Royalist  classes,  which 
were  then  out  of  power,  and  by  this  phase  of 
migration  Virginia  and  Maryland  especially  prof¬ 
ited.  Following  the  Restoration  the  increased 
power  of  the  King  in  Colonial  politics  was  il¬ 
lustrated  in  the  grant  of  the  Carolinas  to  a  body 
of  proprietors,  and  of  Pennsylvania  to  a  single 
proprietor,  while  in  the  same  period  New  York, 
acquired  in  1664  by  conquest  from  the  Dutch, 
was  organized  as  a  royal  province.  The  admin¬ 
istration  of  New  Jersey  was  given  over  to  a 
body  of  proprietors,  and  the  various  settlements 
in  Rhode  Island  were  organized  by  charter  into 
a  Colony.  Throughout  this  period  there  was  a 
steady  development  of  uniformity  in  the  pro¬ 
vincial  governments.  At  the  basis  of  it  all  lay 
the  principles  of  a  democratic  or  representative 
government,  which  were  brought  to  America  by 
the  earliest  colonists.  A  representative  and  pop¬ 
ular  government  was  established  in  Virginia  as 
early  as  1619,  before  the  founding  of  the  New 
England  Colonies,  in  which  democratic  insti¬ 
tutions  existed  in  form  almost  from  the  outset. 
Coincident  with  this  growth  of  uniformity  ap¬ 
peared  indications  of  divergence  in  theory  as  to 
the  proper  position  of  the  provinces  within  the 
province  and  where  no  provision  was  made  for 
English  state.  On  the  one  hand,  in  the  instances 
where  even  the  executive  was  chosen  within  the 
the  approval  of  provincial  laws  by  the  King, 
there  appeared  substantially  independent  local 
autonomy,  the  prevalence  of  which  type  would 
create  a  thoroughly  decentralized  system  of  gov¬ 
ernment.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  instances 
where  the  Governor  and  all  important  executive 
and  judicial  officers  were  appointees  of  the  crown, 
where  the  Governor’s  Council  was  chosen  by  the 
crown,  and  where  all  provincial  laws  were  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  approval  of  the  crown,  there  was 
created  a  strongly  centralized  form  of  Imperial 
government.  Both  of  these  types  of  provincial 
administration  appeared  in  the  Colonial  period, 
although  they  were  irreconcilable,  and  as  one 
form  of  government  recognized  privileges  which 
the  colonists  would  not  relinquish  and  which  the 
home  Government  would  not  recognize  as  rights, 
and  as  the  other  form  included  powers  which 
the  colonists  claimed  were  improperly  exercised 
by  the  King,  it  was  inevitable  that  the  attempt 
forcibly  to  harmonize  the  two  systems  should  cre¬ 
ate  such  friction  as  to  foreshadow  revolution. 
Originally,  the  Colonies  were  regarded  as  within 
the  King’s  exclusive  jurisdiction,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  Protectorate  and  the  reign  of  Charles 
II  that  they  were  considered  as  organic  portions 
of  the  Empire,  so  as  to  be  governed  by  Parlia¬ 


ment.  (See  Navigation  Laws.)  Protests  were 
made  against  this  assumption;  Massachusetts 
and  other  provinces  asserted  their  rights  of 
self-government  and  of  exemption  from  parlia¬ 
mentary  control;  and  it  was  not  until  the  Eng¬ 
lish  revolution  of  1688  that  settled  and  uniform 
relations  with  the  several  Colonies  were  estab¬ 
lished,  and  the  increased  authority  of  Parlia¬ 
ment,  both  within  the  realm  and  in  the  Colonies, 
was  fully  recognized. 

The  effect  of  that  revolution  made  more  criti¬ 
cal  the  underlying  problem  of  the  Colonial  situ¬ 
ation,  and  gradually  made  conspicuous  the  issue 
whether  in  the  Colonies  the  legislative  authority 
of  Parliament  was  paramount.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  revolution  had  a  beneficent  effect  upon 
the  Colonies  in  terminating  unrest  and  friction, 
which  had  characterized  the  administration  of 
the  later  Stuarts.  Even  in  Virginia  the  preva¬ 
lent  discontent  had  been  given  violent  expression 
in  Bacon’s  Rebellion  (q.v.)  in  1676,  while  in 
the  Northern  Colonies  the  many  contests  over 
jurisdiction  and  rights  and  the  rule  established 
by  Andros  (q.v.),  who  had  been  appointed  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  the  Dominion  of  New  England — com¬ 
prising  all  the  Colonies  between  the  St.  Croix 
and  the  Delaware — developed  a  general  disaf¬ 
fection  among  the  people  to  the  home  government 
and  culminated  in  the  seizure  of  Andros,  the 
overthrow  of  his  administration  (1689),  and  the 
uprising  under  Leisler  in  New  York. 

In  1713,  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  England, 
which  had  been  importing  slaves  from  Africa 
into  its  American  and  West  Indian  Colonies, 
obtained  a  monopoly  of  the  slave  trade  to  Span¬ 
ish  America  for  33  years,  and  as  a  result  of  this 
arrangement  slavery  was  extended  in,  and  to 
some  extent  forced  upon,  all  the  American  Colo¬ 
nies.  See  Slavery. 

During  much  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  there  was  a  general  feeling  of  loyalty 
towards  the  mother  country.  The  sons  of  the 
more  wealthy  colonists,  especially  in  the  South, 
were  educated  in  England.  English  literature 
was  widely  read  in  the  Colonies;  the  Colonies, 
though  distinct  and  differing  in  origin  and  char¬ 
acter — Puritan  in  the  East,  largely  Dutch  Re¬ 
formed  in  New  York,  Quaker  in  Pennsylvania, 
to  a  considerable  extent  Roman  Catholic  in  Mary¬ 
land,  Anglican  in  Virginia,  and  German  and 
Irish  in  many  of  the  back  settlements — were  yet 
for  the  most  part  united  by  language,  blood,  and 
institutions. 

These  influences  towards  harmony  with  the 
mother  country  served  to  obscure  to  a  consid¬ 
erable  degree  the  recurrent  disputes  over  char¬ 
ter  rights  and  trade  privileges  which  continued 
to  prevail  in  the  eighteenth  century;  and  the 
tendency  to  union  among  the  several  Colonies 
was  strengthened  by  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
and  Indian  War  (q.v.).  This  was  the  last  in 
the  series  of  conflicts  (see  King  William’s  War; 
Queen  Anne’s  War;  King  George’s  War;  also 
see  Canada)  which  resulted  from  the  respective 
territorial  ambitions  in  North  America  of  France 
and  Great  Britain,  and  left  the  latter  in  undis¬ 
puted  possession  of  Canada  as  well  as  of  the 
territory  lying  between  the  Alleghanies  and  the 
Mississippi.  As  a  result  of  the  termination  of 
this  long-continued  struggle  with  the  French, 
which  was  followed  by  the  Pontiac  conspiracy  of 
1763  (see  Pontiac),  the  Colonies,  which  'had 
naturally  borne  the  brunt  of  the  various  con¬ 
flicts  in  America,  were  relieved  of  much  of  their 
dependence  upon  the  home  government  and  were 


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744 


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left  freer  than  they  had  earlier  been  .to  look 
after  what  they  conceived  to  be  their  rights  and 
interests.  On  the  other  hand,  the  financial  ne¬ 
cessities  resulting  from  that  war  led  to  measures 
by  the  home  government  which  aroused  the 
colonists,  strengthened  their  feelings  of  unity 
among  themselves,  and  lessened  their  attachment 
to  the  English  administration.  Under  such  cir¬ 
cumstances  the  basis  of  intercolonial  unity  gave 
force  to  the  expressions  and  acts  of  the  home 
government,  as  when  in  1761  the  enforcement  of 
the  Navigation  Acts  by  general  search  warrants 
(see  Assistance,  Writs  of)  caused  strong  re¬ 
sentment  against  the  home  government,  espe¬ 
cially  in  New  England,  where  the  Admiralty 
attempted  to  enforce  the  law,  many  vessels  being 
seized  and  the  Colonial  trade  with  the  West 
Indies  being  seriously  affected.  In  1765  the 
passing  of  an  Act  of  Parliament  (see  Stamp 
Act)  for  collecting  a  Colonial  revenue  by  re¬ 
quiring  the  use  of  stamps  not  only  upon  many 
business  papers  and  legal  documents,  but  also 
upon  certain  articles  of  ordinary  use,  caused 
general  indignation,  and  led  even  to  riots.  Steps 
were  promptly  taken  to  unite  against  the  com¬ 
mon  danger  of  an  extension  of  the  authority  of 
Parliament;  the  famous  Stamp  Act  Congress,  in 
which  nine  Colonies  were  represented,  met  at 
New  York  in  September,  1765,  and  issued  a 
statement  of  grievances  and  a  declaration  of 
rights.  The  stamps  were  destroyed  or  reshipped 
to  England,  and  popular  societies,  called  Sons 
of  Liberty  (q.v.),  were  formed  in  the  chief  towns. 
In  1766  the  Stamp  Act  was  repealed,  to  the  gen¬ 
eral  relief  of  the  colonists;  but  the  principle 
of  Colonial  taxation  by  Parliament  was  reaf¬ 
firmed,  and  in  1767  duties  were  levied  on  glass, 
paper,  printers’  colors,  and  tea.  Merchants  in 
the  Colonies  attempted  retaliation  with  non¬ 
importation  agreements,  and  in  Boston  the  dis¬ 
turbances  were  such  that  Governor  Gage  was 
furnished  with  a  military  force  to  preserve 
order  and  enforce  the  laws.  Thenceforth  the 
relations  between  the  provincial  Legislature  and 
the  royal  Governor  were  especially  strained,  and 
much  bitter  feeling  among  the  people  was  caused 
by  the  so-called  Boston  Massacre  (q.v.)  of 
March  5,  1770.  In  1773  the  duties  were  re¬ 
pealed,  excepting  3d.  a  pound  on  tea,  when  the 
matter  resolved  itself  into  a  question  of  prin¬ 
ciple,  and  from  North  to  South  the  people  be¬ 
came  determined  that  this  tax  should  not  be 
paid.  In  Boston  a  crowd,  disguised  as  Indians, 
threw  three  cargoes  of  tea  into  the  harbor 
(Dec.  16,  1773).  As  a  penalty  for  such  acts, 
Parliament  passed  in  1774  a  series  of  punitive 
statutes,  including  the  so-called  Charter  Act,  by 
which  the  popular  element  in  the  provincial 
government  of  Massachusetts  was  greatly  re¬ 
duced  and  by  which  the  former  independence  and 
authority  of  town  meetings  was  strictly  limited, 
and  including  also  the  Boston  Port  Bill  (q.v.), 
by  which  the  city  was  to  be.  no  longer  a  port  of 
entry,  and  the  Quebec  Act  ( q.v. ) . 

The  people  of  Massachusetts,  relying  upon  the 
theory  that  their  charter  partook  of  the  nature 
of  a  compact  which  could  be  altered  or  abrogated 
only  by  the  consent  of  themselves  and  of  the 
King,  denied  the  right  of  Parliament  to  pass 
statutes  in  any  way  modifying  their  charter 
rights,  and  insisted  that  the  course  of  the  King 
and  Parliament  released  the  colonists  from  all 
obligations  and  reduced  them  so  far  as  govern¬ 
ment  was  concerned,  to  a  “state  of  nature.”  As 
early  as  the  fall  of  1774  the  colonists  began  to 


organize  local  government  on  the  assumption 
that  administrative  relations  with  England  had 
been  terminated  and  that  the  authority  of  the 
home  government  had  ceased.  Under  such  cir¬ 
cumstances  it  was  inevitable  that  the  adminis¬ 
tration  should  undertake  to  apply  a  policy  of 
repression.  For  further  details  of  Colonial  his¬ 
tory,  see,  besides  the  articles  already  referred 
to,  the  articles  on  the  various  States. 

War  of  Independence.  It  was  now  deter¬ 
mined  to  enforce  the  authority  of  Parliament 
over  the  Colonies,  and  a  fleet,  containing  several 
ships  of  the  line  and  10,000  troops,  was  sent  to 
America.  The  Colonies,  still  asserting  their  loy¬ 
alty,  prepared  to  resist  what  they  considered  the 
unconstitutional  assumptions  of  the  home  gov¬ 
ernment  and  the  unwarranted  violations  of  their 
rights  as  English  citizens.  Volunteers  were 
drilling  and  depots  of  provisions  and  military 
stores  were  being  formed.  The  sending  of  a 
small  force  from  Boston  to  seize  one  of  these 
depots  at  Concord,  Mass.,  and  to  capture  two 
of  the  most  prominent  provincial  leaders,  Samuel 
Adams  and  John  Hancock,  who  were  staying 
temporarily  at  Lexington,  led  to  engagements  at 
Lexington  and  at  Concord  (see  Lexington)  and 
the  real  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  War, 
on  April  19,  1775.  The  news  of  this  event 
promptly  brought  from  15,000  to  20,000  armed 
provincials  to  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  to  which 
place  the  British,  then  numbering  less  than 
4000,  were  effectually  confined.  On  May  25, 
1775,  reenforcements  under  Howe,  Clinton,  and 
Burgoyne  increased  the  strength  of  the  British 
army  to  10,000  men.  Outlying  royal  forts  and 
arsenals,  with  their  arms  and  munitions,  were 
taken  possession  of  by  the  colonists,  and  on 
May  10  and  May  11  respectively  Ticonderoga 
and  Crown  Point,  the  principal  Northern  forti¬ 
fications,  were  surprised  by  organized  forces  and 
their  artillery  and  stores  appropriated.  A  con¬ 
gress  of  the  Colonies,  known  as  the  Continental 
Congress,  had  assembled  at  Philadelphia  in  Sep¬ 
tember,  1774,  and  after  appeals  to  the  home 
government,  which  proved  unavailing,  this  body 
resolved  to  raise  and  equip  an  army  of  20,000 
men,  and  on  June  15,  1775,  appointed  George 
Washington  commander  in  chief.  On  June  17 
Breed’s  Hill  in  Charlestown,  near  Boston,  where 
a  considerable  force  of  Americans  had  hastilv 

V 

intrenched  themselves,  was  taken  by  assault  by 
the  British  troops,  but  with  so  heavy  a  loss  that 
the  defeat  had  for  the  provincials  the  moral 
effect  of  a  victory.  (See  Bunker  Hill,  Battle 
of.)  After  a  winter  of  great  privation,  during 
which  they  were  closely  besieged  within  the 
only  city  in  their  control,  the  British  evacuated 
Boston  March  17,  1776,  carrying  away  in  their 
fleet  to  Halifax  a  large  number  of  Loyalists. 
To  forestall  an  expected  attack  by  Sir  Guy 
Carleton,  Governor  of  Canada,  upon  Ticonderoga, 
an  American  force  under  Montgomery  was  sent 
in  August,  1775,  to  invade  Canada  by  way  of 
Lake  Champlain,  while  in  September  another 
American  force  under  Benedict  Arnold  was  sent 
from  Cambridge  through  the  forests  of  Maine 
against  Quebec.  Montgomery  captured  Chambly, 
St.  Johns,  and  Montreal,  but  on  Dec.  31,  1775, 
the  Americans  were  defeated  before  Quebec,  Mont¬ 
gomery  being  killed  and  Arnold  wounded.  In 
the  summer  of  1776  Arnold,  being  forced  to  re¬ 
treat,  did  so  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain  with 
masterly  skill. 

After  the  evacuation  of  Boston  the  British 
government  put  forth  a  stronger  effort  to  reduce 


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745 


the  Colonies  to  submission.  An  army  consist¬ 
ing  of  55,000  men,  of  whom  17,000  were  Hessian 
mercenaries,  was  sent,  under  the  command  of 
Sir  William  Howe.  The  Congress,  declaring  on 
May  15,  1776,  that  the  royal  authority  had 
ceased,  recommended  to  the  several  Colonies  to 
adopt  “such  governments  as  might  best  conduce 
to  the  safety  and  happiness  of  the  people”;  and 
most  of  the  13  Colonies  soon  adopted  constitu¬ 
tions  as  independent  and  sovereign  States.  On 
June  7,  1776,  Richard  Henry  Lee  (q.v. ),  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  offered  a  resolution  in  Congress,  declar¬ 
ing  that  “these  LTnited  Colonies  are,  and  of  right 
ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  States;  that 
they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to  the 
British  crown;  and  that  all  political  connection 
between  them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is, 
and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved.”  This  reso¬ 
lution  was  adopted  on  July  2  by  the  votes  of 
12  out  of  13  Colonies,  the  New  York  delegates, 
who  had  not  as  yet  received  instructions,  being 
excused  from  voting.  A  committee,  consisting  of 
Thomas  Jefferson,  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Frank¬ 
lin,  Roger  Sherman,  and  Robert  R.  Livingston, 
had  been  appointed,  on  June  10,  to  prepare  a 
declaration  in  accordance  with  the  above  reso¬ 
lution;  and  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
(q.v.),  written  by  Jefferson,  based  upon  the 
equality  of  men,  and  asserting  that  “all  govern¬ 
ment  derives  its  just  powers  from  the  consent 
of  the  governed,”  on  July  4,  1776,  received  the 
final  assent  of  the  delegates  of  12  Colonies  (the 
New  York  delegates  still  not  voting),  who  thus 
undertook  to  dissolve  the  allegiance  of  the  Colo¬ 
nies  to  the  British  crown  and  to  declare  them 
free  and  independent  States. 

After  the  evacuation  of  Boston  General  Wash¬ 
ington,  with  the  greater  portion  of  his  army, 
had  hastened  to  New  York,  which  was  the  centre 
of  hostilities  during  the  following  summer.  Gen¬ 
eral  Howe,  having  been  joined  by  his  brother, 
Admiral  Lord  Howe,  and  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
defeated  the  Americans  in  the  battle  of  Long 
Island,  Aug.  27,  1776  (see  Long  Island,  Battle 
of),  and  thus  was  enabled  to  compel  the  evacu¬ 
ation  of  New  York  and  secure  the  possession 
of  its  harbor  and  of  the  lower  Hudson  River. 
In  spite  of  the  gallantry  of  the  Americans  at 
the  battle  of  Harlem  Heights,  the  British  re¬ 
tained  secure  control  of  the  city  and  then  sent 
a  force  from  Long  Island  Sound  into  Westches¬ 
ter  County,  where  was  fought  the  battle  of 
White  Plains  (Oct.  28,  1776),  after  which  Wash¬ 
ington,  with  the  larger  part  of  his  army  crossed 
over  into  New  Jersey,  leaving,  however,  a  con¬ 
siderable  force  in  the  upper  portion  of  Manhat¬ 
tan  Island.  There,  on  November  16,  Fort  Wash¬ 
ington  (q.v.)  was  captured,  along  with  its  en¬ 
tire  garrison  of  about  2600  men.  Washington 
then  retreated  across  New  Jersey  towards  Phila¬ 
delphia,  closely  followed  by  the  British,  under 
Cornwallis,  into  whose  hands  Newark,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Princeton  successively  fell.  The 
British  then  awaited  the  freezing  of  the  Dela¬ 
ware  in  order  to  be  able  to  occupy  Philadelphia. 
On  Christmas  night  General  Washington  crossed 
in  boats  amid  floating  ice,  and  early  on  the 
following  morning  surprised  and  captured  a  Hes¬ 
sian  force  at  Trenton  (q.v.).  On  Jan.  3,  1777, 
he  won  the  battle  of  Princeton  (q.v.),  and  by 
this  victory  the  waning  confidence  of  the  colo¬ 
nists  was  to  a  large  extent  restored,  and  the 
prospects  of  the  American  arms  materially  im¬ 
proved.  The  British  thereupon  retired  to  New 
York,  where  they  spent  the  rest  of  the  winter. 


Li  the  meantime  Silas  Deane  and  Benjamin 
Franklin  had  been  sent  to  France  to  solicit  rec¬ 
ognition  and  aid,  and,  although  formal  recogni¬ 
tion  was  delayed,  important  assistance  was  pri¬ 
vately  given  in  money  and  supplies,  and  Euro¬ 
pean  volunteers — the  Marquis  de  Lafayette, 
Baron  Steuben,  Baron  de  Kalb,  Kosciuszko,  and 
Pulaski — rendered  most  important  services.  Ef¬ 
forts  were  also  made,  but  without  success,  to 
induce  the  British  colonies  of  Canada  and  Nova 
Scotia  to  unite  in  the  struggle  for  independence, 
and  diplomatic  agents  in  Europe  attempted  to 
secure  recognition  and  material  assistance  from 
various  Powers.  Late  in  September,  1777,  after 
defeat  of  the  Americans  on  the  lltli  at  Chadd’s 
Ford  on  the  Brandywine  (see  Brandywine, 
Battle  of),  the  British,  who  under  Howe  had 
come  by  water  from  New  York  to  the  head  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  took  possession  of  Philadelphia; 
and  Washington,  after  attacking  the  British 
unsuccessfully  on  October  4  at  Germantown 
( q.v. ) ,  went  into  winter  quarters  early  in  De¬ 
cember  at  Valley  Forge  (q.v.),  where  his  troops 
suffered  greatly  from  want  of  food  and  clothing. 

In  the  meanwhile  General  Burgoyne  was  lead¬ 
ing  an  army  of  7000  British  and  Hessian  troops 
with  probably  a  larger  force  of  Canadians  and 
Indians,  from  Canada  into  northern  New  York, 
in  order  to  form  a  junction  with  the  British 
on  the  lower  Fludson,  and  thus,  by  gaining  vir¬ 
tual  control  of  New  York,  separate  New  Eng¬ 
land  from  the  rest  of  the  Confederacy.  But 
there  was  fatal  delay  in  transmitting  instruc¬ 
tions  to  Howe  to  proceed  up  the  Hudson,  and 
St.  Leger,  who  was  to  proceed  from  Canada  to 
the  Hudson  by  way  of  Oswego  and  the  Mohawk 
valley,  being  unable  to  capture  Fort  Stanwix, 
withdrew  after  the  battle  of  Oriskany.  (See 
vSaint  Leger  ;  Fort  Stanwix  ;  Oriskany,  Battle 
of.)  Burgoyne’s  march  was  delayed  by  felled 
trees  and  destroyed  roads;  the  defeat  of  a  large 
force  of  foragers  at  Bennington  (Aug.  16,  1777) 
was  a  severe  reverse  (see  Bennington,  Battle 
of)  ;  and  after  the  two  sharp  battles  of  Saratoga 
(q.v.) — on  September  19  and  October  7 — he  was 
compelled  to  capitulate  to  General  Gates,  Oct. 
17,  1777,  and  England  heard  with  dismay  of  the 
loss  of  an  entire  army.  The  Americans  took  be¬ 
tween  5000  and  6000  prisoners  and  much  ar¬ 
tillery. 

This  victory  was  the  turning  point  of  the  war. 
Almost  equally  important  with  its  military  re¬ 
sults  was  its  effect  upon  international  relations, 
in  that  it  gave  to  the  European  Powers  the  first 
definite  proof  of  the  possibility  and  even  the 
probability  of  Colonial  success  and  made  it  fea¬ 
sible  for  France,  with  a  greater  degree  of  pro¬ 
priety,  to  recognize  formally  the  new  nation,  and 
to  enter  into  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  the  United 
States  on  Feb.  6,  1778,  a  step  which  largely  al¬ 
tered  both  the  military  and  political  situation 
and  hastened  the  final  success  of  the  Americans. 
The  recognition  of  the  new  nation  by  France 
prompted  Lord  North  to  a  policy  of  reconcilia¬ 
tion,  but  his  commissioners,  though  empowered 
to  grant  virtually  everything  for  which  the  colo¬ 
nists  had  originally  taken  up  arms,  were  unable 
to  secure  a  favorable  reception  without  a  prior 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  United 
States. 

In  the  summer  of  1778  the  Americans  were 
strengthened  by  the  presence  of  a  French  fleet 
and  of  a  considerable  land  force,  and  after  the 
abandonment  of  Philadelphia  by  Sir  Henry  Clin¬ 
ton,  who  had  replaced  Howe  in  May,  1778,  their 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


746 


opponents  in  the  North  were  confined  to  New¬ 
port  and  to  the  region  around  the  city  of  New 
York.  As  Clinton  withdrew  from  Philadelphia 
and  marched  across  New  Jersey  towards  New 
York,  he  was  followed  by  Washington,  who 
gained  a  qualified  success  at  Monmouth  on  June 
28,  1778.  (See  Monmouth,  Battle  of.)  There¬ 
after  the  greater  energy  on  both  sides  was  de¬ 
voted  to  the  campaign  in  the  South,  though  it 
was  in  1778-79  that  George  Rogers  Clark  (q.v.) 
achieved  the  virtual  conquest  of  the  Northwest. 
Savannah  was  taken  (Dec.  29,  1778)'  by  the 
British,  who  in  the  following  two  years,  under 
Clinton  and  Cornwallis,  secured  control  of  Geor¬ 
gia  and  South  Carolina,  taking  Charleston  May 
12,  1780.  In  June,  1780,  General  Gates  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  Southern  Departriient 
and  on  August  16  was  badly  defeated  by  Corn¬ 
wallis  at  Camden  (q.v.).  Soon  afterward,  on 
Sept.  23,  1780,  General  Benedict  Arnold’s  trea¬ 
sonable  plot  to  surrender  West  Point  was  frus¬ 
trated  through  the  capture  of  Major  Andre. 
The  first  real  reverse  of  the  British  forces  in  the 
South  was  that  experienced  at  the  hands  of  the 
hurriedly  gathered  backwoodsmen  at  King’s 
Mountain  (q.v.),  Oct.  7,  1780.  In  the  following 
December  General  Gates  was  superseded  by  Gen¬ 
eral  Greene  as  commander  of  the  American 
army  in  the  South,  and  a  more  active  campaign 
was  thereafter  undertaken.  At  the  Cowpens, 
Jan.  17,  1781,  the  force  of  Tarleton,  the  British 
cavalry  leader,  was  overwhelmed  by  the  Amer¬ 
icans  under  Morgan,  while  Cornwallis,  after  a 
dearly  bought  victory  over  Greene  at  Guilford 
Court  House,  March  15,  1781,  Avas  compelled  to 
retire  to  Wilmington.  Two  more  important 
battles,  at  Hobkirk’s  Hill  (April  25,  1781)  and 
Eutaw  Springs  (Sept.  8,  1781),  marked  the  con¬ 
test  for  the  control  of  the  Southern  territory. 
Finally  the  army  of  Cornwallis  was  confined  be¬ 
tween  the  York  and  James  rivers,  where,  with 
the  French  controlling  the  sea,  the  British  com¬ 
mander  was  unable  to  hold  out  long  against 
the  Americans  and  French  under  Washington 
and  Rochambeau.  His  surrender  at  Yorktown 
(q.v.)  on  Oct.  19,  1781,  assured  the  triumph  of 
the  American  cause.  The  provisional  treaty  of 
peace  was  signed  at  Paris  in  November,  1782,  a 
cessation  of  hostilities  was  declared  by  Wash¬ 
ington  in  January,  1783,  and  on  Sept.  3,  1783, 
the  definitive  Treaty  of  Paris  was  signed.  (See 
Paris,  Treaties  of.  )  This  treaty,  besides  recog¬ 
nizing  the  independence  of  the  United  States, 
at  that  time  consisting  of  the  13  original  Colo¬ 
nies — New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Is¬ 
land,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia — secured 
to  the  country  the  unorganized  territory  from  the 
Alleghanies  to  the  Mississippi.  On  Nov.  25, 
1783,  New  York  was  evacuated  by  the  British. 

The  Confederation.  The  need"  of  more  unity 
of  action  having  been  felt,  Articles  of  Confeder¬ 
ation,  first  reported  to  Congress  in  July,  1776, 
had  been  adopted  by  that  body  in  November, 
1777,  and  by  May,  1779,  all  the  States  had 
formally  ratified  them  except  Maryland,  which 
refused  its  assent  so  long  as  the  various  States 
continued  to  hold  the  lands  they  claimed  between 
the  Alleghanies  and  the  Mississippi.  Finally 
New  York  offered  to  cede  to  the  general  govern¬ 
ment  her  claims  to  such  lands,  and,  it  being  evi¬ 
dent  that  other  States  would  follow  her  exam¬ 
ple,  Maryland  gave  her  assent  to  the  Articles  in 
1781,  and,  the  necessary  unanimous  adoption 


having  thus  been  secured,  the  Articles  of  Con¬ 
federation  went  into  effect.  The  result  was  the 
formation  of  a  “league  of  friendship”  only,  the 
general  government  having  no  power  of  coercion 
and  the  various  States  being  virtually  independ¬ 
ent.  The  Articles  provided,  among  other 
things,  that  each  State  was  to  have  only  one 
vote  in  Congress,  that  Congress  was  to  be  vested 
with  the  power  of  declaring  war  and  peace  and 
of  negotiating  treaties,  that  both  the  general 
government  and  the  States  were  to  have  the 
power  of  coining  and  issuing  money,  that  the 
various  States  were  to  be  intrusted  with  the 
regulation  of  commerce  and  the  raising  of  reve¬ 
nue,  that  Congress  on  appeal  was  to  decide  all 
controversies  between  States,  and  that  when  Con¬ 
gress  was  not  jn  session  a  “Committee  of  the 
States,”  appointed  by  that  body,  was  to  manage 
the  general  affairs  of  the  Confederation. 

When  the  war  had  ended,  the  States  had  be¬ 
come  free,  but  the  inefficacy  of  their  form  of  Fed¬ 
eral  government  became  more  and  more  appar¬ 
ent,  and  the  condition  of  the  young  Confederacy 
seemed  most  discouraging.  Its  .  treasury  was 
empty;  it  was  burdened  with  a  foreign  debt  of 
$8,000,000,  domestic  obligations  of  $30,000,000, 
and  a  paper  currency  of  nearly  $90,000,000  which 
no  one  would  receive.  Moreover,  the  Congress 
whose  predecessor  had  incurred  these  various 
obligations  had  now  no  power  to  provide  for 
discharging  them.  It  could  only  make  recom¬ 
mendations  to  the  States  and  urge  them  to  pro¬ 
vide  their  share  towards  the  expenses  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  was  wholly  without  power  to  en¬ 
force  either  upon  individuals  or  upon  the  States 
a  compliance  with  its  requirements,  while  fur¬ 
thermore  the  States  were  themselves  in  debt  and 
unwilling  to  respond  to  the  demands  of  the  Con¬ 
gress.  An  amendment  to  the  Articles  of  Con¬ 
federation  empowering  Congress  to  levy  a  5  per 
cent  duty  on  imported  goods  was  proposed  in 
1782,  but  was  defeated  by  Rhode  Island,  which 
alone  of  the  States  withheld  its  assent.  When 
peace  had  been  restored  and  the  army  disbanded, 
the  government  of  the  Confederation  was,  in  the 
words  of  Washington,  “little  more  than  the 
shadow  without  the  substance.”  Moreover, 
from  its  want  of  power,  it  soon  became  despised 
and  neglected  by  those  who  should  have  been  its 
chief  supporters,  and  the  ablest  men  preferred 
to  devote  themselves  to  the  politics  of  their  own 
States.  Congress  consisted  of  scarcely  more 
than  20  members,  few  of  whom  in  its  closing 
years  were  men  of  any  great  influence.  The 
evils  of  this  lack  of  system  were  soon  made  evi¬ 
dent,  when  after  some  difficulty  12  States  had 
assented  to  a  general  system  of  import  duties, 
and  the  thirteenth,  New  York,  resisted  and  thus 
alone  was  able  to  defeat  a  measure  which  was 
essential  to  the  credit  and  security  of  the  whole 
nation.  So,  too,  articles  in  the  treaty  with  Eng¬ 
land  were  set  at  naught  by  the  different  State 
governments,  laws  being  passed  by  the  various 
Legislatures  in  direct  defiance  of  these  articles, 
while  Congress  was  unable  to  do  more  than 
merely  to  exhort  them  to  annul  these  laws  and 
to  comply  with  the  treaty.  In  this  state  of  af¬ 
fairs  thoughtful  men  began  to  see  that,  if  the 
United  States  were  to  exist  as  a  nation,  there 
must  be  a  central  government  with  direct  power 
both  in  internal  and  external  affairs,  able  to 
carry  on  foreign  negotiations  in  the  name  of  the 
nation,  to  create  statutes  operative  upon  all  the 
citizens  of  the  States,  to  enforce  these  statutes, 
and,  if  necessary,  tc  punish  those  who  violated 


I. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  0?  ILLINOIS 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


them.  The  first  men  clearly  to  perceive  and 
boldly  declare  this  were  Alexander  Hamilton 
and  James  Bowdoin. 

The  Constitution.  Though  Hamilton  had 
been  among  the  most  ardent  supporters  of  Amer¬ 
ican  independence,  he  was  not  an  advocate  of 
the  system  of  government  that  had  been  the  im¬ 
mediate  result  of  the  war.  He  wished  his  coun¬ 
trymen  to  secure  the  advantages  of  a  strong  cen¬ 
tral  government,  and  the  model  that  he  had  in 
mind  was  the  English  system  without  the  mon¬ 
archical  principle.  In  1785  an  opportunity  oc¬ 
curred  of  effecting,  or  at  least  of  suggesting,  a 
radical  change.  In  that  year  commissioners 
were  appointed  by  Virginia  and  Maryland  to 
settle  certain  difficulties  about  the  navigation  of 
the  Potomac  River  and  Chesapeake  Bay.  They 
met  at  Alexandria  and  at  Mount  Vernon,  Wash¬ 
ington’s  home,  where  a  plan  was  proposed  for 
settling  commercial  duties,  and  this  led  to  the 
proposal,  made  by  the  Assembly  of  Virginia,  for 
a  general  conference  of  commissioners  from  all 
the  States  to  consider  the  matter  of  regulating 
trade.  Hamilton,  seeing  that  this  conference 
might  be  made  the  instrument  of  more  fundamen¬ 
tal  changes,  persuaded  New  York  to  send  com¬ 
missioners,  himself  among  them;  and  in  1786 
commissioners  from  five  States  met  at  Annapolis, 
Md.  (See  Annapolis  Convention.)  Hamilton 
laid  before  them  a  report,  giving  reasons  for 
calling  a  convention  of  delegates  from  all  the 
States  to  consider  the  reorganization  of  the  na¬ 
tional  government.  Such  a  proposal  was  adopted 
by  the  conference  and  submitted  to  Congress,  by 
which  it  was  indorsed,  with  the  recommendation 
that  each  State  should  send  delegates  to  a  Na¬ 
tional  Constitutional  Convention.  The  sugges¬ 
tion  was  generally  adopted,  and  the  convention 
met  at  Philadelphia  May  25,  1787.  Washington 
was  chosen  President  of  the  body,  which  proceeded 
to  create  an  entirely  new  scheme  of  government 
rather  than  to  revise  the  existing  plan  as  had 
been  originally  intended. 

The  two  paramount  questions  at  issue  were 
the  powers  of  the  Federal  government  and  of  the 
individual  States  and  the  system  by  which  the 
States  were  to  be  represented  in  the  Federal  Leg¬ 
islature.  Two  tentative  plans  were  laid  before 
the  convention — one  by  Edmund  Randolph,  of 
Virginia,  the  other  by  William  Paterson,  of  New 
Jersey.  The  Virginia  Plan,  as  the  former  was 
commonly  called,  provided  that  in  each  branch  of 
the  national  Legislature  representation  should  be 
according  to  population,  while  the  New  Jersey 
Plan  provided  for  equal  representation  of  the 
States  in  each  branch.  The  practical  question  at 
issue  was  settled  by  the  so-called  Connecticut 
Compromise,  according  to  which  in  one  branch 
of  the  national  Legislature  representation  of  the 
States  should  be  according  to  population,  while 
in  the  other  branch  it  should  be  equal.  Other 
compromises  were  . also  necessary  in  the  conven¬ 
tion,  as  a  result  of  which  Congress  was  to  be 
given  control  over  commerce,  three-fifths  of  the 
slaves  were  to  be  counted  in  estimating  the  popu¬ 
lation  of  a  State  with  reference  to  its  represen¬ 
tation  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  the 
various  States  were  given  power  to  admit  im¬ 
ported  slaves  for  20  years.  The  frame  of  govern¬ 
ment  drawn  up,  with  later  amendments,  has  con¬ 
tinued  as  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
to  the  present  day.  See  Constitution. 

The  difficulties  incident  to  the  ratification  of 
the  proposed  Constitution  were  enormous.  The 
old  Congress  was  still  in  existence  as  the  na- 

Vol.  XXII.— 48 


747 

tional  government,  but  it  was  in  even  lower 
repute  and  of  less  influence  than  it  had  been 
earlier  in  the  decade,  and  it  confessedly  had 
neither  the  authority  nor  the  power  to  take 
effective  steps  for  the  establishment  of  the  new 
form  of  government.  The  convention  accordingly 
determined  to  report  its  proceedings  to  the  old 
Congress,  which  body  was  to  submit  the  Consti¬ 
tution  to  each  State  for  acceptance  or  rejection, 
the  people  of  each  State  expressing  themselves 
through  a  convention  called  for  the  purpose.  All 
questions  at  issue  were  now  revived  in  the  vigor¬ 
ous  and  protracted  discussions  and  contests  which 
took  place  in  several  of  these  conventions.  Two 
bitterly  opposing  parties  arose,  the  Federalists 
(q.v. )  and  the  Anti-Federalists,  the  former  fav¬ 
oring  the  Constitution  and  the  latter  rejecting 
it.  Some  of  the  States  ratified  the  Constitution 
promptly;  but  in  others,  especially  Massachu¬ 
setts,  Virginia,  and  New  York,  the  opposition  was 
strongly  developed  and  it  was  only  after  a  pro¬ 
tracted  struggle  that  the  opposition  of  such  men 
as  Patrick  Henry  in  Virginia,  and  of  Melancthon 
Smith  and  Yates  in  New  York,  was  overcome. 
To  this  end  the  chief  single  contribution  was 
made  by  the  influence  of  the  Federalist  (q.v.), 
the  series  of  essays  produced  by  Hamilton,  Mad¬ 
ison,  and  Jay,  in  explanation  and  justification 
of  the  convention’s  work.  Finally,  on  June  21, 
1788,  the  ninth  State,  New  Hampshire,  ratified 
the  Constitution,  and,  according  to  the  terms 
of  the  instrument  itself,  by  that  event  it  went 
into  force.  The  two  important  States  of  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  New  York  followed  with  their  approval 
on  June  25  and  July  26  respectively,  leaving 
only  North  Carolina  ' and  Rhode  Island  in  the 
anomalous  position  of  not  being  members  of  the 
new  nation  which  claimed  jurisdiction  over  their 
territory. 

During  the  whole  period  of  the  Confederation 
Congress  had  enacted  only  one  piece  of  legislation 
of  extraordinary  and  enduring  importance — the 
Ordinance  of  1787  for  the  government  of  the 
Northwest  Territory.  (See  Northwest  Terri¬ 
tory.)  After  the  ratification  of  the  Constitu¬ 
tion  by  the  requisite  number  of  States,  the  old 
Congress  arranged  a  plan  for  carrying  the  new 
government  into  operation.  The  first  Wednesday 
of  January,  1789,  was  selected  for  the  choice  of 
electors  for  President  and  Vice  President,  the 
first  Wednesday  in  February  for  the  voting  of 
the  electors,  and  the  first  Wednesday  in  March 
as  the  date  of  the  inauguration.  The  69  electors 
who  met  in  February  all  voted  for  George  Wash¬ 
ington,  who  was  accordingly  chosen  President. 
The  next  highest  number  of  electoral  votes  cast 
was  34,  which  were  given  to  John  Adams,  who 
was  thus  elected  Vice  President  in  accordance 
with  the  method  then  prescribed  by  the  Constitu¬ 
tion.  Owing  to  delays,  however,  the  actual  in¬ 
auguration  of  the  new  government  did  not  take 
place  until  April  30,  1789. 

I  and  II.  Washington’s  Administration.* 

*  Cabinets. — Secretary  of  State,  Thomas  Jefferson,  Vir¬ 
ginia,  Sept.  26,  1789;  Edmund  Randolph,  Virginia,  Jan.  2, 
1794;  Timothy  Pickering,  Pennsylvania,  Dec.  10,  1795.  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Treasury,  Alexander  Hamilton,  New  York,  Sept. 
11,  1789;  Oliver  Wolcott,  Connecticut,  Feb.  2,  1795.  Secre¬ 
tary  of  War,  Henry  Knox,  Massachusetts,  Sept.  12,  1789; 
Timothy  Pickering,  Pennsylvania,  Jan.  2,  1795;  James  Mo- 
Henrv,  Maryland,  Jan.  27.  1796.  Attorney-General,  Edmund 
Randolph,  Virginia,  Sept.  26,  1789;  William  Bradford,  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  Jan.  27,  1794;  Charles  Lee,  Virginia,  Dec.  10,  1795. 
Postmaster-General  (the  Postmaster-General  was  not  regu¬ 
larly  a  member  of  the  cabinet  until  1829),  Samuel  Osgood 
Massachusetts,  Sept.  26,  1789;  Timothy  Pickering,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  Ai^.  12,  1791;  Joseph  Habersham,  Georgia,  Feb.  25, 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


748 


(1789-97.)  George  Washington  was  sworn  into 
office  on  April  30,  1789,  at  New  York,  where  the 
newly  elected  Congress,  the  first  under  the  Con¬ 
stitution,  had  assembled  earlier  in  the  month. 
The  House  of  Representatives  elected  Frederick 
A.  Muhlenberg,  of  Pennsylvania,  as  the  first 
Speaker.  The  First  Congress  witnessed  a  grad¬ 
ual  formation  of  two  political  groups,  opposing 
each  other  on  questions  of  centralization  and 
decentralization,  those  favoring  a  liberal  inter¬ 
pretation  of  the  powers  of  the  Federal  govern¬ 
ment  being  known  as  Federalists,  and  those 
favoring  a  very  strict  interpretation  and  limita¬ 
tion  of  these  powers  soon  styling  themselves 
Democratic-Republicans  or  simply  Republicans. 
The  latter  was  made  up  in  great  part  of  the 
Anti-Federalists  of  1787-88,  but  also  came  to 
include  some  of  the  advocates  of  the  Constitu¬ 
tion,  Madison  among  them.  Both  factions  were 
represented  in  Washington’s  first  cabinet,  Hamil¬ 
ton  coming  to  be  the  recognized  leader  of  the 
Federalists,  and  Jefferson  coming  to  be  regarded 
as  the  ablest  advocate  of  the  strict-construc- 
tionist  doctrine. 

Three  important  events  of  Washington’s  first 
administration,  all  closely  connected  with  the 
work  of  Hamilton,  were  the  inauguration  of  a 
scheme  of  tariff  ( see  Tariff  ) ,  directed  primarily 
towards  the  raising  of  revenue,  but  also  based 
upon  the  expediency  of  encouraging  domestic  in¬ 
dustries,  the  establishment  in  1791  of  a  national 
bank  (see  Bank,  Banking),  planned  to  serve 
partly  as  a  fiscal  agency  of  the  new  government, 
and  the  systematizing  and  funding  of  the  na¬ 
tional  debt,  in  which  were  now  included  not  only 
the  strictly  national  debts,  but  also  those  ob¬ 
ligations  of  the  several  States  which  had  been 
incurred  for  national  purposes  during  the  Revo¬ 
lution.  The  political  controversy  over  this  as¬ 
sumption  of  State  debts  by  the  national  govern¬ 
ment  was,  for  purposes  of  convenient  adjust¬ 
ment,  combined  with  the  pending  controversy  as 
to  the  location  of  the  national  capital,  the  op¬ 
ponents  of  assumption  yielding  upon  that  prop¬ 
osition  in  sufficient  number  to  secure  in  return 
the  choice  of  the  banks  of  the  Potomac  as  the 
seat  of  government.  The  Constitution  had  been 
put  into  operation  without  any  settlement  of 
the  delicate  and  vital  question  of  the  authority 
of  the  new  government  over  the  territory  of 
the  States  which  at  that  time  had  not  ratified 
that  instrument^  and  the  possibility  of  a  crisis 
was  early  removed  by  the  successive  ratifications 
by  North  Carolina  (November,  1789)  and  by 
Rhode  Island  (May,  1790).  Membership  in  the 
Union  was  further  increased  by  the  admission 
of  Vermont  (March,  1791)  and  of  Kentucky 
(June,  1792).  In  Washington’s  first  term  execu¬ 
tive  departments  were  organized  by  acts  of 
Congress,  the  Federal  judicial  system  was  organ¬ 
ized,  in  September,  1789,  a  national  mint  was 
established  in  Philadelphia,  and  a  system  of 
coinage  devised,  and  in  1791  the  first  10  amend¬ 
ments  to  the  Federal  Constitution  were  formally 
adopted. 

At  the  request  of  both  Federalists  and  Re¬ 
publicans  Washington  consented  to  serve  a 
second  term  as  President  and  was  unanimously 
reelected.  John  Adams  was  also  reelected  to  the 
office  of  Vice  President,  being  opposed  by  George 
Clinton  ( q.v. ) ,  of  New  York,  the  Republican 
candidate.  Washington’s  second  term  was  one 
of  much  public  turmoil  and  uneasiness,  owing 
to  the  attitude  of  the  two  parties  towards 
France  and  England,  then  at  war.  The  Fed¬ 


eralists  expressed  an  open  sympathy  with  Eng¬ 
land;  the  Republicans  with  France.  The  con¬ 
duct  of  the  French  Minister  to  the  United  States, 
known  as  “Citizen”  Genet  (q.v.),  did  much  to 
increase  the  popular  excitement.  The  turbulence 
resulting  from  his  injudicious  course  had  in¬ 
flamed  party  passions  to  such  an  extent  that 
even  Washington’s  calm  and  dignified  policy  did 
not  escape  the  bitterest  partisan  denunciation. 
This  increased  in  volume  and  intensity  when 
the  so-called  Jay  Treaty  (q.v.)  with  England 
was  laid  before  the  Senate  by  the  President. 
The  Jay  Treaty  failed  to  secure  the  assurances 
from  England  that  many  believed  to  be  justly 
due;  but  it  embodied  the  best  that  could  then 
be  obtained,  and  the  President  approved  it.  The 
aspersions  now  recklessly  heaped  upon  Wash¬ 
ington  became  virulent;  he  was  threatened  with 
impeachment  and  even  was  accused  of  treason 
and  of  usurpation.  Yet  his  action  was  justified 
by  the  revival  of  commerce  that  followed  the 
ratification  of  the  Jay  Treaty. 

The  other  noteworthy  events  of  Washington’s 
second  administration  were  the  fortunate  and 
effective  assertion  of  the  authority  of  the  Fed¬ 
eral  government  in  the  suppression  of  the  so- 
called  Whisky  Insurrection  (q.v.)  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  (1794),  the  adoption  of  a  plan  for  in¬ 
ternal  taxation  (1795),  the  unsuccessful  expedi¬ 
tions  under  Harmar  and  St.  Clair  against  the 
Western  Indians  in  1790  and  1791,  the  defeat 
of  the  Indians  by  Wayne  at  Fallen  Timbers  in 
1794,  the  cession  to  the  United  States  in  the 
following  year  of  25,000  square  miles  of  Indian 
lands,  and  the  negotiation  of  a  treaty  with 
Spain  in  1795,  whereby  the  United  States  se¬ 
cured  the  free  navigation  of  the  Lower  Missis¬ 
sippi,  the  right  of  deposit,  for  a  limited  period, 
at  New  Orleans,  and  a  partially  satisfactory 
settlement  of  the  Florida  boundary.  The  year 
1793  was  marked  by  the  invention,  by  Eli 
Whitney,  of  the  cotton  gin,  which  was  destined 
to  bring  about  an  industrial  revolution  in  the- 
South  and  profoundly  to  affect  the  question  of 
slavery.  In  June,  1796,  Tennessee,  hitherto  a 
part  of  North  Carolina,  was  admitted  to  the 
Union  as  a  new  Commonwealth.  On  September 
17  of  the  same  year  Washington  delivered  his  his¬ 
toric  “Farewell  Address.”  As  he  declined  again 
to  be  a  candidate,  the  two  great  parties  waged 
an  open  warfare  for  the  election  of  his  suc¬ 
cessor.  The  Federalist  candidate,  John  Adams, 
received  71  votes,  and  the  Republican,  Thomas 
Jefferson,  68  votes,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
constitutional  provisions  then  operative  John 
Adams  became  President  and  Thomas  Jefferson 
Vice  President. 

III.  John  Adams’s  Administration.*  ( 1797— 

1801.)  At  first  the  prospects  of  the  new  admin¬ 
istration  and  of  the  Federalist  party  seemed  ex¬ 
tremely  bright.  The  insolent  action  of  the 
French  Directory,  then  at  the*  head  of  affairs  in 
France,  in  demanding  of  the  American  Commis¬ 
sioners  a  bribe  in  return  for  a  favorable  hear¬ 
ing,  inspired  everywhere  in  the  United  States 

*  Cabinet.  —  Secretary  of  State,  Timothy  Pickering,  con¬ 
tinued;  John  Marshall,  Virginia,  May  13,  1800.  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  Oliver  Wolcott,  continued;  Samuel  Dexter, 
Massachusetts,  Jan.  1,  1801.  Secretary  of  War,  James  Mc¬ 
Henry,  continued;  Samuel  Dexter,  May  13,  1800;  Roger 
Griswold,  Connecticut,  Feb.  3,  1801.  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
George  Cabot,  Massachusetts,  May  3,  1798  (until  this  time 
the  navy  had  been  under  the  general  direction  of  the  War  De¬ 
partment) ;  Benjamin  Stoddert,  Maryland,  May  21,  1798. 
Attorney-General,  Charles  Lee,  continued;  Theophilus  Par¬ 
sons,  Massachusetts,  Feb.  20,  1801.  Postmaster-General, 
Joseph  Habersham,  continued. 


UNITED  STATES 


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749 


the  most  intense  indignation.  (See  X  Y  Z  Cor¬ 
respondence.)  War  seemed  imminent;  in¬ 
deed,  hostilities  actually  began  on  sea,  and  Gen¬ 
eral  W  ashington  was  again  summoned  to  com¬ 
mand  the  army,  with  Hamilton  as  the  actual 
head  until  the  outbreak  of  hostilities.  But  a 
change  in  the  French  government  made  possible 
a  reconciliation,  and  in  1800  a  treaty  removed 
the  immediate  cause  of  complaint. 

Such  popularity  as  the  government  had  se¬ 
cured  by  its  firm  attitude  towards  France  was 
soon  lost  by  the  passage,  in  1798,  of  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  Acts  (q.v.).  Resolutions  of  pro¬ 
test  drawn  by  Jefferson  and  Madison  were  passed 
by  the  Legislatures  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky 
and  became  known  as  the  Virginia  and  Kentucky 
Resolutions  ( q.v. ) .  These  resolutions  expressed 
the  extreme  Anti-Federalist  doctrine  and  pre¬ 
cipitated  an  immediate  agitation  against  the 
obnoxious  laws,  which  helped  to  cause  the  de¬ 
feat  of  the  Federalist  party  in  the  presidential 
election  of  1800.  During  Adams’s  administra¬ 
tion  the  seat  of  the  government  was  changed, 
in  1800,  from  Philadelphia,  which  had  been  the 
temporary  capital  for  10  years,  to  Washington, 
in  the  newly  constituted  District  of  Columbia, 
and  John  Marshall,  who  was  destined  to  in¬ 
fluence  profoundly  the  constitutional  law  of 
the  nation,  became  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court.  In  the  election  of  1800,  73  electoral 
votes  were  cast  for  Thomas  Jefferson  and  the 
same  number  for  Aaron  Burr,  also  a  Republican, 
while  Adams  had  65.  There  being1  thus  no 
choice,  the  election  was  thrown,  in  accordance 
with  Article  II  of  the  Constitution,  into  the 
House  of  Representatives,  each  State  having 
only  a  single  vote.  After  balloting  for  six  days 
the  House  of  Representatives  elected  Jefferson, 
who  received  the  votes  of  10  States,  while  four 
States  voted  for  Burr  and  two  voted  in  blank. 
Thomas  Jefferson  was  thus  chosen  President  and 
Aaron  Burr  Vice  President. 

IV  and  V.  Thomas  Jefferson’s  Administra¬ 
tion.*  (1801-09.)  The  election  of  Jefferson 
marked  the  complete  triumph  of  the  Republicans. 
He  made  a  number  of  removals  from  office  with¬ 
out  cause,  although  chiefly  of  those  whom  Adams 
had  appointed  in  the  last  hours  of  his  admin¬ 
istration  and  hence  known  as  “midnight  appoint¬ 
ments.”  (See  Marbury  v.  Madison.)  Jefferson 
professed  only  to  desire  to  maintain  an  equal 
distribution  of  offices  between  the  parties  and  to 
consider  only  an  applicant’s  capability  and  hon¬ 
esty.  He  felt  free,  however,  to  join  in  undoing 
the  wrork  of  Adams  by  aiding  in  the  repeal  of 
the  law  creating  new  judicial  offices  to  wdiich 
Federalists  had  been  appointed,  and  also  by 
countenancing  an  attack  which  was  made  on 
the  Federalist  judges  through  impeachment. 
(See  Chase,  Samuel.)  He  began  his  term 
of  office  with  the  extreme  theories  of  the 
strict  constructionists  as  his  guide,  as  was 
showm  by  the  steps  wdiich  wrere  promptly  taken 
to  bring  about  the  abrogation  of  the  system  of 

♦Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  James  Madison,  Virginia, 
March  5,  1801.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Samuel  Dexter, 
continued;  Albert  Gallatin,  Pennsylvania,  May  14,  1801. 
Secretary  of  War,  Henry  Dearborn,  Massachusetts,  March  5, 
1801.  Secretary  of  Navy,  Benjamin  Stoddert,  continued;  Rob¬ 
ert  Smith,  Maryland,  July  15.  1801.  (Jacob  Crowninshield 
of  Massachusetts  was  nominal  Secretary  of  the  Navy  from 
Mar<di  3,  1805,  till  his  death,  April  15,  1808,  Robert  Smith 
continuing  to  discharge  the  duties  of  the  office.)  Attorney- 
General,  Levi  Lincoln,  Massachusetts,  March  5,  1801;  Robert 
Smith,  Maryland,  March  3,  1805;  John  Breckinridge,  Ken¬ 
tucky,  Aug.  7,  1805;  Caesar  A.  Rodney,  Pennsylvania,  Jan. 
20,  1807.  Postmaster-General,  Joseph  Habersham,  continued; 
Gideon  Granger,  Connecticut,  Nov.  28,  1801. 


internal  revenue  (April,  1802),  and  to  reduce  to 
five  years  the  terra  of  residence  requisite  for 
naturalization  (April,  1802),  as  also  by  the 
repeal,  in  December,  1803,  of  the  National  Bank¬ 
ruptcy  Law  of  1800.  Nevertheless,  the  force 
of  circumstances  finally  led  Jefferson  to  adopt 
and  carry  through  measures  that  involved  as 
liberal  an  interpretation  of  the  Constitution 
as  any  that  the  Federalists  had  ever  advanced. 
The  first  of  these  measures  was  the  purchase 
from  France  in  1803  of  Louisiana,  which  had 
recently  been  acquired  by  France  from  Spain. 
(See  San  Ildefonso,  Treaty  of;  Louisiana 
Purchase.)  The  annexation  of  this  territory 
determined  permanently  the  control  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  and  accordingly  was  thoroughly  ap¬ 
proved  in  the  trans-Alleghany  regions;  but  there 
was  immediately  raised  not  only  the  question 
of  the  government’s  power  so  to  acquire  ter¬ 
ritory,  but  also  the  question  whether  the  gov¬ 
ernment  had  acted  within  its  constitutional 
powders  in  concluding  a  treaty  which  guaranteed 
citizenship  to  former  subjects  of  France,  and 
there  developed  a  vigorous  though  unavailing 
opposition  to  the  purchase  among  the  members 
of  Congress  from  New  England.  The  vast  en¬ 
largement  of  the  South  helps  to  explain  the  op¬ 
position  of  the  New  England  States.  The  appli¬ 
cation  of  a  characteristic  Republican  policy  wras, 
however,  illustrated  in  the  marked  tendency  to 
minimize  the  importance  of  the  functions  of  the 
national  government  and  to  render  unimportant 
such  departments  as  those  of  War  and  the  Navy. 
The  very  material  reduction  of  the  national 
forces  was  accomplished  wdthout  effective  op¬ 
position  in  view  of  the  improved  financial  condi¬ 
tion  wdiich  was  supposed  to  be  secured  by  such 
a  course.  Any  such  justification  was  soon  over¬ 
balanced  by  the  pressing  need  of  an  efficient 
navy  occasioned  by  the  war  with  Tripoli  (1801- 
OS),  in  which  Preble  and  Decatur  won  laurels 
for  the  American  flag.  (See  Barbary  Powers, 
Wars  with  the.)  In  1803  Ohio  was  admitted 
into  the  Union,  and  in  December,  1803,  Congress 
passed  the  Twelfth  Amendment  to  the  Consti¬ 
tution,  which  was  ratified  in  1804,  providing 
that  the  electoral  college  should  vote  for  presi¬ 
dential  and  vice  presidential  candidates  sepa¬ 
rately.  (See  Constitution.)  In  1804  Jefferson 
was  reelected  President,  receiving  all  the  elec¬ 
toral  votes  except  those  of  Connecticut  and  Dela¬ 
ware  and  tw7o  of  Maryland,  which  w7ere  cast  for 
the  Federalist,  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  of  South 
Carolina.  George  Clinton  (q.v.),  of  New  York, 
was  elected  Vice  President. 

Jefferson’s  second  administration  began  with 
overwhelming  Republican  majorities  in  both 
Houses  of  Congress.  The  Napoleonic  wars  had 
begun  anew  in  1803,  and  it  w7as  impossible  for 
such  a  struggle  not  to  affect  materially  the  in¬ 
terests  of  the  United  States.  The  commerce  of 
America  wras  highly  prosperous,  her  ships  en¬ 
joying  much  of  the  carrying  trade  of  Europe; 
but  in  May,  1806,  England  declared  a  blockade 
from  Brest  to  the  Elbe,  and  Bonaparte,  in 
November,  decreed  the  blockade  of  the  coasts  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  (See  Continental  Sys¬ 
tem;  Orders  in  Council.)  The  maritime  rights 
of  neutrals  were  not  at  that  time  clearly  defined, 
and  the  Americans  suffered  at  the  hands  of  both 
belligerents,  American  vessels  being  seized  and 
searched  w7ith  great  insolence  and  discourtesy 
for  contraband  of  war  and  being  searched  also 
by  the  British  for  British  subjects.  The  right 
of  expatriation  w7as  not  then  recognized  by  Eng- 


UNITED  STATES 


750 


UNITED  STATES 


land,  and  those  suspected  of  having  been  born 
on  British  soil  were,  in  accordance  with  the  doc¬ 
trine,  “once  a  subject  always  a  subject,”  im¬ 
pressed  into  the  British  naval  service.  The 
British  frigate  Leopard,  meeting  the  American 
frigate  Chesapeake,  June  22,  1807,  demanded 
four  of  her  men,  and  on  refusal  fired  into  her, 
and  the  Chesapeake  was  forced  to  strike  her  Hag. 
The  incident  created  intense  excitement  and 
resentment,  and  British  ships  were  thenceforth 
forbidden  to  enter  American  harbors.  See 
Chesapeake,  the. 

In  December,  1807,  a  further  step  was  taken 
in  the  famous  Embargo  Act  (see  Embabgo), 
which  forbade  American  vessels  to  leave  for  for¬ 
eign  ports,  and  foreign  vessels  to  take  cargoes 
into  American  ports.  This  measure,  which  was 
intended  to  punish  England  and  France  for  their 
contempt  of  American  rights  upon  the  seas,  al¬ 
most  destroyed  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States,  and  was  violently  opposed  by  the  Federal¬ 
ists,  especially  in  New  England  and  New  York, 
where  the  shipping  interest  was  strongest.  Dur¬ 
ing  Jefferson’s  administration  Aaron  Burr  at¬ 
tempted  to  carry  out  a  filibustering  scheme 
against  Louisiana  or  Mexico,  and  in  addition  he 
was  charged  with  an  attempt  at  the  dismember¬ 
ment  of  the  Union,  and  in  1807  was  tried  for 
treason  at  Richmond,  Va.,  but  was  acquitted. 

( See  Burr,  Aaron.  )  Jefferson’s  administration 
was  also  marked  by  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedi¬ 
tion  (q.v. )  across  the  continent  to  the  Pacific 
(1804-06)  ;  by  the  passage  of  a  bill  in  1806  for 
the  construction  of  a  national  road  from  Cumber¬ 
land,  Md.,  to  Ohio,  the  first  important  internal 
improvement  measure  (see  Cumberland  Road)  ; 
the  establishment  of  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  at  West  Point,  and  the  successful  in¬ 
troduction  of  steam  navigation  by  Fulton.  ( See 
Steam  Navigation.)  Another  important  event 
of  Jefferson’s  administration  was  the  passage  of 
an  Act  of  Congress  in  1807  abolishing  the  slave 
trade  from  Jan.  1,  1808. 

Following  the  example  of  Washington,  Jef¬ 
ferson  declined  to  be  a  candidate  for  a  third 
term,  and  in  the  election  of  1808  James  Madi¬ 
son,  of  Virginia,  was  elected  President,  and 
George  Clinton,  of  New  York,  Vice  President. 
Charles  C.  Pinckney  was  again  the  Federalist 
candidate  for  President.  In  February,  1809, 
owing  to  the  threatening  attitude  of  the  New 
England  States,  which  seemed  to  menace  the 
government  with  secession,  the  Embargo  was  re¬ 
laxed  and  the  Non-Intercourse  Act  was  substi¬ 
tuted  for  it,  repealing  the  provisions  of  the  Em¬ 
bargo,  except  as  against  England  and  France. 

VI  and  VII.  James  Madison’s  Administra¬ 
tion.*  (1809-17.)  The  beginning  of  Madison’s 
administration  witnessed  a  further  straining  of 
relations  between  the  LTiited  States  and  England. 
Though  the  acts  of  France  had  been,  in  the' main, 
no  less  unjust  and  arrogant  than  those  of  Eng¬ 
land,  she  had  never  attempted  the  impressment  of 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  Robert  Smith,  Maryland, 
March  6,  1809;  James  Monroe,  Virginia,  April  2,  1811.  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Treasury,  Albert  Gallatin,  continued;  George  W. 
Campbell,  Tennessee,  Feb.  9,  1814;  A.  J.  Dallas,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  Oct.  6,  1814;  William  H.  Crawford,  Georgia,  Oct.  22, 
1816.  Secretary  of  War,  William  Eustis,  Massachusetts, 
March  7,  1809;  John  Armstrong,  New  York,  Jan.  13,  1813; 
James  Monroe  (acting),  Sept.  27,  1814;  William  H.  Crawford, 
Georgia,  Aug.  1,  1815.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Paul  Hamilton, 
South  Carolina,  March  / ,  1809;  William  Jones,  Pennsylvania, 
Jan.  12,  1813;  B.  W.  Crowninshield,  Massachusetts,  Dec.  19, 
1814.  Attorney-General,  C.  A.  Rodney,  continued;  William 
Pinkney,  Maryland,  Dec.  11,  1811;  Richard  Rush,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  Feb.  10,  1814.  Postmaster-General,  Gideon  Granger, 
continued;  Return  J.  Meigs,  Ohio,  March  17,  1814. 


American  seamen.  Moreover,  the  Republican 
party,  now  in  power,  had  been  traditionally  the 
friend  of  France.  Hence,  as  time  went  on,  Eng¬ 
land  was  especially  singled  out  for  American  dis¬ 
like,  and  this  feeling  increased  when  the  West 
complained  that  British  agents  were  exciting  dis¬ 
affection  on  the  frontiers  and  intriguing  with  the 
Indians,  color  being  given  to  this  latter  charge 
by  the  hostility  of  some  of  the  Indians  and  Te- 
cumseh’s  attempt  to  form  an  Indian  confeder¬ 
ation.  See  Tecumseii;  Tippecanoe,  Battle  of. 

War  of  1812. — In  1S10  England  and  France 
each  professed  a  readiness  to  repeal  the  decrees 
that  had  so  hampered  American  commerce,  if 
the  other  would  do  so  first.  France  then  re¬ 
voked  conditionally  the  Berlin  and  Milan  de¬ 
crees,  and  in  1812  revoked  them  unconditionally, 
dating  the  revocation  back  one  year.  Mean¬ 
while  an  aggressive  element  had  risen  to  promi¬ 
nence  in  the  councils  of  the  Republican  party. 
Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  was  Speaker  of  the 
House,  and  John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina, 
on  the  floor  of  the  House  was  the  leader  of  the 
majority.  Under  the  impulse  of  these  two  bril¬ 
liant  and  impetuous  spirits,  the  party  in  power 
became  transformed  into  a  war  party.  Acts  were 
passed  to  enlist  soldiers,  to  organize  the  militia, 
to  enlarge  the  navy,  and  to  prepare  in  every 
way  for  war.  The  adoption  of  a  war  policy  was 
urged  upon  the  President,  who  was  himself  re¬ 
luctant  to  adopt  it.  England  having  refused  to 
modify  her  policy  towards  neutrals,  an  embargo 
upon  all  American  shipping  was  proclaimed  for 
60  days  as  a  preliminary  to  the  opening  of  hos¬ 
tilities;  and  on  June  1  Madison  sent  a  message 
to  Congress  in  which,  after  reviewing  the  Amer¬ 
ican  grievances  against  England,  he  recommended 
a  formal  declaration  of  war.  The  chief  grounds 
for  this  action,  as  given  by  Madison,  were  the 
impressment  of  American  seamen,  the  extension 
of  the  right  of  search  to  United  States  war  ves¬ 
sels,  the  “paper  blockades”  established  by  the 
British  Orders  in  Council,  and  the  alleged  ef¬ 
forts  of  Great  Britain  to  persuade  the  North¬ 
western  Indians  to  attack  the  Americans.  On 
the  18th  Congress  formally  declared  war.  Five 
days  later,  and  before  the  declaration  reached 
England,  the  British  government  withdrew  its 
objectionable  Orders  in  Council,  but  although 
attempts  were  then  made  to  restore  peace,  recon¬ 
ciliation  at  that  time  was  impossible.  The  dis¬ 
parity  in  power  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  at  this  time  was  enormous,  and 
except  that  the  latter  was  still  engaged  in  her 
conflict  with  Napoleon,  a  declaration  of  war 
would  have  seemed  little  less  than  foolhardy. 
In  1810  the  population  of  the  United  States  was 
only  abbut  7,250,000,  while  that  of  Great  Britain 
was  fully  18,500,000.  Great  Britain,  moreover, 
had  vastly  superior  resources  at  her  disposal, 
was  organized  for  war,  while  the  United  States 
was  not,  and,  besides  having  a  large  and  highly 
disciplined  army,  was  the  acknowledged  mistress 
of  the  seas.  In  general,  the  war  went  against  the 
Americans  on  land,  though  the  British  were  de¬ 
cisively  repulsed  at  New  Orleans;  and  the  war¬ 
fare  on  sea  demonstrated  the  superiority,  vessel 
for  vessel,  of  the  American  to  the  British  navy. 
Gradually,  however,  by  reason  of  her  vastly 
larger  fleet,  Great  Britain  defeated  the  American 
vessels  in  detail  or  drove  them  under  the  shelter 
of  forts.  The  American  naval  successes  were, 
nevertheless,  of  such  number  and  of  such  tactical 
importance  as  to  add  greatly  to  the  standing 
of  the  United  States  as  a  naval  power.  Congress 


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had  voted  to  raise  25,000  enlisted  soldiers,  50,000 
volunteers,  and  100,000  militia.  Gen.  William 
Hull  with  over  2000  men  at  Detroit  invaded 
Canada,  but,  on  being  met  by  a  small  force  of 
British  and  Indians  under  General  Brock,  re¬ 
crossed  the  river,  and  on  August  16  surrendered 
at  Detroit  without  resistance.  A  second  invasion 
of  Canada  was  made  in  October,  1812,  near 
Niagara  Falls,  by  General  Van  Rensselaer.  One 
thousand  American  militia  stormed  the  heights 
of  Queenston,  and  the  British  general,  Brock, 
was  killed,  but,  reenforcements  arriving,  the 
heights  were  retaken,  and  the  Americans  were  de¬ 
feated  with  great  loss,  some  of  them  surrender¬ 
ing.  Some  of  the  militia  refused  to  cross  into 
Canada,  upon  the  ground  that  the  government 
had  no  right  to  send  the  militia  across  the 
frontier. 

American  disasters  on  the  land  were,  how¬ 
ever,  compensated  for  by  victories  at  sea.  On 
August  19  the  United  States  frigate  Constitution 
(q.v. )  captured  the  British  frigate  Guerriere ;  on 
October  18  the  TFasp  (American)  took  the  Frolic 
(British)  ;  on  October  25  the  United  States '  cap¬ 
tured  the  Macedonian ;  on  December  29  the  Con¬ 
stitution  took  the  Java ;  and  on  February  24  the 
Hornet  sank  the  Peacock.  The  Americans  in 
most  cases  had  the  larger  ships  and  heavier  ord¬ 
nance,  but  the  immense  disparity  in  the  losses 
showed  also  superior  seamanship  and  gunnery. 
American  privateers,  furthermore,  took  during 
the  war,  it  is  estimated,  300  British  vessels  and 
3000  prisoners. 

In  May,  1812,  Madison  had  been  renominated 
for  the  presidency,  with  Elbridge  Gerry,  of 
Massachusetts,  as  the  Republican  candidate  for 
Vice  President.  In  the  ensuing  election  Madison 
defeated  De  Witt  Clinton  by  an  electoral  vote 
of  128  to  89,  while  Gerry  defeated  Jared  Ingersoll 
by  an  electoral  vote  of  131  to  86. 

In  April,  1813,  an  American  army  of  1700 
men  under  Gen.  Henry  Dearborn  captured 
York,  now  Toronto,  and,  Dearborn  having 
been  relieved,  Generals  Wilkinson  and  Hampton 
undertook  to  capture  Montreal,  but  met  with  no 
success.  An  attempt  of  the  British  general, 
Prevost,  on  Sackett’s  Harbor  in  May  was  re¬ 
pulsed;  the  British  squadron  on  Lake  Erie,  con¬ 
sisting  of  6  vessels  carrying  63  guns,  was  cap¬ 
tured  on  Sept.  10,  1813,  by  Commodore  Perry  at 
the  head  of  an  American  flotilla  of  9  vessels 
with  54  guns  (see  Erie,  Battle  of  Lake)  ;  and 
this  latter  success  enabled  General  Harrison  to 
invade  Canada,  where  he  defeated  General  Proc¬ 
tor  in  the  battle  of  the  Thames  (October  5),  in 
which  the  great  Indian  warrior  chief  Tecumseh 
was  killed.  During  the  same  period  Gen.  An¬ 
drew  Jackson  in  Alabama  and  Georgia  defeated 
the  Creek  Indians,  who  had  been  incited  to  make 
war  upon  the  frontier  settlements.  In  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1814  Gen.  Jacob  Brown,  with  Col.  Win¬ 
field  Scott  as  his  second  in  command,  crossed 
to  the  Canadian  side,  captured  Fort  Erie  (q.v.) 
on  July  2,  and  defeated  General  Riall  at  Chip¬ 
pewa  on  July  5.  On  July  25  the  indecisive  bat¬ 
tle  of  Lundy’s  Lane  was  fought,  the  Americans 
being  under  the  immediate  command  of  Scott; 
and  the  American  forces  then  withdrew  to  Fort 
Erie,  where  they  were  besieged.  (See  Fort 
Erie.)  General  Wilkinson  also  invaded  Canada 
along  the  Sorel  River,  but  was  easily  repulsed. 
A  British  invasion,  by  Lake  Champlain,  under 
Prevost,  with  11.000  men  and  a  flotilla  on  the 
lake,  ended  disastrously.  On  September  11  the 
flotilla  was  signally  defeated  in  the  harbor  of 


Plattsburg  by  an  American  squadron  under  Com¬ 
modore  McDonough,  while  the  army  was  re¬ 
pulsed  on  shore  and  retreated  with  heavy  loss. 
In  August  a  British  fleet  ascended  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay  and  landed  troops  which,  after  dis¬ 
persing  with  little  difficulty  a  force  of  American 
militia  at  Bladensburg  (q.v.),  entered  Washing¬ 
ton  and  burned  the  government  buildings.  A 
subsequent  attack  on  Baltimore  was  unsuccess¬ 
ful.  New  \ork,  New  London,  and  Boston  were 
blockaded,  and  a  large  expedition  was  sent 
against  Mobile  and  New  Orleans. 

On  Jan.  8,  1815,  General  Pakenham  attacked 
New  Orleans,  but  his  army  was  repulsed  with 
great  loss  by  General  Jackson  at  the  head  of  an 
inferior  militia  force.  (See  New  Orleans,  Bat¬ 
tle  of.)  This  action  was  fought  two  weeks  af¬ 
ter  peace  had  been  concluded  by  the  Commis¬ 
sioners  of  England  and  the  United  States. 

From  the  middle  of  1813  the  fortunes  of  war 
alternated  on  the  sea.  On  June  1,  1813,  the 
American  frigate  Chesapeake  was  taken  by  the 
Shannon  and  the  xlmerican  sloop  Argus  by  the 
Pelican  on  August  14;  the  British  brig  Boxer 
was  captured  by  the  Enterprise  on  Sept.  5,  181.3; 
the  American  frigate  Essex,  after  a  memorable 
career  under  Porter,  surrendered  to  the  Phoebe 
and  Cherub  on  March  28,  1814;  the  British  brig 
Epervier  was  captured  by  the  Peacock  on  April 
29,  1814;  the  British  sloop  Avon  was  sunk  by 
the  Wasp  on  Sept.  8,  1814;  on  Jan.  15,  1815,  af¬ 
ter  the  conclusion  of  peace,  the  American  frigate 
President  was  taken  by  the  British;  and  on 
February  20  the  American  frigate  Constitution 
captured  the  Cyane  and  the  Levant. 

In  December,  1814,  the  Federalists  of  New  Eng¬ 
land  held  a  convention  at  Hartford  in  opposition 
to  the  war  and  the  administration.  (See  Hart¬ 
ford  Convention.)  The  treaty  of  peace  con¬ 
cluded  with  England  at  Ghent  on  Dec.  24,  1814 
(see  Ghent,  Treaty  of),  was  announced  in 
February,  1815.  The  terms  did  not  include  any 
affirmative  withdrawal  of  England's  claim  to 
search  American  ships,  but  nevertheless  all 
parties  in  the  country  approved  it. 

In  1815  Commodore  Decatur  commanded  an 
expedition  against  the  Algerians,  whose  corsairs 
had  preyed  on  American  commerce  in  the  Medi¬ 
terranean,  and  dictated  terms  to  Algiers,  Tunis, 
and  Tripoli.  See  Barbary  Powers,  Wars 
with  THE. 

With  the  end  of  the  War  of  1812  came  the 
virtual  extinction  of  the  Federalist  party,  whose 
unpatriotic  course  during  the  struggle  had  made 
its  name  odious  to  the  nation  as  a  whole.  It 
ceased  thereafter  to  make  itself  felt  in  national 
affairs  (see  Federalists),  and  for  a  time  the 
country  had  the  singular  fortune  to  find  all  its 
citizens  seemingly  of  one  party,  with  principles 
derived  from  both  the  old  party  creeds.  Per¬ 
haps  the  most  marked  influence  ieft  by  the  Fed¬ 
eralists  upon  the  political  tenets  of  their  oppo¬ 
nents  and  upon  the  popular  mind  was  to  be 
found  in  the  now  very  general  recognition  of  the 
broad  powers  of  the  central  government.  This 
national  idea  had  sustained  the  Republicans  in 
the  more  liberal  view  which  the  war  had  com¬ 
pelled  them  to  take  of  the  inherent  powers  of  the 
Federal  government.  The  noticeable  effect  of  the 
war  period  in  strengthening  the  Nationalist  tend¬ 
ency  was  immediately  illustrated  by  adequate 
plans  for  national  defense;  by  the  granting  of 
the  charter  of  the  second  United  States  Bank 
(see  Bank,  Banking)  in  1816;  by  the  passage 
of  the  first  really  protective  tariff,  under  the 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


752 


guidance  of  Dallas,  in  the  same  year  (see  Tar¬ 
iff)  ;  and  by  the  activity  of  Congress  in  at¬ 
tempting  to  appropriate  large  amounts  of  the 
national  funds  for  public  roads  and  similar  im¬ 
provements  of  a  local  character,  an  important 
bill  for  this  purpose,  passed  by  Congress  in  1816, 
being,  however,  vetoed  by  Madison  on  the  ground 
of  its  unconstitutionalitv.  The  tendency  was 
also  emphasized  by  judicial  decisions  (as  in  Mar¬ 
tin  v.  Hunter’s  Lessee,  1816,  and  Cohens  v.  Vir¬ 
ginia,  1821),  establishing  the  supremacy  of  the 
Federal  judicial  power  over  that  of  the  States, 
while  in  McCulloch  v.  Maryland,  in  1819,  Chief 
Justice  Marshall  introduced  into  the  law  of  the 
land  his  advanced  views  as  to  the  relation  of 
the  States  to  the  Union  and  elaborated  his 
theory  of  the  supreme  and  exclusive  authority 
of  the  latter.  For  the  moment  the  close  of  Madi¬ 
son’s  administration  found  the  country,  as  a 
whole,  scarcely  divided  by  party  differences,  so 
that  the  presidential  election  of  November,  1816, 
resulted  in  the  choice  of  James  Monroe,  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  as  President,  and  Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  of 
New  York,  as  Vice  President,  these  candidates 
receiving  183  electoral  votes,  while  the  votes  of 
only  three  States — Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
and  Delaware — were  cast  for  the  Federalist  can¬ 
didate,  Rufus  King,  of  New  York.  The  Federal¬ 
ists  made  no  formal  nomination  for  the  office  of 
Vice  President.  In  Madison’s  first  administra¬ 
tion  Louisiana  was  admitted  into  the  Union 
(1812),  and  in  the  second  Indiana  (1816). 

VIII  and  IX.  James  Monroe’s  Administra¬ 
tion.*  (1817-25.)  The  period  of  Monroe’s  term 
of  office  has  been  commonly  known  in  American 
political  history  as  the  Era  of  Good  Feeling. 
Party  questions  were  in  abeyance,  and  when,  in 
May,  1817,  the  President  began  an  extended  tour 
in  the  Northern  and  Western  States,  the  warmth 
of  the  welcome  given  him  by  all  classes  of  the 
people  showed  that  the  nation  was  contented, 
prosperous,  and  loyal.  In  accordance  with  the 
recommendations  of  the  President’s  first  mes¬ 
sage,  the  slightly  protective  tariff  of  1816  was 
continued  for  seven  years.  ( See  Tariff.  )  On 
Dec.  10,  1817,  Mississippi  was  admitted  to  the 
Union.  In  1818  (December  3)  Illinois  became  a 
State,  and  on  Feb.  22,  1819,  the  United  States 
purchased  from  Spain  for  $5,000,000  the  terri¬ 
tory  of  east  and  west  Florida  (in  which  region 
hostilities  had  recently  been  carried  on  against 
the  Seminole  Indians),  together  with  all  the 
claims  which  Spain  might  have  to  territory  as 
far  west  as  the  Pacific,  north  of  the  forty-second 
parallel,  including,  of  course,  the  Oregon  coun¬ 
try;  while  the  United  States  relinquished  all 
claim  to  the  province  west  of  the  Sabine  River 
(Texas).  This  treaty,  however,  was  not  for¬ 
mally  ratified  until  1821.  Early  in  1818  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  the  Territory  of  Missouri  (q.v. ),  which 
had  been  included  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase, 
applied  for  admission  to  the  Union.  A  bill  pro¬ 
viding  for  such  admission  was  framed,  but 
amended  in  the  House  in  such  a  way  as  to  forbid 
slavery  in  the  new  State.  As  so  amended,  the 
bill  passed  the  House  by  the  votes  of  the  mem- 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  John  Quincy  Adams, 
Massachusetts,  March  5,  1817.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
William  H.  Crawford,  continued.  Secretary  of  War,  George 
Graham,  Virginia.  April  7,  1817;  John  C.  Calhoun,  South 
Carolina,  Oct.  8,  1817.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  B.  W.  Crownin- 
shield,  continued;  Smith  Thompson,  New  York,  Nov.  9, 
1818;  John  Rogers,  Massachusetts,  Sept.  1,  1823;  Samuel  L. 
Southard,  New  Jersey,  Sept.  16,  1823.  Attorney-General , 
Richard  Rush,  continued;  William  Wirt,  Virginia,  Nov.  13, 
1817.  Postmaster-General,  R.  J.  Meigs,  continued;  John 
McLean,  Ohio,  June  26,  1823. 


hers  from  the  free  States,  but  was  defeated  in 
the  Senate.  This  action  brought  the  question 
of  slavery  prominently  into  the  sphere  of  na¬ 
tional  politics,  never  again  to  disappear  until 
the  extinction  of  that  institution  as  the  result 
of  the  war  between  the  States  in  1861-65.  In 
the  Congress  which  met  in  December,  1819,  the 
question  of  the  admission  of  Missouri  was  again 
brought  forward,  coupled  with  a  proposition  for 
the  admission  of  Maine,  which  had  hitherto 
been  a  part  of  Massachusetts.  An  arrange¬ 
ment  known  as  the  Missouri  Compromise  (q.v.) 
was  effected  (1820)  by  the  action  of  Clay  and 
the  conservative  members  of  both  sections. 
Maine  was  admitted  in  1820  and  Missouri  in 
1821,  the  latter  step  having  been  delayed  by  a 
vigorous  debate  in  Congress  occasioned  by  a 
clause  in  the  proposed  State  constitution  which 
prohibited  the  settling  of  free  negroes  in  the 
State  (see  Missouri  Compromise),  the  Missouri 
Legislature  finally  pledging  the  State  not  to 
shut  out  any  negro  citizen  of  another  State.  At 
the  same  session  of  Congress,  Alabama  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  Union  (Dec.  14,  1819).  In  1820 
the  presidential  campaign  resulted  in  the  re- 
election  of  Monroe  and  Tompkins,  Monroe  re¬ 
ceiving  all  the  electoral  votes  but  one,  which  was 
cast  for  John  Quincy  Adams. 

In  1821  the  strict  constructionists  among  the 
Republicans  defeated  bills  looking  to  a  national 
canal  system  and  a  higher  tariff,  and  the  next 
year  the  President  vetoed  a  bill  for  the  outlay 
of  national  funds  upon  the  Cumberland  Road 
(q.v.).  In  December,  1823,  in  his  annual  mes¬ 
sage  to  Congress,  Monroe  promulgated  the  fa¬ 
mous  declaration  that  has  since  been  known  as 
the  Monroe  Doctrine  (q.v.).  In  1824,  the  Na¬ 
tionalist  policy  being  then  followed  by  a  ma¬ 
jority  in  both  Houses,  there  was  adopted  a  more 
strictly  protective  tariff,  framed  with  the  de¬ 
sign  of  excluding  foreign  competitors  from  Amer¬ 
ican  markets  (see  Tariff),  while  a  bill  for  mak¬ 
ing  surveys  for  a  national  canal  system  also  be¬ 
came  law.  The  political  issues  arising  out  of 
the  founding  of  a  new  government  as  well  as  out 
of  international  complications  had  now  lost  their 
importance,  and  attention  was  becoming  centred 
on  internal  matters,  as  to  none  of  which  were 
sectional  or  fractional  issues  as  yet  clearly 
drawn,  although  the  sudden  introduction  of  the 
slavery  question  into  congressional  politics  was 
to  acquire  more  significance  than  any  other  cir¬ 
cumstance  of  the  administration.  However,  as 
there  was  now  only  one  political  party,  the  Re¬ 
publican,  the  presidential  election  of  1824  was 
largely  a  personal  and  factional  contest.  When 
the  electoral  votes  were  counted,  99  were  for 
Andrew  Jackson,  of  Tennessee,  84  for  John 
Quincy  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  41  for  William 
H.  Crawford,  of  Georgia,  and  37  for  Henry  Clay, 
of  Kentucky;  there  being  thus  no  choice  for 
President,  and  the  decision  being  thrown  into 
the  House  of  Representatives,  where,  by  a  coali¬ 
tion  of  the  supporters  of  Clay  and  Adams,  the 
latter  was  finally  chosen,  Adams  receiving  the 
votes  of  13  States,  while  Jackson  had  those  of 
seven,  and  Crawford  those  of  four.  The  electors 
had  chosen  John  C.  Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina, 
to  be  Vice  President  by  a  vote  of  182  to  78  for 
various  other  candidates. 

X.  John  Quincy  Adams’s  Administration.* 

♦Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  Henry  Clay,  Kentucky, 
March  7,  1825.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Richard  Rush, 
Pennsylvania,  March  7,  1825.  Secretary  of  War,  Janies  Bar¬ 
bour,  Virginia,  March  7,  1825;  Peter  B.  Porter,  New  York, 


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(1825-29.)  A  new  division  of  the  American 
people  into  parties  dates  from  the  beginning  of 
this  administration.  The  party  previously  known 
as  Republican  or  Democratic-Republican  soon 
took  the  name  of  Democratic  (see  Democratic 
Party),  while  the  Clay  and  Adams  factions, 
which  had  been  identified  with  the  doctrine  of 
loose  construction,  after  taking  the  name  of  Na¬ 
tional  Republican,  changed  it  eventually  to  that 
of  Whig  (see  Whig  Party),  by  which  the  party 
continued  to  be  known  for  some  25  years.  The 
basis  for  the  new  party  division  lay  largely 
in  the  factional  differences  between  the  followers 
of  Adams  and  those  of  Jackson,  and  one  result 
of  this  was  the  prolonged  controversy  throughout 
the  administration  of  Adams  and  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  especially  bitter  relations  between  the 
factions  of  the  leaders,  which  continued  through¬ 
out  the  two  terms  of  Jackson.  Owing  to  the 
determined  obstruction  which  was  made  by  the 
opponents  of  the  administration,  few  of  its  meas¬ 
ures  were  carried,  so  that  the  net  results  of  the 
four  years’  work  were  comparatively  slight,  and 
the  period  became  distinguished  chiefly  by  the 
partisan  conflicts  preliminary  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  Adams  faction  in  1828. 

During  the  suspension  of  commerce  by  the 
War  of  1812  large  amounts  of  capital  were 
withdrawn  from  trading  ventures  and  diverted 
to  manufacturing  establishments,  with  the  result 
that  gradually  New  England  and  the  northern 
coast  States  ceased  to  be  free-trade  regions  and 
became  desirous  of  a  protective  tariff  policy, 
while  the  South  arrayed  itself  on  the  side  of  free 
trade.  Upon  the  return  of  peace  the  new  manu¬ 
facturing  establishments  were  not  firmly  enough 
established  to  compete  successfully  with  the  for¬ 
eign  manufacturers,  and  accordingly  in  1824  an 
Act  was  passed  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the 
control  of  the  home  market  to  the  wool  manu¬ 
facturers.  This  failing  of  its  purpose,  a  na¬ 
tional  convention  of  Protectionists  at  Harris¬ 
burg,  Pa.,  in  July,  1827,  advocated  a  strongly 
protective  policy,  and  in  1828  a  tariff  framed  in 
accordance  with  these  views  became  law.  The 
South  denounced  this  measure  as  being  sectional 
legislation,  intended  to  benefit  New  England  and 
the  Middle  States  at  the  expense  of  the  South, 
and  the  doctrine  of  nullification  (q.v.),  which 
had  been  promulgated  in  the  Kentucky  Resolu¬ 
tions  of  1798  (see  Virginia  and  Kentucky 
Resolutions),  and  had  been  revived  in  South 
Carolina  in  1827,  began  to  be  widely  accepted  in 
the  Southern  States.  Adams’s  administration 
was  further  marked  by  the  expenditure  by  the 
national  government  of  some  $14,000,000  for  in¬ 
ternal  improvements;  by  the  rapid  immigration 
to  the  West,  greatly  promoted  by  the  opening  of 
the  Erie  Canal;  and  by  the  debates  in  Congress 
over  the  advisability  of  sending  delegates  to  the 
Panama  Congress  (q.v.).  In  1828  the  Demo¬ 
cratic  candidate  for  President,  Andrew  Jackson, 
of  Tennessee,  received  178  electoral  votes  to  83 
cast  for  John  Quincy  Adams;  and  John  C.  Cal¬ 
houn  was  reelected  Vice  President,  having  171 
electoral  votes.  The  accession  of  President  Jack- 
son  was  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  political 
practice.  A  radical  change  was  typified  by  the 
discontent  with  the  existing  methods,  which  led 
to  the  more  direct  participation  of  the  public  at 
large  in  political  affairs  through  the  rise  of  the 
nominating  convention  and  through  the  practice 

May  26,  1828.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  S.  L.  Southard,  con¬ 
tinued.  Attorney-General,  William  Wirt,  continued.  Post¬ 
master-General,  John  McLean,  continued. 


of  choosing  presidential  electors  by  popular 
vote.  Nomination  by  State  Legislatures  had 
supplanted  the  former  method  of  nominating  by 
congressional  caucus.  This  marked  departure 
towards  practical  democracy  was  emphasized  by 
the  striking  influence  which  the  new  Western 
States  and  their  ideals  and  standards  of  life 
now  secured  over  national  politics. 

XI  and  XII.  Andrew  Jackson’s  Admini¬ 
stration."  (1829-37.)  The  bold,  decisive,  and 
impetuous  character  of  President  Jackson 
was  shown  in  a  general  removal  of  those, 
down  to  small  postmasters  and  tidewaiters, 
who  had  held  office  under  the  late  adminis¬ 
tration  and  in  the  appointment  of  his  own 
partisans.  The  administration  was  distinc¬ 
tively  one  of  conflict,  the  chief  issues  being  the 
United  States  Bank  and  the  tariff :  and  Jackson 
was  swayed  throughout,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
by  the  influence  of  a  group  of  friends  who  be¬ 
came  known  collectively  as  the  kitchen  cabinet 
(q.v.).  South  Carolina  declared  the  high  pro¬ 
tective  tariff  acts  of  1828  and  1832  to  be  un¬ 
constitutional  and  therefore  null  and  void,  and 
threatened  to  withdraw  from  the  Union  if  an 
attempt  were  made  to  collect  the  duties  on  for¬ 
eign  importations.  The  President  prepared  to 
execute  the  laws  by  force;  Calhoun  resigned  his 
office  of  Vice  President,  and  in  the  Senate,  to 
which  he  was  promptly  sent,  asserted  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  State  rights,  including  the  right  of 
secession.  (See  Nullification.)  A  collision 
seemed  imminent,  but  the  affair  was  settled  by  a 
compromise  bill,  introduced  by  Henry  Clay,  pro¬ 
viding  for  a  gradual  reduction  of  duties  until 
1842,  when  they  were  not  to  exceed  20  per  cent 
ad  valorem.  As  an  incident  of  this  controversy, 
though  nominally  occasioned  by  a  resolution  call¬ 
ing  for  an  inquiry  into  the  sale  of  government 
lands,  occurred  the  famous  debate  (January, 
1830)  in  the  Senate  between  Daniel  Web¬ 
ster  (q.v.),  of  Massachusetts,  and  Robert  Y. 
Hayne  (q.v.),  of  South  Carolina,  in  which  the 
two  opposing  views  regarding  State  rights,  nulli¬ 
fication,  and  the  true  interpretation  of  the  Con¬ 
stitution  were  advocated  and  discussed  with  such 
eloquence,  learning,  and  enthusiasm  as  to  make 
the  debate  a  landmark  in  the  constitutional  de¬ 
velopment  of  the  United  States.  The  same  pe¬ 
riod  witnessed  the  rise  of  the  Antimasonic  party, 
based  on  opposition  to  Freemasonry  and  to  secret 
societies  generally.  See  Morgan,  William; 
Antimasons. 

The  President  was  a  pronounced  opponent  of 
the  national  bank,  the  existence  of  which  under 
its  second  charter  was  to  continue  to  1836. 
Jackson  early  raised  the  issue  of  its  constitu¬ 
tionality,  whereupon  the  friends  of  the  bank  in¬ 
troduced  and  carried  through  both  Houses  a  bill 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  Martin  Van  Buren,  New 
York,  March  6,  1829;  Edward  Livingston,  Louisiana,  May 
24,  1831;  Louis  McLane,  Delaware,  May  29,  1833;  John  For¬ 
syth,  Georgia,  June  27,  1834.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Sam¬ 
uel  D.  Ingham,  Pennsylvania,  March  6,  1829;  Louis  McLane, 
Delaware,  Aug.  8,  1831;  William  J.  Duane,  Pennsylvania, 
May  29,  1833;  Roger  B.  Taney,  Maryland,  Sept.  23,  1833; 
Levi  Woodbury,  New  Hampshire,  June  27,  1834.  Secretary 
of  War,  John  H.  Eaton,  Tennessee,  March  9,  1829;  Lewis 
Cass,  Michigan,  Aug.  1,  1831;  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  New 
York,  March  3,  1837.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  John  Branch, 
North  Carolina,  March  9,  1829;  Levi  Woodbury,  New  Hamp¬ 
shire,  May  23,  1831;  Mahlon  Dickerson,  New  Jersey,  June 
30,  1834.  Attorney-General,  John  M.  Berrien,  Georgia,  March 
9,  1829;  Roger  B.  Taney,  Maryland,  July  20,  1831;  Ben¬ 
jamin  F.  Butler,  New  York,  Nov.  15,  1833.  Postmaster-Gen¬ 
eral  (the  Postmaster-General  first  came  to  be  a  regular  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  cabinet  in  Jackson’s  administration),  William  T. 
Barry,  Kentucky,  March  9,  1829;  Amos  Kendall,  Kentucky, 
May  1,  1835. 


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754 


for  its  continuation.  This  was  vetoed,  and  its 
supporters  were  unable  to  carry  the  bill  over  the 
veto.  The  question,  however,  was  made  the  chief 
issue  in  the  campaign  of  1832,  in  which  the  de¬ 
cisive  triumph  of  Jackson  was  taken  by  him  to 
be  a  vindication  of  his  policy  and  an  assurance 
that  he  represented  the  popular  will  more  ac¬ 
curately  even  than  did  Congress.  The  result  was 
still  further  to  strengthen  his  position  and  to  in¬ 
crease  his  influence  over  congressional  action. 
In  the  election  of  1832  he  received  219  electoral 
votes,  as  against  only  49  for  Henry  Clay,  11  for 
John  Floyd,  of  Virginia,  and  7  for  William  Wirt, 
of  Virginia.  Martin  Van  Buren  was  elected  Vice 
President,  receiving  189  votes. 

The  Cherokee  Indians  in  Georgia,  who  had 
attained  to  a  certain  degree  of  civilization,  ap¬ 
pealed  to  the  President  for  protection  against 
the  seizure  of  their  lands  by  the  State;  but  they 
were  told  that  he  “had  no  power  to  oppose  the 
exercise  of  the  sovereignty  of  any  State  over  all 
who  may  be  within  its  limits”;  and  the  Indians 
were  obliged  to  remove  to  the  territory  set  apart 
for  them  west  of  the  Mississippi.  In  1832,  in 
the  West,  trouble  with  Indians  had  culminated 
in  the  Black  Hawk  War  (see  Black  Hawk), 
and  now  in  1835  the  Seminole  War  broke  out  in 
Florida,  and  a  tribe  of  Indians,  insignificant  in 
numbers,  under  the  crafty  leadership  of  Osceola 
( q.v. ) ,  kept  up  hostilities  for  years,  at  a  cost 
to  the  United  States  of  several  thousands  of  men 
and  some  $50,000,000.  The  removal  in  1835 
by  order  of  the  President  of  the  government  de¬ 
posits  from  the  United  States  Bank  to  certain 
State  banks  led  to  the  weakening  of  the  bank 
and,  after  some  years,  to  the  adoption  of  Van 
Buren’s  plan  of  an  independent  treasury.  Later 
the  Senate,  which  was  controlled  by  the  Whigs, 
as  Jackson’s  opponents  now  styled  themselves, 
led  by  Henry  Clay,  took  the  extraordinary  step 
of  passing  formal  resolutions  of  censure  of  the 
President  for  his  order  removing  the  government 
deposits  from  the  bank.  The  President  pro¬ 
tested  against  the  resolution,  but  the  protest 
was  not  allowed  by  the  Senate  to  appear  upon 
the  record.  The  warfare  between  the  President 
and  Senate  continued  through  the  next  two  years, 
the  latter  frequently  rejecting  the  nominations 
made  by  the  executive.  In  1837,  however,  largely 
under  the  influence  of  Benton,  the  Senate,  which 
had  at  last  become  Democratic,  voted  to  expunge 
from  its  records  the  resolutions  of  censure  al¬ 
ready  mentioned.  In  1835  (December  7)  the 
President  announced  to  Congress  that  the  na¬ 
tional  debt  would  soon  be  paid  and  that  provi¬ 
sion  should  be  made  for  the  surplus  revenue 
which  was  anticipated.  In  June,  183G,  a  bill  was 
passed  providing  that  after  Jan.  1,  1837,  any 
surplus  exceeding  the  sum  of  $5,000,000  should 
be  divided  among  the  States  as  a  loan,  subject 
to  a  recall  by  Congress;  and  in  accordance  with 
this  Act  some  $28,000,000  was  divided  in  1837, 
which  has  never  been  recalled.  In  July,  1836, 
the  President  caused  the  famous  Specie  Circu¬ 
lar  to  be  issued,  which  ordered  the  agents  of  the 
government  to  receive  only  gold  or  silver  in  pay¬ 
ment  for  public  lands. 

At  this  time  Texas,  which  had  been  colonized 
by  Americans,  was  endeavoring  to  free  itself 
from  Mexican  control  and  to  establish  its  inde¬ 
pendence.  In  February,  1837,  the  independence 
of  Texas  was  recognized;  its  subsequent  annexa¬ 
tion  was  but  an  incident  of  westward  expansion. 
Many  manifestations  of  sympathy  with  the 
Texans  were  therefore  made,  and  assistance  was 


freelv  given  them  bv  individuals  from  every 
part  of  the  Union,  and  a  resolution  recognizing 
the  independence  of  Texas  passed  the  Senate,  but 
not  the  House.  A  new  era  in  the  slavery  contro¬ 
versy  had  been  inaugurated  with  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  Liberator  by  Garrison  in  1831.  The 
New  England  Antislavery  Society  was  organized 
in  1832,  and  the  American  Antislavery  Society 
at  Philadelphia  in  1833.  (See  Slavery;  Gar¬ 
rison,  W.  L. ;  Phillips,  Wendell;  Abolition¬ 
ists;  Gag  Rules.)  Arkansas  (June  15,  1836) 
and  Michigan  (Jan.  26,  1837)  were  admitted  to 
the  Union.  The  administration  of  Jackson  was 
further  marked  by  the  political  acerbities  grow¬ 
ing  partly  out  of  the  Peggy  O’Neill  affair  (see 
Eaton,  Margaret  ) ,  and  leading  to  the  reorgan¬ 
ization  of  the  cabinet,  by  the  treaty  with  France 
settling  the  spoliation  claims  and  the  treaty 
with  England  securing  unrestricted  direct  trade 
with  the  British  West  Indies,  by  the  adoption 
on  a  large  scale  by  Jackson  of  the  “spoils  sys¬ 
tem,”  and  by  the  introduction  of  railroads.  The 
election  of  1836  resulted  in  the  success  again 
of  the  Democratic  party,  whose  candidate  for 
President,  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New  York,  re¬ 
ceived  170  electoral  votes,  against  73  for  Wil¬ 
liam  Harrison,  of  Ohio,  and  51  scattering.  No 
candidate  for  Vice  President  received  a  clear  ma¬ 
jority,  and  so  the  Senate  elected  Richard  M. 
Johnson  (q.v.),  of  Kentucky. 

XIII.  Martin  Van  Buren’s  Administra¬ 
tion.*  (1837-41.)  Van  Buren,  in  accordance 
with  his  pledges,  carried  out  and  perpetuated  the 
policy  of  his  predecessor.  The  new  administration 
was  unfortunate  in  its  beginnings.  A  financial 
disaster,  such  as  had  not  until  then  been  known 
in  the  United  States,  swept  over  the  country  in 
1837.  A  general  suspension  of  specie  payments 
occurred;  many  banks  suspended  altogether,  and 
innumerable  corporations  and  individuals  were 
ruined.  Congress  authorized  the  issue  of  $10,- 
000,000  in  treasury  notes,  and  Jackson’s  Specie 
Circular  was  revoked.  Van  Buren’s  administra¬ 
tion  was  marked  by  the  establishment  of  the  in¬ 
dependent  treasury  system  (reestablished  in 
1846),  by  a  renewal  of  hostilities  against  the 
Seminole  Indians,  and  by  the  establishment  of 
regular  steamship  communication  with  Europe. 
The  Democrats  with  difficulty  retained  control  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  and  through  such 
methods  as  to  decrease  public  confidence  in  the 
party  leaders.  This,  together  with  the  prevalent 
depression  in  business,  weakened  the  dominant 
party  in  the  country  at  large,  so  that  in  the  cam¬ 
paign  of  1840  the  candidacy  of  the  Whig  nominee, 
Gen.  William  Henry  Harrison  (q.v.),  of  Ohio, 
was  supported  with  an  enthusiasm  such  as  no 
subsequent  political  campaign  has  ever  witnessed. 
It  has  become  known  as  the  Log  Cabin  Cam¬ 
paign  and  the  Hard  Cider  Campaign,  from  the 
prevalent  symbols  of  the  homely  and  simple  fron¬ 
tier  life  of  General  Harrison.  The  Liberty 
party  (q.v.)  also  made  nominations,  their  cam 
didates  being  James  G.  Birney  (q.V;),  of  New 
York,  for  President,  and  Francis  Lemoyne,  of 
Pennsylvania,  for  Vice  President.  The  Demo' 
crats  renominated  Van  Buren,  but  the  conven¬ 
tion  did  not  agree  upon  the  choice  of  a  candidate 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  John  Forsyth,  continued. 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Levi  Woodbury,  continued.  Secre¬ 
tary  of  War,  Joel  R.  Poinsett.  South  Carolina,  March  7,  1837. 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Mahlon  Dickerson,  continued;  James 
K.  Paulding,  New  York,  June  25,  1838.  Attorney-General, 
Benjamin  F.  Butler,  continued;  Felix  Grundy,  Tennessee, 
July  5,  1838;  Henry  D.  Gilpin,  Pennsylvania,  Jan.  11,  1840. 
Postmaster-General,  Amos  Kendall,  continued;  John  M.  Niles. 
Connecticut,  May  19,  1840. 


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755 


for  the  vice  presidency.  General  Harrison  re¬ 
ceived  234  electoral  votes  to  60  for  Van  Buren; 
and  for  Vice  President  the  Whig,  John  Tyler, 
of  Virginia,  received  234,  against  48  for  R.  M. 
Johnson  and  12  scattering. 

XIV.  William  Henry  Harrison’s  (1841) 
and  John  Tyler’s  Administration.*  (1841- 
45.)  Two  weeks  after  his  inauguration,  President 
Harrison  issued  a  proclamation  calling  an  extra 
session  of  Congress  to  consider  the  financial  dis¬ 
tress  prevailing  throughout  the  country  and 
other  questions  that  beset  the  government.  The 
extra  session  was  called  for  May  31,  but  on 
April  4  the  President  died  after  a  short  illness. 
The  new  President,  John  Tyler,  retained  for  a 
few  months  his  predecessor’s  cabinet.  When 
Congress  met  in  accordance  with  General  Harri¬ 
son’  call  of  March  17,  the  Whigs,  who  had  a 
majority  in  both  Houses,  began  to  carry  out  the 
changes  to  which  their  party  had  pledged  itself 
in  the  campaign  of  the  preceding  year.  A  bill 
was  passed  for  the  incorporation  of  a.  new  United 
States  Bank,  to  be  called  the  Fiscal  Bank  of  the 
United  States,  planned  somewhat  after  the  model 
of  that  which  had  been  so  vigorously  attacked 
by  President  Jackson.  To  the  consternation  of 
the  Whigs,  the  new  President  on  August  16  ve¬ 
toed  it  as  being  unconstitutional,  since  it  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  establishment  of  branches  of  the 
bank  in  the  various  States  without  securing  the 
prior  consent  of  these  States.  The  leading  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  party  then  conferred  with  President 
Tyler  and  asked  him  to  suggest  the  provisions 
of  a  bill  that  he  would  be  willing  to  accept.  He 
is  said  to  have  agreed  to  do  so,  yet  after  the  bill 
had  passed  the  two  Houses  (September  3)  it 
promptly  met  the  fate  of  the  former  Act.  It  now 
became  evident  that  the  President  was  at  heart 
a  Democrat,  and  that  his  political  principles 
would  prevent  him  from  acting  cordially  with 
the  party  that  had  elected  him  to  office.  The  in¬ 
dignation  and  chagrin  of  the  Whigs  were  un¬ 
bounded.  The  entire  cabinet  with  one  exception 
immediately  resigned,  Webster  remaining  in  the 
State  Department  until  pending  negotiations 
with  England  had  been  completed.  On  September 
11  the  leaders  of  the  Whig  party  issued  a  mani¬ 
festo  reading  the  President  out  of  the  party  and 
holding  him  responsible  for  the  failure  to  effect 
the  reforms  that  had  been  promised.  President 
Tyler  immediately  filled  the  places  in  his  cabinet 
with  conservative  politicians  and,  having  been 
cut  off  from  political  affiliation  with  his  own 
party,  turned  to  the  Democrats  for  support. 

During  Tyler’s  administration  the  relations 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
became  very  strained.  In  the  course  of  an 
insurrection  in  Canada  in  1837  a  party  of 
supporters  of  the  Canadian  government  had 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State ,  Daniel  Webster,  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  March  5,  1841;  Hugh  S.  Legarg,  South  Carolina, 
May  9,  1843;  A.  P.  Upshur,  Virginia,  July  24,  1843;  John  C. 
Calhoun,  South  Carolina,  March  6,  1844.  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  Thomas  Ewing,  Ohio,  March  5,  1841;  Walter  For¬ 
ward,  Pennsylvania,  Sept.  13,  1841;  John  C.  Spencer,  New 
York,  March  3,  1843;  George  M.  Bibb,  Kentucky,  June  15, 
1844.  Secretary  of  War,  John  Bell,  Tennessee,  March  5,  1841; 
John  McLean,  Ohio,  Sept.  13,  1841;  John  C.  Spencer,  New 
York,  Oct.  12,  1841;  James  M.  Porter,  Pennsylvania,  March 
8,  1843;  William  Wilkins,  Pennsylvania,  Feb.  15,  1844.  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Navy,  G.  E.  Badger,  North  Carolina,- March  5, 
1841;  A.  P.  Upshur,  Virginia,  Sept.  13,  1841;  David  Hen- 
shaw,  Massachusetts,  July  24,  1843;  T.  W.  Gilmer,  Virginia, 
Feb.  15,  1844;  John  Y.  Mason,  Virginia,  March  14,  1844.  At¬ 
torney-General,  John  J.  Crittenden,  Kentucky,  March  5,  1841; 
Hugh  S.  Legar6,  South  Carolina,  Sept.  13,  1841;  John  Nelson, 
Maryland,  July  1,  1843.  Postmaster-General,  Francis  Granger, 
New' York,  March  6,  1841;  Charles  A.  Wickliffe,  Kentucky, 
Sept.  13,  1841. 


crossed  over  to  the  American  territory  and  de¬ 
stroyed  a  vessel,  the  Caroline,  owned  by  the 
friends  of  the  insurgents.  In  the  affair  one 
American  had  been  killed.  In  1840  one  Alexan¬ 
der  McLeod,  who  had  come  to  New  York  State 
and  boasted  of  having  taken  part  in  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  Caroline,  was  arrested  and  indicted 
for  murder.  England  protested  vigorously,  and 
serious  international  complications  for  a  time 
seemed  imminent.  (See  Caroline.)  Again,  in 
October,  1841,  the  British  freed  most  of  the  slaves 
aboard  an  American  vessel,  the  Creole,  which  had 
been  seized  by  them  and  carried  into  a  port  in 
the  Bahamas.  (See  Creole  Case.)  Thus  each 
nation  had  a  grievance  against  the  other,  and 
such  ill  feeling  resulted  that  war  was  feared. 

Fortunately  Webster,  Tyler’s  Secretary  of 
State,  was  liked  and  respected  by  English  states¬ 
men,  and  upon  the  reorganization  of  the  cabinet 
he  retained  his  office  until  the  pending  negotia¬ 
tions  were  concluded.  In  1842  Lord  Ashburton 
was  sent  out  from  England  to  negotiate  a  treaty, 
with  particular  reference  to  adjusting  the  bound¬ 
ary  between  Canada  and  the  Northeastern 
States.  The  boundary  question  was  settled  by 
a  compromise,  England  gaining  by  the  treaty 
5000  more  square  miles  than  the  Treaty  of  1788 
allowed  her.  Two  other  points  of  importance 
were  settled  by  this  treaty.  One  was  the  agree¬ 
ment  of  the  two  governments  looking  to  the  sup¬ 
pression  of  the  slave  trade.  The  other  was  the 
provision  for  mutual  surrender  of  criminals. 
The  treaty  was  concluded  on  Aug.  9,  1842,  and 
was  proclaimed  on  November  10.  See  North¬ 
east  Boundary  Dispute;  Webster-Asiiburton 
Treaty. 

In  1844  the  government  arranged  a  treaty  with 
the  new  Republic  of  Texas  (q.v. ),  providing  for 
the  future  annexation  of  that  country  to  the 
United  States.  The  Senate  rejected  this  treaty 
by  a  vote  of  35  to  16,  seven  Democrats  voting 
with  the  Whigs  for  rejection.  The  problem  of 
the  future  relations  with  Texas  became  still  more 
critical  in  national  politics,  and  its  immediate 
importance  was  increased  by  the  strong  desire  for 
annexation  among  the  Southern  leaders.  To 
maintain  the  status  quo  the  annexation  of  Texas 
became  an  actual  necessity  to  the  interests  of  the 
South;  for  should  the  free  States  ultimately  ac¬ 
quire  a  dominant  power  in  the  Senate,  as  they 
had  already  done  in  the  House,  the  time  might 
come  when  the  existence  of  slavery  would  be  im¬ 
periled.  The  possibility  of  this  was  kept  con¬ 
tinually  before  the  Southern  mind  by  the  in¬ 
creasing  activity  in  the  North  of  the  Liberty 
party  (q.v.),  which  in  1843  held  a  national  con¬ 
vention  at  Buffalo  and  there  put  forth  a  series 
of  resolutions  denouncing  slavery,  and  calling 
on  the  free  States  to  pass  penal  laws  to  prevent 
the  return  of  fugitive  slaves,  and  which  again 
nominated  James  G.  Birney  for  the  presidency. 
England  was  taking  an  active  interest  in  Texas 
affairs,  which  alarmed  many  people,  North  and 
South,  lest  this  splendid  region  should  be  lost. 
The  Whigs  at  their  convention  held  at  Balti¬ 
more  in  May,  1844,  nominated  Henry  Clay,  of 
Kentucky,  with  Theodore  Frelinghuysen,  of  New 
York,  as  the  candidate  for  Vice  President.  The 
Democratic  convention,  in  the  same  month,  nomi¬ 
nated  James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee,  and  George 
M.  Dallas,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  adopted  a  plat¬ 
form  calling  for  the  reannexation  of  Texas  and 
the  reoccupation  of  Oregon.  The  position  of 
Clay  as  to  the  annexation  of  Texas  was  so 
equivocal  as  to  arouse  the  suspicion  of  many 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


756 


Northerners,  while  the  position  of  the  Demo¬ 
crats  on  the  Oregon  question  helped  them  in  the 
Northwestern  States.  The  election  resulted  in 
the  choice  of  Polk  and  Dallas  after  a  very  close 
contest  in  which  the  Democrats  succeeded  only 
by  the  fact  that  several  thousand  votes  in  New 
York  were  cast  for  the  antislavery  ticket. 

At  the  next  session  of  Congress  a  joint  resolu¬ 
tion  for  the  annexation  of  Texas  was  passed  early 
in  1845  by  both  Houses  and  approved  on  March 
1  by  the  President.  It  renewed  the  features  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise  as  regards  the  Texan 
territory  north  of  the  compromise  line,  and  as  to 
the  territory  south  of  that  line  the  question  of 
slavery  was  left  to  the  decision  of  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  of  the  States  to  be  formed  out  of  Texas. 

Tyler’s  administration  was  marked  by  the 
Dorr  Rebellion  in  Rhode  Island  (see  Dorr, 
Thomas  W.;  Rhode  Island),  by  antirent  dis¬ 
turbances  in  New  York  (see  Antirentism)  ,  and 
by  the  construction  under  the  direction  of  S.  F. 
B.  Morse  (q.v. )  of  the  first  successful  long¬ 
distance  telegraph  line  (1844). 

XV.  James  K.  Polk’s  Administration.* 
(1845—49.)  War  with  Mearico. — Soon  after  the 
beginning  of  Polk’s  administration  United  States 
troops  under  General  Taylor  were  sent  across  the 
Nueces  River  to  Corpus  Christi,  in  territory  then 
in  dispute  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico, 
the  United  States  claiming  the  Rio  Grande  as 
the  boundary  of  Texas,  and  Mexico  claiming  the 
Nueces.  In  the  meantime  both  the  Texan  Con¬ 
gress  (on  June  18,  1845)  and  a  convention  of  the 
people  (on  July  4)  had  ratified  the  act  of  an¬ 
nexation,  and  on  December  29  Texas  formally  en¬ 
tered  the  Union.  Up  to  this  date  Mexico,  being 
distracted  by  revolutions,  bad  simply  protested 
against  the  action  of  the  United  States  and  had 
recalled  her  Minister  from  Washington;  but  in 
the  spring  of  1846  the  further  advance  of 
General  Taylor  towards  the  Rio  Grande  brought 
United  States  troops  into  conflict  with  the  Mexi¬ 
cans,  a  small  engagement  taking  place  on  April 
24.  The  Mexicans  were  then  defeated  at  Palo 
Alto  on  May  8  and  on  the  following  day  at  Resaca 
de  la  Palma.  On  May  11,  1846,  news  of  the  hos¬ 
tilities  on  April  24  having  reached  Washington, 
the  President  officially  informed  Congress  of  the 
occurrence  and  asked  that  war  be  declared. 
Both  Houses  responded  to  the  message  and  to 
the  awakened  war  spirit  of  the  country  by  pass¬ 
ing  a  bill  (on  May  13)  whose  preamble  began 
as  follows:  “Whereas,  by  the  act  of  Mexico,  a 
state  of  war  exists  between  that  government  and 
the  United  States” — a  statement  that  provoked 
much  criticism  from  the  opponents  of  the  admin¬ 
istration,  as  false,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  hos¬ 
tilities  had  been  precipitated  by  the  military  oc¬ 
cupation  of  territory  claimed  by  Mexico.  The 
bill  appropriated  $10,000,000  for  the  prosecution 
of  the  war,  and  under  it  enlistment  was  actively 
begun.  Volunteers  to  the  number  of  50,000  men 
were  authorized.  On  May  23  Mexico  formally 
declared  war  upon  the  United  States.  Whatever 
view  one  might. take  of  the  political  aspect  of  the 
war,  the  brilliant  series  of  victories  aroused 
widespread  enthusiasm  and  pride;  as  against 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  James  Buchanan,  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  March  6,  1S45.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Robert  J. 
Walker,  Mississippi,  March  6,  1845.  Secretary  of  War,  Wil¬ 
liam  L.  Marcy,  New  York,  March  6,  1845.  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  George  Bancroft.  Massachusetts,  March  10,  1845; 
John  Y.  Mason,  Virginia,  Sept.  9,  1846.  Attorney-General, 
John  Y.  Mason,  Virginia,  March  5,  1845;  Nathan  Clifford, 
Maine,  Oct.  17,  1846.  Postmaster-General,  Cave  Johnson, 
Tennessee,  March  6,  1845. 


forces  that  outnumbered  them,  sometimes  four 
to  one  and  not  inferior  in  training,  in  a  hostile 
country  and  against  formidable  obstacles,  botli 
natural  and  artificial,  the  troops  of  Taylor  and 
Scott  won  successive  triumphs  by  the  most  splen¬ 
did  courage  and  the  most  stubborn  fighting. 
For  a  detailed  account,  see  Mexican  War. 

On  Feb.  2,  1848,  peace  was  signed  at  Guada¬ 
lupe  Hidalgo  ( q.v. ) .  Mexico  resigned  her  claim 
to  Texas,  agreeing  to  the  Rio  Grande  as  the 
boundary,  and  also  ceded  New  Mexico  and  Upper 
California  to  the  United  States  for  a  payment 
of  $15,000,000,  the  completion  being  thus  at¬ 
tained  of  that  great  westward  movement  which 
had  been  going  on  since  the  Revolution. 

Other  important  events  of  Polk’s  administra¬ 
tion  were  the  treaty  with  England  (June  15, 
1846)  by  which  the  long-disputed  question  of  the 
northwest  boundary  was  settled  ( see  Northwest 
Boundary  Dispute;  Oregon)  ;  the  so-called 
tariff  of  1846  (see  Tariff),  which  limited  its 
purpose  to  the  collection  of  revenues  alone  with¬ 
out  protection  to  native  industries;  the  reenact¬ 
ment  (1846)  of  the  Independent  Treasury  Act; 
the  introduction  of  the  Wilmot  Proviso  (q.v.)  ; 
the  formation  of  the  Free-Soil  party;  the  admis¬ 
sion  of  Iowa  (Dec.  28,  1846)  ;  the  establishment 
of  the  new  Territory  of  Oregon  without  slavery, 
and  the  admission  of  Wisconsin  (May  29,  1848). 
It  was  during  Polk’s  term  also  that  in  1848  gold 
was  discovered  in  California,  that  the  sewing 
machine  was  patented  (1846)  by  Elias  Howe, 
and  that  the  use  of  anaesthetics  was  introduced 
in  surgery.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  great 
flood  of  Irish  immigration  consequent  upon  the 
potato  famine  of  1846  began. 

The  opposing  candidates  at  the  presidential 
election  of  1848  were  Lewis  Cass  (q.v.),  of 
Michigan,  and  William  O.  Butler,  of  Kentucky, 
Democrats,  against  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor,  of 
Louisiana,  and  Millard  Fillmore,  of  New  York, 
Whigs,  the  newly  organized  Free-Soil  party 
(q.v.)  nominating  Martin  Van  Buren,  of  New 
York,  and  Charles  Francis  Adams,  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts.  Taylor  and  Fillmore  received  163  elec¬ 
toral  votes  as  against  127  cast  for  Cass  and  But¬ 
ler,  the  Democratic  vote  being  reduced  by  the 
support  given  by  the  Barnburners  (q.v.)  in  New 
YTirk  to  Van  Buren. 

XVI.  Zachary  Taylor’s  (1849-50)  and  Mil¬ 
lard  Fillmore’s  Administration.*  (1850-53.) 
The  course  of  American  political  history  from 
the  beginning  of  this  administration  down  to  the 
Civil  War  is  marked  by  a  gradual  disintegra¬ 
tion  of  the  old  Whig  party  (q.v.),  the  increase 
in  importance  of  the  free-soil  movement,  cul¬ 
minating  in  the  formation  of  the  Republican 
party,  and  the  development  of  the  Democratic 
party  into  an  organization  whose  foremost  ob¬ 
ject,  in  so  far  as  it  was  under  the  control  of  the 
Southern  wing,  was  the  maintenance  of  slavery 
and  the  perpetuation  of  the  political  power  in 

♦Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  John  M.  Clayton,  Dela¬ 
ware,  March  7,  1849;  Daniel  Webster,  Massachusetts,  Dec. 
6,  1850.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  W.  M.  Meredith,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  March  8,  1849;  Thomas  Corwin,  Ohio,  July  23,  1850. 
Secretary  of  War,  George  W.  Crawford,  Georgia,  March  8, 
1849;  Winfield  Scott  (ad  interim),  July  23,  1850;  Charles  M. 
Conrad,  Louisiana,  Aug.  15,  1850.  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
William  B.  Preston,  Virginia,  March  8,  1849;  William  A. 
Graham,  North  Carolina,  July  22,  1850;  J.  P.  Kennedy, 
Maryland,  July  22,  1852.  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Thomas 
II.  Ewing,  Ohio,  March  8,  1849;  A.  H.  H.  Stuart,  Virginia, 
Sept.  12,  1850.  Attorney-General,  Reverdy  Johnson,  Mary¬ 
land,  March  8.  1849;  John  J.  Crittenden,  Kentucky,  July  22, 
1850.  Postmaster-General,  Jacob  Collamer,  Vermont,  March 
8,  1849;  Nathan  K.  Hall,  New  York,  July  23,  1850;  S.  D. 
Hubbard,  Connecticut,  Aug.  31,  1852. 


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the  slave  States.  The  increase  of  territory  out 
of  which  new  States  might  be  created  made  the 
South  anxious  to  prevent  these  new  States  from 
inhibiting  slavery,  as  would  probably  be  done 
in  some  of  them,  especially  in  California,  if  the 
question  were  left  to  the  inhabitants.  The  con¬ 
test  began  actively  in  1840,  while  the  acquisition 
of  the  land  in  question  was  still  doubtful.  In 
that  year  David  Wilmot,  a  Representative  from 
Pennsylvania,  brought  forward  a  resolution  pro¬ 
viding  that  slavery  should  be  excluded  from  all 
territories  that  might  be  acquired  from  Mexico. 
This,  commonly  called  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  was 
carried  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  but 
was  defeated  in  the  Senate.  (See  Wilmot 
Proviso.  )  So  fierce  did  the  strife  become  that 
many  of  the  most  thoughtful  statesmen  began 
to  fear  secession  or  civil  war.  In  this  crisis 
Clay,  now  a  man  of  72  and  in  broken  health, 
came  forward  in  1850  as  a  peacemaker.  Like 
Webster,  who  now  vigorously  supported  him. 
Clay  had  always  held  a  moderate  position  be¬ 
tween  the  two  extreme  parties  in  the  slavery 
controversy.  His  proposal  was  that  no  legis¬ 
lation  concerning  slavery  in  California,  about  to 
be  admitted  as  a  State,  and  in  the  new  Terri¬ 
tories  should  be  enacted  by  Congress.  He  also 
proposed  that  the  slave  trade  should  be  abolished 
in  the  District  of  Columbia,  but  that  a  stricter 
law  for  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves  should  be 
enacted.  In  September,  1850,  Clay’s  scheme, 
with  important  changes,  was  put  into  effect  by 
Congress  by  the  enactment  of  the  so-called  Com¬ 
promise  Measures  of  1850.  The  passage,  how¬ 
ever,  of  the  new  Fugitive  Slave  Law  excited  at 
the  North  feelings  of  repugnance  and  disgust; 
and  several  of  the  State  Legislatures  even  passed 
laws,  commonly  known  as  Personal  Liberty  Laws, 
intended  especially  for  the  protection  of  negroes. 
See  Compromise  Measures  of  1850;  Fugitive 
Slave  Law;  Underground  Railroad. 

President  Taylor  died  on  July  9,  1850.  His 
successor,  Millard  Fillmore,  strictly  carried  out 
the  policy  of  his  party.  The  Compromise  Meas¬ 
ures  were  approved  by  the  new  President,  and 
their  final  adoption  caused  a  temporary  lull  in 
the  contest  over  the  question  of  slavery. 

During  the  administration  of  President  Taylor 
was  concluded  (April  19,  1850)  the  Clayton-Bul- 
wer  Treaty  (q.v. ),  respecting  an  interoceanic 
canal.  The  secession  sentiment  in  the  South 
found  expression  in  the  Nashville  Convention  of 
June  9. 

In  June,  1852,  the  two  great  parties  made  their 
presidential  nominations.  The  candidates  of  the 
Democracy  were  Franklin  Pierce,  of  New  Hamp¬ 
shire,  and  William  R.  King,  of  Alabama;  the 
Whigs  nominated  Gen.  Winfield  Scott,  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  William  A.  Graham,  of  North  Caro¬ 
lina.  Each  of  the  leading  parties  adopted  a  plat¬ 
form  which  recognized  the  “finality”  of  the  Com¬ 
promise  of  1850.  In  August  the  Free-Soil  party 
nominated  John  P.  Hale,  of  New  Hampshire,  and 
George  W.  Julian,  of  Indiana.  The  election 
resulted  in  the  success  of  the  Democratic  ticket, 
which  received  254  electoral  votes  against  42 
cast  for  the  Whig  nominees.  The  years  of  this 
administration  were  marked  by  tiie  deaths  of 
three  of  the  iuost  influential  political  leaders, 
Calhoun  (March  31,  1850),  Clay  (June  29, 
1850),  and  Webster  (Oct.  23,  1852). 

XVII.  Franklin  Pierce’s  Administration.* 

♦Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  William  L.  Marcy,  New 
York,  March  7,  1853.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  James 
Guthrie,  Kentucky,  March  7,  1853.  Secretary  of  War,  Jef- 


(1853-57.)  In  spite  of  the  finality  planks  in  the 
presidential  campaign,  the  question  of  slavery 
soon  came  once  more  to  the  front.  The  leader  in 
reviving  the  struggle  was  Stephen  A.  Douglas 
(q.v.),  by  whom,  in  January,  1854,  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill  (q.v.)  was  introduced  into  Con¬ 
gress.  The  Senate  promptly  passed  this  bill,  and 
two  months  later  it  was  passed  by  the  House. 
(See  Popular  Sovereignty.)  This  led  to  the 
final  disruption  of  the  old  Whig  party.  A  new 
party,  based  on  opposition  to  slavery,  now  arose 
in  the  North,  whose  members  at  first  generally 
styled  themselves  Anti-Nebraska  Men  and  which 
soon  developed  into  the  Republican  party  (q.v.). 
It  was  composed  of  men  opposed  to  the  extension 
of  slavery  without  regard  to  former  party  affilia¬ 
tions — Whigs,  Democrats,  Know-Nothings,  and 
Free-Soilers.  The  bulk  of  the  Southern  Whigs 
for  the  time  being  became  Know-Nothings.  The 
so-called  American  party,  or  Know-Nothings,  who 
about  this  time  began  to  exercise  great  influence, 
demanded  especially  more  stringent  naturaliza¬ 
tion  laws  and  the  election  to  high  office  of  none 
but  native-born  citizens. 

This  virtual  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compro¬ 
mise,  which  left  the  new  Territories  to  decide 
for  themselves  whether  they  would  admit  slavery 
or  not,  turned  Kansas,  as  the  Territory  nearest 
the  settled  States,  into  a  battleground  for  the 
two  parties.  The  partisans  of  the  North  and 
those  of  the  South  kept  pouring  in  fresh  immi¬ 
grants  to  outnumber  the  other  side.  At  first 
the  South  was  successful,  and  a  code  of  laws 
was  established  with  many  and  stringent  provi¬ 
sions  in  behalf  of  slavery,  although  this  was 
brought  about,  not  by  legitimate  immigrants, 
but  chiefly  by  a  mob  of  Missourians,  who  passed 
across  the  border,  took  possession  of  the  polling 
places,  and  carried  the  elections.  A  succession 
of  outrages,  amounting  to  civil  war,  followed, 
each  faction  establishing  its  own  government  and 
electing  its  delegate  to  Congress.  President 
Pierce  issued  a  proclamation  (Feb.  11,  1856) 
calling  for  obedience  to  the  laws  and  a  cessation 
of  violence  and  interference.  Civil  war,  how¬ 
ever,  actually  existed  in  Kansas.  The  two  anti¬ 
slavery  towns,  Lawrence  and  Ossawatomie,  were 
sacked,  and  the  Free-Soil  Legislature  was  twice 
dispersed.  The  outrages  continued  and  no  solu¬ 
tion  of  the  problem  was  reached  during  this  ad¬ 
ministration.  (See  Kansas.)  In  the  mean¬ 
time  public  sentiment  was  excited  to  a  still 
greater  intensity  by  the  assault  upon  Senator 
Charles  Sumner  (q.v.),  of  Massachusetts,  by 
Preston  S.  Brooks  (q.v.),  of  South  Carolina 
(May  22,  1856). 

In  diplomacy  during  this  administration  fric¬ 
tion  arose  between  the  United  States  and  Austria 
over  the  Koszta  affair  (q.v.),  and  an  important 
treaty  was  negotiated  by  Commodore  Perry  with 
Japan,  by  which  intercourse  was  first  opened 
between  that  country  and  the  Western  world. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1856  the  fol¬ 
lowing  tickets  were  in  the  field:  Democratic, 
James  Buchanan,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  John  C. 
Breckinridge,  of  Kentucky;  Republican,  John  C. 
Fremont,  of  California,  and  William  A.  Dayton, 
of  New  Jersey;  Know-Nothing,  Millard  Fill¬ 
more,  of  New  York,  and  A.  J.  Donelson,  of 
Tennessee.  The  Democratic  ticket  received  174 

ferson  Davis,  Mississippi,  March  7,  1853.  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  James  C.  Dobbin,  North  Carolina,  March  7,  1853. 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Robert  McClelland,  Michigan,  March 
7,  1853.  Attorney-General,  Caleb  Cushing,  Massachusetts, 
March  7,  1853.  Postmaster-General,  James  Campbell,  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  March  7,  1853. 


UNITED  STATES 


758 


UNITED  STATES 

electoral  votes,  the  Republican  114,  the  Know- 
Nothing  8. 

XVIII.  James  Buchanan’s  Administration.* 

(1857-61.)  Two  days  after  Buchanan’s  inaugu¬ 
ration  the  Supreme  Court  rendered  its  decision  in 
the  famous  Dred  Scott  Case  (q.v.),  in  which  the 
majority  of  the  justices  held  that  Congress  had 
no  right  to  prohibit  slavery  in  any  Territory  and 
that  slaves  themselves  were  mere  property  whose 
secure  possession  in  any  Territory  of  the  Union 
was  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution. 

Events  now  succeeded  one  another  with  ex¬ 
citing  rapidity.  The  sympathizers  with  the 
South  had  made  various  attempts  to  extend  the 
area  of  slavery  by  the  acquisition  of  Cuba.  In 
1854  the  American  ministers  to  England,  France, 
and  Spain  met  at  the  Belgian  town  of  Ostend 
and  there  issued  the  so-called  Ostend  Manifesto 
(q.v.)  to  the  effect  that  under  certain  contingen¬ 
cies  the  safety  of  the  United  States  would  de¬ 
mand  the  annexation  of  Cuba.  Another  attempt 
to  acquire  slave  territory  was  through  filibuster¬ 
ing  expeditions,  the  most  famous  of  which  were 
that  of  L6pez  to  Cuba  in  1851  and  that  of  Wil¬ 
liam  Walker  (q.v.)  from  1855  to  1858  to  Cen¬ 
tral  America.  Even  the  reopening  of  the  Afri¬ 
can  slave  trade  began  to  be  discussed. 

In  September,  1857,  the  proslavery  party  in 
Kansas  held  a  convention  at  Lecompton  and  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  impose  slavery  upon  the  future  State 
by  submitting  to  the  voters  the  alternative  of 
voting  for  a  clause  in  the  Constitution  with, 
slavery  or  the  Constitution  without  slavery,  the 
instrument  itself,  however,  affirming  the  right 
to  the  ownership  of  slaves  at  the  time  within  the 
Territory.  The  antislavery  party,  whose  Topeka 
Constitution  had  previously  been  disallowed  by 
the  Federal  government,  generally  abstained  from 
voting,  with  the  result  that  the  Constitution 
with  slavery  was  adopted.  ( See  Lecompton 
Constitution.)  A  new  Territorial  Legislature 
with  an  antislavery  majority  ordered  a  new  elec¬ 
tion,  at  which  the  Constitution  was  to  be  ac¬ 
cepted  or  rejected.  It  was  rejected  (January, 
1858).  The  National  Congress  passed  a  bill  re¬ 
submitting  the  Lecompton  Constitution  to  the 
vote  of  the  people,  its  adoption  to  be  followed 
by  the  immediate  admission  of  Kansas  as  a 
State.  They  rejected  it,  and  thus  Kansas  re¬ 
mained  a  Territory.  In  1859  a  new  convention 
adopted  another  Constitution,  known  as  the 
Wyandotte  Constitution,  prohibiting  slavery,  and 
this,  being  submitted  to  the  people,  was  adopted 
by  them.  Kansas,  however,  was  not  admitted 
as  a  State  until  1861.  The  controversy  in  Con¬ 
gress  over  the  admission  of  Kansas  under  the  Le¬ 
compton  Constitution  proved  an  event  of  mo¬ 
mentous  importance  as  leading  up  to  the  division 
of  the  Democratic  party  in  the  presidential  cam¬ 
paign  of  1860.  Minnesota  was  admitted  in 
May,  1858,  and  Oregon  in  February,  1859.  In 
1858  occurred  the  famous  Lincoln-Douglas  de¬ 
bates  (see  Lincoln,  Abraham),  and  a  "marked 
impression  was  caused  by  the  publication  of 
Helper’s  Impending  Crisis.  (See  Helper,  Hin- 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  Lewis  Cass,  Michigan, 
March  6,  1857;  J.  S.  Black,  Pennsylvania,  Dec.  17,  1860. 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury ,  Howell  Cobb,  Georgia,  March  6, 
1857;  Philip  F.  Thomas,  Maryland,  Dec.  12,  1860;  John  A. 
Dix,  New  York,  Jan.  11,  1861.  Secretary  of  War ,  John  B. 
Floyd,  Virginia,  March  6,  1857;  Joseph  Holt,  Kentucky,  Jan. 
18,  1861.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Isaac  Toucey,  Connecticut, 
March  6,  1857.  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Jacob  Thompson, 
Mississippi,  March  6,  1857.  Attorney-General,  J.  S.  Black, 
Pennsylvania,  March  6,  1857;  E.  M.  Stanton,  Pennsylvania, 
Dec.  20.  1860.  Postmaster-General,  Aaron  V.  Brown,  Ten¬ 
nessee,  March  6.  1857;  Joseph  Holt,  Kentucky,  March  14, 
1859;  Horatio  King,  Maine,  Feb.  12,  1861. 


ton  Rowan.)  In  the  following  year  occurred 
John  Brown’s  raid  on  Harper’s  Ferry  (q.v.). 
(See  Brown,  John.)  The  South  approached  the 
campaign  of  1860  with  the  conviction  that  there 
was  no  place  for  the  South  in  an  antislavery 
Union,  and  that  the  success  of  the  Republicans, 
even  though  the  Republican  party  did  not  mean 
to  interfere  with  slavery  in  the  States,  would 
mean  an  antislavery  Union. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1860  the  situa¬ 
tion  was  more  complicated  than  ever  before,  and 
finally  there  appeared  four  tickets  in  the  field. 
The  Northern  Democrats  (see  Democratic 
Party)  nominated  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illi¬ 
nois,  and  Herschel  V.  Johnson,  of  Georgia;  the 
Southern  Democrats,  who  had  seceded  from  the 
Democratic  convention,  nominated  John  C. 
Breckinridge,  of  Kentucky,  and  Joseph  Lane,  of 
Oregon;  a  third  party,  the  so-called  Constitu¬ 
tional  Union  party  ( q.v. ) ,  composed  of  conserva¬ 
tive  members  of  the  old  Whig  and  Know-Nothing 
parties,  especially  powerful  in  the  South,  nomi¬ 
nated  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee,  and  Edward 
Everett,  of  Massachusetts ;  while  the  Republicans 
(see  Republican  Party)  nominated  Abraham 
Lincoln,  of  Illinois,  and  Hannibal  Hamlin,  of 
Maine.  The  Republican  platform  declared  in 
favor  of  freedom  in  the  Territories,  a  protective 
tariff,  internal  improvements,  and  a  Pacific  rail¬ 
way.  In  the  ensuing  election  Lincoln  received 
180  electoral  votes  and  was  elected.  He  re¬ 
ceived  every  Northern  vote  in  the  electoral  col¬ 
lege,  excepting  three  out  of  the  seven  cast  by 
New  Jersey.  Breckinridge  received  72  elec¬ 
toral  votes  of  the  South.  Bell  received  the  votes 
of  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Virginia,  39  alto¬ 
gether.  Douglas  received  only  the  nine  votes  of 
Missouri  and  three  of  the  votes  of  New  Jersey. 
The  North  and  South  were  arrayed  against  each 
other,  and  the  South  was  beaten.  Of  the  popu¬ 
lar  vote,  Lincoln  received  1,866,452;  Douglas, 
1,375,157;  Breckinridge,  847,953;  Bell,  590,631. 
Thus,  while  Lincoln  gained  an  overwhelming  ma¬ 
jority  of  the  electoral  votes,  the  combined  Demo¬ 
cratic  votes  exceeded  his  by  356,658,  and  the 
popular  votes  against  him  all  together  exceeded 
his  own  by  947,289.  In  the  Southern  States 
alone  the  combined  vote  of  two  of  the  Union 
candidates,  Douglas  and  Bell,  exceeded  the  vote 
of  the  disunion  candidate,  Breckinridge. 

There  was  some  ground  for  the  claim  that 
Lincoln  was  a  “minority  President,”  but  the  true 
significance  of  the  election  was  the  fact  that  po¬ 
litical  power  had  finally  departed  from  the 
South.  The  slave  States  were  at  last  confronted 
by  an  overwhelming  opposition.  The  following 
figures  from  the  census  of  each  decade  up  to 
1860  show  the  gradual  growth  of  the  power  of 
the  free  States,  the  figures  given  for  the  slave 
States  including  the  slaves: 


TEAR 

Free  States 

Slave  States 

1790 . 

1,968,453 

2,684,616 

3,758,910 

5,152,372 

7,006,399 

9,7.33,922 

13,599,488 

19,128,418 

1,961,374 

2,621,316 

3,480,902 

4,485,819 

5,848,312 

7,334,433 

9,663,997 

*12,315,372 

1800  . 

1810  . 

1820  . 

1830 . 

1840  . 

1850  . 

I860  . 

*  Of  these,  about  3,500,000  were  blacks. 


The  South  lost  no  time  in  acting  upon  what 
many  of  her  leaders  had  declared  would  be  the 


I 


UNITED  STATES 


759 


UNITED  STATES 


signal  of  her  withdrawal  from  the  Union.  Presi¬ 
dent  Buchanan’s  administration  witnessed  the 
culmination  of  the  conflict  that  had  for  years 
been  waged  between  the  free  States  and  the 
slave  States.  It  was  during  this  administration 
that  the  leaders  of  the  South  appear  to  have  defi¬ 
nitely  decided  that  the  welfare  of  their  section 
could  not  be  satisfactorily  conserved  while  the 
Southern  States  remained  a  part  of  the  Federal 
Union.  Ever  since  the  foundation  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment  the  statesmen  of  the  South  had  for  the 
most  part  maintained  that  theory  of  the  Federal 
Constitution  which  regarded  the  ultimate  sov¬ 
ereignty  as  residing  not  in  the  nation  as  a  whole, 
but  rather  in  the  individual  States  themselves, 
which  this  theory — the  theory  of  Calhoun  and 
Hayne — held  to  be  supreme  and  independent 
commonwealths.  According  to  the  view  preva¬ 
lent  at  the  South  these  sovereign  States  had  en¬ 
tered  into  a  league  of  union  with  the  other 
States  for  purposes  of  mutual  advantage;  and 
this  partnership,  like  others,  was  to  endure  only 
as  long  as  its  original  purpose  was  maintained 
with  regard  to  all  the  members.  Events  seemed 
now  to  indicate  that  the  time  for  the  dissolu¬ 
tion  of  the  compact  had  arrived.  In  the  first 
place  the  balance  of  political  power  was  passing 
rapidly  into  the  hands  of  a  party  inimical  to 
the  interests  of  the  South,  a  party  pledged  to  the 
ultimate  abolition  of  slavery  and  to  a  commer¬ 
cial  system  of  protection  which  was  peculiarly 
unfavorable  to  an  agricultural  community  such 
as  the  South  then  was.  The  greatest  statesmen 
of  the  South  had  often  deplored  the  presence  of 
the  slaves  as  an  economic  and  social  evil;  yet, 
inasmuch  as  slavery  actually  existed,  the  ques¬ 
tion  appeared  to  them  a  practical  one  rather 
than  a  matter  of  speculative  interest.  The  abo¬ 
litionists  of  the  North  had  begun  a  crusade 
which,  conducted  with  extreme  bitterness  and  vio¬ 
lence  of  denunciation,  exasperated  the  South  be¬ 
yond  measure.  Men  who  believed  thoroughly  in 
the  abstract  wrongfulness  of  slavery  indignantly 
took  up  its  defense.  The  continual  threats  of  the 
Southerners  to  destroy  the  Union,  the  attempts 
to  carry  out  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  the  vio¬ 
lence  to  which  so  many  of  them  were  so  ready 
to  resort,  as  in  the  case  of  the  assault  upon  Sena¬ 
tor  Sumner,  and  the  high-handed  proceedings 
that  had  marked  the  civil  war  in  Kansas,  all 
served  to  embitter  and  intensify  the  opposition 
at  the  North. 

As  soon  as  the  result  of  the  presidential  elec¬ 
tion  was  known,  the  Legislature  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina  ordered  a  State  convention,  which  on  De¬ 
cember  20  unanimously  declared  that  “the  Union 
now  subsisting  between  South  Carolina  and 
other  States,  under  the  name  of  the  United 
States,  is  hereby  dissolved.”  The  example  of 
South  Carolina  was  followed  by  Mississippi, 
Jan.  9,  1861;  Florida,  Jan.  10;  Alabama,  Jan. 
11;  Georgia,  Jan.  19;  and  later  by  Louisiana, 
Tejas,  Virginia,  Arkansas,  North  Carolina,  and 
Tennessee.  Kentucky  and  Missouri  were  di¬ 
vided. 

On  Feb.  4,  1861,  delegates  from  seven  seceding 
States  met  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  and  formed  a 
provisional  government,  under  the  title  of  the 
Confederate  States  of  America  (q.v.).  A  pro¬ 
visional  constitution  was  adopted  similar  in  most 
respects  to  that  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
government  formally  inaugurated,  Feb.  18,  1861, 
with  Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  as  Presi¬ 
dent,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  of  Georgia,  as 
Vice  President,  and  on  May  24,  the  seat  of  gov¬ 


ernment  was  established  at  Richmond,  Va.  On 
the  same  day  on  which  the  Confederate  delegates 
met  at  Montgomery  a  Peace  Congress,  in  which 
21  States  were  represented,  assembled  at  Wash¬ 
ing-ton,  but  accomplished  nothing.  (See  Peace 
Congress.)  As  State  after  State  withdrew 
from  the  Union,  its  Senators  and  Representatives 
in  Congress  resigned  their  seats;  and  a  large 
proportion  of  the  officers  of  the  army  and  navy 
of  Southern  birth,  believing  that  their  first  and 
final  allegiance  was  due  to  their  State  and  that 
the  action  of  each  State  carried  with  it  all  its 
citizens,  also  resigned  their  commissions. 

President  Buchanan,  denying  his  constitutional 
power  to  compel  the  seceding  States  to  return  to 
the  Union,  though  he  believed  that  secession  was 
unconstitutional,  made  a  feeble  and  ineffectual 
attempt  to  relieve  the  garrison  at  Fort  Sumter 
in  Charleston  harbor,  closely  besieged  by  the 
forces  of  South  Carolina.  Commissioners  were 
sent  by  South  Carolina  to  Washington  to  ar¬ 
range  for  a  transfer  to  the  State  of  United 
States  property  lying  therein  and  for  a  division 
of  the  national  debt,  but  were  not  officially  re¬ 
ceived.  During  all  this  time  great  efforts  were 
made,  but  without  result,  to  effect  compromises 
of  the  difficulties.  See  Crittenden  Compro¬ 
mise;  Peace  Congress. 

Meanwhile,  to  the  vacillation  and  incompetence 
of  the  President  the  prompt  and  vigorous  action 
of  the  Southern  leaders  formed  a  striking  con¬ 
trast.  By  their  direction  armed  forces  were 
rapidly  organized,  United  States  arsenals  and 
arms  were  seized,  and  batteries  were  planted  for 
the  reduction  of  such  forts  as  threatened  a  firm 
resistance.  In  the  last  months,  however,  Bu¬ 
chanan’s  reorganized  cabinet  showed  a  much 
more  determined  front. 

Among  the  events  of  Buchanan’s  administra¬ 
tion  were  the  Mormon  Rebellibn  of  1857-58  (see 
Mormons;  Mountain  Meadows  Massacre),  the 
disastrous  financial  panic  of  1857,  the  discov¬ 
ery  of  silver  and  petroleum  in  the  United  States, 
and  the  congressional  investigation  of  President 
Buchanan’s  connection  with  the  Lecompton  Bill 
(see  Covode  Investigation). 

XIX  and  XX.  Abraham  Lincoln’s  (1861- 
65)  and  Andrew  Johnson’s  (1865-69)  Ad¬ 
ministration.*  On  March  4,  1861,  President 
Lincoln  was  inaugurated  at  Washington.  In  his 
inaugural  address,  he  said:  “I  have  no  purpose, 
directly  or  indirectly,  to  interfere  with  the  insti¬ 
tution  of  slavery  in  the  States  where  it  exists.  I 
believe  that  I  have  no  lawful  right  to  do  so,  and 
I  have  no  inclination  to  do  so.”  He  also  said, 
however:  “The  Union  of  these  States  is  perpet¬ 
ual,”  and  “No  State  upon  its  own  mere  motion  can 
lawfully  get  out  of  the  Union.”  The  tension  at 
the  time  was  extreme  and  was  not  lessened  by  the 
vigorous  efforts  at  conciliation  which  marked  the 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  William  H.  Seward,  New 
York,  March  5,  1861.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  S.  P.  Chase, 
Ohio,  March  5,  1861;  W.  P.  Fessenden,  Maine,  July  1,  1864; 
Hugh  McCulloch,  Indiana,  March  7,  1865.  Secretary  of  War, 
Simon  Cameron,  Pennsylvania,  March  5,  1861;  Edwin  M. 
Stanton,  Pennsylvania,  Jan.  15,  1862;  U.  S.  Grant  (ad  in¬ 
terim),  Aug.  12,  1867;  Edwin  M.  Stanton  (reinstated),  Jan. 

14,  1868;  J.  M.  Schofield,  New  York,  May  28,  1868.  Secre¬ 
tary  of  the  N  avy ,  Gideon  Welles, 'Connecticut,  March  5,  1861. 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Caleb  P.  Smith,  March  5,  1861;  John 
P.  Usher,  Indiana,  Jan.  8,  1863;  James  Harlan,  Iowa,  May 

15,  1865;  O.  H.  Browning,  Illinois,  July  27,  1866.  Attorney- 
General,  Edward  Bates,  Missouri,  March  5,  1861;  Titian  J. 
Coffee,  June  22,  1863;  James  Speed,  Kentucky,  Dec.  2,  1864; 
Henry  Stanbery,  Ohio,  July  23,  1866;  William  M.  Evarts, 
New  York,  July  15,  1868.  Postmaster-General,  Montgomery 
Blair,  Maryland,  March  5,  1861;  William  Dennison,  Ohio, 
Sept.  24,  1864;  Alexander  W.  Randall,  Wisconsin,  July  25, 
1866. 


/ 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


760 


first  month  of  his  administration;  and  the  feel¬ 
ings  of  the  whole  Northern  people  were  inflamed 
by  the  bombardment  on  April  12-13  and  the  en¬ 
forced  surrender  on  April  14  of  Fort  Sumter 
in  Charleston  harbor.  (See  Fort  Sumter.)  On 
April  15  President  Lincoln  called  for  75,000 
three  months’  volunteers,  large  numbers  of  whom 
were  in  a  few  days  marching  to  the  defense  of 
Washington.  After  the  battle  of  Bull  Run 
on  July  21  (see  Bull  Run,  First  Battle  of) 
Congress  voted  to  call  out  500,000  men. 

On  Jan.  1,  1862,  the  United  States  had  about 
576,000  men  in  the  field,  and  the  Confederates 
had  about  350,000.  For  numbers  engaged  and 
an  account  of  the  military  operations,  see  Civil 
War  and  separate  articles  on  the  various  bat¬ 
tles;  and  for  an  account  of  the  Confederacy,  see 
Confederate  States  of  America. 

On  July  1,  1862,  the  President  called  for 
300,000  three  years’  men,  and  on  August  4  for 
300,000  nine  months’  militia  for  the  Federal 
army.  The  United  States  Congress  passed  an 
Act  on  Aug.  6,  1861,  freeing  all  slaves  used 
by  Confederates  in  military  operations  in  the 
Confederacy;  in  April,  1862,  purchased  and 
emancipated  all  slaves  in  the  District  of  Co¬ 
lumbia;  and  on  June  9,  1862,  abolished  slavery 
throughout  the  public  domain.  July  17,  1862, 
a  second  Confiscation  Act  followed,  which 
it  was  thought  might  free  fugitives  who  reached 
the  Union  lines.  On  Jan.  1,  1863,  President 
Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation  in  pursuance  of  a 
prior  proclamation  issued  on  Sept.  22,  1862,  af¬ 
ter  the  battle  of  Antietam  ( q.v. ) ,  declaring  the 
freedom  of  all  the  slaves  in  the  rebellious  States. 
(See  Emancipation,  Proclamation  of.)  The 
suspension  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  (q.v.), 
the  frequent  seizure  of  newspapers,  the  dispersion 
of  public  meetings,  and  the  imprisonment  with¬ 
out  trial  of  opponents  of  the  government  of  the 
North,  were  generally  recognized  as  essential  to 
the  security  of  the  nation,  although  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  such  practices  gave  rise  to  sharp 
criticism  of  the  administration  and  furnished  the 
opponents  of  its  policy  with  ample  opportunity 
for  partisan  attacks.  (See  Vallandigiiam,  C.  L. ; 
Milligan,  Ex  Parte.)  The  unanimity  of  the 
North  was  also  somewhat  affected  by  great  peace 
meetings,  while  the  disturbed  state  of  the  pub¬ 
lic  feeling  was  increased  by  the  terrible  draft 
riots  in  New  York  in  July,  1863.  (See  Draft 
Riots  in  New  York.)  Business  conditions  be¬ 
came  unstable,  as  many  banks  had  been  forced 
to  suspend  specie  payments,  the  paper  money 
of  the  United  States  having  largely  depreciated. 
Nevertheless,  the  strength  of  the  government  was 
not  seriously  impaired,  the  appropriations  of 
Congress  in  1863  amounting  to  $972,000,000.  In 
February  of  this  year  was  passed  the  National 
Banking  Act.  The  Confederates  were  cut  off 
from  all  foreign  aid,  except  such  as  could  come 
to  them  through  the  blockade,  and  their  own  re¬ 
sources,  both  of  men  and  material,  in  both  of 
which  respects  the  North  was  vastly  superior, 
gradually  became  exhausted.  The  Southern  rail¬ 
ways  had  been  in  large  measure  destroyed  or 
seized  by  the  Federal  troops,  and  it  became  diffi¬ 
cult  to  transport  supplies  and  to  feed  armies, 
while  the  North  had  the  additional  advantage  of 
command  of  the  sea  and  access  to  foreign 
markets. 

In  January,  1864,  the  United  States  had 
nearly  975,000  men  raised  and  provided  for;  the 
entire  Confederate  forces  probably  numbered 
about  470,000.  On  April  9,  1865,  the  main  Con¬ 


federate  army,  under  General  Lee,  surrendered 
to  General  Grant  at  Appomattox  Court  House. 
On  April  26  General  Johnston  surrendered  to 
General  Sherman  in  North  Carolina;  and  with 
the  surrender  of  Kirby  Smith  in  Texas,  on  May 
26,  the  war  was  over. 

In  1864  Lincoln  had  been  reelected  President 
and  Andrew  Johnson,  of  Tennessee,  elected  Vice 
President.  The  Democratic  party  had  nominated 
Gen.  George  B.  McClellan,  of  New  Jersey,  and 
George  H.  Pendleton,  of  Ohio,  on  a  platform 
which  declared  the  conduct  of  the  war  a  failure. 
Lincoln  received  212  electoral  votes,  and  Mc¬ 
Clellan  21,  though  the  disparity  between  the 
popular  votes  was  relatively  much  less,  Lincoln 
receiving  (counting  the  votes  cast  by  soldiers  in 
the  field)  2,330,552  and  McClellan  1,835,985. 
Only  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Kentucky  were 
carried  by  the  Democrats.  West  Virginia  had 
been  admitted  to  the  Union,  June  19,  1863.  See 
West  Virginia. 

On  April  14,  1865,  while  the  North  was  re¬ 
joicing  over  the  capture  of  Richmond  and  the 
surrender  of  General  Lee,  President  Lincoln  was 
assassinated  at  Ford’s  Theatre  in  Washington, 
by  John  Wilkes  Booth  (q.v.),  while  an  accom¬ 
plice  attacked  and  severely  injured  Seward,  the 
Secretary  of  State.  Andrew  Johnson  thus  be¬ 
came  President. 

The  Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitu¬ 
tion,  forever  abolishing  slavery  in  the  States  and 
Territories  of  the  Union,  was  declared  ratified  by 
two-thirds  of  the  States,  Dec.  18,  1865. 

The  termination  of  the  war  imposed  upon 
Congress  and  the  executive  the  duty  of  re¬ 
constructing  the  governments  of  the  States  that 
had  seceded.  This  now  became  the  most  im¬ 
portant  question  before  the  national  government 
and  for  a  decade  dominated  national  politics. 
During  Johnson’s  administration  it  involved  a 
bitter  struggle  between  the  President  and  Con¬ 
gress,  which  culminated  in  the  resolution  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  Feb.  24,  1868,  to  im¬ 
peach  him  “of  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors.” 
(See  Johnson,  Andrew;  Reconstruction.) 
The  immediate  occasion  of  the  passage  of  this 
resolution  was  the  course  of  President  Johnson 
in  violating  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act  (q.v.),  which 
made  requisite  the  consent  of  the  Senate  to  re¬ 
movals  from  office  by  the  President,  and  of 
which  Congress  availed  itself  to  prevent  the  re¬ 
moval  of  Stanton  from  the  position  of  Secretary 
of  War.  The  Senate  acted  as  the  court  of  im¬ 
peachment,  and  on  March  23,  1868,  the  Chief 
Justice  presiding,  proceeded  to  try  Andrew  John¬ 
son  on  11  articles  of  impeachment.  The  result 
was  his  acquittal,  the  prosecution  lacking  the 
necessary  two-thirds  majority.  It  was  not  until 
1868  that  the  States  of  Arkansas,  Alabama,  Flor¬ 
ida,  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Louisiana,  were  readmitted  into  the  Union.  On 
March  1,  1867,  Nebraska  had  been  admitted  as 
a  new  State.  About  the  same  time  Alaska  jvas 
sold  to  the  United  States  by  Russia. 

At  the  election  of  1868  the  Republican  can¬ 
didates  were  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  of  Illinois,  and 
Schuyler  Colfax,  of  Indiana.  The  Democrats 
nominated  Horatio  Seymour,  of  New  York,  and 
Francis  P.  Blair,  Jr.,  of  Missouri.  Grant  and 
Colfax  received  214  electoral  votes,  and  Seymour 
and  Blair  80,  the  Democrats  having  carried 
eight  States.  In  this  year  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment  was  proclaimed  a  part  of  the  fun¬ 
damental  law.  On  Feb.  27,  1869,  the  Fifteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  guaranteeing 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


761 


the  right  of  suffrage  without  regard  to  race, 
color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude,  passed 
Congress  and  was  ratified  March  30,  1870. 

XXI  and  XXII.  Ulysses  S.  Grant’s  Admini¬ 
stration.*  (1809-77.)  One  of  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  events  of  President  Grant’s  administration 
was  the  meeting  of  the  Joint  High  Commission, 
appointed  to  consider  the  Alabama  case  (see 
Alabama  Claims),  and  which  concluded  the 
Treaty  of  Washington  (q.v.),  ratified  by  the 
Senate  May  24,  1871. 

Among  other  notable  occurrences  during  this 
administration  was  the  completion  in  May,  1869, 
of  the  Union  and  Central  Pacific  railroads,  be¬ 
gun  in  1865,  providing  a  continuous  line  of  rail¬ 
way  from  the  Missouri  to  the  Pacific  and  com¬ 
pleting  the  transcontinental  system.  Out  of 
the  connection  of  the  government  with  the  con¬ 
struction  of  these  roads — the  government  having 
given  valuable  subsidies  in  land  and  money  to 
the  constructing  companies — arose  the  Credit 
Mobilier  scandal,  which  involved  the  reputation 
of  many  prominent  officials  and  members  of 
Congress.  (See  Credit  Mobilier  of  America.) 
Tales  of  Southern  outrages  inflicted  upon  the 
freedmen,  particularly  in  regard  to  the  exer¬ 
cise  by  the  latter  of  their  newly  acquired  right 
of  suffrage,  attracted  public  attention  (1868- 
72)  until  Congress  intervened  by  legislation 
and  passed  several  coercive  acts,  among  which 
were  the  Enforcement  Act  of  1870  and  the  Ku- 
Klux  Klan  Act  of  1871.  (See  Ku-Klux  Klan; 
Reconstruction.  )  Disputes  arose  in  several  of 
the  States  over  contested  elections,  and  the  Presi¬ 
dent  intervened  in  Louisiana,  in  1872-73,  by 
sending  Federal  troops  to  that  State,  to  bring 
about  an  adjustment  of  the  difficulty,  the  troops 
supporting  the  Republican  candidate  for  Gov¬ 
ernor  and  installing  him  in  office.  (See  Louisi¬ 
ana.)  In  this  and  other  instances,  as  well  as 
in  the  suppression  of  the  Ku-Klux  Klan,  the 
President  was  considered  by  many  to  have  acted 
with  undue  severity  towards  the  South.  A 
movement  was  made  by  the  government  at  the 
desire  of  President  Grant  in  the  direction  of  the 
acquisition  of  Santo  Domingo,  the  people  of  that 
country  desiring  annexation  to  the  United 
States,  but  the  project  was  defeated  in  the 
Senate.  In  March,  1871,  the  first  steps  were 
taken  towards  the  reform  of  the  civil  service 
by  a  bill  authorizing  the  President  to  appoint 
a  board  of  Civil  Service  Commissioners  to  pro¬ 
vide  for  the  appointment  of  applicants  for  minor 
offices  on  the  basis  of  an  examination. 

During  General  Grant’s  first  administration  a 
new  party  arose  as  the  result  of  a  reaction 
against  the  extreme  centralization  of  power  in 
the  Federal  government  due  to  the  exigencies 
of  war.  This  party  was  known  as  the  Liberal 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  E.  B.  Washburne,  Illinois, 
March  5,  1869;  Hamilton  Fish,  New  York,  March  11,  1869. 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  George  S.  Boutwell,  Massachusetts, 
March  11,  1869;  William  A.  Richardson,  Massachusetts, 
March  17,  1873;  Benjamin  H.  Bristow,  Kentucky,  June  2, 
1874;  Lot  M.  Morrill,  Maine,  June  21,  1876.  Secretary  of 
War,  John  A.  Rawlins,  Illinois,  March  11,  1869;  William  T. 
Sherman,  Ohio,  Sept.  9,  1869;  William  W.  Belknap,  Iowa, 
Oct.  25,  1869;  Alphonso  Taft,  Ohio,  March  8,  1876;  J.  D. 
Cameron,  Pennsylvania,  May  22,  1876.  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
Adolph  E.  Borie,  Pennsylvania,  March  5,  1869;  George  M. 
Robeson,  New  Jersey,  June  25,  1869.  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
Jacob  D.  Cox,  Ohio,  March  5,  1869;  Columbus  Delano,  Ohio, 
Nov.  1,  1870;  Zachariah  Chandler,  Michigan,  Oct.  19,  1875. 
Attorney -General,  E.  R.  Hoar,  Massachusetts,  March  5,  1869; 
Amos  T.  Akerman,  Georgia,  June  23,  1870;  George  H.  Wil¬ 
liams,  Oregon,  Dec.  14,1871;  Edwards  Pierrepont,  New  York, 
April  26,  1875;  Alphonso  Taft,  Ohio,  May  22,  1876.  Post¬ 
master-General,  J.  A.  J.  Creswell,  Maryland.  March  5,  1869; 
Marshall  Jewell,  Connecticut,  Aug.  24,  1874;  James  M. 
Tyner,  Indiana,  July  12,  1876. 


Republican  party  and  numbered  among  its  adher¬ 
ents  some  of  the  most  prominent  names  in  the  old 
Republican  party,  such  as  Horace  Greeley 
(q.v.),  Charles  Francis  Adams,  Charles  Sumner, 
and  Carl  Schurz.  This  party  nominated,  in 
1872,  Horace  Greeley,  of  New  York,  for  Presi¬ 
dent,  and  B.  Gratz  Brown,  of  Missouri,  for  Vice 
President,  on  a  platform  deprecating  any  fur¬ 
ther  interference  by  the  government  in  the  local 
affairs  of  the  South.  (See  Liberal  Republi¬ 
can  Party;  Republican  Party.)  This  ticket 
was  ratified  by  the  convention  of  the  Democratic 
party  held  in  the  same  year.  The  Republicans 
renominated  General  Grant,  with  Henry  Wilson 
( q.v. ) ,  of  Massachusetts,  for  Vice  President. 
The  Republican  ticket  received  286  electoral 
votes,  against  66  scattering,  Greeley  having  died 
before  the  Electoral  College  met.  Of  the  popu¬ 
lar  votes  Grant  received  3,597,132,  Greeley  2,- 
834,125.  In  this  election  appeared  for  the  first 
time  the  Prohibition  party  and  a  Labor  Reform 
party,  the  latter  being  an  expression  of  a  signifi¬ 
cant  movement  among  workingmen  which  began 
during  this  administration  and  led  in  1869  to 
the  first  attempt  in  the  United  States  to  organize 
on  a  permanent  basis  all  kinds  of  manual  labor. 
The  votes  of  Louisiana  and  Arkansas  and  three 
votes  from  Georgia  were  not  counted. 

A  serious  difficulty  with  Spain  arose  because 
of  the  seizure  on  Oct.  31,  1872,  by  the  Span¬ 
ish  steamer  Tornado  of  the  Virginivs,  a  filibus¬ 
tering  vessel  flying  the  American  flag,  and  the 
execution  of  part  of  her  crew.  See  Virginius 
Massacre. 

In  1873-74  the  party  known  as  Grangers  or 
Patrons  of  Husbandry  (see  Grange)  rose  into 
some  prominence;  an  Act  for  the  resumption  in 
1897  of  specie  payments  was  passed  in  January, 
1875;  and  an  extensive  Whisky  Ring  involving 
a  corrupt  association  among  distillers  and  Fed¬ 
eral  officers  to  defraud  the  government  of  the 
tax  on  liquors  was  exposed  in  the  same  year. 
(See  Whisky  Ring.)  A  new  coinage  Act,  since 
denounced  by  advocates  of  free  silver  as  the 
“crime  of  1873,”  was  passed  providing  for  the 
coinage  of  gold  and  of  fractional  silver  currency; 
an  Act  known  as  the  “salary  grab”  was  passed  in 
1873;  and  much  local  disorder  occurred  in  the 
Southern  States  between  the  so-called  “carpet¬ 
bag”  governments  and  the  white  citizens,  Grant 
interfering  in  what  many  considered  a  harsh  and 
arbitrary  manner.  During  Grant’s  second  ad¬ 
ministration  occurred  the  disastrous  financial 
panic  of  1873.  A  movement  for  the  inflation  of 
the  paper  currency  was  set  on  foot,  and  was 
checked  by  President  Grant  through  his  veto  of 
the  so-called  Inflation  Bill,  which  had  been 
passed  by  Congress.  This  administration  was 
disturbed  by  wars  with  the  Modocs  and  Sioux, 
the  latter  of  whom  overwhelmed  General  Custer’s 
command  in  1876.  (See  Custer,  George  A.) 
In  Philadelphia,  between  May  and  November, 
1876,  was  held  a  mammoth  exposition  to  com¬ 
memorate  the  centennial  of  American  independ¬ 
ence.  See  Centennial  Exhibition. 

With  Grant’s  administration  of  affairs  much 
dissatisfaction  was  felt  throughout  the  country, 
owing  to  corruption  on  the  part  of  high  govern¬ 
ment  officials.  Before  the  close  of  his  first  term 
there  were  many  signs  of  reaction  against  Re¬ 
publican  rule,  and  the  organization  of  the  Liberal 
Republican  party  showed  the  disaffection  of  a 
considerable  element  in  the  Republican  party 
itself.  By  the  close  of  his  second  term  a  well- 
defined  and  powerful  opposition  had  arisen,  based 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


762 


primarily  on  the  President’s  apparent  severity 
towards  the  South;  on  legislative  scandals,  such 
as  the  Credit  Mobilier  affair  and  the  “salary 
grab”  scandal  in  Congress;  the  Whisky  Ring 
scandal  and  the  impeachment  for  corruption 
in  distributing  patronage  of  Belknap,  Secretary 
of  War,  who  resigned  rather  than  submit  to  a 
trial;  and  on  alleged  general  administrative 
demoralization,  caused  in  part  at  least  by  the 
President’s  appointment,  upon  the  advice  of  po¬ 
litical  leaders,  of  a  number  of  unfit  officials. 
Further  discontent  was  caused  by  the  conse¬ 
quences  of  the  disastrous  panic  of  1873,  for 
which,  as  was  inevitable,  the  administration  was 
held  by  many  in  a  measure  accountable.  Many 
War  Democrats,  moreover,  who  had  lent  their 
support  to  the  Republican  party  when  the  prose¬ 
cution  of  the  war  was  the  all-absorbing  issue, 
now  began  to  return  to  their  old  party  affilia¬ 
tions  and  to  emphasize  issues  different  from 
those  immediately  involved  in  the  Republican 
war  policy. 

Colorado  was  admitted  as  a  State,  Aug.  1, 
1876.  In  1876  the  Republican  candidates  were 
Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  of  Ohio,  and  William  A. 
Wheeler,  of  New  York;  the  Democratic  can¬ 
didates  were  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  of  New  York,  and 
Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  of  Indiana.  On  the  face 
of  the*  returns,  Tilden  and  Hendricks  seemed  to 
have  184  electoral  votes  to  172  for  Haves  and 
Wheeler,  with  the  votes  of  Florida,  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  and  Louisiana,  and  one  vote  of  Oregon  in 
doubt.  Charges  were  made  of  fraudulent  voting 
in  several  States;  party  feeling  ran  so  high  as  to 
suggest  the  possibility  of  acts  of  violence  to  se¬ 
cure  control  of  the  government;  and  all  the  at¬ 
tendant  circumstances  made  the  struggle  one  of 
the  most  momentous  since  the  foundation  of  the 
government.  Hayes  and  Wheeler  were  finally  de¬ 
clared  elected  by  an  Electoral  Commission  chosen 
from  both  Houses  of  Congress  and  from  the  Su¬ 
preme  Court  of  the  United  States,  whose  decision 
was  accepted  by  all  concerned  as  final  and  ir¬ 
revocable.  (See  Electoral  Commission.)  As 
thus  finally  decided,  185  electoral  votes  were 
given  to  Hayes  and  Wheeler  and  184  votes  to 
Tilden  and  Hendricks. 

XXIII.  Rutherford  B.  Hayes’s  Adminis¬ 
tration.  (1877—81.)  The  early  portion  of 
this  administration  was  made  memorable  by 
the  troubles  in  South  Carolina  and  Louisiana, 
where  rival  State  governments,  each  claiming 
to  be  legally  elected,  contended  for  supremacy. 
In  the  former  State  the  difficulty  was  settled 
by  President  Hayes,  who  ordered  the  withdrawal 
of  the  United  States  troops  which  had  been 
stationed  at  Columbia  and  had  been  an  ob¬ 
jectionable  feature  of  the  contest;  whereupon 
the  Republican  Governor,  Chamberlain,  retired, 
and  Gen.  Wade  Hampton  took  peaceful  pos¬ 
session  of  the  office.  A  settlement  was  also 
effected  in  Louisiana,  a  commission  being  sent 
thither  by  the  President,  when  the  Democratic 
Governor,  Nicholls,  was  enabled  to  gain  pos¬ 
session  of  his  seat,  the  Federal  troops  being 
in  this  instance  also  withdrawn  from  New  Or- 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  William  M.  Evarts,  New 
York,  March  12,  1877.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  John  Sher¬ 
man,  Ohio,  March  8,  1877.  Secretary  of  War,  George  W. 
McCrary,  Iowa,  March  12,  1877;  Alexander  Ramsey,  Min¬ 
nesota,  Dec.  12,  1879.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Richard  W. 
Thompson,  Indiana,  March  12,  1877;  Nathan  Goff,  Jr.,  West 
"Virginia,  Jan.  6,  1881.  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Carl  Schurz, 
Missouri,  March  12,  1877.  Attorney-General,  Charles  Devens, 
Massachusetts,  March  12,  1877.  Postmaster-General,  David 
M.  Key,  Tennessee,  March  12,  1877;  Horace  Maynard,  Ten¬ 
nessee,  Aug.  25,  1880. 


leans.  This  marked  the  end  of  Federal  inter¬ 
ference  in  the  local  concerns  of  the  Southern 
States,  an  interference  that  had  become  yearly 
more  objectionable  to  moderate  men  at  the 
North,  who  no  longer  cherished  the  animosities 
resulting  from  the  Civil  War. 

This  year  was  further  noteworthy  by  the  oc¬ 
currence,  in  July,  of  railroad  strikes  and  riots 
throughout  the  country,  to  the  injury  of  business 
and  with  serious  loss  of  property.  (See  Strikes 
and  Lockouts.)  The  excitement  occasioned  by 
the  near  approach  of  the  period  fixed  by  Con¬ 
gress  for  the  resumption  of  specie  payments  led 
to  the  formation  of  a  party  opposed  to  the  pre¬ 
vailing  sentiment  with  regard  to  financial  ques¬ 
tions.  Such  a  party  was  organized  in  Toledo, 
Ohio,  Feb.  22,  1878,  under  the  name  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  party,  delegates  being  present  from  28 
States;  its  principles  included  bimetallism,  the 
suppression  of  national-bank  issues,  a  graduated 
income  tax,  and  opposition  to  Chinese  labor.  In 
the  State  elections  of  the  same  year  this  party, 
which  became  popularly  known  as  the  Greenback 
party  (q.v. ),  polled  upward  of  a  million  votes. 

In  February,  1878,  the  dissatisfaction  which 
had  been  felt  by  the  advocates  of  silver  coinage 
with  the  Act  of  1873  suspending  the  coinage 
of  silver  except  for  subsidiary  coins,  found 
expression  in  the  passage  by  Congress,  over  the 
President’s  veto,  of  the  so-called  Bland-Allison 
Bill,  which  provided  for  the  annual  purchase 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  at  least 
$2,000,000  worth*  of  silver  bullion  to  be  coined 
into  legal -tender  dollars,  each  containing  412% 
grains  of  standard  silver.  On  Jan.  1,  1879,  specie 
payments  were  resumed  throughout  the  United 
States,  after  a  suspension  of  17  years,  and  in 
accordance  with  the  Act  of  Congress  approved 
Jan.  14,  1875,  the  process  of  resumption  being 
effected  without  excitement. 

An  extraordinary  movement  northward  of  the 
colored  population  from  certain  of  the  South¬ 
ern  States  took  place  in  1879  and  was  the  source 
of  much  uneasiness  among  the  planters.  (See 
Negro  Exodus.)  This  year  also  saw  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  labor  agitation  in  San  Francisco, 
which  under  the  leadership  of  Denis  Kearney 
(q.v.)  had  been  continued  with  great  virulence 
since  1877. 

On  June  2,  1880,  the  Republican  National 
Convention  met  in  Chicago  to  nominate  candi¬ 
dates  for  President  and  Vice  President.  The 
names  most  prominent  before  this  convention 
were  those  of  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  James  G.  Blaine, 
and  John  Sherman.  The  final  choice,  however, 
was  James  A.  Garfield,  of  Ohio,  with  Chester 

A.  Arthur,  of  New  York,  for  Vice  President.  On 
June  11  the  Greenback  National  Convention  met 
in  Chicago  and  nominated  for  President  James 

B.  Weaver,  who  was  afterward  accepted  as  the 
candidate  of  the  Socialist  party.  On  June  22 
the  Democratic  National  Convention  assembled 
at  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  nominated  Winfield  S. 
Hancock,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  William  H.  Eng¬ 
lish,  of  Indiana.  The  result  of  the  election  was 
the  choice  of  Garfield  and  Arthur,  who  received 
214  electoral  votes,  against  155  votes  cast  for 
Hancock  and  English. 

XXIV.  James  A.  Garfield’s  (1881)  and 
Chester  A.  Arthur’s  Administration.!  ( 1881— 

*He  could  buy  as  much  as  four  million  dollars’  worth  if 

he  so  desired. 

t  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  James  G.  Blaine,  Maine, 
March  5.  1881;  Frederick  T.  Frelinghuvsen,  New  Jersey., 
Dec.  12,  1881.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  William  H.  Windom, 
Minnesota,  March  5,  1881;  Charles  J.  Foiger,  New  York, 


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85.)  The  politicians  in  the  Republican  party  who 
had  favored  the  election  of  General  Grant  for  a 
third  term  of  the  presidency,  popularly  known, 
particularly  in  New  York,  as  Stalwarts,  had  not 
been  pleased  with  the  nomination  of  Garfield, 
and  in  the  presidential  campaign  they  had  been 
induced  to  give  his  candidacy  their  support  only 
on  a  general  understanding  that  the  candidate 
if  successful  would  give  them  a  liberal  share 
of  patronage.  The  new  President  had  in  va¬ 
rious  ways  shown  his  desire  to  conciliate  both 
wings  of  the  'party;  he  had  held  many  confer¬ 
ences  with  the  leaders  of  each,  and  his  first  nomi¬ 
nations  were  apparently  dictated  by  a  desire  to 
conciliate  the  Stalwarts.  But  his  appointment 
of  William  H.  Robertson,  who  had  been  instru¬ 
mental  in  securing  the  President’s  nomination  at 
Chicago,  to  the  post  of  Collector  of  the  Port  of 
New  York  aroused  the  opposition  of  the  Senator 
from  that  State,  Roscoe  Conkling  (q.v. ),  a  lead¬ 
ing  Stalwart.  Finding  that  his  opposition  was 
ineffectual,  Conkling  and  his  colleague,  Thomas 
C.  Platt  (q.v.),  resigned  their  seats  in  the  Sen¬ 
ate,  May  16,  1881,  and  appealed  to  the  New 
York  Legislature  for  reelection  as  a  justification 
of  their  course.  The  appeal  was  unsuccessful, 
and  a  bitter  contest,  lasting  until  the  latter  part 
of  July,  ended  with  the  election  of  Miller  and 
Lapham  to  the  Senate.  Meanwhile  the  Presi¬ 
dent’s  appointments  had  been  confirmed.  The 
new  Postmaster-General  had  discovered  colossal 
frauds  in  the  Star  Route  Service  of  the  Postal 
Department,  and  an  effort  was  made  to  bring 
the  criminals  to  justice.  ( See  Star  Route 
Frauds.)  The  diplomacy  of  Secretary  Blaine 
in  regard  to  the  war  between  Chile  and  Peru 
and  the  Panama  Canal  (q.v.)  excited  consider¬ 
able  newspaper  criticism. 

On  July  2  President  Garfield  was  shot  by 
an  assassin,  a  disappointed  office  seeker,  Charles 
J.  Guiteau,  and  after  lingering  for  79  days  be¬ 
tween  life  and  death  died,  on  September  19,  at 
Elberon,  N.  J.  (See  Garfield,  James  A.)  On 
the  same  day  in  New  York  Vice  President  Arthur 
took  the  oath  of  office  as  President. 

Among  the  national  events  of  1882  were  the 
passage  by  Congress  of  the  Anti-Polygamy  Bill, 
March  22;  the  Apportionment  Bill,  increasing 
the  number  of  congressional  Representatives  to 
325;  and  the  Anti-Chinese  Bill,  suspending  Chi¬ 
nese  immigration  for  20  years.  The  last  was 
vetoed  by  the  President,  who,  however,  signed 
a  subsequent  bill  limiting  the  term  of  suspen¬ 
sion  to  10  years.  Among  the  several  State  elec¬ 
tions  of  this  year,  one  at  least  had  a  national 
significance.  In  New  York  the  lukewarmness 
of  that  wing  of  the  Republican  party  which  had 
sympathized  with  General  Garfield  in  his  con¬ 
test  with  the  leaders  of  the  faction  to  which 
Arthur  was  allied,  and  the  indignation  of  the 
Independents  at  the  political  methods  pursued 
by  President  Arthur  to  secure  the  nomination 
and  election  of  his  friend,  Charles  J.  Folger,  as 
Governor  of  the  State,  resulted  in  the  election 
of  the  Democratic  candidate,  Grover  Cleveland 
(q.v.),  by  the  immense  majority  of  192,000  votes. 

Oct.  27,  1881.  Secretary  of  War ,  Robert  T.  Lincoln,  Illinois, 
March  5,  1881.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  W.  H.  Hunt,  Louisiana, 
March  5,  1881;  William  E.  Chandler,  New  Hampshire,  April 
12,  1882.  Secretary  of  the  Interior ,  S.  J.  Kirkwood,  Iowa, 
March  5,  1881;  Henry  M.  Teller,  Colorado,  April  6,  1882. 
Attorney-General,  Wayne  MacVeagh,  Pennsylvania,  March  5, 
1881;  Benjamin  H.  Brewster,  Pennsylvania,  Dec.  16,  1881. 
Postmaster-General,  Thomas  L.  James,  New  York,  March  5, 
1881;  Timothy  O.  Howe,  Wisconsin,  Dec.  20,  1881;  W.  Q. 
Gresham,  Indiana,  April  3,  1883;  Frank  Hatton,  Iowa,  Oct. 
14,  1884. 

Vol.  XXII.— 49 


The  victory  of  the  Democrats  in  Pennsylvania 
was  also  looked  upon  as  to  some  extent  a  rebuke 
of  the  administration  and  especially  of  machine 
methods  in  politics.  The  question  of  civil  serv¬ 
ice  reform  was  now  pressed  witli  renewed  eager¬ 
ness  by  its  advocates;  and  the  so-called  Pendle¬ 
ton  Bill,  which  had  already  passed  the  Senate, 
passed  the  House  in  January,  1883,  and  was 
signed  by  the  President.  See  Civil-Service 
Reform. 

The  Republican  National  Convention  of  1884 
met  in  Chicago  during  the  first  week  of  June, 
and  the  fourth  ballot  resulted  in  the  nomination 
of  James  G.  Blaine  (q.v.)  for  the  presidency, 
and  of  John  A.  Logan,  of  Illinois,  for  the  vice 
presidency.  The  nomination  of  Blaine  was  se¬ 
cured  in  spite  of  bitter  organized  opposition  of 
the  Independent  faction  in  the  Republican  party, 
popularly  known  as  Mugwumps  (q.v.).  The 
papers  which  represented  the  views  of  the  In¬ 
dependents  withheld  their  support  from  Blaine 
and  indicated  that  they  would  cast  their  in¬ 
fluence  on  the  side  of  the  Democratic  candidate 
in  case  some  statesman  of  tried  incorruptibility 
were  chosen  by  the  Democratic  convention.  It 
was  generally  understood  that  either  Grover 
Cleveland  or  Thomas  F.  Bayard  would  be  ac¬ 
ceptable  to  them.  When  the  convention  met  in 
July  these  two  were  the  leading  candidates  on 
the  first  ballot.  On  the  second  ballot  Cleveland 
secured  the  necessary  two-thirds  majority  and 
was  declared  the  nominee.  Thomas  A.  Hen¬ 
dricks,  of  Indiana,  was  nominated  for  Vice  Presi¬ 
dent.  Tickets  were  put  in  the  field  by  the  Pro¬ 
hibitionists  (see  Prohibition),  who  nominated 
John  P.  St.  John,  of  Kansas,  for  President,  and 
William  Daniel,  of  Maryland,  for  Vice  Presi¬ 
dent;  and  by  the  Anti -Monopoly  and  Greenback 
Labor  parties,  both  of  which  nominated  Gen. 
Benjamin  F.  Butler  (q.v.),  of  Massachusetts, 
for  President.  The  campaign  which  followed  de¬ 
veloped  unusual  excitement,  party  rancor,  and 
personal  recrimination.  The  election  was  un¬ 
expectedly  close,  and  the  result  for  a  few  days 
hung  in  doubt  over  conflicting  returns  in  the 
pivotal  State  of  New  York;  but  the  official  count 
gave  a  plurality  of  1047  to  Cleveland,  who  re¬ 
ceived  219  electoral  votes,  while  Blaine  received 
182,  and  a  popular  vote  of  4,874,986,  while 
Blaine  received  4,851,981.  St.  John  had  a  popu¬ 
lar  vote  of  150,369,  and  Butler  a  popular  vote 
of  175,370. 

XXV.  Grover  Cleveland’s  Administration.* 

(1885-89.)  Cleveland  was  the  first  Democratic 
President  to  be  chosen  after  the  election  of  1856. 
He  was  pledged  to  support  civil-service  reform. 
For  the  most  part  the  recently  established  classi¬ 
fied  service  was  not  interfered  with,  but  partisan 
removals  were  pretty  freely  made  in  the  unclassi¬ 
fied  service. 

In  1886  a  bill  passed  Congress  to  regulate  the 
succession  to  the  presidential  office — a  question 
that  assumed  some  special  importance  on  the 
death  of  Vice  President  Hendricks.  Among  the 
important  congressional  acts  of  this  administra¬ 
tion  were  the  new  Anti-Polygamy  or  the  Ed- 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  Thomas  F.  Bayard,  Dela¬ 
ware,  March  6,  1885.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Daniel  Man¬ 
ning,  New  York,  March  6,  1885;  Charles  S.  Fairchild,  New 
York,  April  1,  1887.  Secretary  of  War,  William  C.  Endicott, 
Massachusetts,  March  6,  1885.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  William 
C.  Whitney,  New  York,  March  6,  1885.  Secretary  of  the  In¬ 
terior,  Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar,  Mississippi,  March  6,  1885;  Wil¬ 
liam  F.  Vilas,  Wisconsin,  Jan.  16,  1888.  Attorney-General, 
Augustus  H.  Garland,  Arkansas,  March  6,  1885.  Postmaster- 
General,  William  F.  Vilas,  Wisconsin,  March  6,  1885;  Don  M, 
Dickinson,  Michigan,  Jan.  16,  1888. 


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munds-Tucker  Act  (1887)  dissolving  the  Mormon 
church  as  a  corporate  body  and  confiscating  all 
the  property  of  that  church  in  excess  of  $50,000; 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  (q.v. )  of  1887;  and 
an  Act  in  1885  barring  laborers  brought  into  the 
United  States  under  contract.  With  respect  to 
legislation  President  Cleveland’s  administration 
was  characterized  by  an  unprecedented  number 
of  presidential  vetoes,  the  number  aggregating 
more  than  300,  mostly  of  pension  bills. 

In  December,  1887,  President  Cleveland  sent  to 
Congress  a  message  devoted  to  the  single  ques¬ 
tion  of  the  tariff.  After  stating  that  the  esti¬ 
mated  surplus  in  the  Treasury  in  June,  1888, 
would  be  fully  $140,000,000,  he  declared  the  ex¬ 
isting  tariff  laws  to  be  the  source  of  unnecessary 
taxation  and  asked  for  a  reduction  of  the  duties 
on  raw  materials,  especially  on  wool.  In  ac¬ 
cordance  with  this  recommendation  the  so-called 
Mills  Bill  was  introduced  and  passed  the  House. 
It  removed  duties  aggregating  $50,000,000  per 
annum,  but  failed  to  pass  the  Senate,  which  was 
Republican.  At  this  session  of  Congress  the 
largest  appropriation  for  rivers  and  harbors  ever 
known  was  made  ($22,227,000).  It  became  law 
without  the  President’s  signature. 

At  the  Democratic  Convention  of  1888  Cleve¬ 
land  was  nominated  for  President,  with  Allen 

G.  Thurman,  of  Ohio,  as  the  candidate  for  Vice 
President.  The  Republicans  nominated  Benja¬ 
min  Harrison,  of  Indiana,  and  Levi  P.  Morton, 
of  New  York.  The  Prohibition  party  candidates 
were  Clinton  B.  Fisk,  of  New  Jersey,  and  John  A. 
Brooks,  of  Missouri.  The  campaign  was  fought 
out  largely  on  the  tariff  questions  raised  by 
Cleveland’s  message  of  1887.  The  election  re¬ 
sulted  in  the  choice  of  the  Republican  candidates, 
who  received  233  electoral  votes,  as  against  168 
cast  for  the  Democratic  nominees,  the  popular 
vote  for  Cleveland,  however  (5,540,329),  exceed¬ 
ing  that  of  Harrison  (5,439,853).  The  Prohibi¬ 
tion  ticket  received  249,406  votes,  and  the  Union 
Labor  candidate,  Alson  J.  Streeter,  146,935  votes. 

XXVI.  Benjamin  Harrison’s  Administra¬ 
tion.*  (1889-93.)  The  administration  of  Harri¬ 
son  witnessed  a  remarkable  growth  of  public  in¬ 
terest  in  the  foreign  relations  of  the  United 
States,  both  commercially  and  otherwise.  One 
cause  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  meeting  of  the 
so-called  Pan-American  Congress  at  Washington, 
Oct.  21,  1889,  under  the  presidency  of  Secretary 
Blaine,  which  did  much  to  foster  a  popular  senti¬ 
ment  in  favor  of  commercial  reciprocity  between 
the  United  States  and  the  other  American  repub¬ 
lics.  This  policy,  warmly  advocated  by  Blaine, 
found  expression  in  the  so-called  “reciprocity  sec¬ 
tion”  of  the  important  bill  for  the  revision  of  the 
tariff  prepared  by  William  McKinley  (q.v.),  of 
Ohio,  which  passed  both  Houses  of  Congress  and 
became  a  law  Oct.  1,  1890.  For  other  provisions 
of  the  bill,  see  Tariff. 

Several  diplomatic  difficulties  of  more  or  less 
seriousness  had  arisen  between  the  United  States 
and  foreign  Powers  within  a  few  years.  Among 
these  had  been  complications  growing  out  of  a 
state  of  anarchy  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the 

♦Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  James  G.  Blaine,  Maine, 
March  7,  1889;  John  W.  Foster,  Indiana,  June  29,  1892;  W. 
F.  Wharton,  Massachusetts,  Feb.  23,  1893.  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  William  Windom,  Minnesota,  March  7,  1889; 
Charles  Foster,  Ohio,  Feb.  21,  1891.  Secretary  of  War,  Red- 
field  Proctor,  Vermont,  March  7,  1889.  Attorney -General,  W. 

H.  H.  Miller,  Indiana,  March  7,  1889.  Postmaster-General, 
John  Wanamaker,  Pennsylvania,  March  7,  1889.  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  Benjamin  F.  Tracy,  New  York.  March  7,  1889. 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  John  W.  Noble,  Missouri,  March  7, 
1889.  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Jeremiah  M.  Rusk,  Wisconsin, 
March  7,  1889. 


United  States  government,  in  accordance  with  its 
treaty  obligations,  being  required  to  send  an 
armed  force  to  protect  the  isthmus.  A  dispute 
with  Germany  over  the  Samoan  Islands  (q.v.) 
in  1889  had  also  taken  a  serious  aspect,  though 
finally  arranged  in  an  amicable  manner  by  a 
treaty  signed  at  Berlin  (Feb.  4,  1890).  A  se¬ 
rious  disagreement  with  England  also  arose  in 
1890-91  regarding  the  rights  of  the  United  States 
acquired  in  Bering  Sea  by  treaty  with  Russia, 
and  was  referred  to  arbitration  in  1891.  The 
question  was  finally  settled  in  1893.  (See  Be¬ 
ring  Sea  Controversy.  )  The  lynching  of  several 
Italians  by  a  mob  in  New  Orleans  in  1891  led  to 
something  like  a  diplomatic  rupture  with  Italy, 
which  recalled  its  Minister  from  Washington. 
In  October,  1891,  difficulties  arose  with  Chile  in 
consequence  of  a  murderous  assault  upon  Ameri¬ 
can  seamen  in  Valparaiso. 

In  November,  1889,  four  States  (North  Dakota, 
South  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Washington)  were 
admitted  into  the  Union.  On  May  2,  1890,  the 
new  Territory  of  Oklahoma  ( q.v. )  was  organized, 
and  Idaho  (July  3)  and  Wyoming  (July  11) 
were  admitted  as  States.  Other  events  of  im¬ 
portance  during  Harrison’s  administration  were 
the  passage  in  1890  of  the  Dependent  Pension 
Bill,  which  nearly  doubled  the  number  of  pen¬ 
sioners;  the  repeal  of  the  Bland-Allison  Silver 
Coinage  Act;  the  passage  of  the  Sherman  Silver 
Purchase  and  Coinage  Act,  requiring  the  Secre¬ 
tary  of  the  Treasury  to  purchase  4,500,000 
ounces  of  silver  each  month  and  to  coin  2,000,000 
ounces  into  silver  dollars  each  month  until  July 
1,  1891;  and  the  labor  disturbances  at  Home¬ 
stead,  Pa. 

The  close  of  Harrison’s  administration  wit¬ 
nessed  a  serious  financial  panic.  An  event  of  in¬ 
ternational  importance  was  the  overthrow  of  the 
monarchy  in  Hawaii  by  the  foreign  residents, 
and  the  application  made  by  the  new  government 
for  annexation  of  the  islands  to  the  United 
States.  The  President  sent  a  treaty  of  annexa¬ 
tion  to  the  Senate  (February,  1893),  but  it  was 
not  acted  upon.  'See  Hawaiian  Islands. 

The  conventions  of  the  two  great  political 
parties  had  been  held  in  June,  1892.  The  Demo¬ 
crats  nominated  Grover  Cleveland,  of  New  York, 
for  the  presidency,  and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson,  of 
Illinois,  for  the  vice  presidency.  The  Republi¬ 
can  Convention  renominated  President  Harrison 
for  the  presidency  and  selected  Whitelaw  Reid,  of 
New  York,  for  the  vice  presidency.  The  People’s 
party,  or  Populists,  nominated  Generals  J.  B. 
Weaver,  of  Iowa,  and  James  G.  Field,  of  Vir¬ 
ginia.  The  ensuing  campaign  was  largely  con¬ 
ducted  on  the  question  of  the  tariff  and  resulted 
in  the  election  of  Cleveland  and  Stevenson,  who 
received  277  electoral  votes  as  against  145  for 
Harrison  and  Reid  and  22  for  Weaver  and  Field. 

XXVII.  Grover  Cleveland’s  Second  Ad¬ 
ministration.*  (1893-97.)  In  his  second  ad¬ 
ministration  the  President  applied  himself  par¬ 
ticularly  to  the  promotion  of  tariff  and  financial 
reforms,  and  this  period  was  marked  by  the  in¬ 
tense  and  persistent  opposition  of  his  own  party 

♦Cabinet. — Secretaiy  of  State,  Walter  Q.  Gresham,  Indi¬ 
ana,  March  6,  1893;  Richard  Olney,  Massachusetts,  June  10, 
1895.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  John  G.  Carlisle,  Kentucky, 
March  6,  1893.  Secretary  of  War,  Daniel  S.  Lamont,  New 
York,  March  6,  1893.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Hilary  A.  Her¬ 
bert,  Alabama,  March  6,  1893.  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Hoke 
Smith,  Georgia,  March  6,  1893.  Attorney-General,  Richard 
Olney,  Massachusetts,  March  6,  1893;  Judson  Harmon,  Ohio, 
June  8,  1895.  Postmaster-General,  Wilson  S.  Bissell,  New 
York,  March  6,  1893;  W'illiam  L.  Wilson,  West  Virginia, 
March,  1895.  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  J.  Sterling  Morton, 
Nebraska,  March  6,  1893. 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


76s 


in  both  Houses  of  Congress.  His  earliest  act  of 
importance  was  the  withdrawal  from  the  Senate 
of  the  treaty  for  the  annexation  of  Hawaii  to  the 
United  States,  which  had  been  negotiated  in  the 
closing  days  of  the  previous  administration.  He 
also  sent  James  H.  Blount,  ex-Congressman  from 
Georgia,  to  Hawaii  as  a  special  commissioner  to 
investigate  the  circumstances  of  the  overthrow 
of  the  royal  government,  and  on  his  report  took 
the  ground  that  the  United  States  government 
had  through  its  representatives  committed  a 
grievous  wrong  against  the  Kingdom.  See  Ha¬ 
waiian  Islands. 

The  legislation  on  the  tariff  was  the  most  im¬ 
portant  domestic  incident  of  this  term.  A  new 
bill,  bearing  the  name  of  Chairman  Wilson,  of 
the  House  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  and 
providing  for  free  raw  sugar,  free  wool,  free  coal, 
free  lumber,  and  free  iron  ore,  and  reducing  the 
duties  on  many  articles  in  the  existing  schedules, 
was  introduced  Dec.  19,  1893.  In  the  following 
month  a  measure  providing  for  an  income  tax 
■was  presented  in  the  House,  and  that  and  others 
concerning  the  internal  revenue  were  incorpor¬ 
ated  in  the  bill  during  the  subsequent  debate. 
When  the  bill  reached  the  Senate  it  underwent 
radical  alterations,  many  amendments  being 
made,  notably  those  imposing  a  duty  on  sugar, 
coal,  and  iron  ore,  and  the  House  at  first  re¬ 
fused  to  concur  in  the  Senate  amendments.  Fi¬ 
nally,  however,  it  withdrew  from  its  position 
of  nonconcurrence,  and  the  bill  was  passed.  ( See 
Tariff.)  The  President  allowed  the  bill  to  be¬ 
come  a  law  without  his  signature.  On  an  ap¬ 
peal  to  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  that 
body,  April  2,  1893,  declared  two  provisions  of 
the  income-tax  law  unconstitutional  and  upheld 
the  remainder  by  a  tie  vote,  and  on  May  20,  on 
a  rehearing,  declared  the  whole  measure  uncon¬ 
stitutional. 

Early  in  the  term  occurred  the  great  com¬ 
mercial  panic  of  1893,  which  was  followed  by  a 
long  period  of  depression.  President  Cleveland 
was  determined  to  maintain  the  gold  stand¬ 
ard  and  in  the  summer  of  that  year  called  an 
extra  session  of  Congress  in  order  to  secure  the 
repeal  of  the  Sherman  Act  of  1890.  This  he  ac¬ 
complished  in  the  face  of  great  opposition.  In 
January,  1894,  because  of  the  heavy  withdrawal 
of  gold  coin  from  the  Treasury  and  the  large  re¬ 
duction  in  the  gold  reserve  of  $100,000,000,  Sec¬ 
retary  Carlisle,  of  the  Treasury  Department,  in¬ 
vited  proposals  for  the  purchase  of  $50,000,000 
of  5  per  cent  bonds,  and  this  sale  resulted  in 
the  acquisition  of  $58,660,917  in  gold,  which 
was  added  to  the  reserve.  The  drain  on  the 
reserve,  however,  continued,  and  in  November 
following  the  Secretary  issued  a  second  call  for 
the  purchase  of  $50,000,000  bonds,  when  the 
subscriptions  aggregated  $178,341,150  and  the 
sale  yielded  $58,538,500  in  gold,  which  brought 
the  reserve  to  $111,142,021.  In  about  two 
months  after  this  sale  the  reserve  declined  to 
$41,340,181.  The  President,  in  a  special  mes¬ 
sage  to  Congress,  Jan.  28,  1895,  recommended 
that  authority  be  given  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  to  issue  bonds  bearing  a  low  rate  of  in¬ 
terest,  to  maintain  the  reserve  and  redeem  out¬ 
standing  notes  issued  for  the  purchase  of  silver; 
but  Congress  did  not  approve  the  recommenda¬ 
tion.  Secretary  Carlisle  then  signed  a  contract 
with  New  York  bankers  to  supply  the  govern¬ 
ment  with  3,500,000  ounces  of  standard  gold 
coin,  at  the  rate  of  $17.80441  per  ounce,  for  30- 
year  4  per  cent  bonds,  on  condition  that  one- 
half  of  the  coin  should  be  obtained  in  Europe, 
Vol.  XXII. 


and  that  if  Congress  should  authorize  their  is¬ 
sue,  bonds  payable  in  gold  and  bearing  3  per 
cent  interest  might  within  ten  days  be  substi¬ 
tuted  at  par  for  the  4  per  cent  bonds.  The 
President  again  urged  Congress  to  authorize 
the  issue  of  low-rate  bonds,  declaring  in  his 
message  that  more  than  $16,000,000  in  interest 
would  be  saved  thereby,  and  Congress  again 
withheld  its  sanction.  Under  the  contract  the 
Secretary  sold  $62,315,000  in  bonds  for  a  little 
over  $65,000,000  in  gold.  The  subscriptions  to 
this  loan  aggregated  $590,000,000  in  London  and 
$200,000,000  in  New  York.  Under  the  continu¬ 
ance  of  the  business  depression  Secretary  Car¬ 
lisle  was  forced  early  in  1896  to  sell  $100,000,000 
of  30-year  4  per  cent  bonds. 

The  silver  question  came  up  again  in  Congress, 
Feb.  7,  1894,  when  the  House  Committee  on 
Coinage,  Weights,  and  Measures  reported  a  bill 
directing  the  coinage  of  the  silver  held  in  the 
Treasury.  A  substitute  by  Congressman  Bland 
providing  for  the  coinage  of  the  seigniorage  was 
adopted  and  passed  in  the  House  and  the  Senate. 
This  bill  was  vetoed  by  the  President,  and  it 
failed  of  passage  over  the  veto.  In  December, 

1895,  the  House  passed  a  bond  bill  prepared  by 
the  Republican  members  of  its  Committee  on 
Ways  and  Means,  and  when  it  reached  the  Sen¬ 
ate  the  Finance  Committee  reported  a  free- 
silver -coinage  substitute,  which  the  Senate 
passed,  Feb.  1,  1896,  by  a  vote  of  42  yeas  to 
35  nays.  The  House  refused  to  concur  in  the 
substitute  and  rejected  it  by  a  vote  of  215  yeas 
to  90  nays.  A  few  days  afterward  the  Senate 
defeated  the  Emergency  Revenue  Bill,  prepared 
by  Republican  members  of  the  House  Committee 
on  Ways  and  Means. 

A  long-standing  dispute  between  Venezuela 
and  Great  Britain,  over  the  boundary  line  be¬ 
tween  Venezuela  and  British  Guiana,  was  the 
cause  of  a  presidential  message  to  Congress  in 
December,  1895,  recommending  the  appointment 
of  a  commission  to  determine  this  boundary  line. 
This  message,  on  account  of  its  sharp  and  de¬ 
termined  tone  towards  Great  Britain,  created 
a  great  sensation.  Both  Houses  unanimously 
concurred  in  the  recommendation,  and  a  com¬ 
mission  was  appointed  Jan.  1,  1896.  (See 

Venezuela.)  Among  other  events  of  President 
Cleveland’s  second  administration  were  the 
World’s  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago,  the 
settlement  of  the  Bering  Sea  controversy  (q.v.) 
in  1893,  the  signing  of  treaties  with  China  and 
Japan  in  1894,  the  extension  by  the  President  of 
civil-service  reform  (q.v.),  the  calling  out  of 
Federal  troops  to  protect  government  property 
and  the  mails  against  strikers  at  Chicago  in 
1894,  the  admission  of  Utah  into  the  Union  in 

1896,  and  the  arbitration  by  the  President  of 
disputes  between  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  Re¬ 
public,  Colombia  and  Italy,  and  Brazil  and  Italy. 

The  presidential  campaign  of  1896  turned  prin¬ 
cipally  on  the  Democratic  demand  for  the  free 
coinage  of  silver  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1.  There 
were  seven  tickets  in  the  field,  viz.,  the  Republi¬ 
can  (sound  money),  William  McKinley,  of  Ohio, 
and  Garret  A.  Hobart,  of  New  Jersey;  the  Demo¬ 
cratic  (free  silver),  William  J.  Bryan,  of  Ne¬ 
braska,  and  Arthur  Sewall,  of  Maine;  the  Na¬ 
tional  Democratic  (sound  money),  John  M. 
Palmer,  of  Illinois,  and  Simon  B.  Buckner,  of 
Kentucky;  the  Prohibition,  Joshua  Levering  and 
Hale  Johnson;  the  Socialist  Labor,  Charles  H. 
Matchett  and  Matthew  Maguire;  the  Populist, 
William  J.  Bryan  and  Thomas  E.  Watson;  and 
the  Free  Silver  Prohibition,  Charles  E.  Bentley 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


766 


and  James  H.  Southgate.  The  total  popular  vote 
was  13,930,942,  and  the  electoral,  447,  of  which 
the  Republican  candidates  received  7,104,779  and 
271  respectively,  and  the  Democratic,  6,502,925 
and  176.  The  Populist  ticket  received  144,928 
votes;  National  Democratic,  134,731;  Prohibi¬ 
tion,  123,428;  Socialist  Labor,  35,306;  and  Free 
Silver  Prohibition,  13,535. 

XXVIII  and  XXIX.  William  McKinley’s 
(1897-1901)  and  Theodore  Roosevelt’s  Ad¬ 
ministration.*  (1901-09.)  President  McKin¬ 
ley’s  administration  was  concerned  chiefly  with 
the  war  against  Spain  and  with  problems  grow¬ 
ing  out  of  the  war  and  the  acquisition  of  the 
Philippines  and  Porto  Rico.  These  subjects  are 
treated  under  Spanish- American  War;  Cuba; 
Philippine  Islands;  Porto  Rico.  The  Spanish- 
American  War,  with  its  consequent  acquisition 
of  colonies  and  dependencies,  marks  a  momen¬ 
tous  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  United  States. 
It  brought  the  country  into  a  more  active  con¬ 
tact  with  world  politics;  it  caused  a  far  greater 
activity  in  military  preparation  and  national 
defense;  it  directed  attention  to  the  interests  of 
colonizing  nations  and  to  international  trade, 
opening  up  new  commercial  possibilities ;  it  made 
the  political  and  economic  conditions  of  the 
Orient  the  concern  of  the  United  States;  and 
it  made  imperative  the  construction  of  the 
Panama  Canal.  In  the  war  there  was  a  mani¬ 
festation  of  the  national  unity  which  had  already 
been  achieved. 

Congress  and  the  Supreme  Court  successively 
held  that  constitutional  did  not  necessarily  fol¬ 
low  colonial  sovereignty,  that  acquired  nationals 
did  not  become  citizens  of  the  United  States 
with  attendant  rights.  In  the  Insular  cases 
(De  Lima  v.  Bidwell,  Downes  v.  Bidwell)  the 
Supreme  Court  in  1900  decided  that  Porto  Rico 
was  not  a  “foreign  country,”  but  left  the  infer¬ 
ence  that  Congress  could  regulate  the  tariff  re¬ 
lations  of  dependencies,  which  the  Foraker  Act 
(April,  1900)  forthwith  regulated. 

Under  joint  resolution  of  Congress  Hawaii 
was  annexed  to  the  United  States  in  1898,  and 
on  June  14,  1900,  the  islands  were  organized  into 
a  Territory  of  the  United  States.  See  Hawaiian 
Islands. 

Owing  to  disturbances  in  Samoa  in  1899,  the 
existing  joint  protectorate  was  abandoned,  and 
Tutuila  (q.v.)  and  other  minor  islands  passed 
(1900)  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  United 
States,  Germany  assuming  like  rights  over  Saraii 
and  Upolu. 

The  organization  of  trusts  continued  with  in¬ 
creasing  rapidity.  During  the  first  four  months 
of  1899  the  capitalization  of  these  trusts  was 

*•  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  John  Sherman,  Ohio, 
1897;  W.  R.  Day,  Ohio,  1898;  John  Hay,  Ohio,  1898;  Elihu 
Root,  New  York,  1905;  Robert  Bacon,  New  York,  1909. 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Lyman  J.  Gage,  Illinois,  1897;  Les¬ 
lie  M.  Shaw,  Iowa,  1901;  George  B.  Cortelyou,  New  York, 
1907.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  John  D.  Long,  Massachusetts, 
1897;  William  H.  Moody,  Massachusetts,  1902;  Paul  Mor¬ 
ton,  Illinois,  1904;  C.  J.  Bonaparte,  Maryland,  190&;  V.  H. 
Metcalf,  California,  1907;  T.  H.  Newberry,  Michigan,  1908; 
Secretary  of  War,  Russell  A.  Alger,  Michigan,  1897 ;  Elihu 
Root,  New  York,  1899;  W.  H.  Taft,  Ohio,  1904;  Luke  E. 
Wright,  Tennessee,  1908.  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Cornelius 
N.  Bliss,  New  York,  1897;  E.  A.  Hitchcock,  Missouri,  1899; 
James  R.  Garfield,  Ohio,  1907.  Postmaster-General,  James  A. 
Gary,  Maryland,  1897;  Charles  Emory  Smith,  Pennsylvania, 
1898;  Henry  C.  Payne,  Wisconsin,  1901;  Robert  J.  Wynne, 
Pennsylvania,  1904;  George  B.  Cortelyou,  New  York,  1905; 
George  von  L.  Meyer,  Massachusetts,  1907.  Attorney-Gen¬ 
eral,  Joseph  McKenna,  California,  1897;  J.  W.  Griggs,  New 
Jersey,  1897;  Philander  C.  Knox,  Pennsylvania,  1901;  Wil¬ 
liam  H.  Moody,  Massachusetts,  1904;  Charles  J.  Bonaparte, 
Maryland,  1907.  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  James  Wilson, 
Iowa,  1897.  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  George  B. 
Cortelyou,  New  York,  1903;  Victor  H.  Metcalf,  California, 
1904;  Oscar  S.  Straus,  New  York,  1907. 


$2,000,000,000  as  against  $1,000,000,000  in  the 
preceding  12  months,  and,  in  the  years  1899- 
1901,  183  new  trusts  were  organized  with  a 
total  capitalization  of  $4,000,000,000.  There  de¬ 
veloped  a  strong  antitrust  movement,  which  re¬ 
sulted  in  a  large  number  of  State  laws  regulat¬ 
ing  the  formation  and  operation  of  large  in¬ 
dustrial  combinations.  In  the  case  of  United 
States  v.  Trans-Missouri  Freight  Association 
(1897)  the  Supreme  Court  forced  the  dissolu¬ 
tion  of  a  railroad  association  and  gave  an  impe¬ 
tus  to  the  antitrust  movement.  (See  Trusts.) 
For  the  Boxer  disturbances,  see  China. 

In  1900  occurred  the  Galveston  flood,  which 
resulted  in  great  loss  of  life  and  in  the  new 
idea  of  municipal  government — the  commission 
form.  At  the  Republican  National  Convention 
held  on  June  19  at  Philadelphia  President 
McKinley  and  Theodore  Roosevelt  were  nomi¬ 
nated  by  acclamation  and  the  principles  of  1896 
reaffirmed.  The  nominee  stood  for  prosperity, 
and  the  party  for  an  alliance  between  business 
and  politics.  On  July  4  the  Democratic  Conven¬ 
tion  at  Kansas  City  nominated  William  J.  Bryan 
and  Adlai  E.  Stevenson  and  declared  again  for 
free  silver  and  against  imperialism  and  mili¬ 
tarism.  (See  Democratic  Party.)  The  Demo¬ 
cratic  nominees  received  the  indorsement  of  the 
Anti-Imperialist  League,  the  Populist  Fusion- 
ists,  and  the  Silver  Republicans.  The  election 
resulted  in  a  complete  victory  for  the  Republicans, 
McKinley  receiving  292  electoral  votes  and  Bryan 
155.  The  popular  vote  of  the  Republicans  was 
7,219,530  and  that  of  the  Democrats  6,358,071. 

While  receiving  the  people  in  the  Temple  of 
Music  at  the  Pan-American  Exposition  at  Buf¬ 
falo,  President  McKinley  was  shot  down  by  an 
anarchist,  named  Czolgosz  (q.v.),  on  Sept.  6, 
1901.  After  eight  days  of  suffering  the  Presi¬ 
dent  died  at  Buffalo.  Vice  President  Roosevelt 
took  the  oath  of  office.  He  retained  the  cabinet 
and  announced  his  intention  to  continue  the 
policy  of  the  previous  administration. 

In  1900  a  currency  law  was  adopted,  estab¬ 
lishing  the  gold  dollar  as  the  standard  of  value 
in  the  United  States.  In  1901  the  army  (see 
Army)  was  reorganized  and  the  canteen  (q.v.) 
abolished.  The  Fifty-seventh  Congress  passed  a 
new  Chinese  Exclusion  Bill,  and  an  Act  for 
reclaiming  and  irrigating  arid  lands  of  the  West. 
In  1902  the  Census  Office  was  made  a  permanent 
bureau.  In  1903  a  reciprocity  treaty  was  con¬ 
cluded  with  Cuba.  (See  Cuba;  Platt,  O.  H.) 
In  1903  a  new  Department  of  Commerce  and 
Labor  was  created,  the  Secretary  being  made  a 
member  of  the  cabinet.  A  Bureau  of  Manufac¬ 
tures  and  Corporations  was  established,  with 
functions  of  investigation.  Laws  for  the  reor¬ 
ganization  of  the  militia  and  increase  of  the 
navy  were  passed.  A  general  staff  for  the  army 
was  created.  In  1903  Wisconsin  adopted  the  first 
State-wide  primary-election  law  for  the  nomi¬ 
nation  of  elective  officials.  By  1913  two-thirds 
of  the  States  had  adopted  the  principle  in  some 
form.  In  1902  Oregon  adopted  the  initiative 
and  referendum,  Montana  in  1906,  and  Oklahoma 
in  1907. 

A  convention  on  the  Isthmian  question  was 
ratified  by  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
on  Dec.  16,  1901.  (See  Hay-Pauncefote 

Treaty.)  For  an  account  of  the  relations  be¬ 
tween  the  United  States  and  Colombia  and  the 
Republic  of  Panama,  see  Panama  Canal. 

There  occurred  a  number  of  strikes,  a  most 
noteworthy  development  of  one  being  the  ap¬ 
pointment  by  the  President  in  October,  1902,  of 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


767 


a  commission  to  arbitrate  the  differences  be¬ 
tween  the  striking  anthracite  miners  of  Penn 
sylvania  and  their  employers  which  effected  a 
settlement  and  averted  a  coal  famine. 

After  tedious  negotiations,  in  January,  1903, 
Secretary  Hay  and  the  British  Ambassador 
signed  a  convention  for  the  settlement  of  the 
Alaskan  boundary  dispute  providing  for  its  ref¬ 
erence  to  a  tribunal  of  six  jurists.  On  Oct.  17, 
1903,  the  tribunal  decided  the  main  points  of 
the  controversy  in  favor  of  the  United  States, 
the  decision  being  signed  by  the  three  American 
arbitrators,  Lodge,  Root,  and  Turner,  and  by 
the  English  arbitrator,  Lord  Alverstone.  The 
refusal  of  the  two  Canadian  members  to  agree 
with  the  majority  was  strongly  approved  in 
Canada,  where  the  decision  was  received  with 
marked  evidences  of  dissatisfaction. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1904  the  Re¬ 
publicans  were  again  successful,  and  President 
Roosevelt  was  elected  by  an  enormous  major¬ 
ity  of  electoral  votes  (330  to  140) .  The  Republi¬ 
can  National  Convention  met  at  Chicago,  nomi¬ 
nated  Theodore  Roosevelt  for  the  presidency  and 
Charles  W.  Fairbanks  for  the  vice  presidency, 
and  adopted  a  platform  eulogizing  the  admin¬ 
istration  and  reaffirming  the  principles  of  the 
previous  platforms  of  1896  and  1900.  The  Demo¬ 
cratic  National  Convention  met  at  St.  Louis, 
and  its  sessions  were  marked  by  a  bitter  contest 
between  the  conservative  wing  and  the  radical 
wing,  which  latter  had  been  dominant  in  1896 
and  1900.  The  former  triumphed,  and  a  plat¬ 
form  wras  adopted  which  (as  a  concession  to 
the  radicals)  was  silent  on  the  “gold  standard,” 
arraigned  the  Republican  administration  as 
being  “spasmodic,  erratic,  sensational,  spectacu¬ 
lar,  and  arbitrary,”  declared  against  imperial¬ 
ism,  protection,  and  “executive  usurpation,”  and 
advocated  reciprocity  and  “the  election  of  United 
States  Senators  by  direct  vote  of  the  people.” 
Alton  B.  Parker,  of  New  York,  was  nominated 
for  the  presidency,  and  Henry  G.  Davis,  of  West 
Virginia,  for  the  vice  presidency.  Other  par¬ 
ties  nominated  candidates  for  President  and 
Vice  President  as  follows:  Socialist,  Eugene  V. 
Debs,  of  Indiana,  and  Benjamin  Hanford,  of  New 
York;  Prohibitionist,  Silas  C.  Swallow,  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  and  George  W.  Carroll,  of  Texas; 
People’s,  Thomas  E.  Watson,  of  Georgia,  and 
Thomas  H.  Tibbies,  of  Nebraska;  Socialist  La¬ 
bor,  Charles  H.  Corrigan,  of  New  York,  and 
William  W.  Cox,  of  Illinois.  The  record  of 
President  Roosevelt  since  his  accession  to  the 
presidency  was  the  principal  issue.  The  popu¬ 
lar  vote  was  as  follows:  Republican,  7,628,834; 
Democratic,  5,084,491;  Socialist,  402,460;  Pro¬ 
hibitionist,  259,257;  People’s,  114,753;  Social¬ 
ist  Labor,  33,724.  Parker  carried  only  the 
Solid  South,  Missouri  excepted. 

President  Roosevelt’s  administration  was 
marked  by  the  especial  activity  of  the  Federal 
government  against  combinations  in  restraint  of 
trade,  discriminations  by  interstate  carriers,  and 
the  payment  by  railroads  of  rebates  to  favored 
shippers.  The  Bureau  of  Corporations  and  Man¬ 
ufactures  and  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis¬ 
sion  conducted  investigations  into  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  various  corporations.  As  a  result  suits 
were  brought  by  the  government,  and  the  North¬ 
ern  Securities  Company,  a  holding  company  for 
the  Great  Northern  and  Northern  Pacific  rail¬ 
roads,  was  declared  illegal  and  dissolved  by  the 
Supreme  Court  in  1904,  and  the  Beef  Trust  was 
declared  illegal  in  1905.  On  March  12,  1906, 
the  Supreme  Court  decided  that  in  antitrust  pro¬ 


ceedings  witnesses  might  be  compelled  to  testify 
against  their  own  corporations;  in  August  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  was  indicted  in  Chicago 
and  m  New  York  for  receiving  rebates  and  for 
accepting  illegal  concessions  in  railroad  rates; 
and  in  October  the  New  York  Central  and  Hud¬ 
son  River  Railroad  was  convicted  in  New  York 
of  granting  illegal  rebates.  Other  similar  con¬ 
victions  were  secured. 

The  sessions  of  the  Fifty-ninth  Congress  were 
marked  by  important  legislation.  The  Hepburn 
Rate  Bill  for  the  regulation  of  railroads  and 
conferring  power  of  rate  making  (subject  to  re¬ 
view  of  the  courts)  upon  the  Interstate  Com¬ 
merce  Commission  became  a  law  on  June  29, 
1906;  and  on  June  30  a  rigid  meat-inspection 
bill,  passed  to  make  a  continuation  of  the  revolt¬ 
ing  conditions  in  the  Chicago  packing  houses  im¬ 
possible,  and  a  pure-food  bill  were  signed,  the 
last  going  into  effect  on  Jan.  1,  1907. 

Other  legislation  of  importance  for  1906-07 
may  be  briefly  summarized:  Alaska  was  allowed 
a  delegate  in  Congress;  a  Bureau  of  Immigration 
was  established;  naturalization  was  made  uni¬ 
form;  Japanese  immigration  was  restricted;  na¬ 
tional-bank  liabilities  were  limited  to  30  per  cent 
of  capital;  salaries  of  Vice  President,  cabinet 
members,  and  Speaker  were  increased  to  $12,000 
and  those  of  Congressmen  to  $7500;  corporations 
and  national  banks  were  forbidden  to  contribute 
to  campaign  funds,  the  Aldrich-Vreeland  Act 
(1908)  provided  for  a  monetary  commission  and 
allowed  banks  to  issue  notes  on  State,  county, 
or  municipal  bonds  and  to  form  associations  for 
issuance  of  notes  on  commercial  paper;  the  con¬ 
sular  service  was  reorganized. 

In  April,  1906,  occurred  the  San  Francisco 
earthquake  and  in  August  the  Brownsville  Af¬ 
fair,  in  which  negro  soldiers  were  involved  and 
a  racial  question  presented  in  politics  by  their 
dismissal  by  President  Roosevelt. 

Through  the  President’s  good  offices  a  meeting 
of  Russian  and  Japanese  peace  commissioners  at 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  was  brought  about,  and  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  on  Sept.  5,  1905; 
a  Pan-American  Conference  in  which  the  United 
States  participated  was  held  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Brazil.  (See  Root,  Elihu. )  Owing  to  an  in¬ 
surrection  in  Cuba,  the  United  States  intervened, 
restored  order,  and  on  Sept.  29,  1906,  estab¬ 
lished  a  provisional  government,  Secretary  of 
War  Taft  acting  as  provisional  Governor  until 
succeeded  on  October  13  by  Charles  F.  Magoon. 
In  February,  1907,  the  treaty  with  Santo  Do¬ 
mingo  was  ratified  whereby  United  States  offi¬ 
cers  were  to  collect  customs  revenues  and  pay 
Dominican  foreign  debts. 

On  Nov.  30,  1908,  the  Root-Takahira  note  set 
at  rest  some  of  the  fears  that  relations  with 
Japan  might  become  hostile.  It  stated,  follow¬ 
ing  treaties  between  Japan  and  England,  France 
and  Russia,  that  the  policy  of  both  governments 
looked  towards  peace,  the  maintenance  of  the 
status  quo  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Orient 
and  of  the  “open  door”  in  China,  and  pledged 
both  governments  to  mutual  consultation  before 
these  policies  should  be  changed. 

Roosevelt’s  administration  was  also  a  period 
of  constant  agitation  of  reform  questions  in 
which  he  and  Republican  conservatives  became 
alienated.  The  President’s  attitude  became  sharp 
and  bitter,  and  opposition  to  him  became  more 
virulent.  The  House  generally  followed  him,  but 
the  Senate  sought  to  check  what  many  thought 
his  overreaching  ambition.  Certain  develop¬ 
ments  in  the  struggle  seemed  to  prove  that  many 


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conservative  Senators  were  identified  with  the 
moneyed  interests,  that  the  powerful  party  or¬ 
ganization  in  the  Senate  was  formed  in  the  in¬ 
terests  of  the  trusts.  The  results  were  that  many 
of  the  Roosevelt  policies  were  ignored  by  Con¬ 
gress  and  that  there  arose  a  demand  for  the 
popular  election  of  Senators. 

It  was  generally  known  that  President  Roose¬ 
velt  favored  Secretary  of  War  Taft  as  his  suc¬ 
cessor.  His  indorsement  and  assistance  greatly 
aided  Taft’s  candidacy,  which  was  opposed  only 
by  “favorite  sons”  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois.  The  Republican  National 
Convention  met  at  Chicago,  where  Taft  was 
nominated  for  the  presidency  and  James  S.  Sher¬ 
man,  of  New  York,  for  the  vice  presidency  on 
first  ballots.  The  platform  emphatically  in¬ 
dorsed  the  administrations  of  Roosevelt  and  de¬ 
clared  for  postal-savings-bank  system,  for  con¬ 
servation,  and  for  a  downward  revision  of  the 
tariff  with  the  imposition  of  such  “duties  as 
will  equal  the  differences  between  the  cost  of 
production  at  home  and  abroad,  together  with  a 
reasonable  profit  to  American  industries.”  Pub¬ 
lic  opinion  was  equally  certain  as  to  the  out¬ 
come  of  the  Democratic  Convention,  which  met 
at  Denver.  The  overwhelming  defeat  of  the  con¬ 
servatives  in  1904  and  the  reawakened  conscious¬ 
ness  of  the  necessity  for  internal  reform  caused 
the  party  to  turn  to  its  old  radical  leader,  Wil¬ 
liam  J.  Bryan.  He  was  nominated  on  the  first 
ballot,  and  J.  W.  Kern,  of  Indiana,  was  selected 
for  the  vice  presidency.  The  platform  was  a 
reassertion  of  Bryan  principles,  a  denunciation 
of  Republican  abuses,  and  a  demand  for  divorce 
of  business  and  politics,  for  a  diminution  of  the 
powers  of  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Represent¬ 
atives,  for  a  revision  of  the  tariff,  and  for  a 
Federal  license  for  corporations  which  prohibited 
duplication  of  directors.  The  Socialists  nomi¬ 
nated  Eugene  V.  Debs,  of  Indiana,  and  Benja¬ 
min  Hanford,  of  New  York;  the  Socialist  Labor, 
A.  Gilhaus,  of  New  York,  and  D.  L.  Munro,  of 
Virginia;  the  Prohibitionists,  E.  W.  Chafin,  of 
Illinois,  and  A.  S.  Watkins,  of  Ohio;  the  Popu¬ 
lists,  Thomas  E.  Watson,  of  Georgia,  and  S.  W. 
Williams,  of  Indiana;  the  Independence  League, 
T.  L.  Hisgen,  of  Massachusetts,  and  J.  T.  Graves, 
of  Georgia.  The  campaign  was  unexciting,  and, 
although  the  reception  of  Bryan  was  enthusiastic, 
it  was  generally  thought  that  Taft  would  be  elected. 
The  vote  in  the  Electoral  College  for  Taft  was 
321  to  162  for  Bryan,  and  the  popular  vote  was 
7,679,006  for  Taft  to  6,409,106  for  Bryan. 

XXX.  William  Howard  Taft’s  Administra¬ 
tion.*  (1909-13.)  In  accordance  with  the 
promise  of  the  platform  President  Taft  after  his 
inauguration  summoned  the  Congress  into  ex¬ 
traordinary  session  to  revise  the  tariff.  The 
framers,  Payne  and  Aldrich,  were  leaders  of  the 
conservative,  “stand-pat”  element  of  the  party 
in  the  House  and  Senate  respectively,  and  the 
bill  showed  their  opposition  to  any  violent 
change  in  the  policy  of  protection.  As  finally 
adopted  (August  5),  the  Payne- Aldrich  Law 
reduced  654  rates,  increased  220,  and  left  1150 
unchanged.  The  Law  provided  for  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  a  tariff  board  to  investigate  the 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  P.  C.  Knox,  Pennsylvania, 
1909.  Secretary  of  the  Treasurer,  Franklin  MacVeagh,  Illinois, 
1909.  Secretary  of  War,  J.  M.  Dickinson,  Tennessee,  1909; 
H.  L.  Stimson,  New  York,  1911.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  George 
von  L.  Meyer,  Massachusetts,  1909.  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
R.  A.  Ballinger,  Washington,  1909;  W.  L.  Fisher,  Illinois, 
1911.  Postmaster-General,  F.  H.  Hitchcock,  Massachusetts, 
1909.  Attorney-General,  G.  W.  Wickersham,  New  York,  1909. 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  James  Wilson,  Iowa,  1909.  Secretary 
of  Commerce  and  Labor,  Charles  Nagel,  Missouri,  1909. 


operation  of  the  measure  and  to  recommend 
changes,  for  a  tax  of  1  per  cent  upon  incomes 
of  corporations  earning  above  $5000  net,  and 
for  free  trade  with  the  Philippines.  Much 
against  the  wishes  of  the  insurgent  Western 
leaders  and  admitting  that  the  Act  did  not 
strictly  comply  with  the  pledges,  Taft  approved 
it.  Although  the  President  in  a  speech  at  Win¬ 
ona,  Minn.,  stated  that  the  Act  was  the  best 
tariff  law  his  party  had  ever  adopted,  the  gen¬ 
eral  opinion  was  that  the  conservatives  had 
triumphed  and  that  the  wishes  of  the  people 
had  not  been  regarded.  Whether  he  desired  or 
not,  the  President  became  identified  with  the 
conservatives,  and  the  Ballinger-Pinchot  (qq.v. ) 
controversy  (August,  1909)  seemed  to  confirm 
this  association.  See  Conservation. 

In  1910,  through  a  coalition  of  Democrats  and 
insurgents,  the  power  of  Speaker  Cannon  to  con¬ 
trol  the  Rules  Committee  and  debate  in  general 
was  broken  in  a  dramatic  parliamentary  struggle. 
A  resolution,  introduced  March  10,  provided 
for  the  elimination  of  the  Speaker  from  the 
committee  and  the  appointment  of  it  by  the 
House. 

The  important  measures  of  the  regular  session, 
passed  in  1910,  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
a  Commerce  Court  was  established  to  pass  upon 
cases  investigated  by  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission;  a  postal-savings-bank  system  was 
created;  the  publication  of  campaign  expenses 
in  Federal  elections  was  required;  the  powers  of 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  were  en¬ 
larged  in  a  new  railroad  bill ;  the  Mann  “White 
Slave”  Act  was  adopted;  and  in  1911  a  limit 
was  placed  on  contributions  to  campaign  funds 
for  Congressmen. 

The  division  in  the  Republican  party  was 
further  intensified  by  the  ill-concealed  sympathy 
of  Roosevelt,  who  had  returned  from  Africa  on 
March  21,  1910,  for  the  radical  insurgents.  (See 
Roosevelt.)  Owing  to  this  widening  breach,  to 
the  development  of  new  leaders,  and  the  wide¬ 
spread  discontent  with  the  tariff  law,  the  Demo¬ 
crats,  in  the  election  of  1910,  won  a  notable 
victory,  carrying  the  House  by  a  majority  of 
66  and  increasing  their  membership  in  the  Sen¬ 
ate  from  32  to  41.  The  Democrats  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  made  a  fundamental  change 
in  procedure  by  having  committee  members 
elected  by  the  House  on  nomination  of  the  Com¬ 
mittee  on  Ways  and  Means. 

On  Jan.  26,  1911,  the  President  submitted  the 
outline  of  the  Canadian  Reciprocity  Treaty 
which  he  had  negotiated  in  an  attempt  to  con¬ 
form  to  his  tariff  pledges.  It  provided  for  lower 
duties  on  many  food  products  and  some  manu¬ 
factured  articles,  and  it  became  a  popular  meas¬ 
ure.  For  success,  however,  it  soon  developed 
that  it  depended  upon  Democratic  votes  in  both 
Chambers.  Congress,  in  extra  session,  passed 
the  Reciprocity  Bill  on  July  22.  At  the  same 
time  the  Democratic  party,  led  with  skill  by 
Oscar  W.  Underwood  and  aided  by  the  insur¬ 
gents,  adopted  tariff  bills  revising  several  sched¬ 
ules,  viz.,  the  Farmer’s  Free  List,  the  Wool  Bill, 
and  the  Cotton  Bill,  all  of  which  wrere  vetoed  by 
the  President  on  the  ground  that  they  were  not 
scientifically  drafted  on  the  recommendation  of 
the  tariff  board.  Taft’s  hopes  for  Canadian  re¬ 
ciprocity  were  blasted  when,  on  September  21, 
Canada  defeated  ratification.  The  conservatives 
were  further  weakened  before  the  public  by  the 
Lorimer  scandal.  (See  Lorimer.)  Charged 
with  use  of  bribery  in  securing  his  election,  he 
was  exonerated  in  1911,  but  in  1912  his  seat 


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was  declared  vacant.  This  scandal,  the  popular 
disapproval  of  the  obstructive  methods  of  the 
conservative  Senate,  and  the  prolonged  dead¬ 
locks  in  several  State  Legislatures  where  Sena¬ 
tors  were  to  be  elected,  gave  such  an  impetus  to 
the  demand  for  the  popular  election  of  Senators 
that  a  constitutional  amendment  (the  Seven¬ 
teenth)  to  that  effect  was  submitted  (1912)  to 
the  States  and  ratified  (1913).  In  1913,  also, 
the  States  ratified  the  Sixteenth  Amendment 
(submitted  1911),  granting  authority  to  Con¬ 
gress  to  enact  income-tax  laws,  which  had  been 
recommended  by  Taft  in  1909. 

In  1911  the  Supreme  Court  gave  important 
decisions  holding  that  the  Standard  Oil  and 
American  Tobacco  companies  had  conducted  their 
business  in  unreasonable  and  undue  restraint  of 
trade  and  that  they  should  be  dissolved  into 
their  original,  constituent  elements.  In  1911, 
also,  Senator  Aldrich  submitted  the  plan  of  the 
monetary  commission  for  currency  reform,  pro¬ 
viding  for  the  Federal  incorporation  of  a  Re¬ 
serve  Association  with  $300,000,000  capitaliza¬ 
tion.  Favored  by  most  bankers,  it  was  suspi¬ 
ciously  opposed  by  the  public  because  of  the 
dominance  of  private  control  provided  in  the 
scheme. 

Important  legislation  of  the  Sixty-first  Con¬ 
gress  may  be  mentioned  as  follows:  an  Act  for 
the  government  of  the  Panama  Canal  zone  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  exemption  from  tolls  of  American 
ships  engaged  in  coastwise  trade;  an  Act  pro¬ 
viding  civil  government  for  Alaska;  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona  were  admitted  as  separate  States 
(1912)  ;  an  Immigration  Law  having  a  literacy 
test  was  vetoed  by  the  President;  a  Law  creating 
the  Department  of  Labor  with  a  secretary  of 
cabinet  rank  was  adopted  (1913)  ;  and  the  Com¬ 
merce  Court  was  destroyed  by  withholding  main¬ 
tenance  funds  (1913).  During  this  Congress 
there  were  numerous  investigations,  such  as 
that  of  the  Money  Trust,  the  Shipping  Trust,  and 
the  Steel  Trust.  See  Pujo;  Trusts. 

In  1909  the  United  States  forces  of  occupation 
were  withdrawn  from  Cuba,  and  the  civil  govern¬ 
ment  surrendered  in  accordance  with  promises. 
In  that  year,  also,  the  long-standing  differences 
with  Venezuela  were  peacefully  settled  in  that 
the  Gomez  government,  more  amenable  than  that 
of  the  deposed  Castro,  agreed  to  a  reference  to 
The  Hague  for  arbitration.  Diplomatic  inter¬ 
course  between  the  two  countries  was  resumed. 
The  United  States  was  greatly  aroused,  in  De¬ 
cember,  1909,  over  the  execution  of  two  Ameri¬ 
cans  by  the  Zelaya  government  of  Nicaragua, 
against  which  a  successful  revolution  was  being 
waged. 

In  1910  Secretary  Knox  proposed  to  the  vari¬ 
ous  nations  the  establishment  of  a  permanent 
court  of  arbitral  justice  at  The  Hague.  At  the 
same  time  he  and  the  President  were  negotiating 
arbitration  treaties  with  the  principal  European 
nations.  Those  with  Great  Britain  and  France 
attracted  wide  attention,  for  they  provided  for 
peace  and  arbitration  of  any  questions  “justici¬ 
able  in  their  nature”  that  might  arise.  These 
treaties,  signed  Aug.  3,  1911,  enlisted  the  en¬ 
thusiastic  support  of  the  President,  who  spoke 
for  them  while  on  tour,  but  they  were  not  satis¬ 
factory  to  the  Senate,  where  they  were  thought 
to  deprive  it  of  its  constitutional  right  in  rati¬ 
fying  treaties.  The  treaty  had  provided  that 
in  case  of  disagreement  as  to  whether  or  not  a 
matter  was  subject  to  arbitration  the  question 
should  be  placed  before  a  joint  commission  and 
the  matter  submitted  to  arbitration  or  not,  ac¬ 


cording  to  its  decision.  Striking  out  this  article, 
the  treaties  were  ratified  March  7,  1912. 

In  September,  1912,  the  Alsop  claims  between 
United  States  and  Chile  were  decided.  In  De¬ 
cember,  1911,  the  subsisting  treaty  of  1832  with 
Russia  was  abrogated,  because  of  the  disregard 
by  Russia  of  American  passports  issued  to  natu¬ 
ralized  Jews.  From  1910  to  1913  President  Taft 
was  greatly  concerned  witli  the  complications 
arising  from  the  revolutions  in  Mexico  against 
Diaz  and  later  Madero.  Large  forces  of  Ameri¬ 
can  soldiers  were  detailed  to  patrol  the  border 
and  maintain  neutrality,  and  warships  were  sent 
to  many  of  the  Mexican  harbors.  The  adminis¬ 
tration  was  opposed  to  intervention,  but  still 
sought  to  protect  American  interests  and  lives. 
Finally,  in  March,  1912,  Congress  authorized  the 
President  to  place  an  embargo  on  the  shipment 
of  arms  across  the  border  into  Mexico.  Taft  de¬ 
clined  to  recognize  the  Huerta  government,  which 
succeeded  that  of  Madero  in  February,  1913. 

In  1912  there  was  a  rumor  that  Mexico  was 
about  to  sell  a  portion  of  Magdalena  Bay  terri¬ 
tory  to  Japanese  interests.  This  led  to  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  the  Lodge  Resolution  in  July,  which 
effected  an  extension  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  to 
the  effect  that  the  United  States  would  oppose 
the  selling  by  American  nations  of  lands  to 
foreign  corporations  which  might  be  used  as 
naval  bases  to  threaten  the  communications  and 
safety  of  the  United  States. 

Secretary  Knox,  with  respect  to  the  Orient, 
insisted  on  the  maintenance  of  the  “open  door” 
policy  and  secured  in  1912  the  right  of  the 
United  States  financiers  to  participate  in  a  pro¬ 
posed  loan  to  China  and  in  the  financing  of  pro¬ 
jected  railways. 

In  the  presidential  campaign  of  1912  three 
Republicans  were  prominent  in  seeking  the  nomi¬ 
nation,  Taft,  Roosevelt,  and  La  Follette  (qq.v.). 
The  last,  though  at  first  supported  by  Roosevelt, 
was  eliminated  by  illness,  unpopularity  in  the 
East,  and  by  Roosevelt’s  candidacy.  In  the  pre¬ 
convention  contest  for  delegates  preferential 
primaries  were  used  in  many  States  for  the  first 
time  for  the  selection  of  delegates,  and  in  all 
but  three  of  such  States  Roosevelt  was  success¬ 
ful.  The  convention  met  at  Chicago,  where  the 
contested  seats  were  largely  decided  in  favor 
of  Taft  delegates.  (See  Root;  Rosewater.) 
Roosevelt  declared  the  decisions  were  a  “clear 
steal,”  and  most  of  his  followers  declined  to  take 
part  in  the  balloting.  Taft  was  nominated  on 
the  first  ballot,  and  James  S.  Sherman  was  re¬ 
nominated  for  Vice  President.  The  situation  in 
the  Democratic  party  was  even  more  confused. 
Speaker  Champ  Clark,  of  Missouri,  Gov.  Judson 
Harmon,  of  Ohio,  Gov.  Woodrow  Wilson,  of  New 
Jersey,  and  Representative  Oscar  W.  Underwood, 
of  Alabama,  among  others  were  the  most  promi¬ 
nent  candidates.  The  convention  met  at  Balti¬ 
more,  where  a  dramatic  contest  took  place  be¬ 
tween  the  conservatives,  led  by  A.  B.  Parker, 
and  the  progressives,  led  by  Bryan.  The  con¬ 
servatives  elected  Parker  temporary  chairman, 
but  the  radicals  elected  the  permanent  chairman, 
Ollie  James.  At  first  no  one  had  a  majority, 
and  a  two-thirds  majority  was  required.  On  the 
forty-sixth  ballot  Woodrow  Wilson,  who  after 
New  York  began  to  vote  for  Clark  had  the  strong 
personal  support  of  Bryan,  was  nominated.  His 
immediate  nomination  was  probably  caused  by 
the  threat  of  Bryan  to  force  a  referendum  to  the 
people.  Thomas  R.  Marshall,  of  Indiana,  was 
named  for  Vice  President.  Roosevelt  left  the 
Republican  party  and  rapidly  organized  a  new 


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UNITED  STATES 


one,  the  Progressive,  and  at  Chicago  in  August 
received  the  nomination  for  the  presidency. 
Hiram  W.  Johnson,  of  California,  was  nomi¬ 
nated  for  Vice  President.  The  Socialist  party 
at  Indianapolis  named  Eugene  V.  Debs,  of  Illi¬ 
nois,  and  Emil  Seidel,  of  Wisconsin;  the  Social¬ 
ist  Labor,  A.  E.  Reimer,  of  Massachusetts,  and 
August  Gilhous,  of  New  York;  the  Prohibition¬ 
ists,  E.  W.  Chafin,  of  Illinois,  and  A.  S.  Watkins, 
of  Ohio.  The  platforms  did  not  differ  radically 
as  to  specific  recommendations,  and  on  prin¬ 
ciples  the  Republicans  and  Progressives  did  not 
widely  differ  as  to  public  economics,  nor  the 
Democrats  and  Progressives  as  to  social  reform. 
The  campaign  abounded  in  bitter  attacks  on 
Roosevelt  and  emphatic  replies  from  him.  The 
election  occurred  November  5  and  resulted  in 
the  choice  of  Wilson.  The  popular  vote  was 
0,286,214  for  ’Wilson,  4,120,020  for  Roosevelt, 
3,483,022  for  Taft,  897,011  for  Debs,  and  208,923 
for  Chafin.  A  remarkable  development  of  the 
voting  was  the  increase  of  Socialist  strength. 
It  more  than  doubled  its  1908  record,  rising  from 
402,400  to  897,011.  The  electoral  vote  was  435 
for  Wilson,  88  for  Roosevelt,  and  8  for  Taft. 
The  Democrats  also  secured  the  House  by  a 
majority  of  120  over  all  parties  and  the  Senate 
by  7.  See  Democratic,  Republican,  and  Pro¬ 
gressive  parties. 

XXXI.  Woodrow  Wilson’s  Administra¬ 
tion.*  (1913-21).  Shortly  after  his  induction 
into  office  President  Wilson  called  the  Congress 
into  extraordinary  session  to  revise  the  tariff. 
The  event  of  its  meeting  was  signalized  by  a 
return  to  the  custom  of  Washington  and  Adams 
of  addressing  the  Houses  in  person.  The  Demo¬ 
crats  promptly  organized  themselves  into  an 
efficient  machine,  headed  by  Speaker  Clark  and 
Leader  Underwood  in  the  House  and  Simmons 
and  Kern  in  the  Senate.  The  new  Tariff  Act  was 
drafted  bv  Underwood  and  Simmons  and  was 
passed  October  3.  The  bill  was  an  effort  to  re¬ 
turn  to  a  revenue  tariff  on  the  one  hand  and 
an  effort  to  prevent  business  disturbance  on  the 
other.  On  a  rough  average  duties  were  reduced 
to  a  20  per  cent  basis,  and  a  provision  was  made 
for  free  sugar  within  three  years.  The  duty 
was  continued  in  1916,  the  revenue  being  needed. 
To  take  the  place  of  the  revenue  lost  because 
of  the  new  sugar  schedule,  an  income  tax  was 
made  a  part  of  the  tariff  law.  The  progressive 
principle  was  employed  in  that  incomes  above 
$4000  ($3000  for  unmarried  persons)  were  taxed 
1  per  cent,  $30,000  to  $50,000  2  per  cent,  above 
$75,000  3  per  cent,  above  $100,000  4  per  cent, 
and  so  on  until  those  above  $500,000  were  taxed 
7  per  cent.  Despite  the  purpose  mentioned  there 
occurred  in  1913-14  a  serious  business  depres¬ 
sion,  and  the  protectionists  promptly  asserted 
that  the  measure  was  a  failure.  Congress  was 
at  the  same  time  considering  the  problem  of 
currency  reform,  and  the  Glass-Owen  Bill  was 
framed,  which,  with  an  important  amendment 
suggested  by  Root  requiring  a  gold  reserve,  ef¬ 
fected  changes  of  far-reaching  consequence.  See 
Reserve  Bank,  Federal. 

*  Cabinet. — Secretary  of  State,  William  J.  Bryan,  Ne¬ 
braska,  1913;  Robert  Lansing,  New  York,  1915.  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  W.  G.  McAdoo,  New  York,  1913.  Secretary 
of  War,  L.  M.  Garrison,  New  Jersey,  1913;  Newton  D. 
Baker,  Ohio,  1916.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Josephus  Daniels, 
North  Carolina,  1913.  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Franklin  K. 
Lane,  California,  1913.  Postmaster-General,  A.  S.  Burleson, 
Texas,  1913.  Attorney-General,  J.  C.  McReynolds,  Ten¬ 
nessee,  1913;  Thos.  W.  Gregory,  Texas,  1914.  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  D.  F.  Houston,  Missouri,  1913.  Secretary 
of  Commerce,  W.  C.  Redfield,  New  York,  1913.  Secretary  of 
Labor,  W.  B.  Wilson,  Pennsylvania,  1913. 


During  1913  foreign  relations  occupied  a  large 
share  of  the  President’s  attention — as  they  did 
throughout  the  administration — and  many  prob¬ 
lems  of  delicate  nature  were  confronted.  The 
Mexican  problem  early  became  embarrassing. 
Wilson  refused  to  recognize  Huerta  as  the  head 
of  a  de  facto  government,  largely  on  account  of 
the  moral  principle  that  the  latter  was  a  usurper 
who  had  connived  at  the  murder  of  Madero.  Al¬ 
though  the  embargo  on  arms  was  continued, 
Huerta  was  unable  to  secure  loans;  and  the 
revolution  of  the  Constitutionalists,  led  by  Car¬ 
ranza  and  Villa,  gathered  force.  (See  Mexico; 
Huerta;  Villa.)  Relations  with  Japan  were 
also  strained  by  the  passage  of  laws  by  the  State 
of  California  prohibiting  the  ownership  of  lands 
by  aliens  who  could  not  be  naturalized.  Japan 
protested  against  the  discrimination  and  the  vio¬ 
lation  of  treaty  rights,  and  the  President  sent 
Secretary  of  State  Bryan  to  California  in  an 
effort  to  secure  a  change  in  the  State  legislation 
without  success.  The  countries  exchanged  notes, 
and  a  modus  vivendi  was  finally  arranged 
whereby  the  United  States  agreed  to  test  the 
laws  in  the  courts,  and  Japan  made  promises  as 
to  future  immigration.  On  May  2  Wilson  recog¬ 
nized  the  Republic  of  China,  having  previously 
advised  American  bankers  not  to  participate  in 
the  international  railway  loans.  In  March  he 
announced  to  Latin  American  countries  which 
had  been  suffering  from  revolutions  that  the 
United  States  would  support  only  “the  orderly 
processes  of  just  government,  based  upon  law, 
not  upon  arbitrary  or  irregular  force.”  Condi¬ 
tions  in  Nicaragua  (q.v.)  finally  resulted  in  the 
conclusion  of  a  treaty  which  virtually  established 
an  American  protectorate  on  the  principle  of  the 
Platt  Amendment.  In  December,  1913,  Wilson 
delivered  a  special  message  on  the  Mexican  situ¬ 
ation  in  which  he  stated  that  there  could  be  no 
peace  until  Huerta  was  eliminated.  Observing 
that  the  revolution  was  succeeding,  he  thought 
that  Huerta  would  soon  be  crushed  and  saw  no 
reason  why  we  should  be  obliged  “to  alter  our 
policy  of  watchful  waiting.”  At  the  same  time 
the  Hay  Volunteer  Bill  was  enacted  providing 
for  an  emergency  volunteer  army  of  242,000 
men. 

Meanwhile  Congress  was  considering  the  rec¬ 
ommendations  of  the  President  relative  to  trust 
legislation  and  rural  credits.  Of  five  proposed 
bills  two  became  law,  the  Interstate  Trade  Com¬ 
mission  Bill,  Sept.  8,  and  the  Clayton  Anti- 
Trust  Act,  Oct.  8,  1914.  The  first  provided  for 
a  commission  of  five  members  with  powers  of 
investigation,  supervision,  and  prevention  of  un¬ 
fair  competition ;  the  latter  embodied  the  ideas 
of  the  Democrats  on  the  trust  problem.  (See 
Trusts.)  It  prohibited  interlocking  directorates 
and  forbade  the  use  of  injunctions  in  labor  dis¬ 
putes.  Prior  to  the  adoption  of  these  acts  the 
President  had  secured  another  victory  in  the 
repeal  of  the  Panama  Canal  Tolls  legislation. 
The  issue  had  arisen  because  of  the  protest  of 
Great  Britain  that  the  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty 
had  been  violated.  The  President  in  a  special 
message  asked  for  the  repeal  on  the  grounds  that 
the  law  was  a  mistaken  economic  policy,  a  con¬ 
travention  of  treaty  obligations,  and  that  the 
repeal  would  aid  him  in  the  conduct  of  foreign 
affairs.  With  these  acts  adopted  a  remarkable 
legislative  record  was  completed,  and  Congress 
adjourned  after  the  longest  continuous  session 
within  the  history  of  the  country. 

The  situation  as  to  foreign  affairs  in  1914  had 
become  increasingly  acute.  On  February  3  the 


UNITED  STATES 


771 


UNITED  STATES 


President  had  lifted  the  embargo  on  the  ship¬ 
ment  of  arms  into  Mexico,  and  the  revolutionists 
had  purchased  large  amounts  of  munitions,  ena¬ 
bling  them  to  make  substantial  progress  against 
Huerta.  On  April  9  occurred  the  Tampico  in¬ 
cident,  which  involved  the  arrest  by  a  Huertista 
officer  of  some  United  States  marines  while  on  a 
peaceful  errand  to  buy  gasoline  and  supplies. 
Rear  Admiral  Mayo  demanded  their  surrender, 
an  apology,  and  a  salute  to  the  United  States 
flag.  Strained  negotiations  followed  in  which 
Huerta  refused  to  comply  with  the  demand  for 
the  salute,  in  which  Wilson  had  supported  Mayo. 
On  April  20  the  President  asked  authority  from 
Congress  to  employ  the  military  and  naval  forces 
to  exact  reparation.  It  was  granted,  and  in 
pursuance  of  it  Vera  Cruz  was  occupied  after  18 
men  were  killed.  Although  the  cause  seemed 
trivial  and  the  method  to  involve  complications, 
intervention  found  ready  support,  though  many 
urged  that  it  should  have  been  on  the  grounds 
of  protection  to  American  lives  and  property. 
The  administration,  on  the  contrary,  had  warned 
Americans  to  leave  Mexico,  and  funds  had  been 
appropriated  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  them. 
While  plans  were  being  made  for  the  invasion 
of  Mexico,  Wilson  accepted  the  good  offices  of 
Argentina,  Brazil,  and  Chile,  and  agreed  to  ap¬ 
point  commissioners  to  meet  at  Niagara  Falls 
to  discuss  ways  of  effecting  peace  and  the  settle¬ 
ment  of  the  Mexican  problem.  While  the  com¬ 
missioners  were  meeting,  Huerta,  having  suffered 
defeat,  resigned  and  left  the  government  to  Car¬ 
bajal,  who  in  turn  relinquished  it  to  Carranza. 
The  forces  of  the  United  States  were  withdrawn 
from  Vera  Cruz  (November,  1914).  A  treaty 
was  negotiated  with  Colombia  in  an  attempt  to 
settle  her  grievances,  in  which  it  was  stipulated 
that  the  United  States  pay  $25,000,000  and  give 
certain  concessions.  The  Senate  postponed  con¬ 
sideration  of  it.  During  the  year  20  peace  and 
arbitration  treaties  were  negotiated,  of  which  18 
were  ratified. 

The  European  War,  in  which  the  United  States 
promptly  declared  its  neutrality,  had  immediate 
important  economic  and  legislative  effects  in  the 
United  States.  (See  War  in  Europe.)  In 
August  a  bill  was  passed  admitting  foreign-built 
ships  to  the  American  registry  with  certain  re¬ 
strictions  as  to  coastwise  trade.  A  War  Risk 
Insurance  Act  was  adopted  providing  for  emer¬ 
gency  insurance  for  ships.  It  was  promptly 
seen  that  the  stopping  of  a  large  part  of  the 
imports  would  curtail  the  revenues  and  produce 
a  deficit.  To  prevent  this  development  an  emer¬ 
gency  revenue  bill  was  passed  providing  for  an 
increased  internal-revenue  taxation  system. 

The  election  of  1914  had  for  its  issues  the 
new  tariff  law  and  the  record  of  the  President. 
The  Democrats  were  successful  in  retaining  their 
majorities  in  Congress,  but  they  were  reduced 
in  the  House,  the  vote  being  Democrats  232,  Re¬ 
publicans  194,  and  Progressives  7.  In  the  Senate 
the  Democrats  were  increased  to  53  and  the  op¬ 
position  reduced  to  43. 

The  war  brought  great  increase  in  the  export 
trade,  especially  in  foodstuffs  and  munitions, 
most  of  the  former  and  practically  all  of  the 
latter  going  to  the  Allies,  since  German  shipping 
had  been  largely  withdrawn  from  the  seas.  The 
great  demand  caused  the  available  shipping  to 
be  overtaxed,  and  the  President  introduced  in 
December,  1914,  a  request  for  a  Ship  Purchase 
Bill.  The  proposition  evoked  such  opposition 
that  the  Republicans,  in  February,  1915,  in  a 
prolonged  filibuster  aided  by  seven  Democrats, 


defeated  the  measure.  In  this  the  President 
experienced  his  first  serious  defeat  in  Congress. 

In  the  European  War  there  had  developed 
something  of  a  deadlock,  and  both  sides  resorted 
to  indirect  methods  of  inflicting  injury.  The 
United  States  was  almost  in  the  situation  which 
existed  prior  to  the  War  of  1812,  and  intricate 
complications  developed  with  both  Germany  and 
Great  Britain.  To  the  one  Secretary  Brvan  sent 

V  1 

a  note  declaring  that  the  United  States  would 
hold  Germany  to  a  “strict  accountability,”  and 
to  the  other  a  firm  protest  against  the  prevention 
of  legitimate  American  trade  by  means  of  illegal 
blockade  and  vexatious  delays  in  prize  proced¬ 
ures.  Deep  irritation  had  been  caused  by  the 
destruction  of  the  steamer  Gulfiight  by  a  Ger¬ 
man  submarine  and  by  the  seizure  of  the  Wil- 
helmina  and  Dacia  by  Great  Britain  and  France. 
The  United  States,  however,  was  horrified  when 
the  Lusitania,  on  May  7,  without  warning  was 
torpedoed  by  a  submarine,  when  more  than  1000 
persons,  including  114  Americans,  lost  their 
lives.  On  May  13  Wilson  sent  a  strong  note  to 
Germany  demanding  a  disavowal  of  the  act,  in¬ 
demnity  for  the  violation  of  American  rights, 
and  stating  that  the  United  States  stood  firmly 
on  the  ground  that  Americans  had  the  right  to 
travel  on  merchant  ships  of  belligerent  national¬ 
ity.  Relations  between  the  two  countries  reached 
the  breaking  point,  and  many  expected  and  de¬ 
sired  war.  A  large  party  developed  in  the  coun¬ 
try  urging  military  preparation  to  meet  compli¬ 
cations  which  might  involve  it  in  war.  Atten¬ 
tion  was  directed  towards  the  large  number  of 
Americans  of  German  birth  and  descent  who 
thought  that  the  United  States  should  preserve 
true  neutrality  by  prohibiting  the  export  of  mu¬ 
nitions  to  the  Allies  exclusively.  They  empha¬ 
sized  the  trade  restrictions  of  Great  Britain  and 
alleged  that  Germany  was  being  deprived  of  food 
for  its  civil  population.  Notes  were  inter¬ 
changed,  the  tone  of  the  American  communica¬ 
tions  becoming  more  insistent,  until  on  Septem¬ 
ber  1  Germany  declared  that  liners  were  not  to 
be  sunk  without  warning.  Despite  the  fact  that 
the  cases  of  the  N  ebraskan  and  the  Arabic  (dis¬ 
avowed  October  5)  had  arisen  and  depended  on 
separate  negotiations,  this  announcement  was 
regarded  as  a  Wilson  victory.  There  remained 
the  necessity  for  Germany  to  disavow  the  de¬ 
struction  of  the  Lusitania  and  indemnify  Amer¬ 
ican  citizens.  Wilson’s  position  in  the  corre¬ 
spondence  with  Germany  had  caused  the  resigna¬ 
tion  of  Secretary  Bryan  (June),  who  thought 
that  his  ideas  might  lead  to  war  and  who  urged 
that  Americans  should  be  warned  to  remain  off 
passenger  ships  of  the  warring  nations.  In  the 
meanwhile  the  indignation  among  German  sym¬ 
pathizers  respecting  the  supply  of  munitions  to 
the  Allies  caused  many  to  plan  the  disturbance 
of  labor  by  bringing  about  strikes.  Plots  were 
formed,  it  was  alleged,  and  executed  involving 
the  explosion  of  bombs  in  factories  and  the  de¬ 
struction  of  many  munition  plants.  It  was 
established  that  *  the  Austrian  Ambassador, 
Dumba,  was  implicated,  and  his  recall  was  de¬ 
manded  (September  9).  Attaches,  Boy-Ed  and 
Von  Papen,  of  the  German  Embassy,  had  a  simi¬ 
lar  fate  on  December  3. 

During  the  short  session  of  Congress  an  immi¬ 
gration  bill  was  adopted  (1915),  with  a  literacy 
test  included,  which  the  President  vetoed.  In 
June,  1915,  the  Supreme  Court  rendered  two  im¬ 
portant  decisions,  deciding  against  the  govern¬ 
ment  in  the  dissolution  suit  against  the  Steel 
Trust  and,  secondly,  that  the  grandfather  clauses 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


772 


of  the  Oklahoma  and  Maryland  constitutions 
were  void. 

On  October  19,  President  Wilson  recognized 
Carranza  as  heading  the  de  facto  government  of 
Mexico  and  began  to  assist  him  in  eliminating 
Villa. 

In  December,  1915  the  President’s  message 
was  almost  wholly  devoted  to  the  championship 
of  military  preparedness,  although  the  year  be¬ 
fore  he  had  opposed  those  who  would  turn  Amer¬ 
ica  into  an  armed  camp,  and  at  the  opening  of 
1916  that  appeared  as  the  supreme  issue  in 
American  politics. 

In  December,  1915,  the  sinking  of  the  Persia 
in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  again  brought  the  con¬ 
troversy  over  submarine  warfare  to  the  fore. 
While  negotiations  were  still  pending  over  this 
incident  the  channel  boat  Sussex  was  torpedoed 
with  a  loss  of  over  100  lives.  This  aroused  con¬ 
siderable  comment  inasmuch  as  the  Sussex  was 
strictly  a  passenger  vessel  and  unarmed.  The 
question  of  arming  merchantmen  for  defense  pre¬ 
sented  a  serious  problem.  A  resolution  warning 
Americans  not  to  sail  on  armed  merchantmen 
failed  to  pass  both  Houses  of  Congress,  indi¬ 
cating  that  the  President  was  to  carry  on  for¬ 
eign  relations  without  interference  from  Con¬ 
gress.  On  April  14  the  United  States  govern¬ 
ment  demanded  that  submarine  warfare,  as  it 
affected  neutrals,  be  abandoned  under  a  penalty 
of  a  break  in  diplomatic  relations.  See  Volume 
XXIV  for  the  German  reply. 

In  February,  1916  Secretary  of  War  Garrison 
resigned  because  he  could  not  agree  with  Presi¬ 
dent  V  ilson  on  the  question  of  national  defense. 
NeAvton  D.  Baker,  of  Cleveland,  succeeded. 

In  the  early  part  of  1916  the  Mexican  situa¬ 
tion  was  considerably  altered.  In  January  Vil- 
Iista  forces  killed  several  American  miners  and 
the  United  States  government  demanded  that  the 
de  facto  government  punish  the  guilty  parties. 
On  March  9  Villa  with  about  500  followers  in¬ 
vaded  the  town  of  Columbus,  N.  Mex.,  killed  7 
troopers  and  several  civilians,  and  set  fire  to 
many  buildings.  When  he  fled  he  Avas  pursued 
across  the  border  by  United  States  soldiers.  The 
next  day  President  Wilson  ordered  a  punitive 
expedition  to  cross  the  border,  with  scrupulous 
respect  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  Mexican  Re¬ 
public.  An  agreement  was  made  with  General 
Carranza  which  permitted  him  to  cross  the 
United  States  border  in  pursuit  of  escaping  ban¬ 
dits.  A  force  under  General  Pershing  Avith  the 
cooperation  of  Carranza  troops  pushed  Villa  into 
the  mountain  regions  of  Chihuahua.  Several 
desultory  engagements  Avere  fought.  At  Parral 
l  nited  States  soldiers  Avere  fired  on  bv  natives, 
and  General  Carranza  demanded  the  "  recall  of 
the  punitive  expedition.  This  Avas  refused  by  the 
United  States  on  the  ground  that  the  de  facto 
government  Avas  not  able  to  keep  the  peace 
along  the  border.  A  conference  Avas  held  be- 
t aa  een  representatives  of  the  tAA7o  governments 
to  attempt  to  settle  the  question  of  border 
control,  but  as  no  definite  agreement  could  be 
reached,  the  expeditionary  force  remained  in 
Mexico  to  prevent  further  violations  of  the 
sovereignty  of  the  United  States.  The  State 
militia  aa  as  called  out  to  protect  the  border.  In 
1916  Charles  E.  Hughes  and  Woodrow  Wilson 
AA7ere  the  candidates  nominated  for  the  Presi¬ 
dency  by  the  Republican  and  Democratic  Con¬ 
ventions  respectively.  Charles  W.  Fairbanks 
and  Thomas  R.  Marshall  were  the  vice-presi¬ 
dential  nominees. 


An  element  of  the  Progressive  Party  nom¬ 
inated  Theodore  Roosevelt  for  President  but  he 
declined  the  nomination  and  heartily  supported 
Mr.  Hughes  during  the  campaign.  Mr.  Wilson 
was  re-elected  by  an  extremely  small  margin, 
the  issue  being  in  doubt  for  several  days.  It 
was  decided  only  by  his  success  in  winning  the 
electoral  vote  in  California.  The  electoral  \rote 
stood  277  for  Wilson  and  254  for  Hughes.  The 
President’s  popular  vote  showed  a  gain  of  tAvo 
million  over  that  of  1912,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  Republicans  gained  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  and  elected  many  of  their  State 
candidates. 

throughout  1916  the  United  States  was 
brought  nearer  to  Avar  with  Germany.  The 
German  war  submarine  U-53  entered  Newport 
harbor  on  October  7,  1917,  and  after  delivering 
mail  for  the  German  Embassy,  departed.  With¬ 
in  the  next  tAvo  days  it  had  sunk,  in  SAvift 
succession,  one  Dutch,  one  NorAvegian  and  three 
British  ships  within  sight  of  the  American  coast. 
The  submarine  escaped  unharmed. 

The  President  made  efforts  during  December, 
1916  and  January,  1917  to  bring  about  a  condi¬ 
tion  among  the  combatant  nations  which  would 
lead  to  peace,  endeavoring  among  other  things 
to  secure  a  statement  of  terms  from  both  sides 
upon  which  the  war  could  be  honorably  con¬ 
cluded.  These  attempts  are  described  in  the 
article  Volume  XXIV. 

Following  closely  on  these  efforts,  Ger¬ 
many  embarked  on  a  ruthless  submarine  war¬ 
fare,  declaring  that  all  merchant  ships  found 
in  a  prohibited  zone  would  be  sunk  after 
February  1,  1917,  without  warning.  Presi¬ 

dent  Wilson,  on  February  3,  addressed  both. 
Houses  of  Congress  and  declared  that  he  had 
directed  the  Secretary  of  State  to  announce  to 
the  German  Ambassador  that  all  diplomatic 
relations  between  the  tvro  goA’ernments  were 
severed,  and  that  the  American  Ambassador  had 
been  recalled  from  Berlin.  The  President  de¬ 
clared  further  that  he  hoped  that  Germany  would 
not  actually  embark  upon  the  ruthless  sub¬ 
marine  warfare  and  that  only  overt  acts  on  her 
part  would  convince  him  that  she  would  do 
so.  There  followed  a  period  during  which  the 
President  waited  for  such  overt  acts.  In  the 
meantime  the  government  undertook  whatever 
measures  were  possible  looking  toAArard  war. 
Congress,  on  February  26,  gave  President  Wilson 
authority  to  supply  guns  and  ammunition  to 
American  merchant  ships.  German  submarine 
Avarfare  Avas  carried  on  with  great  ferocity  and 
Allied  and  American  vessels  Avere  sunk.  Congress 
Avas  called  in  special  session  on  April  2  and 
the  President  made  an  address  in  which  he  sum¬ 
marized  the  offenses  of  Germany  against  the 
United  States  goA7ernment  and  recommended  that 
Congress  declare  that  the  course  of  the  German 
government  Avas  nothing  less  than  war  against 
the  government  and  people  of  the  United 
States.  A  resolution  declaring  Avar  was  passed 
by  both  Houses  and  Avas  signed  by  the  Presi¬ 
dent  on  April  6. 

The  details  of  preparation  for  and  the  carry¬ 
ing  on  of  Avar  upon  Avhich  the  United  States 
noAV  embarked  are  told  in  the  account  of  the 
war  in  Volume  XXIV.  See  also  section  on 
Army  above.  The  successful  outcome  of  the 
struggle  was  made  possible  by  the  unAvavering 
loyalty  and  devotion  of  the  "American  people 
in  military  and  civil  capacities  to  the  one  object 
of  bringing  about  a  victorious  issue.  The  polit. 


UNITED  STATES 


773 


UNITED  STATES 


ical  happenings  of  1917—18  had  to  do  almost 
entirely  with  the  war,  which  obscured  all  other 
issues  and  united  all  political  parties  to  a 
common  end. 

When  the  war  was  concluded  the  nation 
quickly  returned  to  a  peace  basis  and  prepara¬ 
tions  were  at  once  begun  for  the  return  of 
American  soldiers  from  Europe.  The  first  of 
these  arrived  on  December  2,  1918  and  they 
were  followed  by  thousands  of  others  in  quick 
succession  until  all  had  been  returned  except 
the  forces  left  in  Germany  to  represent  the 
United  States.  The  President,  on  November 
18,  1918,  announced  that  he  would  attend  the 
Peace  Conference  in  Paris  in  person.  He  named 
as  peace  delegates,  Robert  Lansing,  Secretary  of 
State;  Henry  White,  formerly  Ambassador  to 
France;  Edward  M.  House,  and  General  Tasker 
H.  Bliss.  Mr.  White  was  the  Republican  rep¬ 
resentative.  The  President  was  received  in 
Paris  with  great  enthusiasm  and,  prior  to  the 
meeting  of  the  peace  conference,  lie  made  visits 
to  Great  Britain  and  Italy,  where  he  was  hailed 
as  the  savior  of  the  world. 

The  President’s  chief  concern  at  the  peace 
conference  was  the  preparation  of  the  covenant 
of  the  League  of  Nations  and  he  gave  his  utmost 
efforts  to  this  object.  After  the  first  draft  of 
the  covenant  had  been  prepared,  he  returned  to 
the  United  States  for  a  brief  visit,  on  February 
24,  1919.  There  had  already  developed  in  Con¬ 
gress,  especially  in  the  Senate,  a  pronounced 
opposition  to  the  terms  of  the  covenant.  This 
opposition  was  centered  chiefly  upon  Article  10, 
which  pledged  the  United  States  “to  preserve  as 
against  external  aggression,  the  territory  of  all 
the  states  in  the  League.”  President  Wilson, 
during  his  stay  in  the  United  States,  made 
several  addresses  in  which  he  defended  the 
covenant.  He*  then  returned  to  Paris.  When 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  was  signed,  on  June  28, 
1919,  the  President  at  once  returned  to  the 
United  States,  arriving  on  July  9. 

The  Eighteenth  Amendment  prohibiting  the 
sale  or  manufacture  of  intoxicating  liquors  be¬ 
came  effective  on  July  1,  1919,  three-fourths  of 
the  States  having  ratified  the  amendment.  The 
amendment,  however,  was  not  put  into  opera¬ 
tion  until  Januarv,  1920. 

Political  interest  now  centered  in  the  de¬ 
liberations  on  the  peace  treaty  in  the  Senate. 
The  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations  having 
considered  the  treaty,  it  was  introduced  in  the 
Senate  on  September  28.  There  had  been  added 
38  amendments  and  four  reservations.  The 
amendments  were  rejected  and  the  interest  was 
centered  upon  the  reservations.  The  first  of 
these  gave  to  the  Lhiited  States  the  right  to 
withdraw  from  the  League  of  Nations  after  due 
notice  had  been  given.  The  second  freed  the 
United  States  from  any  obligation  toward  carry¬ 
ing  out  Article  10,  noted  above.  The  third  res¬ 
ervation  provided  that  the  United  States  should 
have  the  power  to  decide  what  questions  came 
within  domestic  jurisdiction.  Tn  the  fourth 
reservation  the  United  States  declined  to  submit 
for  arbitration  and  inquiry  any  questions  de¬ 
pendent  on^or  relating  to  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 
The  President  had  previously,  on  the  advice  of 
President  Taft  and  others,  inserted  in  the  treaty 
a  declaration  that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  continued 
to  be  in  force.  After  a  long  debate  in  the 
Senate  in  which  much  bitterness  developed,  the 
treaty  was  defeated,  with  the  reservations  by 
a  vote  of  55  to  39;  and  without  the  reservations, 


by  a  vote  of  55  to  38.  On  April  30,  1920,  Sena¬ 
tor  Knox  introduced  a  resolution  in  the  Senate 
providing  for  a  declaration  of  peace  with  Ger¬ 
many.  This  resolution  was  adopted  by  both 
Houses  but  was  vetoed  by  the  President.  A 
bill  for  the  conduct  and  regulation  of  railways 
was  passed  by  Congress  during  this  session. 

Robert  Lansing,  Secretary  of  State,  resigned 
on  February  13  as  a  result  of  severe  criticism 
of  his  action  in  summoning  the  Cabinet  in 
session  during  the  illness  of  the  President.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Bainbridge  Colby  of  New 
Jersey. 

The  chief  issue  of  the  presidential  campaign 
of  1920  was  the  League  of  Nations.  While  the 
treaty  was  being  considered  in  the  Senate,  Presi¬ 
dent  Wilson  made  an  extended  tour  of  the 
country,  making  addresses  on  its  behalf.  This 
was  brought  to  an  end  by  a  physical  break¬ 
down  in  the  nature  of  a  shock,  which  prevented 
his  active  participation  in  the  affairs  of  the 
government  practically  until  the  end  of  his  term. 

The  Republican  candidates  for  the  nomination 
prior  to  the  convention  were  General  Leonard 
Wood,  Governor  Lowden  of  Illinois,  Senator 
Hiram  Johnson  of  California,  and  Herbert  Hoo¬ 
ver.  The  leading  Democratic  candidates  were 
William  G.  McAdoo  and  Governor  James  M. 
Cox  of  Ohio.  The  Republican  National  Conven¬ 
tion  met  in  Chicago  on  June  8.  The  forces  of 
General  Wood  and  Governor  Lowden  were  so 
evenly  matched  that  the  contest  ended  on  June 
12  by  the  nomination  of  Senator  Warren  G. 
Harding  for  President  and  Governor  Calvin 
Coolidge  of  Massachusetts  for  Vice-President. 
At  the  Democratic  convention,  which  met  at 
San  Francisco  on  June  28,  Governor  Cox  was 
nominated  for  President  and  Franklin  D.  Roose¬ 
velt  of  New  York,  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  for  Vice-President.  The  campaign 
which  followed  was  an  exceedingly  aggressive 
one,  especially  on  the  part  of  Mr.  Cox,  who 
toured  the  country  making  speeches  in  defense 
of  the  League  of  Nations  in  practically  every 
State.  Senator  Harding  remained  at  home, 
where  from  day  to  day  he  addressed  delegations. 
The  Republicans,  for  the  most  part,  ignored 
the  League  of  Nations  but  directed  their  attacks 
to  the  administration  of  the  President.  In  the 
election  in  November,  Harding  received  16,091,- 
804  popular  votes  and  Cox,  9,014,667.  Harding 
and  Coolidge  received  404  electoral  votes  and 
Cox  and  Roosevelt,  127.  These  were  the  largest 
popular  and  electoral  majorities  ever  cast. 

The  Congressional  elections  gave  the  Repub¬ 
licans  307  members  in  the  House  and  the  Dem¬ 
ocrats  127.  The  Republicans  gained  a  majority 
of  22  in  the  Senate. 

The  Nineteenth  Amendment  providing  for 
women  suffrage  had  been  adopted  prior  to  the 
election,  and  the  women,  for  the  first  time,  par¬ 
ticipated  in  the  election  of  a  president. 

Warren  G.  Harding’s  Administration 
(1921-  ).  President  Harding  was  inaugu¬ 

rated  on  March  4,  1921.  He  at  once  announced 
the  members  of  his  Cabinet,  as  follows:  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State,  Charles  E.  Hughes  of  New  York; 
Seeretarv  of  the  Treasurv,  Andrew  W.  Mellon 
of  Pennsylvania;  Secretary  of  War,  John  W. 
Weeks  of  Massachusetts;  Secretary'  of  the 
Navy,  Edwin  C.  Denby  of  Michigan;  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  Albert  B.  Fall  of  New  Mexico; 
Postmaster-General,  Will  H.  Hays  of  Ohio; 
Attorney-General,  Harry  M.  Daugherty  of  Ohio; 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Henry  C.  Wallace  of 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


774 


Iowa;  Secretary  of  Commerce,  Herbert  Hoover 
of  California;  and  Secretary  of  Labor,  James 
J.  Davis  of  Pennsylvania.  On  March  23  the 
President  issued  a  call  for  a  special  session  of 
Congress  to  be  held  on  April  11,  1921.  Congress 
at  once  took  up  the  consideration  of  measures 
looking  toward  economic  and  financial  recon¬ 
struction.  An  Immigration  Bill,  which  limited 
the  immigrants  of  any  nationality,  during  the 
fiscal  year,  to  three  per  cent  of  the  number 
of  that  nationality  in  the  United  States  at  the 
census  of  1910,  was  passed.  This  measure  had 
previously  been  vetoed  by  President  Wilson. 
An  Emergency  Tariff  Bill  was  passed  and  was 
approved  by  the  President  on  May  27.  A  budget 
law  was  enacted  and  was  signed  by  the  Presi¬ 
dent.  This  also  had  been  previously  vetoed  by 
President  Wilson.  The  appropriations  for  the 
army  and  navy  were  radically  cut  down  and 
by  the  terms  of  the  Army  Bill,  the  army  was 
limited  to  150,000  men.  The  Senate  passed,  on 
April  30,  a  resolution  previously  offered  by 
Senator  Knox,  declaring  the  war  between  the 
United  States  and  the  Central  Powers  at  an 
end  and  repealing  the  declaration  of  war.  This 
was  followed  by  the  preparation  and  ratification 
of  a  treaty  with  Germany.  By  the  terms  of 
this  treaty  the  United  States  is  not  bound  by 
any  of  the  provisions  of  the  Versailles  Treaty 
which  relate  to  the  League  of  Nations.  It  re¬ 
serves  to  the  United  States,  however,  whatever 
favorable  concessions  are  made  by  Germany  to 
the  Allied  powers.  The  treaty  was  signed  by 
the  President  on  September  1,  1921. 

A  measure  was  passed  by  Congress  giving 
American  coastwise  shipping  the  right  of  free 
passage  through  the  Panama  Canal.  This  re¬ 
pealed  the  former  measure  by  which  tolls  were 
charged  for  American  as  well  as  other  vessels. 
The  laws  relating  to  taxation  were  amended 
by  Congress  and  the  income  tax  was  reduced  in 
some  particulars.  The  elections  held  in  Novem¬ 
ber  indicated  support  of  the  actions  of  the 
government.  Negotiations  were  carried  on  dur¬ 
ing  the  year  with  Mexico  with  the  object  of 
bringing  about  a  better  understanding  with  that 
country  and  the  recognition  by  the  American 
government. 

The  overwhelming  sentiment  against  war  and 
for  the  decrease  of  expenditures  for  armaments 
on  the  part  of  the  American  people  were  shared 
by  both  the  President  and  Congress.  President 
Harding,  in  November,  1921,  issued  invitations 
for  a  Conference  on  the  Limitation  of  Armaments 
to  include  representatives  of  Great  Britain, 
France,  Japan,  Italy  and  Belgium.  China  was 
also  represented,  as  the  conference  was  widened 
to  include  questions  relating  to  the  Far  East. 
The  conference  was  in  session  until  February, 
1922,  and  as  a  result  of  its  deliberations,  nine 
treaties  or  other  agreements  were  formulated. 

1  he  most  important  of  these  was  the  agreement 
of  the  great  powers  to  limit  naval  armaments 
to  a  specialized  number  of  tons  and  to  maintain 
the  navies  of  Great  Britain,  the  United  States 
and  Japan  on  a  ratio  of  5—5—3.  See  above 
section  .A  avy.  In  another  agreement  the  great 
powers  agreed  to  respect  the  rights  of  one 
another  in  the  Far  East  and  to  confer  if 
trouble  arose.  Still  another  declared  the  inten¬ 
tion  of  the  great  powers  to  respect  the  rights 
of  China.  Japan  engaged  to  return  the  province 
of  Shantung.  The  other  treaties  and  agreements 
related  to  various  phases  of  naval  warfare,  in¬ 
cluding  the  use  of  gas,  limitation  of  the  number 


of  submarines  and  their  use  in  warfare,  and 
similar  subjects.  The  United  States  and  Japan 
also  agreed  as  to  their  mutual  rights  in  the 
island  of  Yap. 

The  United  States  declined  to  be  represented 
at  the  conference  at  Geneva  on  the  ground  that 
it  was  a  political  as  well  as  an  economic  con¬ 
ference.  It  also  declined  to  participate  in  the 
conference  at  The  Hague  which  had  to  do 
with  the  political  and  economic  conditions  of 
Russia. 

Congress  ratified  all  the  treaties  passed  by 
the  Washington  Conference,  and  a  great  part 
of  the  deliberations  during  the  summer  of  1922 
related  to  a  new  tariff  measure.  The  latter  half 
of  1922  was  a  period  of  industrial  turmoil  and 
dissatisfaction.  A  general  strike  of  the  coal 
miners  in  both  the  anthracite  and  bituminous 
fields,  which  for  months  had  threatened  to  occur, 
was  declared  in  bituminous  fields  on  April  1, 
at  the  expiration  of  the  two  year  contracts 
between  the  operators  and  the  employees.  In 
all  the  fields  where  union  labor  was  employed, 
operations  in  the  mines  ceased.  Efforts  were 
at  once  undertaken  by  the  President  and  other 
government  agencies  to  reconcile  the  differences 
between  the  miners  and  their  employers.  Public 
opinion  was  greatly  stirred  in  May  by  an 
assault  upon  non-union  miners  in  Herrin,  Ill., 
in  which  nineteen  non-union  miners,  after  hav¬ 
ing  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  members  of 
the  striking  organizations,  were  shot  down  in 
cold  blood.  It  was  charged  that  the  local  and 
State  authorities  had  been  dilatory  in  protect¬ 
ing  the  non-union  miners  and  for  several  months 
little  action  was  taken.  In  September,  however, 
over  50  indictments  had  been  found  against 
union  miners  accused  of  participating  in  this 
affair  and  there  were  indications  that  justice 
would  be  rendered. 

Work  in  the  anthracite  mines  continued  for 
several  months  after  the  strike  had  begun  in 
the  bituminous  mines,  and  negotiations  were 
carried  on  between  the  employers  and  employees 
which  it  was  hoped  would  prevent  a  strike. 
These  negotiations,  however,  failed  and  the  an¬ 
thracite  miners,  who  were  almost  entirely 
unionized,  abandoned  their  work.  This  resulted 
in  a  non-production  of  coal  in  any  except  a 
few  fields,  especially  in  West  Virginia,  which 
were  operated  by  non-union  labor.  Every  resort 
in  the  hands  of  the  President  and  of  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  his  Cabinet  was  exercised  to  settle  the 
differences,  so  that  coal  could  be  produced  in 
time  for  use  before  the  cold  weather  approached, 
as  the  reserves  of  coal  were  speedily  used  up. 
These  efforts  were  not  successful  until  about  the 
middle  of  September,  when  a  compromise  was 
finally  arrived  at  between  the  anthracite  and 
bituminous  miners  and  their  employers  by  which 
they  were  to  return  to  work  and  their  difficulties 
would  be  examined  by  a  commission  appointed 
by  the  President. 

Congress  passed  several  measures  aimed  at 
a  permanent  settlement  of  the  difficulties  in  the 
coal  mining  fields.  The  most  important  of 
these  provided  for  a  Fact  Finding  Commission, 
which  should  examine  the  coal  question  in  all 
its  aspects  and  report  on  possible  remedies  for 
the  recurring  disputes  between  employers  and 
employed.  Another  bill  prohibiting  profiteering 
in  the  sale  of  coal  used  in  interstate  commerce 
was  passed. 

No  less  serious  than  the  coal  strike  was  a 
general  strike  of  the  shopmen  on  all  the  rail- 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


775 


roads  of  the  country,  which  was  declared  on 
July  1,  1922.  The  Railroad  Act  of  1920  had 
created  a  Railroad  Labor  Board  which  had 
authority  to  arbitrate  the  question  of  wages 
and  other  questions  arising  between  the  owners 
and  employees  of  the  railroads  and  also  the 
authority  to  increase  or  decrease  the  wages 
of  employees.  This  board  decreased  the  wages 
of  those  employed  in  the  repair  shops  and  the 
railroads,  and  officers  of  the  organizations  at 
once  prepared  for  a  general  strike.  The  men 
voted  by  a  large  majority  for  such  a  strike  and 
the  men  on  all  the  roads  in  the  country  left  their 
work  on  July  1.  Railway  officials  at  once  began 
to  recruit  men  to  take  the  place  of  those  who 
had  left.  The  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
coal  strike,  held  many  conferences  with  the 
opposing  elements  in  the  effort  to  establish 
an  agreement  by  which  the  men  could  return 
to  their  work.  These  failed,  chiefly  on  the 
question  of  seniority.  All  railroad  employees 
have  certain  rights  which  come  from  their 
length  of  service,  and  the  striking  employees 
insisted  that  these  rights  should  remain  with 
them  if  they  should  return  to  work.  The  em¬ 
ployers  refused  to  grant  this,  declaring  that 
those  who  had  left  had  forfeited  these  rights 
and  that  it  would  be  unfair  to  the  men  who 
had  taken  their  places  if  they  should  be  de¬ 
prived  of  them  and  the  striking  employees 
restored. 

This  condition  continued  throughout  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1922. 

All  attempts  to  arrive  at  a  settlement  having 
failed,  the  Attorney  General,  in  September,  se¬ 
cured  an  injunction  against  the  officers  of  the 
striking  organizations  preventing  them  from  con¬ 
tinuing  to  obstruct  interstate  commerce.  This 
injunction  declared  that  a  conspiracy  existed 
among  these  organizations  to  so  obstruct  com¬ 
merce  and  that  the  obligation  to  abide  by  the 
decisions  of  the  Railroad  Labor  Board  had  not 
been  carried  out. 

This  injunction  was  bitterly  fought  by  the 
officials  of  the  striking  organizations,  who  de¬ 
clared  that  the  Attorney  General  had  greatly 
exceeded  his  authority  in  obtaining  such  an  in¬ 
junction,  and  threatened  his  impeachment.  In 
spite  of  this,  the  injunction  continued  in  effect 
and  writs  were  served  upon  the  officers  of  the 
striking  organizations. 

Bibliography.  Physical  features:  J.  F. 
Kemp,  Ore  Deposits  of  the  United,  States  (3d  en¬ 
larged  ed.,  New  York,  1900)  ;  I.  C.  Russell, 
Lakes  of  North  America  (ib.,  1905);  Isaiah 
Bowman,  Forest  Physiography  (New  York, 
1911);  and  publications  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  (Washington),  American  Geo¬ 
graphical  Society  (New  York),  Geological  So¬ 
ciety  of  America  (ib. ),  etc. 

Climate:  The  Monthly  Weather  Review  (Wash¬ 
ington,  1872  et  seq. ) ,  and  the  bulletins  and 
circulars  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
( ib.,  1892  et  seq. ) . 

Vegetation  and  flora:  F.  M.  Chapman,  Flora 
of  the  Southern  United  States  (rev.  ed.,  New 
York,  1897);  North  American  Flora ,  published 
by  the  New  York  Botanic  Garden  (30  vols., 
New  York,  1905-10)  ;  R.  B.  Hough,  Handbook 
of  the  Trees  of  the  Northern  United  States  and 
Canada  (Lowville,  N.  Y.,  1907);  Britton  and 
Shafer,  North  American  Trees  (ib.,  1908)  ;  Rob¬ 
inson  and  Fernald,  editors,  Gray’s  New  Manual 
of  Botany  (7th  ed.,  ib.,  1908)  ;  Britton  and 
Brown,  Illustrated  Flora  of  the  Northern  United 


States  (rev.  ed.,  3  vols.,  ib.,  1913)  ;  Torrey 
Botanical  Club,  Bulletin  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  an¬ 
nually)  ;  publications  of  the  United  States 
Forest  Service  (Washington),  the  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry  ( ib. ) ,  the  Division  of  Botany 
(ib.),  etc. 

Fauna:  Louis  Agassiz,  Contributions  to  the 
Natural  History  of  the  United  States  (4  vols., 
Boston,  1857-62)  ;  North  American  Fauna,  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Biological 
Survey  (Washington,  1889  et  seq.)  ;  F.  A.  Lucas, 
Animals  before  Man  in  North  America  (New 
York,  1902)  ;  Jordan  and  Evermann,  American 
Food  and  Game  Fishes  (Garden  City,  N.  Y., 
1914)  ;  Stone  and  Cram,  American  Animals 
(new  ed.,  New  York,  1914). 

Natural  resources:  N.  S.  Shaler,  Nature  and 
Man  in  America  (New  York,  1897);  id.,  Man 
and  the  Earth  (ib.,  1905)  ;  L.  H.  Bailey,  Country 
Life  Movement  in  the  United  States  (New  York, 
1911)  ;  C.  R.  Van  Hise,  Conservation  of  Natural 
Resources  in  the  United  States  (ib.,  1915)  ;  also 
publications  of  the  National  Conservation  Con¬ 
gress  (Washington,  1910  et  seq.). 

Economic  conditions:  J.  L.  Laughlin,  Indus¬ 
trial  America  (New  York,  1906)  ;  A.  R.  Hasse, 
Index  of  Economic  Material  in  Documents  of 
the  States  of  the  United  States,  Prepared  for  the 
Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington  (Washing¬ 
ton,  1907  et  seq.);  C.  D.  Wright,  Industrial 
Evolution  of  the  United  States  (new  ed.,  ib., 
1910)  ;  A.  B.  Hart,  Social  and  Economic  Forces 
in  American  History  (ib.,  1913);  C.  A.  Beard, 
Economic  Interpretation  of  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  (ib.,  1913);  E.  L.  Bogart, 
Economic  History  of  the  United  States  (2d  ed., 
ib.,  1914)  ;  United  States  Census,  Wealth,  Debt, 
and  Taxation,  1913  (2  vols.,  Washington,  1913)  ; 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  Mineral  Re¬ 
sources  of  the  United  States  (Washington,  an¬ 
nually)  ;  Mineral  Industry:  Its  Statistics,  Tech¬ 
nology,  and  Trade  (New  York,  annually). 

Finance:  A.  S.  Bolles,  Financial  History  of 
the  United  States  from  1 77 If  to  18S5  (4th  ed., 
New  York,  1894-96)  ;  J.  J.  Knox,  United  States 
Notes:  A  History  of  the  Various  Issues  of  Paper 
Money  (3d  ed.,  New  York,  1899)  ;  A.  S.  Bolles, 
American  Finance  (ib.,  1904);  C.  C.  Conant, 
Wall  Street  and  the  Country  (ib.,  1904)  ;  M.  S. 
Wildman,  Money  Inflation  in  the  United  States 
(ib.,  1905)  ;  E.  E.  Agger,  The  Budget  in  the 
American  Commonwealths  (ib.,  1907);  Gustav 
Nord  (ed.),  American  Financial  Methods  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1912);  D.  R.  Dewey,  Financial  History  of 
the  United  States  (5th  ed.,  New  York,  1915)  ; 
W.  W.  Bradbeer,  Confederate  and  Southern  State 
Currency  (Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  1916). 

Commerce:  D.  W.  Brown,  The  Commercial 
Power  of  Congress  Considered  in  the  Light  of 
its  Origin  (New  York,  1910)  ;  T.  W.  Van  Metre, 
Outline  of  the  Development  of  the  Internal 
Commerce  of  the  United  States,  1789—1900  (Bal¬ 
timore,  1913)  ;  E.  R.  Johnson  and  Others,  His¬ 
tory  of  Domestic  and  Foreign  Commerce  of  the 
United  States,  published  by  the  Carnegie  In¬ 
stitution  of  Washington  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1915)  ; 
E.  J.  Clapp,  Economic  Aspects  of  the  War  (New 
Haven,  1915)  ;  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science,  American  I ndustrial  Oppor¬ 
tunity  (Philadelphia,  1915). 

Politics  and  government :  C.  H.  Butler,  Treaty 
Making  Power  of  the  United  States  (2  vols., 
ib.,  1902)  ;  C.  E.  Merriam,  History  of  American 
Political  Theories  (ib.,  1903)  ;  Alexis  de  Tocque- 
ville,  On  Democracy  in  America  (Eng.  trans. 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


776 


by  Henry  Reeve,  2  vols.  ib.,  1894)  ;  F.  J.  Good- 
now,  Principles  of  the  Administrative  Law  of 
the  United  States  (ib.,  1905)  ;  Finley  and  Sand¬ 
erson,  The  American  Executive  and  Executive 
Methods  (New  York,  1908);  F.  J.  Stinson 
(J.  S.  of  Dale,  pseud.),  The  Law  of  the  Federal 
and  State  Constitutions  of  the  United  States 
(Boston,  1908)  ;  J.  W.  Jenks,  Principles  of  Poli¬ 
tics  (ib.,  1909);  Bryce,  The  American  Common¬ 
wealth  (new  ed.,  New  York,  1910)  ;  R.  L.  Asliley, 
American  Federal  State  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1911); 
John  Fiske,  American  Political  Ideas  (Boston, 
1911);  E.  P.  Oberholtzer,  The  Referendum  in 
America  (New  York,  1911);  Woodrow  Wilson, 
The  State:  Elements  of  Historical  and  Practi¬ 
cal  Politics  (new  ed.,  Boston,  1911);  C.  A. 
Beard,  Readings  in  American  Government  and 
Politics  (ib.,  1914)  ;  A.  B.  Claflin,  Political  Par¬ 
ties  in  the  United  States,  1800-1914  (ib.,  1914)  ; 
McLaughlin  and  Hart,  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Government  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1914)  ;  Charles  Zueblin, 
American  Municipal  Progress  (new  ed.,  ib., 
1916)  ;  Lippincott,  Economic  Development  of  the 
United  States  (1921)  ;  Seymour,  Woodrow  Wil¬ 
son  and  the  World  War  (1921)  ;  also  references 
under  Political  Parties. 

Army :  F.  V.  A.  de  Chanal,  The  American 
Army  in  the  War  of  Secession  ( Eng.  trans.  by 
M.  J.  O'Brien,  Leavenworth,  Ivans.,  1894)  ;  F.  B. 
Heitman,  Historical  Register  and  Dictionary  of 
the  United  States  Army  from  its  Organization 
...  to  ..  .  1903  (2  vols.,  Washington,  1903)  ; 
F.  V.  Greene,  The  Revolutionary  War  and  the 
Military  Policy  of  the  United  States  (New  York, 
1911)  ;  L.  C.  Andrews,  Fundamentals  of  Military 
Service  (Philadelphia,  1916)  ;  also  United  States 
War  Department,  Annual  Reports  (Washing¬ 
ton,  1845  et  seq. )  ;  United  States  Army  Register 
(ib.,  annually)  ;  United  States  Army  List  and 
Directory  (ib.,  annually). 

Navy:  F.  M.  Bennett,  The  Steam  Navy  of  the 
United  States:  A  History  of  the  Growth  of  the 
Steam  Vessel  of  War  in  the  United  States  Navy 
(Pittsburgh.  1896);  A  T.  Mahan,  Interest  of 
America  in  Sea  Power,  Present  and  Future  ( Bos¬ 
ton,  1897)  ;  F.  S.  Hill,  Twenty-Six  Historic  Ships 
( ib.,  1903)  ;  A.  T.  Mahan,  Sea  Poiver  in  its  Rela¬ 
tion  to  the  War  of  1812  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1905)  ; 
id.,  From  Sail  to  Steam  (ib.,  1907)  ;  id.,  Naval 
Administration  and  Warfare  (ib.,  1908)  ;  G.  W. 
Allen,  Our  Naval  War  with  France  (ib.,  1909)  ; 
R.  W.  Neeser,  Statistical  and  Chronological  His¬ 
tory  of  the  United  States  Navy,  1715-1907  (2 
vols.,  New  York,  1909);  G.  W.  Allen,  Naval 
History  of  the  American  Revolution  (2  vols., 
Boston,  1913);  Benham  and  Hall,  Ships  of  the 
United  States  Navy  and  their  Sponsors,  1797- 
1913  (Norwood,  Mass.,  1913);  R.  W.  Neeser, 
Our  Many-Sided  Navy  (New  Haven,  1914)  ; 
F.  E.  Chadwick,  The  American  Navy  (Garden 
City,  N.  Y.,  1915),  containing  a  bibliography; 
R.  W.  Neeser,  Our  Navy  and  the  Next  War 
(New  York,  1915)  ;  also  United  States  Navy, 
Annual  Reports  (Washington,  1822  et  seq.)  ;  id.. 
Naval  Records  of  the  Civil  War  (ib.,  1894  et 
seq. ) . 

Foreign  relations:  J.  W.  Foster,  Century  of 
American  Diplomacy  (new  ed.,  Boston,  1901); 
id.,  American  Diplomacy  in  the  Orient  (ib., 
1903)  ;  Edward  Bicknell,  Territorial  Acquisitions 
of  the  United  States  (3d  ed.,  ib.,  1904)  ;  A.  R. 
Colquhoun,  Greater  America  (NeAv  York,  1904)  ; 
J.  W.  Foster,  Practice  of  Diplomacy  as  Illus¬ 
trated  in  the  Foreign  Relations  of  the  United 
States  (Boston,  1906)  ;  W.  H.  Taft,  Present  Day 


Problems  (New  York,  1908)  ;  J.  W.  Foster,  Dip¬ 
lomatic  Memoirs  (2  vols.,  Boston,  1909);  A.  B. 
Hart,  Foundations  of  American  Foreign  Policy 
(New  York,  1910)  ;  A.  T.  Mahan,  Interest  of 
America  in  International  Conditions  (Boston, 
1910)  ;  A.  R.  Llasse,  Index  to  United  States 
Documents  Relating  to  Foreign  Affairs,  1828- 
1861,  published  by  the  Carnegie  Institution,  to 
be  complete  in  3  parts  (part  i,  Washington, 
1914)  ;  John  Bigelow,  American  Policy :  The 
Western  Hemisphere  in  its  Relation  to  the  East¬ 
ern  (New  York,  1914)  ;  C.  R.  Fish,  American 
Diplomacy  (ib.,  1915)  ;  H.  S.  Tucker,  Limitations 
on  the  Treaty-Making  Power  under  the  Consti¬ 
tution  of  the  United  States  (Boston,  1915)  ;  R. 
G.  Usher,  Pan-Americanism  (New  York,  1915)  ; 
J.  F.  Abbott,  Japanese  Expansion  and  American 
Policies  (ib.,  1916)  ;  Arthur/ Bullard,  Diplomacy 
of  the  Great  War  (ib.,  1916);  J.  C.  Freehoff, 
America  and  the  Canal  Title  (ib.,  1916)  ;  W.  F. 
Johnson,  America’s  Foreign"  Relations  (2  vols., 
ib.,  1916);  R.  G.  Usher,  The  Challenge  of  the 
Future  (Boston,  1916). 

Education:  National  Education  Association, 
Proceedings  (Winona,  Minn.,  1873  et  seq.)  ;  F. 
W.  Blackmar,  History  of  Federal  and  State  Aid 
to  Higher  Education  in  the  United  States 
(Washington  1890)  ;  A.  B.  Hart,  Studies  in 
American  Education  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Horace 
Mann,  “Ground  of  the  Free  School  System,” 
in  Old  South  Leaflet,  General  Series,  No.  109 
(Boston,  1900)  ;  A.  E.  Winship,  Great  American 
Educators  (New  York,  1900)  ;  W.  H.  Page,  Re¬ 
building  of  Old  Commonwealths  in  the  South  (ib., 
1902)  ;  E.  G.  Dexter,  History  of  Education  in 
the  United  States  (ib.,  1904)  ;  Moseley  Educa¬ 
tion  Commission  to  the  United  States  of  Amer¬ 
ica,  Reports  (London,  1904)  ;  F.  H.  Swift,  His¬ 
tory  of  Public  Permanent  Common  School  Funds 
in  the  United  States,  1795-1905  (New  York, 
1905)  ;  C.  F.  Thwing,  History  of  Higher  Edu¬ 
cation  in  America  (ib.,  1906)  ;  F.  T.  Carlton, 
Economic  Influences  upon  Educational  Progress 
in  the  United  States,  1820-1850  (Madison,  Wis., 
1908)  ;  C.  F.  Thwing,  History  of  Education  in 
the  United  States  since  the  Civil  War  (Boston, 
1910)  ;  Charles  de  Garmo,  Principles  of  Second¬ 
ary  Education  (3  vols.,  New  York,  1907-10); 
F.  T.  Carlton,  Education  and  Industrial  Evolu¬ 
tion  (ib.,  1908)  ;  A.  S.  Draper,  American  Educa¬ 
tion  (Boston,  1909);  N.  M.  Butler,  Meaning  of 
Education  (ib.,  1909)  ;  id.,  Monographs  on  Edu¬ 
cation  in  the  United  States  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1910)  ; 
F.  W.  Kelsey,  Latin  and  Greek  in  American  Edu¬ 
cation  (ib.,  1911 )  ;  Dutton  and  Snedden,  Adminis¬ 
tration  of  Public  Education  in  the  United  States 
(ib.,  1912)  ;  G.  M.  Kerschensteiner,  “Comparison 
of  Public  Education  in  Germany  and  in  the 
United  States”  (Eng.  trans.  by  W.  C.  Ryan  in 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No. 
24  (Washington,  1913);  “Education  of  the  Im¬ 
migrant,”  id.,  Bulletin  No.  51  (ib.,  1913)  ;  H.  A. 
Hollister,  Administration  of  Education  in  a 
Democracy  (New  York,  1914)  ;  Cubberley  and 
Elliott,  State  and  County  School  Administration 
(ib.,  1915)  ;  John  and  Evelyn  Dewey,  Schools  of 
Tomorrow  (ib.,  1915)  ;  E.  P.  Cubberley,  Public 
School  Administration  (Boston,  1915)  ;  also  pub¬ 
lications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa¬ 
tion  ( Washington ) . 

Exploring  expeditions:  Wilkes  Exploring  Ex¬ 
pedition ,  by  various  authors  (20  vols.,  Washing¬ 
ton,  1845-74)  ;  International  Polar  Expedition, 
Report  of  the  ..  .  Expedition  to  Point  Barrow , 
Alaska  (ib.,  1885);  id.,  Report  on  the  Proceed- 


130° _ 120° _  110°Longitude  West  100°from_  Greenwich  9C‘ 


>ssi  sszjir 


university  of 


“V 

ILLINOIS 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


776a 


ings  of  the  United  States  Expedition  to  Lady 
Franklin  Bay  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1886)  ;  W.  E.  Griffis, 
Romance  of  Discovery  (Boston,  1897)  ;  J.  D.  G. 
Shea,  Early  Voyages  up  and  down  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  (Albany,  1902)  ;  Lewis  and  Clark,  History 
of  the  Expedition  (3  vols.,  New  York,  1904); 
R.  G.  Thwaites,  Early  Western  Travels,  1784- 
1846  (32  vols.,  Cleveland,  1904-07);  Edwin 

James  (comp.),  Account  of  S.  H.  Long’s  Expe¬ 
dition,  1819-1820  (4  vols.,  ib.,  1905)  ;  I.  P.  Ber- 
throng,  The  United  States,  showing  Routes  of 
Principal  Explorers  and  Early  Roads  and  High¬ 
ways  (Washington,  1908);  also  United  States 
Engineer  Department,  Reports  (ib.,  1848-76); 
United  States  Geological  Exploration  of  the 
Fortieth  Parallel,  Reports  (7  vols.,  ib.,  1870- 
80)  ;  United  States  Geological  Survey  of  the 
Territories,  Reports  (ib.,  1873  et  seq. )  ; 

United  States  Geological  Surveys  West  of  the 
One  Hundredth  Meridian,  Reports  (8  vols.,  ib., 
1875-89). 

History,  sources:  A.  B.  Hart,  American  His¬ 
tory  Told  by  Contemporaries  (4  vols.,  New  York, 
1897-1901)  ;  id.,  Source  Book  of  American  His¬ 
tory  (ib.,  1899);  Original  Narratives  of  Early 
American  History  (ed.  by  J.  F.  Jameson,  ib., 
1906  et  seq.)  ;  Van  Tyne  and  Leland,  “Guide  to 
Archives  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
in  Washington,”  in  Carnegie  Institution,  Publi¬ 
cation  No.  92  (2d  ed.,  Washington,  1907)  ;  Wil¬ 
liam  Bradford,  History  of  Plymouth  Settlement, 
1608-1650  (ib.,  1909);  H.  W.  Caldwell,  Source 
History  of  the  United  States  from  Discovery , 
1492,  to  the  End  of  Reconstruction,  1877  (Chi¬ 
cago,  1909 )  ;  J.  A.  Robertson,  “List  of  Docu¬ 
ments  in  Spanish  Archives  Relating  to  the  His¬ 
tory  of  the  United  States,”  in  Carnegie  Institu¬ 
tion,  Publication  No.  124  (Washington,  1910); 
C.  R.  Fish,  “Guide  to  the  Materials  for  American 
History  in  Roman  and  other  Italian  Archives,” 
in  Carnegie  Institution,  Publication  No.  128  (ib., 
1911);  D.  W.  Parker,  “Calendar  of  Papers  in 
Washington  Archives  Relating  to  the  Territories 
of  the  United  States  to  1873,”  in  Carnegie  Insti¬ 
tution,  Publication  No.  148  ( ib.,  1911)  ;  Edward 
Channing,  Guide  to  the  Study  and  Reading  of 
American  History  (rev.  ed.,  Boston,  1912)  ;  C. 
M.  Andrews,  “Guide  to  Manuscript  Materials  for 
the  History  of  the  United  States  to  1783  in  the 
Public  Record  Office  of  Great  Britain,”  in  Carne¬ 
gie  Institution,  Publication  No.  90 A  (2  vols., 
Washington,  1912-14)  ;  William  Macdonald, 
Documentary  Source  Book  of  American  History, 
1606-1898  (New  York,  1913)  ;  D.  W.  Parker, 
“Guide  to  the  Materials  for  United  States  His¬ 
tory  in  Canadian  Archives,”  in  Carnegie  Insti¬ 
tution,  Publication  No.  172  (Washington,  1913)  ; 
Paullin  and  Paxson,  “Guide  to  the  Materials  in 
London  Archives  of  the  History  of  the  United 
States  since  1783,”  in  Carnegie  Institution,  Pub¬ 
lication  No.  90S  (ib.,  1914)  ;  A.  C.  McLaughlin, 
Readings  in  the  History  of  the  American  Nation 
(New  York,  1914)  ;  H.  E.  Bolton  (ed.),  Spanish 
Exploration  in  the  Southwest,  1524-1706  (ib., 
1915). 

Bibliography:  Literature  of  American  His¬ 
tory:  A  Bibliographical  Guide  (ed.  by  J.  N. 
Earned  for  the  American  Library  Association, 
Boston,  1902)  ;  Cambridge  Modern  History ,  vol. 
vii  (New  York,  1903)  ;  A.  R.  Hasse,  “Materials 
for  a  Bibliography  of  the  Public  Archives  of  the 
Thirteen  Original  States,”  in  American  His¬ 
torical  Association,  Annual  Report,  1906,  vol. 
ii  (Washington,  1906)  ;  A.  P.  C.  Griffin,  Bibli¬ 
ography  of  American  Historical  Societies  (2d 


ed.,  rev.,  ib.,  1907 )  ;  T.  L.  Bradford,  Bibliog¬ 
rapher’s  Manual  of  American  History  (5  vols., 
Philadelphia,  1907-10)  ;  G.  G.  Griffin,  Writings 
on  American  History,  1906—12,  vols.  i-vii  (New 
Yorkf  1908-14)  ;  Channing,  Hart,  and  Turner, 
Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  History  (new 
ed.,  Boston,  1912)  ;  Johnson,  The  Chronicles  of 
America  (1921). 

General:  Richard  Hildreth,  History  of  the 

United  States  of  America  (rev.  ed.,  6  vols.,  New 
York,  1877-80)  ;  Justin  Winsor,  Narrative  and 
Critical  History  of  America  (8  vols.,  Boston, 
1884-89)  ;  James  Sehouler,  History  of  the  United 
States  under  the  Constitution  (rev.  ed.,  7  vols., 
New  York,  1894-1913)  ;  Woodrow  Wilson,  His¬ 
tory  of  the  American  People  (5  vols.,  ib.,  1902)  ; 
E.  M.  Avery,  History  of  the  United  States  and 
its  People  (7  vols.,  Cleveland,  1904-10)  ;  Edward 
Channing,  History  of  the  United  States  (3  vols., 
New  York,  1905-12)  ;  Garner  and  Lodge,  His¬ 
tory  of  the  United  States  (4  vols.,  Philadelphia, 
1906)  ;  Richard  Frothingham,  Rise  of  the  Re¬ 
public  of  the  United  States  (10th  ed.,  Boston, 

1910)  ;  J.  C.  Ridpath,  History  of  the  United 
States,  from  Original  Times  .  .  .  (rev.  ed.,  4 
vols.,  ib.,  1911)  brought  down  to  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  President  Taft;  J.  S.  Bassett, 
Short  History  of  the  United  States  (ib.,  1914)  ; 
R.  M.  McElroy,  Winning  of  the  Far  West  (ib., 
1914). 

Colonial:  Edward  Arber  (ed.),  Story  of  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  1606-1623,  as  Told  by  Them¬ 
selves  from  Original  Texts  (London,  1897)  ;  G. 
P.  Fisher,  The  Colonial  Era  (New  York,  1898)  ; 
E.  B.  Greene,  The  Provincial  Governor  in  the 
Colonies  of  North  America  (ib.,  1898)  ;  John 
Fiske,  Beginnings  of  New  England  (new  ed.,  Bos¬ 
ton,  1900)  ;  id.,  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies  in 
America  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  ib.,  1900)  ;  id.,  New 
France  and  New  England  (new  ed.,  ib.,  1902)  ; 
Francis  Parkman,  “Half  Century  of  Conflict,” 
in  France  and  England  in  North  America,  part 
vi  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1903)  ;  C.  M.  Andrews,  Colonial 
Self-Government,  1652-1689  (New  York,  1904)  ; 
H.  L.  Osgood,  The  American  Colonies  in  the 
Seventeenth  Century  (3  vols.,  ib.,  1904-07);  L. 
R.  Schuyler,  Liberty  of  the  Press  in  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Colonies  before  the  Revolutionary  War  ( ib., 
1905)  ;  G.  L.  Beer,  British  Colonial  Policy,  1754- 
1765  (ib.,  1907)  ;  id.,  Origins  of  the  British  Co¬ 
lonial  System  (ib.,  1908)  ;  H.  C.  Lodge,  Short 
History  of  the  English  Colonies  in  America  (rev. 
ed.,  ib.,  1909)  ;  R.  G.  Thwaites,  The  Colonies . 
1492-1750  (22d  ed.,  ib.,  1910)  ;  R.  M.  Jones  and 
Others,  Quakers  in  the  American  Colonies  ( ib., 

1911) ;  C.  M.  Andrews,  The  Colonial  Period,  in 
Home  University  Library  (ib.,  1912)  ;  G.  L.  Beer, 
Old  Colonial  System,  1660—1754  (2  vols.,  ib., 
1913)  ;  C.  L.  Becker,  Beginnings  of  the  American 
People,  1492-1783  (Boston,  1915).  Adams,  The 
Founding  of  New  England  (1921). 

French  and  Indian  Wars:  W.  M.  Sloane.  The 
French  War  and  the  Revolution  (New  York, 
1901)  ;  D.  E.  Smith,  The  Viceroy  of  New  Spain 
(Berkeley,  Cal.,  1913)  ;  John  Knox,  An  Historical 
Journal  of  the  Campaigns  in  North  America, 
from  the  Years  1757.  1758,  1759,  1760  (ed.,  by 
A.  G.  Doughty  for  the  Champlain  Society,  To¬ 
ronto,  1914)  ;  also  references  under  French  and 
Indian  War. 

Revolution:  Francis  Wharton  (ed.),  Revolu¬ 
tionary  Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  United 
States  (6  vols.,  Washington,  1889)  ;  John  Fiske, 
American  Revolution  (2  vols.,  Cambridge,  1896— 
97)  ;  Sir  G.  0.  Trevelyan,  American  Revolution 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


776b 


(6  vols.,  New  York,  1899-1914)  ;  S.  G.  Fisher, 
True  History  of  the  American  Revolution  (Phil¬ 
adelphia,  1902)  ;  G.  E.  Howard,  Preliminaries 
of  the  Revolution,  1763-1775  (New  York,  1905)  ; 
S.  G.  Fisher,  Struggle  for  American  Independ¬ 
ence  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia,  1908)  ;  J.  B.  Per¬ 
kins,  France  in  the  American  Revolution  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1911)  ;  S.  E.  Winbolt,  “American  Independ¬ 
ence  and  the  French  Revolution,  1760-1801,”  in 
Bell’s  -English  History  Source  Books,  vol.  xii  (2d 
ed.,  London,  1915)  ;  M.  A.  M.  Marks,  England 
and  America,  1763-1783  (2  vols.,  Cleveland, 

1916). 

1783-1865:  J.  B.  McMaster,  History  of  the 
People  of  the  United  States  from  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  to  the  Civil  War  (8  vols.,  New  York,  1883- 
1913)  ;  Henry  Adams,  History  of  the  United 
States  of  America  (9  vols.,  ib.,  1889-91)  ;  John 
Fiske,  Critical  Period  of  American  History,  1783- 
1789  (Boston,  1899)  ;  Theodore  Roosevelt,  Naval 
War  of  1812  (new  ed.,  New  York,  1903)  ;  James 
Schouler,  Eighty  Years  of  Union  (ib., '1903); 
J.  S.  Bassett,  Federalist  System,  1789-1801  (ib., 

1906)  ;  C.  R.  Fish,  Development  of  American  Na¬ 
tionality  (rev.  ed.,  ib.,  1914)  ;  Allen  Johnson, 
“Union  and  Democracy,”  W.  E.  Dodd,  “Expan¬ 
sion  and  Conflict,”  in  Riverside  History  of  the 
United  States,  vols.  ii-iii  (Boston,  1915)  ;  and 
also  references  under  Mexican  War;  Secession. 

Civil  War:  Diary  of  Gideon  Welles  (3  vols., 
Boston,  1911);  Gamaliel  Bradford,  Confederate 
Portraits  (Boston,  1914)  ;  id.,  Union  Portraits 
(ib.,  1916)  ;  and  references  under  Civil  War  in 
America. 

Reconstruction  and  after:  J.  H.  Latang,  Amer¬ 
ica  as  a  World  Power,  1897-1907  (New  York, 

1907)  ;  E.  E.  Sparks,  National  Development, 
1877-1885  (ib.,  1907);  C.  A.  Beard,  Contempo¬ 
rary  American  History,  1877-1913  (ib.,  1914)  ; 
also  references  under  Reconstruction;  Spanish 
American  War. 

UNITED  STATES,  Extension  of  the  Ter¬ 
ritory  of  the.  Prior  to  1781  only  six  of  the  13 
original  States,  viz.,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode 
Island,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
and  Delaware,  had  exactly  defined  boundaries. 
Of  the  remaining  seven  States,  some  claimed  to 
extend  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  others  to  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  River.  The  States  with  inexact  bound¬ 
aries  ceded  to  the  general  government  their 
claims  to  lands  west  of  their  present  limits  in 
succession,  as  follows:  March  1,  1781,  New  York; 
March  1,  1784,  Virginia,  the  cession  including 
the  territory  which  now  forms  the  State  of  Ken¬ 
tucky  and  the  parts  of  the  States  of  Ohio,  In¬ 
diana,  and  Illinois  which  lie  south  of  the  forty- 
first  parallel,  Virginia,  however,  reserving  from 
this  cession  for  military-bounty  lands  the  entire 
territory,  6570  square  miles,  between  the  Scioto 
and  Little  Miami  rivers,  from  their  sources  to 
the  Ohio  River;  April  19,  1785,  Massachusetts, 
including  her  claims  to  territory  west  of  the 
present  boundary  of  New  York;  "May  28,  1786, 
Connecticut,  the  cession  being  the  territory  west 
of  the  Alleghanies  between  the  parallels  "of  41° 
and  42°,  except  a  strip  120  miles  in  length  lying 
directly  west  of  Pennsylvania,  retained  for"  the 
benefit  of  her  public  schools,  and  later  known  as 
the  Western  Reserve  (q.v.),  which  she  ceded  to 
the  United  States  in  1800:  Aug.  9,  1787,  South 
Carolina,  the  territory  ceded  being  a  strip  of 
land  about  12  miles  wide,  south  of  the  thirty- 
fifth  parallel  and  extending  along  the  southern 
boundaries  of  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee  to 
the  Mississippi;  Feb.  25,  1790,  North  Carolina, 
the  territory  ceded  constituting  what  is  now 


Tennessee;  June  16,  1802,  Georgia,  after  re¬ 
ceiving  that  part  of  the  cession  of  South  Carolina 
lying  within  her  present  limits,  ceding  all  be¬ 
tween  her  present  western  boundary  and  the 
Mississippi,  and  between  the  South  Carolina  ces¬ 
sion  and  the  thirty-first  parallel,  embracing  a 
large  part  of  what  is  now  Mississippi  and  Ala¬ 
bama.  The  foregoing  cessions  secured  to  the 
general  government  nearly  all  territory  ceded 
by  Great  Britain,  not  included  in  the  original 
13  States,  as  in  the  main  now  bounded.  On  Nov. 
25,  1850,  the  State  of  Texas  ceded  all  her  claims 
to  lands  west  of  the  twenty-sixth  meridian  west 
of  Washington  (103d  Greenwich)  and  between 
lat.  32°  and  36°  30'. 

Cessions  by  Foreign  Powers.  In  the  treaty 
of  Sept.  3,  1783,  with  Great  Britain  the  west¬ 
ern  limits  of  the  United  States  were  declared  to 
be  the  Mississippi  River  to  the  thirty-first  paral¬ 
lel.  On  April  30,  1803,  by  treaty  with  France, 
the  Province  of  Louisiana  was  acquired.  (See 
Louisiana  Purchase.)  Its  western  boundary 
as  finally  adjusted,  Feb.  22,  1819,  by  treaty  with 
Spain,  ran  up  the  Sabine  River,  to  and  along  the 
seventeenth  meridian  ( 94th  Greenwich ) ,  to  and 
along  the  Red  River,  to  and  along  the  twenty- 
third  meridian  (100th  Greenwich),  to  and  along 
the  Arkansas  River,  to  and  along  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  to  and  along  the  twenty-ninth  merid¬ 
ian  (106th  Greenwich),  to  and  along  the  forty- 
second  parallel,  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its  north¬ 
ern  boundary  conformed  to  the  boundary  estab¬ 
lished  between  the  British  possessions  and  the 
United  States.  On  the  east  it  was  bounded  by 
the  Mississippi  as  far  south  as  the  thirty-first 
parallel,  where  different  boundaries  were  claimed. 
The  United  States  construed  the  cession  of 
France  to  include  all  the  territory  between  the 
thirty-first  parallel  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
between  the  Mississippi  and  Perdido,  the  latter 
of  which  is  now  the  western  boundary  of  Florida. 
Under  this  construction  of  the  cession,  the  “Prov¬ 
ince  of  Louisiana”  is  now  covered  by  those  por¬ 
tions  of  the  States  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi 
which  lie  south  of  the  thirty-first  parallel;  by 
Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Minnesota 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  North 
and  South  Dakota,  Montana,  Idaho,  Oregon, 
Washington,  and  Oklahoma;  and  by  the  portion 
of  Colorado  lying  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  north  of  the  Arkansas  River,  and  that  por¬ 
tion  of  Wyoming  lying  east  of  the  Rockies  and 
south  of  the  forty-second  parallel.  Spain,  from 
which  power  France  had  acquired  Louisiana  by 
treaty  in  1800  (see  San  Ildefonso,  Treaty  of), 
claimed  that  she  had  ceded  to  France  no  territory 
east  of  the  Mississippi  except  the  “Island  of 
New  Orleans,”  and  also  contended  that  her 
Province  of  West  Florida  included  all  of  the  ter¬ 
ritory  south  of  the  thirty-first  parallel  and  be¬ 
tween  the  Perdido  and  Mississippi,  except  the 
“Island  of  New  Orleans.”  Under  this  construc¬ 
tion,  the  “Province  of  Louisiana”  included  on  the 
east  of  the  Mississippi  only  the  territory  bounded 
on  the  north  and  east  by  the  “rivers  Iberville 
and  Amite  and  by  the  lakes  Maurepas  anu  Pont- 
chartrain.”  By  the  treaty  of  1803  the  national 
territory  was  increased  by  1,171,931  square 
miles.  The  extreme  northwestern  portion  of  this 
territory  was  claimed  by  Great  Britain,  with 
which  power  the  United  States  concluded  the 
Northwest  Boundary  Treaty  in  1846.  By  the 
treaty  of  Feb.  22,  1819,  Spain  formally  ceded  the 
territory  now  covered  by  Florida,  by  those  por¬ 
tions  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  which  lie  south 
of  the  thirty-first  parallel,  and  by  that  portion 


UNITED  STATES 


of  Louisiana  which  lies  east  of  the  Mississippi 
and  is  not  included  in  the  “Island  of  New  Or¬ 
leans.”  This  territory  was  styled  by  Spain  the 
“provinces  of  East  and  West  Florida.”  Previous 
to  this  cession,  by  the  authority  of  the  joint 
resolution  of  Jan.  15,  1811,  and  the  Acts  of  Jan. 
15,  1811,  and  March  3,  1811,  passed  in  secret 
session  and  first  published  in  1818,  the  United 
States  had  taken  possession  of  the  East  and  West 
Floridas.  In  fact,  as  early  as  1810  the  Amer¬ 
icans  controlled  all  of  West  Florida  except 
Mobile,  which  was  annexed  in  1813,  while 
in  1814  Jackson  temporarily  seized  Pensa¬ 
cola,  and  again  in  1818  occupied  both  Pen¬ 
sacola  and  St.  Marks.  The  United  States, 
however,  did  not  take  formal  possession  until 
1821.  After  prolonged  negotiations  and  a  vigor¬ 
ous  political  contest  Texas,  formerly  a  portion 
of  Mexico,  and  later  an  independent  republic, 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  by  a  joint  resolu¬ 
tion  of  Congress,  approved  by  President  Tyler  on 
March  1,  1845.  As  a  result  of  the  Mexican  War 
(q.v.),  by  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo 
(q.v.),  on  Feb.  2,  1848,  Mexico  ceded  the  terri¬ 
tory  now  covered  by  California  and  Nevada,  also 
her  claims  to  the  territory  covered  by  the  present 
Texas,  by  Utah,  by  the  bulk  of  Arizona  and  of 
New  Mexico,  and  by  portions  of  Wyoming  and 
Colorado.  That  part  of  Arizona  and  that  part 
of  New  Mexico  lying  south  of  the  Gila  and  known 
as  the  Gadsden  Purchase  were  ceded  by  Mexico 
on  Dec.  30,  1853.  By  treaty  of  March  30,  1867, 
Russia  ceded  Alaska.  At  the  close  of  the  Revo¬ 
lutionary  War  the  territory  really  occupied  by 
the  old  13  States  covered  scarcely  a  quarter  of 
a  million  square  miles,  and  after  the  treaty  of 
1783  the  nation  occupied  only  825,000  square 
miles,  but  in  1867  the  territory  belonging  to  the 
United  States  had  an  area  in  round  numbers 
of  3,561,000  square  miles.  A  further  accession 
was  effected  in  1898,  when,  on  July  6,  Con¬ 
gress  passed  a  joint  resolution  annexing  Hawaii 
(q.v.)  to  the  United  States.  In  the  following 
year  negotiations  were  concluded  by  which  the 
island  of  Tutuila,  Samoa,  on  which  is  located 
the  excellent  harbor  of  Pagopago,  was  ceded 
absolutely  to  the  United  States.  An  important 
accession  of  territory  was  that  incident  to  the 
Spanish-American  War  (q.v.),  and  formally  ef¬ 
fected  in  the  treaty  of  Dec.  10,  1898,  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  which  Spain  ceded  Porto  Rico  (q.v.) 
and  the  Philippine  Islands  (q.v.),  together  with 
the  island  of  Guam  (q.v.),  to  the  United  States. 

Bibliography.  The  most  important  volume 
in  this  connection,  with  all  the  texts,  is  the 
Treatises  and  Conventions  Concluded,  by  the 
United  States  and  other  Powers  since  July  If, 
1776,  published  by  the  Government  (Washing¬ 
ton,  1889  et  seq.).  Some  useful  maps  illustrat¬ 
ing  these  treaties  are  to  be  found  in  Edward 
Channing,  The  United  States  of  America,  1765- 
1865  (New  York,  1896)  ;  id.,  History  of  the 
United  States,  vols.  i,  ii  (ib.,  1905-08).  Con¬ 
sult  also  Theodore  Roosevelt,  Winning  of  the 
West,  vol.  iv  (New  York,  1904)  ;  C.  K.  Adams, 
History  of  the  United  States  (rev.  ed.,  Chicago, 
1909).  Of  special  works,  Donaldson,  Public  Do¬ 
main  (Washington,  1884)  ;  H.  B.  Adams,  Mary¬ 
land’s  Influence  on  the  Land  Cessions  (Balti¬ 
more,  1885)  ;  O.  P.  Austin,  Steps  in  the  Expan¬ 
sion  of  our  Territory  (New  York,  1903)  ;  Henry 
Gannett,  Boundaries  of  the  United  States  (3d  ed., 
Washington,  1904)  ;  Justin  Winsor,  Narrative 
and  Critical  History  of  America,  vol.  vii,  Ap¬ 
pendix  (Boston,  1886-89). 


777  UNITED  STATES  DAUGHTERS  OF  1812 

i  UNITED  STATES,  Literature  of  tiie.  See 
American  Literature. 

e  UNITED  STATES  CHRISTIAN  COM- 
s  MISSION.  An  organization  kindred  to  the 
t  United  States  Sanitary  Commission  (see  Sani¬ 
tary  Commission,  United  States),  formed 
t  during  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States  to 
l  promote  the  spiritual  and  physical  welfare 
t  of  Federal  soldiers  and  sailors.  A  conven¬ 
tion  of  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association 
t  delegates  met  in  New  York  City  in  November, 
3  1861,  and  formally  organized  the  United  States 

Christian  Commission  of  12  members  with 
George  H.  Stuart,  a  Philadelphia  philanthropist, 
,  as  president,  and  B.  F.  Manierre,  of  New  York, 
1  as  secretary.  Contributions  of  money,  litera¬ 
ture,  and  supplies  were  asked  for  and  a  gen- 
l  erous  response  was  made.  The  central  office 
,  of  the  commission  was  in  Philadelphia,  but  it 
had  branches  in  all  of  the  large  towns  and 
l  cities,  and  its  agents  followed  the  armies.  Tem- 
r  porary  libraries  were  established;  chapels  for  re- 
d  ligious  worship  were  erected  at  permanent 
camps;  Christian  burial  was  accorded  to  the 
3  dead;  graves  were  suitably  marked.  The  Amer- 
t  ican  Bible  and  Tract  societies  gave  enormous 
f  quantities  of  their  publications  for  distribution ; 
l  the  government  furnished  free  transportation  to 
t  the  commission’s  agents  and  for  its  supplies, 
i  while  the  telegraph  and  transportation  com- 
d  panies  furthered  its  efforts  in  various  ways. 
,  Consult  Moss,  Annals  of  the  United  States  Chris¬ 
tian  Commission  (Philadelphia,  1868). 
v  UNITED  STATES  COPYRIGHT  ACT.  By 
f  the  Act  of  March  4,  1909,  the  law  with  reference 
f  to  copyright  was  redrafted  and  rearranged.  The 
a  second  or  renewed  period  of  copyright  was  ex- 
a  tended  to  28  years,  thus  increasing  the  life  of 
3  the  copyright  by  an  additional  14  years.  The 
l  duties  which  had  been  assigned  to  the  librarian 
of  Congress  were  delegated  to  a  newly  created 
i  officer  called  the  register  of  copyrights. 
y  In  pursuance  of  authority  contained  in  the 
a  statute  itself  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
1  formulated  a  set  of  rules  which  simplified  the 
1  procedure  and  practice  with  reference  to  copy- 
t  right  actions  and  proceedings.  The  prohibition 
e  against  the  importation  of  works  which  are 
copyrighted  in  the  United  States  was  modified 
by  the  Act  so  as  to  permit  the  importation  of 
>  works  in  raised  characters  for  the  use  of  the 
l  blind,  and  authorized  editions  in  the  original 
i.  foreign  language  of  works  whose  translations 
3  only  have  been  protected  by  United  States  copy- 
e  right.  Exception  was  also  made  of  libraries  or 
e  collections  purchased  abroad  en  bloc  for  socie- 
,  ties,  institutions,  or  libraries  of  learning  and 
fine  arts.  The  provisions  dealing  with  infringe¬ 
ments  were  considerably  amplified  and  set  forth 
:1  at  some  length  in  the  statute. 

Later  amendments  to  the  Act  include  motion- 
e  picture  photo  plays  and  motion  pictures  other 
than  photo  plays  as  works  on  which  copyright 
e  may  be  claimed.  Provision  was  also  made  for 
!,  phonograph  records  and  royalties  to  owners  or 
►,  manufacturers  of  this  class  of  articles. 

The  additions  to  the  United  States  Copyright 
Act  with  reference  to  photo  plays  and  phono¬ 
graph  records  were  incorporated  into  the  British 
Act  by  the  Act  of  1911,  which  amended  and 
y  consolidated  the  English  copyright  law  along 
lines  similar  to  the  American. 
e  UNITED  STATES  DAUGHTERS  OF  1812. 
i-  A  patriotic  society  founded  in  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
in  1892,  and  incorporated  as  a  national  organiza- 


UNITED  STATES  FLAG  778 

tion  Feb.  25,  1901.  It  has  for  its  object  the 
perpetuation  of  the  memory  of  the  founders 
of  America,  with  their  records  of  service  in  the 
French  War,  the  Revolution,  and  the  War  of 
1812.  It  admits  to  membership  women  who  are 
lineal  descendants  from  an  ancestor  who  as¬ 
sisted  in  the  War  of  1812,  either  as  a  military 
or  naval  officer,  a  soldier,  or  a  sailor,  or  in  any 
way  gave  aid  to  the  cause.  The  membership  is 
about  1000. 

UNITED  STATES  FLAG.  See  Flag. 

UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACAD¬ 
EMY.  See  Military  Academy,  United  States. 

UNITED  STATES  NATIONAL  MUSEUM. 

Established  as  a  branch  of  the  Smithsonian  In¬ 
stitution,  by  the  congressional  Act  of  Aug.  10, 
1846,  founding  the  latter.  It  is  the  designated 
depository  for  all  collections  in  zoology,  botany, 
geology,  ethnology,  archaeology,  and  the  arts  be¬ 
longing  to  the  government.  Its  collections  are 
superior  in  all  that  relates  to  the  natural  his¬ 
tory  and  aborigines  of  North  America.  Its  col¬ 
lections  have  been  derived  largely  from  naval 
expeditions,  government  surveys,  Bureau  of 
Fisheries,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology,  private  donations,  and 
exchanges.  The  Museum  also  gathered  interest¬ 
ing  collections  in  American  history.  The  funda¬ 
mental  act  contemplated  the  formation  of  a 
National  Gallery  of  the  Fine  Arts  under  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.  The  first  decisive 
movement  towards  the  realization  of  this  project 
took  place  in  1906,  through  the  gift  by  Charles 
L.  Freer  of  paintings  by  Whistler,  Tryon, 
Thayer,  and  Dewey,  and  of  Oriental  art,  and*  the 
bequest  of  the  Harriet  Lane  Johnston  collection. 

In  March,  1907,  50  paintings  by  American  ar¬ 
tists  were  added  by  William  T.  Evans.  A  sup¬ 
plemental  transfer  of  110  articles  increased  the 
Freer  collection  to  4811  items  of  American  and 
Oriental  art  in  1915.  From  time  to  time  other 
accessions  have  been  made  through  purchase  or 
gift.  The  collections  occupy  the  greater  part  of 
the  Smithsonian  building,  an  adjacent  building, 
covering  2%  acres,  completed  in  1881,  and  a  new 
building  completed  in  1910  at  a  cost  of  $3,- 
500,000.  In  1914-15  nearly  6000  specimens  of 
American  industrial  arts  were  added.  The  Secre¬ 
tary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  is  ex  officio 
the  keeper  of  the  Museum,  which  is  under  the 
charge  of  an  assistant  secretary,  and  has  a  staff 
of  curators  and  assistants,  numbering  about  75. 

The  publications  comprise  an  annual  report,  a 
series  of  Bulletins  begun  in  1875,  a  series  of  Pro¬ 
ceedings  dating  from  1878,  and  the  Contributions 
from  the  National  Herbarium.  The  library  con¬ 
tained  (1915)  45,818  volumes  and  76  295 

pamphlets. 

UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY. 

See  Naval  Academy,  United  States. 

UNITED  STATES  VETERAN  NAVY. 

A  patriotic  society  organized  Sept.  21,  1899*. 
Eligible  for  membership  are  all  persons  who  as 
commissioned  officers  or  enlisted  men  were  con¬ 
nected  with  any  branch  of  the  naval  service  of 
the  United  States  during  the  Civil  War  or  the 
Spanish-American  War,  or  who  in  the  future 
shall  be  engaged,  as  members  of  the  navy,  in  war 
against  an  enemy  of  the  United  States.  The 
society  has  a  total  membership  of  about  3500. 

UNITED  ZION’S  CHILDREN.  See  River 
Brethren. 

U'NITIES,  Dramatic.  Three  classical  quali¬ 
ties  of  a  drama,  the  unities  of  time,  place,  and 
action.  See  Drama. 


UNIT  SYSTEM 

UNIT  ORCHESTRA.  See  Unit  Organ. 
UNIT  ORGAN.  A  wind  instrument,  the 
most  recent  development  of  the  regular  church 
organ  (q.v.).  In  1853  William  Hill  and  Sons 
introduced  a  new  stop,  the  voix  celeste,  the 
pipes  of  which  were  tuned  slightly  flat  so  as  to 
produce,  in  combination  with  other  stops,  an 
undulating  tone  resembling  that  of  the  strings 
of  an  orchestra.  By  experiment  it  was  found 
that  by  tuning  the  pipes  a  trifle  sharp  a  warmer 
tone  was  produced.  By  the  end  of  the  century 
the  celeste  was  built  with  three  ranks  of  pipes, 
one  in  correct  pitch,  the  other  two  slightly 
sharp  and  flat,  respectively.  Thus  a  tone  was 
produced  that  very  nearly  approached  the 
strings.  The  next  step  was  the  addition  of  the 
new  percussion  stops,  which  operate  real  chimes, 
cymbals,  and  all  kinds  of  drums.  Organs  thus 
equipped  became  known  as  unit  organs,  and 
about  1908  began  to  be  installed  in  some  thea¬ 
tres,  replacing  the  orchestra.  Two  or  three  years 
later  appeared  the  unit  orchestra.  Several 
builders,  almost  simultaneously,  conceived  the 
idea  of  replacing  in  these  instruments  the  diapa¬ 
son  (see  Organ),  which  always  has  been,  and 
still  is,  the  foundation  of  the  real  organ  tone  by 
the  celeste  or  string  tone.  Thus  it  can  readily 
be  seen  that  a  unit  organ  is  essentially  an  organ 
with  a  moderate  admixture  of  celeste  and  per¬ 
cussion  stops,  whereas  the  unit  orchestra  has  a 
full  complement  of  celestes  and  percussion  stops, 
to  which  the  diapason  is  very  much  subordinated. 

UNIT  SYSTEM.  The  unit  system  of  organ¬ 
ization,  sometimes  called  the  Hine  system  from 
its  originator,  Maj.  Charles  DeLano  Hine,  is 
based  upon  the  concept  that  organization  is  a 
branch  of  sociological  science.  The  system  seeks, 
primarily  by  scientific  organization  and  second¬ 
arily  by  simple,  direct  methods,  to  solve  the  ad¬ 
ministrative  problems  imposed  by  complex  mod¬ 
ern  conditions  in  the  conduct  of  government,  of 
education,  of  industry,  of  transportation,  and  of 
commerce.  As  yet  its  application  has  been  con¬ 
fined  to  a  few  railways.  The  system  insists  that 
organization  is  a  series  of  units,  beginning  with 
the  individual  as  the  indivisible  unit  of  society. 
A  group  of  individuals  forms  a  unit  of  organiza¬ 
tion.  A  group  of  such  units  constitutes  a  higher 
unit,  which  in  turn  may  become  a  component 
of  a  still  higher  unit,  and  so  on  to  whatever 
extent  may  be  found  desirable  and  practicable  in 
the  particular  activity.  The  crux  of  a  given 
problem  of  organization  is  then  to  determine 
what  grouping  produces  the  most  logical  and 
efficient  units.  The  system  demands  unvarying 
recognition  of  the  axiom  that  the  whole  is 
greater  than  any  of  its  parts,  that  the  entire 
undertaking  is  greater  than  any  of  its 
constituent  administrative  departments.  The 
avowed  effort  in  practical  application  is  to  em¬ 
phasize  and  encourage  such  an  old  fashioned 
sense,  of  individual  and  personal  responsibility 
as  will  produce  maximum  composite  efficiency 
through  balanced  team  work  of  the  component 
units.  A  general  notion  of  the  system  is  best 
conveyed  by  an  outline  of  the  official  instructions 
through  which  it  is  inaugurated. 

In  the  general  operating  organization  of  a 
railway,  the  commonly  used  titles  general  super¬ 
intendent,  superintendent  of  motive  power,  chief 
engineer,  superintendent  of  transportation,  gen¬ 
eral  storekeeper,  superintendent  of  telegraph, 
and  perhaps  superintendent  of  dining  cars,  are 
abolished.  The  officials  previously  thus  desig¬ 
nated,  while  they  continue  charged  with  the  re- 


UNITY  OF  CONSCIOUSNESS 


UNIVERSALISM 


779 


sponsibilities  formerly  devolving  upon  them,  are 
reappointed  assistant  general  managers  of  the 
road.  Similarly  the  divisional  officers,  known 
under  the  older  systems  as  master  mechanic, 
division  engineer,  train  master,  traveling  en¬ 
gineer,  and  chief  dispatcher,  and  possibly  divi¬ 
sion  storekeeper,  and  station  inspector,  exchange 
these  titles  for  the  general  title  of  assistant 
superintendent.  The  number  of  assistant  gen¬ 
eral  managers  may  vary  with  the  size  of  juris¬ 
diction,  but  is  normally  eight,  including  the  man 
previously  the  assistant  general  manager,  who, 
to  avoid  misunderstanding,  is  reappointed  as 
senior  or  number  one,  on  the  new  official  list. 
The  number  of  assistant  superintendents  on  an 
operating  division  naturally  varies  with  its  size, 
but  is  normally  six  (perhaps  eight,  if  store¬ 
keeper  and  station  inspector  be  included),  the 
man  previously  known  as  the  assistant  superin¬ 
tendent  standing  number  one  on  the  new  list. 
In  either  general  or  divisional  offices  this  senior 
assistant  is  normally  at  headquarters,  and  is  in 
effect,  though  not  in  name,  the  chief  of  staff, 
though  no  distinct  grade  of  senior  or  chief 
assistant  is  actually  created.  In  case  of  the 
prolonged  absence  of  this  number  one  (or  actual, 
although  not  nominal,  senior)  the  head  of  the 
unit  (general  manager  or  superintendent,  as  the 
case  may  be)  designates  the  most  available 
of  the  other  assistants  to  remain  at  headquarters. 
An  unwritten  law  operates  to  make  such  desig¬ 
nated  assistant  the  chief,  or  senior,  of  all  others 
for  the  time  being.  Advantage  is  sometimes 
taken  of  this  elastic  feature  of  assignment  to  ro¬ 
tate  various  assistants  through  the  senior  chair 
in  order  to  gain  comprehensive  training  for 
higher  positions. 

While  each  man  remains  specially  charged 
with  his  former  duties,  he  gains  through  his 
broader  title  a  new  vision  of  responsibility  for 
efficiency  of  the  road  as  a  whole.  The  hurdles 
of  departmental  prejudice  are  removed,  the  limi¬ 
tations  of  descriptive  title  are  abolished,  and 
broader  lines  of  activity  and  of  interest  in  the 
conduct  of  the  property  as  a  whole  are  de¬ 
veloped.  It  is  to  be  noted  further,  that  the  unit 
system  of  organization  eliminates  government 
by  chief  clerks.  If  the  manager  or  superinten¬ 
dent  is  absent  from  headquarters  there  is  always 
an  assistant  manager  or  an  assistant  superinten¬ 
dent  in  charge.  The  system  insists  further  that 
no  person  shall  sign  the  name  or  initials  of 
another.  All  officers,  agents,  and  employees  are 
instructed  to  transact  business  within  their  re¬ 
spective  spheres  of  responsibility  or  authority, 
over  their  own  initials.  Operators,  stenog¬ 
raphers,  clerks,  and  others  are  instructed  to 
avoid  autographic  imitation,  a  man’s  name  be¬ 
ing  considered  his  birthright.  When  an  indi¬ 
vidual’s  own  title  is  normally  insufficient  for  the 
necessary  signature,  or  when  the  prefix  acting  or 
assistant  is  inappropriate,  he  must  sign  for  him¬ 
self,  adding  such  explanatory  phrase  as  for  the 
agent,  etc.  The  unit  system  thus  aims,  while 
retaining  each  official  for  the  work  for  which  he 
is  specially  qualified,  to  make  every  one  avail¬ 
able  for  prompt,  comprehensive  action  when  oc¬ 
casion  requires,  and  to  minimize  the  undesirable 
features  of  necessarily  distant  control  by  insist¬ 
ing  that  such  inside  direction  shall  be  exercised 
only  by  officials  duly  qualified  by  outside  ex¬ 
perience. 

UNITY  OF  CONSCIOUSNESS.  In  epis¬ 
temology,  the  formal  a  priori  of  all  cognition ; 
the  subjective  source  of  categories,  forms  of  in- 
Vol.  XXII.— 50 


tuition,  and  the  assumption  (Setzung)  of  ob¬ 
jects.  It  is,  therefore,  practically  the  equiva¬ 
lent  of  Kant’s  transcendental  apperception.  The 
unity  of  consciousness  derives  from  the  broader 
unity  of  the  self,  i.e.,  the  identity,  permanency, 
and  unity  of  a  conscious  living  being.  We  may, 
then,  think  of  the  unity  of  consciousness  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  self  as  conscious;  and  in  various 
epistemological  systems  the  terms  self,  unity, 
and  unity  of  consciousness  are  employed  inter¬ 
changeably.  The  phrase  is  also  used  in  func¬ 
tional  psychology  to  denote  the  coherence  of 
mind;  the  functions  of  thinking,  feeling,  willing, 
are  conceived  as  part-functions  belonging  to  an 
underlying  unity,  which  is  again  frequently 
identified  with  the  self  (q.v. ).  Consult:  J.  M. 
Baldwin,  Senses  and  Intellect  (New  York,  1890)  ; 
Harald  Hoffding,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (ib., 
1891);  M.  Eisler,  Worterhuch  der  philosophi- 
schen  Begriffe  (Berlin,  1910). 

U'NIVER/SALISM  (from  universal,  from 
Lat.  universalis,  relating  to  all  or  the  whole, 
from  universus,  all,  whole,  entire,  turned  into 
one,  from  unus,  one  -f-  vertere,  to  turn ) .  The 
name  given  to  the  religious  faith  of  those  who 
believe  in  universal  salvation,  or  as  it  is  now 
generally  stated,  in  the  eternal  progress  of  all 
souls.  Modern  Universalists  claim  that  this 
doctrine  is  contained  in  the  New  Testament,  in 
the  teachings  of  Jesus,  and  is  in  harmony  with 
the  laws  of  nature  as  taught  by  science  and 
sanctioned  by  reason  and  philosophy.  Univer¬ 
salists  claim  this  interpretation  of  the  Bible 
dates  from  the  early  centuries  of  Christianity, 
citing  in  proof  thereof  the  Sibylline  Oracles 
(c.150),  and  the  teaching  of  Clement  of  Alex¬ 
andria  (c.195),  that  man  was  created  to  be 
educated  and  not  for  a  limited  trial,  that  his 
opportunity  for  education  is  as  lasting  as  his 
being,  and  that  punishment  is  remedial.  They 
find  it  in  the  teachings  of  Origen  (c.185-c.254)  , 
and  in  the  common  belief  among  Christians  of  all 
sects  in  the  second  and  third  centuries  that  be¬ 
tween  the  death  and  the  resurrection  of  Jesus 
he  went  to  the  underworld  and  there  taught  the 
souls  that  had  sinned  in  the  days  of  Noah;  these, 
argued  Clement,  included  all  who  there  or  else¬ 
where  need  salvation.  Universalists  also  believe 
that  their  faith  was  extensively  held  in  the  fourth 
century  and  that  of  the  six  theological  schools 
then  established  in  the  Christian  world,  four 
(the  schools  of  Alexandria,  Caesarea,  Antioch, 
and  eastern  Syria)  taught  it;  that  it  was  also 
fundamental  in  the  fifth  century  in  the  teach¬ 
ings  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  the  founder  of 
the  Nestorian  Church,  in  whose  Confession  of 
Faith  and  Sacramental  Liturgy  it  is  plainly  de¬ 
clared;  that  Maximus  the  Confessor  (580-G63) 
also  taught  and  defended  it  in  the  sixth  and 
seventh  centuries;  that  Pope  Gregory’s  instruc¬ 
tions  to  his  missionaries  show  its  existence  in  the 
eighth  century,  and  that  in  the  ninth  it  was 
ably  advocated  by  John  Scotus  Erigena.  The 
subsequent  period  until  the  Lutheran  Reforma¬ 
tion  was  not  favorable  to  any  expression  of 
thought  that  antagonized  the  Latin  theology. 
The  Church  silenced  by  force  all  voices  that 
repudiated  its  teachings  and  burned  all  books 
contaminated  by  so-called  heresies.  But,  in 
spite  of  all  this,  Universalism  was  manifest  in 
the  teachings  of  such  thinkers  as  Raynold,  Al- 
maric,  Albertus  Magnus,  Solomon,  Bishop  of 
Bosra,  Ruysbroek,  Tauler,  and  John  of  Goch, 
and  in  the  societies  of  the  Lollards,  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life,  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the 


UNIVERSALISM 


UNIVERSALISM 


780 


Free  Spirit,  and  the  Men  of  Understanding. 
With  the  Reformation  Universalism  revived. 
The  original  42  articles  of  religion,  drawn  up 
by  the  Reformers  in  England  in  1552,  declare: 
“They  also  deserve  to  be  condemned  who  en¬ 
deavor  to  restore  that  pernicious  opinion  that 
all  men  (though  never  so  ungodly)  shall  at  last 
be  saved;  when  for  a  certain  time,  appointed  by 
the  Divine  Justice,  they  have  endured  punish¬ 
ment  for  their  sins  committed.”  When  the  ar¬ 
ticles  were  reduced  to  39  in  1571  this  condemna¬ 
tory  article  was  omitted.  Many  of  the  Mystics, 
the  German  Baptists,  the  Mennonites  in  Holland, 
the  French  Protestants,  the  Moravians,  and  va¬ 
rious  smaller  sects  in  the  Old  World,  advocated 
Universalism. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  about  1750  that  an 
organization  called  Universalist  was  created. 
Before  that  time  the  believers  in  universal  sal¬ 
vation  were  affiliated  with  sects  bearing  various 
names  and  were  spoken  of  as  Origenists,  Merci¬ 
ful  Doctors,  and  by  other  names  indicating  their 
dissent  from  the  dogma  of  the  never-ending 
misery  of  the  wicked;  but  at  the  date  first 
given  Rev.  James  Relly  became  a  Universalist 
and  organized  a  Universalist  church  in  London, 
to  which  he  ministered  until  his  death,  about 
30  years  later.  At  the  present  time  very  few 
churches  in  Europe  bear  the  Universalist  name, 
but  the  doctrine  of  Universalism  finds  favor,  and 
in  some  instances  open  advocacy,  in  churches  of 
various  names.  Many  Unitarians  in  Europe  are 
avowed  Universalists^  just  as  the  Universalists 
of  America  are  generally  Unitarians. 

The  doctrine  of  Universalism  was  preached  in 
America  as  early  as  1636  by  Samuel  Gorton,  the 
New  England  mystic,  and  put  forth  in  the 
speeches  and  writings  of  Sir  Henry  ,Vane,  the 
younger,  Governor  of  Massachusetts ;  by  Dr. 
George  de  Benneville  about  a  century  later;  by 
eminent  Episcopalians;  by  prominent  Congrega- 
tionalists,  such  as  Chauncey  and  Mayhew  of 
Boston,  and  Huntington  of  Connecticut;  and  by 
many  German  Baptists.  John  Murray  (q.v.), 
the  father  of  Universalism  in  America,  came  to 
New  Jersey  in  September,  1770.  On  Jan.  1, 
1779,  15  persons  who  had  been  suspended  from 
the  First  Parish  Church  in  Gloucester,  Mass.,  for 
becoming  regular  attendants  on  the  preaching  of 
Murray,  united  under  “Articles  of  Association 
as  the  Independent  Christian  Church  in  Glouces¬ 
ter”  for  the  defense  and  promulgation  of  their 
Universalist  faith.  Murray  was  not  long  with¬ 
out  ministerial  helpers.  Elhanan  Winchester, 
who  had  been  an  eminent  Baptist  preacher  in 
Philadelphia,  with  more  than  100  of  his  church 
in  that  city,  was  excommunicated  for  having  be¬ 
come  believers  in  Universalism;  Adams  Streeter 
and  Caleb  Rich,  in  New  England,  became  preach¬ 
ers  of  the  common  salvation  before  they  saw  or 
knew  Murray.  Later,  Hosea  Ballou,  repudiating 
all  the  old  notions  connected  with  trinitarian 
dogmas,  became  the  first  openly  avowed  Ameri¬ 
can  advocate  of  Unitarian  views  of  Christ;  put 
the  emphasis  of  Christian  theology  on  God’s 
I  atherhood  of  the  human  race ;  and  interpreted 
the  teachings,  sufferings,  death,  and  resurrection 
of  Jesus  as  designed,  not  to  effect  any  change 
whatever  in  God,  but  to  change  man  and  bring 
him  into  harmony  with  his  Heavenly  Father. 
The  modern  church  has  a  free  platform  and  a 
broadly  educated  ministry.  It  recognizes  a  har¬ 
mony  and  not  a  conflict  between  religion  and 
science;  advocates  the  principles  of  evolution; 
interprets  the  Bible  rationally  and  spiritually 


and  not  literally ;  teaches  that  all  men  are  divine 
by  nature,  are  capable  of  development  after  the 
Christ  type,  and  man’s  destiny  is  the  full  de¬ 
velopment  of  his  soul  and  a  harmonious  co¬ 
operation  with  God’s  laws. 

In  1803,  at  the  annual  session  of  the  New 
England  Convention,  in  view  of  diversity  of 
opinion  as  to  how  universal  salvation  was  to  be 
the  result  of  God’s  government,  three  Articles 
of  Belief  were  agreed  upon  as  stating  the  general 
belief  of  those  present  and  serving  as  a  working 
basis  of  fellowship.  The  articles  of  fellowship, 
known  as  the  Winchester  (N.  H.)  Profession  of 
Faith,  are  as  follows: 

Article  1.  We  believe  that  the  Holy  Scriptures 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  contain  a  reve¬ 
lation  of  the  character  of  God  and  of  the  duty, 
interest,  and  final  destination  of  mankind.  Arti¬ 
cle  2.  We  believe  that  there  is  one  God,  whose 
nature  is  Love,  revealed  in  one  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  by  one  Holy  Spirit  of  Grace,  who  will 
finally  restore  the  whole  family  of  mankind  to 
holiness  and  happiness.  Article  3.  We  believe 
that  holiness  and  true  happiness  are  inseparably 
connected,  and  that  believers  ought  to  be  careful 
to  maintain  order  and  practice  good  works ; 
for  these  things  are  good  and  profitable  unto 
men. 

In  1870,  when  the  Universalists  of  the  United 
States  formed  their  General  Convention,  the 
above  three  articles  were  made  a  basis  of  their 
clerical  fellowship,  but  as  there  soon  arose  dif¬ 
ferent  opinions  as  to  the  exact  meaning  of  par¬ 
ticular  phrases  in  the  three  articles,  several 
changes  were  advocated  from  year  to  year,  until 
1898,  when,  at  a  convention  in  Chicago,  it  was 
voted  to  allow  the  three  articles  to  stand  as  the 
historical  basis,  but  to  add  the  following  as  ex¬ 
planatory  of  the  conditions  of  fellowship  in  the 
future : 

The  conditions  of  fellowship  shall  be  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  ( 1 )  The  acceptance  of  the  essential  prin¬ 
ciples  of  the  Universalist  faith,  to  wit:  (a)  the 
universal  fatherhood  of  God;  (&)  the  Spiritual 
authority  and  leadership  of  His  Son,  Jesus 
Christ;  ( c )  the  trustworthiness  of  the  Bible  as 
containing  a  revelation  from  God;  ( d )  the  cer¬ 
tainty  of  just  retribution  for  sin;  ( e )  the  final 
harmony  of  all  souls  with  God.  The  Winches¬ 
ter  Profession  is  commended  as  containing  these 
principles,  but  neither  this  nor  any  other  precise 
form  of  words  is  required  as  a  condition  of  fel¬ 
lowship,  provided  always  that  the  principles 
above  stated  be  professed.  (2)  The  acknowl¬ 
edgment  of  the  authority  of  the  General  Con¬ 
vention  and  assent  to  its  laws. 

In  1870,  in  the  organizing  of  the  Universalist 
churches  of  America,  the  church  adopted  the  plan 
under  which  the  United  States  have  organized. 
This  General  Convention  has  supervision  over 
the  work  of  the  denomination,  meets  once  in  two 
years,  has  a  board  of  11  trustees  to  carry  on 
the  work  between  convention  sessions.  The  wo¬ 
men  of  the  church  also  have  a  national  organiza¬ 
tion  known  as  the  Woman’s  National  Missionary 
Association,  which  holds  funds  and  carries  on 
missionary  work,  chiefly  in  the  South  and  West, 
and  supports  the  Blackmer  Home  for  Girls  in 
Japan.  In  1889  the  young  people  of  the  church 
formed  a  national  organization,  the  Young  Peo¬ 
ple’s  Christian  Union.  Funds  raised  bv  this 
support  churches  in  the  West  and  South.  It 
publishes  a  weekly  paper  at  Boston,  the  Omvard. 
Under  the  administration  of  the  General  Con¬ 
vention  are  several  commissions,  such  as  the 


UNIVERSALISM 


UNIVERSALS 


781 

Goodness  of  God  (Boston,  1904).  There  are  also 


Sunday  School  Commission,  the  Social  Service 
Commission,  the  Commission  on  the  Ministry, 
and  the  Educational  Commission.  All  have  their 
own  officers  and  initiate  work  in  their  several 
lines.  In  Boston  is  the  Universalist  Publishing 
House,  which  publishes  weekly  the  Universalist 
Leader,  the  Sunday  School  Helper,  and  the  gen¬ 
eral  literature  of  the  denomination.  Local  Uni¬ 
versalist  papers  are  published  in  several  States 
and  by  individual  churches.  The  missionary 
work  of  the  church  is  supported  by  the  income 
of  funds  and  quotas  assessed  on  parishes.  The 
most  important  foreign  mission  is  in  Japan.  It 
was  started  in  1890  and  now  lias  schools  and 
churches  and  many  American  and  native  preach¬ 
ers  and  teachers.  There  are  now  three  colleges 
and  four  academies  under  the  auspices  of  the 
denomination,  having  funds  (1915)  $5,860,000, 
professors  383,  students  3100.  The  theological 
schools  maintained  are  ( 1 )  the  Canton  Theologi¬ 
cal  School,  opened  at  Canton,  St.  Lawrence  Co., 
N.  Y.,  in  1858.  Although  affiliated  with  St. 
Lawrence  University,  the  theological  school  is  a 
separate  institution  in  its  management  and 
property,  (2)  Crane  Theological  School,  affili¬ 
ated  with  Tufts  College,  Medford,  Mass.  This 
was  established  in  1868  as  Tufts  Theological 
School,  but  was  changed  to  the  name  of  Crane 
Theological  School  in  1898,  in  honor  of  an  en¬ 
dowment  from  Albert  Crane  of  Stamford,  Conn. 
(3)  In  1881  a  theological  department  was  opened 
in  Lombard  College,  Galesburg,  Ill.,  and  in  1890 
its  name  was  changed  to  the  Ryder  Divinity 
School,  in  honor  of  the  late  Rev.  William  Henry 
Ryder,  D.D.  In  1908  the  school  was  removed  to 
Chicago,  where  it  became  a  part  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Chicago,  though  still  retaining  its  name. 

The  church  statistics  for  1916  show  763  church 
organizations,  628  ministers,  55,000  church  mem¬ 
bers,  250,000  parish  members,  43,211  Sunday- 
school  members,  11,306  members  of  the  Young 
People’s  Christian  Union,  and  $19,377,640  church 
property. 

Bibliography.  History:  Hosea  Ballou,  2d, 
The  Ancient  History  of  Universalism  (Boston, 
1829;  annotated  ed.,  ib.,  1872)  ;  T.  Whitte- 
more,  Modem  History  of  Universalism  (ib., 
I860),  incomplete;  Richard  Eddy,  History  of 
Universalism  in  America  (2  vols.,  ib.,  1884-86)  ; 
id.,  Universalism  from  Apostolical  Times  to  1893, 
in  “American  Church  History  Series,”  vol.  x 
(New  York,  1894)  ;  L.  B.  Fisher,  Brief  History 
of  the  Universalist  Church  (Boston,  1912). 
Doctrine:  T.  T.  Munger,  Freedom  of  Faith  (ib., 
1883);  id.,  Appeal  to  Life  (ib.,  1887);  J.  S. 
Dodge,  The  Purpose  of  God  (ib.,  1894)  ;  J.  C. 
Adams,  Hosea  Ballou  and  the  Gospel  Renais¬ 
sance  (ib.,  1901);  M.  D.  Shutter,  Justice  and 
Mercy  (ib.,  1906)  ;  H.  N.  Dodge,  Christus  Victor 
(6th  ed.,  ib.,  1906)  ;  R.  J.  Campbell,  The  Neio 
Theology  (New  York,  1907)  ;  W.  C.  Selleck,  New 
Appreciation  of  the  Bible  (Chicago,  1907)  ;  F.  O. 
Hall,  Soul  and  Body  (Boston,  1908)  ;  C.  R.  Skin¬ 
ner,  Social  Implications  (ib.,  1915).  Controver¬ 
sial:  Edward  Beecher,  Doctrine  of  Scriptural 
Retribution  (New  York,  1878)  ;  F.  W.  Farrar, 
Eternal  Hope  (ib.,  1878)  ;  T.  J.  Sawyer,  Endless 
Punishment  in  the  Very  Words  of  its  Advocates 
(Boston,  1880)  ;  E.  B.  Pusey,  What  is  of  Faith 
as  to  Everlasting  Punishment  (2d  ed.,  Oxford, 
1880)  ;  W.  G.  T.  Shedd,  Doctrine  of  Endless 
Punishment  (New  York,  1886)  ;  S.  D.  F.  Sal- 
mond,  Christian  Doctrine  of  Immortality  (4th 
ed.,  Edinburgh,  1901);  H.  Johnston,  Beyond 
Death  (New  York,  1903);  G.  T.  Knight/  The 


a  number  of  published  discussions  and  debates 
between  advocates  and  opponents  of  Universal¬ 
ism,  as  those  by  Ely  and  Thomas  (New  York, 
1835)  ;  by  Campbell  and  Skinner  (Utica,  N.  Y., 
1840)  ;  by  Holmes  and  Austin  (Auburn,  N.  Y., 
1848)  ;  by  Sawyer  and  Westcott  (New  York, 
1854).  The  chief  periodical  of  the  church  is 
the  Universalist  Leader  (Boston,  weekly). 

UNIVERSAL  JOINT,  in  Motor  Vehicle. 
See  Motor  Vehicle. 

UNIVERSAL  LANGUAGE.  Need  for  a 
means  of  international  communication  has  been 
felt  from  the  earliest  times.  It  is  obviously 
impossible  for  one  to  acquire  more  than  a  few 
languages  at  most,  and  they  are  used  correctly 
only  by  those  gifted  with  exceptional  linguistic 
ability.  As  a  response  to  a  desire  of  this  na¬ 
ture  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  so-called  Lingua 
fdanca  (q.v. )  arose.  In  early  times  Phoenician 
(see  Phoenician  Language)  served  as  a  means 
of  intercommunication  among  the  traders  of  the 
Mediterranean,  while  in  the  Middle  Ages  Latin 
was  the  common  learned  language  of  Europe. 
But  with  the  growth  of  the  spirit  of  nationality 
in  the  period  of  the  Renaissance,  as  well  as 
because  of  the  realization  of  its  unsuitableness 
for  the  expression  of  modern  thought,  Latin 
was  gradually  discarded  in  favor  of  the  vulgar 
tongue.  It  was  soon  found  that  extensive  in¬ 
crease  of  commerce  and  the  development  of 
scholarship  rendered  the  need  of  an  interna¬ 
tional  language  more  imperative,  and  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  various 
language  systems  were  proposed,  while  in  the 
nineteenth  century  their  number  is  so  great 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  enumerate  them  here. 
(See  International  Language.)  Though 
French  as  the  language  of  diplomats  has  been 
offered  by  some  as  a  substitute  for  a  universal 
language,  scholars  were  quick  to  realize  that 
the  selection  of  a  living  tongue  would  arouse 
unnecessary  international  jealousy.  Likewise  it 
is  a  truism  that  all  languages  present  difficulties 
of  a  more  or  less  serious  nature  to  the  learner. 
The  Chinese  language  (q.v.),  e.g.,  though  ap¬ 
parently  simple  in  structure,  would  require  years 
of  study  for  the  average  European,  while  Eng¬ 
lish  and  French  can  be  seriously  objected  to 
because  of  their  unphonetic  spelling.  On  the 
other  hand  the  most  successful  language  systems 
proposed,  such  as  Volapiik,  Esperanto  (qq.v.), 
Bolak,  and  Idiom  Neutral,  are  met  with  the 
fundamental  objection  that  they  are  based  on 
modern  European  tongues  and  are  unfit  as  uni¬ 
versal  languages  because  they  do  not  contain 
the  characteristic  elements  of  any  of  the  im¬ 
portant  groups  of  languages  spoken  on  other 
continents.  Yet  it  may  be  advanced  in  their 
favor  that  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  create 
a  language  that  would  be  equally  easy  to  be 
acquired  by  speakers  of  all  known  dialects,  and 
that  they  certainly  demand  less  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  learner  than  any  modern  spoken 
language. 

UNIVERSALS.  Characteristics  or  attri¬ 
butes  of  objects  when  regarded  as  common  to  an 
indefinite  number  of  individuals.  There  have 
been  philosophers  who  denied  the  real  existence 
of  universals  (see  Nominalism),  and  others 
who  asserted  that  universals  exist  apart  from 
and  prior  to  the  objects  they  qualify.  The 
problem  of  the  nature  of  the  universal  is  one  of 
the  most  difficult  and  most  mooted  questions  of 
philosophy.  See  Logic;  Realism. 


UNIVERSITY 


UNIVERSITY 


782 


UNIVERSITY  (Lat.  universitas).  A  terra 
which,  as  originally  used,  denoted  any  corporate 
body,  community,  or  association  regarded  as  a 
whole.  In  its  modern  sense,  that  of  a  corporate 
body  devoted  to  study,  teaching,  and  investiga¬ 
tion,  the  term  came  into  use  in  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries.  The  institutions  first  so 
designated  in  this  modern  sense  of  the  term  came 
into  existence  some  two  centuries  before  the  com¬ 
mon  use  of  the  term,  and  others  somewhat  simi¬ 
lar  had  existed  in  ancient  times  under  Greco- 
Roman  influence.  There  was  at  Athens,  at  the 
time  of  the  Roman  Empire,  a  university  not  only 
in  all  the  essentials  of  a  great  centre  of  learning, 
but  one  that  closely  corresponded  even  to  what 
we  now  mean  by  that  word.  Schools  of  philos¬ 
ophy  and  letters  similar  to  those  at  Athens 
sprang  up  at  other  great  cities  of  the  Roman 
Empire — at  Constantinople,  at  Alexandria,  at 
Rhodes,  at  Marseilles,  at  Apollonia  (Illyria), 
and  at  Rome  itself.  These,  however,  had  little 
or  no  influence  on  mediaeval  institutions. 

Mediaeval  Universities.  The  university,  in 
a  modern  sense,  originated  during  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  as  an  outgrowth  of 
schools  existing  prior  to  that  time  in  connection 
with  cathedrals  and  monasteries.  Throughout 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  there  had 
grown  up  a  new  interest  in  dialectic,  logic,  and 
philosophy  through  the  many  theological  con¬ 
troversies  aroused  by  the  earlier  schoolmen  and 
the  heresies  of  the  times;  in  Roman  law  through 
the  controversies  between  the  Holy  Roman  Em¬ 
pire  and  the  Italian  municipalities  and  the 
growing  importance  of  canon  law  in  Church  ad¬ 
ministration;  and  in  medicine  on  account  of  the 
Crusades  and  the  contact  with  the  East  and  with 
Saracen  learning.  When  a  teacher  of  eminence 
appeared,  such  as  Abelard  or  Peter  Lombard  at 
Paris,  or  Irnerius  at  Bologna,  a  large  number 
of  students  were  attracted.  This  student  body 
is  said  to  have  numbered  30,000  at  Paris  at  the 
time  of  Abelard.  Such  a  place  of  learning  and 
concourse  of  students  was  called  a  studium,  or 
later  a  studium  generate  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  more  selected  clientele  and  function  of  the 
monastic  or  cathedral  school.  The  addition  of 
the  subject  matter  of  philosophy  to  the  previous 
religious  discussions,  the  new  methods  of  treat¬ 
ment,  and  the  greater  freedom  of  thought  were 
responsible  for  the  building  up  of  the  first  uni¬ 
versities  of  northern  Europe,  and  the  most  influ¬ 
ential  of  all  mediaeval  universities,  that  of  Paris. 
The  students  were  no  longer  necessarily  des¬ 
tined  for  monastic  or  clerical  life,  though  many 
were.  At  least  the  discipline  was  much  less 
strict,  and  the  students  would  not  adapt  them¬ 
selves  to  the  rigid  rules  of  monastery  or  cathe¬ 
dral.  They  were  no  longer  drawn  from  a  re¬ 
stricted  area,  but  were  admitted  from  any  re¬ 
gion,  and  numbers  flocked  to  schools  in  foreign 
lands.  Civil  and  canon  law,  medicine,  and  the¬ 
ology  were  now  added  to  the  seven  liberal  arts. 

The  determining  characteristic  of  the  universi¬ 
ties,  however,  was  their  specialization ;  each  of 
the  earlier  universities  was  especially  strong  in 
some  one  line.  At  Salerno,  in  southern  Italy, 
early  in  the  eleventh  century,  the  monks  had 
given  special  instruction  in  medicine,  and  the 
fame  of  this  new  seat  of  learning  spread  with 
the  First  Crusade.  During  the  twelfth  century 
great  attention  was  paid  to  the  study  of  Roman 
law,  especially  in  northern  Italy,  where  the  in¬ 
struction  centred  in  Bologna — notably  so  during 
the  life  of  the  great  teacher  Irnerius.  In  Paris 


theology  was  the  subject  of  interest,  though  the 
majority  of  pupils  there  were  students  of  the 
liberal  arts,  not  yet  qualified  for  the  study  of 
theology.  These  groups  of  students  and  teachers, 
drawn  together  from  distant  regions,  were  con¬ 
trolled  by  no  monastic  rules,  amenable  to  no 
political  authorities,  and  practically  without  pro¬ 
tection  in  their  rights  and  privileges  if  any 
then  existed.  Organization  was  necessary,  and 
the  natural  tendency  was  to  organize  on  the 
basis  of  nationality.  The  nations  were  the  first 
organizations,  and  they,  through  their  delegated 
officers,  made  the  central  organization  of  the 
body  as  a  whole.  Even  before  organization,  as 
well  as  afterward,  such  a  body  of  students  was 
termed  a  studium  generate.  To  the  organiza¬ 
tion  the  term  universitas  (corporation)  was 
given,  but  never  by  itself  alone.  The  terms  most 
frequently  used  were  universitas  magistrorum , 
or  universitas  magistrorum  et  scholarium,  or 
universitatis  collegium.  In  the  course  of  time 
the  various  nations  and  faculties,  each  at  first 
a  universitas,  were  united  into  one,  the  dis¬ 
tinctions  between  the  terms  studium  generate 
and  universitas  were  lost  sight  of,  and  the  latter 
term  was  used  alone  to  indicate  the  general  body 
instead  of  the  constituent  parts. 

One  great  difference  existed  between  the  uni¬ 
versities  of  southern  and  those  of  northern  Eu¬ 
rope.  In  the  former,  modeled  after  Bologna,  the 
students  constituted  the  corporation;  in  the  lat¬ 
ter,  modeled  after  Paris,  the  teachers  controlled, 
if  they  did  not  always  completely  constitute, 
the  corporation.  The  reason  for  this  distinction 
was  that  the  students  of  the  southern  univer¬ 
sities,  especially  of  Bologna,  were  mature  stu¬ 
dents  of  law,  capable  of  self-government,  both  on 
account  of  their  age  and  the  subject  of  study; 
while  in  the  North  they  were  the  more  youthful 
students  of  arts,  many  entering  Paris  at  the  age 
of  12  or  13. 

The  privileges  which  built  up  the  universities 
were  either  local,  bestowed  to  prevent  removal 
elsewhere,  or  general,  constituting  them  integral 
parts  of  church  and  state.  The  state  exempted 
members  of  universities  from  financial  and  mili¬ 
tary  services,  save  under  exceptional  circum¬ 
stances;  the  church  bestowed  the  privilege  of 
clergy  and  the  right  to  teach.  When  the  student 
had  demonstrated  his  ability  to  determine  and 
to  define  the  terms  in  the  prescribed  trivial 
(see  Trivium)  texts,  he  received  the  bachelor’s 
degree.  When  he  had  demonstrated  his  ability 
to  conduct  a  disputation,  i.e.,  an  exposition  of 
the  more  advanced  texts,  through  a  public  de¬ 
fense  of  a  thesis,  the  master’s  or  doctor’s  degree 
was  conferred.  This  entitled  the  recipient  to 
teach  within  the  limits  of  the  university. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  Pope 
Nicholas  III  granted  to  the  University  of  Paris 
the  right  of  endowing  its  graduates  with  per¬ 
mission  to  teach  everywhere,  a  privilege  later 
conferred  upon  most  universities.  The  degrees 
themselves  were  similar  to  and  probably  bor¬ 
rowed  from  the  corresponding  stages  in  the 
learning  of  a  craft  or  in  the  organization  of  chiv¬ 
alry.  The  earlier  stage  was  an  apprenticeship, 
the  close  of  which  was  marked  by  the  conferring 
of  the  bachelor’s  degree;  the  following  was  a 
journeyman’s  period,  during  which  the  candidate 
pursued  his  studies,  and  at  the  same  time  prac¬ 
ticed  his  art  by  teaching  the  younger  students 
the  trivial  studies.  The  master  or  doctor  had 
the  right  to  teach  at  least  in  his  own  and  usually 
in  any  university;  during  the  earlier  period  he 


UNIVERSITY 


UNIVERSITY 


7«3 


was  under  obligations  to  teach  in  his  own.  In 
time  it  became  customary  to  endow  a  select 
number  of  the  graduates  as  permanent  public 
teachers;  these  privileged  and  salaried  graduates 
were  designated  professors,  and  instruction  by 
professors  more  or  less  supplanted  the  original 
plan  of  teaching  by  graduates.  The  privatdocent 
of  the  German  universities  now  represents  the 
modification  of  the  old  regent  graduates. 

The  term  “faculty”  was  originally  used  in  the 
most  general  sense  of  science  or  knowledge ;  later 
to  indicate  a  department  of  study,  as  the  faculty 
of  arts.  Then  a  more  special  connotation  became 
not  unusual,  as  synonymous  with  the  consor¬ 
tium  magistrorum,  or  council  of  masters.  By 
ordinary  usage,  however,  the  term  was  applied 
to  the  subordinate  corporation  of  masters,  or  of 
masters  and  students  in  particular  departments 
of  learning.  The  University  of  Paris  had  at  first 
only  a  faculty  of  arts,  which  existed  in  an  or¬ 
ganized  form  as  early  as  1169.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  faculties  of  theology,  medicine,  and 
canon  law  were  added.  These,  with  the  faculty 
of  civil  law,  constituted  the  organization  of  the 
typical  mediaeval  university,  though  not  all  uni¬ 
versities  had  all  faculties  represented  even  at 
the  Renaissance  period.  The  primary  units  of 
organization  of  the  universities  were  the  nations, 
though  by  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries 
these  were  succeeded  in  importance  by  the  fac¬ 
ulties.  In  Paris  the  Faculty  of  Arts  was  divided 
into  four  nations,  known  as  French,  Picard,  Nor¬ 
man,  and  German  or  English.  After  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century  these  four  nations,  under  their 
respective  procurators,  and  the  three  faculties 
subsequently  added,  under  their  deans,  consti¬ 
tuted  the  seven  component  parts  of  the  univer¬ 
sity.  The  procurators  and  deans  elected  the 
rector  of  the  university,  its  highest  officer,  who 
possessed  executive  authority  of  a  delegated  na¬ 
ture.  The  rector  with  the  procurators  and  the 
deans  formed  a  court  having  cognizance  of  all 
matters  relating  to  discipline,  from  which  there 
was  an  appeal  to  the  university  and  thence  to 
the  Parlement  of  Paris.  The  chancellor,  after 
the  rector,  was  the  highest  in  authority,  though 
that  authority  was  confined  to  the  conferring  of 
degrees.  Originally  the  chancellor  was  the  im¬ 
mediate  representative  of  the  archbishop,  to 
whom  had  previously  belonged  the  right  of  con¬ 
ferring  the  privilege  of  teaching.  Details  of  or¬ 
ganization,  as  well  as  designations  of  the  offi¬ 
cers,  varied  considerably  in  the  early  universi¬ 
ties,  though  in  general  they  were  all  modeled  on 
Paris  or  Bologna.  In  the  latter  city  the  univer- 
sitates  were  to  be  distinguished  from  the  col¬ 
legia.  The  former  were  two  in  number,  the 
'ultramontani  and  the  citramontani ,  which  were 
composed  exclusively  of  the  students  of  law  or¬ 
ganized  into  constituent  nations,  thirteen  in  one 
case  and  fourteen  in  the  other,  each  presided 
over  by  its  procurator  and  counselors.  The  col¬ 
legia  were  organizations  of  professors  and  doc¬ 
tors  that  had  control  of  the  conferring  of  de¬ 
grees.  These  colleges  were  of  the  doctors  of  civil 
Taw,  doctors  of  canon  law,  doctors  of  medicine, 
and,  from  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
doctors  of  theology.  The  general  control  of  the 
studium  generale,  however,  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  universities  later  combined  into  one. 

The  colleges,  as  they  developed  in  other  coun¬ 
tries,  were  quite  different  institutions  from  those 
of  Bologna.  They  arose  through  provisions  that 
were  made  for  poor  students  in  connection  with 
hospitals  or  monastic  foundations.  The  neces¬ 


sity  for  some  more  domestic  supervision  of 
young  students,  combined  with  the  other  ten¬ 
dency,  led  to  the  foundation  of  Halls.  These  in 
turn  were  endowed  with  corporate  privileges  as 
well  as  property,  and  the  term  “college,”  previ¬ 
ously  a  general  term  as  universitas  itself  had 
been,  was  appropriated  by  these  institutions. 
They  soon  assumed  the  character  of  boarding 
houses  for  all  classes  of  students,  where  they 
were  privately  trained  and  prepared  for  public 
lectures.  In  some  universities  the  lectures  came 
to  be  given  in  the  college,  first  the  extraordi¬ 
nary,  then  the  ordinary,  until  the  general  uni¬ 
versity  lectures  almost  disappeared,  and  no  stu¬ 
dent  was  admitted  except  as  a  member  of  a 
college.  Many  of  these  colleges  were  identified 
with  particular  faculties,  or  even  departments 
of  faculties.  Probably  the  earliest  college  of  all, 
which  served  as  a  type  for  the  others,  was  the 
college  of  the  Sorbonne  (q.v. ),  founded  about 
1250  in  the  University  of  Paris,  which  came  to 
be  identified  with  the  theological  faculty. 

Details  concerning  the  early  history  of  the 
universities,  their  development,  and  their  pres¬ 
ent  organization  will  be  found  in  the  articles  on 
the  individual  universities.  The  early  organi¬ 
zation  of  universities  has  been  best  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  the  present  by  the  German  univer¬ 
sities,  and  is  more  specifically  treated  in  that 
section. 

England.  These  universities  are  of  two  dis¬ 
tinct  types:  those  that  date  from  the  Middle 
Ages,  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  those  founded 
during  the  nineteenth  century.  The  two  for¬ 
mer  have  had  a  profound  influence  upon  national 
development  and  national  life,  for  in  no  other 
country  have  universities  been  more  intimately 
connected  with  the  religious,  political,  and  liter¬ 
ary  development.  The  details  of  the  history 
and  present  organization  of  these  two  univer¬ 
sities,  with  the  literature  of  the  subject,  will 
be  found  under  the  titles  Oxford^  University 
and  Cambridge,  University  of.  During  the 
nineteenth  century  four  universities  of  the  mod¬ 
ern  type  were  founded,  all  laying  stress  on  the 
study  of  the  sciences  and  the  technical  branches. 
These  are  Durham  University  (1832),  Univer¬ 
sity  of  London  (1836),  Victoria  University 
(1880),  and  Birmingham  University  (1900). 
Birmingham  University  was  organized  on  plans 
similar  to  those  of  London  and  Victoria  univer¬ 
sities,  with  Mason  College  as  a  nucleus.  The 
university  is  governed  by  a  chancellor,  princi¬ 
pal,  and  a  court  of  governors  consisting  of  the 
faculties  or  certain  members  thereof.  Four  fac¬ 
ulties  have  been  established,  arts,  science,  medi¬ 
cine,  and  commerce,  but  degrees  are  also  to  be 
given  in  science  and  engineering.  The  aim  in 
its  establishment  is  to  bring  university  work 
into  more  direct  relations  with  industry  and 
commerce.  The  university  began  work  in  1902 
with  the  Rt.  Hon.  Joseph  Chamberlain  as  chan¬ 
cellor.  The  example  set  by  Birmingham  was 
soon  followed  by  other  large  commercial  centres, 
though  there  is'  a  little  variation  in  the  organi¬ 
zation  of  faculties,  schools,  or  departments.  In 
1903  Liverpool  University  was  developed  from 
Liverpool  University  College,  of  Victoria  Uni¬ 
versity.  Victoria  University  now  limited  its 
authority  and  activities  to  Manchester.  ^  The 
University  of  Leeds  followed,  and  in  1905  the 
University  of  Sheffield  was  arlded  as  the  sixth 
of  the  modern  universities  of  England.  To  this 
number  must  be  added  the  University  of  Bristol, 
the  University  of  Wales,  with  its  constituent  col- 


UNIVERSITY 


UNIVERSITY 


784 


leges,  and  a  number  of  university  colleges  affili¬ 
ated  with  the  universities  of  Oxford,  Cambridge, 
or  London,  e.g.,  Exeter,  Reading,  Southampton, 
and  Nottingham. 

Scotland.  Scottish  universities  were  mostly 
founded  during  the  fifteenth  century.  The  medi¬ 
aeval  character  clung  to  them  until  1858,  when 
by  statute  the  universities  were  reorganized. 
See  Saint  Andrews  ;  Aberdeen  ;  Glasgow  ; 
Edinburgh,  University  of. 

Ireland.  Irish  universities  are  those  of  Dub¬ 
lin,  the  National  University  of  Ireland  with  its 
constituent  colleges  in  Dublin,  Cork,  and  Gal¬ 
way,  and  the  University  of  Belfast.  See  Dub¬ 
lin,  University  of,  and  National  University 
of  Ireland. 

Canada.  Canadian  universities  have  increased 
rapidly  in  numbers  with  the  development  of  the 
western  provinces.  There  were,  in  1916,  19  de¬ 
gree-granting  institutions,  and  some  12  other 
colleges,  usually  denominational  in  character, 
which  are  affiliated  to  those  granting  degrees. 
The  leading  universities  are  Toronto,  McGill, 
Queen’s  at  Kingston,  Laval  in  Quebec,  Acadia 
and  Dalhousie  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  provin¬ 
cial  universities  of  Alberta,  British  Columbia, 
Manitoba,  and  Saskatchewan.  See  under 
Canada. 

Australia.  Universities  exist  at  Sydney,  Mel¬ 
bourne,  Adelaide,  Brisbane,  Perth,  and  at  Hobart 
in  Tasmania.  The  first  was  founded  in  1852  and 
is  affiliated  with  the  University  of  London  and 
with  a  women’s  college  (1894).  There  are  four 
faculties — arts,  law,  medicine,  and  science,  and 
chairs  of  military  science,  dentistry,  agri¬ 
culture,  and  engineering.  In  1914  the  student 
body  numbered  1227.  The  University  of  Mel¬ 
bourne  was  established  and  endowed  by  an  act 
of  the  Victorian  Parliament  in  1855.  There 
are  three  affiliated  colleges  in  connection  with 
the  Church  of  England,  the  Presbyterian  and  the 
Wesleyan  churches.  The  student  attendance  in 
1913  was  1244.  The  University  of  Adelaide  was 
incorporated  in  1874  and  was  the  first  in  Aus¬ 
tralia  to  grant  degrees  to  women  (1880).  Fac¬ 
ulties  are  organized  in  arts,  sciences,  medicine, 
law,  and  music.  The  number  of  matriculated 
students  in  1913  was  459.  The  University  of 
Queensland,  which  was  established  in  Brisbane 
in  1910,  has  faculties  of  arts,  science,  law,  medi¬ 
cine,  and  engineering.  The  number  of  students 
in  1914  was  151.  The  University  of  Western 
Australia  at  Perth  was  opened  in  1913  and  has 
faculties  of  arts,  science,  and  engineering,  at¬ 
tended  in  1913-14  by  186  students.  The  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Tasmania  was  founded  at  Hobart  in 
1890.  It  consists  of  three  faculties — letters,  sci¬ 
ence,  and  law — and  in  1913-14  had  107  students. 

The  University  of  New  Zealand  was  founded 
in  1871  and  later  empowered  to  confer  degrees 
in  the  arts,  science,  law,  medicine,  dentistry, 
architecture,  engineering,  commerce,  agriculture, 
veterinary  science,  and  music.  In  1874,  by  union 
with  the  University  of  Otago  (founded  in  1869), 
the  functions  of  the  former  institution  are  re¬ 
stricted  to  its  giving  examination  and  conferring 
degrees,  while  the  latter  became  an  affiliated 
college.  A  college  of  mines  was  later  established. 
The  attendance  in  the  constituent  colleges  at 
Dunedin,  Christchurch,  Auckland,  and  Welling¬ 
ton  was  more  than  1500  in  1914. 

India.  The  universities  of  India,  with  the 
dates  of  their  establishment,  are  as  follows:  Cal¬ 
cutta,  1857 ;  Bombay,  1857 ;  Madras,  1857 ;  Pun¬ 
jab,  1882;  and  Allahabad,  for  the  Northwest  Prov¬ 


inces  (United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh),  in 
1887.  By  the  Indian  Universities  Act  of  1904  all 
the  universities  were  given  the  same  form  of  or¬ 
ganization.  For  the  most  part  the  instruction  is 
given  in  affiliated  colleges.  Faculties  in  arts  and 
philosophy,  medicine,  law,  science,  commerce,  Ori¬ 
ental  studies,  teaching,  and  engineering  exist. 
Efforts  are  being  made  also  to  promote  technical 
and  agricultural  education,  the  supporters  of 
this  plan  hoping  to  establish  strong  provincial 
institutions  for  these  purposes.  Instruction  is 
usually  given  in  English,  though  in  the  Oriental 
College  of  the  Punjab  University  instruction  is 
in  the  vernacular.  All  the  universities  enjoy 
the  privilege  of  affiliation  with  the  University 
of  Cambridge. 

France.  French  universities  take  their  origin 
from  the  University  of  Paris,  the  first  great 
university  of  northern  Europe.  (See  Paris, 
University  of.)  In  the  greater  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  word  “university’’  had 
a  widely  different  meaning  in  France  from  that 
which  it  conveyed  in  other  countries,  the  term 
Universite  de  France  being  nearly  equivalent  to 
national  system  of  education  of  France.  (With 
this  may  be  compared  the  University  of  the 
State  of  New  York. )  The  French  Revolution 
put  an  end  to  the  universities  of  the  ancien 
regime,  and  the  attempts  of  the  Convention  to 
establish  similar  institutions  were  short-lived. 
Napoleon  organized  a  comprehensive  system  of 
higher  education  in  one  unified  whole — the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  France.  This  was  placed  directly 
under  the  control  of  the  government,  adminis¬ 
tered  from  Paris,  and  made  an  instrument  of 
government  in  the  hands  of  the  central  power. 
Higher  education  was  given  under  15  faculties 
in  each  of  the  educational  districts.  These 
faculties  were  preeminently  examining  and  de¬ 
gree-conferring  bodies.  The  courses  of  study 
were  strictly  controlled  from  Paris,  and  the 
work  was  almost  wholly  of  a  professional  and 
practical  character.  This  organization,  with 
various  alterations,  continued  until  1896.  While 
the  various  faculties  of  law,  theology,  medicine, 
science,  and  literature  existed  in  most  of  the 
different  educational  districts,  the  so-called  acad¬ 
emies,  in  no  case  save  at  Paris  were  they  or¬ 
ganized  into  a  university.  The  Law  of  1896, 
which  went  into  effect  Jan.  1,  1898,  created  15 
autonomous  universities  in  place  of  the  previous 
unified  university  with  scattered  faculties,  to 
which  a  sixteenth  was  later  added  in  Algiers 
(1909).  While  much  of  the  control  of  the  in¬ 
stitution  is  still  exercised  by  the  Minister  of 
Education  and  the  authorities  at  Paris,  yet  much 
local  autonomy  is  exercised  in  respect  to  exam¬ 
inations,  degrees,  and  supplementary  courses  of 
instruction.  The  support  of  these  institutions 
is  now  left  largely  to  the  localities,  with  large 
subsidies  from  the  state.  This  stimulates  local 
pride  and  activity,  and  many  of  the  localities 
have  made  great  additions  to  the  material  equip¬ 
ment  and  plant  of  the  institution.  Private  mu¬ 
nificence  can  now  also  be  accepted,  and  it  has 
been  given  in  some  instances.  The  universities 
in  the  smaller  towns,  however,  have  suffered 
considerably  from  the  change,  for  while  the 
change  has  largely  increased  the  student  attend¬ 
ance,  yet  this  has  been  for  the  most  part  to  the 
advantage  of  the  universities  in  large  cities, 
such  as  Paris,  Bordeaux,  and  Lyons.  The  local 
universities  are  also  under  the  necessity  of  sup¬ 
porting  the  course  of  study  given  outside  of  the 
state  programme. 


ACADEMIC  GOWNS  -  BRITISH  USAGE. 


DOCTOR  OF  CIVIL  LAW 

OR  MEDICINE  OFOXFORD. 
(  FU  LL  DRESS  )  • 


DOCTOR  OF  DIVI  N  ITY. OXFORD 
(CONVOCATION  ROBE). 


DOCTOR  OF  LAWS  OR  DIVINITY 
CAMBRIDGE. 


VICE-  CHANCELLOR 
CAM  BRIDGE. 


BACHELOR  OF  ARTS 
OXFOR.D. 


MASTER  OF  ARTS 
CAMBRIDGE. 


DOCTOR  OF  D  I  VI  N  I  TY,  EDI  N  B  U  RGH 
(  FU  LL  DRESS  ) 


PENSIONER  TRINITY  COLLEGE 
CA  M  B  R I DG  E  . 


MASTER  OF  ARTS 
EDINBURGH. 


COPYRIGHT,  1903,  BY  DODO  ME  AO  &  COMPANY 


JUUUS  Bl  E N  &  CO  LITH.  N  Y 


ARRANGED  BY  GARDNER  COTRELL  LEONARD.  B  A.,  I  NTF-RCOLLEG  I  ATE  BUREAU,  ALBANY  NY 


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The  reform  of  1890  was  quite  as  important  in 
regard  to  methods  of  study  as  in  regard  to  ad¬ 
ministration.  New  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the 
work  of  investigation.  The  professional  student 
is  now  given  an  opportunity  for  doing  this,  and 
in  some  faculties  is  expected  to  do  it  previous 
to  receiving  a  degree.  The  change  has  especially 
benefited  the  faculty  of  science  and  arts,  which 
previously  had  had  no  regular  students,  since 
all  courses  were  public  and  free  and  were  con¬ 
sequently  attended  chiefly  by  chance  comers. 
The  same  reform  provided  for  "the  opening  of  the 
universities  to  foreigners  and  the  reestablish¬ 
ment  of  the  doctorate.  The  attendance  of  for¬ 
eigners,  especially  Americans,  has  increased  con¬ 
stantly  since  the  reforms  were  instituted,  there 
being,  in  1912,  55G9  of  these.  The  number  of 
professorships  has  also  been  largely  increased. 
Not  all  the  universities  are  equipped  with  all 
the  faculties.  There  are  only  eight  complete 
faculties:  Paris,  Bordeaux,  Lille,  Lyons,  Mont¬ 
pellier,  Nancy,  Toulouse,  and  Algiers.  A  few 
have  no  complete  medical  faculties  and  only 
preparatory  medical  schools.  In  addition  to  the 
faculties  a  number  of  universities  have  also 
schools  of  pharmacy. 

Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland.  The 
early  German  universities  were  modeled  after  the 
University  of  Paris,  though  the  University  of 
Bologna  had  considerable  influence  on  the  uni¬ 
versities  of  the  South  German  States;  and  it  is 
in  the  German  universities  that  the  general  or¬ 
ganization  or  structure  of  the  mediaeval  univer¬ 
sities  is  best  preserved.  Unlike  the  early  uni¬ 
versities  of  France  and  Italy,  those  of  Germany 
were  not  of  gradual  growth,  but  were  all  cre¬ 
ated  and  chartered  by  both  King  and  Pope  and 
often  by  the  Emperor  as  well.  There  were  seven 
of  these  founded  in  the  period  to  which  all  the 
early  universities  belong,  that  is,  to  the  period 
previous  to  the  Renaissance  movement.  The 
earliest  of  all  was  that  of  Prague,  authorized  by 
Pope  Clement  VI  in  1347,  and  by  the  Emperor 
Charles  IV  in  the.  following  year.  Then  fol¬ 
lowed  Vienna,  in  1365;  Heidelberg,  in  1386; 
Cologne,  in  1388;  Erfurt,  in  1393;  Leipzig,  in 
1409;  and  Rostock,  in  1419.  It  is  only  this 
group  of  German  universities  that  incorporated 
the  original  organization  into  nations,  and  even 
in  these  the  nations  ceased  to  have  any  essential 
importance  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Leipzig 
grew  out  of  a  secession  of  5000  students  and 
teachers  from  Prague,  owing  to  hostility  between 
the  German  and  Bohemian  students,  and  conse¬ 
quently  the  organization  into  nations  was  im¬ 
portant,  and  continued  to  exist  as  a  form  until 
the  nineteenth  century.  All  these  universities 
yet  exist,  save  Cologne  and  Erfurt,  which  dis¬ 
appeared  during  the  period  of  the  French  Revo¬ 
lution.  The  humanistic  movement  of  the  fif¬ 
teenth  and  early  sixteenth  century  produced  nine 
new  universities,  four  of  which,  Greifswald,  Frei¬ 
burg,  Basel,  and  Tubingen,  still  exist.  One  of 
the  others,  Wittenberg  (founded  1502),  was  the 
most  influential  of  all  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century. 

The  third  period  in  the  history  of  German 
universities  is  that  of  the  Reformation  and 
Counter-Reformation,  to  the  close  of  .the  seven¬ 
teenth  century.  Twenty  new  foundations  date 
from  these  two  centuries,  10  of  them  Protestant 
and  10  Roman  Catholic.  Half  of  each  group 
have  ceased  to  exist  or  continue  merely  as  theo¬ 
logical  faculties  under  the  control  of  the 
Church.  These  foundations  were  due  for  the 


most  part  to  the  territorial  divisions  caused 
by  the  religious  dissensions,  and  throughout  the 
period  religious  interest  dominated  all  the  uni¬ 
versities,  old  and  new.  Consequently  the  in¬ 
fluence,  the  spirit  of  the  teaching,  the  manner 
of  life  was  much  more  restricted  during  this 
period  than  in  any  other.  The  theological 
studies  dominated.  Towards  the  close  of  this 
period  the  universities  of  Germany  sank  to  the 
lowest  level  of  influence  and  importance,  nor 
was  the  character  of  the  work  much  higher.  The 
court  schools  and  circles  of  learning  outshone 
the  universities  themselves. 

The  new  era  of  the  eighteenth  century  was 
ushered  in  by  the  foundation  of  Halle  (1693) 
and  Gottingen  (1737).  These  two  institutions 
marked  the  recovery  from  the  stagnation  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Halle  was  established  in 
the  interest  of  Lutheranism  to  combat  some  of 
the  religious  tendencies  of  the  time,  but  soon 
outgrew  the  bounds  originally  set  for  it,  espe¬ 
cially  under  the  influence  of  the  famous  Thoma- 
sius  and  Francke.  Thomasius  was  the  first  to 
abandon  the  use  of  Latin  for  German  in  the 
lecture  room,  and  his  example  was  soon  followed 
to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent  throughout  Ger¬ 
many.  A  further  characteristic  of  this  period 
was  the  dominance  of  the  new  rationalistic  phi¬ 
losophy  over  the  old  scholasticism.  The  new 
philosophy  recognized  no  bounds  of  authority, 
and  the  spirit  of  inquiry  now  came  to  be  the 
dominant  spirit  of  the  universities.  Instead  of 
theunerely  formal  study  of  the  ancient  classics, 
the  various  branches  of  philology  were  now  rec¬ 
ognized  and  pursued.  The  critical  study  of  his¬ 
tory  also  began.  Halle  and  Gottingen  dominate 
the  eighteenth  century  and  are  recognized  as  the 
first  universities  of  the  modern  type. 

The  present  period,  in  which  the  scientific 
spirit  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  preeminent, 
opened  after  a  period  of  upheaval  consequent 
upon  the  Napoleonic  wars.  Nine  of  the .  old 
universities  were  suppressed  and  four  combined 
with  others.  One  of  the  measures  adopted  by 
the  Prussian  government  was  the  reformation 
of  existing  universities  an  the  direction  of 
greater  freedom  of  thought,  and  the  founding 
of  the  new  University  of  Berlin  in  1809.  The 
influence  of  Berlin  on'  other  German  universities 
has  been  paramount.  Many  antiquated  and 
useless  features  have  been  abandoned  and  dur¬ 
ing  the  past  century  professorships  in  every 
branch  of  learning  were  established.  The  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Bonn  was  founded  in  1818  and  has 
rapidly  gained  preeminence,  especially  in  phi¬ 
losophy  and  philology.  A  late  venture  in  the 
progress  of  higher  education  in  Germany  was 
the  establishment  of  the  University  of  Frank¬ 
fort,  the  first  institution  of  its  kind  maintained 
by  private  and  municipal  funds.  The  univer¬ 
sity  was  opened  for  instruction  in  1914. 

The  German  universities  are  strictly  state 
institutions  and  are  subject  to  the  ministry 
charged  with  the  educational  supervision  of  the 
respective  states  in  which  each  is  situated. 
Each,  however,  enjoys  a  high  degree  of  auton¬ 
omy  and  their  constitutions  are  essentially  re¬ 
publican.  The  internal  administration  of  the 
university  is  in  the  hands  of  a  rector,  or,  in 
case  this  title  is  borne  by  the  sovereign,  a  pro¬ 
rector,  a  dean  of  each  faculty,  the  senatus 
academicus,  and  the  quaestor  or  treasurer.  The 
discipline  of  the  university  over  its  students  is 
maintained  by  means  of  a  Universitv  Court, 
composed  of  certain  members  of  the  faculty  01 


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law.  The  penalties  inflicted  are  reprimands, 
fines,  imprisonment  in  the  University  Career, 
deprivation  of  credit,  suspension,  and  expulsion, 
the  two  latter  holding  good  not  only  for  the  one 
but  for  all  German  universities.  Aside  from 
this  the  university  exercises  no  control  over  its 
students,  and  there  are,  save  in  a  few  exceptional 
instances,  no  such  institutions  as  colleges,  halls, 
or  dormitories.  The  term  faculty  signifies  either 
( 1 )  the  teaching  body,  especially  the  full  pro¬ 
fessors,  or  (2)  the  teachers  and  students  in  one 
of  the  great  divisions  of  the  university.  At 
every  German  university  there  are  faculties  of 
law,  medicine,  philosophy,  and  either  Protestant 
or  Roman  Catholic  theology.  In  a  few,  such  as 
Munich  and  Strassburg,  an  additional  faculty 
in  political  science  or  in  natural  science  has 
been  organized.  The  teaching  body  of  a  Ger¬ 
man  university  consists  of  ( 1 )  full  professors 
( ordinarii ,  ordentliche  Professoren),  (2)  ex¬ 
traordinary  professors  {ausserordentliche) ,  and 

(3)  Privatdocenten.  To  these  are  to  be  added 

(4)  readers  {lector en) ,  appointed  to  give  prac¬ 
tical  instruction  in  modern  languages;  there  are 
also  (5)  masters  of  dancing,  fencing,  riding, 
etc.,  whose  connection  with  the  university  is 
often  merely  nominal.  The  full  professors  are 
the  occupants  of  chairs  intended  to  be  perma¬ 
nent  foundations;  they  alone  sit  in  the  senatus 
aeademicus,  and  are  alone  eligible  to  the  rector¬ 
ship  and  deanships.  The  extraordinary  pro¬ 
fessors  are  either  younger  men,  to  whom  the 
professorial  title  has  been  granted  by  the  govern¬ 
ment  for  distinguished  work,  or  they  represent 
subjects  in  which  no  permanent  chairs  have  been 
established;  sometimes  both  conditions  are  ex¬ 
emplified  in  the  same  individual.  The  Privat¬ 
docenten  are  graduates  who  receive  permission 
to  lecture,  but  receive  no  official  appointment 
and  depend  for  their  remuneration  for  the  most 
part  upon  fees  received  from  students.  They 
are  not  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  pro¬ 
fessors,  but  from  them  are  selected  the  ausser¬ 
ordentliche  Professoren. 

The  only  degrees  given  by  the  German  univer¬ 
sities  at  the  present  day  are  those  of  doctor 
and  licentiate;  the  latter  is  given  only  in  theol¬ 
ogy.  The  university  degrees  do  not,  as  such, 
admit  the  recipient  to  the  exercise  of  his  pro¬ 
fession  in  the  Church,  law,  medicine,  or  the 
higher  teaching  service;  for  this,  the  passing 
of  the  state  examination  is  necessary. 

For  a  list  of  German,  Austrian,  and  Swiss 
universities,  see  articles  on  the  respective  coun¬ 
tries.  The  principal  universities  are  described 
in  separate  articles. 

Italy.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  university 
movement  had  its  origin  and  received  its  great¬ 
est  impulse  from  Italy.  The  importance  of 
Bologna  in  this  respect  has  been  discussed  un¬ 
der  the  section  on  Mediceval  Universities. 
Again,  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen¬ 
turies  the  Italian  universities  were  the  most 
important  centres  in  all  Europe  of  the  new 
humanistic  studies.  While  the  new  methods  and 
subjects  of  study  introduced  by  these  Italian 
universities  produced  a  complete  academic  revo¬ 
lution  and  paved  the  way  for  the  Reformation, 
they  possessed  a  fortunate  immunity  from  dis¬ 
sensions  like  those  which  distracted  the  centres 
of  learning  in  northern  Europe,  especially  Ger¬ 
many.  The  status  of  the  professors  in  Italy 
was  higher  than  in  any  other  country.  Never¬ 
theless  the  universities  suffered  greatly  from  the 
general  decline  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 


centuries  and  did  not  recover  with  the  early  nine¬ 
teenth,  as  did  those  of  the  Northern  European 
countries.  While  they  preserved  their  ancient 
organization  and  local  independence,  they  suf¬ 
fered  both  from  a  great  decrease  of  revenue 
and  from  the  political  disturbances  of  the  Italian 
States.  After  the  political  unification  of  Italy 
in  1870  the  government  nationalized  the  univer¬ 
sities,  by  assuming  their  support  and  manage¬ 
ment  and  confiscating  their  property.  Since 
that  time  the  universities  are  included  as  a  com¬ 
ponent  part  of  the  public  system  of  education. 
There  are  seventeen  of  these  state  universi¬ 
ties  and  four  free  universities — that  is,  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  local  districts  and  municipalities. 
Consequently  the  opportunities  for  higher  edu¬ 
cation  are  very  much  in  excess  of  the  needs  of 
the  population.  Very  few  of  these  universities 
possess  theological  faculties,  and  the  theologi¬ 
cal  studies  are  little  valued.  Education  for 
the  Church  is  given  in  seminaries  controlled 
by  the  Church  and  in  its  ecclesiastical  character 
is  most  complete.  The  theological  schools  of 
Rome  draw  students  from  all  quarters  of  the 
world,  and  in  conjunction  with  them  there  is  a 
system  of  national  colleges  for  the  students  of 
the  several  countries.  Faculties  of  philosophy 
do  not  exist  in  the  free  universities  and  are 
poorly  attended  in  the  state  institutions.  The 
faculties  of  medicine  and  of  law  possess  an 
overwhelming  preponderance  of  all  students. 
The  state  universities  are  those  of  Bologna,  Ca¬ 
gliari,  Catania,  Genoa,  Macerata,  Messina,  Mo¬ 
dena,  Naples,  Padua,  Palermo,  Parma,  Pavia, 
Pisa,  Rome,  Sassari,  Siena,  and  Turin.  The 
free  universities  are  those  of  Camerino,  Ferrara, 
Perugia,  and  Urbino. 

Holland  and  Belgium.  The  universities  of 
the  Netherlands,  which,  like  the  later  founda¬ 
tions  of  Germany,  grew  out  of  the  Reformation 
struggles,  were  founded  by  the  state  for  the 
especial  purpose  of  training  the  clergy. 

The  Dutch  universities  are  Leyden,  Gronin¬ 
gen,  Utrecht,  and  Amsterdam,  the  last  founded 
in  1877.  These  universities  possess  a  uniform 
organization  and  with  the  exception  of  Amster¬ 
dam,  which  is  not  state  maintained,  are  com¬ 
pletely  controlled  by  the  state.  The  subjects 
of  study  and  the  examinations  are  determined 
by  statute.  Consequently  there  is  little  individ¬ 
uality  among  the  universities  and  little  to  lead 
a  student  to  prefer  one  institution  to  another. 
There  are  no  colleges  or  halls,  and  no  oversight 
of  the  students  by  the  faculty.  The  Dutch  uni¬ 
versities  are  closely  modeled  after  the  German, 
but  do  not  possess  their  flexibility.  The  char¬ 
acter  of  student  life,  of  methods  of  instruction, 
of  conditions  of  examinations,  of  degrees  con¬ 
ferred,  closely  approximate  that  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  universities.  There  is  in  addition  to  these 
a  free  university  at  Amsterdam  founded  in 
1880  and  now  having  about  150  students  in 
faculties  of  theology,  letters,  law,  and  medicine. 
It  is  supported  by  private  benefactions. 

Belgium  had  four  universities,  two  of  which, 
Li6ge  and  Ghent,  were  state  universities  similar 
to  those  of  the  Netherlands,  while  Louvain  was 
controlled  by  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  and 
Brussels  was  a  free  establishment. 

Spain  and  Portugal.  There  were  in  19 1G 
nine  universities  in  Spain,  an  additional  lav/ 
faculty  at  Oviedo,  and  a  medical  faculty  at 
Cadiz.  The  universities  are  located  at  Bar¬ 
celona,  Granada,  Madrid,  Salamanca,  Santiago, 
Seville,  Valencia,  Valladolid,  and  Saragossa. 


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787 


Each  possesses  two  or  more  of  the  faculties  of 
law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  and  science.  Tuition 
charges  are  high  and  the  universities  depend  al¬ 
most  wholly  upon  this  source  of  revenue.  For 
the  most  part  the  Spanish  universities  re¬ 
semble  in  organization  the  French  faculties  pre¬ 
vious  to  the  reforms  of  1890  and  are  not  in  a 
flourishing  state.  The  largest  is  that  of  Madrid, 
with  125  professors  and  nearly  6000  students  in 
1914.  Portugal  has  two  universities.  There 
are  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  mathematics, 
philosophy,  and  a  school  of  design  at  Coimbra. 
Lisbon,  which  was  reestablished  in  1910,  has 
faculties  of  arts,  sciences,  and  medicine,  and 
a  school  of  pharmacy.  See  Coimbra,  Univer¬ 
sity  of;  Alcala  de  Henares;  Madrid,  Uni¬ 
versity  of;  Salamanca,  University  of;  Va¬ 
lencia,  University  of;  Valladolid,  Univer¬ 
sity  of. 

Russia.  Russian  universities  are  of  two 
classes:  those  that  are  practically  universities 
of  the  German  type  and  date  from  the  Reforma¬ 
tion  period,  and  those  typically  Russian.  There 
are  two  of  the  former:  Dorpat,  founded  in  1632 
(see  Yuriev,  University  of),  and  Helsingfors, 
in  Finland,  founded  in  1640  by  Queen  Christina. 
The  latter  is  a  flourishing  institution  in  the 
midst  of  a  cultured  people  possessing  a  system 
of  universal  and  compulsory  education.  Both 
the  population  which  supports  it  and  the  in¬ 
stitution  itself  are  more  closely  allied  to  the 
Scandinavian  countries  than  to  Russia.  The 
nine  Russian  universities  are  as  follows :  Mos¬ 
cow,  founded  in  1755;  St.  Vladimir  at  Kiev, 
founded  in  1833;  Kazan,  founded  in  1804;  Khar¬ 
kov,  founded  in  1804;  Warsaw,  founded  in  1816; 
St.  Petersburg,  founded  in  1819;  Odessa,  founded 
in  1865;  Tomsk,  founded  in  1888;  and  Saratov, 
founded  in  1909.  In  most  of  them  the  faculties 
are  of  history,  science,  jurisprudence,  medicine, 
and  languages.  The  attendance,  excluding  Sar¬ 
atov  with  about  400  students,  varies  from  about 
10,000  at  Moscow  to  about  1000  at  Tomsk.  In 
addition  to  the  universities  there  are  six  theo¬ 
logical  schools  and  various  medical  and  tech¬ 
nical  schools  not  represented  in  the  university 
faculties. 

Greece.  No  institutions  of  higher  learning  ex¬ 
isted  in  Athens  during  modern  times  until  after 
the  liberation  of  the  Greeks  in  the  early  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  In  1837  King  Otho  es¬ 
tablished  the  University  of  Athens,  closely  mod¬ 
eled  after  the  universities  of  Germany.  The  four 
faculties  of  law,  medicine,  theology,  and  philos¬ 
ophy  were  created,  with  the  power  of  appoint¬ 
ment  lodged  with  the  King,  who  appointed 
mainly  Germans.  Since  1882  the  right  of  nom¬ 
ination  has  been  exercised  by  the  faculties. 

Scandinavia.  All  state  institutions  since 
the  Reformation  have  been  strongly  Lutheran 
in  their  character  and  are  closely  associated 
with  the  national  church.  They  were  founded 
on  the  model  of  German  universities  and  for 
the  most  part  reproduce  the  present  features 
of  these.  They  are  as  follows:  Upsala,  in 
Sweden,  founded  in  1477 ;  Copenhagen,  in  Den¬ 
mark,  founded  in  1479;  Lund,  in  Sweden, 
founded  in  1666;  and  Christiania,  in  Norway, 
founded  in  1811.  The  attendance  varies  from 
4000  at  Copenhagen  to  nearly!  1400  at  Lund.  In 
addition  to  these  universities  there  are  in 
Sweden  a  state  medical  faculty  at  Stockholm, 
and  private  philosophical  faculties  at  Stockholm 
and  Goteborg. 

United  States.  In  the  United  States  popular 


usage  employs  the  terms  “university”  and  “col¬ 
lege”  indiscriminately  for  any  higher  institu¬ 
tion  of  learning  which  possesses  the  power  of 
conferring  the  usual  academic  degrees.  This 
confusion  prevails  also  in  official  nomenclature, 
for  some  of  the  oldest,  richest,  and  most  com¬ 
pletely  equipped  American  universities  still  bear 
the  name  of  “college,”  while  in  certain  parts  of 
the  country  institutions  inferior  in  endowment 
and  in  scholarly  distinction  to  some  of  the  sec¬ 
ondary  schools  are  officially  designated  as  “uni¬ 
versities.”  Harvard  and  Yale,  though  long 
since  equipped  with  the  amplest  facilities  for 
university  work,  have  only  very  recently  put 
aside  the  name  of  “college,”  and  the  same  is 
true  also  of  Columbia  and  Princeton. 

Classified  with  reference  to  their  pedagogic 
character,  American  universities  may  be  roughly 
grouped  under  two  general  heads :  ( 1 )  univer¬ 
sities  that  are  equipped  for  the  prosecution  of 
original  investigation  and  research  in  the  vari¬ 
ous  departments  of  study,  besides  usually  hav¬ 
ing  connected  with  them  the  various  professional 
schools,  representing  the  faculties  of  law,  medi¬ 
cine,  theology,  and  natural  science;  and  (2) 
universities,  so  called,  that  perform  chiefly  the 
disciplinary  and  preparatory  work  similar  to 
but  somewhat  more  advanced  than  that  of  the 
German  Gymnasium  ( q.v. ) .  Institutions  of  the 
second  class  have  a  course  more  or  less  pre¬ 
scribed  ( see  Elective  Courses  and  Studies  ) , 
leading  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  and 
in  some  cases  to  the  alternative  degrees  of 
bachelor  of  science,  bachelor  of  letters,  or 
bachelor  of  philosophy.  With  the  granting  of 
such  degrees  the  responsibility  of  the  institu¬ 
tion  usually  ends,  though  some  of  the  univer¬ 
sities  offer  facilities  for  advanced  lines  of  study. 
But  in  all,  the  “undergraduate  courses”  leading 
to  the  baccalaureate  degree  form  the  most  im¬ 
portant  portion  of  the  curriculum. 

Of  the  former  class,  to  which  in  the  best  us¬ 
age  the  term  university  is  now  restricted,  are 
Harvard,  Yale,  Columbia,  Princeton,  Johns  Hop¬ 
kins,  Clark,  Pennsylvania,  Leland  Stanford,  Chi¬ 
cago,  Cornell,  New  York,  the  Catholic  Univer¬ 
sity  of  America  at  Washington,  and  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  State  universities  such  as  Michigan,  Cali¬ 
fornia,  Wisconsin,  and  Illinois.  However,  in 
most  of  these  less  stress  is  laid  upon  the  col¬ 
legiate  work  than  upon  the  more  original  work 
performed  by  those  who  have  already  received 
the  first  degree  in  arts  and  science,  and  who 
are  consequently  engaged  in  the  special  or  pro¬ 
fessional  investigations  that  are  to  fit  them  for 
their  life’s  work.  In  the  remainder  of  these, 
and  in  many  similar  institutions  bearing  the 
name  university,  the  chief  emphasis  is  upon  the 
undergraduate  work,  though  the  advanced  and 
progressive  work  is  also  represented  and  the 
title  of  university  is  appropriate.  Such  are 
the  State  universities  of  Virginia,  California, 
Michigan,  Indiana,  Minnesota,  and  several  other 
States,  Boston  University,  and  Princeton  Uni¬ 
versity.  So  far  as  the  advanced  work  is  carried 
in  these  institutions,  it  is  in  no  wise  inferior  to 
that  of  institutions  laying  the  chief  stress  on 
graduate  investigation  and  instruction.  In  no 
case  is  there  an  institution  comparable  to  the 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  made  up 
of  constituent  colleges  doing  undergraduate 
work ;  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  universities  in 
the  German  sense  of  the  term. 

The  influence  of  the  German  universities,  how¬ 
ever,  was  most  instrumental  during  the  devel- 


UNIVERSITY 


UNIVERSITY 


788 


opment  of  advanced  instruction  in  American 
institutions.  The  first  American  to  graduate 
at  a  German  university  was  Edward  Everett, 
who  received  his  doctor’s  degree  at  Gottingen  in 
1817.  During  the  next  few  years  this  example 
was  imitated  by  four  or  five  others,  among  them 
George  Bancroft,  who  received  his  degree  in 
1820.  Not  until  after  1840,  however,  were  any 
great  number  of  American  students  attracted 
to  the  German  universities.  From  that  time 
a  constantly  increasing  number  pursued  such  a 
course  and  returned  to  affect  immediately  the 
work  of  American  institutions.  As  early  as 
1800  Harvard  College  had  accepted  resident 
graduates,  and  announced  their  names  as  stu¬ 
dents.  A  varying  number,  never  over  12,  con¬ 
tinued  each  year  until  1860,  when  Harvard 
first  definitely  announced  in  its  catalogue  that 
such  students  would  be  accepted  and  provided 
for,  and  three  years  later  announced  a  series 
of  graduate  courses. 

Meanwhile  Yale  College  had  preceded  Harvard 
in  the  development  of  graduate  work.  In  1847 
a  “department  of  philosophy  and  arts”  was  or¬ 
ganized  for  “scientific  and  graduate  study.” 
This  department  was  expanded  until  in  18G0- 
61  it  was  divided  into  (1)  the  Sheffield  Scien¬ 
tific  School  and  (2)  the  special  courses  in  philol¬ 
ogy,  history,  philosophy,  etc.,  and  the  announce¬ 
ment  was  made  that  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
philosophy  would  be  conferred,  as  was  done 
for  the  first  time  at  the  close  of  that  year.  I11 
1872  the  graduate  work  was  organized  into  a 
separate  department,  as  the  first  distinct  grad¬ 
uate  school.  In  the  same  year  Harvard  an¬ 
nounced  that  it  would  confer  the  advanced  de¬ 
gree,  but  it  was  not  until  1890  that  a  separate 
graduate  school  was  organized.  Other  institu¬ 
tions,  such  as  Columbia,  Michigan,  Cornell,  and 
Princeton,  soon  followed  the  example  of  the 
older  institutions  in  providing  for  advanced  de¬ 
grees  and  in  the  case  of  the  master’s  degree 
some  even  preceded  the  older  institutions.  In 
the  case  of  Cornell  University,  opened  in  1868, 
the  graduate  work  and  graduate  degrees  were 
planned  from  the  beginning.  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  founded  in  1876,  was  the  most  in¬ 
fluential  of  all  factors  in  developing  univer¬ 
sity  work  similar  to  that  of  the  German  uni¬ 
versities.  Here  first  was  found  an  institution 
devoted  chiefly  to  the  training  of  advanced  stu¬ 
dents;  here  first  were  found  the  opportunities 
for  research  along  the  line  of  all  the  social  and 
natural  sciences,  literature,  and  philosophy; 
here  first  was  the  organization  of  work  similar 
to  that  of  German  institutions  and  the  same 
freedom  and  opportunity  of  wide  choice  given 
to  the  student.  For  many  years  the  men  trained 
at  this  university  exerted  the  greatest  influence 
towards  the  introduction  of  similar  work  in 
other  institutions  where  the  university  work 
was  developing  out  of  the  old  collegiate  work. 
A  second  great  influence  Avas  that  exerted  by 
Har\~ard  UnUersitA7  during  the  incumbencv  of 
President  Eliot.  NoAA7here  else  Avas  the  close 
and  beneficial  relationship  that  may  exist  be- 
tAveen  the  graduate  and  undergraduate  work  so 
demonstrated.  A  similar  influence  Avas  exerted 
upon  State  universities  by  the  graduate  in¬ 
struction  both  in  natural  and  in  the  social 
sciences  by  Cornell  University,  ample  provi¬ 
sions  for  A\rhicli  Avere  made  at  its  foundation  in 
1868.  More  recently  seA7eral  other  institutions 
ha\Te  vied  with  these  in  the  importance  of  their 
university  Avork,  notably  two,  Avhich  noAV  lead  all 


the  others  in  graduate  attendance,  namely, 
Columbia  University  and  the  University  of 
Chicago.  Columbia  as  reorganized  in  1890  pro¬ 
vided  for  graduate  Avork,  in  a  graduate  faculty 
of  philosophy,  of  political  science,  and  (in 
1893)  of  pure  science.  Since  then  the  faculty 
of  medicine  and  the  faculty  of  laAV  and  the 
faculty  of  education  (see  Teachers  College) 
have  become  graduate  faculties.  In  numbers 
pursuing  graduate  studies  this  university  now 
leads.  The  University  of  Chicago,  founded  in 
1891,  has  laid  the  greater  emphasis  upon  grad¬ 
uate  work  from  the  beginning,  and  has  intro¬ 
duced  a  number  of  noArel  features,  some  imi¬ 
tations  of  features  of  English  universities,  some 
of  German,  and  some  original.  Several  of 
these,  such  as  the  continuous  session,  and  the 
publication  department,  as  an  important  phase 
of  the  university  work,  seem  destined  to  come 
into  general  acceptance. 

The  degrees  conferred  by  universities  for  ad¬ 
vanced  work  are  usually  those  of  master  of  arts 
(A.M. )  and  doctor  of  philosophy  (Ph.D. ),  though 
sometimes  the  master  of  science  (M.S.)  and 
the  doctor  of  science  (D.S.)  are  also  given. 
The  tendency  iioav  in  both  the  graduate  and  un¬ 
dergraduate  work  of  universities  is  toAvards  giv¬ 
ing  a  single  degree  (A.B.,  A.M.,  and  Ph.D.) 
upon  the  completion  of  any  one  of  a  number  of 
allied  courses.  The  requirements  for  the  mas¬ 
ter’s  degree  sIioav  considerable  variation  among 
the  different  institutions.  The  degree  usually 
indicates  one  year  of  resident  graduate  Avork 
beyond  the  bachelor’s  degree,  though  it  is  still 
frequently  given  honoris  causa.  The  minimum 
for  the  doctor’s  degree  is  tAvo  years’  work  be¬ 
yond  the  baccalaureate,  including  the  prepara¬ 
tion  and  usually  the  publication  of  a  thesis. 
In  most  cases  the  doctorate  requires  three  years 
of  graduate  work.  In  1873  there  were  43  doc¬ 
torate  degrees  conferred,  25  of  AAThich  were  upon 
examination.  By  the  close  of  the  century  this 
number  had  increased  to  from  300  to  350  each 
year,  AAflth  less  than  five  per  cent  gh7en  honoris 
causa.  In  1914  in  567  institutions  5248  grad¬ 
uate  degrees  Avere  conferred,  while  in  46  of  the 
leading  institutions  519  degrees  of  doctor  of 
philosophy  Avere  gained.  The  graduate  students 
in  the  same  year  numbered  13,094.  See  Degree. 

Complete  freedom  of  choice  is  naturally  given 
to  the  student  in  the  selection  of  his  studies, 
as  is  noAV  the  usual  or  at  least  the  frequent  cus¬ 
tom  in  undergraduate  studies.  (See  Elective 
Courses  and  Studies.)  Consequently  the  A.B. 
degree  as  Avell  as  the  Ph.D.  does  not  indicate 
the  mastery  of  any  particular  subject  or  sub¬ 
jects.  The  German  custom  of  requiring  the 
student  to  select  a  major  and  one  or  two  minor 
subjects  preA7ails  in  most  universities,  though 
Hanard  and  Yale  simply  require  that  the  kind 
and  amount  of  the  work  be  satisfactory  to  the 
appropriate  committee.  The  present  tendency 
in  other  institutions  is  aAvay  from  this  division 
into  majors  and  minors.  The  amount  of  time 
or  number  of  courses  included  in  a  major  or 
minor  varies  Avith  the  university.  A  major  for 
a  doctor’s  degree  ordinarily  represents  two 
courses  of  two  or  three  or  four  hours  Aveekly 
for  tAvo  or  three  years,  as  the  case  may  be.  It 
is  often  more  in  amount.  The  minor  is  ordi¬ 
narily  one-half  of  the  above  requirement.  The 
greatest  A7arietv  of  choice  is  offered  the  student 
for  his  selection  of  majors  and  minors. 

The  teaching  staff  is  composed  of  professors, 
adjunct  or  associate  professors,  assistant  pro- 


ACADEMIC  G  O  W  N  S  -  A  M  E  R  I  CA  N  USAGE. 


DOCTOR  OF  MEDICINE 

JOHNS  HOPKINS. 


DOCTOR  OF  MUSIC 
CO  LU  M  B  I  A. 


DOCTOR  OF  DIVINITV 

VALE. 


BACHELOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 
WESTERN  RESERVE  UNIV. 


DOCTOR  OF  SCIENCE 
PR  I  N  CETON. 


BACHELOR  OF  DIVINITY 
UNIV  OF  CHICAGO. 


MASTER  OF  ARTS 
UN  IV.  OF  MINNESOTA. 


DOCTO  R  OF  LETTERS 
UNIV.  OF  CALI  FORNI  A. 


COPVP  .GMT,  1903,  BY  DODO,  MEAD  1  COMPANY 


ARRANGEO  BY  GARDNER  COTRELL  LEONARD,  B.  A.,  I  NTERCOLLEGI  ATE  BUREAU,  ALBANY,  N  Y. 


UNIVERSITY 


7»9  UNIVERSITY 


fessors,  instructors,  tutors,  and  assistants.  The 
American  professor  is  always  a  teacher,  and  the 
amount  of  his  time  that  must  be  devoted  to 
actual  lecturing  and  teaching  is  usually  pre¬ 
scribed  for  him  by  the  college  regulations;  it  is 
ordinarily  from  eight  to  twelve  hours  per  week. 
He  has  not  the  privilege  accorded  to  the  Ger¬ 
man  professor,  of  “reading”  or  not,  but  must 
every  year  go  through  a  certain  number  of 
courses  of  instruction,  besides  being  expected, 
in  many  of  the  colleges,  to  assume  a  certain 
amount  of  responsibility  for  administration,  and 
the  morals  and  discipline  of  the  undergraduates. 
This  is  a  very  serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
his  ability  to  carry  on  independent  investiga¬ 
tion  and  research,  and  makes  the  American  pro¬ 
fessoriate  a  comparatively  sterile  body,  though 
an  improvement  in  this  respect  has  been  very 
noticeable  in  the  past  few  years.  The  univer¬ 
sity  instructor  is  now  expected  to  be  not  only 
a  director  of  investigation  and  an  investigator 
himself,  but  he  is  also  expected  to  publish  the 
results  of  his  investigations.  The  same  kind 
of  work  is  also  coming  in  increased  amount 
from  the  colleges,  though  there  the  instructor 
must  spend  the  greater  part  of  his  time  (from 
15  to  20  hours  per  week)  in  class  instruction. 
Harvard,  Yale,  Chicago,  Cornell,  Columbia, 
Johns  Hopkins,  Clark,  and  other  universities 
have  now  largely  adopted  the  German  concep¬ 
tion  of  the  professorial  function,  and  allow  the 
individual  professor  much  greater  liberty  in 
the  discharge  of  his  duties  than  was  formerly 
the  case.  Most  of  the  leading  universities  have 
likewise  adopted  the  laudable  plan  of  allowing 
each  professor  leave  of  absence  once  in  seven 
years,  either  a  full  year  on  half  pay,  or  a  half 
year  on  full  pay,  with  many  variations  on  this 
plan. 

In  organization  the  universities  differ  con¬ 
siderably,  especially  as  to  detail  and  local  ar¬ 
rangements.  In  general  the  organization  is  into 
faculties  of  philosophy,  pure  science,  applied 
science,  medicine,  law,  etc.,  presided  over  by 
deans,  who  are  administrative  rather  than  edu¬ 
cational  heads;  the  faculties  are  divided  into 
departments,  of  Greek,  mathematics,  etc.,  pre¬ 
sided  over  by  a  head  professor,  who  usually  ex¬ 
ercises  a  general  control  over  the  work  of  the 
department.  To  him  the  associate  professors, 
tutors,  etc.,  in  the  department  are  responsible. 
He  arranges  the  subjects  of  study,  assigns  the 
work  of  the  subordinate  instructors,  and  reports 
to  the  president  or  chancellor  from  time  to  time 
upon  the  work  accomplished.  In  other  universi¬ 
ties  the  departmental  organization  is  wholly 
democratic,  in  which  the  only  headship  is  the 
formal  one  of  seniority.  The  president  (or 
chancellor)  exercises  a  general  supervision  over 
the  entire  institution,  and  is  the  medium  of 
communication  between  the  faculty  or  faculties 
and  the  trustees,  overseers,  regents,  or  governors 
of  the  university — a  body  with  whom  usually 
rests  the  ultimate  sovereignty  of  the  institution, 
and  who  have  exclusive  control  of  the  finances. 

The  organization  of  the  professors  and  in¬ 
structors  in  American  universities  differs  widely. 
In  the  institutions  where  most  of  the  work  is  in 
arts  and  science  there  is  generally  a  single 
faculty.  In  the  larger  universities  the  faculties 
are  often  wholly  distinct,  the  president  acting  as 
the  only  bond  between  them.  Each  faculty, 
then,  legislates  independently  of  the  others  on 
matters  affecting  its  own  local  interests,  while 
questions  affecting  the  university  as  a  whole 


are  left  largely  to  the  board  of  trustees,  advised 
by  the  president  and  sometimes  by  the  faculties. 

The  Lnited  States  Commissioner  of  Educa¬ 
tion  in  his  report  for  1913-14  gives  statistics 
for  567  universities,  colleges,  and  schools  of 
technology  of  degree-giving  rank.  Of  these  474 
are  controlled  by  private  corporations  and  93 
by  State  or  municipal  authorities.  Four  hun¬ 
dred  and  seventy-five  of  these  are  colleges  and 
universities  for  men  or  for  both  sexes;  of  these 
330  are  open  to  both  men  and  women,  and  145 
admit  men  only  to  the  undergraduate  depart¬ 
ment.  the  total  attendance  in  these  institu¬ 
tions  for  the  year  1913-14  w'as  216,493;  of  these 
139,373  wrere  men  and  77,120  were  women. 
These  institutions  conferred  degrees  upon  31,- 
781  men  and  women  completing  the  course 
of  study  during  that  year.  The  number  of 
professors  and  instructors  in  these  institutions 
was  31,312.  The  total  value  of  the  property 
possessed  by  the  567  institutions  of  higher  edu¬ 
cation  v’as  $849,396,071;  of  this  sum  $362,742,- 
823  consisted  of  productive  funds.  The  total 
income  of  the  institutions  for  the  year  was 
$102,156,401,  and  the  additions  through  pri¬ 
vate  benefactions,  $26,670,017. 

Since  the  close  of  the  last  and  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century  a  number  of  organiza¬ 
tions  have  been  established  to  promote  and  dis¬ 
cuss  the  various  interests  of  American  univer¬ 
sities.  Among  these  should  be  mentioned  the 
Association  of  American  Universities,  established 
in  1900  to  consider  questions  bearing  on  grad¬ 
uate  studies;  the  National  Association  of  State 
Universities,,  organized  in  1895,  to  make  the 
represented  institutions  more  efficient;  and  in 
1914  there  w^as  founded  the  Association  of  Ur¬ 
ban  Universities  to  promote  the  interests  of 
municipal  universities  and  universities  existing 
in  large  towns.  The  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education  has  in  recent  years  devoted  attention 
through  a  specialist  to  higher  education.  Of 
privately  endowed  bodies  that  have  contributed 
materially  to  the  welfare  of  American  univer¬ 
sities  the  more  important  are  the  Carnegie 
Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching, 
and  the  General  Education  Board  (qq.v. ).  In¬ 
directly  contributory  to  the  progress  of  higher 
education  is  the  American  Association  of  Uni¬ 
versity  Professors,  organized  in  1915  to  safe¬ 
guard  and  promote  the  interests  of  the  teaching 
profession  engaged  in  universities  and  colleges. 

Denominational  Connections  of  Universi¬ 
ties  and  Colleges.  The  earliest  institutions  for 
higher  education  in  the  United  States  w^ere  es¬ 
tablished  to  promote  the  interests  of  certain  de¬ 
nominations  and  more  especially  for  the  training 
of  ministers.  Thus  Harvard  and  Yale  were 
closely  connected  with  the  Congregational 
churches,  King’s  College  (novr  Columbia  Uni¬ 
versity)  with  the  Episcopal  church,  Princeton 
with  the  Presbyterian,  Brown  with  the  Baptist, 
Wesleyan  with  the  Methodist,  and  Rutgers  with 
the  Dutch  Reformed.  The  expansion  of  the 
purposes  and  functions  of  the  colleges  and  uni¬ 
versities,  the  development  of  State  universities, 
the  requirements  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation 
for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  were  several 
among  many  reasons  for  the  abandonment  of 
close  administrative  relations  between  these  in¬ 
stitutions  and  the  denominations.  While  nearly 
every  denomination  in  the  country  has  its  repre¬ 
sentative  institutions  for  higher  education,  a 
few'  have  established  central  authorities  to  aid 
in  the  maintenance,  promote  the  standards,  and 


UNIVERSITY 


UNIVERSITY  CLUB 


790 


supervise  the  instruction  and  religious  life  of 
their  institutions.  The  chief  of  these  boards  are 
the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Aid  for  Colleges  and 
Academies  or  the  Presbyterian  College  Board, 
established  in  1883;  the  Board  of  Education  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  organized  in 
1864;  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  founded  in  1894;  the 
Congregational  Education  Society,  organized  in 
its  present  form  in  1896  and  amalgamating  a 
number  of  boards  throughout  the  country,  one  at 
least  dating  from  1816;  and  the  Board  of  Edu¬ 
cation  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  America,  which 
began  its  activities  in  1828,  was  reconstituted  in 
1832,  and  incorporated  in  1869.  All  the  boards 
mentioned  are  now  devoting  themselves  to  the 
task  of  consolidating  and  coordinating  the  efforts 
of  their  respective  denominations,  eliminating 
competition  among  small,  struggling  institutions, 
and  raising  the  standards. 

The  ecclesiastical  control  over  institutions  of 
higher  learning  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
is  of  a  different  character.  Here  there  is  no 
central  board  or  society  that  exercises  powers  of 
supervision  over  all  the  colleges  of  the  church. 
The  connection  is  maintained  through  a  large 
number  of  religious  orders  that  not  only  support 
but  own  the  institutions  under  their  care.  Each 
order  is,  of  course,  under  the  supervision  of  its 
superior  or  council.  In  1899  there  was  founded 
an  Association  of  Catholic  Colleges  of  the  United 
States  with  a  membership  of  53  colleges,  a  num¬ 
ber  nearly  doubled  since  that  date.  The  associa¬ 
tion  in  1904  became  the  college  section  of  the 
Catholic  Education  Association.  The  leading  in¬ 
stitution  in  the  section  is  the  Catholic  Univer¬ 
sity  of  America  (q.v.).  With  few  exceptions 
the  other  institutions  are  under  the  control  of 
one  of  the  religious  orders  of  the  church  devoted 
to  teaching.  The  leading  orders  of  men  are  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  the  Benedictines,  the  Vincentians,  the 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  the  Marist  Fathers, 
the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the  Brothers 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  the  Xaverian  Brothers. 
The  chief  communities  of  women  conducting  col¬ 
leges  include  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  the 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  of  Namur,  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Cross,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names,  Ursu- 
lines,  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  Sisters  of  Provi¬ 
dence.  The  institutions  maintained  by  these 
orders  are  chiefly  of  college  rank  and  confine 
themselves  in  the  main  to  imparting  a  liberal 
rather  than  a  professional  education.  The  lead¬ 
ing  universities  are,  besides  the  Catholic  Uni¬ 
versity  of  America,  Georgetown  (Washington, 
D.  C. ),  Notre  Dame  (Notre  Dame,  Ind.),  Loyola 
and  DePaul  (Chicago),  St.  Louis  (St.  Louis), 
Fordham  (New  York  City),  Creighton  (Omaha), 
Marquette  (Milwaukee),  Detroit  (Detroit). 
Catholic  colleges  having  a  registration  in  1915 
of  300  or  more  include:  St.  John’s  (Brooklyn), 
Holy  Cross  (Worcester,  Mass.),  St.  Mary’s 
(Oakland,  Cal.),  St.  Ignatius’s  (Cleveland,  Ohio), 
St.  Mary’s  (Dayton,  Ohio),  Dubuque  (Dubuque, 
Iowa),  Cathedral  College  (New  York  City), 
St.  Mary’s  (St.  Mary’s,  Kans.),  St.  John’s  (a 
university ;  Collegeville,  Minn. ) ,  Mt.  St.  Mary’s 
(Emmitsburg,  Md.),  St.  Viator  (Kankakee, 
Ill.),  Santa  Clara  (a  university;  Santa  Clara, 
Cal.),  Villanova  (Villanova,  Pa.),  Campion 
(Prairie  du  Chien,  Wis.),  Christian  Brothers 
(St.  Louis),  Loyola  (Baltimore),  St.  Joseph’s 
(Collegeville,  Ind.).  There  are  other  well-known 
Catholic  colleges  in  the  United  States,  as  well 


as  in  the  Philippines  and  Honolulu.  For  com¬ 
plete  list,  consult  the  Official  Catholic  Directory 
(New  York,  1916). 

Bibliography.  Ancient  universities:  Capes, 
University  Life  at  Ancient  Athens  (London, 
1877);  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Old  Greek  Education 
(New  York,  1882)  ;  id.,  The  Greek  World  Under 
Homan  Sway  ( ib.,  1890)  ;  Paul  Monroe,  Source- 
Book  on  the  History  of  Education  for  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Period  (ib.,  1901);  J.  W.  H.  W. 
Walden,  The  Universities  of  Ancient  Greece 
(ib.,  1909).  Mediaeval  universities:  H.  Denifle, 
Die  Universitaten  des  Mittelalters  (Berlin, 
1885)  ;  Hastings  Rashdall,  The  Universities  of 
Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages  (2  vols.,  Oxford, 
1895)  ;  Gabriel  Compayr6,  Abelard  and  the  Ori¬ 
gin  and  Early  History  of  Universities  (New 
York,  1895)  ;  S.  S.  Laurie,  Rise  and  Early  Con¬ 
stitution  of  Universities  (ib.,  1895)  ;  J.  M.  Stone, 
The  Reformation  and  Renaissance  (London, 
1904)  ;  A.  Norton,  Medieval  Universities  (Cam¬ 
bridge,  Mass.,  1905)  ;  E.  V.  Vaughan,  Origin 
and  Early  Development  of  the  English  Univer <- 
sities  (Columbia,  Mo.,  1908)  ;  F.  P.  Graves,  His¬ 
tory  of  Education  before  the  Middle  Ages  (New 
York,  1909)  ;  C.  F.  Thwing,  The  Universities  of 
the  World  (ib.,  1911).  For  the  German  uni¬ 
versities:  Dollinger,  Die  Universitaten  sonst  und 
jetzt  (Munich,  1871)  ;  Sybel,  Die  deutschen  Uni- 
versitdten  (Bonn,  1874)  ;  Conrad,  The  German 
Universities  for  the  Last  Fifty  Years  (Eng. 
trans.,  with  introduction  by  James  Bryce,  Glas¬ 
gow,  1885")  ;  Erman  and  Horn,  Bibliographie  der 
deutschen  Universitaten  (Leipzig,  1904)  ;  W. 
Lexis,  Das  Unterrichtswesen  im  deutschen  Reich 
(Berlin,  1904)  ;  Friedrich  Paulsen,  German  Uni¬ 
versities  and  University  Study  (Eng.  trans., 
New  York,  1906).  For  American  universities: 
C.  F.  Thwing,  The  American  Colleges  and  Amer¬ 
ican  Life  (New  York,  1897)  ;  Burgess,  The 
American  University  (Boston,  1894)  ;  N.  M. 
Butler,  The  Meaning  of  Education  (ib.,  1898)  ; 

C.  W.  Eliot,  Educational  Reform  (ib.,  1898)  ; 

D.  C.  Gilman,  University  Problems  (ib.,  1898)  ; 
G.  T.  Ladd,  Essays  on  Higher  Education  (ib., 
1899)  ;  E.  E.  Brown,  Origin  of  American  State 
Universities  (Berkeley,  Cal.,  1903)  ;  C.  F. 
Thwing,  History  of  Higher  Education  in  the 
United  States  (ib.,  1906);  N.  M.  Butler,  Edu¬ 
cation  in  the  United  States  (Albany,  1907)  ; 
C.  W.  Eliot,  University  Administration  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1908)  ;  E.  E.  Slosson,  Great  American  Uni¬ 
versities  (New  York,  1910)  ;  United  States  Bu¬ 
reau  of  Education,  Contributions  to  American 
Educational  History  (36  vols.)  ;  Reports  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  (an¬ 
nual)  ;  annual  statistics  are  given  in  Triibner, 
Minerva  Jahrbuch  der  gelehrten  Welt  (Strass- 
burg).  Consult  also  the  reports  of  the  associa¬ 
tions  and  private  bodies  referred  to  in  the  text. 

UNIVERSITY  CLUB.  A  social  organiza¬ 
tion,  whose  members  must  hold  a  university  or 
college  degree,  or  one  representing  advanced  edu¬ 
cation,  and  who  need  not  all  come  from  one 
institution.  Clubs  representing  one  institution 
alone  are  commonly  called  Alumni  Clubs.  The 
earliest  University  Club  in  the  United  States 
was  the  University  Club  of  New  York  City, 
founded  in  1865  and  reorganized  in  1879;  the 
next  the  University  Club  of  St.  Louis,  1872. 
By  1915  the  number  in  the  United  States  had 
increased  to  over  60.  The  University  Club  of 
New  York  City  is  limited  to  2000  resident  mem¬ 
bers,  1500  nonresident  and  army  and  navy 
members,  and  a  considerable  number  of  life 


UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE 


791 


UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION 


members.  The  total  in  1015  was  3531.  The 
library  contains  over  32,000  volumes.  Consult 
J.  W.  Alexander,  History  of  the  University  Club 
of  New  York  City  (New  York,  1914). 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE.  A  college  of  Ox¬ 
ford,  England,  reputed  to  have  been  founded  by 
King  Alfred.  This  tradition  is  repeated  on 
three  different  occasions:  once  in  a  petition 
to  King  Richard  II ;  again  in  1727,  when  this 
tradition  was  made  the  ground  for  vesting  the 
right  of  visitation  in  the  crown;  and  as  re¬ 
cently  as  1872,  when  the  college  celebrated  the 
millenary  anniversary  of  the  legendary  foun¬ 
dation.  The  historical  founder,  however,  is  Wil¬ 
liam  of  Durham,  who  died  in  1249,  leaving  300 
marks  for  the  purchase  of  annual  rents  for  the 
use  of  some  twelve  masters.  The  actual  foun¬ 
dation  does  not  seem  to  have  taken  place  until 
1280,  when  the  first  statutes  were  drawn  up. 
The  present  buildings  of  the  college,  which  is 
situated  in  High  Street,  date  from  1634;  a 
number  of  changes  and  additions  were  made, 
however,  about  1860.  The  hall  was  extended 
at  that  date  and  contains  in  the  centre  of  its 
large  fireplace  a  medallion  bust  of  King  Alfred. 
The  library,  built  in  1860,  contains  large  stat¬ 
ues  of  Lord  Eldon  and  Lord  Stowell.  The 
chapel  was  remodeled  two  years  later.  A  cham¬ 
ber  has  been  specially  built  to  contain  Ford’s 
statue  of  Shelley,  who  entered  the  college  in 
1810.  In  1913-14  the  college  had  a  master,  13 
fellows,  33  scholars  and  exhibitioners,  and  195 
undergraduates.  Consult  W.  Carr,  University 
College  (London,  1902). 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE.  The  title  of  a 
large  number  of  institutions  of  college  grade 
throughout  the  British  Empire.  These  insti¬ 
tutions  do  not  possess  the  privilege  of  granting 
degrees,  but  are  in  most  cases  affiliated  with 
degree-granting  universities.  A  number  of  uni¬ 
versity  colleges  have  themselves  been  nuclei  of 
universities,  e.g.,  Lffiiversitv  College  of  Liver¬ 
pool.  The  title  is  borne,  e.g.,  by  the  University 
College,  London  (see  London  University)  ; 
University  College,  Reading;  University  College, 
Exeter;  University  College,  Southampton;  Uni¬ 
versity  College,  Nottingham.  The  University  of 
Wales  (see  Wales,  University  of)  consists  of 
three  university  colleges,  as  does  the  National 
University  of  Ireland  (q.v.).  Consult  Yearbook 
of  the  Universities  of  the  Empire  ( London ) . 

UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION.  A  system  of 
higher  education  for  men  and  women  who  are 
unable  to  attend  higher  institutions  of  learning. 
University  extension  work  was  begun  by  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Cambridge,  England,  in  1872-73, 
when,  largely  owing  to  the  zeal  of  Professor 
James  Stuart,  it  offered  to  supply  English  towns 
with  capable  instructors  in  various  departments 
of  knowledge,  under  university  supervision. 
The  administration  of  this  work  was  vested  in 
a  syndicate  instituted  in  1873.  In  1876  uni¬ 
versity  men  in  London  founded  the  London  So¬ 
ciety  for  the  Extension  of  University  Teaching, 
which  was,  in  1902,  made  a  department  of  the 
University  of  London.  In  1885  the  Lffiiversity 
of  Oxford  instituted  its  “Delegacy  for  the  Ex¬ 
tension  of  Teaching  Beyond  the  Limits  of  the 
University.”  This  action  was  the  result  of  the 
success  attained  by  several  of  the  Oxford  col¬ 
leges  in  the  establishment  of  “Extension  Col¬ 
leges”  at  Reading  and  other  English  towns.  At 
the  present  time  every  university  in  England  is 
engaged  in  extension  work.  Coordinate  with  the 
university  extension  movement  is  the  work  done 
by  the  Workers’  Educational  Association,  formed 


in  England  in  1903,  to  provide  educational  op¬ 
portunities  for  working  men  “until  they  are 
able  to  take  advantage  of  the  facilities  which 
are  and  which  may  be  provided  by  the  univer¬ 
sities.”  The  association  arranges  courses  and 
secures  leaders  from  the  universities  to  meet  lo¬ 
cal  groups  organized  throughout  the  country. 

University  extension  teaching  has  been  in¬ 
troduced,  sometimes  modified,  and  carried  on  in 
the  United  States,  Germany,  France,  Belgium, 
Austria,  Denmark,  Scandinavia,  Russia,  Aus¬ 
tralia,  and  Canada.  In  a  few  instances,  no¬ 
tably  in  the  State  of  New  York  and  in  Vienna, 
the  enterprise  has  received  government  aid.  But 
in  general  it  has  been  supported  by  students’ 
fees,  assisted  by  college  grants  or  private  sub¬ 
scriptions. 

United  States.  The  subject  of  university  ex¬ 
tension  was  first  publicly  presented  at  a  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  American  Library  Association  dur¬ 
ing  their  session  in  the  Thousand  Islands  in 
September,  1887.  The  English  system,  as 
adapted  to  American  local  needs,  was  promptly 
taken  up  by  librarians  in  Buffalo,  Chicago,  and 
St.  Louis.  In  these  and  other  cities  the  idea 
was  gradually  developed  and  extended  by  the  co¬ 
operation  of  university  graduates  with  libraries, 
churches,  and  other  local  institutions.  In  Jan¬ 
uary,  1888,  Melvil  Dewey,  then  chief  librarian 
of  Columbia  University,  laid  the  plan  before 
the  regents  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  and  at  the  University  convocation  in  Al¬ 
bany,  July,  1888,  advocated  university  exten¬ 
sion  in  connection  with  public  libraries.  In 
February,  1890,  a  committee  of  New  York  col¬ 
leges  and  universities  urged  the  regents  to  es¬ 
tablish,  under  State  supervision,  a  system  of  ex¬ 
tension  teaching.  On  May  1,  1891,  a  bill  was 
signed  by  the  Governor  of  New  York  appropri¬ 
ating  $10,000  for  the  State  organization  of  uni¬ 
versity  extension.  No  part  of  the  grant  could 
be  used  for  the  payment  of  lecturers,  but  only 
for  purposes  of  organization,  supervision,  and 
printing.  This  grant  of  $10,000  is  the  first 
case  on  record  of  a  State  appropriation  for  uni¬ 
versity  extension. 

In  1890  a  few  public-spirited  citizens  of  Phila¬ 
delphia  founded  the  American  Society  for  the 
Extension  of  University  Teaching.  In  1891  fol¬ 
lowed  the  Albany  movement  mentioned  above; 
and  upon  its  opening  in  1892,  the  University  of 
Chicago  established  an  extension  division  as  one 
of  the  main  departments  of  its  work.  Mainly 
from  these  three  centres  university  extension  in 
the  United  States  has  been  carried  on,  though 
educational  institutions  elsewhere  in  the  coun¬ 
try  have  done  similar  work.  Some  of  the  more 
notable  of  these  are:  Johns  Hopkins,  Brown, 
Stetson  (Fla.),  and  Northwestern  Universities; 
the  State  universities  of  Wisconsin,  Indiana, 
Iowa,  Wyoming,  Kansas,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Colorado,  and  California,  etc.;  Colby  College 
(Me.)  ;  Rutgers  College  (N.  J. )  ;  Lowell  In¬ 
stitute,  Boston:  Brooklyn  Institute:  People’s 
Institute  (N.  Y.),  etc.  Teachers  College,  Co¬ 
lumbia  University,  lias  also  conducted  extension 
classes,  and  in  1903  Columbia  University  in¬ 
stituted  an  extension  department,  and  later  took 
over  the  administration  of  all  extension  courses 
of  the  university.  In  1913  extension  depart¬ 
ments  had  been  organized  in  connection  with  43 
colleges  and  universities  throughout  the  coun¬ 
try,  giving  work  other  than  agricultural.  Men¬ 
tion  should  be  made  of  the  system  of  “free  lec¬ 
tures  to  the  people”  of  the  New  York  Board  of 
Education,  embodying  most  of  the  features  of 


UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION 


792 


UNNA 


university  extension  work.  The  most  ambitious 
plan  of  university  extension  is  that  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Wisconsin,  which  aims  in  time  to 
establish  local  headquarters  throughout  the 
State,  since  it  is  a  State  maintained  institution, 
and  to  provide  work  which  “includes  not  only 
such  courses  as  entitle  the  student  to  credit  at 
the  university,  .  .  .  but  also  short  courses 

and  conferences  not  leading  to  a  degree,  and 
the  promotion  of  a  great  variety  of  interests 
that  merge  the  people,  both  young  and  old,  in 
the  intimate  relations  of  their  daily  life.”  This 
with  the  dissemination  of  literature  bearing  on 
local  everyday  conditions,  lectures,  and  corre¬ 
spondence  courses  will  be  the  natural  extension 
of  the  movement.  The  whole  conception  of  uni¬ 
versity  extension  is  being  broadened  so  as  to 
place  the  universities  of  the  country  at  the  dis¬ 
posal,  not  of  those  alone  who  are  able  to  attend 
as  regular  students,  but  of  the  public  at  large. 

As  a  system  of  instruction,  university  ex¬ 
tension  involves  the  following  elements: 

Features.  The  course  of  lectures  must  be 
given  by  one  instructor,  usually  at  weekly  or 
fortnightly  intervals.  The  lectures  must  be 
correlated,  dealing  with  a  particular  epoch  of 
history,  or  author,  or  school  of  literature,  or 
section  of  a  department  of  science,  etc.  They 
must  be  scholarly,  as  representing  the  thought 
of  the  universities;  they  must  be  popular  to 
attract  and  hold  the  auditors.  The  number  of 
lectures  in  a  course  varies  with  different  or¬ 
ganizations.  The  unit  adopted  by  Oxford,  by 
the  American  Society,  and  by  Chicago  is  the  six- 
lecture  course.  Cambridge  has  a  twelve-lecture 
unit,  and  Columbia  a  six-lecture  unit  for  its 
more  popular  courses,  and  a  thirty-lecture 
unit  for  its  academic  and  professional  courses. 
The  lectures  are  frequently  illustrated  by  stere- 
opticon,  or  by  demonstrations.  A  recent  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  lecture  system  has  been  its  ap¬ 
plication  for  purposes  of  entertainment  or  the 
provision  of  desirable  recreation  for  popular 
audiences.  This  system,  adopting  the  “lyceum” 
method,  provides  lectures,  musical  recitals  and 
readings,  singly  or  in  courses.  By  class  is 
meant  the  group  of  people  of  the  audience  who 
remain  after  the  lecture  for  questions,  discus¬ 
sion,  and  suggestions  on  the  subject  of  the 
lecture.  Individuals,  also,  may  here  get  per¬ 
sonal  advice  on  their  work  and  reading,  and 
criticism  of  their  essays.  In  England  this  type 
of  work  has  been  organized  under  the  term 
“tutorial”  classes  as  distinguished  from  the 
lecture  courses.  The  students’  association  is  a 
club  of  students  and  readers  desirous  of  getting 
the  stimulus  that  working  in  common  affords. 
The  students’  association  has  its  own  organiza¬ 
tion,  and  its  regular  programme  of  work,  both 
before  and  after,  as  well  as  during  the  lecture 
course.  Systematic  guidance  in  every  lecture 
course  is  provided  in  a  special  syllabus,  out¬ 
lining  each  lecture,  selecting  the  best  books  on 
the  subject,  offering  topics  for  thought,  read¬ 
ing  and  papers,  and  illustrative  notes,  and  pre¬ 
scribing  the  work  required  for  certificates. 
Traveling  libraries  facilitate  student  work  in 
places  not  provided  with  adequate  library  fa¬ 
cilities.  The  central  organization  usually  pro¬ 
vides  a  select  library  of  perhaps  fifty  volumes 
of  books  recommended  by  the  lecturer. 

Examinations,  Centres,  etc.  At  the  close  of 
each  course  of  lectures  a  written  examination 
is  given  by  the  lecturer  to  auditors  qualified 
and  willing  to  take  it.  The  qualification  may 


be  the  reading  of  certain  books,  the  presentation 
of  certain  essays  during  the  course,  regular 
attendance,  etc.  The  certificates  obtained  by 
successful  candidates  in  these  examinations  are 
sometimes  valuable  in  special  ways.  In  Eng¬ 
land  they  are  credited  towards  the  government 
requirements  for  pupil-teachers’  standing.  In 
Chicago  they  count  towards  the  baccalaureate 
degree  of  the  university.  In  Columbia  the  thirty- 
lecture  courses  receive  the  same  credit  as  the 
corresponding  courses  within  the  university. 
University  extension  is  based  on  the  principle 
of  local  initiative.  It  requires  that  those  who 
desire  to  avail  themselves  of  its  assistance  shall 
be  organized  as  a  centre.  By  “local  centre” 
is  meant  a  group  of  people  who  are  willing  to 
adopt  extension  aims  and  methods,  arranging 
through  a  local  committee  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  central  organization  on  the  other  for  sys¬ 
tematic  courses  of  extension  lectures. 

In  addition  to  the  above  must  be  mentioned 
as  part  of  the  whole  movement  of  university 
extension  the  development  of  courses  by  cor¬ 
respondence,  many  of  which  count  for  univer¬ 
sity  credit.  The  most  popular  extension  courses 
are  those  organized  in  connection  with  most 
university  extension  departments  as  agencies 
in  the  further  training  of  teachers  in  service. 
These  are  arranged  at  times  convenient  to  the 
clientele  and  receive  university  credit.  Hardly 
less  popular  are  courses  and  conferences  con¬ 
ducted  by  agricultural  departments  of  colleges 
and  universities  for  the  benefit  of  farmers. 

Consult:  Adams,  in  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioner  of  Education,  Reports  (Washington, 
1898-1900)  ;  A.  Mausbridge,  University  Tutorial 
Classes  (London,  1913);  L.  E.  Reber,  “Univer¬ 
sity  Extension  in  the  United  States,”  in  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  ATo.  9 
(Washington,  1914). 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO.  See  Chi¬ 
cago,  University  of. 

UNIVERSITY  PLACE.  A  city  in  Lancas¬ 
ter  Co.,  Neb.,  four  miles  northeast  of  Lincoln, 
of  which  it  is  a  residential  suburb,  on  the  Chi¬ 
cago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific  Railroad  (Map: 
Nebraska,  H  4).  It  is  the  seat  of  Nebraska 
Wesleyan  University,  and  of  the  State  Agri¬ 
cultural  College,  and  contains  a  Carnegie  li¬ 
brary.  Pop.,  1900,  1130;  1910,  3200. 

UNIVERSITY  SETTLEMENTS.  See  So¬ 
cial  Settlements. 

UNNA,  un'na.  A  town  in  the  district  of 
Arnsberg,  Prussia,  30  miles  south  of  Munster 
(Map:  Germany,  B  3).  The  town  has  impor¬ 
tant  iron  industries.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  great 
salt  mine  of  Konigsborn.  Pop.,  1900,  14,918; 
1910,  17,355. 

UNNA,  Paul  Gerson  (1850-  ).  A  Ger¬ 

man  dermatologist,  born  in  Hamburg.  He  was 
severely  wounded  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War 
of  1870-71.  After  studying  medicine  in  Heidel¬ 
berg,  Leipzig,  and  Strassburg,  he  settled  at 
Hamburg  in  1881  and  three  years  later  opened 
a  hospital  for  skin  diseases.  Unna’s  investi¬ 
gations  in  dermatology  were  many  and  impor¬ 
tant.  He  introduced  into  medicine  the  use  of 
ichthyol  and  resorcin.  Successful  also  as  a 
teacher  and  writer,  he  founded  the  Monatshefte 
fur  praktische  Dermatologie  (1882)  and  Derma- 
tologische  Studien  (1886),  of  which  journals  he 
became  editor.  In  1889  appeared  the  Interna- 
tionaler  Atlas  seltener  Hautkrankheiten  (with 
others)  and  in  1894  Histologischer  Atlas  zur 
Pathologie  der  Eaut. 


UNNATURAL  COMBAT 


793 


UPANISHAD 


UNNATURAL  COMBAT,  The.  A  tragedy 
by  Philip  Massinger,  produced  at  the  Globe  in 
1619  and  printed  in  1039. 

UNST,  unst.  The  northernmost  of  the  Shet¬ 
land  Islands  (q.v.). 

UNTER  DEN  LINDEN,  un'ter  den  lln'den. 
A  famous  avenue  of  Berlin,  named  from  the 
rows  of  linden  trees  with  which  it  is  planted. 
It  extends  from  the  Brandenburg  gate  to  the 
palace  of  Emperor  William  I,  and  is  extended 
thence  to  the  Royal  Palace  by  the  Platz  am 
Opernhaus,  Platz  am  Zeughaus,  and  the  Lust- 
garten,  a  total  length  of  about  a  mile.  The 
street  is  196  feet  broad  and  is  flanked  by  fine 
shops,  the  university,  arsenal,  and  several  pal¬ 
aces. 

UNTERMEYER,  un'ter-mi'er,  Louis  (1885- 
) .  An  American  poet  and  journalist.  He 
was  born  in  New  York  City,  where,  after  leaving 
high  school,  he  became  identified  with  his 
father’s  jewelry  manufacturing  business.  He 
joined  the  editorial  staff  of  The  Masses,  and  in 
the  Chicago  Evening  Post  conducted  a  column 
(half  critique,  half  causerie)  under  the  head 
“and  Other  Poems.”  An  ardent  propagandist 
of  the  new  spirit  in  American  poetry,  he  lec¬ 
tured  on  this  subject  at  various  colleges.  Un- 
termeyer  is  particularly  happy  in  his  parodies 
of  the  manner  of  the  vers  librists  and  certain 
other  poets.  Aside  from  work  of  this  kind,  his 
verse  is  known  for  lyric  quality  of  a  high 
order;  in  content,  much  of  it  is  concerned  with 
social  and  industrial  wrongs.  His  writings  in¬ 
clude:  The  Younger  Quire  (1911),  a  volume  of 
burlesques;  First  Love  (1911);  Challenge 
(1914)  ;  - and  Other  Poets  (1916),  parodies. 

UNTERMYER,  Samuel  (1858-  ).  An 

American  lawyer,  born  at  Lynchburg,  Va.  His 
family  moving  to  New  York  City  shortly  after 
the  Civil  War,  he  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York  and  at  the  law  school  of 
Columbia  University,  from  which  he  graduated  in 
1878.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1879,  he  soon  dis¬ 
played  unusual  ability  and  eventually  rose  to  a 
commanding  position  at  the  NeAV  Y7ork  bar.  As  a 
member  of  the  firm  of  Guggenheimer,  Untermyer, 
and  Marshall,  he  attained  large  success  as  a  cor¬ 
poration  attorney.  His  talents  were  well  dem¬ 
onstrated  in  the  Asa.  Bird  Gardiner  removal 
case,  the  Count  de  Castellane  creditor’s  suit, 
and  the  Dodge-Morse  controversy.  As  a  Dem¬ 
ocrat  in  politics,  he  supported  the  antitrust 
views  of  the  party,  seeking  to  enforce  competi¬ 
tion  and  destroy  monopolies.  He  was  promi¬ 
nent  in  1912  as  the  attorney  of  the  Pujo  Com¬ 
mittee  (see  Pujo,  Arsene),  investigating  the 
so-called  money  trust,  and  in  1913-14  he  aided 
the  Democratic  Congress  in  framing  the  Clay¬ 
ton  Anti-Trust  Act  ( see  Trusts  ) .  Untermyer 
became  known  as  a  leader  of  the  Jewish  race. 

UNTERWALDEN,  un'ter-val'den.  A  canton 
of  Switzerland  (Map:  Switzerland,  C  2).  It 
is  divided  into  the  two  half  cantons  of  Nid- 
walden  (112  square  miles)  and  Obwalden  (183 
square  miles),  of  which  the  former  forms  a 
part  of  the  Engelberg  Valley  and  slopes  towards 
Lake  Lucerne;  the  latter  is  more  elevated,  be¬ 
longing  to  the  region  of  the  Bernese  and  the 
Lucerne  Alps.  The  principal  river  is  the  Aa. 
Stock  raising  and  gardening  are  the  leading 
industries,  and  dairy  products  and  fruit  are  the 
main  exports.  The  two  half  cantons  have  sepa¬ 
rate  governments,  and  are  among  the  most  demo¬ 
cratic  cantons  in  Switzerland,  the  legislative 
power  being  exercised  directly  by  the  people  as¬ 


sembled  in  the  Landsgemeinde.  The  initiative 
is  in  force.  The  canton  sends  two  members  to 
the  National  Council.  The  capital  of  Obwalden 
is  Sarnen,  and  of  Nidwalden,  Stanz.  Pop.,  1910, 
Obwalden,  17,118;  Nidwalden,  13,796.  The  in¬ 
habitants  are  mostly  German-speaking  Catholics. 

Unterwalden  originally  belonged  to  Aargau 
and  Ztirichgau.  It  came  under  the  rule  of  the 
Hapsburgs,  took  part  in  the  uprising  against 
them,  and  in  1291  concluded  an  alliance  with 
Uri  and  Schwyz,  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation.  It  took  part  in  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  the  Leagne  of  Sarnen  (1832)  and  the 
Sonderbund  ( 1843 ) . 

UN'WXN,  William  Cawthorne  (1838-  ). 

An  English  engineer,  born  at  Coggeshell,  Es¬ 
sex.  He  was  a  student  under  Sir  William 
Fairbairn,  and  from  1868  to  1872  was  instruc¬ 
tor  at  the  Royal  School  of  Naval  Architecture. 
In  1872  he  was  made  professor  of  mechanical 
and  hydraulic  engineering  at  the  Royal  Indian 
Engineering  College,  and  in  1884  professor  of 
engineering  at  the  Central  Technical  College  of 
the.  Guilds  of  London.  In  1911  he  served  as 
president  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers. 
His  publications  include:  Wrought  Iron  Bridges 
and  Roofs  (1869);  The  Elements  of  Machine 
Design  (1882;  new  ed.,  2  vols.,  1907-08);  The 
Testing  of  Materials  of  Construction  (1888;  3d 
ed.,  1910)  ;  Development  of  the  Experimental 
Study  of  Steam  Engines  (1895);  The  Life  of 
Him,  Watt  Lecture  (1896);  Treatise  on  Hy¬ 
draulics  (1907;  2d  ed.,  1912). 

UNYORO,  un-yo'ro,  or  Bunyoro.  A  district 
in  British  Africa,  in  the  Protectorate  of  Uganda, 
of  which  it  forms  part  of  the  northern  province 
(Map:  Congo,  F  2).  Estimated  area,  32,000 
square  miles;  population  unknown.  In  the 
south  the  country  is  hilly  and  in  the  north 
level  and  heavily  wooded.  The  inhabitants  are 
the  Wanvoro,  an  agricultural  Bantu  tribe,  whose 
language  has  extended  to  other  territories.  See 
Uganda  Protectorate. 

UPANISHAD,  u-panT-shad  (Skt.  upanisad, 
a  sitting  down  beside,  session,  esoteric  doctrine). 
The  name  of  a  class  of  Vedic  works  devoted  to 
theological  and  philosophical  speculations  on  the 
nature  of  the  world  and  man.  (For  the  relation 
of  the  Upanishads  to  the  Aranyakas  as  well  as 
to  the  Veda,  see  Brahmanism;  Veda;  Vedanta.) 
All  Hindu  speculation  presupposes  the  theory  of 
transmigration  of  souls.  (See  Metempsycho¬ 
sis.)  In  the  oldest  Vedic  period  the  Hindu 
people  took  a  joyous  view  of  future  life.  Later, 
however,  they  acquired  the  firm  belief  in  karma 
(q.v.),  which  appears  first  in  the  Satapatlia 
Brahmana,  and  has  since  remained  an  axiom 
of  Hindu  thought.  The  theory  of  transmigra¬ 
tion  is  coupled  in  the  Upanishads  with  the 
equally  important  theory  of  the  world  soul  and 
its  presence  in  all  living* or  organic  beings.  (See 
Pantheism.)  The  human  body  is  supposed  to  be 
pervaded  by  breaths,  or  atman,  which  are  the  in¬ 
dividual  existence,  or  ego,  and  are  in  turn  con¬ 
ceived  as  flowing  from  a  single  atman,  the  uni¬ 
versal  ego.  All  the  worlds  are  merely  an  em¬ 
anation  of  this  universal  ego.  The  notion  of 
the  atman  is  further  coupled  with  that  of  the 
brahma,  “the  sacred  word,  or  universal  holi¬ 
ness.”  (See  Brahma.)  These  two  ideas,  in  time, 
are  fused  so  that  in  the  composite  atman-brahma 
we  have  two  manifestations  of  the  final  all¬ 
power.  Here  the  atman  represents,  as  it  were, 
the  physical  aspect,  while  the  brahma  stands 
for  the  spiritual  side  of  universal  life  and  the 


UPANISHAD 


794 


UPCOTT 


ultimate  essence.  The  fundamental  doctrine  of 
the  Upanishads  is  the  identity  of  the  individ¬ 
ual  soul  (atman)  with  the  world  soul  (atman- 
brahma).  The  formula  “that  art  thou”  (ta 
tvantnasi)  is  the  keynote  of  all  Upanishad  teach¬ 
ing.  It  is  curious  liow  this  doctrine  is  coupled 
with  metempsychosis.  Instead  of  rejoicing  in 
the  knowledge  of  their  own  divine  essence,  the 
Hindus  look  upon  their  individual  existence 
as  a  condition  of  separation  from  the  divine 
essence.  The  wandering  of  the  soul  through 
the  realms  of  death  is  the  consequence  of  its 
separation  from  the  brahma,  and  salvation,  the 
escape  from  the  chain  of  successive  deaths,  can 
be  attained  only  by  reunion  with  the  brahma. 
The  Hindus  never  sought  to  explain  how  the 
individual  souls  were  separated  from  the  all- 
soul;  they  took  this  for  granted.  Desire,  or 
clinging  to  life,  is  the  reason  why  this  separa¬ 
tion  continues.  The  only  cure  for  desire  is 
knowledge,  or,  perhaps  better,  recognition  of  the 
unity  of  the  ego  with  Brahma  and  the  ever¬ 
present  recognition  of  the  divided  condition  of 
everything  finite.  Thus  the  ultimate  attain¬ 
ment  for  man  is  this  recognition,  which  is  sal¬ 
vation  through  the  penetrating  knowledge  of 
one’s  own  divine  nature,  which  effaces  the  en¬ 
tire  delusion  of  individual  existence. 

The  date  of  the  Upanishads  is  quite  uncer¬ 
tain,  but  the  earliest  of  them  are  hardly  later 
than  600  b.c.,  since  their  most  important  ideas 
appear  in  an  advanced  and  somewhat  decayed 
state  in  the  Buddhist  writings.  The  older 
Upanishads  are  the  products  of  Vedic  schools. 
The  two  most  important,  the  Brhadaranyaka 
and  the  Chandogya,  belong  respectively  to  the 
White  Yajur  Veda  and  the  Sama  Veda;  the 
Aitareya,  Kaisitaki,  Tdittiriya,  Kathaka,  and 
Maitrayaniya  or  Manava  belong  to  schools  of 
the  same  names.  The  Kena  and  Talavakdra 
Upanishads  also  belong  to  the  Sama  Veda,  the 
Isa  to  the  White  Yajur  Veda,  the  SvZtasvatara 
and  the  Mahanarayana  to  the  Black  Yajur  Veda. 
A  large  and  indefinite  number  of  Upanishads, 
of  which  the  Mundaka,  Prasna,  and  Mandukya 
are  the  most  important,  are  counted  as  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  Atharva  Veda.  The  most  authorita¬ 
tive  list  counts  27,  but  later  Upanishads  are 
generally  counted  as  belonging  to  the  Athar- 
van.  A  complete  list  of  Upanishads  is  impos¬ 
sible,  because  the  term  does  not  mean  a  closed 
canon,  but  rather  an  indefinitely  extensible  type 
of  literature  which  may  he  continued  in  the 
present  or  future.  In  1876,  235  Upanishads 
were  enumerated,  including  apocrypha,  one  of 
those  actually  a  Mohammedan  treatise  called 
Alla  Upanisad.  The  later  Upanishads  may  be 
divided  into  five  classes :  ( 1 )  Pure  Vedanta 

Upanishads,  which  combine  the  Vedanta  doc¬ 
trines  of  the  older  texts  without  undue  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  notions  of  Yoga  (concentration  and 
abstraction  from  all  mundane  matters)  or  Sam- 
nydsa  (asceticism);  (2)  Yoga  Upanishads, 
which  presuppose  the  Vedanta  ideas,  and  in 
addition  advise  mental  concentration  upon  the 
sacred  syllable  om  (q.v.)  ;  (3)  Samnvasa  Upan¬ 
ishads,  which  recommend  and  describe  a  life 
of  asceticism  as  the  practical  way  of  attaining 
the  purpose  of  the  Upanishads;  (*4)  Siva  Upan¬ 
ishads,  which  interpret  the  popular  god  Siva 
(q.v.)  as  a  personification  of  the  atman;  (5) 
Vishnu  Upanishads,  which  interpret  Vishnu 
( q.v. ) ,  or  one  of  his  avatars  ( see  Avatar  ) ,  as 
divine  or  human  manifestations  of  the  atman. 
See  Hinduism;  India,  Religion;  etc. 


Bibliography.  Editions  of  individual  Upani¬ 
shads  are  extremely  numerous  in  India.  A 
select  list  is  given  by  A.  A.  Macdonell,  History 
of  Sanskrit  Literature  (London,  1913).  A  con¬ 
venient  edition  of  108  Upanishads  was  edited 
by  Tukaram  Tatya  (Bombay,  1895).  Among 
translations  the  following  may  be  cited:  Max 
Muller,  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  vols.  i,  xv 
(2d  ed.,  Oxford,  1900)  ;  Deussen,  Sechzig  Upani¬ 
shads  des  Veda  (Leipzig,  1897);  and  those  of 
Mead  and  Chattopadhyaya  (2  vols.,  London, 
1896),  and  of  Sastri,  Jha,  and  Seshacharri  (5 
vols.,  Madras,  1898-1901).  Consult:  Deussen, 
Die  Philosophic  der  Upanishads  (ib.,  1899;  Eng. 
trans.  by  Geden,  Edinburgh,  1906)  ;  Gough,  The 
Philosophy  of  the  Upanishads  (London,  1882; 
3d  ed.,  1903)  ;  Jacob,  Concordance  to  the  Prin¬ 
cipal  Upanishads  and  Bhagavadgitd  ( Bombay, 
1891);  H.  Oldenberg,  Die  Lehre  der  Upani- 
shaden  und  die  Anfdnge  des  Buddhismus  (Got¬ 
tingen,  1915). 

UPAS,  u'pos  (Malay  upas,  poison),  Antiaris 
toxicaria.  A  tree  of  Java,  the  Philippine  Is¬ 
lands,  and  adjacent  regions,  of  the  family 
Moracese,  to  which  also  belong  the  breadfruit, 
mulberry,  etc.  The  fruit  is  a  kind  of  drupe, 
covered  with  fleshy  scales.  The  Malays  mix 
the  milky  juice  of  this  tree  with  black  pepper 
and  the  root  juices  of  galenga  and  ginger  for 
tipping  arrows.  The  fibre  of  the  bark  is  some¬ 


times  made  into  cloth,  but  unless  it  is  thor¬ 
oughly  cleaned  garments  made  of  it  are  said  to 
produce  itching.  Some  botanists  believe  that 
the  tree  whose  bark  is  used  for  fibre  is  a  dis¬ 
tinct  species,  as  other  species  of  this  genus 
are  innocuous.  The  story  was  once  common 
of  a  poison  vale  in  Java,  in  which  the  exhala¬ 
tions  of  numerous  poison  trees  destroy  all 
animal  life,  and  even  all  other  vegetable  life. 
The  presence  of  noxious  gases  in  these  volcanic 
valleys  is  believed  to  have  been  responsible  for 
the  origin  of  this  legend. 

UP'COTT,  William  (1779-1845).  A  famous 
English  collector  of  autographs,  a  natural  son 
of  Ozias  Humphry,  one  of  the  greatest  English 
miniaturists.  He  was  brought  up  to  the  book 
trade ;  and  when  Richard  Porson  ( q.v. ) ,  the 
Greek  scholar,  was  appointed  librarian  in  the 
London  Institution  Upcott  became  his  assistant 
(1806).  He  resigned  in  1834,  and  lived  at 
Islington.  At  his  home,  known  as  Autograph 
Cottage,  he  collected  over  32,000  letters  illus¬ 
trated  by  3000  portraits.  After  his  death  these 
and  other  valuable  manuscripts  were  sold,  and 
many  of  them  have  found  their  way  into  the 
British  Museum.  Upcott  published  a  Biblio- 


UPERNIVIK 


795 


UPJOHN 


graphical  Account  of  the  Principal  Works  Re¬ 
lating  to  English  Topography  (3  vols.,  1818)  ; 
revised  for  the  press  Evelyn’s  Diary  (1818); 
edited  Evelyn’s  Miscellaneous  Writings  (1825); 
and  engaged  in  much  other  literary  and  anti- 
quarian  work. 

UPERNIVIK,  oo-pgr'ni-vik,  or  UPERNA- 
VIK.  The  most  northern  Danish  district  in 
Greenland,  on  Baffin  Bay,  in  which  is  situated 
Tasiusak,  73°  22'  N.,  the  most  northerly  civil¬ 
ized  settlement  of  the  Western  Hemisphere.  The 
town  Upernivik,  with  a  mission  station,  is 
on  a  small  island  just  off  the  coast  in  latitude 
72°  48'  N.,  and  longitude  55°  54'  W.  (Map: 
Arctic  Regions,  G  6 ) .  The  mean  temperature 
here  is  5.8°  F.  in  January  and  40.5°  F.  in  July. 

UPHAM,  up'am,  Charles  Wentworth 
(1802-75).  An  American  Unitarian  clergyman. 
He  was  born  at  St.  John,  N.  B.;  graduated  at 
Harvard  (1821)  and  at  Harvard  Divinity  School 
(1824);  and  became  colleague  pastor,  with  the 
Rev.  John  Prince,  of  the  First  Unitarian  Church, 
Salem,  Mass.  There  he  remained  until  1844, 
when  he  was  compelled  by  loss  of  voice  to  leave 
the  ministry.  Subsequently  he  was  mayor  of 
Salem  (1852);  was  several  times  a  member  of 
the  State  Legislature,  being  president  of  the 
Senate  in  1857-58;  and  in  1853-55  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  Congress.  He  published :  Letters  on  the 
Logos  (1828);  Lectures  on  Witchcraft,  Com¬ 
prising  a  History  of  the  Salem  Delusion,  1692 
(1831;  enlarged  ed.,  1867);  Salem  Witchcraft 
and  Cotton  Mather,  a  Reply  (1870)  ;  and  Lives 
of  Sir  Henry  Vane  (1835),  J.  C.  Fremont  (1856), 
Francis  Peabody  (1869),  and  Timothy  Picker¬ 
ing  (1867-72).  He  also  edited  the  Christian 
Review  and  Christian  Register. 

UPHAM,  Samuel  Foster  (1834-1904).  An 
American  Methodist  Episcopal  clergyman  and 
theologian,  born  at  Duxbury,  Mass.  He  gradu¬ 
ated  from  Wesleyan  University  in  1856  and 
then  entered  the  ministry.  In  1865  he  was  chap¬ 
lain  of  the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives,  and  from  1881  till  his  death  he  was  pro¬ 
fessor  of  practical  theology  in  Drew  Theological 
Seminary.  A  speech  made  by  him  was  largely 
responsible  for  the  abolition  of  the  time  limit  in 
the  Methodist  ministry.  He  was  secretary  of  the 
Commission  on  the  Constitutional  Law  of  the 
Church  from  1896  to  1900.  In  1900-04  he  was 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  the  revision  of 
the  Methodist  Hymnal.  He  served  also  as  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Martha’s  Vineyard  Campmeeting 
Association.  He  was  noted  for  his  wit  as  well 
as  for  his  ability  as  a  preacher  and  leader. 

UPHAM,  Thomas  Cogswell  (1799-1872). 
An  American  Congregational  theologian.  He 
was  born  at  Deerfield,  N.  H.,  and  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  (1818)  and  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  (1821).  He  taught  He¬ 
brew  at  Andover  (1821-22);  was  a  pastor  in 
Rochester,  N.  H.  (1823-24);  and  served  as 
professor  of  philosophy  and  instructor  in  He¬ 
brew  at  Bowdoin  College  (1825-67).  His  Man¬ 
ual  of  Peace  was  one  of  the  first  suggestions  of 
international  tribunals.  He  published  :  Elements 
of  Intellectual  Philosophy  (1827);  Elements  of 
Mental  Philosophy  (1831)  ;  Treatise  on  the  Will 
(1834);  Outlines  of  Disordered  and  Imperfect 
Mental  Action  (1840)  ;  Lives  of  the  French  Mys¬ 
tics,  Madame  Guyon  and  F6nelon  (1847),  and 
Madame  Catharine  Adorna  (1856)  ;  The  Life  of 
Faith  (1848)  ;  A  Treatise  on  the  Divine  Union 
( 1851 )  ;  Christ  in  the  Soul  ( 1872 ) . 

UPHAM,  Warren  (1850-  ).  An  Ameri- 

Vol.  XXII.— 51 


can  geologist  and  librarian,  born  in  Amherst, 
N.  H.  He  graduated  at  Dartmouth  in  1871,  was 
employed  on  the  Geological  Survey  of  New 
Hampshire  in  1875-78,  on  the  Minnesota  Geo¬ 
logical  Survey  in  1879-85,  and  on  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  in  1885-95.  In  1895 
he  became  librarian  of  the  Minnesota  Historical 
Society,  St.  Paul.  He  wrote:  The  Upper  Beaches 
and  Deltas  of  the  Glacial  Lake  Agassiz  (1887)  ; 
The  Glacial  Lake  Agassiz  (1895);  Greenland 
Icefields  and  Life  in  the  North  Atlantic,  with  a 
New  Discussion  of  the  Causes  of  the  Ice  Age 
(1896),  with  G.  F.  Wright;  Minnesota  in  Three 
Centuries  (1908  et  seq. ).  He  compiled  Minne¬ 
sota  Biographies,  1655-1912  (1912),  with  Mrs. 
R.  B.  Dunlap. 

UPHUES,  oop'hoos,  Goswin  (1841-  ).  A 

German  philosophical  scholar,  born  at  Brochter- 
beck.  Originally  a  Catholic  theologian,  he  was 
suspended  by  the  Church  in  1876  for  his  attitude 
on  the  school  question,  and  in  the  following  year 
became  gymnasium  professor  at  Aarau.  In  1890 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at 
Halle.  The  psychology  of  perception  was  his 
special  field  of  investigation.  His  writings  in¬ 
clude  :  Reform  des  menschlichen  Erkennens 
(1874);  Kritilc  des  Erkennens  (1876);  Psycho - 
logie  des  Erkennens  (1893)  ;  Sokrates  und  Pesta- 
lozzi  (1896);  Schule  und  Lehen  (1897);  Reli¬ 
giose  Vortrdge  (1903);  Kant  und  seine  Vor- 
gdnger  (1906)  ;  Der  gesehichtliche  Sokrates  kein 
Sophist  und  kein  Atheist  (1907);  Geschichte 
der  Philosophic  als  Erkenntniskritik  (1909). 

UPHUES,  Joseph  (1850-1911).  A  German 
sculptor,  born  at  Sassenberg,  Westphalia.  He 
studied  for  three  years  at  the  Berlin  Academy, 
and  became  a  follower  of  Begas,  whom  he  after¬ 
ward  assisted  in  his  workshop.  Much  severer 
treatment  of  form,  however,  than  is  characteris¬ 
tic  of  Begas  distinguishes  his  work,  as  may  be 
seen  in  his  “Sabine  Defending  his  Sister,”  and 
the  “Bowman”  (great  gold  medal,  Melbourne, 
1888;  Chicago,  1893),  in  the  National  Gallery  at 
Sydney.  For  Diiren  in  Rhenish  Prussia  he 
executed  a  monument  to  Emperor  William  I 
and  the  Bismarck  Monument  (1892)  ;  for  Hom- 
burg  and  Wiesbaden  (1896),  monuments  to 
Emperor  Frederick;  and  in  Berlin  he  created 
an  entirely  novel  type  of  a  youthful  “Frederick 
the  Great”;  and  contributed  to  the  monuments 
in  the  Siegesallee  the  statue  of  Margrave  Otto 
II.  Three  large  sepulchral  monuments  of  his 
design  at  Diiren  exhibit  deep  religious  feeling 
and  noble  conception. 

UP' JOHN,  Richard  (1802-78).  An  Ameri¬ 
can  architect,  bom  in  Shaftesbury,  England.  He 
emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1829,  and  in 
1839  he  settled  in  New  York,  where  his  best 
work  was  done.  His  principal  works  include: 
St.  John’s  Church,  Bangor,  Me.  (burned  1911)  ; 
the  Chapel  of  Bowdoin  College;  Christ  Church 
and  the  Church  of  the  Pilgrims,  Brooklyn ; 
Trinity  Church  and  St.  Thomas’s  (burned  1905) 
in  New  York;  the  Corn  Exchange  Bank,  New 
York;  and  numerous  private  residences.  From 
1857  to  1876  he  was  president  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Architects. 

UPJOHN,  Richard  Michell  (1828-1903). 
*  An  American  architect,  son  of  Richard  Upjohn. 
He  designed  the  Central  Church  in  Boston,  with 
an  exceptionally  fine  tower;  the  Park  Congre¬ 
gational  Church  and  the  State  Capitol  at  Hart¬ 
ford,  Conn.;  St.  Paul’s  in  Brooklyn;  St.  John’s 
(American)  Church  at  Dresden,  Germany;  and 
other  churches  in  various  cities. 


UPLAND  PLOVER 


796  UPPER  SENEGAL  AND  NIGER 


UPLAND  PLOVER.  A  sportsman’s  name 
for  the  large  sandpiper  ( Bart  rami  a  longicauda ) 
common  throughout  the  United  States,  and  fre¬ 
quenting  uplands  and  plains  more  than  is  cus¬ 
tomary  with  other  species  of  its  kind.  See 
Sandpiper. 

UPMARK,  up'mark,  Gustaf  Henrik  Vil¬ 
helm  (1844-1900).  A  Swedish  art  historian, 
bom  in  Stockholm.  After  studying  at  Upsala 
(1861-69),  he  secured  a  position  in  the  National 
Museum  in  Stockholm  and  was  its  director  from 
1880  to  his  death.  He  was  the  founder  and 
chairman  of  the  Gripsholms  Society  which,  in 
1889-95,  restored  the  long-neglected  ancient 
castle  of  the  Vasa  dynasty.  Upmark’s  more  im¬ 
portant  publications  include:  De  grafiska  kon- 
sterna  (1889);  SvensJca  Riddarhuset,  byggnads- 
historia  (1890)  ;  Architektur  der  Renaissance  in 
Schiceden  1530-1,760  (Berlin,  1897-99);  besides 
many  essays  concerning  art  in  Sweden  under  the 
Vasa  dynasty,  such  as  Tapetviifveriet  i  Sverige 
under  de  forsta  V asakonungarna  (1886),  Grips¬ 
holms  slott  (1887),  Vadstena  slott  (1891), 
Sk&nska  herrgdrdar  under  reniissanstiden  (1894), 
Stockholms  slott  under  Vasatiden  (1896). 

UPOLU,  oo-po'loo.  The  second  largest  and 
politically  the  most  important  island  of  Samoa 
(Map:  Samoan  Islands,  C  5).  Length,  39% 
miles,  average  breadth  from  north  to  south,  8 
miles;  area  with  outlying  islands,  about  345 
square  miles.  On  the  north  shore  there  are 
harbors  at  Apia,  Saluafata,  and  Fagaloa  (of 
which  Apia  alone  is  a  port  of  entry),  all  well 
protected  against  the  southeast  tradewind,  but 
exposed  to  the  frequent  and  heavy  northerly 
gales  in  the  rainy  season.  The  backbone  of  the 
island  is  a  fairly  single  mountain  chain  about 
2500  feet  in  height.  Plantations  lie  on  the  nar¬ 
row  coastal  plain  and  gentle  slopes  of  the  cen¬ 
tral  and  western  regions  of  the  north  shore. 
Apia,  the  seat  of  administration,  is  a  small 
town  lying  along  the  beach  but  singularly 
healthful ;  the  residence  of  the  governor  lies 
several  miles  inland  at  Vailima  in  the  hills. 
Pop.,  1910,  20,662,  including  with  Upolu  the 
islands  of  Manono  and  Apolima.  See  Samoan 
Islands. 

UPPER  AMMONOOSUC.  See  Ammon  oosuc. 

UPPER  AUSTRIA,  or  Austria  Above  the 
Enns.  An  archduchy  and  crownland,  occupying 
the  western  part  of  the  original  Archduchy  of 
Austria — the  nucleus  of  the  Austrian  Empire 
(Map:  Austria,  D  2).  Area,  4628  square  miles. 

Almost  all  the  archduchy  is  either  mountain¬ 
ous  or  rolling.  The  Danube  divides  the  land  into 
two  very  unequal  parts.  The  northern  and 
smaller  is  a  prolongation  of  the  Bohemian  for¬ 
ests  (the  Bolimer  Wald),  while  the  southern 
belongs  to  the  Alps  (Kalkalpen)  system,  where 
high  peaks,  with  glaciers  on  their  slopes,  lift 
their  heads.  The  highest  point  in  the  archduchy 
is  approximately  10,000  feet — the  Dachstein,  on 
the  extreme  southern  border.  In  the  mountain¬ 
ous  southwestern  portion  is  the  famous  Salz- 
kammergut  ( q.v. ) ,  from  which  the  Traun  valley 
descends  southeasterly  to  below  Linz,  through 
the  heart  of  the  archduchy.  In  the  western  por¬ 
tion  is  the  Hausruck  region,  which  produces 
lignite  in  abundance.  The  Enns,  an  affluent  of 
the  Danube,  entering  near  the  southeast  corner 
of  the  archduchy,  marks  the  eastern  boundary. 
The  Kammersee  and  Traunsee  are  the  largest 
of  its  lakes.  There  are  about  30  mineral  springs, 
the  best  known  being  the  saline  waters  at  Ischl 
and  the  iodine  waters  at  Hall.  The  climate 


yields  an  ample  rainfall  while  the  temperature 
depends  on  the  altitude. 

The  crowmland  is  highly  productive.  Con¬ 
siderably  over  one-third  of  the  total  area  is 
tilled,  over  one-third  is  in  forests,  and  nearly 
one-fifth  meadows  and  pasture.  Rye,  barley, 
oats,  wheat,  vegetables,  and  fruit  are  the  most 
prominent  products.  Cattle  raising  and  horse 
raising  are  very  important  industries.  Brown 
coal  and  salt  are  extensively  mined,  and  there 
are  valuable  quarries  of  gypsum  and  stone.  The 
salt  industry  is  a  government  monopoly  and 
about  30  per  cent  of  the  product  of  the  Empire 
is  supplied  by  Upper  Austria.  The  crownland 
manufactures  metal  wares — weapons,  knives, 
etc. — machinery,  linens,  cottons,  paper,  and 
cellulose. 

The  Landtag  has  69  members,  including  the 
Bishop  of  Linz  and  representatives  of  large 
landed  estates,  cities,  rural  districts,  and  the 
chambers  of  industry  and  commerce  in  the  capi¬ 
tal,  Linz,  the  leading  town.  To  the  Lower  House 
of  Austria  the  crownland  sends  22  delegates,  all 
German.  Pop.,  1900,  810,246;  1910,  853,006. 
Of  the  total  in  1910,  97.31  per  cent  were  Roman 
Catholic,  2.4S  per  cent  Evangelical,  and  0.14 
per  cent  Jewish.  German  was  the  vernacular  of 
99.7  per  cent. 

UPPER  COQUILLE,  kd-kel'.  An  Athapas¬ 
can  Tribe. 

UPPER  SANDUS'KY.  A  village  and  the 
county  seat  of  Wyandot  Co.,  Ohio,  64  miles  north 
by  west  of  Columbus;  on  the  Sandusky  River, 
and  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  Hocking  Valley 
railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  D  4).  It  has  an  old 
mission  church,  a  handsome  court  house,  a  Car¬ 
negie  library,  and  a  park.  Upper  Sandusky  is 
engaged  chiefly  in  manufacturing,  the  most  im¬ 
portant  products  being  agricultural  implements, 
hay  presses,  buggies,  and  other  vehicles,  caskets 
and  burial  cases,  steam  pumps,  tools,  cereal  food, 
flour,  brick  and  tile,  and  gasoline  tractors.  Pop., 
1900,  3355;  1910,  3779. 

UPPER  SENEGAL  AND  NIGER.  One  of 
the  colonies  which  constitute  the  Government- 
General  of  French  West  Africa.  It  extends  ap¬ 
proximately  between  10°  and  20°  N.  lat.,  bounded 
by  Mauritania  and  Senegal  on  the  west  and  the 
Military  Territory  of  the  Niger  on  the  east.  Its 
northern  limits  extend  to  the  Algerian  Sahara, 
and  on  the  south  it  touches  French  Guinea,  the 
Ivory  Coast,  the  Gold  Coast,  Togo,  and  Dahomey 
(Map:  Africa,  D,  E  3).  The  Annuaire  du  gou- 
vernement  general  de  I’Afrique  occidentale  fran- 
caise  published  in  1914  states  that  the  area  is 
about  2,500,000  square  kilometers  (sq.  km.  =r 
0.3861  sq.  m.).  This  includes  the  Saharan 
regions  occupied  by  nomads.  The  area  having  a 
sedentary  population,  which  extends  northward 
to  about  the  seventeenth  parallel,  does  not  exceed 
1,000,000  square  kilometers.  The  country  em¬ 
braces  the  basins  of  the  upper  Senegal,  the 
middle  Niger,  and  the  upper  Volta.  In  general 
the  surface  is  flat  or  rolling;  the  highest  moun¬ 
tains,  in  the  southwest,  reach  an  altitude  of 
600  to  700  meters.  A  vast  plateau  of  ferrugi¬ 
nous  laterite  extends  to  about  the  fourteenth 
parallel,  where  it  gives  way  to  sandy  plains 
which  finally  merge  into  true  desert.  The  na¬ 
tives  practice  both  agriculture  and  grazing.  The 
principal  crops  include  rice,  corn,  peanuts,  millet, 
manioc,  and  tobacco.  Some  cotton  is  produced, 
and  the  natives  manufacture  cotton  cloth.  Large 
numbers  of  cattle,  camels,  horses,  donkeys,  and 
ostriches  are  raised.  The  forests  yield  rubber, 


UPPER  TUNGUSKA  797  UPTON 


gums,  and  valuable  timber.  Imports  and  ex¬ 
ports  by  way  of  Senegal  were  valued  at  0,803,790 
and  3,422,410  francs  in  1012.  The  principal 
exports  in  1912  were  peanuts,  rubber,  hard 
gums,  and  corozo  nuts.  In  addition,  there  is  a 
considerable  trade  by  way  of  French  Guinea,  the 
Ivory  Coast,  the  Sahara,  etc.  From  the  middle 
of  June  to  the  middle  of  November  there  is 
steamer  communication  on  the  Senegal  River 
between  Kaves  and  St.  Louis  on  the  coast.  A 
railway  extends  from  Kayes  to  Konlikoro,  553 
kilometers;  it  reaches  the  Niger  at  Bamako, 
kilometer  490.  The  line  lias  been  in  operation 
since  1004.  At  kilometer  10  there  is  a  branch 
of  2  kilometers  to  Medine.  Westerly  from  Kayes 
a  railway  extends  to  Ambidedi,  44  kilometers. 

The  native  population  is  estimated  at  some¬ 
what  over  5,600,000,  of  whom  about  5,598,000 
are  French  subjects.  The  white  inhabitants 
number  about  il00,  almost  entirely  French. 
Of  the  natives  who  are  French  subjects,  the 
number  of  Mohammedans  is  stated  at  about 
1,405,000,  and  of  fetishists  at  about  4,191,000; 
there  are  a  few  Roman  Catholic  natives,  prob¬ 
ably  less  than  2000.  The  capital  is  Bamako, 
the  population  of  which  is  about  7050;  other 
important  towns  are  Ouagadougou,  19,332; 
Kayes,  8952;  S6gou,  8405;  Sikasso,  7408;  Tim- 
buctoo,  6699.  The  colony  is  administered  by  a 
Lieutenant-Governor,  under  the  Governor-Gen¬ 
eral  of  French  West  Africa. 

UPPER  TUNGUSKA,  tun-goo'ska.  See  An¬ 
gara. 

UPSALA,  up-sa/la.  The  capital  of  the  Lan 
of  Upsala,  Sweden,  on  both  banks  of  the  navi¬ 
gable  Fyrisa,  in  a  fertile  and  historic  plain,  41 
miles  by  rail  north-northwest  of  Stockholm 
( Map  :  Sweden,  F  7 ) .  The  ancient  city  is  best 
known  now  for  its  university.  ( See  Upsala, 
University  of.)  The  new  town  lies  on  a  level 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river;  the  old  portion 
ascends  the  hills  on  the  west  shore.  The  fine 
French-Gothic  cathedral  dates  from  1258  and 
was  completely  restored  between  1870  and  1893. 
The  interior  contains  the  splendid  burial  chapel 
of  Gustavus  Vasa.  The  cathedral  also  contains  a 
monument  to  the  botanist  Linnaeus,  who  lived  in 
Upsala. 

Among  the  university  buildings  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  cathedral  are  the  ancient  Gustavianum, 
the  Carolina  Rediviva  (1841),  and  the  handsome 
new  Renaissance  structure  completed  in  1886. 
The  valuable  university  library  is  celebrated  for 
the  Codex  Argenteus  of  Ulfilas  ( q.v. ) .  The  bo¬ 
tanic  garden  is  very  fine.  The  half-finished 
historic  castle — the  Slott — on  the  hill  to  the 
south  of  the  town  was  built  by  Gustavus  “Vasa 
in  1548  and  is  now  used  for  the  provincial  ar¬ 
chives.  Southeast  and  stretching  along  the 
Fyrisa  is  the  Stromparterre — a  pleasure  park 
called  by  the  students  the  “hole  of  a  beehive.” 
South  of  the  citv  is  the  noteworthy  Ultuna 
Agricultural  Institute.  Several  miles  farther 
south  is  the  splendid  chateau  of  Skokloster.  Its 
origin  is  due  to  Marshal  Wrangel,  who  housed 
here  his  rich  collections  accumulated  in  Germany 
in  the  Thirty  Years’  War.  Northeast  of  Upsala 
lies  the  notable  village  of  Gamla  Upsala,  the 
capital  of  the  ancient  pagan  kings,  who  wor¬ 
shiped  here  in  a  celebrated  temple.  Adjacent 
are  tumuli  (about  60  feet  high)  which  were 
connected  with  the  pagan  rites.  In  the  vicinity 
is  the  Tingshcg — a  hill  (32  feet  high)  from 
which  the  ancient  rulers  spoke  to  the  people. 
The  name  Upsala  (OSwed.  Uppsalir,  the  high 


halls)  dates  from  1273,  when  the  Archbishop 
took  residence  there. 

Upsala  has  an  excellent  school  system,  com¬ 
prising  both  normal  and  high  schools,  a  fine  hos¬ 
pital,  an  insane  asylum,  a  royal  society  of  sci¬ 
ence,  a  medical  association,  and  an  organization 
for  the  study  of  the  humanities.  The  Museum 
of  Northern  Antiquities  is  in  the  garden  of 
Linnaeus.  Upsala  was  formerly  an  important 
commercial  centre,  but  now  the  town  owes  its 
prosperity  mainly  to  the  university.  Pop.,  1900, 
22,855;  1910,  25,960. 

UPSALA,  University  of.  An  institution  of 
learning  situated  at  Upsala,  Sweden.  In  1477 
Pope  Sixtus  IV  gave  permission  to  establish 
a  Studium  Generale  at  Upsala  after  the  model 
of  Bologna  and  lectures  were  begun  the  same 
year.  In  1566  Eric  XIV  established  a  chair  of 
Greek.  King  John  III  established  four  new  pro¬ 
fessorships,  but  as  the  professors  refused  to 
assent  to  the  King’s  Catholicizing  acts,  the  uni¬ 
versity  was  closed.  It  was  not  until  1593,  when 
the  Reformation  again  gained  a  strong  foothold 
in  Sweden,  that  the  university  was  reestablished, 
with  two  faculties,  theological  and  philosophical. 
Gustavus  Adolphus  endowed  the  university  mu¬ 
nificently,  thus  assuring  its  material  independ¬ 
ence.  The  Gustavianum,  one  of  the  oldest  build¬ 
ings,  dating  from  the  reign  of  this  monarch, 
is  still  extant.  The  university  consisted  of  the 
faculties  of  theology,  law,  medicine,  and  philos¬ 
ophy.  The  attendance  in  1913  was  2419.  The 
library,  which  was  enriched  considerably  by  the 
collections  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  contains  over 
400,000  volumes  and  22,000  pamphlets.  Consult 
C.  Annerstedt,  Upsala  Universitets  Historia 
(Upsala,  1877-1914),  and  C.  F.  Thwing,  Univer¬ 
sities  of  the  World  (New  York,  1911). 

UPSHUR,  up'sher,  Abeu  Parker  (1790- 
1844).  An  American  statesman,  born  in  North¬ 
ampton  Co.,  Va.  He  studied  law  under  Wil¬ 
liam  Wirt  (q.v.),  and  was  in  1810  admitted  to 
the  bar.  In  1824  he  was  elected  to  the  State 
Legislature,  in  1826  was  appointed  a  judge  of 
the  Virginia  General  Court,  and  in  1829  was 
made  a  member  of  the  convention  for  the  revi¬ 
sion  of  the  State  constitution.  President  Tyler  ap¬ 
pointed  him  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  1841,  and 
in  1843  he  was  transferred  to  the  post  of  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State,  left  vacant  by  the  resignation  of 
Daniel  Webster.  He  was  an  extreme  supporter 
of  States’  rights  and  slavery.  His  death  was 
caused  by  the  bursting  of  a  gun  on  board  U.S.S. 
Princeton.  He  published  an  Inquiry  into  the 
Nature  and  Character  of  our  Federal  Govern¬ 
ment  (1840). 

UP'SGN,  Anson  Judd  (1823-1902).  An 
American  clergyman  and  educator,  born  in  Phil¬ 
adelphia.  He  graduated  at  Hamilton  College  in 
1843.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  moral  philosophy  at  Hamilton,  and 
from  1853  to  1870  was  professor  of  logic  and 
rhetoric  there.  He  then  became  pastor  of  the 
Second  Presbyterian  Church  in  Albany.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  and  pas¬ 
toral  theology  at  Auburn  Seminary  in  1880,  and 
in  1887  became  professor  emeritus.  In  1890  he 
was  made  chancellor  of  the  University  of  the 
State  of  New  York. 

UP'TQN,  Emory  (1839-81).  An  American 
soldier,  born  at  Batavia,  N.  Y.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1861;  served  as  aid-de-camp  on 
the  staff  of  General  Tyler,  and  while  so  doing 
was  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run;  fought 
in  the  Peninsular  campaign  and  in  the  Maryland 


UPTOltf 


URAL-ALTAIC 


798 


campaign ;  and  was  commissioned  colonel  of  the 
One  Hundred  Twenty-first  Xew  York  Volunteers 
on  Oct.  23,  1862.  He  was  engaged  in  the  battle 
of  Fredericksburg;  commanded  a  brigade  of  the 
Sixth  Corps  at  Gettysburg,  Rappahannock  Sta¬ 
tion,  and  Mine  Run,  and  in  the  Wilderness  cam¬ 
paign  and  part  of  the  Richmond  campaign.  At 
Spottsylvania  in  May,  1864,  he  was  wounded 
while  leading  the  assaulting  column  of  12  regi¬ 
ments  of  the  Sixth  Corps,  and  as  a  reward  for 
his  gallantry  was  brevetted  lieutenant  colonel  of 
the  Twenty-fifth  Infantry  from  1866.  He  was 
wounded  at  Opequan  in  the  Shenandoah  cam¬ 
paign,  and  for  gallant  conduct  at  Winchester 
was  brevetted  major  general  of  volunteers.  He 
later  commanded  the  Fourth  Cavalry  Division  in 
Gen.  J.  H.  Wilson’s  operations  in  Georgia,  and 
for  his  services  in  the  assault  on  Selma  was 
brevetted  brigadier  general  in  the  regular  army. 
After  the  war  he  served  as  lieutenant  colonel 
of  the  Twenty-fifth  Infantry  from  1868  until 
1880,  when  he  became  colonel  of  the  Fourth 
Artillery.  He  was  also  engaged  in  preparing 
a  system  of  tactics  for  the  service,  and  from 
1870  until  1875  was  commandant  of  cadets  at 
the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point.  Hot  long- 
after  his  promotion  to  the  rank  of  colonel  his 
mind  became  affected  and  he  committed  suicide. 
His  published  works  include:  A  New  System  of 
Infantry  Tactics  (1867;  2d  ed.,  1874);  Tactics 
for  Non-Military  Bodies  (1870);  and  The  Ar¬ 
mies  of  Asia  and  Europe  (1878).  Consult 
Michie,  Life  and  Letters  of  Major-General  Emory 
Upton  (New  York,  1885). 

UPTON,  George  Putnam  (1835-1919).  An 
American  musical  critic,  born  in  Boston,  and 
educated  at  Brown  University.  From  1863  to 
1881  he  was  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Chicago 
Tribune.  In  1872  he  founded  and  became  first 
jiresident  of  the  Apollo  Club.  His  works  include : 
Woman  in  Music  (1885);  Standard  Operas 
(1886;  15th  ed.,  1912);  Standard  Oratorios 
(1887);  Standard  Symphonies  (1892);  Johann 
Sebastian  Bach  (2  vols.  in  1,  Chicago,  1905)  ; 
Standard  Concert  Repertory  (1909).  He  also 
translated  Nohl’s  biographies  of  Haydn,  Bee¬ 
thoven,  Wagner,  and  Liszt. 

UR,  er  (Heb.  ’Ur,  Bab.  Uru) .  An  ancient  city 
in  southern  Babylonia,  which  has  been  identified 
with  the  modern  Mukayyar.  The  site  lies  close 
to  the  Euphrates,  at  the  point  where  the  canal 
Shatt  el  Hai  connects  this  river  with  the  Tigris, 
while  the  Wadi  Rummein  gives  it  access  to 
Arabia.  Hence,  it  was  in  a  favorable  position 
for  the  development  of  commerce  and  political 
greatness.  It  was  the  chief  seat  in  Babylonia 
of  the  worship  of  the  moon  god  Nannar  or  Sin, 
whose  massive  temple  still  stands  70  feet  above 
the  plain.  The  city  was  held  by  Eannatum  of 
Lagash,  Lugalkigubnidudu  and  Lugalzaggisi  of 
Erech,  and  it  became  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Sumer  and  Akkad,  founded  by  Ur  Eugur 
c.2574  b.c.  Dungi,  Bursin,  Gimilsin,  and  Ibesin 
reigned  there.  From  this  period  we  have  a 
number  of  important  inscriptions.  In  the  reign 
of  Hammurapi  (2124-2081  b.c.)  of  Babylon,  Ur 
was  conquered  by  the  Amoritish  dynasty.  It 
remained  important  as  a  sacred  place.  In  the 
Assyrian  period  it  was  ruled  by  a  governor. 
Bilsharusur,  the  son  of  Nabunaid,  was  Governor 
of  Ur.  The  population  of  the  city  was  originally 
Sumerian.  An  admixture  of  Akkadians  must 
be  assumed  for  the  period  of  Ur  Eugur  and  his 
successors.  Later  it  is  probable  that  Chaldseans 
(q.v.i  settled  in  Ur.  The  biblical  passages  call 


it  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  and  make  it  the  starting 
point  of  the  migration  of  Abraham’s  family 
westward  (Gen.  xi.  27-32).  The  first  examina¬ 
tion  of  the  ruins  in  modern  times  was  by  Pietro 
della  Valle  in  1625,  who  brought  home  a  number 
of  cuneiform  inscriptions  from  Mukayyar.  In 
1854  and  1855  J.  E.  Taylor  examined  the  ruins, 
described  the  remains,  identified  the  temple  of 
the  moon  god,  and  sent  to  London  a  number  of 
important  inscriptions.  Consult:  J.  E.  Taylor, 
in  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  vol.  xv 
(London,  1855)  ;  Loftus,  Travels  and  Researches 
in  Chaldea  (ib.,  1857)  ;  H.  V.  Hilprecht,  Explo¬ 
rations  in  Bible  Lands  (Philadelphia,  1903)  ; 
R.  Zehnpfund,  Babylonien  in  seinen  ivichtigsten 
Ruinen-statten  (Leipzig,  1910)  ;  L.  W.  King,  A 
History  of  Sumer  and  Akkad  (New  York,  1910). 
See  Babylonia,  History. 

URABA,  oo'ra-Ba',  Gulf  of.  The  former 
name  for  the  Gulf  of  Darien  and  now  applied 
to  the  southern  portion.  See  Darien. 

URiEMIA,  u-re'mi-a  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk. 
ovpov,  ouron,  urine  +  alya,  haima,  blood).  The 
term  applied  to  a  characteristic  group  of  symp¬ 
toms  arising  from  the  retention  in  the  circula¬ 
tion  of  systemic  poisons  which  normally  are  ex¬ 
creted  by  the  kidneys.  (See  Bright’s  Disease.) 
The  symptoms  of  ursemia  are  manifested  princi¬ 
pally  in  the  cerebrospinal  nervous  system  and 
consist  of  headache,  nausea,  vertigo,  diminished 
vision  and  drowsiness,  followed,  in  severe  cases, 
by  convulsions  and  coma.  The  urine  is  scanty, 
contains  casts,  and  is  deficient  in  urea.  Uraemia 
is  a  very  fatal  complication  of  nephritis.  Treat¬ 
ment  is  addressed  to  relieving  the  kidnevs  of 
their  burden  by  stimulating  the  eliminative  ac¬ 
tion  of  the  bowels  and  skin.  Elaterium  and  the 
saline  purges,  hot  baths  and  packs  are  useful. 
The  kidneys  may  be  stimulated  to  greater  ac¬ 
tivity  by  cupping  over  the  loins,  and  the  admin¬ 
istration  of  hot  enemas  and  diuretic  drugs.  A 
milk  diet  is  indicated. 

USAGA,  oo'ra'ga.  A  village  in  the  Province 
of  Sagami,  Japan,  15  miles  south-southeast  of 
Yokohama.  It  lies  in  two  divisions  on  both 
sides  of  a  narrow  harbor.  There  are  two  large 
dry  docks.  The  views  in  the  vicinity  are  beauti¬ 
ful.  Commodore  Perry’s  fleet  dropped  anchor 
here  on  July  8,  1853,  and  at  Kurihama,  near  by, 
on  July  14,  he  met  the  representatives  of  the 
Shogun  and  delivered  President  Fillmore’s  let¬ 
ter.  This  was  the  first  of  the  series  of  events 
which  resulted  in  the  opening  again  of  Japan  to 
foreign  intercourse.  In  1900  a  plot  of  land  was 
purchased  at  Kurihama  and  named  Perry’s  Park, 
and  a  monument  in  his  honor  was  unveiled  July 
14,  1901.  Pop.,  about  1600. 

URAL,  u'ral,  Russ.  pron.  u-ral'y’.  A  river 
of  east  Russia,  partly  on  the  boundary  between 
Europe  and  Asia  (Map:  Russia,  J  4).  It  rises 
in  the  southern  Ural  Mountains  in  the  Govern¬ 
ment  of  Orenburg,  and  flours  first  south  through 
one  of  the  eastern  longitudinal  valleys,  then 
westward  around  the  southern  spurs  of  the 
mountain  system,  and  finally  southward,  empty¬ 
ing  into  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  after  a  course  of  about  1400  miles.  The 
rainfall  over  its  widely  extended  basin  is  but 
slight,  so  that  the  river  receives  no  important 
tributaries  and  is  unnavigable.  The  chief  tovms 
on  its  banks  are  Orsk,  Orenburg,  Uralsk,  and 
Guriev,  the  last  named  at  its  mouth. 

U'RAL- ALTA'IC.  The  term  commonly  em¬ 
ployed  by  anthropologists  to  designate  a  branch 
of  the  vellow  or  Asian  race,  which  includes  the 


URAL-ALTAIC  LANGUAGES 


799 


URAL  MOUNTAINS 


following  groups :  Tungusic  (Tunguses,  Manchus, 
etc.),  Mongolic  (Mongols,  Kalmucks,  etc.),  Ta- 
taric  (Turks,  Tatars,  part  of  the  Cossacks, 
Kirghizes,  etc.),  Finnic  (Samoyeds,  Finns, 
Lapps,  Magyars,  etc.),  Arctic  (Tchuktchis,  Ko- 
riaks,  Kamchatkans,  Giliaks,  Ainus),  and  Japa- 
nese-Korean.  The  civilized  and  more  or  less 
Aryanized  Finns  and  Magyars  of  Europe,  the 
latter  intruding  Osmanli  Turks  of  Asia  Minor, 
southwestern  Europe,  and  northern  Africa,  the 
civilized  Turko-Tatar  states,  ancient  and  mod¬ 
ern,  of  Turkestan  and  adjacent  parts  of  central 
Asia,  the  Mongol  conquerors  of  China  and  India, 
the  Asiatic  elements  of  Korean- Japanese  culture, 
etc.,  represent  the  capacities,  independent  and 
stimulated  by  contact  with  other  races  and 
peoples,  of  the  Ural-Altaic  tribes.  While  the 
location  of  the  earliest  home  of  the  Ural-Altaic 
peoples  is  still  indeterminable  with  exactness — 
it  was  somewhere  between  the  Ural  and  the 
Altai — certain  centres  of  dispersion  of  its  sub¬ 
divisions  can  be  noted:  Mongolia  south  of  the 
Altai,  Turkestan  north  of  the  Pamir,  the  Ural- 
ian  country,  the  Baikal  region)  the  Amur  valley, 
etc.  The  variety  of  the  response  of  the  Ural- 
Altaic  peoples  to  foreign  culture  is  seen  in  their 
religions.  The  uncivilized  tribes  are  mostly 
devotees  of  Shamanism,  as  of  old,  but  the  Mon¬ 
gols,  Manchus,  Buriats,  Kirgliiz-Kalmuck  Tatars, 
and  to  some  extent  Koreans  and  Japanese  are 
Buddhist,  the  Bashkirs,  Turks,  etc.,  are  Moham¬ 
medans,  the  greater  part  of  the  Kamchatkans, 
Tchuvashes,  part  of  the  Yakuts  and  of  some 
other  Siberian  tribes,  are  Christians  of  the  Rus¬ 
sian  (Greek)  church,  the  Magyars  are  about 
three-fifths  Catholic  and  two-fifths  Protestant, 
and  the  Finns  for  the  most  part  Lutheran.  Con¬ 
sult:  Castren,  Ethnologische  Vorlesungen  iiber 
die  altaischen  Y  olker  (St.  Petersburg,  1857)  ; 
Schott,  Altaische  Studien  (Berlin,  1860-72)  ; 
Mistelli,  Der  altaische  Sprachtypus  (Basel, 
1883)  ;  A.  H.  Keane,  Man,  Past  and  Present 
(London,  1900).  See  Ural-Altaic  Languages. 

URAL-ALTAIC  LANGUAGES  (Ural  and 
Altai  mountains)  ;  also  called  Finno-Tataric, 
Scythian,  or  Turanian.  A  vast  group  of  lan¬ 
guages  spoken  over  a  territory  extending  from 
Okhotsk  in  the  east  to  Finland,  Hungary,  and 
Turkey  in  the  west,  and  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  This  group  is  subdivided 
into  a  number  of  branches,  all  more  or  less  dis¬ 
tantly  related,  of  which  the  main  characteristics 
are  agglutinative  terminations  that  may  be  ap¬ 
pended  to  an  unchangeable  root,  and  possessive 
pronouns  that  may  be  affixed  to  the  noun.  A 
law  peculiar  to  this  group  of  languages  is  that 
known  as  vowel  harmony,  a  species  of  umlaut 
(q.v.),  or  progressive  vowel  assimilation,  by 
which  the  vowel  of  the  changeable  suffix  is 
adapted  more  or  less  accurately  to  the  vowel  of 
the  stem,  or  root.  Thus,  in  Turkish,  yaz,  write, 
is  in  the  infinitive  yazmak,  to  write;  while  sev, 
love,  is  sevmek,  to  love.  The  main  branches  of 
the  Ural-Altaic  group  of  languages  are  the  fol¬ 
lowing:  (a)  The  Finno-Ugric,  also  known  as  the 
Finnic  or  Ugrian,  comprising  (1)  the  Finnic, 
whose  main  subdivisions  are  the  Finnish  (q.v.), 
the  Tchudic  about  Lake  Onega,  the  Karelian 
(see  Karelians)  from  the  White  Sea  to  Lake 
Ladoga,  the  Livonian  (now  almost  extinct; 
see  Livonia)  and  the  Crevinian  in  Courland 
(q.v.),  the  Esthonian  (see  Esthonia)  to  the 
south  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  the  Lapponic 
of  Lapland  (q.v.)  ;  (2)  the  Permian  spoken 

about  the  Ural  Mountains  in  the  northeastern 


part  of  European  Russia;  (3)  the  Volga-Finnic 
or  Bulgaric,  comprising  the  Tcheremissian  spoken 
between  Nizhni  Novgorod  (q.v.)  and  Kazan 
(q.v.),  and  Mordvinian  on  the  Middle  Volga; 
(4)  the  Ugric  comprising  the  Vogul  about  the 
Obi  River,  and  the  Magyar  or  Hungarian  (q.v.) 
spoken  in  central  and  western  Hungary  and  in 
Transylvania.  ( b )  The  Samoyedic  ( see  Samo¬ 
yeds)  branch  consisting  of  a  number  of  dialects 
along  the  White  Sea  and  the  Arctic  shore  of 
Siberia.  ( c )  The  Tunguse  including  the  dia¬ 
lects  spoken  by  the  Tunguses  between  the  Yeni¬ 
sei  River  and  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  in  Siberia  and 
by  the  Manchus  (q.v.)  of  Manchuria,  (d)  The 
Mongolian  branch  consisting  of  Mongolian  proper 
in  the  north  of  China  (see  Mongolia,  Lan¬ 
guage),  the  Buriat  dialects  (see  Buriats)  on 
the  shore  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  the  Kalmuck  (see 
Kalmucks)  or  western  Mongolia  extending  as 
far  west  as  the  Caspian  Sea.  (e)  The  Turko- 
Tataric  branch  comprising  the  Yakut  spoken  on 
the  banks  of  the  Lena  River  in  Siberia,  the 
Kirghiz  (q.v.)  from  Turkestan  to  the  north  of 
the  Caspian,  and  Lake  Balkash,  the  Nogair  of 
the  Russian  Cossacks  in  Crimea,  the  Uiguric 
and  Turkoman  (q.v.)  in  Turkestan,  and  Turk¬ 
ish  (q.v.). 

Bibliography.  Henry  Sweet,  History  of  Lan¬ 
guage  (London,  1900)  ;  W.  D.  Whitney,  Lan¬ 
guages  and  the  Study  of  Language  (6th  ed.,  New 
York,  1901)  ;  id.,  Life  and  Growth  of  Language 
(new  ed.,  ib.,  1902)  ;  T.  G.  Tucker,  Introduction 
to  the  Natural  History  of  Language  (London, 
1908)  ;  Leonard  Bloomfield,  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Language  (New  York,  1914)  ;  also: 
Vambery,  JJ'igurische  Sprach-Monumente  und  das 
Kudatlcii  Bilik  (Innsbruck,  1870)  ;  W.  Thomsen, 
Ueber  den  Einfluss  der  germanischen  Sprachen 
auf  die  Finnisch-Lappischen  (Ger.  trans.  by 
Sievers,  Halle,  1870)  ;  L.  Adam,  Grammaire  de 
la  langue  mandehoue  (Paris,  1872)  ;  id.,  Gram¬ 
maire  de  la  langue  tongouse  (ib.,  1874)  ;  Don- 
ner,  Vergleichendes  Worterbuch  der  finnisch-ugri- 
sclien  Sprachen  (3  vols.,  Helsingfors,  1874-88)  ; 
N.  Anderson,  Studien  zur  Vergleichung  der  indo- 
germanischen  und  finno-ugrischen  Sprachen 
(Dorpat,  1879)  ;  H.  Winkler,  Uralaltaische 
Volkei i  und  Sprachen  (Berlin,  1884)  ;  id.,  Das 
uralaltaische  und  seine  Gruppen  (ib.,  1885)  ; 
Radloff,  Versuch  eines  Worterbuchs  der  Tiirk- 
Dialekte  (St.  Petersburg,  1888)  ;  id.,  Die  alt- 
turkischen  Inschriften  der  Mongolei  (ib.,  1894)  ; 
Grunzel,  Entwurf  einer  vetgleichenden  Grarn- 
matik  der  altaischen  Sprachen  (Leipzig,  1895)  ; 
and  the  Memoires  de  la  society  finno-ugrienne 
(Helsingfors),  which  have  been  published  annu¬ 
ally  since  1883. 

U'RALITE.  A  variety  of  amphibole  derived 
from  pyroxene.  Its  crystals,  when  distinct, 
show  the  form  of  the  original  mineral,  but  have 
the  cleavage  of  amphibole.  The  crystals  vary  in 
color  from  pale  to  deep  green,  and  are  found  at 
various  localities,  as  in  the  Ural  Mountains  and 
at  Canaan,  Conn. 

URAL  (u'ral,  Russ.  pron.  u-ral'y’)  MOUN¬ 
TAINS.  A  mountain  range  in  Russia,  forming 
part  of  the  conventional  boundary  between  Eu¬ 
rope  and  Asia.  It  extends  in  a  general  north 
and  south  direction  approximately  along  the 
sixtieth  meridian  of  east  longitude  from  the 
Kara  Sea  to  the  north  bank  of  the  Ural  River 
( Map :  Russia,  K  1 ) .  A  northwestern  extension 
reappears  in  the  Arctic  seas  to  form  the  main 
range  of  the  islands  of  Waigatz  and  Nova 
Zembla,  while  a  southern  extension,  known  as 


URALSK 


800 


URANIUM 


the  Mugodzhar  Mountains,  runs  south  of  the 
Ural  River  nearly  to  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of 
Aral.  The  Ural  Mountains  do  not  form  a  single 
range,  but  constitute  rather  a  broad  plateau  45 
miles  wide  in  the  north  and  nearly  200  miles 
wide  in  the  south.  This  plateau  is  broken  up 
partly  into  a  number  of  separate  ridges  or 
chains  running  in  various  directions,  partly  into 
broad  dome-shaped  masses,  though  the  southern 
portion  divides  itself  into  several  parallel  north 
and  south  branches.  The  slope  is  gradual  and 
on  the  road  from  Perm  to  the  east  it  is  scarcely 
perceptible,  the  steepest  gradient  on  the  Trans- 
Siberian  being  only  1  in  100.  The  average 
elevation  of  the  main  crests  is  not  great,  scarcely 
more  than  1500  feet.  Mount  Tel-pos  is  5433 
feet  above  the  sea  and  many  peaks  rise  above 
5000  feet.  The  climate  is  rather  severe,  with 
very  cold  winters  and  hot  summers.  The  rainfall 
is  greater  on  the  western  slope  and  in  the  central 
and  northern  portion  than  in  the  east  and  south. 
In  spite  of  the  northern  location  the  Urals  have 
no  glaciers  as  the  snowfall  is  slight.  The  range 
is  a  watershed  of  the  Obi  in  the  east,  the  Ural 
in  the  south,  and  the  Volga  and  Petchora  on 
the  west.  The  vegetation  in  the  southern  por¬ 
tion  consists  mainly  of  steppes  with  isolated 
oases  of  trees.  The  central  portion  is  covered 
with  immense  forests  of  spruce,  larch,  and  firs, 
which  in  the  north  give  place  to  dwarf  birch  and 
mossy  tundras.  Geologically,  the  range  consists 
of  a  central  longitudinal  zone  of  metamorphic 
slates,  granites,  gneisses,  and  syenites,  flanked 
on  either  side  by  sedimentary  strata,  which  are 
chiefly  Carboniferous  and  Permian  in  the  west¬ 
ern,  and  Cretaceous  and  Jurassic  in  the  eastern 
zone.  In  the  southeast  there  are  large  Devonian 
outcrops  and  intrusions  of  quartz  and  porphyry. 
The  Ural  Mountains  are  extremely  rich  in  min¬ 
erals,  which  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  central 
division,  between  the  55th  and  60tli  parallels, 
the  northern  parts  being  barren.  There  are  rich 
deposits  of  iron  ore — magnetite,  limonite,  and 
red  hematite.  Over  800,000  tons  of  pig  iron 
were  produced  in  1912,  the  vast  forests  yield¬ 
ing  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  fuel.  Gold  is 
mined  both  from  veins  and  placers,  and  other 
rare  metals,  platinum,  iridium,  and  osmium,  are 
comparatively  abundant.  The  Urals  yield  90 
per  cent  (5774  kilograms  in  1911)  of  all  the 
platinum  produced  in  the  world.  Precious  stones 
are  also  mined,  as  well  as  copper,  silver,  mer¬ 
cury,  cobalt,  nickel,  and  zinc.  Coal  beds  exist  on 
the  west  slope,  and  yielded  in  1912  850,000  tons. 
Asbestos  is  one  of  the  distinctive  mineral  prod¬ 
ucts  of  the  mountains.  This  mineral  wealth  has 
given  rise  to  important  industries,  and  a  large 
number  of  populous  towns  have  sprung  up  among 
the  mountains,  while  a  considerable  agricultural 
population  has  also  been  attracted. 

Consult:  Ludwig,  Ueberblick  der  geologischen 
Beobachtungen  (Leipzig,  1862)  ;  Hochstetter, 
TJeber  den  TJral  im  Ural  (Berlin,  1873);  Hie- 
kiseh,  Das  System  des  Urals  (Dorpat,  1882). 

URALSK,  oo-ral'y’sk.  A  province  of  Russia, 
lying  mostly  east  of  the  Ural  River,  the  bound¬ 
ary  line  between  Europe  and  Asia  (Map: 
Asia,  G  4).  Area,  over  139,168  square  miles. 
The  surface  generally  presents  a  series  of  dry 
steppes  and  deserts  sloping  gradually  to  the 
Caspian.  Part  of  the  interior  lies  below  the 
level  of  the  Caspian.  There  are  many  salt  lakes, 
and  only  the  Ural  (q.v.)  and  the  Emba  (during 
a  part  of  the  year)  reach  the  Caspian,  the  other 
streams  being  lost  in  the  lakes  or  in  the  sand. 


Uralsk  is  scantily  watered.  The  climate  is 
continental,  the  influence  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
being  confined  to  the  coast  region.  The  tem¬ 
perature  is  subject  to  wide  fluctuations,  and 
the  precipitation  is  slight.  In  the  winter  the 
snowstorms  are  very  destructive.  Uralsk  con¬ 
tains  little  cultivable  land,  and  agriculture  is  of 
secondary  importance,  the  chief  occupations 
being  stock  raising  and  fishing.  The  fisheries 
along  the  Ural  and  the  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
are  among  the  most  extensive  and  the  best  regu¬ 
lated  in  Russia.  The  value  of  the  fish,  caviar, 
fish  oil,  and  other  fish  products  exported  exceeds 
$1,500,000.  Pop.,  1913,  849,800,  two-thirds  being 
Kirghizes.  Capital,  Uralsk. 

URALSK.  The  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Uralsk,  in  southeast  Russia,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Ural  with  the  Tchagan,  980  miles  southeast 
of  Moscow  (Map:  Russia,  H  4).  It  is  a  well 
laid  out  town  with  an  industrial  school  for 
Kirghizes  and  a  natural  history  museum.  It  is 
the  commercial  centre  of  the  province.  Pop., 
1911,  45,605. 

URAN,  oo'ran.  Indian  linguistic  stock  of 
Bolivia  and  Peru  once  disseminated  over  the 
region  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca  to  Lake 
Poopo  (or  Aullagas)  and  the  island  of  Panza, 
along  the  whole  course  of  the  Ri'o  Desaguadero. 
Consult  J.  T.  Polo,  in  Boletin  de  la  Sociedad 
Geogrdfica  de  Lima,  vol.  x  (Lima,  1901),  and 
A.  F.  Chamberlain,  in  American  Anthropologist, 
new  series,  vol.  xii  (Lancaster,  Pa.,  1910). 

URA'NIA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Ovpavla,  Ourania, 
the  Heavenly  One,  from  ovpavos,  ouranos,  heaven, 
sky).  One  of  the  Muses  (q.v.).  In  the  later 
division  of  functions  among  the  Muses  she  be¬ 
came  the  guardian  of  Astronomy,  or  rather  of 
the  astronomical  epic,  such  as  was  written  by 
Aratus.  She  seems  to  be  indicated  in  the  groups 
of  Muses  by  the  globe. 

U'RANIN.  See  Coal-Tar  Colors. 

URANTNITE.  A  mineral  uranium  oxide 
usually  found  in  the  form  of  botryoidal  or  com¬ 
pact  masses  and  often  containing  such  impurities 
as  silica  and  the  oxides  of  iron,  lead,  calcium, 
and  magnesium.  It  is  opaque,  grayish,  greenish, 
or  brownish-black  -in  color,  its  resemblance  to 
pitch  giving  rise  to  the  common  term  pitch¬ 
blende,  which  is  frequently  applied  to  it. 
Uraninite  has  a  submetallic  lustre,  and  a  con- 
choidal  fracture.  It  occurs  often  with  ores  of 
silver  and  lead,  in  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Hungary, 
Turkey,  etc.  Uraninite,  together  with  its  de¬ 
composition  products  gummite  and  uranophane 
are  important  sources  of  the  radium  salts.  See 
also  Radium;  Polonium;  Radioactivity. 

URA'NIUM  (Neo-Lat.,  named  after  the 
planet  Uranus) .  A  metallic  element  discovered 
by  Klaproth  in  1789  and  first  isolated  in  the 
metallic  state  by  Peligot  in  1840.  It  is  found 
chiefly  as  an  oxide  in  the  mineral  uraninite  or 
pitchblende,  which  occurs  at  various  localities 
in  Norway,  Saxony,  Cornwall,  and  the  United 
States,  and  also  in  various  other  minerals,  but 
in  smaller  quantities.  An  important  source  of 
uranium  compounds  in  recent  years  is  the  uran- 
ochre  from  Cornwall,  England.  The  metal  itself 
may  be  obtained  by  reducing  uranoso-uranic 
oxide  (see  below)  with  pure  carbon  or  with 
powdered  metallic  aluminium,  or  by  electrolyz¬ 
ing  the  fused  double  chloride  of  uranium  and 
sodium. 

Uranium  (symbol,  LT ;  atomic  weight,  238.5) 
is  a  hard,  silvery- white  metal  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  18.68.  It  melts  at  a  bright-red  heat. 


URANIUM  RAYS 


801 


URBAN 


It  combines  with  oxygen  to  form  a  dioxide  and 
a  trioxide,  which  unite  with  bases  to  form 
uranous  and  uranic  salts.  Besides  the  dioxide 
(U02)  and  the  trioxide  (U03),  it  forms  three 
other  well-defined  oxides:  viz.,  the  uranoso- 
uranic  oxide  (U308)  already  mentioned,  a 
pentoxide  (U205),  and  a  peroxide  (U04).  Per¬ 
haps  the  most  important  -of  the  uranium  salts 
is  sodium  uranate,  known  as  uranium  yellow, 
used  for  painting  on  glass  and  porcelain,  as  well 
as  in  making  the  fluorescent  yellow  uranium 
glass.  The  uranoso-uranic  oxide  is  used  some¬ 
times  to  produce  a  black  glaze  on  porcelain. 

Uranium  and  its  compounds  are  radioactive, 
the  element  undergoing  slow  disintegration  with 
formation  of  a  new  and  distinct  element  (like¬ 
wise  radioactive)  known  as  uranium  X,  having 
an  atomic  weight  probably  of  230.5,  and  behav¬ 
ing  chemically  like  the  element  thorium.  See 
Radioactivity. 

URANIUM  RAYS.  See  Radioactivity. 

URAN'OLITE.  See  Meteorite. 

U'RANOPLAS'TY.  See  Palate. 

U'RANUS  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  0 vpo.vos,  Ouranos, 
heavens,  sky ) .  In  Greek  theogony,  the  husband 
of  Gaea,  the  Earth,  and,  according  to  Hesiod, 
father  of  the  Titans,  Cyclopes,  and  Hecatoncliei- 
res.  Legend  represented  him  as  dethroned  and 
mutilated  by  his  son  Cronos.  (See  Saturn.) 
From  his  blood,  which  fell  upon  the  earth,  sprang 
the  Gigantes  (see  Giants),  while  the  part  which 
fell  into  the  sea  was  washed  about  until  from 
the  foam  which  gathered  rose  Aphrodite.  Uranus 
was  never  an  object  of  worship,  but  rather,  like 
Cronos,  a  conception  formed  from  the  cult  of 
Zeus  for  the  purpose  of  a  constructive  theogony. 
Among  the  Romans  Cselus  appears  in  myth  as  a 
translation  of  the  Greek  name,  but  not  as  a 
deity  of  the  Roman  religion. 

URANUS.  The  next  to  the  outermost  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  solar  system.  Its  mean  distance  from 
the  sun  is  1,782,000,000  miles;  sidereal  period, 
84  years ;  eccentricity  not  quite  or  about  the 
same  as  that  of  Jupiter;  inclination  to  the 
ecliptic,  46'.  It  is  about  66  times  greater  than 
the  earth  in  volume  and  15  times  in  mass,  and 
its  density  and  surface  gravity  respectively  are 
0.22  and  6.9.  In  the  telescope  the  planet  appears 
as  a  greenish  disk  of  about  4"  diameter.  The 
greenish  tinge  is  explained  as  due  to  some  un¬ 
identified  substance  in  the  planet’s  atmosphere. 
Because  of  its  immense  distance,  astronomers 
have  been  unable  to  gain  much  information  con¬ 
cerning  it.  Spots  and  belts  have  been  seen,  but 
they  are  too  faint  to  warrant  any  positive  asser¬ 
tion,  and  the  time  of  rotation  of  the  planet  is 
not  known  with  certainty,  though  it  is  probably 
about  10  hours.  Uranus  was  accidentally  dis¬ 
covered  by  Sir  William  Herschel  on  March  13, 
1781,  and  was  named  the  Georgium  Sidus  and 
Herschel,  but  these  names  soon  fell  into  dis¬ 
use  and  the  name  of  Uranus,  suggested  by  Bode, 
finally  prevailed.  Herschel  announced  the  dis¬ 
covery  as  that  of  a  comet,  and  its  planetary 
nature  was  not  demonstrated  until  three  or  four 
months  later  by  Lexell,  of  St.  Petersburg.  Be¬ 
fore  its  detection  by  Herschel,  Uranus  had  been 
recorded  no  less  than  20  times  as  a  fixed  star, 
12  times  by  Lemonnier  alone.  These  observa¬ 
tions  when  compared  with  more  recent  ones 
showed  that  the  planet  was  wandering  from 
its  track.  The  attempts  made  to  account  for 
these  irregularities  led  to  the  discovery  of  Nep¬ 
tune  (q.v.). 

Uranus  has  four  satellites: 


NAME 

Distance  from 
planet  in  miles 

Sidereal 

period 

Ariel . 

120,000 

2d  12h  29m 

Umbriel . 

170,000 

4d  3h  27m 

Titania . 

280,000 

8d  16h  57m 

Oberon . 

375,000 

13d  llh  7m 

Oberon  and  Titania  were  discovered  by  the 
elder  Herschel,  Jan.  11,  1787 ;  the  other  two  were 
discovered  by  Lassell,  Oct.  24,  1851.  They  are 
estimated  to  vary  in  size  from  200  to  500  miles 
in  diameter.  The  plane  of  their  orbits  is  inclined 
at  98°  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  and  the 
direction  of  their  motion,  like  that  of  Phoebe, 
the  ninth  satellite  of  Saturn,  the  eighth  and 
ninth  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  the  satellite  of 
Neptune,  is  from  east  to  west.  See  Astronomy  ; 
Planets  ;  Solar  System. 

URA.RI.  See  Curari. 

URASHIMA.  TARO,  oo'ra-she'ma  ta/ro.  In 
Japanese  legend,  the  story  of  a  fisher  bov  who 
was  taken  down  on  the  back  of  a  tortoise  into 
the  palace  of  Ryu-gu,  or  the  realm  of  the  dragon 
king  of  the  world  under  the  sea,  and  there  in 
blissful  dalliance  knew  nothing  of  the  flight  of 
time.  Returning  to  the  earth  for  a  brief  visit 
to  his  parents,  he  finds  all  strange  in  his  native 
village,  enters  the  old  cemetery,  and,  against  the 
express  orders  of  the  sea  king’s  daughter,  opens 
the  casket  she  has  given  him,  only  to  find  him¬ 
self  an  old  man  soon  to  die.  This  is  a  favorite 
theme  with  native  artists.  The  legend  is  one  of 
the  oldest  in  the  language,  and  is  first  found  in 
writing  in  the  Marmyoshu  (Collection  of  a  Myr¬ 
iad  Leaves  of  Poetry)  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries.  The  official  annals  give  477  and  825 
a.d.  as  the  dates  of  his  disappearance  and  return. 
The  myth  of  Urasliima  is  the  Japanese  version 
of  the’  Oriental  legend  of  the  Seven  Sleepers, 
represented  in  America  by  the  story  of  Rip  Van 
Winkle,  and  also  found  in  Celtic  mythology. 

URATYUBE,  oo'ra-tyoo'be.  A  town  in  the 
Territory  of  Samarkand,  Russian  Turkestan,  55 
miles  southwest  of  Kliodjend  (Map:  Asia,  Cen¬ 
tral,  N  3) .  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  has  a 
Russian  quarter.  The  chief  articles  of  trade  are 
horses  and  camel-wool  cloth.  Pop.,  about  22,000, 
chiefly  Uzbegs.  Uratyube  was  founded,  accord¬ 
ing  to  local  tradition,  by  Cyrus.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Russians  in  1866. 

URBAIN,  ur'baN',  Georges  (1872-  ).  A 

French  chemist,  born  in  Paris.  He  obtained  the 
degree  of  D.Sc.  from  the  Faculty  of  Sciences, 
Paris,  in  1899,  and  later  became  professor  of 
chemistry  at  the  Sorbonne.  His  writings  in¬ 
clude:  Recherches  sur  la  separation  des  terres 
rares  (1899),  and  Introduction  d  I’etude  de  la 
spectrochimie  (1911). 

UR'BAN.  The  name  of  eight  popes. — Urban 
I,  Saint,  Pope  222-230.  His  pontificate,  coming 
under  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  Sev- 
erus,  was  little  disturbed  by  external  persecu¬ 
tion.  The  schismatic  movement  fostered  by  the 
self-willed  rigorist  Hippolytus  still  continued: 
but  Urban,  like  his  predecessor  Calixtus  (or 
Callistus)  I,  set  himself  firmly  against  it. — 
Urban  II,  Pope  1088-99,  originally  Otho  by 
name.  He  was  Archdeacon  of  Auxerre,  and 
then  entered  the  monastery  of  Cluny,  where  he 
became  prior.  In  1078  Gregory  VII  called  him 
to  Rome  and  made  him  Bishop  of  Ostia.  During 
almost  his  entire  pontificate,  his  position  was 
endangered  by  the  presence  in  Rome  of  the 


URBAN 


802 


URBANA 


powerful  antipope,  Guibert  of  Ravenna,  called 
Clement  III.  Urban  carried  on  the  policies  of 
his  predecessor,  Gregory  VII,  vigorously  prose¬ 
cuting  the  struggle  with  Henry  IV,  and  attack¬ 
ing  such  evils  as  simony,  lay  investiture,  and 
clerical  marriage.  In  1094  he  excommunicated 
Philip  I  of  France  for  his  matrimonial  infidelity. 
He  presided  at  the  famous  Council  of  Clermont 
in  1095,  which  gave  the  impulse  to  the  Crusades. 
On  this  occasion  he  himself  preached  a  famous 
sermon  in  favor  of  the  Crusade.  In  1098  a 
council  was  held  at  Bari,  at  which  many  Greek 
bishops  were  present,  and  in  which  the  addition 
of  the  word  filioque  to  the  creed  was  discussed. 
He  died  at  the  close  of  1099,  just  at  the  time 
when  the  First  Crusade,  which  he  had  organized, 
terminated  in  the  successful  occupation  of  Jeru¬ 
salem. — Urban  III,  Pope  1185-87,  Uberto  Cri- 
velli.  Before  his  elevation  to  the  papacy  he 
was  Archbishop  of  Milan.  His  quarrels  with  the 
Roman  Senate  compelled  him  to  spend  his  ponti¬ 
ficate  in  exile.  He  was  an  opponent  of  Frederick 
Barbarossa.  The  Emperor  besieged  the  Pope  in 
Verona,  but  was  recalled  to  Germany  by  tidings 
of  revolt  there,’  and  Urban  was  on  the  point  of 
excommunicating  him  when  he  died  near  Ferrara. 
Consult  J.  Langen,  Geschichte  der  romischen 
Kirche  von  Greqor  1 7 II.  bis  Innocenz  III.  (Bonn, 
1893). 

Urban  IV,  Pope  1261-64,  Jacques  Pantaleon. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  shoemaker  of  Troyes,  and 
rose  by  his  talents  and  virtues  to  high  positions 
in  the  Church,  becoming  titular  Patriarch  of 
Jerusalem  in  1255.  He  was  elected  Pope  at 
Viterbo,  and  spent  the  whole  of  his  pontificate 
there  and  at  Orvieto,  being  excluded  from  Rome 
by  the  power  of  Manfred,  natural  son  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  Frederick  II,  against  whom  he  incited 
Charles  of  Anjou  to  take  up  arms.  He  preserved 
a  strict  neutrality  between  the  rival  candidates 
for  the  Empire,  and  in  the  difficulties  between 
Henry  III  of  England  and  his  barons  took  the 
side  of  the  King.  The  nomination  of  numerous 
French  cardinals  led  to  the  preponderance  of 
that  party,  and  so  ultimately  to  the  great 
schism.  Consult  Dorez  and  Guiraud,  Les  regis- 
tres  d’Urbain  IV  (Paris,  1892),  and  a  biography 
by  Georges  (ib.,  1865). 

Urban  V,  Pope  1362-70,  Guillaume  de  Gri- 
moard.  The  cardinals  could  not  agree  upon  one 
of  their  own  number,  and  therefore  elected  him, 
then  abbot  of  Saint-Victor  at  Marseilles.  This 
was  at  the  time  of  the  papal  residence  at  Avi¬ 
gnon.  In  1367  he  resolved  to  return  to  Rome,  but 
finding  the  papal  city  in  a  condition  all  but  ruin¬ 
ous,  and  having  endeavored  with  little  success  to 
repress  the  disorder  of  the  times,  he  returned  to 
Avignon  in  1370.  Here  he  died  less  than  a  month 
after  his  return,  leaving  the  reputation  of  great 
personal  piety  and  zeal  for  the  interests  of  re¬ 
ligion.  Consult:  Magnan,  Histoire  d’Urbain  T7 
(2d  ed.,  Paris,  1863)  ;  Kirsch,  Die  Ruckkehr  der 
Pdpste  Urban  V  and  Gregor  XI  von  Avignon 
nach  Rom  (Paderborn,  1898)  ;  Ludwig  Pastor, 
History  of  the  Popes,  vol.  i  (3d  ed.,  London, 
1906). 

Urban  VI,  Pope  1378-89,  Bartolommeo  Pri- 
gnano.  At  the  time  of  his  election  he  was  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Bari.  On  the  death  of  Gregory  XI, 
who  had  brought  back  the  seat  of  the  papacy 
from  Avignon  to  Rome,  Prignano  was  elected 
in  a  conclave  held  under  circumstances  of  great 
excitement,  owing  to  the  apprehension  on  the 
part  of  the  populace  of  an  intention  to  elect 
a  French  pope  and  again  abandon  Rome.  The 


most  important  aspect  of  his  pontificate  is  that 
relating  to  the  Great  Schism  (see  Schism, 
Western),  which  arose  out  of  the  conflicting 
claims  to  the  election.  While  the  candidate  of 
the  French  cardinals  took  up  his  residence  at 
Avignon,  under  the  name  of  Clement  VII,  Urban 
occupied  the  papal  seat  in  Rome.  After  a  dis¬ 
pute  with  Charles,  King  of  Naples,  whom  he  had 
himself  crowned,  he  died  of  a  fall  from  his  mule, 
though  there  were  the  usual  suspicions  of  poison. 
Consult  Ludwig  Pastor,  Histoi'y  of  the  Popes, 
vol.  i  (3d  ed.,  London,  1906). 

Urban  VII,  Pope  1590,  Giovanni  Castagna. 
He  had  been  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Trent  in 
its  last  period,  and  then  for  several  years  Nuncio 
in  Spain.  Elected  to  succeed  Sixtus  V,  he  died 
12  days  later,  before  he  could  be  consecrated. 

Urban  VIII,  Pope  1623-44,  Maffeo  Barberini. 
He  was  born  in  Florence,  1568,  educated  at  Rome 
and  Pisa,  and  destined  for  an  ecclesiastical  ca¬ 
reer.  After  serving  twice  as  Nuncio  to  France, 
he  was  made  Cardinal  in  1606.  Urban  VIII  was 
guilty  of  nepotism;  but  his  administration  was, 
on  the  whole,  vigorous  and  enlightened.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  celebrated  College  of  the 
Propaganda,  and  to  him  Rome  is  indebted  for 
many  public  works.  Some  of  the  early  stages 
of  the  Jansenist  controversy  (see  Jansenism) 
fall  within  his  pontificate.  In  the  Thirty  Years7 
War  he  sided  with  France  against  the  Emperor 
and  Spain.  In  his  pontificate  the  Duchy  of 
Urbino  was  annexed  to  the  papal  dominions. 

URBAN,  ur'ban,  Josef  (  ?-  ) .  An  Aus¬ 

trian  designer  of  stage  settings.  He  was  born  in 
Vienna,  where  he  was  architect  of  many  dwell¬ 
ings.  In  1904  he  was  sent  by  Austria  to  arrange 
the  exhibit  of  that  country  in  the  Fine  Arts 
Building  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposition,  and  he 
had  similar  commissions  in  the  large  cities  of 
Europe.  For  several  years  he  was  chief  artistic 
adviser  of  the  Imperial  Opera  House  in  Vienna, 
and  later  was  secured  by  Henry  Russell  to 
paint  scenery  for  the  Boston  Opera  Company. 
Subsequently  he  did  much  work  in  New  York. 
His  settings,  characterized  by  originality,  beauty, 
and  imaginative  power,  include  those  made  for 
The  Jewels  of  the  Madonna,  The  Love  of  Three- 
Kings,  The  Garden  of  Paradise,  James  K. 
Hackett’s  productions  of  Macbeth  and  The 
Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  and  Percy  MacKaye’s 
Shakespeare  Masque  (1916). 

URBAN'A.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Champaign  Co.,  Ill.,  128  miles  south  by  west 
of  Chicago,  on  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago, 
and  St.  Louis,  the  Wabash,  and  the  Illinois  Trac¬ 
tion  railroads  ( Map :  Illinois,  H  5 ) .  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  University  of  Illinois  (q.v.),  opened 
in  1868.  There  are  the  public  library,  the  Cham¬ 
paign  County  Teachers’  and  Pupils’  Library,  and 
the  Illinois  State  Laboratory  and  Natural  His¬ 
tory  Library.  The  most  prominent  buildings  are 
the  Cunningham  Deaconess  Home,  County  Court 
House,  high  school,  post  office,  jail,  Municipal 
Building,  and  the  Masonic  Temple.  Besides 
Crystal  Lake  Park  there  are  two  others  aggre¬ 
gating  40  acres.  Urbana  is  the  centre  of  a  rich 
farming  district,  and  manufactures  brick  and  tile, 
lawn  mowers,  and  iron  novelties.  The  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis  Railroad 
maintains  extensive  shops  here.  Pop.,  1900,  5728; 
1910,  8245;  1915  (U.  S.  est. ) ,  9632 ;  1920,10,244. 

URBANA.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Champaign  Co.,  Ohio,  47  miles  west  of  Colum¬ 
bus,  on  the  Erie,  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chi¬ 
cago,  and  St.  Louis,  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati, 


URBAN  SERVITUDES 


URBAN  TRANSPORTATION 


Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  and  the  Ohio  Electric 
railroads  (Map:  Ohio,  C  5).  It  is  the  seat  of 
Urbana  University  ( Swedenborgian )  and  of 
the  Curry  School  (for  negroes)  and  lias  a  pub¬ 
lic  library.  Urbana  is  surrounded  by  a  produc¬ 
tive  farming  region  and  is  of  considerable  in¬ 
dustrial  importance.  Furniture,  brooms,  paper, 
oil  cans,  egg  cases,  tools,  woolens,  and  straw- 
board  are  the  leading  manufactures.  Urbana 
was  laid  out  in  1805,  and  for  a  time  in  1812 
was  the  headquarters  of  the  Northwestern  army. 
It  is  the  burial-place  of  the  Indian  fighter  Simon 
Kenton.  Pop.,  1900,  6808;  1910,  7739. 

UR'BAN  SERVITUDES  (from  Lat.  urbanns, 
relating  to  a  city,  from  urbs,  city).  Easements 
or  rights  existing  for  the  convenience  or  benefit  of 
houses  or  other  buildings,  over  lands  or  build¬ 
ings  belonging  to  a  different  owner.  The  term 
is  employed  to  distinguish  such  servitudes  from 
those  established  for  the  benefit  of  land  only, 
which  are  known  as  rural  servitudes.  The  most 
important  urban  servitudes  are:  The  right  to 
support,  e.g.,  of  resting  joists  and  other  tim¬ 
bers  on  an  adjoining  building;  the  right  to  have 
rain  drip  from  the  eaves  of  a  building  on  an¬ 
other’s  land  or  building;  the  right  to  establish 
and  maintain  windows  overlooking  another’s 
land;  the  rights  of  air  and  access.  In  New 
York  the  right  to  light  and  air  is  restricted  to 
property  abutting  upon  a  highway,  as  the  right 
is  considered  as  a  part  of  the  privilege  of  ac¬ 
cess  to  and  from  the  highway.  Consult  Wash¬ 
burn  on  Easements.  See  Easements. 

URBAN  TRANSPORTATION.  Transpor¬ 
tation  from  one  point  to  another  within  a  city 
at  first  was  provided  by  coaches  and  other  horse- 
drawn  vehicles.  Even  in  very  early  times  the 
city  required  a  license,  or  some  form  of  regis¬ 
tration  for  vehicles  engaged  in  carrying  passen¬ 
gers  for  hire.  Soon  after  cars  and  rails  were 
used  for  freight  their  availability  for  passengers 
was  appreciated.  The  first  railway  was  a  coach, 
drawn  by  horses,  running  on  iron  rails,  and  as 
the  city  streets  supplied  a  convenient  and  de¬ 
sirable  route  street  railways  developed.  The 
right  to  lay  tracks  and  operate  cars  for  the 
transportation  of  passengers  through  city  streets 
was,  of  course,  necessarily  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  the  city.  Later  this  was  extended 
to  lines  either  above  or  below  the  street  surface, 
and  the  principal  forms  of  urban  transportation 
now  are  by  electrically  operated  surface  roads, 
cable-operated  surface  roads,  electrically  oper¬ 
ated  elevated  roads,  and  electrically  operated  sub¬ 
ways,  and  horse-drawn  cabs,  coaches,  or  omni¬ 
buses  and  motor  vehicles.  Almost  without  ex¬ 
ception  American  cities  require  licenses  for  cabs 
and  automobiles,  and  the  various  forms  of  rail¬ 
ways  operate  under  franchises  granted  by  the 
city.  The  tariffs  which  cabs  and  automobiles 
may  charge  for  given  distances  are  specified  in 
their  licenses,  and  the  franchises  under  which 
surface,  elevated,  or  subway  railways  or  omnibus 
lines  operate  almost  invariably  specify  the 
charges  which  the  company  may  make. 

Many  of  the  early  franchises  for  street  rail¬ 
ways  gave  the  railway  company  the  right  to 
operate  over  certain  routes  in  perpetuity.  A 
five-cent  fare  was  prescribed  for  any  point  within 
the  city  limits,  in  this  respect  differing  from 
European  practice  where  fares  by  zones  often 
prevail.  This  five-cent  fare,  while  not  universal, 
is  the  fare  which  by  far  the  greatest  proportion 
of  the  American  street  railways  charge.  In  some 
cities  tickets  are  sold  six  for  25  cents,  and  in 


803 

3  some  cities  three-cent  fares,  or  even  less,  have 
f  been  provided  for  in  the  franchises.  The  ac- 
f  tual  amount  received  per  passenger  per  contin¬ 
uous  trip  on  one  car  is  generally  considerably 
less  than  five  cents,  even  where  the  street-railway 
companies’  franchise  provides  for  a  five-cent  fare. 
',  This  is  because  a  system  of  issuing  transfers 
from  one  line  to  another  is  made  obligatory  un- 
1  der  most  street-railway  franchises  or  by  special 
l  statutes. 

.  The  progress  of  the  mechanical  means  of  ur- 
1  ban  transportation  has  been  (1)  horse  car,  (2) 
a  car  dragged  along  by  a  cable  running  under- 
,  ground,  (3)  a  car  propelled  by  electricity  de- 
s  riving  its  current  from  an  overhead  trolley, 
f  and  (4)  a  car  propelled  by  electricity  deriving 
its  current  from  an  underground  contact.  Street- 
1  railway  systems  in  American  towns  and  cities 
1  were  begun  in  most  cases  by  local  capitalists, 
,  and  in  the  larger  cities  three  or  four  different 
t  companies  were  given  franchises  over  different 
3  streets  or  in  different  parts  of  the  city.  The 
later  tendency  has  been,  however,  to  combine 
e  the  various  companies  operated  in  one  city  under 
one  management,  and  to  combine  the  lighting, 
1  electric-railway,  and  often  the  gas  facilities  of 
s  towns  under  one  financial  organization,  and 
7  holding  companies  have  been  formed  to  control 
3  these  public-utility  corporations,  as  they  are 
b  called,  in  a  number  of  towns.  Some  of  these 
holding  companies  control  the  street-railway 
and  lighting  facilities  in  a  hundred  or  more 
towns  and  cities.  Under  this  form  of  control 
it  has  been  possible  to  raise  large  quantities  of 
7  capital  from  investors  who  would  hesitate  to 
put  their  money  into  a  single  property  in  some 
3  town  about  which  they  knew  nothing,  and  which 
was  possibly  two  or  three  thousand  miles  from 
their  place  of  residence.  On  the  other  hand, 
3  this  form  of  financial  organization  makes  it 
3  peculiarly  difficult  to  form  any  adequate  judg- 
,  ment  as  to  the  profitableness  of  urban  transpor- 
3  tation  as  distinguished  from  the  other  activities, 
lighting,  manufactured  gas,  etc.,  of  the  public- 
3  service  corporations. 

3  A  fairly  typical  example  of  a  street  railway  in 
3  a  small  city  is  that  of  Portsmouth,  Ohio.  This 
t  city  has  about  27,500  inhabitants.  Its  street 
1  railway  is  electrically  operated  with  standard 
,  4'  8%"  gauge;  the  total  mileage  is  12;  the 

1  weight  of  rail  varies  from  48  pounds  to  70  pounds 
,  to  the  yard;  the  street-railway  companies’  fran¬ 
chise  runs  for  25  years,  and  the  franchise  pro¬ 
vides  for  one  per  cent  of  the  gross  earnings  to 
be  paid  to  the  city  in  lieu  of  paving  and  other 
improvements  to  the  streets.  This  12-mile 
3  street  railway  carried  4,206,000  passengers  in 
1914.  In  the  largest  cities,  such  as  New  York, 
3  Chicago,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia,  the  surface 
3  railway  lines  are  supplemented  by  elevated  lines 
1  and  by  subways. 

1  The*  elevated  lines  of  New  York  are  the  oldest 
3  in  the  United  States  and  were  originally  oper- 
3  ated  with  small  steam  locomotives.  The  elevated 
lines  of  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  and  Boston  were 
built  after  electric-railway  operation  had  been 
3  tried  out,  and  were  built  for  operation  by  elec- 
L  trie  current  supplied  to  trains  from  a  third 
1  rail.  A  short  description  of  the  urban  trans- 
1  portation  systems  of  some  of  these  cities  will 
1  make  clear  how  complicated  this  problem  of 
,  urban  transportation  is.  The  total  length  of 
1  main  lines  of  surface  street  railway  in  Boston 
3  in  1915  was  231  miles,  of  which  mileage  197 
1  miles  had  a  second  track.  There  were  approxi- 


URBAN  TRANSPORTATION 


URBAN  TRANSPORTATION 


804 


mately  14  miles  of  rapid-transit  track,  all  of 
which  had  second  track.  The  gross  earnings  of 
this  system  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1915,  was  $17,269,000,  and  total  operating  ex¬ 
penses  amounted  to  $11,288,000.  The  total  num¬ 
ber  of  passengers  carried  was  346,317,000.  The 
total  number  of  car  miles  run  was  57,806,000. 
The  rapid-transit  facilities  include  both  elevated 
lines  and  subways. 

The  Chicago  Railways  Company,  which  does 
not  operate  all  of  the  railways  in  and  about 
Chicago,  but  which  operates  the  principal  sur¬ 
face  lines  and  the  elevated  lines  (Chicago  up 
to  1916  had  no  passenger  subway  lines),  operates 
500  miles  of  track.  The  company  has  two  power- 
generating  stations.  It  operates  under  a  20-year 
franchise,  which  provides,  however,  that  the 
city  may  buy  the  property  at  an  agreed  valua¬ 
tion  plus  capital  expenditures,  which  are  made 
on  the  property  subsequent  to  the  date  of  valu¬ 
ation.  In  1913  the  agreed  valuation  of  this 
property  was  $83,757,957.  The  company  is  per¬ 
mitted  to  charge  a  straight  five-cent  fare,  but 
must  give  universal  transfers.  There  is  an 
agreement  between  the  city  and  the  company, 
by  which  the  company  is  to  pay  to  the  city  55 
per  cent  of  surplus  earnings  over  and  above 
operating  expenses  and  five  per  cent  on  the 
agreed  valuation.  The  agreed  valuation  is  raised 
year  by  year  by  the  amount  which  the  company 
"spends  for  additions  and  betterments.  In  1915 
the  total  operating  revenues  of  this  system  were 
in  round  numbers  $31,966,000;  operating  ex¬ 
penses,  $19,889,000;  5  per  cent  on  the  agreed 
valuation  as  of  that  year  called  for  $4,117,000, 
and  after  the  payment  of  rentals  and  the  share 
belonging  to  another  railway  company  there  was 
$3,064,000  left  to  be  divided  between  the  city 
and  the  Chicago  Railways  Company.  Of  this 
the  city  got  $1,685,000.  While  this  partnership 
agreement  has  not  been  in  effect  long  enough  to 
permit  of  any  final  conclusions  being  drawn  in 
regard  to  its  operation,  up  to  1915  it  has  proven 
quite  satisfactory  to  both  the  city  and  to  secur¬ 
ity  holders  of  the  railway  company. 

It  has  been  peculiarly  easy  for  politicians  to 
arouse  antagonism  against  public-utility  cor¬ 
porations,  and  especially  a.gainst  the  street 
railways.  The  unavoidable  annoyance  which 
every  one  experiences  on  crowded  cars,  and  the 
fact  that  citizens  feel  as  helpless  against  a 
street-railway  corporation  as  they  do  against 
any  other  form  of  monopoly,  makes  it  a  tempta¬ 
tion  on  the  part  of  candidates  for  city  offices  to 
conduct  a  campaign  based  on  a  promise  to  get 
something  out  of  the  street-railway  company. 
Furthermore  profits  have  often  appeared  very 
large,  and  then  it  has  been  discovered  that  the 
assets  of  the  company  have  been  consumed  in 
the  process  of  earning  what  appeared  to  be 
profits,  and  the  security  holders  are  left  with 
comparatively  little  to  show  for  their  invest¬ 
ments.  The  scheme  of  having  the  city  a  part¬ 
ner  to  share  these  profits  has  taken  away  some¬ 
thing  of  the  incentive  to  show  abnormal  profits 
at  the  expense  of  the  deterioration  of  assets, 
and  has  also  lessened  the  jealousy  with  which  a 
peculiarly  profitable  year  of  street-railway  opera¬ 
tion  is  viewed  by  the  average  citizen. 

The  urban  transportation  system  of  Greater 
New  York  presents  the  most  complicated  aggre¬ 
gate  of  street-railway  lines,  elevated  lines,  and 
subways  of  all  cities  in  the  world.  At  Grand 
Central  Terminal,  42d  Street  and  Fourth  Ave¬ 
nue,  provision  has  been  made  for  five  levels  of 


urban  transportation  facilities.  The  uppermost 
of  them  is  the  elevated  road,  operated  by  elec¬ 
tricity  from  a  third  rail;  below  this  is  the  elec¬ 
tric  surface  line,  operated  bj"  electricity  from 
an  underground  contact;  below  this  is  the  four- 
track  subway  which  has  been  in  operation  since 
1904;  below  this  again  is  the  subway  built  to 
supplement  the  old  system  of  subways  and  ele¬ 
vated  lines;  and  still  lower  is  the  Belmont  Tube, 
as  it  is  called,  which  is  a  tunnel  built  from 
Fourth  Avenue  and  42d  Street  east  under  the 
eastern  half  of  Manhattan  Island  and  under  the 
East  River  to  Queensboro,  Long  Island. 

Tbe  history  of  New  York  street  railways  il¬ 
lustrates  in  a  striking  manner  some  of  the  phases 
of  the  development  of  urban  transportation  in 
the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States.  The  first 

street  railwavs  were  horse-drawn  cars,  and  there 
*/  # 
were  still  horse-drawn  cars  in  Manhattan  m 

1916.  The  shape  of  Manhattan  and  the  fact  that 
it  is  an  island  which,  on  the  west,  south,  and 
east,  is  separated  from  the  mainland  or  other 
islands  by  a  broad  body  of  water,  while  on  the 
north  it  is  separated  from  the  mainland  only  by 
a  narrow  stream,  make  it  necessary  to  provide 
for  a  very  heavy  traffic  north  and  south  bound, 
with  a  comparatively  light  traffic  east  and  west 
bound.  As  fast  as  transportation  could  be 
provided,  the  city  spread  northward,  and  land 
values  rose  with  great  rapidity.  The  north  and 
south  elevated  lines,  which  were  at  first  oper¬ 
ated  by  steam  locomotives  trailing  five  or  six 
cars,  have  already  been  mentioned.  The  horse- 
car  line,  which  ran  north  and  south  on  Broad¬ 
way,  was  replaced  by  a  cable  road,  and  appar¬ 
ently  the  profits,  from  this  and  from  the  elevated 
roads  and  horse-car  lines,  were  out  of  all  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  amount  invested.  When,  however, 
it  was  found  that  electrically  operated  surface 
cars  were  more  desirable  from  every  point  of 
view,  an  additional  huge  investment  had  to  be 
made  in  the  substitution  of  electric  cars,  with 
underground  conduits,  for  the  old  cable  cars. 
During'  the  time  of  operation  by  cable  and  horse 
cars  nothing  had  been  accumulated  as  a  reserve 
against  depreciation  or  obsolescence  of  that  form 
of  locomotion.  The  entire  cost,  therefore,  of 
the  electric  railways  was  superimposed  on  the 
original  cost  of  cable  railways  and  of  horse-car 
lines,  and  the  various  companies  operating  these 
lines  were  merged  through  the  creation  of  hold¬ 
ing  companies  which  not  only  had  to  raise  great 
sums  of  money  for  additional  investment,  but 
also  took  in  tbe  old  lines  at  a  very  extravagant 
capitalization.  The  law  required  street  railways 
operated  by  the  same  company  to  give  free  trans¬ 
fers.  No  time  limit  was  punched  on  a  transfer 
except  the  date,  and  it  was  possible  for  a  person 
to  ride  almost  all  day  on  one  five-cent  fare.  The 
result  of  operating  conditions  such  as  this  and 
of  excessive  capitalization  was  bankruptcy  for 
all  of  the  important  street-railway  companies, 
exclusive  of  the  elevated  roads  in  Manhattan. 

In  the  meantime  an  extensive  system  of  urban 
transportation  had  been  developed  in  Brooklyn 
which  connected  with  lower  Manhattan  by  oper¬ 
ating  cars  across  the  Brooklyn  Bridge.  There 
were  four  sets  of  tracks  on  Brooklyn  Bridge, 
two  used  by  surface  cars  and  two  by  the  elevated 
railways  of  Brooklyn.  The  Brooklyn  elevated 
roads,  like  Manhattan,  were  at  first  operated  by 
small  steam  locomotives  and  were  later  con¬ 
verted  into  electric  roads  operated  from  a  third 
rail.  One  holding  and  operating  company  got 
control  of  the  greater  part  of  the  transportation 


URBAN  TRANSPORTATION 


URBAN  TRANSPORTATION 


805 


facilities  of  Brooklyn,  and  there  were  years  in 
which  one  set  of  politicians  would  use  persecu¬ 
tion  of  the  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  Company  as 
a  campaign  issue  to  get  into  office,  alternating 
with  years  in  which  the  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit 
Company,  with  connivance  of  local  politicians, 
gave  the  city  a  very  indifferent  service.  Within 
recent  years  conditions  have  very  greatly  im¬ 
proved.  The  financial  structure  of  the  Brooklyn 
Rapid  Transit  was  strengthened  until  its  credit 
ranked  with  that  of  steam  railways  and  the 
service  brought  up  to  the  standard  which  a  city 
of  that  size  might  reasonably  expect. 

In  1902  New  York  City  entered  into  an  agree¬ 
ment  with  the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Com¬ 
pany,  by  which  that  company  was  to  build  a 
subway  running  from  the  Battery  to  96th  Street, 
and  there  branching  with  one  line  to  250th 
Street  and  Broadway,  and  the  other  to  180th 
Street  and  Bronx  Park.  This  company  also 
undertook  to  build  a  double-track  tunnel  under 
the  East  River,  from  a  point  south  of  Bowling 
Green  to  a  point  in  Brooklyn.  The  Interborough 
Rapid  Transit  in  1913  also  leased  the  elevated 
railways  in  Manhattan.  The  mileage  of  the  sub¬ 
way  described  above  had  a  total  length  of  25.72 
miles,  and  the  elevated  lines  taken  over  had  a 
total  length  of  37.67.  Of  the  subway  mileage 
7.50  miles  were  four-track  road,  7.18  miles  three- 
track  road,  and  10.41  miles  two-track  road,  leav¬ 
ing  less  than  a  mile  of  single  track.  The  exten¬ 
sion  into  Brooklyn  permitted  the  Interborough 
Rapid  Transit  to  compete  with  the  Brooklyn 
Rapid  Transit  for  business  between  the  two 
boroughs.  This  temporarily  relieved  the  conges¬ 
tion  of  traffic  at  the  rush  hours,  morning  and 
evening,  on  Brooklyn  Bridge,  but  so  quickly 
does  population  follow  rapid-transit  facilities  in 
New  York  that  within  four  years  after  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  subway  connecting  the  two  boroughs, 
the  pressure  of  traffic  over  Brooklyn  Bridge  was 
as  great  as  ever,  and  additional  facilities  were 
urgently  demanded. 

Negotiations  which  had  been  going  on  for 
some  years  between  the  New  York  Public  Serv¬ 
ice  Commission,  the  duty  of  which  Avas  to  regu¬ 
late  New  York  City  urban  transportation  facili¬ 
ties,  the  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit,  and  the  Inter¬ 
borough  Rapid  Transit,  for  the  construction  of 
additional  facilities,  took  definite  shape  in  1911 
and  were  finally  consummated  in  the  contracts 
which  Avere  signed  March  19,  1913,  between  the 
city  of  NeAV  York  and  the  Municipal  Railway 
Corporation,  and  contracts  which  were  signed 
at  about  the  same  time  between  the  Interborough 
Rapid  Transit  Company  and  New  York  City. 
This  agreement  provided  for  the  construction  of 
what  is  known  as  the  dual  subway  system.  The 
New  York  Municipal  Railway  Corporation  was 
the  subsidiary  of  the  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit, 
and  the  new  subway  system  Avas  to  be  built  in 
part  by  money  furnished  by  the  city  of  New 
York  and  in  part  by  money  furnished  by  the 
Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  Company  and  the  In¬ 
terborough  Rapid  Transit  Company.  In  addi¬ 
tion  to  a  system  of  subAvays  the  Brooklyn  Rapid 
Transit  and  the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit 
agreed  to  extend  their  elevated  lines  and  to  add 
to  the  capacity  of  these  lines  by,  in  some  in¬ 
stances,  third  tracking  them,  and  in  other  in¬ 
stances  adding  a  second  story  to  the  elevated 
structure  to  carry  tAvo  additional  tracks. 

The  problem  of  adequate  transportation  facil¬ 
ities  at  Chicago  is  not  as  complicated  as  that  at 
NeAV  York,  and  the  general  scheme  adopted  is 


that  of  having  a  circular  elevated  line  making 
a  loop  about  the  business  section  of  the  city. 
From  this  loop  ele\Tated  lines  radiate  out  into 
the  residential  districts.  Elevated  trains  can 
therefore  come  in  in  the  morning  from  the  resi¬ 
dential  districts,  discharge  their  passengers  on 
the  various  stations  on  the  loop,  and  go  back  out. 
This  makes  a  very  heavy  traffic  during  rush 
hours  on  the  loop,  but  since  the  lines  radiate 
in  three  directions  the  traffic  as  soon  as  it 
lea\res  the  loop  has  comparatively  little  conges¬ 
tion. 

New  York  Subways.  As  previously  stated, 
the  city  of  New  York  has  the  most  extensive 
system  of  subways  in  the  United  States.  The 
first  subAvay  system  consisted  of  over  20  miles 
of  road,  much  of  which  is  four  track.  This  is 
being  supplemented  by  the  above-mentioned  dual 
subway  system.  The  construction  of  both  the 
first  subAvay  system  and  the  dual  system  was 
carried  on  by  private  contractors,  who  submitted 
bids  to  the  New  York  Public  Service  Commis¬ 
sion,  and  AAdiose  bids  and  Avork  Avere  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  commission.  The  character  of 
the  work  north  of  53d  Street  Avas  largely  through 
solid  rock.  South  of  Houston  Street  it  Avas 
almost  entirely  sand,  no  blasting  Avas  necessary, 
and  the  excavated  material  could  be  dislodged 
with  pick  and  shovel.  Here  it  was  necessary  to 
underpin  buildings  along  the  route  and  to  use 
an  elaborate  system  of  timbering  to  hold  up  the 
sides  of  the  cut  and  sustain  the  temporary 
pavement  in  the  street.  In  the  construction  of 
the  neAV  dual  subway  it  was  necessary  to  go 
under  a  part  of  the  old  Astor  House,  the  oldest 
of  New  York’s  first-class  hotels  standing  in  1910, 
and  cross  a  corner  of  St.  Paul’s  Churchyard,  and 
all  of  this  Avork  necessitated  elaborate  precau¬ 
tion  for  the  prevention  of  cave-ins. 

The  first  subway  Avas  necessarily  experimental 
in  some  particulars.  In  general  its  design  has 
been  found  to  be  particularly  satisfactory.  Its 
operation,  hoAvever,  has  brought  out  certain  de¬ 
fects  Avhich  are  avoided  in  the  dual  subway. 
Some  of  the  stations  of  the  first  subway  Avere 
built  on  curves.  Operation  of  the  subway 
during  morning  and  evening  traffic  is  carried  on 
at  the  greatest  possible  physical  capacity,  and 
the  fact  that  trains  haAm  to  sIoav  doAvn  when 
they  approach  stations  situated  on  curves  sooner 
than  they  Avould  Avere  the  stations  on  tangent 
tends  to  produce  congestion  at  these  points.  The 
curved  platform  also  leaves  a  considerable  space 
betAveen  the  car  platform  and  the  station  plat¬ 
form,  AArhich,  in  rush  hours,  is  a  source  of 
danger. 

The  first  subway,  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  its  four-track  sections,  had  all  four  tracks 
placed  in  one  tunnel.  This  arrangement  inter¬ 
feres  with  the  full  effect  of  train  movement  on 
Amntilation.  Frequent  passage  of  trains  stirred 
up  the  air,  but  did  not  reneAV  it,  and  various 
Arentilating  devices  have  had  to  be  installed.  The 
dual  subway  has  a  partition  betAveen  each  pair  of 
tracks,  so  that  there  will  be  a  tunnel  for  trains 
going  one  Avav  and  another  tunnel  for  those 
going  in  the  opposite  direction.  In  this  opera¬ 
tion  wall  archways  have  been  provided  at  fre¬ 
quent  interArals  as  places  of  safety  for  track 
laborers.  Where  there  are  only  tAvo  tracks,  these 
are  separated  by  a  partition.  The  accompany¬ 
ing  draAving  sIioavs  a  cross  section  of  the  four- 
track  subAAmv  under  the  Harlem  River,  AAThere 
each  one  of  the  four  tracks  is  to  be  placed  in  a 
separate  tunnel.  In  summer  the  heat  in  the 


URBAN  TRANSPORTATION 


806 


URBAN  TRANSPORTATION 


first  subway  has  been  excessive.  Much  of  this 
heat  is  believed  to  be  due  to  friction  of  brake 
shoes  on  wheels  and  wheels  on  tracks,  and  also 
of  course  to  the  operation  of  the  electric  motors 
underneath  the  cars.  In  the  first  subway  water¬ 
proofing  was  used  under  the  floor,  up  the  sides 
of  the  tunnel,  and  over  the  roof,  and,  while  this 
waterproofing  keeps  the  water  out,  it  keeps  the 
heat  in.  In  the  dual  subway  less  waterproofing 
is  being  used  and  is  placed  only  along  the  sides 
where  the  tunnel  runs  below  the  water  level,  as 
is  the  case  in  the  accompanying  cross  sectioning. 
The  waterproofing  used  in  the  dual  system  con¬ 
sists  of  layers  of  woven  fabric  and  asphalt  and 
brick  laid"  in  asphalt.  The  first  subway  has  a 
height  of  12  feet,  10  inches  above  the  base  of 
the  rail  and  has  a  width  of  12  feet,  6  inches  for 
each  track.  The  new  Fourth  Avenue  and  Centre 
Street  subways  have  a  maximum  height  of  15 
feet  above  the  base  of  the  rail  and  a  width  of 


motor  traffic  shows  that  the  number  of  passen¬ 
gers  by  tramway  in  1011  was  821,819,741;  by 
omnibuses,  400,628,487;  by  local  railways,  436,- 
398,745;  and  by  trunk-line  railway  from  a  30- 
mile  limit,  approximately  250,000,000. 

Omnibus  service  in  London  plays  a  very  im¬ 
portant  part  in  the  urban  transportation,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  above  figures.  The  short¬ 
est  omnibus  route,  according  to  the  report  of 
the  Select  Committee,  made  in  1912,  was  2.2 
miles  and  the  longest  was  18.9  miles,  and  the 
total  number  of  omnibuses  required  for  service 
on  week  days  in  1911  was  2279  and  on  Sundays 
3390.  An  investigation  made  by  the  London  po¬ 
lice  shows  that  on  Oct.  13,  1913,  there  were  2700 
busses  in  daily  operation  and  an  average  of 
about  300  in  the  shops.  The  average  fare  per 
passenger  on  omnibuses  in  1913  was  1.12  pence 
(2.24  cents).  There  is  no  transferring  between 
the  various  bus  lines.  A  report  made  by  George 


14  feet  for  each  track.  The  Broadway  subways 
have  a  height  above  the  base  of  the  rail  of  13 
feet,  2  inches  and  a  width  of  13  feet,  6  inches 
for  each  track.  Express  stations  in  both  the 
first  subway  and  the  dual  subway  are  built  to 
accommodate  ten-car  trains  and  local  stations 
to  accommodate  six-car  trains.  Originally  the 
first  subway  was  built  with  express  stations  to 
accommodate  but  eight  cars  and  local  stations 
to  accommodate  but  five  cars.  These,  however, 
were  later  lengthened. 

The  first  subway  was  built  in  good  part  as  an 
open  cut,  which  was  later  roofed  over.  The 
dual  subway  has  been  built  almost  entirely  as  a 
tunnel,  the  street  surface  being  maintained  as  a 
roof,  thus  minimizing  the  interference  of  street 
traffic. 

London.  The  transportation  facilities  of  the 
city  of  London  may  be  classified  under  the  head 
of  cabs,  omnibuses,  tramcars,  local  railways,  and 
trunk-line  railways  carrying  the  passengers 
from  a  30-mile  limit. 

The  report  of  the  London  Traffic  Branch  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  shows  that  the  population 
of  the  County  of  London,  which  is  the  Metropoli¬ 
tan  District,  decreased  from  4,536,269  in  1901 
to  4,521,685  in  1911,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
the  migration  into  the  outskirts  from  the  Metro¬ 
politan  District  has  been  more  rapid  since  1910 
than  in  the  years  preceding.  The  population  of 
the  whole  area  of  Greater  London  increased  from 
6,581,402  in  1901  to  7,251,358  in  1911  and  is 
given  by  the  Registrar  General  at  7,340,079  for 
1912.  The  report  of  the  Select  Committee  on 


Keegan  and  E.  T.  Wood,  assistant  to  the  vice 
president  and  general  manager  of  the  Inter¬ 
borough  Rapid  Transit  Company  and  assistant 
to  the  vice  president  and  general  manager  of  the 
New  York  Railways  Company,  respectively,  es¬ 
timated  that,  considering  the  difference  in  the 
purchasing  power  of  money  in  London  and  New 
York,  the  average  of  2.24  cents  for  London  is 
somewhat  higher  than  the  average  3%  cents 
paid  by  passengers  on  the  New  York  surface 
car  lines.  The  average  length  of  ride  of  passen¬ 
gers  on  the  busses  is  about  1.6  miles,  according 
to  the  report  of  the  Select  Committee,  and  the 
average  ride  per  tramway  passenger  is  1.93  miles. 
Employees  and  policemen  in  uniform  are  carried 
free. 

The  frequency  of  bus  service  in  London  varies 
from  1  minute  headway  to  15  minutes.  The 
busses  make  from  110  to  120  miles  a  day,  carry¬ 
ing  34  seated  passengers,  of  which  18  are  on  top 
and  16  inside.  Busses  stop  almost  anywhere  to 
take  up  passengers. 

Underground  Lines. — The  report  of  the  Lon¬ 
don  Traffic  Board  of  Trade  for  1913  shows  the 
mileage  of  electric  so-called  underground  rail¬ 
ways  in  the  metropolitan  area  to  be  132  miles; 
of  this,  60  route  miles  are  underground  and  the 
remainder  on  the  surface.  All  of  the  under¬ 
ground  electric  railways  are  controlled  by  one 
of  three  companies:  the  Underground  Electric 
Railways  Company  of  London;  the  Metropoli¬ 
tan  Railway  Company;  the  Great  Northern  and 
City  Railway  Company.  In  1912  the  Under¬ 
ground  Electric  Railways  Company  carried  226,- 


URBAN  TRANSPORTATION 


URBAN  TRANSPORTATION 


807 


894,711  passengers,  outside  of  season-ticket  pas¬ 
sengers,  and  20,450,828  season-ticket  passengers. 
In  1913  this  system  carried  225,990,674  passen¬ 
gers,  outside  of  season-ticket  passengers.  The 
passenger  receipts  in  1912  were  £1,772,791 
($8,863,955)  and,  in  1913,  £1,791,957  ($8,959,- 
785).  Various  reports  which  were  made  in  1912 
and  1913  by  the  Underground  Electric  Railways 
Company’s  management  and  by  boards  of  trades 
comment  on  the  success  with  which  motor  busses 
have  been  competing  for  not  only  the  normal  in¬ 
crease  in  traffic,  but  for  the  passenger  traffic 
which  had  previously  belonged  to  the  under¬ 
ground  railways. 

The  Metropolitan  Railways  Company,  which 
was  the  old  underground  before  the  Underground 
Electric  Railways  of  London  entered  the  field, 
and  which  was  originally  operated  with  steam 
locomotives,  carried,  in  1912,  100,146,324  passen¬ 
gers.  The  average  receipts  per  passenger  were 
1.486  pence  (2.972  cents).  Workingmen  are 
carried  at  a  reduced  rate  and  in  some  instances 
may  travel  16  miles  for  2  pence  (4  cents). 
Round-trip  tickets  are  sold,  which  are  roughly 
one  and  a  half  times  one-way  tickets. 

The  total  number  of  passengers  carried  on  all 
of  the  electric  railways,  including  the  Under¬ 
ground  Electric  of  London  and  the  Metropolitan 
Railway,  mentioned  above,  was  360,325,001  in 
1912.  The  equipment  of  the  underground  rail¬ 
ways  consists  of  cars  of  many  different  types. 
The  average  number  of  seats  is  48. 

Tramicays. — With  a  few  exceptions,  all  of 
the  tramway  lines  in  the  County  of  London  are 
operated  by  the  London  County  Council.  The 
report  of  the  London  County  Council  shows  that, 
for  the  year  ending  March  31,  1913,  there  were 
512,652,653  passengers  carried  on  the  tram¬ 
ways;  the  passenger  revenue  was  £2,181,103 
($10,905,515)  ;  the  average  receipts  per  passen¬ 
ger  carried  was  1.02  pence  (2.04  cents)  ;  and 
the  car  miles  operated  was  53,943,104.  The 
average  number  of  cars  in  use  on  electric  lines 
was  1.237  in  1913,  and  a  large  number  of  trailer 
cars  are  in  use,  many  of  which  have  double  decks. 
The  ordinary  car  seats  36  persons  downstairs 
and  42  persons  upstairs.  The  trailer  cars  seat 
48  persons.  The  cars  are  operated  within  the 
more  congested  city  limits  from  underground 
trolleys,  but  many  of  them  are  equipped  to  oper¬ 
ate  also  by  overhead  trolleys,  and  change  at 
points  on  their  way  to  or  from  the  city  from  one 
system  to  the  other. 

Paris.  The  principal  means  of  urban  trans¬ 
portation  in  Paris,  France,  are  subway  lines, 
omnibuses,  tramway  lines,  taxicabs,  steam-car 
lines  entering  Paris,  and  the  small  steamers  run¬ 
ning  on  the  Seine.  According  to  the  1911  cen¬ 
sus,  the  population  of  the  city  of  Paris  within 
the  fortifications  was  2,888,110.  The  population 
of  the  environs  was  about  460,000.  The  sub¬ 
ways  of  Paris  are  all  under  the  control  of  the 
Chemin  de  Fer  Metropolitan!,  with  the  exception 
of  one  line  operated  by  a  steam-railroad  com¬ 
pany.  All  of  the  lines  lie  entirely  within  the 
fortifications  of  Paris;  some  of  them  are  ele¬ 
vated  instead  of  being  in  subways.  In  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1912,  the  total  number  of 
passengers  carried  on  this  Metropolitan  system, 
not  counting  transfer  passengers,  was  383,190,- 
000.  This  compares  with  302,973,856  passengers 
carried  in  the  same  year  in  the  New  York  City 
subway.  First-class  tickets  on  the  Paris  sub¬ 
ways  are  25  centimes  (about  5  cents)  and  sec¬ 
ond-class  tickets  15  centimes  (3  cents).  Sec¬ 


ond-class  tickets  to  go  before  nine  a.m.  and 
return  any  time  during  the  day,  are  sold  for 
4  cents.  There  are  no  reduced-rate  return  tick¬ 
ets  for  first-class  passengers.  Approximately  the 
total  passenger  traffic  is  divided  into  15  per  cent 
first-class  passengers,  55  per  cent  second-class 
passengers,  and  30  per  cent  second-class  passen¬ 
gers  go  and  return.  As  a  rule  there  is  no  limita¬ 
tion  on  transfer  privilege  in  the  subway,  except 
an  attempt  to  prevent  a  system  of  transfers 
which  would  permit  a  passenger  to  return  to  his 
starting  point. 

Equipment. — Subway  trains  are  usually  made 
up  of  five  cars,  the  centre  car  being  a  first  class 
and  the  other  four  cars  second  class.  The  capac¬ 
ity  varies  from  50  to  90,  the  rated  capacity 
being  for  about  an  equal  number  of  standing 
and  sitting  passengers.  There  is  a  congestion 
at  morning  and  evening  hours,  and  sometimes 
as  many  as  75  standing  passengers  per  car,  but 
even  a  report  made  by  representatives  of  the 
Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Company  and  the 
New  York  City  Railways,  mentioned  previously, 
says  that  the  rush-hour  congestion  in  Paris  is 
not  nearly  so  great  as  that  in  New  York.  The 
headway  between  trains  during  rush  hours  is 
2  minutes,  11  seconds,  and  the  distance  between 
stations  is  about  1600  feet.  There  is  no  express 
service. 

Omnibuses. — The  General  Omnibus  Company 
of  Paris  controls  all  of  the  busses,  and  in  1913 
owned  about  1032  busses,  of  which  850  were  in 
daily  service.  The  bus  lines  do  not  extend  be¬ 
yond  the  fortifications,  and  there  is  usually  not 
more  than  one  bus  line  on  a  street.  These  lines 
usually  run  from  the  outgoing  points  to  the 
centre  of  the  city,  and  none  of  them  run  all  the 
way  across  the  city.  There  is  usually  from 
two  to  three  sections  on  each  bus  line,  and  the 
fare  for  one  section  first  class  is  15  centimes 
(3  cents)  and  second  class  10  centimes  (2 
cents).  A  person  riding  over  more  than  one 
section,  or  beyond  the  limits  of  one  section,  pays 
25  centimes  (5  cents)  first  class  and  15  centimes 
(3  cents)  second  class.  The  length  of  a  section 
is  about  1%  miles.  Standing  passengers  are 
permitted  on  the  rear  platform  only,  and  the 
distance  between  stopping  points  is  about  1300 
feet.  The  most  frequent  headway  is  1  minute, 
10  seconds,  and  the  headway  varies  from  this 
to  about  7  to  8  minutes.  The  average  speed  of 
the  busses  is  about  8%  miles  an  hour,  and  the 
maximum  is  14  miles  an  hour.  The  busses  ac¬ 
commodate  30  to  35  passengers.  Single-deck 
omnibuses  are  used,  the  double-deck  busses  hav¬ 
ing  been  abandoned  on  account  of  expense  and 
the  greater  time  required  to  load  and  unload. 

Tramways. — The  two  largest  tramway  com¬ 
panies  are  the  General  Omnibus  Company  and 
the  Tramways  de  Paris  et  du  Departement  de  la 
Seine.  The  arrangement  of  the  lines  is  on  the 
zone  principle,  and  passengers  pay  fares  for  each 
zone.  The  fare  is  usually  15  centimes  (3  cents) 
for  each  zone  first  class  and  10  centimes  (2 
cents)  for  each  zone  second  class.  First-class 
passengers  pay  about  2.4  cents  for  each  mile 
outside  of  the  fortifications  and  a  little  less 
than  1  cent  for  each  mile  within  the  fortifi¬ 
cations.  Cars  operating  single  or  in  trains  of 
two  cars,  and  in  the  suburbs  of  three  cars, 
are  run  by  compressed  air,  steam,  storage  bat¬ 
tery  and  overhead  trolley,  or  underground  elec¬ 
tric  trolley.  There  are  both  single  and  double 
deck  cars  in  use.  Various  types  and  sizes  of 
cars  are  in  use,  many  having  a  seating  capacity 


URBINO 


808 


UREA 


for  30  passengers  and  a  standing  capacity  for 
1!)  passengers.  The  trailers  have,  in  many  cases, 
seating  capacity  for  38  passengers  and  will 
carry  19  standing  passengers. 

The  report  of  the  Inspector  General  of  Police, 
in  charge  of  tramways  and  local  railways,  for 
the  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1911,  shows  a  total 
number  of  passengers  carried  by  tramway  lines 
as  438,634,210;  omnibus  lines,  135,722,473;  sub¬ 
ways,  419,894,539;  a  total  of  994,262,222. 

Municipal  Ownership.  As  an  example  of 
municipal  ownership  and  operation  of  street 
railways,  Leith,  Scotland,  may  be  taken  as  an 
instance  where  this  form  of  management  is  in 
successful  operation.  The  tramways  department 
of  the  Burgh  of  Leith  operates  a  little  over  9 
miles  of  tramway,  nearly  all  of  which  is  double 
track.  This  serves  a  population  of  80,400.  The 
total  revenue  in  1913  was  £35,693  ($178,465). 
The  total  number  of  passengers  carried  was 
9,706,611  and  of  car  miles  run  was  944,329. 
The  average  car  miles  per  car  per  day  was  125. 
The  average  total  revenue  per  ccA’  miles  was 
9.07d.  (18.14  cents)  and  the  average  expenses, 
including  power  cost,  was  4.08d.  (*8.16  cents). 
The  average  fare  paid  by  each  passenger  was 
0.87d.  (1.74  cents) . 

Since  1894  the  corporation  of  the  city  of  Glas¬ 
gow,  Scotland,  has  operated  the  tramways  of 
that  city.  The  city  between  1894  and  1903  had 
changed  the  system  from  horse  cars  to  overhead 
trolley  and  extended  it  from  60  miles  to  132.  In 
1903  the  car  mileage  was  14,008,750,  the  num¬ 
ber  of  passengers  carried  177,179,549,  and  total 
receipts  amounted  to  £653,200  ($3,266,000). 

Fares  are  on  a  mileage  basis,  the  half  mile  being 
taken  as  the  unit.  The  fare  for  the  first  0.58 
mile  is  ^d.  (1  cent)  and  is  graded  from  that 
figure  up  to  4d.  (8  cents)  for  9.09  miles. 

Consult:  A.  H.  Beavan,  Tube,  Train,  Tram, 
and  Car  (New  York,  1903)  ;  E.  R.  Johnson,  Ele¬ 
ments  of  Transportation  (ib.,  1909)  ;  W.  F. 
Gephart,  Transportation  and  Industrial  Develop¬ 
ment  in  th-e  Middle  West  (ib.,  1909)  ;  L.  G. 
McPherson,  Transportation  in  Europe  (ib., 
1910).  See  Street  Railway;  Tunnel. 

URBINO,  oor-be'no.  A  city  in  the  Province 
of  Pesaro  e  Urbino,  Italy,  situated  on  a  hill 
amid  the  eastern  outliers  of  the  Apennines,  be¬ 
tween  the  Metauro  and  the  Foglia,  25  miles 
southwest  of  Pesaro  ( Map :  Italy,  D  3 ) .  The 
streets  are  narrow  and  tortuous,  but  gorgeous 
views  are  obtained  of  the  mountains  and  the 
Adriatic.  The  house  in  which  Raphael  was  born 
is  now  fitted  up  as  a  museum,  and  belongs  to  the 
Reale  Accademia  Raffaello.  The  new  cathedral 
is  interesting  for  its  paintings.  In  the  church 
of  Santo  Spirito  are  noteworthy  pictures  by  Luca 
Signorelli,  and  in  the  San  Domenico  are  good 
reliefs  by  Luca  della  Robbia.  The  Oratorio 
della  Confraternity  di  San  Giovanni  Battista  is 
a  splendid  structure.  The  famous  ducal  palace 
was  erected  in  the  fifteenth  century.  It  is  rich 
in  interesting  sculptures  and  decorations,  and 
has  a  collection  of  Roman  inscriptions  and  a 
biblical  picture  gallery.  The  city  has  a  free 
university,  founded  in  1671,  and  an  academy  of 
fine  arts.  The  celebrated  library  has  been  re¬ 
moved  to  Rome.  Urbino  manufactures  silks, 
majolica,  bricks,  lime,  oil,  and  cheese.  There 
are  in  the  vicinity  sulphur  and  travertine  quar¬ 
ries.  Pop.  (commune),  1901,  18,307;  1911, 

18,117. 

Urbino,  the  ancient  Urbinum,  was  an  impor¬ 
tant  city  under  the  Romans.  It  became  very 


prosperous  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Federigo 
da  Montefeltre,  who  ruled  from  1444  to  1482  and 
who  was  elevated  by  the  Pope  to  the  dignity  of 
Duke  of  Urbino  in  1474,  maintained  a  magnifi¬ 
cent  court,  built  the  palace,  and  made  the  city 
a  centre  of  science  and  art.  During  the  six¬ 
teenth  century,  under  the  Della  Rovere  family, 
Urbino  was  important  in  the  manufacture  of 
majolica.  It  was  a  papal  possession  from  1626 
to  1860. 

URBS  VETUS.  See  Orvieto. 

URCHARD,  Sir  Thomas.  See  Urquiiart. 

URCHIN,  Keyhole.  See  Sand  Dollar. 

URDANETA,  oor'da-na'ta.  A  town  of  Lu¬ 
zon,  Philippines,  in  the  Province  of  Pangasinan, 
situated  27  miles  southeast  of  Lingayen  (Map: 
Philippine  Islands,  C  2).  Pop.,  1903,  20,544. 

URDU,  oor'doo.  The  speech  of  the  Moham¬ 
medan  population  of  central  Hindustan,  and  a 
sort  of  lingua  franca  for  almost  all  the  penin¬ 
sula.  See  Hindustani  Language  and  Litera¬ 
ture. 

URE,  Alexander.  See  Strathclyde,  Alex¬ 
ander  Ure,  Baron. 

URE,  Andrew  (1778-1857).  A  Scottish 
chemist,  born  at  Glasgow.  He  studied  at  Glas¬ 
gow  and  Edinburgh.  In  1802  he  became  pro¬ 
fessor  of  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy  in 
the  Andersonian  Institution  at  Glasgow;  took 
an  active  part  in  the  establishment  (1809)  of  the 
Glasgow  Observatory,  and  was  appointed  its 
first  director.  He  published  a  number  of  val¬ 
uable  works,  his  two  dictionaries  remaining  for 
many  years  the  standard  books  of  reference: 
viz.,  his  Dictionary  of  Chemistry  (2  vols.,  1821), 
and  A  Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and 
Mines  (1837  and  several  later  editions). 

U'REA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  ovpov,  ouron, 
urine),  or  Carbamide,  CO(NH2)2.  An  organic 
substance  which  derives  its  name  from  its  hav¬ 
ing  been  originally  discovered  in  urine,  of  which 
it  forms  the  most  important  and  characteristic 
ingredient.  Pure  urea  is  devoid  of  smell,  has  a 
coolish,  bitter  taste,  like  that  of  saltpetre  (which 
it  closely  resembles  in  its  external  form),  and 
is  very  slightly  deliquescent.  It  is  readily  solu¬ 
ble  in  water  and  alcohol,  but  only  slightly  in 
ether.  It  melts  at  132°  C.  (270°  F.)  ;  dry  urea 
may  be  sublimed  without  decomposition  by  heat¬ 
ing  in  vacuo  between  120°  and  130°  C.  (248°- 
266°  F.).  If  sublimed  in  vacuo  at  temperatures 
between  160°  and  190°  C.  (320°-374°  F.),  it 
changes  into  ammonium  cyanate.  If  heated,  un¬ 
der  ordinary  pressure,  to  150°-160°  C.  (302°- 
320°  F. ) ,  it  is  decomposed  with  formation  of  am¬ 
monia,  cyanuric  acid,  biuret,  and  carbonic  acid; 
the  formation  of  biuret  is  represented  by  the 
following  chemical  equation: 

2CO  (NH2)  2  =  nh2conhconh2+nh3 

Urea  Biuret  Ammonia 

The  formation  of  cyanuric  acid  (C3H3N303)  takes 
place  indirectly,  probably  through  the  combina¬ 
tion  of  biuret  with  cyanic  acid. 

One  of  the  most  important  methods  for  the 
quantitative  determination  of  urea  in  urine  was 
proposed  by  Folin  in  1901  and  improved  by 
Benedict  in  1910.  The  method  consists  in  add¬ 
ing  to  a  small  measured  specimen  of  urine  a 
certain  quantity  of  hydrated  magnesium  chlor¬ 
ide,  some  acid  potassium  sulphate,  some  zinc  sul¬ 
phate  and  a  little  powdered  pumice  and  paraffin 
wax,  boiling  to  dryness,  beating  for  an  hour  at 
165°  C.  (329°  F.),  adding  sodium  hydroxide, 
and  distilling  the  freed  ammonia  into  a  measured 


UREA 


UREAS 


809 


quantity  of  tenth-normal  acid.  From  the  amount 
of  ammonia  thus  obtained,  the  amount  of  urea 
in  the  urine  specimen  is  readily  calculated. 

The  presence  of  urea  may  be  detected  qualita¬ 
tively  by  means  of  the  biuret  reaction.  It  has 
been  mentioned  above  that  when  urea  is  decom¬ 
posed  by  heating,  biuret  is  produced  along  with 
several  other  substances.  Now,  when  biuret  is 
dissolved  in  water,  then  some  caustic  soda  and 
a  little  dilute  copper  sulphate  solution  added, 
a  characteristic  pink  coloration  is  produced.  To 
detect  urea,  therefore,  the  drv  substance  sub- 
mitted  for  examination,  or  the  residue  left  on 
evaporating  a  solution,  is  heated  for  some  time 
at  155°  C.  (311°  F.),  then  dissolved,  and 
treated  with  caustic  soda  and  copper  sulphate,  a 
pink  coloration  produced  proving  the  presence 
of  urea. 

Urea  was  the  first  organic  compound  produced 
artificially  in  the  chemical  laboratory — a  synthe¬ 
sis  of  vast  importance  in  the  history  of  chem¬ 
istry.  (See  Chemistry.)  It  was  then  (1828) 
obtained  by  Wohler  (q.v.)  by  heating  a  solution 
of  ammonium  cyanate,  the  transformation  tak¬ 
ing  place  according  to  the  following  chemical 
equation : 

NH4OCN  =  CO  (NIL)  2 

Ammonium  Urea 

cyanate 

Urea  has  since  been  made  artificially  in  a 
variety  of  ways;  e.g.,  by  treating  ammonia 
with  phosgene  gas  (carbonyl  chloride).  This 
synthesis  is  important  inasmuch  as  it  explains 
the  structure  of  urea. 

Urea  is  best  prepared  in  the  laboratory  by 
heating  phenyl  carbonate  with  ammonia: 

(  CcH5  )  2C03  +  2NH3  =  CO  ( NIL )  2  +  2C6H5OH. 

It  may  be  obtained  from  urine  by  evaporating  to 
a  small  volume  and  adding  nitric  acid;  the  ni¬ 
trate  of  urea  thus  obtained  is  purified  by  crystal¬ 
lization  from  nitric  acid,  decomposed  with  ba¬ 
rium  carbonate,  and  the  urea  set  free  is  dis¬ 
solved  out  of  the  mixture  with  alcohol. 

Urea  occurs  more  abundantly  in  the  urine  of 
carnivorous  than  in  that  of  herbivorous  animals. 
Small  quantities  of  urea  are  present  also  in  the 
urine  of  birds.  The  average  amount  of  urea 
normally  excreted  by  the  human  adult  in  a  day 
is  33  grams,  the  quantity  varying  between  22 
and  35  grams.  Urea  is  also  a  constituent  of  the 
fluids  of  the  eye,  of  sweat,  and,  in  minute  quan¬ 
tity,  of  the  blood  and  of  the  liquor  amnii  (of 
the  foetus).  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  a 
final  product  of  the  regressive  metamorphosis 
of  the  living  tissues,  or  of  their  disintegration 
into  simpler  compounds,  by  means  of  which  the 
final  elimination  of  the  worn-out  structures  is 
effected.  In  what  way  this  process  of  disinte¬ 
gration  takes  place  in  the  animal  body  is  not 
known,  though  various  hypotheses  have  been  ad¬ 
vanced  in  explanation  of  this  important  phenom¬ 
enon.  Since  urea  is  readily  produced  from  am¬ 
monium  cyanate  and  is  with  equal  readiness 
transformed  into  ammonium  carbonate  (see 
above),  it  may  be  that  the  decomposition  of 
proteids  in  the  body  gives  rise  first  to  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  one  or  both  of  these  substances,  which 
are  subsequently  changed  into  urea.  Such  ex¬ 
planations,  however,  are  rather  vague;  for,  al¬ 
though  cyanogen  compounds  are  manufactured 
for  practical  purposes  chiefly  from  nitrogenous 
animal  refuse,  the  nature  of  the  chemical  trans¬ 
formations  taking  place  during  the  process  is  not 
understood.  The  cyanate  hypothesis  is  attractive 


inasmuch  as  the  transformation  of  cyanogen 
compounds  into  urea  might  serve  as  a  source  of 
much  energy,  cyanogen  compounds  possessing 
great  molecular  energy,  while  urea  possesses 
much  less  energy  and  is  much  more  stable.  See 
Plate  of  Microscopy,  Clinical. 

U'REAS,  The  Compound.  A  class  of  organic 
substances,  for  the  knowledge  of  which  chemis¬ 
try  is  mainly  indebted  to  A.  W.  Hofmann.  It 
is  stated  in  the  article  on  Urea  (q.v.)  that  that 
important  substance  can  be  obtained  by  the 
action  of  ammonia  either  on  cyanic  acid  (syn¬ 
thesis  of  urea  by  heating  an  ammonium  cyanate 
solution)  or  on  phosgene  gas  (carbonyl  chlor¬ 
ide).  Similar  transformations  take  place  if,  in 
place  of  ammonia,  compounds  are  employed 
which  are  derived  from  ammonia  by  replacing 
hydrogen  in  the  latter  by  alcohol  radicles,  such  as 
methyl  (CHe)  or  ethyl  (C2H5).  In  these  cases, 
however,  not  urea  itself,  but  a  series  of  com¬ 
pound  ureas  are  obtained,  which  are  said  to  be 
derived  from  urea  by  substituting  an  alcohol 
radicle  for  *  hydrogen.  These  compound  ureas 
are  very  similar  in  their  chemical  behavior  to 
urea  itself,  and,  like  urea,  form  salts  with  acids. 
Most  of  the  ureas  are  crystalline  solid  sub¬ 
stances.  Those,  however,  which  are  derived  by 
replacing  all  the  hydrogen  of  urea  are  liquids 
that  boil  at  high  temperatures  and  distill  with¬ 
out  decomposition.  Ethyl  urea  and  tetramethyl 
urea  are  formed  by  the  above  methods,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  following  chemical  equations : 


NHC2H5 

HNCO  +  NH2C2H5  =  CO7" 

\ 

nh2 

Cyanic  acid  Ethylamine  Ethyl  urea 


N(CH3)2 

COCI2  +  2NH(CH3)2  =  CC)  +  2HC1 

\ 


N(CH3)2 

Carbonyl  Dimethyl-  Tetramethyl 

chloride  amine  urea 


Certain  compound  ureas  may  be  obtained  by 
using  ethereal  salts  of  cyanic  acid;  thus  sym¬ 
metrical  methylethyl  urea  is  obtained  by  the 
action  of  methylamine  on  ethyl  cyanate,  the  re¬ 
action  taking  place  according  to  the  following 
chemical  equation : 

NHC2H5 

/ 

C2H5NCO  +  NH2CH3  =  CO 

\ 

nhch3 

Ethyl  Methyl-  Methylethyl 

cyanate  amine  urea 


Another  important  series  of  compound  ureas 
is  obtained  by  substituting  for  hydrogen  in  urea 
the  radicles  of  organic  acids.  These  ureas  are 
called  ureides.  One  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  of 
urea  can  be  replaced  by  an  acid  radicle  by  the 
direct  action  of  the  chloride  of  the  acid  radicle 
on  urea;  thus  inonoacetvl  urea  is  formed  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  following  equation: 


NH2 

CO^  +  CH3COCl  =  CO 

\ 

nh2 

Urea  Acetyl  chloride 


nhcoch3 

/ 

\ 

nh2 

Acetyl  urea 


+  HC1 


Other  methods,  however,  must  be  employed 
for  the  purpose  of  introducing  more  than  one 


UREDINALES 


810 


UREDINALES 


acid  radicle;  thus  symmetrical  diacetyl  urea  is 
obtained  by  the  action  of  acetamide  upon  car¬ 
bonyl  chloride,  the  reaction  taking  place  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  following  chemical  equation: 

NHCOCH3 

/ 

COCI2  +  2CH3CONH2  =  CO  +  2HC1 

\ 

NHCOCH3 

Chloride*  Acetamide  Diacetyl  urea 

Among  the  important  ureides  is  that  of  car¬ 
bonic  acid,  called  allophanic  acid.  Its  form¬ 


ula  is  CO 


/ 


NH2 


\ 


NHCOOH 


It  is  an  exceedingly 


weak  acid,  its  alkaline  salts  being  decomposed 
even  by  carbonic  acid.  The  substance  biuret, 
formed  by  heating  urea  somewhat  above  150°  C. 
(302°  F.)  (see  Urea),  is  the  amide  of  allophanic 


acid,  its  formula  being  CO 


Uric  Acid. 


/ 

I 

\ 


NH 


.  See  also 


NHCONH2 


When  the  alkyl  ureas  (i.e.,  the  compound 
ureas  formed  by  replacing  hydrogen  in  urea  by 
alcohol  radicles)  are  boiled  with  alkalies,  de¬ 
composition  ensues  resulting  in  the  formation 
of  amines,  ammonia,  and  carbonic  acid.  Methyl 
urea,  e.g.,  is  thus  hydrolyzed  according  to  the 
following  chemical  equation: 


NHCH3 


CO 

\ 

nh2 

Methyl  urea 


+  H20  =  CH3NH2  +  nh3  +  co2 


Methylamine 


The  ureides  are  more  or  less  readily  saponified 
by  the  action  of  alkalies;  acetyl  urea,  e.g.,  being 
decomposed  according  to  the  following  equation: 


NTICOCH3 

/ 

CO  +  NaOH 


NH2 


Acetyl  urea 


nh2 

CO  +  CHsCOONa 

\ 

nh2 


Urea 


Sodium 

acetate 


UREDINALES,  u-red'i-na'lez  (Neo-Lat  .  nom. 
pi.,  from  Lat.  uredo,  blight,  blast,  from  urere, 
Skt.  us,  to  burn ) .  A  group  of  fungi  familiarly 
called  rusts  which  live  as  parasites  chiefly  on 
flowering  plants.  One  of  the  striking  features  of 
the  group  is  the  extreme  form  of  polymorphism 
exhibited,  i.e.,  the  production  of  more  than  one 
spore-bearing  form  in  the  life  cycle.  The  rusts 
are  known  to  develop  five  kinds  of  spores: 
pycnospores  (spermatia),  aecidiospores,  uredo¬ 
spores,  teleutospores,  and  basidiospores  (spor- 
idia).  these  do  not  all  occur  in  every  case, 
the  teleutospores  and  the  basidiospores  being 
the  only  forms  always  present.  The  various 
spore  forms  may  all  develop  on  one  host,  in 
which  case  the  rust  is  said  to  be  autoecious  or 
autoieous ;  or  they  may  be  developed  on  dif¬ 
ferent  hosts,  in  which  case  the  rust  is  heterce- 
cious  or  heteroicous.  The  teleutospores  are  the 
most  variable  spores,  and  therefore  their  char¬ 
acters  are  of  the  greatest  service  in  classifica¬ 
tion. 


In  such  a  hetercecious  form  as  Puccinia 
graminis,  one  of  the  common  wheat  rusts,  the 
life  cycle  is  as  follows.  The  mycelium  (the 
filamentous  body  of  the  fungus)  traverses  the 
tissues  of  the  young  wheat  plant,  and  sends  to 
the  surface  the  uredospores,  which  form  the 
reddish  spots  or  lines  that  suggested  the  name 
rust.  By  means  of  scattered  uredospores  the 
disease  spreads  rapidly  through  growing  wheat. 


RUST. 


1,  section  of  leaf  of  barberry  with  cluster  cups  (secidia 
below  and  spermogonia  above;  2,  uredospores  and  one 
teleutospore;  3,  germinating  teleutospore  with  four-celled 
promycelium. 


As  the  wheat  plant  matures,  the  mycelium  sends 
to  the  surface  the  teleutospores,  dark  and  thick 
walled  spores  that  last  through  the  winter.  The 
teleutospore  germinates  in  the  spring,  and  gives 
rise  to  the  basidiuin  (promycelium),  a  filament 
of  four  cells,  each  of  which  produces  a  slender 
branch  bearing  a  basidiospore  (sporidium). 
The  basidiospores  that  fall  on  young  barberry 
leaves  germinate  and  form  an  extensive  mycelium 
in  the  leaf.  This  mycelium  gives  rise  to  pycno¬ 
spores  and  aecidiospores.  The  latter  occur  in 
clusters  called  cluster  cups,  and  these  spores, 
falling  upon  young  wheat  plants,  germinate  and 
produce  the  mycelium  that  later  bears  uredo¬ 
spores  and  then  teleutospores.  In  this  life  his¬ 
tory  the  fungus  passes  through  three  distinct 
phases,  viz.,  the  parasitic  mycelium  bearing 
uredospores  and  teleutospores, *  the  saprophytic 
basidium  bearing  basidiospores,  and  the  parasitic 
mycelium  bearing  pycnospores  and  aecidiospores. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  complete  life  his¬ 
tories  of  comparatively  few  hetercecious  rusts 
are  known,  but  the  completion  of  the  life  histories 
is  progressing  very  rapidly  at  the  present  time. 
The  two  hosts  do  not  suggest  one  another,  e.g., 
wheat  and  barberry,  and  therefore  numerous 


URENA 


811 


URFE 


rusts  are  known  only  in  various  stages,  and  bear 
the  names  of  form  genera;  e.g.,  Uredo  (uredo- 
spore  forms),  Puccinia  (teleutospore  forms),  and 
AEcidium  (lecidiospore  forms).  When  these 
forms  are  connected  in  a  life  history  the  name 
of  the  fungus  becomes  Puccinia. 

One  of  the  important  problems  connected  with 
the  cereal  rusts  is  the  winter  condition,  and 
this  chiefly  relates  to  the  question  whether  any 
short  cuts  in  the  life  history  are  possible;  e.g., 
whether  uredospores  can  survive  the  winter  and 
infect  the  crop  of  the  next  season. 

For  a  general  account  of  the  Uredinales  con¬ 
sult  Engler  and  Prantl,  Die  naturlichen  Pflanzen- 
familien  (Leipzig,  1887),  and  Plowright,  Brit¬ 
ish  Uredinece  and  Ustilaginece  (London,  1889). 
See  Basidiomycetes  ;  Rust. 

URE'NA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  uren,  the  native 
Malabar  name).  A  genus  of  herbs  of  the  family 
Malvaceae.  The  bark  is  very  fibrous;  and  the 
fibre  of  Urena  lobata  and  XJrena  sinuata,  weeds 
common  in  most  parts  of  India,  is  used  as  a  sub¬ 
stitute  for  flax  in  making  cordage  and  paper 
stock.  It  is  strong  and  fine  and  in  many  ways 
resembles  jute,  for  which  it  is  a  good  substitute. 
TJrena  lobata  grows  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States,  particularly  in  the  State  of 
Florida,  where  the  plant  has  often  been  mis¬ 
taken  for  ramie. 

IJEENA,  Count  of.  See  Osuna,  Duke  of. 

UREN'TES  A'QTUE.  See  Orense. 

U'RETER  (Gk.  ovp-rjTgp,  oureter,  ureter,  ure¬ 
thra,  from  ovpov,  ouron,  urine).  One  of  two 
canals  by  which  the  urine  is  conveyed  from  the 
pelvis  of  the  kidney  (q.v. )  on  either  side  to  the 
base  of  the  bladder.  Each  ureter  is  about  18 
inches  in  length,  and  enters  the  bladder  in  so 
slanting  a  direction  as  to  prevent  regurgitation. 
When  a  concretion  is  formed  in  the  kidney,  the 
ordinary  and  most  favorable  event  is  that  it 
should  descend  through  the  ureter  to  the  blad¬ 
der.  The  passage  of  a  stone  through  this  tube 
gives  rise  to  renal  colic,  a  series  of  violent  symp¬ 
toms,  consisting  of  sudden  and  most  severe  pain, 
first  in  the  loins  and  groin,  subsequently  in  the 
testes  (in  the  male)  under  the  thigh;  the  testes 
may  be  retracted  spasmodically.  Coincident 
with  the  pain  there  are  violent  sickness,  faint¬ 
ness,  and  collapse,  which  may  last  two  or  three 
days,  and  are  only  relieved  when  the  stone 
reaches  the  bladder.  The  treatment  consists  in 
the  Warm  bath,  and  the  inhalation  of  chloroform 
or  opium  in  large  do^£&  (both  of  which  serve  to 
allay  spasm  and  deaden  pain ) ,  and  the  free  use 
of  diluents  to  wash  down  the  concretion. 

URETHRA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  ovprjOpa,  oure- 
thra,  passage  for  urine,  from  otfpo v,  ouron,  urine) . 
The  canal  by  which  the  urine  is  discharged  from 
the  bladder.  The  male  urethra  is  about  9  inches 
long,  and  its  office  is  to  conduct  the  seminal 
fluid,  secondarily  to  discharge  the  urine.  It  is 
divided  into  three  parts:  (1)  the  deep  or 
prostatic  urethra,  which  extends  from  the  outlet 
of  the  bladder  (with  which  it  is  continuous) 
through  the  prostate  gland,  being  the  part  into 
which  the  seminal  ducts  open;  (2)  the  membra¬ 
nous  urethra,  less  than  an  inch  long,  extending 
from  the  prostate  forward;  and  (3)  the  cavern¬ 
ous,  or  spongy,  or  penile  urethra,  extending 
through  the  erectile  tissue  to  the  end  of  the 
penis.  The  female  urethra  is  less  than  2  inches 
in  length  and  opens  externally  between  the  up¬ 
per  margin  of  the  vaginal  entrance  and  the 
clitoris.  The  urethra  is  lined  by  a  continuation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bladder,  and  in 
Vol.  XXII.— 52 


the  male  is  extremely  sensitive.  See  Gon¬ 
orrhoea;  Stricture. 

URETHRITIS,  u're-thri'tis.  See  Gonor¬ 

rhoea. 

URFAH,  ur-fii',  or  ORFA.  The  modern 

name  for  Edessa  (q.v.). 

URFAHR,  oor'far.  A  town  in  the  Crown- 
land  of  Upper  Austria,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube,  opposite  Linz  (q.v.),  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  an  iron  bridge  (Map:  Austria- 
Hungary,  D  2 ) .  It  manufactures  spirits  and 
machinery.  Pop.,  1900,  12,827;  1910,  15,441. 

URFE,  ur'fa',  Honore  d’  (1568-1025).  A 
French  pastoral  romancer,  born  in  Marseilles  of 
noble  family.  D’Urfe  was  educated  for  the  Church, 
but  married  his  sister-in-law,  Diane  de  Chateau- 
morand  (1600).  On  the  fall  of  the  League  he 
withdrew  to  Savoy  and  began  to  write  in  the 
pastoral  style  suggested  by  the  Spanish  Amadis 
de  Gaul,  which  had  been  translated  into  French 
at  the  instigation  of  Francis  I  (1540-48),  and 
by  the  Greek  pastoral  romances  which  were  ren¬ 
dered  into  French  early  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Fiction  of  this  character  had  made  a  timid  ap¬ 
pearance  in  France  before  D’Urfe,  e.g.,  in  Fumee’s 
Du  vray  et  parfait  amour  (1599).  It  had  al¬ 
ready  acquired  its  great  masterpieces  in  Italy 
(Poliziano’s  Orfea,  1471  or  1472;  Sannazaro’s 
Arcadia;  Tasso’s  Aminta,  1573;  Guarini’s  Pas¬ 
tor  Fido,  1590),  in  England  (Spenser’s  Shep¬ 
herd’s  Calendar,  1570),  and  in  Spain  (Monte- 
mayor’s  fliawa,  1542;  Gil  Polo’s  Diana  En- 
amorada,  1564,  and  Cervantes’  Galatea,  1851). 
All  these  romances  were  popular  in  France,  but 
I)'Urf6’s  Astree  was  the  first  that  became  a  sort 
of  social  breviary  for  a  generation.  It  is  a  novel 
of  5155  pages.  Its  first  two  volumes  appeared 
in  1610,  the  third  in  1619,  the  posthumous  fourth 
and  fifth  in  1627,  with  other  unofficial  continua¬ 
tions.  Of  this  interminable  treatise  on  the  verb 
aimer,  D’Urfe  borrows  his  pastoral  scenes  from 
the  Diana,  his  warlike  episodes  from  Amadis,  and 
from  the  Greeks  and  Latins  some  episodes  and 
much  of  his  story-telling  art;  but  he  is  superior 
to  them  all  in  character  drawing,  in  good  humor, 
and  in  the  higher  social  aim  of  his  work.  In  the 
subtle  differentiation  of  his  lovers,  D’Urfe  is  a 
not  unworthy  forerunner  of  Racine  and  Mari¬ 
vaux,  unapproached  by  any  novelist  of  his  cen¬ 
tury  but  Madame  de  Lafayette.  D’Urfe  was  a 
sort  of  realistic  idealist;  he  chose  the  scene  of 
his  own  birth,  the  banks  of  the  Lignon,  for  the 
scene  of  his  novel,  and  his  conversations  are 
lively,  far  beyond  the  wont  of  his  time.  His  aim 
throughout  is  the  refinement  of  society,  and  here 
its  influence  is  hard  to  overestimate.  The  Hotel 
de  Rambouillet  seems  to  have  been  organized  in 
its  imitation.  Astree’ s  popularity  was  astound¬ 
ing.  Bishops  like  Camus,  saints  like  Francis  de 
Sales,  joined  with  realistic  novelists  like  Sorel 
to  sound  the  praise  of  this  “exquisite  work.”  La 
Fontaine,  the  scholarly  Huet,  the  sprightly  Fon- 
tenelle,  the  cynic  La  Rochefoucauld,  all  rejoiced 
in  it.  For  two  generations  it  was  an  accepted 
book  of  reference  on  deportment  and  breeding. 
In  Germany,  in  1624,  a  princely  and  aristocratic 
coterie,  on  organizing  an  Academic  des  vrais 
amants,  assumed  the  names  of  the  characters 
of  the  Astree. 

Consult:  Bonafous,  Etude  sur  I’AstrSe  et  sur 
H.  d’Urfe  (Paris,  1846)  ;  Korting,  Geschichte  des 
franzosischen  Romans  im  17 ten  Jahrhundert, 
vol.  i  (Oppeln,  1885)  ;  W.  Fischer,  Lafontaine 
and  the  Astree  of  TJonore  d’UrfS  (Philadelphia, 
1913). 


URGA 


812 


URIC  ACID 


URGA,  oor'ga  (Chin.  K’ulun) .  The  capital 
of  northern  Mongolia,  situated  on  the  Tola  River 
and  the  highway  leading  from  Kiakhta  (q.v. )  to 
Peking,  175  miles  south  of  Kiakhta  (Map: 
China,  J  2).  It  consists  of  the  Mongolian  town, 
inhabited  mostly  by  lamas,  and  of  the  Chinese 
town,  a  few  miles  distant,  where  the  Chinese 
and  Russian  merchants  live.  In  the  Mongolian 
town  is  situated  the  residence  of  the  head  of 
the  Lamaist  church  in  Mongolia.  There  are 
also  numerous  temples  surrounded  by  the  houses 
of  the  lamas.  In  the  temple  of  Maidarv  is  a 
colossal  gilt  statue  of  that  divinity,  over  33  feet 
high.  During  the  religious  festivals  the  town 
is  visited  by  great  numbers  of  pilgrims.  Pop., 
about  25,000  Chinese  and  13,000  Lamaist  monks. 

URGED,  oor-Hel'.  An  ancient  episcopal  see 
in  northern  Spain,  with  an  interesting  history 
closely  related  to  that  of  the  Republic  of  An¬ 
dorra  (q.v.).  It  was  also  a  county,  the  lord- 
ship  of  which  was  acquired  by  marriage  early  in 
the  thirteenth  century  by  the  comtes  de  Foix. 

URI,  oo're.  A  canton  of  Switzerland  (Map: 
Switzerland,  C  2).  Area,  415  square  miles.  The 
region  consists  of  the  narrow  valley  o^f  the  Reuss, 
surrounded  by  offshoots  of  the  Bernese  Alps  on 
the  west,  the  Glarus  Alps  on  the  east,  and  the 
St.  Gotthard  group  on  the  south.  Many  of  the 
peaks  exceed  10,000  feet,  the  Dammastoek  rising 
to  11,920  feet.  The  climate  is  raw.  Uri  is 
primarily  a  pastoral  canton,  and  exports  chiefly 
dairy  products.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
dynamite  and  parquet  floors.  The  legislative 
authority  is  exercised  directly  by  the  people  as¬ 
sembled  in  the  Landsgemeinde.  The  canton  is 
represented  by  one  member  in  the  Federal  Coun¬ 
cil.  Pop.,  1910,  22,055,  nearly  all  German-speak¬ 
ing  Roman  Catholics.  Capital,  Altdorf  (q.v.). 

Uri,  first  mentioned  in  732,  passed  in  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century  to  the  Hapsburgs.  It  gradually 
obtained  its  independence  and  in  1291  formed  the 
perpetual  league  with  Schwyz  and  Unterwal- 
den.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  Val  Leventina 
(now  a  part  of  Ticino)  was  acquired  by  Uri. 
The  canton  took  part  in  the  Sonderbund  ( q.v. ) . 

URI.  Another  name  for  the  Limpopo  (q.v.), 
a  river  of  South  Africa. 

URIAL.  See  Oorial. 

U'RIAFT,  Ger.  pron.  ob're-an,  Sir.  A  name, 
like  the  modern  Mr.  Blank,  once  used  to  desig¬ 
nate  one  whose  real  name  was  either  unknown 
or  unmentionable.  It  occasionally  occurs  in  Ger¬ 
man  and  English  literature  before  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  is  sometimes  used  of  Satan.  In 
Wolfram  von  Eschenbach’s  Parzwal  it  is  applied 
to  the  evil-minded  Prince  of  Punturtois. 

URIBURU,  oo-'re-boo/roo,  Jos6  (1835—1914). 
An  Argentine  diplomat  and  president.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Buenos  Aires  and 
entered  the  diplomatic  service,  in  which  he  spent 
20  years.  While  Minister  to  Chile  he  gave 
refuge  to  President  Balmaceda  (q.v.)  during  the 
Chilean  revolution  of  1891.  He  was  elected  Vice 
President  of  Argentina  in  1892,  chiefly  because 
he  had  no  political  affiliations.  Upon  the  resig¬ 
nation  of  President  Luis  Saenz  Peha  in  1895, 
Uriburu  assumed  the  office  to  fill  out  the  un¬ 
expired  term.  During  his  administration  de¬ 
fense  measures  were  undertaken,  bonds  were  is¬ 
sued  to  pay  off  the  claims  of  the  foreign-owned 
railway  companies,  steps  were  taken  to  rehabili¬ 
tate  the  credit  of  the  country,  and  delicate 
boundary  questions  with  Chile,  Bolivia,  and  Bra¬ 
zil  were  dealt  with.  Uriburu  was  an  unsuccess¬ 
ful  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1904. 


URIC  ACID  (from  Gk.  ovpov,  ouron,  urine), 
C3H4N403.  A  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  which  forms  a  loose 
white  oowder  or  scales  consisting  of  minute 
crystals  devoid  of  smell  or  taste,  only  very 
slightly  soluble  in  water  ( 1  part  requiring  about 
15,000  parts  of  cold  and  1600  of  boiling  water), 
and  quite  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It 
is  soluble  without  decomposition  in  strong  sul¬ 
phuric  acid,  and  it  may  be  thrown  down  from 
this  solution  by  the  addition  of  water.  It  is 
also  soluble  in  the  carbonates,  borates,  phos¬ 
phates,  lactates,  and  acetates  of  the  alkalies, 
extracting  from  these  salts  a  part  of  their 
base,  with  which  it  forms  acid  urates.  Litmus 
paper  is  reddened  by  its  moist  crystals,  or  by 
a  hot  aqueous  solution.  The  acid  is  not  volatile, 
and  by  dry  distillation  is  decomposed  into  car¬ 
bonate  of  ammonia,  urea,  cyanuric  acid,  hydro¬ 
cyanic  acid,  etc.  Uric  acid  acts  as  a  very  weak 
dibasic  acid,  forming  with  bases  two  series  of 
salts,  the  neutral  and  the  acid,  of  which  the 
former  are  the  more  soluble.  Among  the  most 
important  are  the  acid  urates  of  sodium,  potas¬ 
sium,  lithium,  and  ammonium.  The  urate  of 
lithium  is  more  soluble  than  any  other  urate, 
and  hence  lithia  water  is  used  as  a  therapeutic 
agent  in  converting  uric  acid  and  the  more  in¬ 
soluble  urates  into  a  soluble  salt  in  the  living 
body.  The  urates  are  sometimes  called  lithates, 
and  the  acid  itself  lithic  acid. 

Uric  acid  is  widely  distributed  throughout 
the  animal  organism.  It  occurs  not  only  in  the 
urine  of  man  (in  which  it  was  discovered  bv 
Scheele  in  1776)  and  carnivorous  animals,  but 
is  the  chief  constituent  (either  free  or  in  com¬ 
bination)  of  many  calculi  occurring  in  the 
kidneys  or  bladder,  and  of  numerous  urinary 
sediments.  The  urinary  secretion  of  birds  and 
reptiles  consists  almost  entirely  of  urates,  which 
are  also  found  in  the  excrements  of  caterpillars, 
butterflies,  beetles,  etc.,  and  of  many  mollusks. 
Moreover,  in  very  minute  quantities,  it  occurs 
as  a  urate  in  healthy  blood,  in  which  fluid  it 
has  been  found  in  excess  in  gout  and  in  Bright’s 
disease,  and  is  a  constituent  of  the  aqueous  ex¬ 
tract  of  the  spleen,  liver,  lungs,  pancreas,  and 
brain.  The  chalk  stones  which  occur  about  the 
smaller  joints  and  in  the  lobes  of  the  ear  of  many 
gouty  patients  consist  mainly  of  sodium  urate. 

The  best  mode  of  obtaining  uric  acid  is  from 
guano,  or  from  the  excrements  of  snakes  or 
fowls,  which  consist  largely  of  urates.  For 
this  purpose  the  mass  is  boiled  with  potash, 
which  expels  any  ammonia  that  is  present,  and 
a  stream  of  carbonic  acid  is  then  passed  through 
the  strained  potash  solution,  which  throws  down 
acid  urate  of  potash.  This  precipitate  is  dis¬ 
solved  in  water,  and  decomposed  by  hydrochloric 
acid,  which  throws  down  the  uric  acid  in  minute 
crystals. 

To  prove  the  presence  of  uric  acid,  tests 
of  a  chemical  nature  must  be  applied.  The 
so-called  murexid  reaction  constitutes  an  ex¬ 
cellent  test :  the  substance  submitted  for  ex¬ 
amination  is  treated  with  a  little  strong  nitric 
acid,  and  the  mixture  is  evaporated  to  dryness 
at  a  gentle  heat;  the  residue  is  moistened  with 
a  trace  of  ammonia,  which,  if  uric  acid  was 
present  in  the  original  substance,  produces  a 
brilliant  purple  coloration ;  a  drop  of  caustic 
soda  changes  the  color  to  a  reddish  blue  that 
disappears  on  warming  the  solution.  The  test 
is  based  on  the  fact  that  warming  with  nitric 
acid  converts  urea  into  purpuric  acid,  the  acid 


UHIC-ACID  DIATHESIS  813  URINE 


ammonium  salt  of  which — called  murexid — has 
a  brilliant  reddish-purple  color. 

Uric  acid  and  urea  (q.v.)  are  chemically 
closely  related  to  each  other.  In  mammals 
nitrogenous  substances  are  disintegrated  mainly 
into  urea;  in  birds  the  main  product  of  disin¬ 
tegration  is  uric  acid.  The  formation  of  both 
urea  and  uric  acid  takes  place  most  probably 
in  the  liver. 

The  products  of  decomposition  of  uric  acid 
were  first  thoroughly  investigated,  in  a  series 
of  celebrated  researches,  by  Liebig  and  Wohler. 
Then  the  chemical  relationship  of  urea  and  uric 
acid  was  clearly  established.  It  has  since  been 
shown  that  uric  acid  is  a  diureide,  i.e.,  a  sub¬ 
stitution  product  containing  two  molecules  of 
urea.  After  much  painstaking  research,  it  was 
possible  to  demonstrate  the  true  chemical  con¬ 
stitution  of  uric  acid,  and  finally  Horbaczewsky 
succeeded  in  preparing  this  important  organic 
substance  by  a  synthetic  method;  Behrend  and 
Roosen  subsequently  discovered  another  synthesis 
of  uric  acid,  which  is  relatively  simple  and 
perfectly  well  understood  in  the  light  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  constitution  of  the  acid,  which 
is  represented  by  the  following  structural  for¬ 
mula,  first  proposed  by  Medicus: 


NH— C— NH 


\ 

NH— CO 


Uric  acid. 

Consult  Alexander  Haig,  Causation  of  Disease 
by  Uric  Acid  (7th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1908),  and 
G.  A.  Gilbert,  Textbook  on  TJric  Acid  and  its 
Congeners  (Danbury,  Conn.,  1907).  See  Plate 
of  Microscopy,  Clinical. 

URIC-ACID  DIATHESIS.  See  Litiiic-Acid 
Diathesis. 

URICQ'NIUM,  or  VIR'ICCKNIUM.  An  an¬ 
cient  Roman  citv  of  Britain,  the  site  of  which 
is  about  4  miles  to  the  east  of  Shrewsbury, 
and  partly  occupied  by  the  village  of  Wroxeter. 
It  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  as  existing  in  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century  of  our  era,  and 
it  is  probable  that  there  was  a  Roman  station 
here  before  70  a.d.  The  traces  of  the  ancient 
wall  show  that  it  had  a  circumference  of  about 
3  miles,  and  through  it  ran  the  great  Roman 
road  now  known  as  Watling  Street  (q.v.).  Ex¬ 
ploration  of  the  remains  began  in  1859.  On  the 
north  side  of  the  old  wall  was  probably  the  Basil¬ 
ica,  and  on  the  south  the  public  baths.  A  few 
inscriptions  and  numerous  small  objects,  such 
as  coins,  brooches,  hairpins,  pottery,  sculptures, 
etc.,  found  in  the  ruins  are  in  the  museum  at 
Shrewsbury,  and  some  of  the  buildings  excavated 
have  since  been  covered.  The  human  remains 
found  in  the  excavations  show  that  the  city 
was  sacked  and  burned  by  enemies,  probably 
the  West  Saxons,  in  the  sixth  century.  Of  this, 
however,  there  is  no  historic  record.  The  ruins 
seem  to  have  remained  with  little  change,  except 
.  the  gradual  process  of  decay,  till  about  the 
twelfth  century,  when  they  were  used  as  ma¬ 
terial  for  other  buildings.  Consult  J.  C.  Ander¬ 
son,  The  Roman  City  of  TJriconium  at  Wroxeter 
(London,  18C7),  and  the  Classical  Weekly,  vol. 
vii  (New  York,  1913). 

U'RIEL  (Heb.  Uriel,  light  of  God).  One  of 
the  seven  archangels,  who  personified  light  and 
had  his  dwelling  in  the  sun.  He  appears  in 


Milton’s  Paradise  Lost  and  Longfellow’s  Golden 
Legend. 

U'RIM  AND  THUM'MIM  (Heb.  urim 
toetumrmm ) .  The  name  given  to  two  objects, 
perhaps  pebbles  or  stones  in  the  shape  of  dice, 
kept  in  the  oracle  pouch  that  hung  upon  the 
breast  of  the  Jewish  high  priest  (Ex.  xxviii.  30; 
see  Epiiod).  They  were  used  to  obtain  an  oracu¬ 
lar  decision  revealing  the  divine  will.  While 
we  do  not  know  the  precise  manner  in  which 
this  decision  was  obtained,  analogy  from  similar 
customs  among  ancient  nations  makes  it  prob¬ 
able  that  the  stones  were  drawn  by  lot  out  of 
the  pouch,  and,  according  to  the  one  drawn,  an 
affirmative  or  negative  answer  to  a  question  was 
given.  An  entirely  satisfactory  explanation  of 
the  two  mysterious  names  has  not  yet  been  fur¬ 
nished,  but  all  the  evidence  points  in  favor  of 
a  connection  with  two  Babylonian  words  urtu, 
decision  (used  chiefly  of  oracular  decisions), 
and  tamitu,  oracle,  which  occur  in  the  religious 
literature  of  Babylonia.  The  two  words  would 
thus  be  almost  synonymous,  and  this  view  is 
supported  by  the  consideration  that  they  are  so 
used  in  the  Old  Testament  (e.g.,  Deut.  xxxiii. 
8,  according  to  the  Greek  text),  and  that  Urim 
at  times  is  used  without  Thummim  (e.g.,  Num. 
xxvii.  21  and  1  Sam.  xxviii.  6),  which  shows 
that  the  one  word  conveyed  the  idea  without  the 
help  of  the  other.  It  is  noticeable  that  Urim 
begins  with  the  first,  Thummim  with  the  last 
letter  of  the  alphabet.  The  early  explanations, 
such  as  “light  and  perfection”  or  “light  and 
truth”  (Luther’s  view),  are  generally  rejected  as 
purely  fanciful  by  critical  scholars,  who  hold 
that  the  use  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim  belongs 
to  the  realm  of  primitive  religious  rites,  and  that 
its  persistence  to  a  late  period  is  due  to  the 
strong  hold  that  it  had  taken  upon  the  Hebrews. 
In  Deut.  xxxiii.  8  there  seems  to  be  a  suggestion 
that  Urim  and  Thummim  originally  were  in 
Yahwe’s  possession  but  w’ere  wrested  from  him 
by  Moses.  It  should  be  added,  however,  that 
the  notice  in  Ex.  xxviii.  30,  where  the  Urim 
and  Thummim  are  described  as  a  part  of  the 
high  priest’s  costume,  without  reference  to 
their  practical  use,  marks  the  transition  to  the 
symbolical  view,  taken  in  the  later  Jewish  theol¬ 
ogy,  of  their  significance  as  tokens  of  the  revela¬ 
tion  and  guidance  granted  to  Israel  through  its 
representative,  Aaron.  Consult;  articles  in  the 
Enoyclopccdia  Biblica  (4  vols.,  New  York,  1899- 
1903),  and  Hastings,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 
(1  vol.,  ib.,  1909);  also  Muss-Arnolt,  “The 
Urim  and  Thummim,”  in  the  American  Journal 
of  Semitic  Languages,  vol.  xvi  (Chicago,  1900)  : 
Eduard  Meyer,  Die  Israeliten  und  Hire  Nachbar- 
stdmme  (Halle,  1906)  ;  Hugo  Gressmann,  in  Die 
Religion  in  Geschiclite  und  Gegenwart  (Tu¬ 
bingen,  1913). 

URINE  (Lat.  urina,  urine;  connected  with 
Gk.  ovpov,  ouron,  urine,  Skt.  vdri,  vdr,  water, 
Av.  vara,  rain,  Icel.  iir,  drizzling  rain,  AS.  wer, 
sea).  The  fluid  which  is  secreted  by  the  kidneys, 
stored  in  the  bladder,  and  evacuated  through 
the  urethra  in  the  act  of  urination.  The 
epithelium  lining  the  tubules  of  the  kidneys 
elaborates  from  the  blood  urea  and  other  prod¬ 
ucts  of  retrograde  metamorphosis,  and  a  transu¬ 
dation  or  osmosis  of  water  occurs  from  the 
interior  of  the  convoluted  blood  vessels  into 
the  cavity  of  the  tubules. 

In  a  healthy  human  being  urine  is  a  clear 
yellowish  or  amber  fluid  of  a  salty  taste  and  a 
peculiar  aromatic  odor,  normally  acid,  and  with 


URINE 


URIU 


814 


a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.020,  and  generally 
containing  some  mucus.  In  24  hours  such  a 
person  discharges  about  50  fluid  ounces,  or  1500 
cubic  centimeters,  of  urine.  The  amounts  of 
the  several  urinary  constituents  passed  in  24 
hours  are  approximately  as  follows : 


Grams 

Water .  1500.000 

Total  solids .  72.000 

Urea .  33.180 

Uric  acid . 0.555 

Hippuric  acid .  0.400 

Kreatinin .  0.910 

Pigment  and  other  substances .  10.000 

Sulphuric  acid .  2.012 

Phosphoric  acid .  3.164 

Chlorine .  7.000 

Ammonia .  0.770 

Potassium .  2.500 

Sodium .  11.090 

Calcium .  0.260 

Magnesium .  0.207 


These  constituents,  other  than  water,  appear  in 
the  urine  as:  (1)  inorganic  salts,  including 
sodium  chloride;  calcium  chloride;  potassium 
and  sodium  sulphates;  sodium,  calcium,  and 
magnesium  phosphates ;  traces  of  silicates ;  alka¬ 
line  carbonates;  nitrates  in  small  quantity; 
traces  of  iron.  (2)  Nitrogenous  crystalline 
bodies,  including  urea,  uric  acid,  kreatinin,  xan- 
tliin,  hypoxanthin,  and  occasionally  allantoin ; 
hippuric  acid,  ammonium  oxalate;  and  rarely 
taurin,  cystin,  leucin,  and  tyrosin.  (3)  Nonnitro- 
genous  bodies,  including  lactic,  succinic,  formic, 
oxalic,  and  phenylic  acids;  and  rarely  sugar  in 
minute  amount.  (4)  Pigments,  including  urobi¬ 
lin,  purpurin,  and  indican.  (5)  Other  bodies, 
including  ferments  from  the  various  digestive 
fluids  of  the  body.  (6)  Gases,  rarely,  in  very 
small  quantities,  chiefly  nitrogen  and  carbonic 
acid. 

The  acidity  of  normal  urine  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  the  acid  sodium  biphosphate.  At 
times  the  urine  of  digestion  is  alkaline,  and 
frequently  urine  decomposes  rapidly  and  be¬ 
comes  alkaline.  Upon  standing  and  cooling,  it 
frequently  becomes  cloudy  from  the  urates,  and 
a  sediment  of  pink  urates  occurs;  or  in  other 
cases  an  increase  of  oxalate  of  ammonium,  to¬ 
gether  with  mucus,  forms  a  thick  precipitate  or 
deposit.  This  occurrence  by  no  means  indicates 
disease  of  the  kidneys,  as  the  laity  are  apt  to 
imagine.  Among  the  abnormal  constituents  of 
urine  are  blood,  pus,  epithelium  from  bladder, 
kidney,  ureter,  or  vagina,  spermatozoa,  albumin, 
fibrin  in  the  form  of  casts,  fats,  sugar,  etc.,  dur¬ 
ing  various  conditions  or  diseases.  In  Bright’s 
disease  (q.v. )  albumin  and  casts  are  generally 
found. 

Urea  is  determined  most  easily  by  a  test  with 
hvpobromate  of  potassium.  The  total  excretion 
each  day  should  be  between  300  and  600  grains. 
Uric  acid  generally  precipitates  in  a  few  days 
if  the  urine  be  allowed  to  stand.  Sugar  is 
generallv  detected  bv  using  a  solution  of  sul- 
phate  of  copper,  which  is  reduced  and  precipi¬ 
tated  in  the  form  of  the  orange-colored  oxide  in 
the  presence  of  glucose.  Albumin  responds  to 
boiling  or  the  nitric-acid  test,  either  of  which 
causes  a  permanent  cloud  in  the  urine  if  albu¬ 
min  be  present.  Phosphates  cause  a  white  cloud 
on  boiling  the  urine,  which  is  dissolved  and 
cleared  away  by  adding  a  drop  of  acetic  acid. 
Chlorides,  ammonia,  and  urates  have  their  spe¬ 
cial  chemical  tests. 

Urinary  Deposits  are  of  rare  beauty  and  in¬ 
terest  under  the  microscope.  Besides  blood, 
pus,  and  epithelial  cells  occurring  during  grave 


illness,  several  crystals  are  found  in  ordinary 
urine  with  slight  variations  in  health.  After 
standing  for  a  time  at  a  moderate  temperature, 
amorphous  granular  matter  precipitates  in  most 
specimens  of  urine,  soluble  by  heat,  and  com¬ 
posed  of  the  urates  of  calcium  and  magnesium 
with  the  acid  urates  of  potassium,  sodium,  and 
ammonium.  These  deposits  are  probably  caused 
by  the  excess  of  phosphoric  acid  furnished  by 
the  acid  sodium  biphospbate,  which  decomposes 
the  alkaline  urates.  After  a  longer  period, 
from  a  few  days  to  two  weeks,  alkaline  fermenta¬ 
tion  supervenes,  due  to  the  presence  of  yeast 
fungus  and  mucus.  During  this  process  urea  is 
converted  into  carbonate  of  ammonium.  As  this 
fermentation  begins,  the  uric-acid  crystals,  oc¬ 
curring  as  red  pepper  dust  in  the  receptacle, 
begin  to  dissolve,  while  adhering  to  their  frag¬ 
ments  we  find  prismatic  crystals  of  urate  of 
sodium  and  spheroids  of  urate  of  ammonium. 
When  the  alkalinity  of  the  urine  is  established 
amorphous  granules  of  phosphate  of  lime  appear, 
together  with  triangular  prisms  of  triple  phos¬ 
phates  of  ammonium  and  magnesium,  and  octa¬ 
hedral  crystals  of  oxalate  of  calcium. 

These  changes  may  progress  in  the  pelvis 
of  the  kidney  or  in  the  bladder.  Uric-acid 
gravel  or  calculus  is  found  in  either  situation, 
causing  much  pain  and  a  grave  pathological  con¬ 
dition,  as  the  changes  in  the  mucous  membrane 
lining  either  cavity  are  important.  (See  Cal¬ 
culus.)  Uric  acid  or  urate  calculi  are  gen¬ 
erally  red  and  quite  hard.  Oxalate  calculi 
are  usually  found,  when  present,  in  the  pelvis  of 
the  kidney,  and  are  of  such  shape  and  color 
as  to  be  called  mulberry  calculi.  Phosphatic 
calculi  are  white  and  soft,  and  often  appear  as 
dust.  Calcium  carbonate,  cystin,  and  xanthin 
calculi  are  rare.  Calculi  may  be  prevented,  and 
probably  phosphatic  calculi  may  be  dissolved 
in  the  bladder  by  the  use  of  alkaline  waters, 
lithia  waters,  or  salicylates.  They  cause  severe 
inflammatory  conditions  in  most  cases.  See 
Indican;  Lithic-Acid  Diathesis;  Microscopy, 
Clinical;  Phosphatic  Diathesis.  Consult 
E.  C.  Simon,  A  Manual  of  Clinical  Diagnosis 
(8th  ed.,  Philadelphia,  1914). 

URINE,  Incontinence  of,  or  Enuresis.  A 
common  affection  in  childhood  but  sometimes 
occurring  in  advanced  life.  The  child  discharges 
its  urine  in  bed  during  sleep.  The  habit 
may  often  be  broken  by  proper  domestic  man¬ 
agement,  as  withholding  any  excess  of  fluids 
before  going  to  bed,  by  waking  it  and  making  it 
empty  the  bladder  late  at  night.  The  most  cer¬ 
tain  medicinal  remedy  is  belladonna.  But  many 
different  sources  of  irritation  may  be  operative, 
and  these  must  be  sought  for  and  eliminated. 
Among  the  more  common  are  worms,  enlarged 
tonsils,  and  adenoid  growths  (which  produce  a 
semiasphyxiated  condition  during  sleep),  and 
phimosis.  Enuresis  is  seen  in  some  cases  of 
cerebral  or  spinal  disease,  when  it  is  of  a  differ¬ 
ent  nature.  In  these  patients  the  bladder  be¬ 
comes  filled,  and  subsequently  formed  urine 
dribbles  away,  owing  to  a  failure  in  the  nerve 
mechanism  to  cause  contraction  of  the  muscle  ' 
fibres  in  the  wall  of  the  viscus. 

URINE,  RETENTION  OF.  See  Retention 
of  Urine;  Strangury. 

URIU,  oo'ri-oo,  Sotokichi,  Baron  (1857- 
) .  A  Japanese  admiral,  born  in  Ishika- 
waken.  He  graduated  from  a  Japanese  naval 
academy,  and  in  1881  from  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis.  Afterward  he 


URIYA  LANGUAGE 


UROTROPIN 


815 


was  promoted  through  the  various  grades  to 
captain  (1892),  rear  admiral  (1900)t,  and  vice 
admiral  (1904)  in  the  Japanese  navy.  During 
the  China-Japan  War  he  was  naval  attache 
at  Paris.  Later  he  served  as  captain  of  the 
Matsushima,  and  then  of  the  Yashima.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  Russo-Japanese  War  he  commanded  the 
Second  squadron,  blockaded  the  port  of  Che¬ 
mulpo,  and  there  sank  the  Russian  cruisers  Va- 
riag  and  Kortiez.  For  his  war  services  he  was 
decorated  with  the  first  class  of  the  Rising  Sun 
and  the  second  class  of  the  Golden  Kite  in  1906, 
and  created  Baron  in  1907. 

UR'IYA  (or  Oriya)  LANGUAGE  AND 
LITERATURE  (Skt.  Odra,  Utkali).  The  lan¬ 
guage  and  literature  of  Orissa  ( q.v. ) ,  in  Bengal, 
spoken  by  about  9,000,000  persons.  Together 
with  Bengali  (q.v.),  Bihari  (q.v.),  and  Assamese 
(see  Assam),  it  forms  the  eastern  group  of  the 
Indo-Aryan  family  of  languages.  Like  the  other 
modern  Aryan  languages  of  India,  it  is  analytic 
in  structure.  In  grammatical  construction 
Uriya  is  related  to  Bengali,  although  it  resembles 
Hindi.  (See  Hindustani  Language  and  Lit¬ 
erature.  )  Its  resemblance  to  Bengali  consists  in 
the  fact  that  the  plural  is  signified  by  a  noun 
meaning  multitude,  and  that  the  first  and  second 
persons  singular  of  the  verb  are  used  only  by 
the  uneducated.  But  it  differs  from  Bengali 
in  that  its  spelling  is  much  more  phonetic,  and 
that  it  possesses  a  very  complete  set  of  verbal 
nouns,  present,  past,  and  future.  In  grammati¬ 
cal  development  as  well  as  vocabulary  Uriya  is 
very  archaic  and  can  only  be  compared  to  Vedic. 
The  vocabulary,  however,  is  largely  composed  of 
Sanskrit  loan  words,  of  which  Uriya  possesses 
more  than  any  other  of  its  kindred  languages. 
The  standard  dialect  is  that  of  Cuttack.  The 
script,  which  is  derived  from  the  Devanagari 
(q.v.),  is  noteworthy  among  the  North  Indian 
alphabets  in  that  it  is  characterized  by  curves 
instead  of  angles.  Uriya  literature,  which  is 
rather  scanty,  cannot  be  traced  beyond  the  six¬ 
teenth  century.  It  begins  with  Upendra-Bhanja, 
the  author  of  more  than  30  poems,  most  of 
them  religious  or  erotic,  although  he  also  wrote 
two  dictionaries.  Contemporary  with  him  was 
Dina-Krushna  Dasa,  who  composed  the  most 
famous  Uriya  poem,  the  obscene  Rasakallola 
(edited  at  Cuttack,  1897).  Most  of  the  litera¬ 
ture,  however,  consists  of  translations  or  para¬ 
phrases  of  Sanskrit  works,  such  as  the  Ramd- 
ya.na  (q.v.),  the  Bhagavadgltd  (q.v.),  and  some 
of  the  Purdnas  (q.v.),  while  in  later  times  the 
tendency  has  been  to  translate  or  adapt  Bengali 
and  English  books.  Its  modern  prose  works  are, 
therefore,  of  rather  doubtful  value. 

Bibliography.  Beames,  Comparative  Gram¬ 
mar  of  the  Modern  Aryan  Languages  of  India 
(3  vols.,  London,  1872-79)  ;  Cust,  Modern  Lan¬ 
guages  of  the  East  Indies  (ib.,  1878)  ;  Hallam, 
Oriya  Grammar  for  English  Students  (Calcutta, 
1874)  ;  Maltby,  Practical  Handbook  of  the  TJriya 
Language  (ib.,  1874)  ;  Jagannath  Rao,  Utkal 
Abhidhdn:  A  Dictionary  of  the  Uriya  Language 
(Cuttack,  1891);  Chakravarti,  “Notes  on  the 
Language  and  Literature  of  Orissa,”  in  the  Jour¬ 
nal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  Bengal  Branch, 
vols.  lxvi-lxvii  (Calcutta,  1900)  ;  Grierson, 
“Indo-Aryan  Family:  Eastern  Group,”  in  the 
Linguistic  Survey  of  India-,  vol.  v,  part  ii  (ib., 
1903). 

URLICHS,  oor'liKs,  Ludwig  von  (1813-89). 
A  German  classical  scholar,  born  in  Osnabriick 
and  educated  at  Bonn.  He  taught  at  Bonn  from 


1844  to  1847,  was  then  called  to  Greifswald  and 
in  1855  to  Wurzburg.  He  wrote  on  the  history 
of  art,  Skopas ’  Leben  und  Werke  (1863),  Die 
Anfange  der  griechischen  Kunstlergeschichte 
(1871-72),  and  Beitrdge  zur  Kunstgeschichte 
(1885)  ;  and  on  Tacitus  and  Pliny.  His  “Grund- 
legung  und  Geschichte  der  klassischen  Altertums- 
wissenschaft”  (1886;  2d  ed.,  1892),  in  Iwan 
Muller’s  Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertums- 
wissenschaft,  is  his  most  important  work  in 
classical  philology. 

URLUS,  ur'lus,  Jacques  (1873-  ).  A 

German  dramatic  tenor,  born  at  Hergenrath, 
near  Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  began  his  musical 
studies  at  Utrecht,  and  continued  them  at 
Amsterdam  under  Averkamp  and  Nolthenius  and 
at  the  conservatory.  His  d6but  took  place  in 
1894  at  the  Opera  in  Amsterdam,  where  he 
remained  for  six  years.  Engaged  for  the  Leip¬ 
zig  Opera,  in  1900,  he  created  so  deep  an  im¬ 
pression  there  that  he  was  asked  to  participate 
in  the  Wagner  *  festivals  at  Bayreuth  and 
Munich.  His  superb  interpretation  of  the  great 
Wagner  roles  secured  him  many  guest  appear¬ 
ances  at  Berlin,  Vienna,  Paris,  Amsterdam,  and 
Brussels.  In  1912,  when  he  made  his  American 
debut  at  Boston  as  Tristan,  he  won  instant  suc¬ 
cess,  and  from  1913  he  wras  a  regular  member 
of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House.  His  beauti¬ 
ful  singing  and  noble  acting  established  him  as 
an  operatic  favorite. 

URMIA,  oor-me'a.  A  lake  and  city  of  Persia. 
See  Urumiah. 

UROCHORDA,  u'rO-kor'da  (Neo-Lat.  nom. 
pi.,  from  Gk.  ovpa,  oura,  tail  4-  x°P^V,  chorde, 
chord).  A  class  of  chordate  animals,  the  ascid- 
ians  (q.v.). 

U'RODEGjA  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Gk. 
ovpa,  oura,  tail  -f-  drjXos,  delos,  manifest).  An 
order  of  the  Amphibia  which  comprises  the 
tailed  amphibians,  or  amphiumes,  salamanders, 
and  mud  puppies  ( qq.v. ) ,  in  which  both  fore  and 
hind  limbs  are  always  present,  and  which  have 
teeth  in  both  jaws;  and  the  sirens,  in  which 
the  hind  limbs,  maxillary  bones,  teeth,  and  eye¬ 
lids  are  absent.  This  order  is  confined  to  the 
north  temperate  zone,  except  a  few  forms  that 
extend  along  the  highlands  into  Venezuela. 
About  100  species  in  four  families  constitute 
the  entire  list.  These  families  are  the  Salaman- 
dridse,  Amphiermidse,  Proteidse,  and  Sirenidce. 
The  geological  origin  of  the  group  is  uncertain; 
representatives  are  numerous  in  the  Lower  Ter¬ 
tiary  strata  ;  and  a  single  Mesozoic  specimen  is 
known.  Consult  Hans  Gadow,  “Amphibia  and 
Reptiles,”  in  Cambridge  Natural  History,  vol. 
viii  (London,  1901),  and  E.  G.  Boulanger,  Rep¬ 
tiles  and  Batrachians  (New  York,  1914). 

UROT'ROPIN.  One  of  several  trade  names 
of  a  formaldehyde  derivative  called  hexamethyl- 
enamin,  having  the  formula  C6H12N4.  It  is  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  action  of  formaldehyde  on  ammonia 
and  is  a  valuable  internal  antiseptic,  particu¬ 
larly  on  the  urinary  organs,  being  decomposed 
in  the  tissues,  the  formaldehyde  being  set  free 
and  excreted  by  the  kidneys.  If  urotropin  is 
given  in  sufficiently  large  doses  formaldehyde  can 
be  detected  in  the  cerebrospinal  fluid  and  other 
secretions  of  the  body.  The  indications  for  its 
use  are,  therefore,  infections  of  the  kidneys, 
bladder,  and  urethra,  such  as  pyelitis,  cystitis, 
and  urethritis.  It  is  also  advocated  as  a  pro¬ 
phylactic  against  meningitis  and  scarlatinal 
nephritis,  and  is  of  value  in  diarrhoea  and  as 
a  solvent  of  uric  acid.  In  cases  of  early  cerebro- 


URQUHART 


816 


URSO 


spinal  meningitis  it  may  be  injected  directly 
into  the  spinal  canal.  Certain  individuals  have 
an  idiosyncrasy  against  the  drug,  and  in  them 
symptoms  of  severe  renal  irritation  may  arise. 
Other  trade  names  of  hexamethylenamin  are 
cystogen,  formin,  aminoform,  and  uritone. 

'  URQTJHART,  er'kert,  David  (1805-77).  A 
British  diplomat  and  political  writer.  He  was 
born  in  Scotland,  and  was  educated  at  St.  John’s 
College,  Oxford.  He  took  part  in  the  Creek  war 
of  independence.  In  1835-36  he  was  Secretary  of 
the  British  Embassy  at  Constantinople.  Because 
of  opposition  to  the  Eastern  policy  of  Lord 
Palmerston,  whom  he  suspected  of  collusion 
with  the  Czar,  he  resigned  his  position.  After 
traveling  in  all  parts  of  the  East  to  obtain 
further  information  respecting  the  commercial 
and  political  influence  of  Russia,  he  returned 
to  England,  and  both  in  his  writings  and  in 
Parliament  (1847-52)  openly  charged  the  Pal¬ 
merston  ministry  with  betrayal  of  British  in¬ 
terests.  His  publications  include:  Turkey  and 
Its  Resources  (1833);  The  Spirit  of  the  East 
(1838);  The  Mystery  of  the  Danube  (1844); 
Letters  and  Essays  on  Russian  Aggressions 
(1853)  ;  and  other  books  bearing  on  the  Eastern 
Question. 

URQUHART,  or  URCHARD,  Sir  Thomas 
(1611-60).  An  English  author.  He  belonged  to 
an  ancient  family  of  Cromarty  in  Scotland. 
He  was  educated  at  King’s  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  traveled  in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy.  He 
was  on  the  Royalist  side  in  the  Revolution; 
was  knighted  by  Charles  I  in  1641;  and  fought 
at  the  battle  of  Worcester.  He  was  taken  pris¬ 
oner  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  and  then 
in  Windsor  Castle,  but  was  soon  released  on 
parole.  Of  his  last  years  little  is  known.  He 
is  said  to  have  died  abroad  in  an  uncontrollable 
fit  of  laughter  on  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
He  is  still  known  for  his  excellent  translation 
of  Rabelais  ( two  books  of  Gargantua  in  two 
vols.,  1653;  reissued,  with  a  third  translated 
book  by  Urquhart  and  with  the  rest  rendered 
by  P.  A.  Motteux  in  Bohn’s  Library,  London, 
1897,  and  in  Tudor  Translations  Series,  London, 
1899).  Of  great  interest  is  his  poem  The 
Jewel,  in  which  is  described  a  universal  lan¬ 
guage  (1652),  a  kind  of  forbear  of  Volapiik, 
which  he  himself  had  concocted.  In  his  Promp- 
tuary  of  Time  (1652)  he  traced  his  family 
back  to  the  red  earth  from  which  God  created 
Adam.  He  also  published  Epigrams,  Divine 
and  Moral  (1641)  ;  The  Trissotetras ;  or  a  most 
Exquisite  Table  for  Resolving  all  Manner  of  Tri¬ 
angles  (1645)  ;  and  other  curious  books. 

URQUIZA,  oor-ke'tha,  Justo  Jose  (1800- 
70).  An  Argentine  soldier  and  politician,  born 
at  Arroyo  de  la  China,  Entre  Rfos.  He  was 
educated  bv  the  Jesuits  and  attained  sfreat 
prominence  in  his  native  province  as  an  adherent 
of  the  Federal  party.  In  1844-45  he  fought 
with  sanguinary  distinction  in  Uruguay.  He 
was  early  a  supporter  of  J.  M.  Rosas  *  ( q.v. ) , 
and  in  1846  was  elected  Governor  of  Entre  Rios. 
When  Rosas  tried  to  destroy  the  autonomy  of 
the  Argentine  states  Urquiza  revolted,  formed 
an  alliance  with  Brazil  and  Uruguay,  and,  enter¬ 
ing  the  latter  country  in  June,  forced  Oribe,  the 
general  of  Rosas,  to  capitulate.  Urquiza  then 
crossed  into  Buenos  Aires,  and  at  Monte 
Caseros,  Feb.  3,  1852,  defeated  Rosas,  who  was 
compelled  to  flee.  After  the  formation  of  the 
new  constitution  in  1853  he  was  elected  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Argentine  Confederation,  which  in¬ 


cluded  all  the  states  excepting  Buenos  Aires, 
and  by  his  victory  at  Cepeda,  Oct.  23,  1859, 
forced  that  state,  too,  to  lend  its  adhesion.  His 
term  of  office  ended  in  the  same  year.  Soon 
afterward  Buenos  Aires  revolted,  and  Urquiza, 
at  the  head  of  the  forces  of  the  confederation, 
was  defeated  by  Gen.  Bartolome  Mitre  (q.v.) 
at  Pav6n,  Sept.  17,  1861.  Urquiza  was  later 
again  Governor  of  Entre  Rios  and  served  as 
general  in  the  early  part  of  the  Paraguayan 
War.  He  was  assassinated  by  political  enemies 
on  his  estate  at  San  Jos6,  near  Concepcion. 

UR/SA  MA'JOR  (Lat.,  greater  bear)  and 
UR'SA  MUNOR  (Lat.,  lesser  bear).  Two  cele¬ 
brated  constellations  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
of  the  heavens.  Ursa  Major  was  distinguished 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Homer  by  the  names 
Arktos,  the  Bear,  and  Hamaxa,  the  Wagon.  The 
Roman  name  Ursa  was  a  translation  of  the 
Greek  Arktos ;  the  Romans  also  called  the  seven 
bright  stars  the  Septentriones,  the  seven  plowing 
oxen.  The  common  names  throughout  Europe 
for  these  seven  stars  are  the  Plow,  Charles’s 
Wain,  the  Wagon,  evidently  derived  from  the 
classical  epithets  above  mentioned;  in  America 
they  are  called  the  Dipper,  from  the  resemblance 
to  that  utensil.  This  remarkable  group  of  stars, 
being  within  40°  of  the  North  Pole,  never  sinks 
below  the  horizon  in  northern  latitudes  higher 
than  40°.  The  constellation  contains  a  consider¬ 
able  number  of  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye; 
there  is,  however,  none  of  the  first  magnitude, 
but  at  least  16  are  of  the  third  magnitude  or 
brighter.  Of  the  seven  stars  constituting  the 
Dipper,  six,  viz.,  a,  (3,  y,  e,  f,  and  y,  are  of 
second  magnitude,  while  the  seventh,  5,  is  of  the 
third  magnitude;  a  and  /3  are  known  as  the 
Pointers,  because  a  line  drawn  through  them 
points  directly  at  the  polestar  (q.v.).  f  Ursie 
Majoris,  or  Mizar,  was  the  first  star  to  be  recog¬ 
nized  as  double,  its  two  components,  of  magni¬ 
tudes  2.4  and  4  respectively,  being  separated  by 
about  14.6";  in  1889  Pickering  found  that  the 
brighter  component  was  itself  a  spectroscopic 
binary. 

Ursa  Minor  is  less  prominent  in  the  heavens. 
The  star  a  in  the  extremity  of  the  tail  of  the 
Little  Bear,  at  present  the  polestar  (q.v.),  is 
the  brightest  in  the  constellation,  though  only 
of  the  second  magnitude. 

URSEREN,  ur'ze-ren.  See  Andermatt. 

UR'SIDAi!.  The  family  of  the  bears  (q.v.). 

URSUNUS,  Ger.  pron.  oor-se'nus  (Latinized 
form  of  his  German  name  Bar),  Zacharias 
(1534-83).  A  Reformed  church  theologian.  He 
was  born  at  Breslau,  and  studied  at  Wittenberg 
under  Melanchthon,  at  Geneva  under  Calvin, 
and  at  Paris.  He  became  professor  at  Heidel¬ 
berg  (1561)  and  teacher  at  Neustadt-on-the- 
Hardt  in  1578.  With  Olevianus  he  drew  up  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  wrote  in  its  defense. 
His  collected  works  appeared  at  Heidelberg  in 
3  vols.  (1612  et  seq. ).  Consult  Sudhoff,  Olevi¬ 
anus  und  Ursinus  (Elberfeld,  1857). 

URSO,  ur'sd',  Camilla  (1842-1902).  A 
French  violinist,  born  at  Nantes,  France.  She 
studied  with  Massart  in  Paris,  and,  about  1852, 
played  in  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and 
other  American  cities.  She  was  exceedingly 
successful,  especially  in  concerts  with  Alboni 
and  Sontag.  She  returned  to  France  after  hav¬ 
ing  toured  Canada,  and  in  1866  again  visited 
New  York.  Subsequently  she  made  tours  of 
Australia  and  South  Africa.  After  1895  she 
lived  in  New  York. 


URSUA 


URTICARIA 


817 


URSUA,  oor-soo'a,  or  ORSUA,  Pedro 
(c.1510-61).  A  Spanish  soldier  and  explorer, 
born  in  Ursua,  near  Pamplona,  Navarre.  About 
1544  he  went  to  New  Granada,  where  he  became 
Governor  in  1545,  and  in  1547  and  again  in 
1549  marched  to  the  northeast  in  search  of 
Eldorado,  making  several  settlements,  among 
them  Pamplona.  In  1559  he  was  sent  by  the 
Viceroy  of  Peru  to  search  again  for  Eldorado  or 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Omaguas,  on  the  Peruvian 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon.  This  expedition 
seems  to  have  been  sent  in  order  to  rid  Peru 
of  the  many  soldiers  of  fortune,  who  were 
eager  to  enlist.  One  of  them,  Lope  de  Aguirre 
(q.v. ),  after  the  expedition  had  sailed  down 
the  Huallaga,  formed  a  conspiracy,  the  out¬ 
come  of  which  was  the  assassination  of  Ursua. 

UR'SULA,  Saint.  A  saint  and  martyr  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  church.  She  is  held  in 
especial  reverence  at  Cologne,  the  reputed  place 
of  her  martyrdom.  October  21  is  her  day  in 
the  church’s  calendar,  and  the  date  of  her  mar¬ 
tyrdom  is  variously  given  as  237,  283,  and  451. 
The  official  date,  however,  is  237. 

The  legend  appears  in  various  forms,  but 
the  common  element  seems  to  be  that  Ursula 
was  the  daughter  of  a  British  King,  and  that 
her  hand  was  asked  by  another  King  for  his  son, 
who  threatened  to  lay  waste  the  land  if  he 
were  refused.  But  Ursula  had  been  vowed  to 
virginity.  At  last  she  succeeded  in  gaining 
three  years’  delay,  during  which  time  she  was 
to  visit  various  holy  places  in  company  with 
11,000  virgins.  They  took  ship  and  sailed  up 
the  Rhine  to  Basel,  and  thence  went  to  Rome  on 
foot.  They  returned  and  sailed  down  the  Rhine 
again  as  far  as  Cologne,  where  they  were  mas¬ 
sacred  one  and  all  by  the  Huns.  They  were 
buried  by  the  inhabitants  of  Cologne  with  great 
honors,  and  a  church  was  built  over  their 
remains. 

The  legend  is  entirely  unknown  to  Jerome, 
Bede,  Rabanus  Maurus,  and  Gregory  of  Tours, 
though  the  latter  gives  a  detailed  description 
of  the  church.  The  earliest  traces  of  the 
legend  appear  in  the  ninth  century,  and  in  the 
succeeding  centuries,  references  to  it  become 
common.  Great  interest  was  excited  in  the 
twelfth  century  by  the  discovery  of  an  old 
Roman  cemetery  in  Cologne,  whose  bones  were 
thought  to  be  those  of  the  slaughtered  virgins. 
The  vision  of  an  ecstatic  nun,  St.  Elizabeth  of 
Schonau,  and  of  a  monk,  Hermann  Joseph, 
purported  to  reconstruct  forgotten  details  of 
the  voyage  and  death  of  the  martyrs  and  thus 
added  considerably  to  the  legend. 

The  controversy  over  this  legend  has  con¬ 
tinued  for  many  hundred  years.  The  conserva¬ 
tive  element  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
considers  it  probable  that  there  was  at  one 
time  a  massacre  of  virgins  at  Cologne  by  the 
Huns,  but  that  the  details  of  the  story  as 
given  at  the  present  time  are  mediaeval  fabrica¬ 
tions.  The  rationalists  outside  of  the  church 
follow  Schade’s  theory  that  the  story  of  Ursula 
is  only  a  Christianizing  of  an  old  German  myth, 
and  that  Ursula  is  really  Freya,  called  in 
Swabia  Hbrsel,  or  Ursul,  with  the  same  at¬ 
tributes  as  the  moon  divinities  in  other  lands. 

Consult:  Crombach,  Vita  et  Martyrium  Sanctce 
Ursula?  et  Sociarum  (Cologne,  1547)  ;  Schade, 
Die  Sage  von  der  heiligen  Ursule  und  den  elf- 
tausend  Jungfrauen  (Hanover,  1854)  ;  G.  F. 
Tout,  “Legend  of  St.  Ursula,”  in  Historical  Es¬ 
says,  by  various  authors  (London,  1902).  For 


controversial  replies  to  Schade:  De  Buck,  Acta 
Sanctorum  (Brussels,  1858)  ;  Kessel,  Ursula 
und  Hire  Gesellschaft  (Cologne,  1863). 

UR'SULINES.  A  religious  order  for  women 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  founded  for  the 
education  of  girls.  It  takes  its  origin  from 
St.  Angela  Merici  (q.v.).  A  rule  in  25  chapters 
was  projected  by  Angela,  and  finally  approved 
(1536)  by  the  Bishop  of  Brescia,  Cardinal 
Francis  Cornaro.  Angela  was  herself  chosen 
as  the  first  superior,  in  the  year  1537,  the  com¬ 
munity  even  at  that  time  numbering  as  many 
as  76  sisters.  In  the  year  1565  a  house  was 
opened  at  Cremona;  and  with  the  approval  of 
Popes  Gregory  XIII  and  Clement  VIII,  it  spread 
over  many  dioceses  of  Italy.  It  was  warmly 
encouraged  by  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  and  at  his 
death  there  were  no  fewer  than  18  convents  of 
the  order  in  his  diocese,  comprising  above  600 
nuns.  Soon  afterward  it  was  established  in 
France  (1584).  They  were  introduced  into 
Savoy  by  St.  Francis  de  Sales  in  1635;  and  in 
‘1639  a  convent  was  opened  in  Quebec.  They 
were  introduced  into  Vienna,  in  1660,  and  into 
Freiburg,  Kitzingen,  and  Prague  soon  afterward, 
where  they  have  continued  to  teach  with  great 
success.  They  now  number  300  convents  and 
7000  nuns  and  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.  The  Ursuline  Sisters  have  several  edu¬ 
cational  establishments  in  Ireland,  in  England, 
Scotland,  Canada,  and  in  1916  had  24  in  the 
United  States,  with  1665  sisters  and  more  than 
15,000  pupils.  Consult:  Sainte-Foi,  Annales 
de  Vordre  de  Sainte  Ursule  (Clermont-Ferrand, 
1858)  ;  Les  Ursulines  de  Quebec  (Quebec,  1868)  ; 
Glimpses  of  the  Monastery  (ib.,  1897);  Pohtel, 
Histoire  de  Sainte  Angele  Merici  et  de  tout 
Vordre  des  Ursulines  (Paris,  1878). 

UR’TICA'CEjE  (Neo-Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from 
Lat.  urtica,  nettle,  from  urere,  Skt.  us,  to  burn). 
A  dicotyledonous  family  known  as  the  nettle 
family,  comprising  about  40  genera  and  550 
species  of  wide  geographic  distribution,  and 
chiefly  herbs.  The  representative  genera  in 
the  North  American  flora  are  Urtica  (nettle), 
Pilea  (richweed),  Boehmeria  (false  nettle),  and 
Parietaria  ( pellitory ) . 

UR'TICA'RIA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Lat.  urtica, 
nettle),  Hives,  or  Nettle  Rash.  An  eruption 
of  the  skin,  coming  out  suddenly,  and  consisting 
of  firm,  round,  convex,  or  lenticular  elevations 
of  the  skin,  from  %  inch  to  an  inch  in  diameter, 
at  first  pink,  and  soon  becoming  white  in  the 
centre.  These  are  called  pomphi  or  wheals. 
They  are  scattered  or  closely  crowded  over  the 
part  affected,  and  are  not  symmetrical.  In 
some  cases  the  wheals  are  as  large  as  an  egg, 
this  condition  being  termed  giant  urticaria. 
In  the  acute  form  of  the  disorder  the  wheals 
arise  rapidly  and  subside  in  a  few  hours  or  a 
day  at  longest.  In  the  rarer,  chronic  form  they 
last  longer  and  recur  frequently.  Urticaria  is 
accompanied  by  intense  itching. 

The  causes  may  be  both  local  and  general. 
Among  the  local  causes  are  direct  irritants  such 
as  the  poison  of  the  stinging  nettle  (whence 
the  name),  the  stings  of  bees  and  wasps,  contact 
with  jellyfish  and  certain  caterpillars.  General 
or  svstemic  causes  mav  be  the  eating  of  shell- 
fish,  pork,  sausages,  mushrooms,  and  some  fruits, 
such  as  strawberries;  certain  drugs,  as  copaiba, 
cubebs,  quinine;  the  injection  of  antitoxin  or 
other  serums;  general  disorders,  such  as  gout, 
indigestion,  asthma,  and  in  women  pregnancy, 
menstruation,  and  lactation.  Sometimes  no 


URUBITINGA 


818 


URUGUAY 


cause  can  be  found  except  general  nervous  ir¬ 
ritability.  Treatment  must  depend  on  the  cause, 
which  should  be  sought  for  and  removed.  Acute 
cases,  of  dietetic  origin,  may  be  relieved  by  an 
emetic,  if  vomiting  and  diarrhoea  do  not  occur 
spontaneously.  In  the  chronic  form,  which  is 
often  very  stubborn,  if  the  urticaria  can  be 
traced  to  any  article  of  food,  this  should  be 
eliminated.  The  digestion  must  be  regulated, 
and  general  disorders,  such  as  gout,  treated  with 
appropriate  remedies.  For  the  severe  itching 
and  burning,  alkaline  baths  or  lotions,  or  mild 
solutions  of  carbolic  acid  or  other  antiseptics, 
may  be  used  locally.  Scratching  must  be 
avoided,  since  it  only  aggravates  the  affection. 
The  pharynx  or  larynx  may  be  the  seat  of 
urticaria  and  produce  alarming  attacks  of  suffo¬ 
cation. 

U'RUBITIN'GA  (from  Braz.  urubu,  vulture 
+  Tupi  tinga,  white,  beautiful ) .  A  large  hawk 
of  the  genus  Urubitinga,  several  species  of  which 
exist  in  tropical  America.  All  have  bluish 
black  plumage,  marked  with  white  on  the  rump  • 
and  tail.  One  species,  the  Mexican  black  hawk 
( Urubitinga  anthracina) ,  may  be  found  in  Ari¬ 
zona.  These  hawks  nest  in  large  trees,  and  lay 
white  eggs. 

URUGUAY,  u'ru-gwa  or  oo'roo-gwi'.  A  river 
of  South  America,  rising  on  the  west  slope 
of  the  Brazilian  coast  range,  and  emptying  into 
the  Plata  estuary  ( Map :  America,  South,  D  5 ) . 
Its  total  length  is  about  1000  miles.  The  greater 
part  of  its  course  lies  on  the  plateau,  and  the 
upper  portion,  known  as  the  Pelotas,  passes 
through  a  densely  forested  wilderness.  The 
banks  are  generally  high  as  far  as  Salto,  200 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  at  that 
point  navigation  is  obstructed  by  a  series  of 
rocky  reefs  and  rapids,  which  become  falls  at 
low  water.  Below  Salto  the  land  on  the  west 
bank  is  low  and  level,  and  periodically  inun¬ 
dated.  The  Uruguay  here  connects  by  lateral 
branches  with  the  Parana.  For  the  last  100 
miles  the  river  is  very  broad,  and  really  forms 
the  head  of  the  Plata  estuary,  though  the  name 
Uruguay  is  continued  to  the  Parana  confluence. 
The  river  is  navigable  for  large  sea-going  vessels 
to  Paysandfi,  about  150  miles,  and  for  smaller 
vessels  to  Salto,  while  barges  navigate  the 
stream  300  miles  above  the  rapids. 

URUGUAY,  officially  Republica  Oriental 
del  Uruguay.  The  smallest  of  the  South  Ameri¬ 
can  republics,  bounded  on  the  north  and  east 
by  Brazil,  on  the  east  and  south  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  on  the  south  and  west  by  Argentina, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Uruguay  and 
La  Plata  rivers.  Its  area  is  calculated  at 
72,168  square  miles. 

Topography  and  Minerals.  The  most  ele¬ 
vated  portions  of  Uruguay  lie  in  the  north  and 
northwest,  where  a  few  sharp  ridges  attain  a 
height  of  nearly  2000  feet.  Along  the  Uruguay 
River  are  found  table-lands  of  moderate  eleva¬ 
tion,  resembling  the  neighboring  pampas  of  Ar¬ 
gentina,  though  higher.  The  southeastern  coast 
portion  is  low  and  marshy,  with  sandy  stretches 
bordering  the  ocean,  while  the  interior  is  com¬ 
posed  of  rolling  plains  diversified  in  the  north 
and  northwest  by  low  ridges  of  hills.  Here  ex¬ 
tensive  forest  regions  also  occur,  especially  near 
the  rivers,  while  the  southeastern  portion  is 
largely  covered  with  grass.  The  hills  rest  upon 
an  old  crystalline  foundation  of  gneiss  and 
granite,  with  some  sandstone,  Tertiary  and  an¬ 
cient  eruptive  rocks,  and  possibly  Paleozoic  strata. 


The  maritime  and  river  coast  of  Uruguay  from 
Chuy  to  Santa  Rosa  is  685  miles  long.  After 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  the  Uruguay  the  Rio 
Negro,  wholly  within  the  Republic,  is  the  most 
important  river  and  for  a  portion  of  its  course 
is  navigable  for  small  craft.  But  little  advan¬ 
tage  has  been  taken  of  the  mineral  wealth,  though 
it  is  certain  that  silver,  copper,  magnesium,  iron, 
zinc,  lead,  gypsum,  sulphur,  asbestos,  antimony, 
and  coal  exist.  Gold  mines  are  worked  in  the 
northern  departments.  Precious  stones,  includ¬ 
ing  diamonds,  rubies,  jasper,  agate,  amethyst, 
and  topaz,  are  found.  Marble  and  other  building- 
stone  quarries  are  in  operation. 

Climate,  Flora,  and  Fauna.  The  almost  pen¬ 
insular  position  of  Uruguay  gives  it  a  delightful 
climate,  with  temperature  ranging  from  32°  to 
88°  F.  Occasionally  in  the  lowlands  the  tem¬ 
perature  rises  to  100°  F.  in  February,  while 
frosts  are  common  in  the  upland  regions,  where 
occasional  snows  also  occur  at  long  intervals. 
Rains  are  plentiful  throughout  the  year,  but  the 
greatest  precipitation  occurs  in  May  and  in  Oc¬ 
tober.  During  the  winter  months  cold  storms, 
known  as  pamperos,  blow  from  the  southwest. 
In  its  flora  and  fauna  Uruguay  in  the  northern 
part  resembles  southern  Brazil  and  in  the  south¬ 
ern  part  its  neighbor  Argentina.  See  Argen¬ 
tina;  Brazil. 

Industries.  During  recent  years  there  has 
been  a  steady  advance  in  agricultural  produc¬ 
tion.  Public  companies  facilitate  the  purchase 
of  land  by  settlers.  Up  to  1880  most  of  the 
breadstuff’s  were  imported,  but  since  1885  corn 
and  wheat  have  become  important  articles  of  ex¬ 
port.  The  grazing  industries  of  Uruguay  are, 
however,  the  chief  reliance  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  results  of  the  live-stock  census  of  1908  were 
as  follows:  cattle,  8,192,602;  milch  cows,  565,- 
854;  horses,  566,307;  mules,  17,671;  asses,  4428; 
sheep,  26,286,296;  goats,  19,951;  swine,  180,099; 
ostriches,  242,872.  The  increase  in  the  number 
of  cattle  between  1900  and  1908  was  20  per  cent 
and  of  sheep  41.3  per  cent.  In  1908  the  culti¬ 
vated  area  was  794,136  hectares;  since  that  date 
it  has  probably  increased  considerably,  1,000,000 
hectares  being  stated  unofficially  in  1915.  Nat¬ 
ural  meadows  and  pastures  amounted  to  15,- 
278,374  hectares  in  1908,  and  woodlands  to  433,- 
673  hectares.  The  following  table  shows  the 
area  in  hectares  under  leading  crops  in  the  year 
1914-15,  with  the  average  area  in  the  period 
1910-11  to  1914-15,  and  the  production  in 
metric  quintals  in  1914-15,  with  the  average 
production  in  1910—11  to  1914—15;  the  last  col¬ 
umn  shows  the  average  yield  per  hectare  in  the 
period  1910-11  to  1914-15. 


CROP 

HECTARES 

QUINTALS 

Qs. 

ha. 

1914-15 

Average 

1914-15 

Average 

Wheat . 

315,000 

309,990 

930,000 

1,605,452 

5.1 

Oats . 

33,531 

27,951 

150,890 

179,318 

6.5 

Corn . 

345,000 

264,145 

2,920,000 

1,807,741 

6.1 

Barley . 

1,782 

2,465 

8,019 

15,352 

5.9 

Linseed . 

40,000 

48,964 

140,000 

221,234 

5.8 

'Tnhneeo.  . 

1,224 

10,037 

8.2 

Vines 

18,500 

16,589 

*152,934 

*  Hectoliters  of  wine. 


Other  crops  of  importance  are  potatoes,  sweet 
potatoes,  beans,  fruits,  and  olives.  The  chief 
manufacture  is  flour.  There  are  saladeros  for 


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SOUTH  AMERICA 

SOUTHERN  PART 

SCALE  OF  STATUTE  MILES 


50  100  200  300  400 

SCALE  OF  KILOMETERS 


500 


0  100  200  300  400  500  000  7t0  800 

Important  towns  are  shown  In  heavy  face  type 
Railways  shown  thus 


West 


from 


Greenwich 


URUGUAY 


819 


URUGUAY 

the  production  of  jerked  and  salted  meats  for 
foreign  shipment. 

Transportation  and  Commerce.  There  were 
reported,  for  1914,  1601  miles  of  railway  in  op¬ 
eration  and  165  miles  under  construction.  The 
rivers  are  largely  utilized  for  inland  communica¬ 
tion,  and  in  addition  there  are  some  2250  miles 
of  national  highways  and  3100  miles  of  depart¬ 
mental  roads  and  paths  for  local  traffic.  In  1912 
the  merchant  marine  included  46  steamers,  of 
29,962  tons  net,  and  165  sail,  of  27,798  tons 
net.  Montevideo  is  the  chief  port  and  one  of 
the  best  on  the  coast.  The  value  of  the  special 
foreign  trade  in  merchandise  has  been  as  fol¬ 
lows,  in  thousands  of  pesos  gold : 


1907 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Imports . . . 

37,471 

37,157 

40^814 

44,798 

49.380 

52,600 

Exports . . . 

34,912 

45,109 

41,023 

44,537 

53,042 

67,600 

The  leading  imports  include  foodstuffs,  tex¬ 
tiles,.  machinery,  ironware,  and  jute;  the  ex¬ 
ports,  preserved  meats,  hides  and  horns,  tallow, 
cattle,  beef  extracts,  and  agricultural  products. 

Government.  The  constitution  of  Sept.  10, 
1829,  was  published  July  18,  1830.  The  legis¬ 
lative  power  is  vested  in  the  General  Assembly, 
or  Congress,  consisting  of  the  Senate  and  the 
House  of  Representatives.  Senators,  19  in  num¬ 
ber  ( one  for  each  department ) ,  are  elected  for 
six  years  by  indirect  vote.  Representatives,  90 
in  number,  are  elected  for  three  years  by  direct 
vote.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  the  Pres¬ 
ident,  elected  for  four  years  by  a  majority  vote 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives 
in  joint  session.  The  President  is  not  eli¬ 
gible  for  the  next  succeeding  term.  He  is 
assisted  by  a  responsible  minority  of  seven 
members.  Each  territorial  department  is  ad¬ 
ministered  by  an  executive,  appointed  by  the 
President,  and  a  council  elected  by  direct  vote. 
The  judiciary  is  composed  of  a  supreme  court, 
two  courts  of  appeal,  and  a  number  of  lower 
courts.  Justices  of  the  supreme  court  are  elected 
by  the  General  Assembly;  judges  of  other  courts 
are  appointed  by  the  supreme  court.  The  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  Republic  is  Montevideo  ( q.v. ) . 

Finance.  The  standard  of  value  is  gold,  and 
the  monetary  unit  is  the  peso,  whose  par  value  is 
$1.03424.  For  the  fiscal  year  1914  the.  esti¬ 
mated  revenue  and  expenditure  were  36,597,360 
and  36,516,877  pesos  respectively.  For  the  same 
year  customs  revenue  was  estimated  at  17,600,- 
000  pesos.  Public  debt,  Dec.  31,  1913:  foreign 
consolidated,  118,487,935  pesos;  international, 
2,190,500;  internal,  15,620,423;  total,  136,298,- 
858.  Service  of  the  debt  in  1913  was  5,366,733 
pesos;  in  addition  redemptions  amounted  to 
2,514,013  pesos.  The  Bank  of  the  Republic,  es¬ 
tablished  in  1896,  had  a  nominal  capital  in  1911 
of  20,000,000  pesos;  the  paid-up  capital  at  the 
end  of  1913  was  13,027,778  pesos.  This  bank 
has  an  exclusive  right  of  issue.  Its  note  circu¬ 
lation  in  January,  1915,  was  23,295,886  pesos, 
and  its  stock  of  gold  11,647,109  pesos. 

Army.  The  regular  army  is  recruited  by  vol¬ 
untary  enlistment  and  consisted,  in  1915,  of  17 
battalions  and  4  rifle  companies  of  infantry,  16 
regiments  of  cavalry,  3  field  artillery  regiments 
of  only  3  batteries  each,  1  company  of  fortress 
artillery,  1  machine  gun  company,  1  sanitary 
company.  Total  peace  strength  about  10,500; 


initial  mobilization  for  war  estimated  at  50,000. 
Enlistment  period  from  two  to  five  years,  with 
the  privilege  of  reenlistment  until  the  age  of 

44.  In  the  militia  service  is  compulsory  between 
the  ages  of  17  and  45,  as  follows:  first  class, 
physically  fit,  between  17  and  30,  numbers  about 
20,000,  takes  the  field  with  the  regular  army  in 
war  ;  second  class,  physically  fit,  between  30  and 

45,  recruited  and  serving  in  territorial  depart¬ 
ments,  but  available  to  supply  vacancies  created 
in  field  forces  in  war;  third  class,  all  other  men 
between  19  and  45,  not  included  in  first  two 
classes,  liable  for  local  home  defense  only.  Total 
strength  of  three  classes  estimated  at  170,000 
men.  For  navy,  see  Navies. 

Population.  By  departments  the  area  and 
the  population,  according  to  the  census  of  Oct. 
12,  1908,  and  an  estimate  of  Dec.  31,  1913,  are 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


DEPARTMENT 

Sq.  m. 

Pop.,  1908 

Pop.,  1913 

Artigas . 

4,393 

26,321 

36,340 

Canelones . 

1,835 

87,874 

107,068 

Carro  Largo . 

.  5,764 

44,742 

54,005 

Colonia . 

2,194 

54,644 

74,458 

Durazno . 

5,527 

42,325 

51,787 

Flores . 

1,745 

16,082 

21,562 

Florida . 

4,675 

45,406 

56,917 

Maldonado . 

1,587 

28,820 

37,125 

Minas . 

4,820 

51,222 

62,920 

Montevideo . 

256 

309,231 

364,343 

Paysandu . 

5,115 

38,421 

60,512 

Rio  Negro . 

3,270 

19,932 

33,529 

Rivera . 

3,795 

35,683 

43,342 

Rocha . 

4,281 

34,119 

43,309 

Salto . 

4,865 

46,259 

66,493 

San  Jos6 . 

2,688 

46,325 

57,011 

Soriano . 

3,561 

39,565 

51,413 

Tacuarembo . 

8,114 

46,939 

56,438 

Treinta  y  Tres . 

3,683 

28,777 

37,192 

Total . 

72,168 

1,042,686 

1,315,714 

Of  the  total  at  the  1908  census,  861,464  (82.62 
per  cent)  were  natives,  and  180,722  (17.38  per 
cent)  foreigners.  The  foreigners  included  62,357 
Italians,  54,885  Brazilians,  18,600  Argentines, 
8341  French,  1444  Turks  and  Syrians,  1406 
Swiss,  1324  British,  and  1112  Germans.  Of  the 
natives,  48.82  per  cent  were  males;  of  the  for¬ 
eigners,  60.68  per  cent.  The  only  large  city  is 
Montevideo,  which  in  1908  had  291,465  inhab¬ 
itants.  The  town  of  Paysandu  had  20,953 ;  Salto, 
19,788;  Mercedes,  15,667;  Minas,  13,345;  Melo, 
12,355;  San  Jose,  12,297;  Rocha,  12,200. 

Education  and  Religion.  In  1908  the  popu¬ 
lation  five  years  of  age  and  over  numbered  873,- 
231;  of  these,  illiterates  numbered  347,491.  Pri¬ 
mary  instruction  is  nominally  compulsory.  In 
1913  there  were  986  public  schools,  with  an  en¬ 
rollment  of  91,746;  private  schools  numbered 
238,  with  an  enrollment  of  21,874.  There  are 
several  secondary  schools  and  normal  schools,  a 
school  of  arts  and  trades,  and  a  military  college. 
At  Montevideo  is  the  University  of  Uruguay, 
which  in  1910  had  112  teachers,  530  regular  stu¬ 
dents,  and  661  students  receiving  secondary  in¬ 
struction.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the  state  re¬ 
ligion,  but  religious  toleration  prevails.  In  1908, 
of  the  population  15  years  of  age  and  over,  430,- 
095  were  Roman  Catholic,  12,232  Protestant, 
126,425  liberal,  and  45,470  other  and  unspecified. 

History.  The  natives  of  the  Banda  Oriental, 
the  region  to  the  northeast  of  the  Plata  River, 
for  many  years  prevented  any  exploration  of  the 
interior  and  in  1580  forced  the  garrison  to  aban¬ 
don  the  only  fort  established  in  their  territory, 


URUGUAY 


820 


URUGUAY 


on  the  San  Salvador  River.  In  1003  a  powerful 
Spanish  force,  intended  to  protect  a  colony,  was 
defeated,  and  it  was  not  until  the  year  1024  that 
the  first  settlement  which  became  permanent  was 
founded,  at  Santo  Domingo  de  Soriano  on  the 
Rio  Negro.  The  Portuguese  of  Brazil  claimed  this 
region  as  a  part  of  their  territory,  and  their  out¬ 
posts  crept  down  the  coast  from  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
until  in  1080  they  established  themselves  at 
Sacramento,  not  far  distant  across  the  river  from 
Buenos  Aires.  The  local  Spanish  officials  profited 
by  the  commerce  between  this  city  and  the  Por¬ 
tuguese,  and  for  50  years  no  very  serious  efforts 
were  made  to  drive  them  away.  In  1723  the 
Portuguese  fortified  the  heights  surrounding  the 
Bay  of  Montevideo  and  apparently  planned  to 
enter  into  more  active  competition  with  Buenos 
Aires.  This  aroused  the  Spaniards,  who  promptly 
organized  an  expedition  which  forced  the  sur¬ 
render  of  the  Portuguese  works  at  Montevideo, 
where  a  colony  of  families  from  Buenos  Aires 
was  established.  Intermittent  conflicts  between 
the  two  claimants  fill  the  annals  of  the  remain¬ 
der  of  the  eighteenth  century,  resulting  in  the 
ultimate  establishment  of  the  Spanish  rule.  In 
1807  the  English  fleet  under  Popham  captured 
Montevideo,  but  their  occupation  ended  with  the 
failure  of  the  attack  on  Buenos  Aires.  The  in¬ 
habitants  of  Uruguay  promptly  joined  those  of 
Argentina  in  the  revolt  against  Spain  in  1810 
and  established  an  independent  confederation 
under  the  Protector  Artigas  (q.v. )  ;  the  Span¬ 
iards  were  driven  from  Montevideo  in  1814.  The 
country  was  weakened  and  demoralized  by  the 
efforts  to  drive  out  the  Spaniards,  and  the  Por¬ 
tuguese  in  Brazil,  perceiving  their  opportunity, 
revived  their  claim  to  the  territory.  They  cap¬ 
tured  Montevideo  (1817)  and  drove  Artigas  into 
the  interior,  until  lie  was  forced  to  take  refuge 
in  Paraguay.  Uruguay  was  annexed  to  Brazil 
as  the  Cisplatine  State.  The  Uruguayan  patriots 
established  headquarters  across  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata  in  Buenos  Aires,  watching  for  an  oppor¬ 
tunity  to  revive  the  struggle.  This  came  in 
1825,  when  “Thirty-three”  patriots  under  the 
leadership  of  Juan  Antonio  Lavalleja  crossed 
La  Plata  from  Buenos  Aires  to  free  Uruguay. 
The  insurgents  won  several  engagements  and 
shut  the  Portuguese  up  in  their  coast  strong¬ 
holds.  In  February,  1828,  the  Brazilians  were 
decisively  defeated,  and  in  August  peace  was 
concluded  and  the  independence  of  Uruguay  was 
recognized.  In  1830  the  Repfiblica  Oriental  del 
Uruguay  was  organized,  and  for  five  years  the 
country  enjoyed  comparative  quiet  under  the 
presidency  of  Fructuoso  Rivera.  In  1835  he  Avas 
succeeded  by  Manuel  Oribe,  and  soon  a  political 
conflict  broke  out  between  the  tivo,  terminating 
in  civil  Avar.  Rivera  made  himself  the  leader  of 
the  Gauchos  (q.v. )  constituting  the  great  mass 
of  the  non-Indian  population,  Avhile  Oribe  repre¬ 
sented  the  interests  of  the  great  landowners.  In 
1838  RUera  succeeded  in  overthroAving  Oribe, 
aa’Iio  thereupon  turned  for  aid  to  Rosas  (q.v.), 
the  Dictator  of  Buenos  Aires.  With  the  aid  of 
Argentina’s  troops  Oribe  repeatedly  defeated  his 
rival,  but  could  not  make  himself  master  of 
Montevideo,  AArhich  Avas  besieged  from  1842  to 
1851.  In  the  latter  year  the  party  of  Rivera  con¬ 
cluded  an  alliance  with  Brazil,  and  the  State 
of  Entre  Rfos,  AAdiich  under  Urquiza  had  broken 
aAvay  from  the  Argentine  Confederation.  Oribe 
was  o\TerthroAvn,  and  the  party  of  Rivera  after 
a  short  inter Aral  Avas  restored  to  poAArer.  In  1854 
Venancio  Flores  Avas  elected  President,  but  Avas 


forced  to  resign  in  the  folloAving  vear.  There 
ensued  a  period  of  utter  disorder  marked  bv 
conflicts  of  the  Colorado  and  Blanco  parties  and 
close  successions  of  elections  and  insurrections 
until  in  18G4  Brazil  intervened  to  restore  order 
and  in  the  following  year  brought  Flores  back  to 
poAver.  An  alliance  with  Brazil  and  Argentina 
Avas  concluded  in  the  same  year,  directed  against 
the  Dictator  Lopez  (q.v.)  of  Paraguay.  This 
Avar,  Avhich  brought  ruin  upon  Paraguay,  ter¬ 
minated  in  1S70.  Flores  A\ms  assassinated  early 
in  1868,  and  five  years  later  Jose  Ellauri  Avas 
legally  elected  President.  During  his  adminis¬ 
tration  many  public  works  Avere  undertaken,  and 
the  transatlantic  cable  laid,  with  the  result  that 
the  national  finances  became  complicated. 

In  May,  1875,  Pedro  Varela  became  President, 
to  be  succeeded  a  year  later  by  Colonel  Latorre. 
Numerous  changes,  at  irregular  intervals,  fol¬ 
lowed.  President  Juan  Idiarte  Borda,  a  Colorado, 
Avho  Avas  elected  in  1894,  Avas  assassinated  dur¬ 
ing  a  Blanco  uprising  in  1897  and  Avas  succeeded 
by  Juan  Lindolfo  Cuestas,  Avho  in  spite  of  some 
attempts  at  revolution  retained  poAver  till  1903. 

Jos6  Batlle  y  Ordonez,  Avho  became  President  in 
1903,  had  to  contend  Avitli  the  opposition  of  the 
Blancos,  but  he  succeeded  in  restoring  tranquil¬ 
lity  to  the  Republic  before  the  end  of  his  term. 
He  actively  encouraged  public  Avorks,  higher 
education,  and  agriculture.  In  1907  Claudio 
Williman  entered  the  jjresidency.  During  his 
administration  a  boundary  treaty  A\ras  negotiated 
with  Brazil  (1907),  the  supreme  court  Avas  or¬ 
ganized,  and  a  divorce  law  was  passed  (190S). 
A  slight  revolutionary  disturbance  occurred  in 
1910,  OAving  to  the  candidacy  of  Batlle;  never¬ 
theless  he  Avas  reelected  and  entered  his  second 
term  on  March  1,  1911.  During  this  adminis¬ 
tration  an  eight-hour-day  bill  was  passed,  child 
labor  was  prohibited,  the  statistical  Avork  of  the 
government  Avas  organized,  economic  and  social 
betterment  Avas  undertaken,  and  afforestation 
and  colonization  were  fostered.  During  1914-15 
the  country  passed  through  a  seArere  financial 
crisis,  AA'hich  Avas  partially  relieved  by  foreign 
loans.  President  Feliciano  Viera  AATas  inaugu¬ 
rated  on  March  1,  1915,  and  announced  that  he 
would  endeavor  to  secure  constitutional  reform, 
practice  economy  in  the  government,  create  new 
sources  of  revenue,  foster  education,  stock  rais¬ 
ing,  and  agriculture,  and  proAdde  for  labor  leg¬ 
islation.  During  his  first  year  he  secured 
laws  favoring  agriculture  and  colonization  and 
providing  rules  for  prevention  of  accidents  to 
workingmen. 

Bibliography.  J.  H.  Murray,  Travels  in 
Uruguay,  South  America  (London,  1871);  Ra¬ 
mon  Lopez  Lomha,  La  republica  oriental  del  Uru¬ 
guay  (Montevideo,  1884)  ;  E.  Van  Bruyssel,  La 
republique  orientale  de  VUruguay  (Brussels, 
1889)  ;  F.  Vincent,  Ttound  and  about  South 
America  (NeAV  York,  1890)  ;  Arreguine,  Historia 
del  Uruguay  (Montevideo,  1892)  ;  Saint-Foix, 
La  republique  orientale  de  VUruguay  (Paris, 
1894)  ;  Julio  Silva  v  Autuna,  Comercio  exterior 
de  la  republica  oriental  del  Uruguay ,  ahos  1,887— 
94  (Montevideo,  1895)  ;  Francisco  Bauz&,  His¬ 
toria  de  la  domination  espanola  en  el  Uruguay 
(2d  ed.,  3  vols.,  ib.,  1895-97)  ;  A.  H.  Keane,  Cen¬ 
tral  and  South  America,  Ami.  i  (London,  1901)  ; 
Orestes  Arafijo,  Gobernantes  del  Uruguay  (2 
\rols.,  MonteAddeo,  1903—04)  ;  C.  M.  Maeso,  El 
Uruguay  a,  travSs  de  un  siglo  (ib.,  1910);  V. 
Sampognaro,  L’Uruguay  au  commencement  du 
XXe  siecle  (Brussels,  1910)  ;  W.  IJ.  Koebel, 


URUK 


821 


USE  INHERITANCE 


Uruguay,  in  “South  American  Series”  (London, 
1911)  ;  Orestes  Aralijo,  Diccionario  geogrdfico  del 
Uruguay  (2d  ed.,  Montevideo,  1912)  ;  Pan  Amer¬ 
ican  Union,  Commerce  of  Uruguay  for  1911 
(Washington,  1912)  ;  J.  A.  Hammerton,  The 
Real  Argentine  (New  York,  1915). 

URUK  (Babylonian;  Heb.  Erech) .  A  city 
in  ancient  Babylonia  on  the  site  of  modern 
Warka,  where  there  are  large  mounds  and 
numerous  ruins.  It  is  mentioned  even  in  the 
time  of  Gudea  of  Lagash.  (See  Babylonia; 
Erech.)  The  German  excavations  in  1913  re¬ 
vealed  that  the  city  was  still  flourishing  in  the 
Seleucid  and  Arsacid  periods.  It  may  have 
been  involved  in  the  revolt  of  Shamashsliumukin 
(648  b.c.),  since,  according  to  Ezra  iv.  9,  Arche- 
vites  were  carried  to  Samaria  by  Asurbanipal. 
Consult:  Loftus,  Travels  and  Researches  in  Chal¬ 
dea  and  Susiana,  with  an  Account  of  Excava¬ 
tions  at  Warka  (London,  1857)  ;  R.  Zehnpfund, 
Babylonien  in  ihren  wichtigsten  Ruinenstdtten 
(Leipzig,  1910)  ;  Eduard  Meyer,  Geschichte  des 
Altertums  (3d  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1913). 

URUMCHI,  or  URUMTCHI,  u-room'chs. 
The  capital  of  the  Province  of  Sinkiang,  in 
Sungaria,  China,  and  the  seat  of  the  Chinese 
administration  of  eastern  Turkestan,  320  miles 
east  of  Kulja  (Map:  China,  E  3).  It  derives 
its  strategic  importance  from  its  position  on 
the  only  road  leading  from  Sungaria  to  eastern 
Turkestan  which  is  available  for  heavy  artillery. 
The  population,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
200,000  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  is  estimated  at  30,000. 

URUMIAH,  oo'roo-me'ya,  OROOMIAH,  or 
URMIA.  A  city  of  Persian  Armenia  (included 
in  the  Province  of  Azerbaijan),  70  miles  south¬ 
west  of  Tabriz  and  10  miles  west  of  Lake  Uru- 
miah  (Map:  Persia,  A  4).  It  lies  amid  attrac¬ 
tive  mountain  scenery.  The  American,  French, 
and  Russian  missions  have  headquarters  here, 
and  have  founded  several  institutions,  including 
Urmia  College,  a  college  for  Nestorian  priests 
and  deacons,  and  Fiske  Seminary.  The  district 
produces  fruit,  cotton,  and  tobacco,  and  there 
are  important  dyeing  and  weaving  interests. 
Pop.,  estimated  at  from  30,000  to  35,000.  In 
1915  the  majority  of  the  Armenian  inhabitants 
were  massacred  by  invading  Turkish  troops. 
Urumiah  is  reputed  to  be  the  birthplace  of 
Zoroaster.  It  was  for  a  long  time  the  pilgrim¬ 
age  city  of  his  followers. 

URUMIAH,  Lake.  The  largest  lake  in 
Persia,  situated  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
country,  170  miles  west  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
(Map:  Persia,  A  4).  It  is  about  80  miles  long, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  20  miles,  and  oc¬ 
cupies  part  of  a  level  basin  inclosed  by  moun¬ 
tains  and  lying  at  an  altitude  of  over  4000 
feet.  The  lake  is  fed  by  radial  streams  of 
considerable  size,  but  it  has  no  outlet.  It  is 
consequently  very  saline,  too  salt  to  nourish 
any  life  but  certain  crustaceans;  the  lake  has 
been  shrinking  for  years,  exposing  wide  tracts 
of  sour  slime.  It  is  very  shallow,  the  mean 
depth  being  6  feet,  and  the  maximum  about 
40  feet.  The  surrounding  region  is  very  fertile, 
and  is  covered  with  vineyards,  orchards,  and 
gardens. 

URUNGU.  A  river  in  Siberia.  See  Irtysii. 

U'RUS  (Lat.  urus,  Gk.  ovpos,  ouros,  wild  ox, 
from  OHG.,  AS.  ur,  Ger.  Auer-ochs,  whence  the 
English  aurochs,  designating  a  different  animal, 
the  European  bison;  connected  with  Skt.  usra, 
steer,  reddish).  A  wild  ox  (Bos  primigenius ) 


which  ancientlv  inhabited  the  forests  of  central 
Europe,  and  is  described  by  Caesar  as  common  in 
the  Hercynian  Forest,  and  of  great  size,  swift¬ 
ness,  and  fierceness.  The  probability  is  that  the 
urus  was  the  wild  original  of  the  domestic  ox, 
by  way  of  the  small  or  long-fronted  ox  (Bos 
longifrons) ,  which  was  the  earliest  known  do¬ 
mesticated  ox  in  Europe.  The  urus  survived  in 
Germany  until  the  twelfth  century,  and  is  some¬ 
times  wrongly  identified  with  the  aurochs 
(q.v.,  under  Bison). 

URVILLE,  Jules  Sebastien  Cesar  Du¬ 
mont  d’.  See  Dumont  d’Urville,  J.  S.  C. 

URY,  Adolfo  Muller-.  See  Muller-Ury, 
Adolfo. 

US'BEGS.  A  people  of  Russian  Turkestan. 
See  Uzbeks. 

USE.  This  expression  was  used  to  describe  a 
trust  created  Under  the  early  English  practice. 

( See  Uses  ;  Trust.  )  One  of  the  methods  of 
avoiding  the  effect  of  the  Statute  of  Uses  (27 
Hen.  VIII,  c.  10)  was  by  making  a  conveyance 
to  A  to  the  use  of  B  to  the  use  of  C.  The  stat¬ 
ute  executed  the  first  use,  and  the  property  was 
accordingly  held  in  trust  for  C. 

USE,  Shifting.  See  Shifting  Use. 

USE,  Springing.  See  Springing  Use. 

USE  AND  OCCUPATION.  In  law,  a  phrase 
employed  to  denote  the  beneficial  enjoyment  of 
real  estate  by  a  person  with  the  owner’s  con¬ 
sent,  but  without  any  definite  or  enforceable 
agreement  as  to  the  amount  of  rent  to  be  paid. 
The  landlord  is  entitled  to  recover  a  reasonable 
sum  as  compensation  for  the  use  and  occupation 
of  the  premises.  See  Landlord  and  Tenant; 
and  consult  the  authorities  there  referred  to. 

USEDOM,  bo/ze-dom.  An  island  belonging  to 
the  Province  of  Pomerania,  Prussia,  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Oder  River  ( Map :  Germany, 
F  1 ) .  Together  with  the  island  of  Wollin,  it 
separates  the  Stettiner  Haff  from  the  Baltic 
Sea.  It  is  divided  from  the  mainland  on  the 
west  by  the  outlet  of  the  Peene  River.  Length, 
33  miles;  area,  158  square  miles.  It  is  ex¬ 
tremely  irregular  in  shape.  It  is  level  and 
generally  fertile  save  for  some  sand  dunes. 
Its  farm  lands  and  forests  are  productive. 
Fishing  and  commerce  also  engage  the  attention 
of  its  inhabitants,  who  number  about  35,000.  In 
summer  the  sea  baths  attract  a  large  number 
of  visitors.  Swinemiinde  is  the  principal  town. 

USE  INHERITANCE.  The  Lamarckian 
principle  of  the  transmission  by  heredity  of 

characters  acquired  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
individual;  they  are  contrasted  with  congenital 
characters.  That  slight  lesions  are  not  trans¬ 
mitted  was  apparently  proved  by  the  experi¬ 
ments  of  Weismann  in  docking  the  tails  of 
white  mice  for  19  generations,  and  his  finding 
that  such  a  mutilation  was  not  transmitted.  At 
the  present  time  the  alleged  transmission  of 

mutilations  or  various  lesions,  as  tattooing  or 
flattening  of  the  head,  is  not  proved.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Lamarckian  principle  of  the  in¬ 
heritance  of  characters  formed  by  adaptation  to 
changes  in  the  physical  environment,  changes  of 
climate,  as  well  as  those  resulting  from  use 
or  disuse,  or  any  kind  of  external  stimulus, 
although  denied  by  Weismann  and  his  followers, 
have  not  been  disproved.  Adaptation  to  a  differ¬ 
ent  medium  from  that  of  their  ancestors,  as  in 

the  case  of  birds  and  insects,  is  the  result  of 

use  inheritance.  Very  obvious  examples  are  the 
cetaceans  where,  by  change  from  terrestrial  to 
aquatic  habits,  the  legs  have  been  converted  into 


USENER 


822 


USES 


finlike  members.  Another  instance  is  the  ac¬ 
quired  habit  of  pointing  in  the  pointer  breed, 
cases  being  known  of  young  dogs  pointing  with¬ 
out  having  been  trained.  The  habit  of  holding 
the  tail  erect  is  an  acquired  one  in  dogs,  as 
the  wolf  and  fox  never  elevate  the  tail.  The 
senile  expression  of  the  face  in  children  of  old 
parents  is  claimed  to  be  an  example  of  such 
inheritance.  Such  examples  as  these  prove  that, 
as  Eimer  states,  every  character  formed  by  the 
functional  activity  of  the  animal  is  an  acquired 
character.  The  changes  begin  during  the  life¬ 
time  of  the  individual,  become  transmitted  (or 
at  least  the  tendency),  until  after  a  number  of 
generations,  the  new  conditions  becoming  perma¬ 
nent,  the  new  characters  are  formed,  and  these 
are  preserved  by  use  inheritance. 

The  experimental  proofs  of  use  inheritance 
have  accumulated  sufficiently  to  prove  that, 
where  the  changed  climate,  or  temperature  and 
moisture  or  dryness  of  the  air,  remain  the  same, 
the  new  characters  are  transmitted.  In  plants, 
where  use  and  disuse  do  not  come  into  play, 
the  changes  of  station,  of  climate,  temperature, 
soil,  and  nutrition,  when  permanent,  result  in 
the  formation  of  new  varieties  and  species,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  Lamarckian  principle.  It  is 
maintained  that  the  transmission  of  acquired 
characters,  structural,  physiological,  and  mental, 
is  demanded  by  the  theory  of  evolution.  Weis- 
mann’s  objection  to  use  inheritance  is  that 
modifications  of  the  animal  are  acquired  anew 
in  every  individual  life  and  cannot  be  trans¬ 
mitted.  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  this 
criticism  will  withstand  the  mass  of  data  now 
being  accumulated.  Consult:  Lamarck,  Zoologi¬ 
cal  Philosophy,  English  translation  by  Hugh 
Elliot  (London,  1914)  ;  also  the  writings  of 
Darwin,  Koelliker,  Eimer,  Cope,  Herbert  Spen¬ 
cer,  Galton,  Hyatt,  Weismann,  Standfuss,  Fischer, 
Packard,  Piepers,  Kidd,  and  others.  See  Evolu¬ 
tion;  Heredity. 

USENER,  oo'ze-ner,  Hermann  (1834-1905). 
A  German  classical  scholar,  born  at  Weilburg- 
on-the-Lahn.  He  became  professor  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Bonn  in  1866.  His  work  covered 
many  fields,  both  literary  and  philosophical. 
Especially  important  are  his  studies  in  the 
history  of  religion.  His  published  works  in¬ 
clude  Anecdoten  Holderi  (1877),  Alt griechis elver 
Yersbau  ( 1887 ) ,  Epicurea  ( 1887 ) ,  Dionysius 
Halicarnensis  de  Imitatione ,  etc.  ( 1899) ,  Dionysii 
Ars  Rhetorica  (1895),  Dionysii  Opuscula  (ed. 
with  Radermacher,  vol.  1,  1899),  Religionsge- 
schichtliche  TJntersuchungen  (1888),  Gotterna- 
men  (1896),  Sintflutsagen  (1899);  Vortrdge 
und  Aufsdtze  (1907).  Since  his  death  two  vol¬ 
umes  of  his  Kleine  Schriften  have  appeared 
(Leipzig,  1913).  Consult  J.  E.  Sandys,  A  His¬ 
tory  of  Classical  Scholarship,  vol.  iii  (Cam¬ 
bridge,  1908). 

U'SERTE'SEN.  The  name  of  three  kings  of 
Egypt  of  the  twelfth  dynasty. — Usertesen  I, 
the  2e<ro7x;w<m  of  Manetho,  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Amenemhat  I  (q.v. ),  the  founder 
of  the  dynasty.  His  reign  of  44  years  began 
about  1976  b.c.,  but  for  the  first  10  years  he 
ruled  as  Coregent  with  his  father,  and  for  the 
last  two  years  of  his  life  his  son,  Amenemhat  II, 
was  associated  with  him  on  the  throne.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  a  leather  roll,  written  in  the  time  of 
Amenophis  IV,  the  temple  of  the  sun  at  Heliopo¬ 
lis  was  rebuilt  in  the  early  part  of  Usertesen’s 
rei<m.  One  of  the  two  granite  obelisks  erected 
by  Usertesen  before  this  temple  is  still  stand¬ 


ing;  it  is  66  feet  in  height  and  is  the  oldest 
obelisk  in  Egypt.  (See  Obelisk.)  At  Tanis 
three  finely  executed  granite  statues  of  the  King 
have  been  found.  A  stele  was  discovered  by 
Champollion  at  Wadi  Haifa,  near  the  second 
cataract  of  the  Nile,  containing  a  list  of  11 
Nubian  tribes  conquered  by  Usertesen,  and  an 
inscription  at  Beni  Hassan  records  an  expedition 
to  Nubia  in  the  King’s  forty-third  year.  The 
remains  of  Usertesen’s  pyramid  tomb  are  still 
to  be  seen  at  Lisht,  about  30  miles  south  of 
Cairo. — Usertesen  II,  the  fourth  King  of  the 
dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Amenemhat  II,  and 
the  grandson  of  Usertesen  I.  He  reigned  from 
about  1896  b.c.,  being  for  a  short  time  Coregent 
with  his  father.  A  painting  in  a  tomb  at  Beni 
Hassan,  which  depicts  a  number  of  Asiatics 
visiting  the  Nomarch  Chnumhotep  in  the  sixth 
year  of  Usertesen  II,  has  been  supposed  to  repre¬ 
sent  the  arrival  in  Egypt  of  Abraham  or  of  the 
sons  of  Jacob,  but  there  is  no  evidence  in  sup¬ 
port  of  either  theory,  and  both  are  equally 
improbable.  Statues  of  Usertesen  II  and  of  his 
Queen  Nofret  were  found  at  Hieraconpolis  and 
at  Tanis  respectively.  The  pyramid  tomb  of  the 
King  is  at  Illahun.  Manetho  calls  this  King 
Sesostris  and  ascribes  to  him  the  conquest  of 
the  world,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  User¬ 
tesen  II  ever  conducted  any  foreign  wars.  (See 
Sesostris.) — Usertesen  ill,  the  son  and  suc¬ 
cessor  of  Usertesen  II,  reigned  for  at  least  26 
years  from  about  1883  b.c.  His  chief  energies 
were  directed  to  the  subjugation  of  Nubia;  and 
to  protect  the  southern  frontier  of  his  King¬ 
dom,  he  built  two  strong  forts  at  Semneh  and 
Kummeh,  about  40  miles  south  of  the  second 
cataract  of  the  Nile.  Near  Semneh  the  King 
set  up,  in  the  eighth  year  of  his  reign,  a  bound¬ 
ary  stone  with  the  injunction  that  no  negro 
should  pass  it  except  such  as  came  into  Egypt 
for  the  purpose  of  peaceful  traffic.  He  was, 
however,  compelled  to  undertake  two  subse¬ 
quent  expeditions  against  the  Nubians  in  the 
sixteenth  and  nineteenth  years  of  his  reign,  be¬ 
fore  the  country  was  finally  subdued.  Userte¬ 
sen  III  built  a  temple  at  Heracleopolis  (q.v.) 
in  his  fourteenth  regnal  year.  His  tomb  is 
probably  the  more  northerly  of  the  two  brick 
pyramids  at  Dahshur  known  as  the  Black 
Pyramids.  Consult:  K.  A.  Wiedemann,  Aegyp- 
tische  Geschichte  (Gotha,  1884—88)  ;  W.  M. 
Flinders  Petrie,  A  History  of  Egypt  (New  \ork, 
1899)  ;  E.  A.  T.  Wallis  Budge,  A  History  of 
Egypt  (ib.,  1902)  ;  J.  H.  Breasted,  A  History  of 
the  Ancient  Egyptians  (ib.,  1908).  Consult 
Sesostris,  Ancient  Records  of  Egypt  (Chicago, 
1907). 

USES.  A  technical  term  employed  to  denote 
equitable  rights  to  the  benefits  and  profits  of 
real  estate,  the  legal  title  to  which  is  in  a  per¬ 
son  other  than  the  beneficiary  of  the  “use.”  The 
introduction  of  the  doctrine  of  uses  was  the  re¬ 
sult  of  the  attempts  of  the  English  clergy  to 
evade  the  effects  of  the  Statutes  of  Mortmain, 
and  to  enjoy  the  gifts  of  the  pious.  To  do 
this,  land  was  conveyed  to  a  third  person,  with 
the  understanding  or  an  express  declaration 
that  it  was  to  be  held  to  the  use  of  the  religious 
person  or  corporation  intended  to  be  the  real 
donee.  When  this  practice  was  first  introduced, 
this  obligation  could  only  be  enforced  by  threats 
of  excommunication  from  the  Church.  After¬ 
ward  the  Chancellor,  who  was  usually  appointed 
from  the  clergy,  assumed  jurisdiction  over  such 
conveyances,  and  employed  the  power  of  the 


USHAK 


USPENSKY 


823 


courts  of  equity  to  enforce  the  use.  This  effect 
of  such  conveyances  aroused  the  hostility  of 
the  King  and  great  lords  of  the  realm,  which 
culminated  in  the  enactment  of  the  famous  Stat¬ 
ute  of  27  Hen.  VIII,  c.  10,  commonly  known 
as  the  Statute  of  Uses.  This  act  provided,  in 
effect,  that  where  a  conveyance  was  made  under 
the  circumstances  above  described,  the  benefi¬ 
ciary  should  receive  the  legal  estate  as  well  as 
the  right  to  the  profits,  etc.,  and  also  be  liable 
to  the  lord  for  the  feudal  duties.  The  statute 
only  temporarily  accomplished  its  purpose,  as 
the  courts  of  equity  speedily  evolved  the  law 
of  “trusts,”  which  were  practically  the  same 
as  “uses,”  but  under  a  different  name.  How¬ 
ever,  the  statute  had  the  important  effect  of 
making  possible  the  creation  of  legal  estates 
to  begin  in  the  future  without  making  them 
legal  remainders.  The  system  of  conveyancing 
made  possible  by  the  Statute  of  Uses  was  finally 
superseded  by  the  practice  of  transferring  prop¬ 
erty  by  deeds  of  “bargain  and  sale.”  The  law 
of  uses,  as  modified  by  the  Statute  of  Uses,  be¬ 
came  a  part  of  the  common  law  of  the  United 
States,  and  still  obtains  in  many  States,  but 
has  been  expressly  abolished  in  a  few  juris¬ 
dictions,  including  New  York.  See  Trust,  and 
the  authorities  there  referred  to;  see  also  Real 
jPropfrty 

USHAK,  oo-shak'.  A  town  of  the  Vilayet  of 
Brusa,  Asia  Minor,  Turkey,  125  miles  east-north¬ 
east  of  Smyrna.  It  is  noted  for  its  carpet 
manufactures,  and  it  is  the  centre  of  a  rich 
agricultural  district.  Pop.,  about  14,000. 

USHANT,  ush'ant.  An  island  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  belonging  to  the  Department  of  Finis- 
tere,  France,  13  miles  west  of  the  northwest 
end  of  Brittany  (Map:  France,  N.,  A  4).  To 
the  French  it  is  known  as  the  Isle  d’Ouessant. 
Area,  6  square  miles.  The  shores  are  rocky. 
Ushant  has  modern  fortifications,  and  is  used 
for  military  purposes.  Naval  battles  between 
ships  of  the  French  and  English  occurred  off  the 
island  in  1779  and  1794.  Pop.,  1901,  2717;  1911, 
2568. 

USHAS,  ush'as  (from  Skt.  vas,  us,  to  burn; 
connected  with  Gk.  ’Hws,  Eos,  Lat.  Aurora,  Lith. 
auszrd ,  dawn,  and  ultimately  with  Eng.  east ) . 
In  Vedic  India,  the  goddess  of  dawn.  The  Rig- 
Veda  devotes  20  hymns  to  her  as  the  divine 
personification  of  the  morning  light.  The  fiery 
steeds  or  ruddy  cows  that  draw  her  shining  car 
represent  clouds  and  beams  of  light  that  issue 
from  the  stall  of  darkness  as  she  throws  open 
the  portals  of  day.  Born  each  day,  and  there¬ 
fore  ever  young,  she  reminds  mankind  of  the 
transitoriness  of  human  life,  and  by  her  return 
day  after  day  she  stands  as  a  symbol  of  the 
divine  order  in  heaven.  The  sky  is  her  father; 
night  is  her  sister;  the  sun,  Surya  (q.v.),  her 
lover  and  spouse;  and  the  twin  Asvins  (q.v.) 
are  her  kin.  The  sacrificial  fire  kindled  at  day¬ 
break  is  a  signal  of  her  approach  (see  Agni), 
and  she  then  arouses  the  worshiper  to  prayer. 
She  answers  his  petitions  by  bestowing  all  the 
blessings  of  daily  life.  In  the  post-Vedic  period 
the  importance  of  Ushas  is  lost,  and  now  she  is 
a  mere  name  in  the  Hindu  mythology.  Con¬ 
sult:  A.  A.  Macdonell,  Vedic  Mythology  (Strass- 
burg,  1897)  ;  Hillebrandt,  V  edische  Mythologie, 
ii  (Breslau,  1899)  ;  W.  J.  Wilkins,  Hindu,  Myth¬ 
ology  (2d  ed.,  London,  1900)  ;  L.  D.  Barnett, 
Antiquities  of  India  (London,  1913). 

USH'ER,  James.  A  British  archbishop.  See 
Ussher. 


USH'ER,  Roland  Greene  (1880-  ).  An 

American  historian,  born  at  Lynn,  Mass.  He 
was  educated  at  Harvard  (A.li.,  1901;  Pli.D., 
1905),  and  abroad  at  Oxford,  Paris,  and  Cam¬ 
bridge.  Connected  with  Washington  University, 
St.  Louis,  from  1907,  by  1912  he  had  become 
associate  professor  in  charge  of  the  history  de¬ 
partment.  His  writings  include:  The  Presby¬ 
terian  Movement  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Eliza¬ 
beth  (1905)  ;  The  Reconstruction  of  the  English 
Church  (2  vols.,  1910)  ;  The  Rise  and  Fall  of 
the  High  Commission  (1913);  The  Rise  of  the 
American  People  (1914);  Pan-Oermanism,  from 
its  Inception  to  the  Outbreak  of  the  War:  a 
Critical  Study  (1914);  Pan- Americanism,  a 
Forecast  of  the  Inevitable  Clash  betiveen  the 
United  States  and  Europe’s  Victor  (1915)  ;  The 
Challenge  of  the  Future  (1916). 

USHER  OF  THE  BLACK  ROD.  See  Black 
Rod. 

USHTJAIA,  ob'shoo-a'ya.  The  capital  of  the 
Territory  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Argentina,  on  the 
south  coast  of  the  island  of  Tierra  del  Fuego, 
on  the  Beagle  Channel  ( Map :  Argentina,  F  8 ) . 
It  is  a  miserable  native  village,  whose  inhabit¬ 
ants,  through  the  efforts  of  English  missionaries, 
speak  English  better  than  Spanish.  Pop.  (est.), 
500. 

USKUP,  us-kup',  USKUB,  or  SKOPLIE. 

A  city  of  Servia  and  capital  of  the  department 
of  the  same  name,  160  miles  northwest  of  Sa- 
loniki,  on  the  Vardar  River  (Map:  Balkan  Pen¬ 
insula,  C  4 ) .  The  chief  articles  of  commerce 
are  opium,  grain,  live  stock,  fruit,  and  tobacco. 
Leather  and  dyestuffs  are  the  principal  manu¬ 
factured  products.  Long  the  capital  of  the 
Vilayet  of  Kossovo  in  the  Ottoman  Empire,  it 
was  captured  by  the  Servians  in  October,  1912, 
in  the  course  of  the  Balkan  War  (q.v.),  and 
was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  Treaty  of  Bucha¬ 
rest  (August,  1913).  It  was  captured  by  the 
Bulgarians  in  1915.  (See  War  in  Europe.) 
Pop",  1911,  47,384. 

USNEA,  us'ne-a  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Ar.  usnah, 
moss ) .  A  small  genus  of  lichens.  The  species 
are  generally  grayish  or  straw-colored  and 
pendulous,  and  from  their  resemblance  to  south¬ 
ern  or  Spanish  moss  ( Tillandsia )  are  often 
called  tree  mosses.  They  are  most  common  upon 
trees  in  cool  regions,  but  also  grow  upon 
rocks.  They  are  called  beard  moss,  hanging 
moss,  and  necklace  moss.  See  Colored  Plate  of 
Mosses  and  Lichens  under  Musci. 

USPENSKOYE,  us'pen-sko'ye.  See  Bolgary. 

USPENSKY,  us-pen'sk£,  Gleb  Ivanovitcii 
(1840-1902).  A  Russian  writer  of  folk  tales, 
born  at  Tula  and  educated  at  the  universities 
of  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  His  first  stories 
appeared  in  the  Observer  in  1862,  while  he  was 
still  a  student,  but  not  before  his  series  of 
sketches  entitled  Stray-Street  Life  began  to  ap¬ 
pear  in  the  famous  Sow'emennik  (1866)  did 
he  attract  general  attention.  Uspensky  also 
contributed  to  Notes  of  the  Fatherland  and  other 
periodicals.  His  fame  was  at  its  height  when 
lie  was  attacked  by  a  disease  of  the  brain  which 
ended  his  literary  career  nine  years  before  his 
death.  Uspensky’s  special  interest  was  in  the 
sufferings  of  the  lowly  provincial  folk,  whose 
life  he  depicted  with  unusual  fidelity  and  sym¬ 
pathy.  His  Drudgery,  which  touches  upon 
peasant  morality,  practically  revealed  the  real 
peasant  to  Russian  readers,  while  The  Power 
of  the  Land  was  a  sincere  plea  against  the 
urbanization  of  the  peasantry.  His  collected 


USSHER 


USTILAGIHALES 


824 


works  have  been  published  repeatedly — one  edi¬ 
tion  in  six  volumes  (St.  Petersburg,  1908). 

US'SHER,  James  (1581-1656).  Archbishop 
of  Armagh,  commonly  considered  the  most 
learned  prelate  of  the  Irish  Protestant  church. 
He  was  born  in  Dublin,  Jan.  4,  1581.  In  1594 
he  entered  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  his 
predilection  for  history  soon  revealed  itself.  In 
1601  he  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest,  and 
was  appointed  preacher  of  Christ  Church,  Dub¬ 
lin.  In  1607  he  was  chosen  to  the  chair  of 
divinity,  a  post  which  he  held  for  13  years.  lie 
made  numerous  visits  to  England  and  became 
acquainted  with  the  most  distinguished  scholars 
of  the  age.  In  1613  his  first  publication  ap¬ 
peared,  entitled  De  Ecclesiarum  Christianarum 
Successione  et,  Statu,  which  was  designed  as  a 
continuation  of  Bishop  Jewell’s  Apology.  In 
1615  he  was  appointed  by  a  convocation  of  tlie 
clergy  held  at  Dublin  to  draw  up  a  series  of 
articles  relating  to  the  doctrine  and  discipline 
of  the  Irish  Protestant  church,  in  which  the 
doctrines  of  predestination  and  reprobation  (of 
which  Ussher  was  an  unflinching  apologist) 
found  prominence.  These  and  other  views,  such 
as  that  bishops  were  not  a  different  order  from 
presbyters,  implied  in  the  studied  omission  of 
all  reference  to  such  distinction,  that  the  Sab¬ 
bath  should  be  strictly  enforced,  and  that  no 
toleration  should  be  granted  to  Catholics,  laid 
him  open  to  the  charge  of  Puritanism.  Never¬ 
theless,  King  James  promoted  him  to  the  bish¬ 
opric  of  Meath  and  Clonmacnoise  in  1621  and 
in  1623  constituted  him  a  Privy  Councilor  of 
Ireland.  In  1624-25  he  was  raised  to  the  high- 
est  ecclesiastical  dignity  in  Ireland,  the  arch¬ 
bishopric  of  Armagh.  In  1632  Ussher  published 
Veterum  Epistolarum  Hibernicarum  Sylloge,  a 
collection  of  letters  out  of  several  ancient  MSS., 
concerning  the  state  of  the  Irish  church  from 
592  to  1180;  in  1638,  Immanuel,  or  the  Mystery 
of  the  Incarnation;  in  1639,  Britannicarum  Ec¬ 
clesiarum  Antiquitates,  an  account  of  the  British 
church  to  the  end  of  the  seventh  century;  in 
1641,  The  Judgment  of  Doctor  Rainololdes 
touching  the  Originall  of  Episcopacy  Confirmed ; 
and  The  Originall  of  Bishops.  When  the  Civil 
War  broke  out,  Ussher,  who  was  in  England 
at  the  time,  espoused  the  side  of  the  King,  re¬ 
fused  an  appointment  to  Westminster  Assembly, 
and  made  himself  obnoxious  to  the  Parliament 
by  the  sermons  which  he  preached  at  Oxford. 
Upon  the  triumph  of  the  parliamentary  party 
his  property  and  revenues  in  Ireland  were  seized, 
and  after  a  residence  in  Wales  and  elsewhere, 
he  came  to  London,  where  in  1647,  in  spite  of 
his  Royalist  sympathies,  he  was  chosen  preacher 
of  Lincoln’s  Inn,  a  post  which  he  retained  till 
his  death  at  Reigate,  March  21,  1656.  Crom¬ 
well  ordered  his  remains  to  be  interred  with 
great  magnificence  in  Erasmus’  Chapel  in  West¬ 
minster  Abbey. 

Ussher  s  chief  works,  besides  those  already 
mentioned,  are  his  edition  (1644)  of  the  Epis- 
tolce  of  Polycarp  and  Ignatius;  his  treatise  De 
Romance  Ecclesice  Symbol o  Apostolico  Diatribe 
(1647);  Dissertatio  de  Macedonum  et  Asia- 
norum  Anno  Solari  (1648);  and  Annals  of  the 
Old  Testament  (1650-54),  a  chronological  tvork. 
After  his  death  there  were  published  (from  his 
numerous  MSS.)  Chronologia  Sacra,  etc.  (Ox¬ 
ford.  1660),  by  which  and  his  Annals  he  is  most 
widely  known.  These  chronological  calculations 
long  appeared  in  the  inner  margin  of  the  Bible 
in  the  Authorized  Version.  The  most  frequently 


reprinted  work  attributed  to  him  is  the  post¬ 
humous  Strange  and  Remarkable  Prophecies  and 
Predictions  of  James  Ussher  (London,  1678; 
new  ed.,  1S25).  A  collected  edition  of  Ussher’s 
works,  in  71  vols.,  with  a  new  biography,  was 
published  at  Dublin  in  1841-64  by  C.  R.  Erling- 
ton  and  J.  II.  Todd.  Consult  also  the  Life  by 
Carr  (London,  1895),  and  W.  B.  Wright,  The 
Ussher  Memoirs  (Dublin,  1889). 

USSURI,  oo-soo're.  A  right-bank  tributary 
of  the  lower  Amur.  Its  head  streams  rise  to 
the  northeast  of  Vladivostok.  After  a  course 
of  90  miles  it  receives  the  Sungachi,  which 
drains  Lake  Khangka.  The  Ussuri  forms  the 
boundary  in  part  between  Manchuria  and  the 
Russian  Maritime  Province.  The  general  course 
of  the  Ussuri  is  northeasterly,  and  it  joins  the 
Amur  a  little  west  of  Khabarovsk,  from  which 
point  the  Amur  valley  is  connected  with  Vladi¬ 
vostok  by  a  railroad  along  the  Ussuri  vallev. 

UST-BYELQKALITVENSKAYA,  oost  bye'- 
16-ka'let-ven'ska-ya.  A  Cossack  settlement  in 
the  Province  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  southeastern 
Russia,  on  the  Donetz,  about  70  miles  northeast 
of  Tcherkask.  Pop.,  1897,  18,039. 

USTILAGINALES,  us'ti-laj'i-na'lez  (Neo- 
Lat.  nom.  pi.,  from  Lat.  ustilago,  plant  of  the 
thistle  kind).  A  group  of  parasitic  fungi  com¬ 
monly  called  smuts  or  brand  fungi,  and 
found  on  flowering  plants,  whose  floral  parts 
and  ovaries  especially  are  subject  to  the  attack. 
Some  smuts  are  very  destructive,  as  corn  smut 
( Ustilago  maydis)  and  the  stinking  smut  of 
wheat  {Tilletia  tritica) .  The  vegetative  my¬ 
celium  of  the  smut  is  inconspicuous  until  the  sea¬ 
son  is  well  advanced  and  the  ovary  should  begin 
to  ripen.  Then  the  ovary  and  the  adjoining 
floral  parts  become  filled  with  the  fungal  fila¬ 
ments.  At  the  end  of  the  season  this  mycelium 
produces  immense  numbers  of  resting  spores 
( chlamvdospores )  known  as  brand  spores. 
These  escape  as  a  black  powder,  and  survive 
the  winter,  germinating  with  the  return  of 


USTILAGINALES. 

1,  development  of  spores;  2  and  3,  germination  of  spores 
promycelia  and  fusing  sporidia;  2,  Ustilago;  3,  Tilletia. 

spring.  The  spore  develops  a  short  filament 
(promycelium),  which  exhibits  far  greater  vari¬ 
ation  of  structure  than  in  the  rusts.  Numbers 
of  minute  spores  (sporidia)  are  developed  by 
the  promycelium,  and,  falling  upon  the  seedlings 


UST-MEDVEDITSA 


USURY 


825 


and  young  plants  of  the  proper  host,  or  in  the 
opening  flowers  in  some  genera,  germinate,  send¬ 
ing  the  germ  tubes  through  the  stomata  into 
the  tissues. 

For  a  general  account  of  the  Ustilaginales 
consult  Engler  and  Prantl,  Die  natiirlichen 
Pjlanzenfamilien  (Leipzig,  1887),  and  Plowright, 
British  Uredinece  and  Ustilaginece  (London, 
1889).  See  B  as  idiom  ycetes  ;  Smut. 

UST-MEDVEDITSA,  oost-med-vyed'it-sa.  A 
Cossack  settlement  in  the  Province  of  the  Don 
Cossacks,  southeast  Russia,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Don,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Med- 
veditsa  (Map:  Russia,  F  5).  Pop.,  1910,  10,- 
400. 

USTYUG  VELIKY,  us-tyuk'  vye-lye'ke.  A 
town  in  the  Government  of  Vologda,  Russia,  sit¬ 
uated  at  the  junction  of  the  Sukhona  with  the 
Yug,  303  miies  northeast  of  Vologda  (Map: 
Russia,  G  2).  It  has  linen  factories  of  con¬ 
siderable  importance.  Pop.,  1911,  18,707. 

USUFRUCT,  u'zu-frukt  (Lat.  ususfructus, 
from  usus,  use,  from  uti,  OLat.  olti,  to  use,  con¬ 
nected  with  avere,  to  crave,  Skt.  av,  to  promote, 
protect,  like,  Gk.  oiros,  oitos,  fate,  portion  -f- 
fructus,  fruit,  from  frui,  to  enjoy).  At  civil 
law,  a  life  interest  in  property,  usually  estab¬ 
lished  by  legacy,  but  capable  of  being  estab¬ 
lished  by  contract.  It  is  also  created  by  law, 
especially  in  modern  civil  legislations,  many  of 
which  give  usufruct  to  parents  in  the  property 
of  minor  children  and  to  the  surviving  spouse 
in  the  estate  of  the  deceased  husband  or  wife. 
(See  Parent  and  Child;  Succession;  Testa¬ 
ment.)  Usufruct  is  regarded  as  a  servitude 
(q.v. ),  the  general  right  of  ownership  ( pro - 
prietas)  being  attributed  to  the  reversioner, 
i.e.,  the  person  who  is  to  take  the  property 
on  the  termination  of  the  usufruct.  The  usu¬ 
fructuary  has  the  exclusive  right  to  possess, 
use,  and  enjoy  the  property,  either  in  per¬ 
son  or  through  a  vendee  or  lessee.  He  must, 
however,  use  it  salvd  substantia,  i.e.,  the  prop¬ 
erty  must  not  be  injured;  nor  may  he  change 
the  character  or  mode  of  use.  For  the  restora¬ 
tion  of  the  property  in  unimpaired  condition 
the  usufructuary  must  ordinarily  give  security 
to  the  owner.  Usufruct  may  be  established  not 
only  in  land  and  buildings,  but  also  in  non- 
consumptible  movables,  i.e.,  in  such  movables  as 
can  be  used  without  impairment  of  substance. 
In  consumptibles,  true  usufruct  is  impossible; 
but  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  inten¬ 
tions  of  testators  the  Roman  jurists  developed 
the  so-called  quasi-usufruct,  in  which  the 
property  is  appraised  and  the  usufructuary 
gives  security  that  the  sum  at  which  it  is 
valued  shall  be  paid,  after  his  death,  to  the 
holder  of  the  reversionary  interest.  In  modern 
law  a  usufruct  or  life  interest  may  generally 
be  freely  created  both  as  to  real  and  personal 
property. 

USUMACINTA,  oo'su-ma-sen'ta.  A  river  of 
Central  America.  It  rises  in  the  mountains  of 
southern  Guatemala  and  flows  in  a  winding 
northwest  course  through  that  country  and  Mex¬ 
ico,  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Campeche  on  the 
boundary  between  the  Mexican  states  of  Cam¬ 
peche  and  Tabasco  (Map:  Central  America,  B  2). 
Its  length  is  about  400  miles,  and  it  is  navigable 
a  short  distance  from  the  sea.  In  its  middle 
course  it  forms  the  boundary  between  Mexico 
and  Guatemala.  Its  upper  course,  which  is 
through  a  little-known  forest  region,  was  made 
by  treaty  the  boundary  between  the  two  re¬ 


publics,  and  a  dispute  as  to  which  was  the  main 
head  stream  nearly  led  to  a  war  in  1895. 

USURY  (OF.,  Fr.  usure,  from  Lat.  usura, 
use,  employment,  interest,  from  uti,  to  use). 
Literally,  money  paid  for  the  use  of  money,  i.e., 
interest;  but  in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  such  pay¬ 
ments  were  prohibited,  the  word  obtained  an  evil 
sense,  and  when  in  modern  times  the  taking  of 
interest  again  became  permissible,  usury  ac¬ 
quired  its  modern  meaning,  i.e.,  interest  in  ex¬ 
cess  of  a  fair  return,  and,  particularly,  in  ex¬ 
cess  of  a  legally  determined  maximum.  The 
establishment  of  such  a  maximum  was  general 
in  the  ancient  world;  at  Roman  law  it  varied, 
at  different  periods,  from  12  per  cent  to  G  per 
cent;  and  when  the  taking  of  interest  was  le¬ 
galized  in  the  modern  world,  similar  limitations 
were  introduced.  In  England  the  Act  of  37 
Henry  VIII,  c.  9,  fixed  the  limit  at  10  per  cent. 
This  was  repeatedly  lowered  until,  by  the  Act 
of  12  Anne,  c.  16,  it  was  fixed  at  5  per  cent.  By 
these  laws  usurious  contracts  were  made  wholly 
invalid  and  usury  was  an  indictable  offense.  In 
most  European  countries  (as  in  the  Roman  law) 
usurious  contracts  were  invalid  only  as  regarded 
the  excess  of  interest,  and  contracts  in  which 
the  lender  assumed  special  risks  (e.g.,  bottomry 
bonds)  were  not  subjected  to  limitation  of  rate. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  usury  laws  were 
attacked  by  economic  writers  as  arbitrary  and 
unwise.  It  was  pointed  out  that  in  all  credit 
transactions  there  was  an  element  of  risk;  that 
the  risk  varied  greatly  and  might,  in  many  cases, 
justify  the  taking  of  interest  beyond  the  legal 
maximum;  and  that  the  effect  of  usury  laws 
was  to  impose  upon  borrowers  a  higher  rate  of 
interest  than  they  would  otherwise  be  required 
to  pay,  in  order  that  the  lender  might  insure 
himself  against  the  additional  risk  to  which  he 
was  subjected  by  the  illegality  of  the  contract. 
In  consequence  of  these  arguments  limitations 
upon  the  rate  of  interest  were  generally  repealed 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  In  England  this  was 
done  by  the  Act  of  17  and  18  Viet.,  c.  90.  In 
France,  however,  the  usury  laws  were  repealed 
only  as  regarded  commercial  contracts. 

Adam  Smith  defended  usury  laws  because 
they  made  it  more  difficult  for  spendthrifts  to 
borrow  money;  and  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century,  in  connection  with  the  general 
reaction  against  laissez-faire  doctrines,  the  com¬ 
plete  freedom  of  contract  established  by  the 
repeal  of  the  usury  laws  was  in  its  turn  con¬ 
demned  by  many  economists.  It  was  urged  that 
in  many  cases  borrowers  were  at  the  mercy  of 
lenders  and  that  they  should  be  protected  against 
extortion  of  unreasonable  interest.  This  theo¬ 
retical  reaction  has  affected  modern  European 
legislation.  In  Germany,  by  a  law  of  1880,  ‘"'any 
person  who,  by  exploiting  the  necessity,  the 
frivolity,  or  the  inexperience  of  another,  causes 
to  be  promised  to  himself  or  to  a  third  person, 
for  a  loan  or  for  deferred  payment  of  a  debt, 
pecuniary  advantages  which  so  exceed  the  ordi¬ 
nary  rate  of  interest  that  under  the  circum¬ 
stances  they  are  in  striking  disproportion  to  the 
debt,”  is  punished  with  imprisonment  up  to 
six  months  and  fine  up  to  3000  marks.  By  law 
the  legal  commercial  rate  is  limited  to  5  per 
cent  in  Germany  and  G  per  cent  in  France.  In 
England,  by  an  act  of  Parliament  passed  in  1900, 
it  is  provided  that  professional  money  lenders 
shall  be  registered,  and  that  their  contracts  shall 
be  subject  to  judicial  revision  when  the  rate  of 
interest  appears  under  the  circumstances  to  be 


USURY 


826 


UTAH 


unreasonable.  This  leaves  it  to  the  courts  to 
determine  what  is,  in  each  case,  a  reasonable 
rate.  In  the  United  States  laws  are  enacted 
fixing  the  legal  rate  and  the  contract  rate  of 
interest.  AH  States  fix  legal  rates,  or  maxi¬ 
mum  rates  collectable  in  the  absence  of  definite 
agreement,  at  from  5  to  8  per  cent.  All  but 
Vermont  have  fixed  maximum  contract  rates, 
usually  at  10  or  12  per  cent,  but  at  any  rate 
whatever  in  California,  Colorado,  Maine,  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  and  Rhode  Island.  In  recent  years 
various  States  have  enacted  special  laws  regu¬ 
lating  pawnbrokers  and  the  business  of  lending 
money  on  salaries  ( “loan  sharks” ) .  The  penal¬ 
ties  for  violations  of  usury  laws  are  varied.  In 
Connecticut,  Georgia,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Ken¬ 
tucky,  Maryland,  Missouri,  New  Mexico,  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  Tennessee,  Vermont,  and  West 
Virginia  the  creditor  can  recover  principal  and 
lawful  interest,  losing  only  the  excess  interest. 
The  penalty  is  loss  of  interest  in  Alabama, 
Alaska,  Arizona,  District  of  Columbia,  Florida, 
Idaho,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Louisiana,  Michigan,  Min¬ 
nesota,  Mississippi,  Nebraska,  New  Jersey,  Okla¬ 
homa,  Porto  Rico,  South  Carolina,  South  Dakota, 
Texas,  Virginia,  Wisconsin,  Hawaii,  and  Wyo¬ 
ming.  In  some  States  a  usurious  contract  is 
wholly  void;  thus  in  Arkansas,  New  York,  and 
Rhode  Island  both  principal  and  interest  are 
lost,  and  in  Delaware  and  Oregon  the  principal; 
moreover  Rhode  Island  adds  fine  or  imprison¬ 
ment.  In  Idaho  the  lost  interest  and  in  Oregon 
the  lost  principal  are  paid  by  the  borrower  to 
the  school  fund.  In  some  of  these  States  money 
actually  paid  on  a  usurious  contract  cannot  be 
recovered  by  the  lender;  but  the  general  rule  is 
to  the  contrary,  and  in  some  States  the  actual 
receipt  of  usurious  interest  exposes  the  lender 
to  further  penalties,  e.g.,  double  the  amount  paid 
in  North  Carolina,  North  Dakota,  and  Washing¬ 
ton,  and  three  times  the  excess  in  New  Hamp¬ 
shire.  California,  Colorado,  Maine,  Montana, 
and  Nevada  have  enacted  no  specific  penalties 
for  usury.  In  some  other  States  the  lender  is 
liable  to  prosecution  and  fine  or  imprisonment, 
but  such  prosecutions  are  rare.  In  Delaware 
any  person  may  bring  action  against  a  lender 
who  has  received  usurious  interest,  and,  if  suc¬ 
cessful,  will  receive  one-half  of  the  principal  of 
the  debt,  the  other  half  going  to  the  State. 

Not  infrequently  special  contracts  are  ex¬ 
empted  from  the  operation  of  the  usury  laws, 
either  because  special  risks  are  assumed  by  the 
lender,  or  on  grounds  of  commercial  interest.  In 
several  States  corporations  are  not  permitted  to 
plead  usury. 

Usury  laws  are,  in  general,  strictly  construed. 
Whenever  the  law  declares  a  usurious  contract 
invalid,  mortgages,  trust  deeds,  and  all  forms  of 
surety  are  also  invalidated;  but  the  courts  do 
not  assume  that  a  Legislature  has  intended  to 
avoid  the  contract  as  regards  the  principal  of 
the  debt,  or  as  regards  the  legal  interest,  unless 
such  penalty  is  expressly  imposed;  nor  is  pen¬ 
alty,  as  distinguished  from  the  protection  of  the 
borrower,  incurred  by  merely  stipulating  for 
usurious  interest,  but  only  by  receiving  it. 

In  interstate  cases  (conflicts  of  law,  q.v.)  the 
question  whether  a  contract  is  or  is  not  usurious 
is  governed  by  the  law  of  the  place  where  the 
contract  was  concluded,  unless  a  different  place 
was  expressly  or  impliedly  indicated  as  the  place 
of  performance.  When  a  debt  has  been  con¬ 
tracted  in  one  State  to  be  paid  in  another,  and 
the  rate  of  interest  stipulated  is  usurious  in  one 


of  the  States  but  not  in  the  other,  some  of  the 
courts  apply  the  local  law  which  will  uphold  the 
contract.  Penalties  in  the  strict  sense  (as  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  the  legal  protection  given  to 
the  borrower)  are  not  enforced  outside  of  the 
jurisdiction  in  which  they  are  imposed.  See 
Interest. 

Consult:  Turgot,  M6moire  sur  les  prets 
d’argent  (1741);  Bentham,  Defense  of  Usury 
(London,  1787);  Murray,  History  of  Usury 
(Philadelphia,  1866)  ;  Von  Stein,  Der  Wucher 
und  sein  Recht  (1880);  Caro,  Der  Wucher: 
eine  socialpolitische  Studie  (1893)  ;  J.  A.  Webb, 
A  Treatise  on  the  Laiv  of  Usury  (St.  Louis, 
1899)  ;  Wm.  Cunningham,  Christian  Opinion 
on  Usury  (London,  1884)  ;  F.  J.  Stimson,  Amer¬ 
ican  Statute  Law  (Boston,  1902). 

UTA,  urta  (Neo-Lat.,  from  the  State  of 
Utah).  A  genus  of  iguanid  lizards,  several 
species  of  which  are  numerous  on  the  south¬ 
western  plains  of  the  United  States,  one  of 
which  ( Uta  stansburiana)  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  graceful  of  American  lizards.  It 
is  blackish  brown  above,  marbled  with  lighter 
dots,  and  banded  with  yellow  below.  Its  long, 
slender  tail  has  a  crest  of  large  vertically  set 
scales.  This  genus  combines  structural  charac¬ 
teristics  of  Sceloporus  and  Holbrookia. 

UTAH,  u'ta  (named  from  the  Ute  or  Utah 
tribe  of  Indians).  A  State  in  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States  called  by  the  Mormon 
pioneer  settlers  Deseret,  a  term  taken  from  the 
Book  of  Mormon  and  signifying  industry.  Its 
boundaries  are  limited  by  lat.  37°  and  42° 
north,  and  long.  109°  4'  and  114°  4'  west.  Its 
shape  is  practically  that  of  a  rectangle  345  miles 
long  north-south  by  270  miles  wide  east-west, 
indented  at  the  northeast  corner  by  Wyoming. 
The  State  has  an  area  of  about  85,000  square 
miles,  including  a  probable  average  of  3000 
square  miles  of  lake  water.  The  latter  area, 
on  account  of  the  shallowness  of  the  water  and 
the  variation  of  annual  rainfall,  changes  con¬ 
siderably  from  year  to  year.  Utah  ranks  eighth 
in  size  among  the  States  of  the  Union. 

Topography.  Utah  is  divided  into  two  great 
provinces,  an  eastern  and  a  western,  by  the 
Wasatch  Mountains,  which  enter  the  State  from 
Idaho  and  extend  in  a  southerly  direction  for 
about  150  miles,  terminating  at  Mount  Nebo, 
which  is  situated  almost  precisely  at  the  centre 
of  the  State.  This  central  highland  continues 
southward  as  the  High  Plateau  to  central  Ari¬ 
zona.  The  eastern  half  contains  all  of  the  high 
and  more  serrate  mountains,  while  the  western 
forms  a  part  of  the  Great  Basin,  much  of  which 
is  relatively  flat,  with  small  ranges  here  and 
there  half  buried  in  the  sediments  of  the  Pleisto¬ 
cene  Lake  Bonneville.  The  Wasatch  Mountains 
constitute  a  lofty  and  picturesque  range,  espe¬ 
cially  when  viewed  from  the  west.  A  noteworthy 
feature  is  that  while  most  of  the  water  of  this 
range  drains  westward  into  the  Great  Basin, 
it  has  to  cut  through  the  principal  mountain 
axis  to  do  so.  Evidences  of  recent  glacial  ac¬ 
tion,  such  as  lakes,  cirques,  moraines,  etc.,  are 
abundant  in  many  of  the  canons.  At  several 
points  these  mountains  reach  an  elevation  of 
practically  12,000  feet. 

The  Uinta  Mountains  trend  east-west  within 
the  extreme  northeastern  part,  and  in  the  mat¬ 
ter  of  direction  of  axis,  form  perhaps  the  most 
notable  exception  of  all  the  ranges  comprising 
the  Rocky  Mountain  system.  They  are  the  lofti¬ 
est  in  the  State,  having  four  peaks  over  13,000 


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feet,  the  highest  of  whieh  is  Gilbert  Peak,  with 
an  elevation  of  13,087.  These  mountains  are 
unusually  steep  and  serrate,  and  in  the  highest 
parts  are  thickly  set  with  numerous  glacial 
lakes.  Away  to  the  south  and  southeast  are 
the  Henry,  Abajo,  and  La  Sal  mountains.  The 
world’s  largest  and  most  famous  natural  bridges 
are  situated  in  the  Bad  Lands  country  across 
the  Colorado  River  from  the  Henry  Mountains. 
See  Natural  Bridge. 

The  mountains  of  west  Utah  are  much  lower 
than  those  in  the  east.  The  relationship  of 
these  mountains  to  the  recent  alkaline  sediments 
surrounding  them  in  many  places  gives  them 
the  appearance  of  islands  protruding  from  water. 

Hydrography.  Eastern  Utah  is  drained  by 
a  large  number  of  streams,  all  of  which  finally 
unite  to  form  the  great  Colorado.  Except  in 
their  upper  courses  most  of  the  streams  flow 
through  deep,  steep-sided  canons,  eroded  far 
below  the  plateau  floor.  A  very  small  area 
in  the  extreme  northwestern  part  of  the  State 
sends  its  waters  through  the  Snake  River  drain¬ 
age  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  remaining  part 
of  western  Utah  lies  within  the  Great  Basin, 
and  contributes  its  waters  chiefly  to  two  closed 
drainage  systems,  the  Sevier  and  Great  Salt 
Lake.  All  of  the  streams  of  this  section  have 
their  origin  in  the  central  highland  and  flow 
generally  westward  into  the  depressions  just 
mentioned.  Sevier  Lake,  which,  during  dry  sea¬ 
sons,  is  scarcely  more  than  a  salt  playa,  derives 
its  waters  chiefly  through  Sevier  River,  which 
bas  its  head  far  up  in  the  High  Plateau  region. 
Great  Salt  Lake  is  supplied  principally  by 
Weber  River,  Bear  River,  Malad  River,  and 
Jordan  River,  the  latter  being  overflow  from 
Utah  Lake  to  the  southward,  which  in  turn  is 
supplied  by  a  number  of  canon  streams.  In  the 
southern  part  of  the  Great  Basin  numerous 
streams  flow  from  the  mountains  only  to  be  lost 
in  the  sands  of  near-by  desert  sections.  Great 
Salt  Lake  (q.v. )  is  the  most  conspicuous  natu¬ 
ral  feature  of  the  State. 

Soil.  The  soil  in  many  local  sections  is  un¬ 
usually  fertile,  especially  in  the  upland  valleys 
and  other  areas  adjacent  to  the  mountains,  but 
over  a  large  part  of  the  Great  Basin  floor  it  is 
highly  alkaline  and  incapable  in  its  present  con¬ 
dition  of  supporting  vegetation.  The  better 
grades  of  soil  are  deep  sandy  loams  derived  from 
the  silt  of  canon  streams.  Until  within  recent 
years  practically  all  of  the  crops  were  produced 
by  artificial  watering,  but  of  late  rapid  improve¬ 
ment  in  dry-farming  methods  has  brought  about 
the  utilization  of  considerable  acreage  where  irri¬ 
gation  is  impossible. 

Climate.  The  climate  in  the  main  is  of  the 
plateau  type,  characterized  by  rather  wide  ex¬ 
tremes  in  summer  and  winter.  The  populated 
areas,  however,  are  generally  mild  and  equable, 
largely  because  of  the  protection  which  comes 
from  the  near-by  mountains.  The  precipitation 
varies  from  6  to  25  inches  between  points  rang¬ 
ing  from  2800  to  7000  feet  elevation,  a  varia¬ 
tion  which  is  largely  due  to  topographic  con¬ 
ditions.  The  average  precipitation  is  12.5 
inches.  The  average  temperatures  are  71°  in 
July  and  26°  in  January,  or  an  annual  average 
of  48°. 

Geology.  The  surface  geology  of  Utah  is  ex¬ 
tremely  complicated,  especially  in  the  moun¬ 
tainous  districts.  Every  formation  from  an¬ 
cient  to  recent  is  represented,  as  are  also  a 
wide  variety  of  structural  forms.  The  Wasatch 
Vol.'  XXII.— 53 


Mountains  may  be  regarded  as  a  great  fold 
broken  down  on  the  west  side  by  an  enormous 
fault  extending  almost  the  entire  length  of  the 
range.  The  axis  of  this  half  fold  is  also  Hexed 
at  right  angles  to  its  elongation,  thus  giving 
rise  to  considerable  complexity.  Formations 
from  Pre-Cambrian  to  Cretaceous  are  involved 
in  the  mountains  proper,  with  Tertiary  sedi¬ 
ments  and  more  recent  igneous  extrusions  flank¬ 
ing  them  on  the  east  and  Pleistocene  lake  de¬ 
posits  on  the  west.  The  High  Plateau  is  com¬ 
posed  of  Mesozoic  to  Genozoic  sediments  capped 
in  a  large  number  of  places  by  recent  surface 
flows.  The  Uinta  Mountains  consist  of  a  great 
anticlinal  fold  with  marked  displacement  on  the 
north  flank.  Along  the  axis  vast  erosion  has 
carried  away  all  of  the  formation  from  Cre¬ 
taceous  down  to  Pre-Cambrian.  The  Tertiary 
sediments  here  also  overlap  the  eroded  and  up¬ 
turned  edges  of  the  older  members.  The  Henry 
Mountains,  situated  far  down  in  the  plateau 
province,  furnish  several  examples  of  the  world’s 
best  type  of  laccolith,  and  consist  of  intrusive 
cores  flanked  by  upturned  sediments.  The  block 
type  of  mountain  is  well  represented  by  the 
ranges  of  western  Utah,  where  the  formations 
are  practically  all  of  Paleozoic  and  Pre-Cam¬ 
brian  age. 

Mineral  Resources.  Utah  possesses  vast 
quantities  of  high  grade  bituminous  coal,  also 
large  deposits  of  lignite,  both  of  Cretaceous  age. 
The  State  is  famous  for  its  production  of  elater- 
ite,  ozokerite,  and  other  natural  hydrocarbons. 
Radium-bearing  ores  have  recently  been  added 
to  its  production.  Enormous  iron  deposits  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  State  are  awaiting  de¬ 
velopment.  Utah,  ranking  thirteenth  in  1914 
in  the  total  value  of  mineral  production,  is 
unique  in  that,  while  it  does  not  lead  in  the 
value  of  any  one  product,  it  is  among  the  fore¬ 
most  States  in  the  production  of  the  various 
precious  and  semiprecious  metals.  Copper  is 
the  most  important  product  of  its  mines,  about 
four-fifths  of  it  coming  from  Salt  Lake  County; 
the  production  in  1914  amounted  to  152,034,002 
pounds,  valued  at  $20,220,522.  Lead  ranks  sec¬ 
ond,  and  of  this  metal  86,602  tons  valued  at 
$6,681,602  were  produced  in  1914.  Utah  ranked 
third  in  the  value  of  lead  production,  about 
90  per  cent  of  which  is  from  silver-lead  ores, 
which  also  supply  about  half  of  the  silver 
product.  The  value  of  the  silver  produced  in 
1914  was  $6,168,660  for  11,154,916  fine  ounces. 
Coal  is  the  most  important  of  the  non-metal- 
liferous  minerals.  The  production,  almost  en¬ 
tirely  from  Carbon  County,  amounted  to  3,103,- 
036  tons  valued  at  $4,935,454.  Most  of  the 
gold  produced  is  obtained  from  the  refining  of 
copper,  though  about  35  per  cent  of  it  is  ob¬ 
tained  from  dry  or  siliceous  ores.  The  pro¬ 
duction  in  1914  amounted  to  157,961  fine  ounces 
valued  at  $3,265,347.  Of  zinc  there  were  pro¬ 
duced  in  that  year,  7995  tons  valued  at  $815,453. 
Other  minerals  produced  are  asphalt,  cement, 
clay  products,  gems,  gypsum,  lime,  salt,  sand 
and  gravels,  stone.  The  total  value  of  the  min¬ 
eral  production  in  1914  was  $45,624,698. 

Agriculture.  With  a  rainfall  ranging  from  5 
to  10  inches  over  the  greater  part  of  LTtah, 
reaching  15  inches  only  in  the  north  central 
section,  farming  can  only  be  carried  on  suc¬ 
cessfully  by  the  aid  of  irrigation.  Of  the  total 
land  area  of  52,597,760  acres,  in  1910,  3,397,699 
acres  were  in  farms  which  numbered  21,676. 
The  improved  land  in  farms  measured  1,368,211 


UTAH 


828 


UTAH 


acres,  and  the  average  size  per  farm  was  156.7 
acres.  The  total  value  of  all  farm  property 
including  land,  buildings,  implements,  and  ma¬ 
chinery,  domestic  animals,  poultry,  and  bees  was 
$150,795,201.  Of  the  total  number  of  farms 
in  1910,  19,956  were  operated  by  owners  and 
managers.  The  foreign-born  white  farmers  num¬ 
bered  5452,  of  whom  1922  were  English  and  1420 
Danish.  There  were  but  276  non  white  farmers. 

The  following  table  shows  the  acreage,  pro¬ 
duction,  and  value  of  some  of  the  principal  crops 
as  estimated  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  1915. 


CROPS 

Acreage 

Prod,  in  bu. 

Value 

Corn . 

13,000 

442,000 

$354,000 

Wheat . 

320,000 

8,225,000 

7,074,000 

Oats . 

100,000 

4,700,000 

2,115,000 

Rye . 

13,000 

202,000 

131,000 

Potatoes . 

20,000 

2,500,000 

1,575,000 

Hay . 

394,000 

985,000 

7,880,000 

Barley . 

34,000 

1,445,000 

751,000 

In  1909  the  total  value  of  all  crops  was  $18,- 
484,615.  The  leading  crops  in  order  of  im¬ 
portance  in  that  year  are,  hay  and  forage,  wheat, 
sugar  beets,  oats,  potatoes,  and  barley.  The 
acreage,  production,,  and  value  of  these  products 
in  1909  were  as  follows:  Hay  and  forage,  405,- 
394  acres  produced  1,015,913  tons  valued  at 
$7,429,901;  wheat,  178,423  acres  produced  3,- 
943,910  bushels  valued  at  $3,765,017;  sugar 
beets,  27,472  acres  produced  413,946  tons  valued 
at  $1,858,600;  oats,  80,816  acres  produced  3,- 
221,289  bushels  valued  at  $1,671,065;  potatoes, 
14,210  acres  produced  2,409,093  bushels  valued 
at  $873,961;  barley,  26,752  acres  produced  891,- 
471  bushels  valued  at  $472,816.  Vegetables, 


States  Department  of  Agriculture  estimated  that 
horses  numbered  146,000  valued  at  $12,556,000; 
mules  numbered  2000  valued  at  $156,000;  milch 
cows  numbered  96,000  valued  at  $5,952,000, 
other  cattle  numbered  408,000  valued  at  $14,- 
606,000;  sheep  numbered  2,089,000  valued  at 
$11,281,000;  swine  numbered  112,000  valued  at 
$874,000.  The  number  of  fowls  reported  on 
farms  in  1910  was  691,941  valued  at  $327,908. 
The  amount  of  milk  produced  in  1909  was  20,- 
486,317  gallons,  and  the  total  value  of  milk, 
cream,  and  butter  fat  sold  and  butter  and  cheese 
made  was  $2,067,534.  The  eggs  produced 
amounted  to  4,240,007  dozens  valued  at  $907,330. 
The  wool  sheared  in  1915  was  estimated  to 
amount  to  13,320,000  pounds. 

Irrigation.  Irrigation  is  practiced  through¬ 
out  the  State,  19,709  farms  being  so  treated  in 
1909.  The  acreage  irrigated  was  999,410,  of 
which  22,448  acres  were  irrigated  by  individual 
and  partnership  enterprises  and  687,260  acres 
by  cooperative  enterprises.  In  all  there  were 
in  1910,  2472  enterprises  operating  7709  miles 
of  ditches  of  which  5887  wTere  main  ditch  hav¬ 
ing  a  total  capacity  of  25,081  cubic  feet  per 
second.  The  Strawberry  valley  project  v7as  the 
only  one  being  built  by  the  United  States  Recla¬ 
mation  Service  in  1915.  This,  when  completed, 
will  irrigate  about  60,000  acres.  The  reservoir 
is  designed  to  contain  some  280,000  acre-feet  of 
water  and  to  cover  an  area  of  8200  acres  wben 
full. 

Manufactures.  Utah  ranked  fortieth  among 
the  States  in  value  of  manufactured  products 
in  1909.  The  value  of  products  per  capita  in 
that  year  was  $166.  The  following  table  gives 
the  more  important  details  regarding  the  five 
leading  industries,  as  judged  by  value  of  prod¬ 
ucts,  for  1904,  1909,  and  1914. 


SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURES  FOR  1914,  1909,  AND  1904 

THE  STATE  - FIVE  LEADING  INDUSTRIES 


INDUSTRY 


All  industries . 

Butter,  cheese,  and  condensed  milk .  .  . 

Cars  and  general  shop  construction  and 
repairs  by  steam-railroad  companies. 

Confectionery . 

Flour-mill  and  gristmill  products . 

Printing  and  publishing . 


Census 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
estab¬ 
lish¬ 
ments 

PERSONS  ENGAGED 
IN  INDUSTRY 

Total 

Wage 

earn¬ 

ers 

(aver¬ 

age 

num¬ 

ber) 

1914 

1110 

17,129 

13,894 

1909 

749 

14,133 

11,785 

1904 

606 

9,650 

8,052 

1909 

37 

285 

214 

1904 

49 

159 

98 

1909 

8 

1,790 

1,731 

1904 

7 

1,337 

1,248 

1909 

17 

745 

586 

1904 

12 

405 

335 

1909 

60 

282 

184 

1904 

63 

278 

150 

1909 

122 

1,475 

967 

1904 

104 

873 

545 

Capital 

Wages 

Value 

of 

prod- 

Value 

added 

by 

manu- 

ucts 

fac- 

ture 

Expressed  in  thousands 


$71,653 

$10,852 

$87,114 

$24,880 

52,627 

8,400 

61,989 

20,723' 

26,004 

5,157 

38,926 

13,986 

1,134 

116 

1,971 

358 

406 

55 

964 

175 

959 

1,402 

2,740 

1,515 

522 

964 

1,887 

1,060 

1,009 

204 

1,952 

661 

401 

103 

1,005 

317 

2,042 

131 

3,131 

620 

1,212 

91 

2,426 

383 

2,022 

685 

2,405 

1,682 

1,081 

369 

1,523 

1,198 

other  than  potatoes,  had  a  combined  acreage 
of  7006,  and  a  production  valued  at  $717,776. 
Orchard  fruits,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  apples,  peaches,  and  cherries,  had  products 
valued  at  $640,904.  Strawberries  are  the  most 
important  of  the  small  fruits,  of  vrhich  there 
were  produced  3,118,395  quarts  valued  at  $217,- 
327  in  1909. 

Live  Stock  and  Dairy  Products.  In  1909 
the  total  value  of  domestic  animals  on  farms 
was  $28,330,215.  On  Jan.  1,  1916,  the  United 


Of  the  total  number  of  w^age  earners  in  1909, 
10,562  were  male  and  only  110  under  16  years 
of  age.  The  prevailing  hours  of  labor  for  more 
than  half  the  w^age  earners  were  from  54  to  60 
per  week.  The  extent  to  which  the  manufac¬ 
tures  of  Utah  are  centred  about  the  two  cities, 
Salt  Lake  and  Ogden,  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  41.8  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  estab¬ 
lishments,  47.6  per  cent  of  the  wage  earners,  and 
27.5  per  cent  of  the  value  of  products  were  at¬ 
tributed  to  them.  For  further  details  regarding 


UTAH 


829 


UTAH 

the  manufacturing  of  these  cities  see  under  the 
individual  titles. 

Transportation.  There  are  no  navigable 
rivers.  Railways  centre  mostly  about  Salt  Lake 
City.  The  total  mileage  of  main  track  in  1915 
was  2354.  The  most  important  lines  and  their 
mileage  in  that  year  are  the  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande,  7 62 ;  the  San  Pedro,  Los  Angeles,  and 
Salt  Lake,  498;  the  Central  Pacific,  273;  the 
Oregon  Short  Line,  242;  the  Western  Pacific, 
121,  and  the  Union  Pacific,  75. 

Banks.  The  history  of  banking  in  Utah  is 
very  uneventful.  Private  bankers  became  active 
towards  1860,  and  from  1860  to  1870  some  banks 
were  organized  under  the  Territorial  law.  The 
first  national  bank  was  established  in  1872  with 
Brigham  Young  as  its  president.  Like  all  the 
economic  activities  of  the  Mormons,  the  banks 
were  controlled  by  the  church  authorities,  and 
the  high  development  of  mutual  confidence  which 
characterizes  the  members  of  this  faith  has 
saved  the  banks  from  crises.  Even  during  the 
hard  times  of  1893  the  banks  of  Utah  all  re¬ 
mained  solvent.  State  banks  are  more  numer¬ 
ous  and  do  a  much  larger  business  than  the 
national  banks.  Savings  banks  have  existed 
since  1873. 

The  condition  of  the  banks  in  1915  is  shown 
in  the  following  table: 


ITEMS 

National 

banks 

State  banks 

Number 

23 

75 

Capital . 

$3,355,000 

4,265,880 

Surplus . 

1,593,000 

1,083,101 

Cash,  etc . 

1,651,000 

1,661,447  , 

Deposits . 

21,072,000 

22,715,760 

Loans . 

18,466,000 

20,973,696 

Government.  The  constitution  adopted  on 
Nov.  5,  1895,  has  been  amended  in  important  es¬ 
sentials.  Amendments  which  may  be  proposed 
by  either  House  become  part  of  the  constitution 
when  approved  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  Legis¬ 
lature  and  accepted  by  the  electors.  Two-thirds 
of  the  members  of  each  branch  of  the  Legisla¬ 
ture  may  recommend  the  calling  of  conventions 
to  revise  the  constitution. 

Legislative. — The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives. 
The  initiative  and  referendum  are  provided  for 
in  the  Constitution,  though  until  1916  they  had 
never  been  in  force.  Senators  are  chosen  for  a 
term  of  four  years,  and  members  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  for  two  years,  and  both  must 
be  at  least  25  years  of  age.  Regular  sessions  of 
the  Legislature  are  held  biennially  in  odd  years. 

Executive. — The  executive  department  con¬ 
sists  of  the  Governor,  Secretary  of  State,  State 
Auditor,  State  Treasurer,  Attorney-General,  and 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  All  hold 
office  for  four  years.  The  Governor  and  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State  must  be  at  least  30  years  of  age, 
and  the  Attorney-General  25  years.  All  must 
have  been  residents  of  the  State  for  five  years 
next  preceding  their  election.  The  State  Audi¬ 
tor  and  State  Treasurer  are  ineligible  for  elec¬ 
tion  as  their  own  successors. 

Judicial. — The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a 
supreme  court,  district  courts,  justices  of  the 
peace,  and  such  other  inferior  courts  as  are 
established  by  law.  The  supreme  court  con¬ 
sists  of  three  judges,  who  are  elected  for  six 
years,  and  must  be  at  least  30  years  of  age. 


The  State  is  divided  into  seven  judicial  districts, 
for  which  one  or  more  judges  are  chosen  by  the 
electors  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The  Legis¬ 
lature  may  change  the  limits  of  any  judicial 
district,  or  increase  the  number  of  districts  or 
the  judges  thereof.  The  district  court  has  ap¬ 
pellate  jurisdiction  also  from  all  inferior  courts. 

Suffrage  and  Elections. — Every  citizen  of  the 
United  States  of  the  age  of  21  years  and  up¬ 
ward,  who  has  been  a  citizen  for  ninety  days, 
and  has  resided  in  the  State  for  one  year  and 
in  the  county  for  four  months  is  entitled  to  vote. 
Both  male  and  female  citizens  enjoy  equally  all 
civil,  political,  and  religious  rights  and  privi¬ 
leges.  All  general  elections,  except  for  munici¬ 
pal  and  school  officers,  are  held  on  the  first 
Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday  in  Novem¬ 
ber  of  the  year  in  which  the  election  is  held. 
The  use  of  voting  machines  is  permitted.  The 
United  States  Senators  are  elected  at  the  gen¬ 
eral  election  held  in  November,  beginning  1914. 

Local  and  Municipal  Government. — The  unit 
of  local  government  is  the  county.  Elections 
are  held  biennially  in  each  incorporated  city 
and  town  on  the  first  Monday  in  November, 
dating  from  1911.  In  cities  of  first  class  there 
are  elected  a  mayor,  four  commissioners,  and 
an  auditor.  The  mayor  and  commissioners  are 
elected  for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  the  audi¬ 
tor  for  two  years. 

Miscellaneous  Constitutional  and  Statutory 
Provisions. — There  is  a  board  of  labor  concilia¬ 
tion  and  arbitration  to  safeguard  the  rights 
of  the  labor.  There  is  a  law  making  unlawful 
certain  medicines  containing  opium,  chloral,  or 
alcohol.  Employment  of  any  children  under  the 
age  of  14  in  certain  designated  employments 
is  forbidden.  Restrictions  are  also  placed 
on  the  employment  of  females  under  the  age 
of  21.  Indeterminate  sentences  are  provided  for 
persons  convicted  of  crime.  The  Legislature  of 
1913  passed  a  measure  providing  for  mothers’ 
pensions.  The  State  is  divided  into  local  op¬ 
tion  units.  Each  incorporated  city  and  town 
is  a  separate  voting  unit.  Each  county  out¬ 
side  of  such  cities  and  towns  is  a  separate  vot¬ 
ing  unit  to  determine  whether  liquor  may  be 
sold.  There  are  heavy  penalties  provided  for 
the  shipment  of  liquor  from  “wet”  to  “dry” 
territories  of  the  State. 

Finances.  The  finances  are  in  a  satisfactory 
condition.  At  the  time  of  admission  into  the 
Union  the  State  assumed  the  small  debt  of  the 
Territory,  amounting  to  $700,000,  and  additional 
bonds  to  the  amount  of  $200,000  were  issued. 
For  the  year  ending  Nov.  30,  1915,  the  total 
receipts  were  $4,358,004  and  the  expenditures 
$4,889,893.  The  balance  on  hand  on  Nov.  30, 
1914,  was  $1,366,482,  leaving  a  balance  of  $834,- 
953  on  Nov.  30,  1915.  The  bonded  debt  at  the 
close  of  the  year  amounted  to  $3,060,000. 

Militia.  The  militia  consisted,  in  1915,  of 
one  battalion  of  infantry,  one  battery  of  artil¬ 
lery,  and  one  troop  of  cavalry.  The  strength 
was  represented  by  546  enlisted  men  and  30 
officers.  In  1910  the  number  of  men  of  militia 
age  (18  to  44  years)  was  84,449. 

Population.  The  population  of  Utah  by 
periods  is  as  follows:  1850,  11,380;  1860,  40,- 
273;  1870,  86,786;  1880,  143,963;  1890,  210,779; 
1900,  276,749;  1910,  373,351;  1915  (estimated) 
424,300;  1920,  449,396.  In  1910  it  ranked  forty- 
first  among  the  States  in  population.  The  density 
per  square  mile  in  that  year  was  4.5.  The  ur¬ 
ban  population  in  1910  was  172,934  and  the 


UTAH 


UTAH 


830 


rural  200,417.  The  number  of  males  in  that 
year  was  192,118.  The  negro  population  num¬ 
bered  1444,  the  Indian  3123,  and  the  Japanese 
2110.  The  native  whites  numbered  303,190  and 
the  foreign-born  whites  63,393.  Of  the  natives, 
64,475  were  born  outside  the  State,  those  com¬ 
ing  from  Illinois,  Colorado,  Iowa,  and  Idaho 
leading  in  order  mentioned.  Among  the  foreign 
born,  the  English  with  18,082  were  by  far  the 
most  numerous;  the  Danes  numbered  8300,  the 
Swedes  7227,  and  the  Greeks  4039.  The  males 
of  voting  age  numbered  104,115  in  1910.  The 
leading  cities  with  their  populations  in  1910 
and  as  estimated  for  1915  were  Salt  Lake  City 
92,777  and  113,567,  Ogden  25,580  and  30,466, 
and  Provo  8925  and  10,368. 

Education.  The  excellent  educational  condi¬ 
tion  of  Utah  is  witnessed  by  the  low  percent¬ 
age  of  illiteracy,  which  amounted  to  2.5  in  1910; 
among  whites  of  native  parentage  it  was  0.4, 
and  among  foreign-born  whites  5.9.  According 
to  the  thirteenth  census  the  school  population 
was  104,876,  ages  6  to  18  years.  Of  this  87,- 
000  attended  school.  This  is  a  higher  rate  than 
was  found  in  any  other  State  except  Kansas. 
According  to  the  report  of  the  State  Superin¬ 
tendent  of  Education  the  total  school  population 
in  1915  was  121,411.  The  total  enrollment  in 
the  public  schools  was  97,000,  and  the  average 
attendance  was  82,804.  There  were  2111  fe¬ 
male  and  740  male  teachers.  Total  school  ex¬ 
penditures  for  the  year  were  $5,206,746.  The 
average  salary  paid  female  teachers  in  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  was  $71.75  per  month,  and  male 
teachers  $104.22.  There  were,  in  1915,  44  high 
schools  in  which  were  enrolled  about  8500  stu¬ 
dents.  All  schools  outside  the  cities  of  the  first 
and  the  second  class  are  now  organized  into 
consolidated  county  districts.  The  Mormon 
church  maintains  an  efficient  educational  sys¬ 
tem.  In  addition  to  the  elementary  schools  the 
church  sustains  two  colleges  and  eight  acade¬ 
mies.  All  these  schools  offer  liigh-school  courses. 
Three  of  the  institutions,  the  Snow  Academy, 
Brigham  Young  College,  and  the  Brigham  Young 
University  offer  work  of  college  grade. 

There  are  several  excellent  Roman  Catholic 
academies  and  schools.  These  include  All  Hal¬ 
lows  College  in  Salt  Lake  City  and  the  Sacred 
Heart  Academy  at  Ogden.  Institutions  of  col¬ 
legiate  rank  are  the  University  of  Utah  (see 
Utah,  University  of)  and  the  Utah  Agricul¬ 
tural  College  at  Logan,  both  State  institutions 
and  both  coeducational. 

Charities  and  Corrections.  The  Mormon 
church  has  women’s  relief  societies  organized  as 
the  National  Women’s  Relief  Societies.  Salt 
Lake  City  and  Ogden  have  local  charitable  asso¬ 
ciations.  The  State  maintains  the  State  Mental 
Hospital  at  Provo,  the  State  Industrial  School 
at  Ogden,  the  School  for  the  Deaf  and  Blind  at 
Ogden,  and  the  State  Penitentiary  at  Salt  Lake 
City. 

Religion.  LTtah  is  the  centre  of  Mormonism. 
About  three-fourths  of  its  population  is  allied 
with  the  Mormon  church.  (See  Mormons.) 
In  recent  years  many  other  denominations  have 
entered  the  State,  of  which  the  Roman  Catholics 
and  Methodists  are  numerically  the  strongest. 

History.  The  first  white  explorers  of  Utah 
were  Spaniards,  sent  by  Coronado  (q.v.),  who 
reached  the  Colorado  River  in  1540.  Two  Fran¬ 
ciscan  friars  seeking  a  direct  route  to  the  Pacific 
went  from  Santa  Fe  to  Utah  Lake  in  1776.  In 
the  winter  of  1824-25,  James  Bridger,  a  trapper, 


seeking  to  determine  the  course  of  the  Bear  River, 
discovered  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  Other  trappers 
followed  in  1825-26,  and  established  posts  in 
the  region.  Later  immigrants  to  Oregon  and 
California  passed  through  without  halting.  The 
real  history  begins  when  the  Mormons  (q.v.), 
despairing  of  peace  in  Missouri  or  Illinois,  de¬ 
termined  in  1846  to  move  west.  The  Mexican 
War  was  then  in  progress,  and  in  June,  1846, 
while  the  emigrants  were  encamped  at  the  site 
of  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa,  a  Mormon  battalion  was 
raised  for  the  conquest  of  California,  which  then 
included  the  whole  southwestern  part  of  the 
United  States.  The  march  of  the  Mormon  peo¬ 
ple  was  slow  and  painful.  On  July  21,  1847, 
the  advance  guard  reached  the  present  site  of 
Salt  Lake  City.  Other  bands  rapidly  followed, 
and  by  1852  they  numbered  15,000.  The  United 
States  did  not  obtain  possession  of  the  territory 
until  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  in  1848, 
and  did  not  immediately  provide  for  its  govern¬ 
ment.  At  first  the  church  officers  were  the  rul¬ 
ers,  but  with  the  coming  of  non-Mormons  in 
1849  the  State  of  Deseret  was  organized,  a  con¬ 
stitution  adopted,  and  a  delegate  sent  to  the 
United  States  Congress  asking  admission.  Con¬ 
gress  refused  to  admit  the  State,  but  organized 
the  Territory  of  Utah  (Sept.  9,  1850)  with 
boundaries  much  more  extended  than  at  present, 
and  Brigham  YAung  (q.v.)  was  appointed  Gov¬ 
ernor.  He  soon  quarreled  with  the  other  Ter¬ 
ritorial  officers  sent  out,  and  the  General  As¬ 
sembly  adopted  the  laws  of  the  State  of  Deseret. 
In  1854  and  again  in  1856  admission  to  the 
Union  was  sought.  There  was  constant  wrang¬ 
ling,  owing  partly  to  the  fact  that  many  of¬ 
ficers  sent  out  were  incompetent  and  partly  be¬ 
cause  the  authorities  of  the  church  were  de¬ 
termined  to  rule  at  any  cost.  In  1857  it  was 
determined  that  Young  should  be  superseded  as 
Governor,  and  for  this  purpose  it  was  consid¬ 
ered  necessary  to  make  a  display  of  military 
strength,  as  Young  had  defied  the  authority  of 
the  United  States.  (See  Young,  Brigham.)  For 
some  years  troops  were  kept  in  garrison  at 
Salt  Lake  City.  An  act  designed  to  break  up 
polygamy  was  passed  in  1862.  Meanwhile  the 
Perpetual  Emigration  Fund  had  been  organized 
in  1849  and  thousands  of  proselytes  were  brought 
from  Europe.  The  incoming  of  non-Mormons 
was  viewed  with  disfavor.  See  Mountain 
Meadows  Massacre. 

After  the  Civil  War,  the  opening  of  the  trans¬ 
continental  railroad  in  1869  brought  more  “gen¬ 
tiles,”  and  further  efforts  to  enforce  the  laws 
were  made  by  some  officers,  but  with  little  suc¬ 
cess.  The  Mormon  grand  juries  refused  to  in¬ 
dict  and  the  other  juries  to  convict.  The  death 
of  Young  in  1877  apparently  made  no  difference 
in  the  condition  of  affairs.  It  was  finally  de¬ 
cided  that  the  only  way  to  break  the  power  of 
the  church  was  to  deprive  its  members  of  po¬ 
litical  power.  The  Edmunds  Bill  in  1882  dis¬ 
franchised  all  polygamists,  and  abolished  most 
of  the  offices  in* the  Territory.  Control  was 
given  to  a  commission  of  five  men.  Within  two 
years  12,000  were  disfranchised  and  the  indig¬ 
nation  was  so  great  that  troops  were  sent  in 
1885  in  fear  of  an  uprising.  Continued  agi¬ 
tation  for  statehood  brought  no  result,  and 
meanwhile,  after  it  had  been  held  constitutional 
that  juries  might  consist  entirely  of  non-Mor¬ 
mons,  prominent  officials  were  convicted  and 
sent  to  the  penitentiary.  A  more  stringent  act 
was  passed  in  1887,  the  corporation  of  the  Mor- 


UTAH 


UTE 


831 


mon  church  and  the  Perpetual  Emigration 
Fund  were  abolished  and  their  property  es¬ 
cheated.  By  1890,  468  men  had  been  convicted 
of  polygamy,  and  President  Woodruff  of  the 
Mormon  church  issued  a  manifesto  declaring 
that  the  church  no  longer  countenanced  polyg¬ 
amy,  and  his  action  was  approved  by  a  general 
conference  of  the  church.  This  was  followed 
in  1891  by  the  formation  of  political  parties  on 
national  lines,  and  in  1893  amnesty  was  de¬ 
clared  to  all  offenders  who  could  show  that  they 
had  not  broken  the  law  since  1890.  Congress 
passed  an  enabling  act  for  statehood  in  1894,  a 
constitution  was  formed  on  March  6,  1895,  was 
adopted  in  November,  and  the  State  was  ad¬ 
mitted  Jan.  4,  1896.  The  constitution  forbids 
polygamy  and  allows  woman  suffrage.  Since 
admission  it  has  been  claimed  that  the  people 
are  going  back  to  their  old  practices,  and  in 
1900  Brigham  H.  Roberts  was  not  allowed  to 
take  his  seat  in  the  United  States  House  of 
Representatives  because  of  a  charge  of  polyg¬ 
amy.  Similar  opposition  was  manifested  against 
Senator  Reed  Smoot,  but  in  February,  1907,  the 
Senate  sustained  his  election. 

In  the  election  of  1908  the  vote  for  President 
was:  Taft,  61,015;  Bryan,  52,601;  Debs,  4895. 
William  Spry  was  elected  Governor  by  a  major¬ 
ity  of  9538  over  his  Democratic  opponent.  The 
Legislature  reelected  Senator  Smoot  in  1909  and 
Senator  Sutherland  in  1911.  Utah  was  one  of 
the  two  States  carried  by  Taft  in  the  election  of 
1912.  The  vote  was:  Taft,  42,013;  Wilson, 
36,579;  Roosevelt,  24,174.  In  that  year  Gover¬ 
nor  Spry  was  reelected  by  a  vote  of  42,552 
against  36,076  for  Tolton,  Democrat,  and  23,591 
for  Morris,  Progressive.  In  the  election  of  1914 
Senator  Smoot  was  again  reelected.  The  Legis¬ 
lature  of  1915  passed  a  bill  providing  for  State¬ 
wide  prohibition,  which  was  vetoed  by  Governor 
Spry  after  its  adjournment. 

In  national  politics  the  State  voted  for  the 
Democratic  silver  candidate  in  1896  but  has 
been  strongly  Republican  since  1900.  See  also 
Mormons. 

GOVERNORS  OF  UTAH 

STATE  OF  DESERET 


Brigham  Young . 1849-51 

TERRITORY  OF  UTAH 

Brigham  Young . 1851-57 

Alfred  Cumming . 1857-61 

John  W.  Dawson .  1861 

Frank  Fuller  (acting) . 1861-62 

Stephen  S.  Harding . 1862-63 

James  Duane  Doty . 1863-65 

Charles  Durkee . 1865-69 

Edwin  Higgins  (acting) . 1869-70 

S.  A.  Mann  (acting) .  1870 

J.  Wilson  Shaffer .  1870 

Vernon  H.  Vaughan  (acting) . 1870-71 

George  L.  Woods . 1870-74 

S.  B.  Axtell . 1874-75 

George  B.  Emery . 1875-80 

Eli  H.  Murray . 1880-86 

Caleb  W.  West . 1886-89 

Arthur  L.  Thomas . 1889-93 

Caleb  W.  West . 1893-96 

OF  THE  STATE 

Heber  M.  Wells . Republican . 1896-1905 

John  C.  Cutler .  “  1905-1909 

William  Spry .  “  1909-1917 

S.  Bamberger . Democrat  1917-1921 

Charles  R.  Mabey . Republican . 1921- 


Bibliography.  Nichols,  Mineral  Resources  of 
Utah  (Pittsburgh,  1873)  ;  H.  H.  Bancroft,  His¬ 
tory  of  the  Pacific  States  (San  Francisco,  1889)  ; 
Henry  Gannett,  Gazetteer  of  Utah  (Washington, 
1900);  M.  E.  Jones,  Utah  (New  York,  1902); 
O.  F.  Whitney,  Making  of  a  State:  School  His¬ 


tory  of  Utah  (Salt  Lake  City,  1908)  ;  R.  L. 
Polk,  Utah  Gazetteer  (Chicago,  1909)  ;  F.  J. 
Cannon,  Under  the  Prophet  in  Utah  (Boston, 
1911). 

UTAH,  University  of.  A  coeducational 
State  institution  for  higher  education  founded 
in  Salt  Lake  City  in  1850.  It  was  originally 
called  the  LTniversity  of  the  State  of  Deseret. 
After  one  session  it  was  discontinued  until  1867, 
owing  to  a  lack  of  funds  and  patronage.  In  1891 
a  new  charter  was  secured  and  the  present  cor¬ 
porate  title  was  assumed.  The  university  in 
the  same  year  received  a  grant  of  60  acres  on 
the  Fort  Douglas  Reservation,  and  the  State 
Legislature  in  1899  appropriated  $200,000  for 
buildings  on  the  new  site.  Congress  in  1906 
granted  the  university  32  additional  acres  on 
the  Fort  Douglas  Reservation.  The  university 
comprises  the  School  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  the 
State  Normal  School  and  School  of  Education, 
the  State  School  of  Mines,  established  by  the 
State  Legislature  in  1901,  a  school  of  medicine, 
and  a  school  of  law.  The  attendance  in  all  de¬ 
partments  in  the  autumn  of  1915  was  2191.  The 
teaching  force  numbered  98,  and  the  library  con¬ 
tains  45,485  volumes  and  19,075  pamphlets. 
The  property  of  the  university  was  valued  in 
1915  at  $1,255,000,  and  the  gross  annual  in¬ 
come  at  $245,000.  The  president  in  1916  was 
J.  F.  Kingsbury,  D.S. 

UTAH  LAKE.  The  largest  fresh-water  lake 
in  Utah,  situated  30  miles  southeast  of  the 
Great  Salt  Lake,  into  which  it  discharges  through 
the  river  Jordan  (Map:  Utah,  C  2).  It  is  about 
21  miles  long,  and  its  maximum  width  is  about 
11  miles,  made  by  an  extension  to  the  east. 
Elsewhere  its  average  width  is  about  5  miles.  It 
lies  on  the  extreme  eastern  border  of  the  Great 
American  Basin,  at  the  western  base  of  the 
Wasatch  Range,  and  at  an  altitude  of  4489  feet. 
It  receives  its  principal  drainage  from  the  east. 

UTAKAMAND.  See  Ootacamand. 

UTAMARO,  oo'ta-ma'ro,  Kitagawa  (1753- 
54-1806).  A  Japanese  engraver  and  designer  of 
color  prints.  He  was  born  at  Kawagoye  (Prov¬ 
ince  of  Musachi),  and  studied  at  Yedo  (now 
Tokio)  under  the  painter  Toriyama  Sekiven  and 
at  the  school  of  Kano.  In  1776  he  published  his 
first  book  of  woodcuts  and  about  1780  his  first 
colored  album.  His  fame  spread  rapidly,  reach¬ 
ing  as  far  as  Holland,  and  he  employed  many 
assistants.  Utamaro’s  work  includes  illustra¬ 
tions  for  poems  and  romances,  landscapes,  shells, 
insects,  animals,  and  scenes  from  popular  life, 
but  his  favorite  subjects  were  women.  He  cre¬ 
ated  a  new  fascinating  type,  but  in  his  por¬ 
trayal  of  courtesans  and  professional  beauties 
followed  the  erotic  tendency  of  his  Japanese 
contemporaries.  Among  his  most  famous  series 
are  “The  Twelve  Hours  of  the  Green  Houses” 
(1804)  and  “Yamauba  and  Kintoki.”  His 
prints,  which  show  an  astonishing  variety  of 
technique,  are  characterized  by  subtlety  of  line, 
animated  composition,  and  delicate  transparent 
color.  They  are  well  represented  in  the  Metro- 
olitan  Museum,  New  York.  An  excellent  ex- 
ibition  of  his  work  was  held  at  the  Musee  des 
Arts  Decoratifs,  Paris,  in  1912.  Consult  the 
catalogue  of  this  exhibition,  compiled  by  Vignier 
and  Tnada  (Paris,  1912),  also  the  monographs 
by  Kurt  (Leipzig,  1907)  and  Goncourt  (Paris, 
1911). 

UTE,  fit,  or  U'TAH.  An  important  tribe  of 
Shoshonean  stock  (q.v.),  who  formerly  occupied 
the  mountain  region  of  western  Colorado  and 


UTERUS 


UTERUS 


832 


eastern  Utah,  with  portions  of  the  adjacent  ter¬ 
ritory  on  the  north  and  south,  and  extended 
their  hunting  and  raiding  expeditions  far  down 
into  the  plains.  They  were  subdivided  into 
bands,  of  which  the  principal  were  the  Tabe- 
quache,  Muach'e,  Capote,  Wiminuche,  Yampa,  and 
Uinta.  They  seem  to  have  been  'the  original 
nucleus  of  the  Shoshonean  stock,  as  commonly 
recognized,  occupying  a  central  position  and 
having  no  tradition  of  any  earlier  home.  They 
were  usually  at  peace  with  their  neighbors  and 
kindred  on  the  north  and  west,  the  Shoshoni, 
Banak,  and  Piute,  and  also  assumed  a  protector¬ 
ship  over  the  Jicarilla,  but  carried  on  constant 
and  relentless  warfare  with  the  Navajo  and  with 
all  the  tribes  of  the  plains.  They  were  a  rest¬ 
less,  warlike,  and  aggressive  people,  living  en¬ 
tirely  by  hunting  and  on  wild  fruits  and  roots, 
and,  like  other  tribes  of  the  same  stock,  were 
democratic  in  their  tribal  life,  with  centralized 
or  hereditary  chiefship  and  careless  of  cere¬ 
monial.  Their  native  arts  were  simple,  but  by 
trade  with  the  Navajo  and  Piute  they  obtained 
blankets  and  baskets,  while  from  the  Mexicans 
and  by  raids  on  other  tribes  they  procured  herds 
of  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle.  Their  ordinary 
dwelling  was  a  brush  shelter  or  small  tepee.  The 
Ute  made  their  first  treaty  with  the  government 
in  1850,  and  by  various  subsequent  treaties  were 
limited  in  range  until  the  entire  body,  with  the 
exception  of  the  southern  Ute,  were  removed  to 
the  present  reservation  in  Utah.  In  the  fall  of 
1906  the  latter  left  their  reserve  and  moved  up 
to  the  headwaters  of  the  South  Fork  of  the 
Platte,  refusing  to  return.  As  they  were  armed, 
a  force  of  cavalry  was  sent  out  to  force  them 
back.  When  surrounded  the  Utes  agreed  to  go 
to  Fort  Mead,  S.  Dak.,  to  await  orders  from 
the  Indian  Department.  They  claimed  that 
they  could  not  live  upon  their  reserve  under  the 
conditions  imposed  by  the  officials,  and  proposed 
to  emigrate  to  the  Big  Horn  valley.  Later  they 
returned  to  their  reservation.  In  1910  the  total 
number  of  Utes  was  12,244.  See  Plate  of  Amer¬ 
ican  Indians,  under  Indians. 

U'TERUS  (Lat.,  womb),  or  Womb.  A  flat¬ 
tened,  pear-shaped  organ,  lying  behind  the  sym¬ 
physis  of  the  pubes  in  the  human  female,  and 
constituting  her  principal  generative  organ.  It 
consists  of  a  body,  a  base  or  fundus,  a  neck  or 
cervix,  and  a  mouth.  It  lies  in  the  line  of  the 
axis  of  the  outlet  of  the  pelvis  (q.v. ),  with  base 
directed  upward  and  forward,  and  the  neck  di¬ 
rected  slightly  backward.  In  the  unimpregnated 
condition  it  is  about  three  inches  in  length,  two 
in  breadth,  and  one  in  thickness.  Its  walls  are 
nearly  half  an  inch  thick,  and  are  mainly  com¬ 
posed  of  muscle  fibres  running  irregularly  in  all 
directions  except  round  the  os,  where  they  make 
a  partial  sphincter.  This  muscular  coat,  which 
constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  organ,  is  covered  ex¬ 
ternally  with  a  serous  coat,  derived  from  the 
peritoneum,  and  is  lined  internally  by  a  mucous 
coat  continuous  with  that  of  the  canal  called 
the  vagina,  by  which  the  interior  of  the  womb 
communicates  with  the  outer  surface  of  the 
body.  The  neck  or  cervix  is  distinguished  from 
the  body  by  a  well-marked  constriction.  The 
mouth  or  os  projects  into  the  vagina.  This 
opening  is  nearly  round  in  the  virgin  and 
transverse  after  parturition.  It  is  of  consider¬ 
able  size,  and  is  named  the  os  uteri  externum; 
it  leads  into  a  narrow  canal  which  terminates  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  cervix  in  a  smaller  opening, 
the  os  internum ,  beyond  which  is  the  shallow 


triangular  cavity  of  the  womb,  of  which  it  forms 
the  lower  angle,  while  the  two  upper  angles, 
which  are  funnel-shaped,  constitute  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  Fallopian  tubes  or  oviducts,  whose 
apertures  are  so  small  as  only  to  admit  the  pas¬ 
sage  of  a  fine  bristle.  The  blood  vessels  and 
nerves  enlarge  in  a  very  remarkable  way  during 
pregnancy,  so  as  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  in¬ 
creased  wants  of  the  organ,  which  at  the  ninth 


Uterine  Walt 
Os  internum 

2 

Vaginal  Wall 
Os  externum 


lateral  angle  of  Uterus 

Cavity  of  Body 
ArborVitce 
Cavity  of  Cervix 
Vaginal  County 


1,  uterus  and  broad  ligament  as  seen  from  behind,  the 
latter  being  spread  out.  The  isthmus  tubse,  the  utero-ovarian 
ligament,  and  the  round  ligament  of  the  left  side  have  been 
cut  short.  2,  sectional  diagram  of  the  uterine  cavity  as 
seen  from  the  front. 


month  of  uterogestation  weighs  from  2  to  4 
pounds.  The  name  “uterine  appendages”  or 
“adnexa”  is  given  to  the  Fallopian  tubes  and 
ovaries,  which  are  inclosed  by  the  lateral  folds 
of  the  peritoneum  called  the  broad  ligaments. 
The  uterus  is  suspended  in  the  pelvic  cavity  in 
such  a  way  as,  by  its  mobility,  to  escape  con¬ 
cussion  from  without  or  disturbance  from  the 
varying  conditions  of  the  surrounding  viscera, 
while  at  the  same  time  to  allow  of  its  vastly  in¬ 
creasing  in  bulk  with  comparatively  little  dis¬ 
comfort  when  pregnancy  occurs.  This  is  effected 
by  several  reduplications  of  peritoneum,  known 
as  the  broad,  the  round,  the  uterosacral,  and 
the  uterovesical  ligaments. 

The  chief  functions  of  the  uterus  relate  to 
menstruation  (q.v.),  insemination,  gestation, 
and  parturition.  See  Embryology;  Fcetus;  Ob¬ 
stetrics;  Ovary;  Sterility;  Uterus,  Diseases 
of  the. 

UTERUS,  Diseases  of  the.  The  causes  of 
uterine  disease  may  be  divided  into  those  which 
are  operative  before  marriage,  those  which  arise 
during  married  life,  and  those  which  depend 
upon  childbearing  or  its  sequels.  These  causes 
thus  embrace  neglect  of  out-of-door  life  and 
physical  development;  improper  dress;  impru¬ 
dence  during  menstruation ;  excessive  mental 
strain ;  the  prevention  of  conception  and  the 
production  of  abortion;  the  neglect  of  precau¬ 
tions  after  childbirth  or  the  failure  to  repair 
lacerations  occurring  during  delivery;  disease 
communicated  during  sexual  intercourse;  and 
habitual  constipation.  Utter  disregard  of 
weather  or  temperature  during  menstruation 
and  a  continuance  of  the  nervous  tension  of 
study  during  this  period  are  grave  and  under¬ 
mining  agencies.  Too  great  activity  after  par¬ 
turition  in  women  heretofore  unaccustomed  to 


UTHER 


UTICA 


833 


physical  labor  interferes  with  the  normal  con¬ 
traction  of  the  enlarged  uterus,  a  process  re¬ 
quiring  six  weeks  for  its  accomplishment.  The 
modern  obstetrician  is  prepared  to  close  lacera¬ 
tions  immediately  after  delivery,  to  complete  the 
surgical  repairs  necessary,  and  to  prevent  in¬ 
fection  through  bleeding  surfaces.  A  very  fruit¬ 
ful  source  of  uterine  disease  lies  in  the  preven¬ 
tion  of  conception  and  the  procurement  of  abor¬ 
tion.  Retention  of  foetal  membranes,  hemor¬ 
rhage,  septicaemia,  peritonitis,  are  common  and 
often  fatal  consequences.  Gonorrhoea  (q.v. )  is  a 
frequent  and  dangerous  cause  of  uterine  disease. 

Endometritis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mu¬ 
cous  lining  of  the  uterus,  and  may  be  confined 
either  to  the  neck  or  the  body  of  the  organ  or 
may  affect  both.  It  may  be  set  up  by  exposure, 
injury,  infection  from  the  vagina  (notably  gon¬ 
orrhoeal  ) ,  retained  foetal  membranes,  and  many 
other  causes.  Its  symptoms  are  pain,  weight, 
and  oppression  in  the  pelvic  cavity  and  in  the 
back,  and  an  irritating  leucorrhoeal  discharge. 

Chronic  metritis  or  hyperplasia  is  often  co¬ 
incident  with  endometritis  and  gives  rise  to  simi¬ 
lar  symptoms.  The  pathological  condition  pres¬ 
ent  is  an  enlargement  of  the  uterine  walls 
through  increase  of  connective  tissue. 

Laceration  of  the  cervix  of  the  uterus  consists 
of  a  tearing  in  the  wall  of  the  neck  of  the  organ 
during  labor.  It  gives  rise  to  all  the  symptoms 
noted  under  endometritis,  and  sometimes  to  neu¬ 
ralgic  pains  in  the  uterine  region  and  discom¬ 
fort  in  walking.  It  may  be  unavoidable  during 
delivery,  and  most  frequently  occurs  as  a  result 
of  precipitate  labor,  or  manual  or  instrumental 
delivery.  It  is  a  frequent  cause  of  lifelong  suf¬ 
fering  and  distress,  which  operative  interference, 
in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  relieves  at  once. 

Displacement  of  the  uterus,  while  not  a  dis¬ 
ease,  gives  rise  to  diseased  conditions  of  much 
moment,  by  preventing  the  escape  of  menstrual 
blood,  by  interfering  with  the  uterine  circulation, 
by  causing  pressure  and  friction,  and  by  produc¬ 
ing  sterility.  The  varieties  of  displacements 
are  anteflexion,  in  which  the  uterus  is  bent  for¬ 
ward  upon  itself ;  anteversion,  in  which  the  whole 
uterus  is  tilted  forward;  retroversion,  in  which 
the  uterus  is  tilted  backward;  retroflexion,  in 
which  the  uterus  is  bent  backward  upon  itself; 
lateroversion  and  lateroflexion,  in  which  the 
uterus  is  tilted  or  bent  upon  itself  sideways; 
inversion,  in  which  the  fundus  of  the  uterus  is 
turned  partly  or  entirely  inside  out;  and  pro¬ 
lapsus,  or  descent,  in  which  the  uterine  body 
slips  downward,  and  even,  in  the  worst  degree, 
causes  a  protrusion  of  the  cervix  at  the  vulvar 
orifice. 

Menorrhagia  is  a  condition  in  which  menstru¬ 
ation  is  profuse,  and  an  actual  hemorrhage  oc¬ 
curs  at  the  menstrual  period.  Metrorrhagia  is 
the  occurrence  of  profuse  menstruation  or  of  a 
hemorrhage  from  the  uterus  in  the  interval  be¬ 
tween  menstrual  periods. 

Cancer  of  the  uterus  is  fairly  frequent.  The 
symptoms  are  pain  through  the  pelvis;  tender¬ 
ness  upon  walking  or  moving,  or  during  coition; 
hemorrhage;  discharge  of  a  very  offensive  fluid 
from  the  uterus ;  pallor  and  loss  of  strength  and 
flesh.  The  treatment  is  complete  removal  of 
the  organ  and  its  adnexa.  Consult  Kelly  and 
Noble,  Gynecology  and  Abdominal  Surgery  (Phil¬ 
adelphia,  191G). 

U'THEE.  King  of  Britain  and  father,  by 
Igerna,  of  Arthur  (q.v.). 

U'TICA  (Lat.,  from  Gk.  Ovtikt],  Outike,  ’Itvkti, 


Ityke).  An  ancient  city  of  Africa,  at  the  north¬ 
west  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Tunis,  and  about 
20  miles  from  the  city  of  Tunis.  It  was  one  of 
the  oldest  Phoenician  settlements  on  the  African 
coast,  though  the  traditional  date  of  its  founda¬ 
tion  (about  1100  b.c. )  seems  to  rest  on  no  good 
evidence.  Like  the  other  Phoenician  cities,  it 
acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  Carthagin¬ 
ians,  though  its  position  was  rather  that  of 
ally  than  subject.  It  was  captured  by  Agathocles 
(q.v.)  in  his  invasion  of  Africa  at  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century  b.c.,  and  played  an  .impor¬ 
tant  part  in  the  Punic  Wars.  Early  submission 
to  Rome  in  the  Third  Punic  War  was  rewarded 
with  a  large  share  of  Carthaginian  territory.  In 
the  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompeius  it  became 
famous  as  a  rallying  point  of  the  Pompeians 
after  the  battle  of  Pharsalus,  being  occupied  by 
Cato.  At  Utica  Cato  committed  suicide  after 
Caesar’s  victory  at  Thapsus.  Utica  became  a  free 
city  under  Caesar  and  it  received  further  privi¬ 
leges  from  Augustus.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Arabs  towards  the  end  of  the  seventh  century. 
The  few  ruins  visible  above  ground  lie  west  of 
the  river  known  to  the  ancients  as  Bagradas.  In 
1869  A.  Daux,  a  French  engineer,  made  impor¬ 
tant  excavations,  by  which  he  located  the  am¬ 
phitheatre,  capable  of  holding  20,000  spectators, 
the  theatre,  baths,  reservoirs,  the  aqueduct,  the 
fortifications,  acropolis,  quays,  etc.  (Consult  A. 
Daux,  Le  tour  du  monde,  1872.)  The  site 
of  the  city  was  anciently  on  the  shore  about  27 
Roman  miles  northwest  of  Carthage,  but  on 
account  of  changes  in  the  coast  line,  caused  by 
the  river  Bagradas,  the  spot  is  at  present 
inland. 

UTICA.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Oneida 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  95  miles  west  by  north  of  Albany, 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Mohawk  River,  on  the 
State  Barge  Canal,  and  on  the  New  York  Cen¬ 
tral,  the  New  York,  Ontario,  and  Western,  the 
Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and  Western,  the  Adiron¬ 
dack  and  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  West  Shore  rail¬ 
roads.  It  is  also  on  the  Utica  and  Mohawk 
Valley  Electric  Railroad  (Map:  New  York,  E 
4 ) .  It  is  finely  situated  at  an  elevation  of  about 
430  feet,  and  is  regularly  laid  out.  Noteworthy 
are  the  city  hall,  the  courthouse,  the  United 
States  Government  building,  the  State  Armory, 
the  Munson-Williams  Memorial,  home  of  the 
Oneida  Historical  Society,  the  Young  Men’s 
Christian  Association  building,  the  Young 
Women’s  Christian  Association  building,  the  high 
school,  the  Savings  Bank  of  Utica,  the  Utica 
Free  Academy,  and  the  State  Masonic  Home. 
The  public  library  has  84,000  volumes.  Other 
collections  include  the  Oneida  Historical  Society 
Library,  with  more  than  7200  volumes,  the  Utica 
Law  Library,  the  Utica  State  Hospital  Medical 
Library,  the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association 
Library,  the  East  Utica  Library,  the  Deutscher 
Leserverein,  and  the  Faxton  Hall  Library. 
Utica  has  been  termed  “the  city  of  charities” 
because  of  the  number  of  its  charitable  institu¬ 
tions,  the  value  of  their  property,  and  the  large 
amount  annually  expended  for  their  mainte¬ 
nance.  The  more  important  of  these  institutions 
include  the  Home  for  the  Homeless,  Home  for 
Aged  Men  and  Couples,  Utica  Orphan  Asylum, 
St.  Vincent’s  Industrial  School,  St.  John’s  Or 
phan  Asylum,  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and 
the  City,  Homoeopathic,  Faxton’s,  St.  Luke’s, 
and  St.  Elizabeth’s  hospitals.  A  State  lunatic 
asylum  also  is  here. 

Utica  is  of  considerable  prominence  as  a  com- 


UTIEL 


UTILITARIANISM 


834 


mercial  and  industrial  centre.  It  is  in  a  rich 
dairy-farming  country  and  is  widely  known  for 
its  large  output  of  cheese.  Hop  growing  and  the 
cultivation  of  roses  are  other  important  indus¬ 
tries  of  the  surrounding  district.  In  manufac¬ 
turing  Utica  ranks  eighth  among  the  cities  of  the 
State,  its  various  industrial  establishments  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  1914  census  having  $30,702,000 
invested  capital  and  a  production  valued  at 
$30,490,000.  There  were  300  establishments,  em¬ 
ploying  14,308  persons.  The  leading  manufac¬ 
tures  are  men’s  clothing,  hosiery  and  knit  goods, 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  steam  fittings  and 
heating  apparatus,  foundry  and  machine-shop 
products,  malt  liquors,  lumber  products,  firearms, 
metal  beds,  cutlery,  farm  implements,  paints, 
fire  extinguishers,  automobile  parts,  office  fur¬ 
niture,  and  saddlery  and  harness.  For  mainte¬ 
nance  and  operation  the  city  spends  annually 
about  $1,510,000.  The  chief  items  are:  schools, 
$422,000;  fire  department,  $178,000;  police  de¬ 
partment,  $87,000;  interest  on  debt,  $90,000; 
street  lighting,  $81,000;  street  cleaning,  $63,000. 
The  net  debt  in  1915  was  $2,400,000;  and  the  as¬ 
sessed  valuation  of  property  (real  and  personal) 
was  $51,000,000.  Pop.,  1820,  2972;  1880,  33,914; 
1900,  56,383;  1910,  74,419;  1915  (State  census) , 
80,589;  1920,  94,156. 

Utica  was  settled  about  1786  on  the  site  of 
Fort  Schuyler.  Until  1798,  when  it  was  incor¬ 
porated  as  a  tovrn  under  its  present  name,  Utica 
wTas  known  as  “Old  Fort  Schuyler.”  It  received 
a  city  charter  in  1832.  Its  growth  was  slow  until 
after  the  completion  of  the  Erie  Canal  in  1825. 
Consult:  Bagg  (editor),  Memorial  History  of 
Utica  (Syracuse,  1892)  ;  and  Brown,  Butcher, 
and  Goodale,  Outline  History  of  Utica  and  Vicin¬ 
ity  (Utica,  1900). 

UTIEL,  00-te-aF.  A  town  of  Valencia,  Spain, 
45  miles  west  of  the  city  of  Valencia.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  wine,  brandy,  silk 
and  linen  fabrics,  and  pottery.  Municipal  pop., 
1900,  11,560;  1910,  11,777. 

UTIL'ITA'RIANISM  (from  utilitarian, 
from  utility,  from  Lat.  utilitas,  usefulness,  profit, 
from  utilis,  useful,  from  uti,  to  use).  The  name 
of  the  theory  of  ethics  (q.v. )  that  adopts,  as  the 
criterion  of  right  and  wrong,  of  good  and  bad, 
the  tendency  of  an  action  to  produce  the  greatest 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number.  John  Stuart 
Mill  claims  to  have  coined  the  word,  which  wTas 
suggested  to  him  by  the  use  of  the  term  “utili¬ 
tarian”  in  Galt’s  Annals  of  the  Parish. 

The  doctrine  of  utility  is  generally  opposed  to 
all  those  theories  that  refer  us  to  some  internal 
sense,  feeling,  or  sentiment,  for  the  test  of  right 
and  wrong;  a  test  usually  described  by  such 
phrases  as  a  moral  sense,  conscience,  innate 
moral  distinctions,  whence  utility  is  sometimes 
termed  the  external  or  objective  standard  of 
morality.  It  is  also  opposed  to  the  view  that 
founds  moral  distinctions  on  the  mere  arbitrary 
will  of  God.  Again,  it  is  opposed  to  the  view 
that  the  pleasure-giving  value  of  an  act  to  the 
agent  is  the  test  of  its  goodness  or  badness  (in¬ 
dividualistic  hedonism). 

The  utilitarian  theory  is  distinctively  a  mod¬ 
ern  theory.  All  ancient  hedonisms  were  more  or 
less  individualistic;  i.e.,  the  happiness  of  the 
agent  and  not  that  of  his  fellow  beings  was  re¬ 
garded  as  the  ultimate  end  of  all  rational  action. 
This  is  true  even  of  Christianity  in  so  far  as 
it  is  hedonistic,  for  the  ultimate  appeal  in  Chris¬ 
tianity  is  to  the  individual’s  desire  for  ever¬ 
lasting  happiness,  although  along  with  this  ap¬ 


peal  is  another  to  a  benevolent  desire  for  the 
happiness  of  one’s  neighbors.  In  the  Greek 
hedonistic  systems  whatever  regard  is  paid  to 
the  well  being  of  others  is  in  the  last  analysis 
based  on  the  fact  that  such  consideration  for 
others  brings  pleasure  to  one’s  self.  In  modern 
times  Hobbes  is  the  foremost  representative  of 
this  ancient  or  individualistic  hedonism.  Hutche¬ 
son  (q.v.)  is  perhaps  the  first  writer  on  ethics 
v'ho  advocated  the  principle  of  the  greatest  hap¬ 
piness  of  the  greatest  number,  in  this  way  tran¬ 
scending  the  limitations  of  egoism  (q.v.).  There 
are  utilitarian  tendencies  in  Hume  (q.v.)  and 
even  in  Locke.  Abraham  Tucker  (q.v.)  i3  also 
to  be  mentioned  as  one  of  the  early  Utilitarians 
(1705-74).  But  Paley  (q.v.)  and  Bentham 
(q.v.),  especially  the  latter,  are  to  be  credited 
with  giving  such  popular  expression  to  this  view 
that  it  became  current  in  all  centres  of  English 
thought.  In  Paley,  however,  utilitarianism  was 
combined  with  theological  authoritarianism  and 
with  individualistic  hedonism,  as  is  shown  in  his 
notorious  definition  of  virtue  as  “the  doing 
good  to  mankind,  in  obedience  to  the  will  of 
God,  and  for  the  sake  of  everlasting  happiness.” 
With  Bentham  the  theory  was  used  as  a  founda¬ 
tion,  not  merely  of  ethics,  but  also  of  political 
and  legal  reforms.  Having  in  view  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  sacrificing  smaller  interests  to  greater, 
or,  at  all  events,  of  not  sacrificing  greater  in¬ 
terests  to  smaller,  he  described  the  ethical  end 
as  “the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  num¬ 
ber.”  He  illustrated  the  doctrine  by  setting 
it  in  opposition  to  asceticism,  and  to  sympathy 
and  antipathy.  Asceticism  he  interpreted  to 
mean  the  principle  that  pleasure  should  be 
forfeited,  and  pain  incurred,  without  expecta¬ 
tion  of  any  compensation.  By  the  principle  of 
sympathy  and  antipathy  he  means  “the  prin¬ 
ciple  which  approves  or  disapproves  of  certain 
actions,  not  on  account  of  their  tending  to 
augment  the  happiness,  nor  yet  on  account  of 
their  tending  to  diminish  the  happiness  of  the 
party  whose  interest  is  in  question,  but  merely 
because  a  man  finds  himself  disposed  to  ap¬ 
prove  or  disapprove  of  them:  holding  up  that 
approbation  or  disapprobation  as  a  sufficient 
reason  for  itself,  and  disclaiming  the  necessity 
of  looking  out  for  any  extrinsic  ground.”  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  utility  principle  of  Bentham, 
there  are  “four  sanctions  or  sources  of  pain  and 
pleasure,”  the  physical,  the  political,  the  moral, 
and  the  religious.  The  physical  sanction  is  the 
groundwork  of  all  the  others.  “In  a  word,  the 
powers  of  nature  may  operate  of  themselves; 
but  neither  the  magistrate,  nor  men  at  large, 
can  operate,  nor  is  God  in  the  case  in  question 
supposed  to  operate,  but  through  the  powers  of 
nature.”  Bentham  attempted  to  work  out  a 
calculus  of  pleasures,  in  which  he  took  account 
of  the  intensity,  the  duration,  the  certainty, 
the  propinquity  or  remoteness,  the  fecundity 
(  =  “chance  of  being  followed  bv  sensations  of 
the  same  kind”),  the  purity,  and  the  extent  of 
pleasures  and  pain. 

John  Austin,  in  his  Province  of  Jurisprudence 
Determined,  has  contributed  a  lucid  exposition 
and  a  strong  defense  of  the  principle  of  utility. 
John  Stuart  Mill  has  devoted  a  separate  work 
to  the  subject,  and  may  be  considered  as  the 
ablest  champion  of  the  doctrine  since  Bentham’s 
time.  His  addition  to  the  theory  consists  in  rec¬ 
ognizing  a  distinction  of  quality  as  well  as  of 
intensity  between  pleasures.  While  Bentham 
had  maintained  that,  “the  quality  of  pleasure  be- 


UTILITARIANISM 


UTILITARIANISM 


835 


ing  equal,  push-pin  is  as  good  as  poetry,”  Mill 
contended  that  “it  is  better  to  be  a  human  be¬ 
ing  dissatisfied  than  a  pig  satisfied,”  i.e.,  human 
discontent  is  better  than  swinish  pleasures. 
Since  Mill’s  day  utilitarianism  has  been  com¬ 
bined  with  the  theory  of  evolution  to  form  a 
basis  for  morality.  Among  the  English  advo¬ 
cates  of  the  combination  the  best  known  are 
Herbert  Spencer  (q.v. )  and  Sir  Leslie  Stephen 
(q.v.). 

The  objections  urged  against  hedonism  (q.v.) 
in  general  bear  against  utilitarianism.  In  addi¬ 
tion  there  are  arguments  which  tell  against 
utilitarianism  exclusively.  Utilitarianism  is 
not  practicable  for  the  reason  that  it  is  impos¬ 
sible  to  estimate  the  pleasures  which  in  the  long 
run  will  flow  from  any  course  of  action.  Hu¬ 
man  nature  changes  very  radically  in  its  ca¬ 
pacity  to  get  pleasures  from  certain  objects. 
Time  was  when  the  cruel  torturing  of  a  cap¬ 
tured  enemy  brought  intense  delight  to  a  whole 
tribe,  and  was  regarded  with  complete  indiffer¬ 
ence  by  the  rest  of  mankind,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  the  victim’s  fellow-tribesmen.  Now  such 
treatment  of  captives  would  shock  all  Christen¬ 
dom.  Many  jokes  and  jests  that  centuries  ago 
were  appreciated  with  great  relish  would  fall 
flat  now  in  good  society,  and  some  of  them  would 
inflict  considerable  discomfort  upon  the  hearers. 
Gladiatorial  combats  and  bull  fights  are  differ¬ 
ently  regarded  at  different  times  and  places. 
These  are  only  a  few  of  the  large  number  of 
instances  which  might  be  adduced  to  show 
how  impossible  it  is  to  foresee  the  hedonic  ef¬ 
fect  of  actions  when  a  distant  future  is  taken 
into  account.  The  uncertainties  of  calculation 
are  great  enough  when  only  the  pleasure  of 
the  agent  is  concerned  ( see  Hedonism  ) ,  but  if 
the  pleasures  of  all  mankind,  present  and  future, 
so  far  as  they  are  in  any  way  affected  by  our 
actions,  must  be  estimated  before  we  can  prop¬ 
erly  pronounce  upon  the  morality  of  any  act, 
then  moral  judgment  becomes  impracticable. 
The  reply  to  tins  objection  is  that  while  there  is 
no  accurate  forecasting  of  pleasures  we  must 
make  the  best  estimates  possible,  or,  to  use  the 
words  of  Bishop  Butler,  “probability  is  the  guide 
of  life.” 

Perhaps,  however,  the  limitations  of  utilitari¬ 
anism  can  be  made  most  patent  by  asking  the 
question,  Why  should  I  seek  the  greatest  pleas¬ 
ure  of  the  greatest  number?  Unless  I  desire 
that  end  for  itself  or  desire  it  because  the  at¬ 
tainment  of  it  conduces  to  some  other  desired 
end,  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  me  regard 
that  end  as  good  or  the  pursuit  of  it  as  right. 
The  savage  is  not  cosmopolitan  in  his  ethics 
(hence  he  is  not  utilitarian),  because  he  is 
not  cosmopolitan  in  his  sympathies.  The  normal 
civilized  man  is  not  uniformly  cosmopolitan  in 
his  ethics  (hence  he  is  not  a  utilitarian),  be-, 
cause  he  is  not  uniformly  cosmopolitan  in  his 
sympathies.  The  average  good  man  cares  more 
for  his  father  and  mother,  for  his  wife  and 
children,  than  he  does  for  strangers.  For  this 
reason  he  does  not  regard  the  happiness  of  a 
stranger  as  equally  obligatory  upon  him  to 
pursue  as  the  happiness  of  some  member  of 
his  immediate  family.  But  when  this  ordinary 
man  undergoes  an  unusual  change  of  heart  and 
comes  to  care  more,  say,  for  the  opinion  some 
supernatural  being  is  supposed  to  have  of  him 
than  for  his  own  kith  and  kin,  then  in  order  to 
win  that  good  opinion  he  may  sacrifice  the  hap¬ 
piness  of  his  family  to  that  of  strangers.  It  is 


not  true,  therefore,  that  we  should  be  benevolent 
because  only  thus  can  we  secure  the  greatest 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number ;  but,  on  the 
contrary,  we  try  to  make  “the  greatest  happiness 
of  the  greatest  number”  an  end  because  we  are 
benevolent.  But  our  benevolence  is  only  a  part 
of  our  endowment,  varying  in  relative  intensity 
in  different  persons,  and  in  the  same  person  at 
different  times.  In  addition  to  our  desire  for 
the  well-being  of  others  we  have  an  almost  count¬ 
less  number  of  desires  for  other  objects.  The 
realization  of  these  desires  enters  into  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  the  chief  end  of  man.  There  is  no  rea¬ 
son  why  one  desire  should  be  singled  out  from 
the  complex  of  desires  in  order  that  its  realiza¬ 
tion  may  be  considered  the  highest  good  of 
man — unless  this  desire  is  the  most  imperious 
of  them  all  and  its  nonsatisfaction  conduces 
more  to  the  agent’s  discontent  with  life  than 
any  other  cause.  Now  there  is  no  question  that 
without  some  social  features  the  life  of  most 
human  beings  would  be  robbed  of  much  of  its 
attractiveness,  but  there  is  very  little  evidence 
to  show  that  the  ordinary  man  would  be  greatly 
disturbed  for  a  long  time  by  any  failure  on 
the  part  of  humanity  at  large  to  get  the  great¬ 
est  amount  of  happiness  possible.  And  yet, 
though  universal  benevolence  is  not  thus  a  very 
strong  characteristic  of  our  kind  at  large,  still 
history  seems  to  show  that  the  reach  of  the 
average  man’s  sympathetic  interests  is  larger 
now  than  in  tribal  times.  But,  however  much 
greater  it  may  be  now  than  formerly,  free  play 
given  to  one’s  impartially  benevolent  impulses 
can  hardly  be  regarded  as  the  highest  good  of 
all  men. 

Bibliography.  Hutcheson,  Inquiry  Concern¬ 
ing  the  Original  of  our  Ideas  of  Beauty  and 
Virtue,  etc.  (London,  1725)  ;  Tucker,  Light  of  Na¬ 
ture  Pursued  ( ib.,  1768-74);  Jeremy  Bentham, 
Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and 
Legislation  (ib.,  1789)  ;  F.  E.  Beneke,  Grund- 
linien  des  natiir lichen  Systems  der  praktischen 
Philosophie  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1837-40)  ;  Alexan¬ 
der  Bain,  The  Emotions  and  the  Will  (London, 
1859)  ;  George  Grote,  Examination  of  Utilita¬ 
rian  Philosophy  (Cambridge,  1870)  ;  Auguste 
Comte,  Positive  Philosophy  (2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  Ed¬ 
inburgh,  1875)  ;  T.  H.  Green,  Prolegomena  to 
Ethics  (Oxford,  1883)  ;  Henry  Sidgwick,  Methods 
of  Ethics  (4th  ed.,  London,  1890)  ;  Friedrich 
Paulsen,  A  System  of  Ethics  (New  York,  1899)  ; 
Halevv,  L’Evolution  le  la  doctrine  utilitaire  de 
1789  a  1815  (Paris,  1901);  Ernest  Albee,  His¬ 
tory  of  English  Utilitarianism  (New  York, 
1902)  ;  J.  S.  Mill,  Utilitarianism,  Lxbei'ty,  and 
Representative  Government  (new  ed.,  London, 
1910)  ;  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  History  of  European 
Morals  (new  ed.,  2  vols.,  ib.,  1910)  ;  Leslie 
Stephen,  The  English  Utilitarians  (new  ed.,  3 
vols.,  London,  1912).  See  also  Ethics. 

UTILITY.  A  term  used  by  economists  to 
signify  the  capacity  of  a  good,  whether  article 
or  service,  to  satisfy  a  want.  The  utility  oi  a 
good  under  given  circumstances  is  subjectively 
measured  by  its  desirability  under  those  circum¬ 
stances  or  bv  the  strength  of  the  desire  for  it. 
The  term  is  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with 
good,  as  anything  which  satisfies  a  want  is  a 
good  or  a  utility.  In  such  a  statement  no  ques¬ 
tion  of  moral  values  is  raised;  regardless  of 
whether  a  desire  is  morally  good  or  bad,  that 
which  satisfies  it  has  utility.  The  fact  that  the 
intensity  of  desire  for  a  good  decreases  as  the 
number  of  units  of  the  good  increases  is  known 


UTMA 


UTRECHT 


836 


as  the  law  or  principle  of  diminishing  utility. 
Thus  a  second  unit  has  less  utility  than  the 
first,  the  third  less  than  the  second,  and  so  on. 
The  total  utility  then  is  the  sum  of  the  utilities 
of  the  successive  units  of  the  supply.  But  para¬ 
doxical  as  it  may  appear,  this  does  not  prevent 
the  units  of  supply  under  specific  and  unchang¬ 
ing  circumstances  from  being  interchangeable 
and  therefore  equal  to  each  other  in  utility,  for 
though  thus  interchangeable  the  law  of  dimin¬ 
ishing  utility  still  applies  to  their  consumption. 
The  utility  attaching  to  the  last  unit  purchased 
under  given  circumstances  is  known  as  the  mar¬ 
ginal  utility.  See  Value. 

UT'MA.  The  ancient  name  of  the  Italian 
city  Udine  (q.v. ). 

TJTO'PIA  (Neo-Lat.,  from  Gk.  ov,  ou,  not  + 
TOTros,  topos,  place).  An  impracticable  scheme 
of  social  regeneration,  an  imaginary  state  of  so¬ 
ciety,  an  ideal  country  where  all  things  are 
perfect.  The  term  as  thus  used  goes  back  to 
the  Utopia  of  Sir  Thomas  More  (q.v.),  a  politi¬ 
cal  romance  descriptive  of  a  happy  society  on 
an  imaginary  island.  This  work  originally  ap¬ 
peared  in  Latin  at  Louvain  in  1516  under  the 
title  De  Optimo  Reipublicce  Statu  deque  Nova 
Insula  Utopia  and  was  translated  into  English 
by  Bishop  Burnet.  The  romance  was  a  disguised 
exposition  of  a  liberal  and  rationalistic  theory 
of  society,  including  certain  principles  that 
would  now  be  called  socialistic.  Far  from  being 
so  unique  that  it  might  have  been  expected  to 
give  a  generic  name  to  ideal  commonwealths, 
the  Utopia  is  only  one  of  a  long  series  of  similar 
dreams.  First  in  order  of  both  time  and  im¬ 
portance  is  Plato’s  Republic,  the  chief  thought 
of  which  is  that  ideal  justice  can  be  established 
only  in  a  commonwealth  where  every  individual 
has  that  place  in  the  division  of  labor  for  which 
he  is  fitted  by  nature,  and  where  all  affairs  are 
directed  by  the  men  of  superior  wisdom,  whose 
government  should  extend  even  to  provision  for 
the  nurture  and  education  of  children  brought 
into  the  world  under  a  system  of  stirpiculture. 
Plutarch’s  Life  of  Lycurgus  idealizes  the  social¬ 
istic  state  of  the  Spartans.  Bacon’s  New  Atlan¬ 
tis  (1624-29)  pictures  a  commonwealth  in  which 
all  men  attain  happiness  through  a  regulation 
of  life  by  science.  Campanella’s  City  of  the  Sun 
(1637)  portrays  a  community  where  all  live  to¬ 
gether  in  public  buildings,  working  only  four 
hours  a  day,  and  despising  idleness.  Very  dif¬ 
ferent  in  its  ideal  of  society  is  James  Harring¬ 
ton's  Oceana  (1656),  a  book  which  emphasizes 
the  Aristotelian  idea  of  a  natural  aristocracy 
among  men,  and  develops  fully  the  thought  of 
personal  liberty  established  under  parliamentary 
government.  It  exercised  a  great  influence  upon 
the  minds  of  American  political  thinkers  during 
and  after  the  Revolution.  Other  Utopias  more 
or  less  influential  have  been  the  Voyage  en  Sa- 
lente  in  F^nelon’s  T6l6maque ;  Cabet’s  Voyage  en 
Icarie  (1840),  a  LTtopia  of  the  modern  prole¬ 
tariat;  Bulwer  Lytton’s  The  Coming  Race 
(1871);  Bellamy’s  Looking  Backward  (1889); 
William  Morris’s  News  from  Noiohere  (1890), 
in  which  joy  in  beautiful  work  is  to  be  the  true 
social  bond;  and  Hertzka’s  Freiland  (1891). 
Some  of  the  more  important  works  mentioned, 
excepting  Plato’s  Republic,  and  the  nineteenth- 
century  romances,  are  reprinted  in  Morley’s 
Ideal  Commonwealths  (1886). 

U'TRAQUISTS  (from  Lat.  utraque,  nom.  pi. 
neut.  of  uterque,  both,  either).  The  name  given 
to  certain  reformers  of  the  early  fifteenth  cen¬ 


tury,  who  maintained  that  the  Eucharist  should 
be  administered  “under  both  forms,”  i.e.,  that 
the  cup,  as  well  as  the  wafers,  should  be  given 
to  the  laity.  The  movement  was  a  part  of  the 
general  reform  preached  by  John  Huss  (q.v.;  see 
Hussites)  in  Bohemia;  it  also  had  political 
features.  The  Utraquists  represented  the  mod¬ 
erates,  against  the  radical  Taborites,  and  were 
identical  with  the  Calixtines  (q.v.). 

UTRECHT,  u'trekt,  Dutch  pron.  u'treKt.  A 
province  of  the  Netherlands,  bounded  by  the 
Zuider  Zee  and  the  provinces  of  North  Holland, 
Gelderland,  and  South  Holland  (Map:  Nether¬ 
lands,  D  2 ) .  Area,  534  square  miles.  It  lies 
mainly  in  the  Rhine  basin  and  has  a  low,  level 
surface.  Agriculture,  dairying,  and  cattle  breed¬ 
ing  are  the  principal  industries.  Pop.,  1909, 
289,918;  1912,  298,367.  Capital,  Utrecht  (q.v.). 

UTRECHT.  A  city  of  the  Netherlands,  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  province  of  the  same  name.  It  is 
situated  22  miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Amster¬ 
dam  (Map:  Netherlands,  D  2).  The  Rhine  sep¬ 
arates  here  into  the  Old  Rhine  and  the  canalized 
Vecht,  and  there  are  also  canals  traversing  the 
city.  Utrecht  is  a  strong  outpost  of  defense 
for  Amsterdam.  Besides  an  inner  line  of  de¬ 
fensive  works  there  is  an  outlying  chain  of  forts. 
The  site  of  the  former  fortifications  surrounding 
the  city  are  (since  1830)  lined  by  water  courses 
and  agreeable  promenades.  Quaint  houses  and 
artistic  street  scenes  are  to  be  seen  at  every 
hand,  the  Gothic  being  freely  in  evidence.  The 
famous  Gothic  cathedral  of  St.  Martin  ( 1254- 
67),  rising  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  is  the 
most  prominent  edifice,  and  marks  the  spot 
where  the  church  of  Dagobert  and  of  St.  Wille- 
brord  stood.  It  ranked  high  for  architectural 
beauty  until  the  nave,  which  has  never  been  re¬ 
stored,  fell  in  in  1674  as  the  result  of  a  storm, 
thus  separating  the  tower  from  the  rest  of 
the  church.  The  tower,  338  feet  high,  was  be¬ 
gun  in  1321.  It  has  a  chime  of  42  bells.  The 
graceful  Gothic  cloisters  which  merit  notice  con¬ 
nect  the  cathedral  with  the  famous  university. 
(See  Utrecht,  University  of.)  The  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral  of  St.  Catharine,  which  has 
been  restored,  dates  from  1524.  The  Pope’s 
house,  built  in  1517  by  Adrian  Boeyens,  after¬ 
ward  Adrian  VI,  a  native  of  Utrecht,  now  con¬ 
tains  municipal  offices.  The  splendid  archie- 
piscopal  museum  is  noteworthy  for  its  rare  vest¬ 
ments,  embroideries,  carvings,  etc.,  all  repre¬ 
sentative  of  Christian  art.  The  Museum  Kunst- 
liefde  is  in  the  building  of  the  Society  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  and  contains  a  few  notable  pic¬ 
tures  by  Scorel.  The  art  industrial  Museum 
van  Kunstnyverheid,  the  Fleshers’  Hall  (1637), 
and  the  mint  possess  some  interest.  On  the 
east  extends  the  Malieban — a  triple  boulevard 
shaded  by  six  rows  of  large  old  lime  trees.  It 
leads  to  Hoogeland  Park,  and  to  the  Antiqua¬ 
rian  Museum,  which  is  housed  in  an  edifice  of 
Greek  pattern.  The  museum  contains  many 
varieties  of  antiquities  belonging  to  Roman, 
Germanic,  and  mediaeval  times.  The  interesting 
royal  Chateau  of  Soestdyk,  where  the  reigning 
family  often  sojourns,  is  a  few  miles  to  the 
north. 

Besides  the  university  with  its  numerous  col¬ 
lateral  institutions,  including  laboratories  and 
a  museum,  Utrecht  has  the  only  veterinary 
school  in  the  Netherlands,  and  an  important 
meteorological  observatory.  The  Historical  So¬ 
ciety  and  the  Society  of  Arts  and  Sciences  hold 
a  leading  rank.  The  large  university  library 


UTRECHT 


UVAROVITE 


837 


is  in  the  palace  erected  for  King  Louis  Napo¬ 
leon.  The  military  hospital  was  founded  by 
Napoleon  I.  Utrecht  has  manufactures  of  cloth, 
woolens,  silk,  velvet,  carpets,  carriages,  organs, 
cigars,  chemicals,  etc.  The  communal  popula¬ 
tion  at  the  end  of  1912  was  122,853.  About  one- 
third  of  the  inhabitants  are  Catholics.  In  ad¬ 
dition  to  the  Roman  Catholic  archbishop, 
Utrecht  is  the  seat  of  an  old  Catholic  ( Jansen  - 
ist)  archbishop. 

History.  Utrecht  was  the  Roman  Trajectum 
ad  Rhenum.  The  bishopric  of  Utrecht,  founded 
at  the  close  of  the  seventh  century  by  St.  Wil- 
librord,  rose  to  importance  under  the  patronage 
of  the  German  emperors,  and  the  bishops  be¬ 
came  prominent  in  their  capacity  as  temporal 
princes  among  the  feudal  lords  of  the  Holy  Ro¬ 
man  Empire.  The  city  of  Utrecht,  having  be¬ 
come  very  flourishing,  succeeded  in  emancipating 
itself  from  the  rule  of  the  bishops.  In  1528  the 
bishopric  and  city  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  In  1559  the  see  was 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  an  archbishopric.  The 
Union  of  Utrecht,  a  compact  joining  together 
the  seven  provinces  which  were  to  form  the 
Dutch  Republic,  was  concluded  in  1579.  The 
famous  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  terminating  the  War 
of  the  Spanish  Succession,  was  signed  here  in 

1713.  Consult  Karl  Hegel,  Stadte  und  Gilden 
der  Germanischen  V biker,  vol.  ii  (Leipzig,  1891). 

UTRECHT,  Peace  of.  The  general  designa¬ 
tion  for  a  number  of  treaties  which  were  con¬ 
cluded  between  the  years  1713  and  1715  and 
brought  to  an  end  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc¬ 
cession.  (See  Succession  Wars.)  On  April 
13,  1713,  peace  was  signed  at  Utrecht  between 
France  on  the  one  hand  and  England,  Holland, 
Prussia,  Savoy,  and  Portugal  on  the  other. 
Spain  concluded  treaties  with  England  July  13, 
with  Savoy  August  13,  with  Holland  June  26, 

1714,  and  with  Portugal  Feb.  6,  1715.  The 
treaty  between  France  and  Austria  was  signed 
at  Rastadt  March  7,  1714,  and  this  was  ad¬ 
hered  to  by  the  Empire  at  Baden  in  September. 
The  most  important  provisions  of  the  various 
treaties  were  as  follows:  Philip  V,  of  the  house 
of  Bourbon,  was  recognized  as  King  of  Spain 
and  the  Indies,  but  it  was  stipulated  that  the 
crowns  of  Spain  and  France  should  never  be 
united  in  the  same  person.  Spain  ceded  to 
the  Emperor,  Naples,  Milan,  Sardinia,  and 
the  Netherlands;  to  England,  Gibraltar  and 
Minorca :  to  Savoy,  the  island  of  Sicily ;  to  Prus¬ 
sia,  Upper  Gelderland.  France  surrendered  its 
hold  on  Lorraine  and  gave  up  Kehl,  Breisach, 
and  Freiburg  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
but  retained  Alsace  with  Strassburg.  To  Eng¬ 
land  it  ceded  Acadia,  Hudson’s  Bay,  and  New¬ 
foundland,  with  the  reservation  of  certain  rights 
of  fishery  on  the  Banks.  Louis  XIV  recognized 
the  title  of  the  house  of  Hanover  to  the  English 
throne,  and  agreed  to  expel  the  Pretender  from 
France.  The  Electors  of  Cologne  and  Bavaria, 
allies  of  France,  were  restored  to  their  pos¬ 
sessions.  The  Dutch  were  given  the  right  of 
garrisoning  eight  frontier  towns  in  the  Aus¬ 
trian  Netherlands  as  a  barrier  against  any  fu¬ 
ture  aggressions  on  the  part  of  France.  Their 
commercial  interests  were  favored  by  the  pro¬ 
vision  which  kept  the  Scheldt  closed  to  trade. 
The  Prussian  King  received  confirmation  of  his 
royal  title  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy  was  raised 
to  the  kingly  dignity.  (See  Sardinia,  King¬ 
dom  of.)  England,  in  addition  to  its  conquests 
from  France  and  Spain,  received  from  both 


valuable  trading  privileges,  and  in  the  so-called 
Assiento  (q.v.)  with  the  latter  laid  the  basis 
of  an  extremely  lucrative  slave  trade  with  Span¬ 
ish  America.  The  Peace  of  Utrecht  effected  the 
most  important  political  rearrangement  in  Eu¬ 
rope  between  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  and  the 
Congress  of  Vienna.  Though  France  received 
far  more  favorable  terms  than  it  might  have 
been  forced  to  accept,  Europe  was  secured  from 
its  ambitions  by  the  aggrandizement  of  its  neigh¬ 
bors,  Austria  and  Holland  on  the  north,  Prus¬ 
sia  on  the  east,  and  Savoy  on  the  southeast. 
With  Utrecht  the  last  two  Powers  definitely 
entered  upon  the  line  of  development  which  was 
to  result  in  a  united  Germany  and  a  united  Italy 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  From  Utrecht  dates 
England’s  marvelous  commercial  and  colonial 
growth.  Consult  Ilistoire  du  oongrbs  et  de  la 
paix  d’Utrecht  comme  aussi  de  celle  de  Rastatt 
et  de  Bade  (Utrecht,  1716). 

UTRECHT,  University  of.  A  national  uni¬ 
versity  of  the  Netherlands,  founded  in  1636  upon 
the  basis  of  a  “schola  illustfis,”  established  two 
years  earlier  by  the  city  and  province  of  Utrecht. 
During  the  French  occupation  in  1672  the  uni¬ 
versity  was  closed.  It  was  reopened  in  1674 
with  only  22  students,  which  number,  however, 
increased  to  about  230  by  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Nearly  one-third  of  the 
students  came  from  Great  Britain.  The  uni¬ 
versity  experienced  another  decline  of  fortune 
in  1811-13,  as  a  result  of  the  Napoleonic  con¬ 
quest,  but  has  flourished  since  its  reopening  as 
a  royal  university  in  1815.  (For  its  place  in 
the  national  system  of  education,  see  the  section 
on  the  Netherlands  under  University.)  It  is 
divided  into  five  faculties — theology,  law,  medi¬ 
cine,  mathematics  and  science,  and  letters — and 
had,  in  1912-13,  1096  students.  There  are  21 
laboratories  and  clinics,  and  an  observatory,  in 
connection  with  the  university.  The  library  con¬ 
tains  about  250,000  volumes,  exclusive  of  pam¬ 
phlets  and  dissertations. 

UTRERA,  oo-tra'ra.  A  town  of  the  Province 
of  Seville,  Spain,  17  miles  southeast  of  the  city 
of  that  name,  with  which  it  has  railway  con¬ 
nection  (Map:  Spain,  C  4).  The  town  is  situ¬ 
ated  in  a  fertile  plain  sloping  to  the  Guadaira 
River.  It  has  manufactures  of  spirits,  flour, 
and  soap.  Parts  of  its  mediaeval  walls  are  still 
standing.  Pop.,  1900,  14,318;  1910,  15,460. 

UTSUNOMIYA,  oot'su-no-me'ya.  The  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  Prefecture  of  Tochigi,  Japan,  66  miles 
north  of  Tokio  (Map:  Japan,  F  5).  Pop.,  1908, 
47,114. 

UTUADO,  oo-twa'oo.  A  municipality  of 
Porto  Rico  in  the  Province  of  Arecibo,  18  miles 
north-northwest  of  Ponce  on  the  highway  from 
Arecibo  to  Ponce  (Map:  Porto  Rico,  C  2).  The 
city  is  situated  in  a  district  abounding  with 
caves  in  which  have  been  found  relics  of  the 
early  Indians.  The  cultivation  of  coffee  and 
sugar  cane  is  the  chief  industrv.  There  is  a 
municipal  hospital  and  a  public  library.  The 
municipalitv  was  founded  in  1739.  Pop.,  1910, 
41,054. 

UVALDE,  vi-val'de.  A  town  and  the  county 
seat  of  Uvalde  Co.,  Texas,  91  miles  by  rail 
southwest  of  San  Antonio,  on  the  Leona  River, 
and  on  the  Galveston,  Harrisburg,  and  San  An¬ 
tonio  and  the  San  Antonio,  LTvalde,  and  Gulf 
railroads  (Map:  Texas,  C  5).  Fort  Inge,  an 
armv  post  of  Indian  days,  is  2  miles  distant. 
Pop.',  1900,  1889;  1910,  3998. 

UVAROVITE,  oo-va'rof-Tt.  See  Garnet. 


UVA  URSI 


UZ 


838 


U'VA  UE/SI.  Bearberry.  A  plant  indige¬ 
nous  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  growing  in  dry 
rocky  places  and  found  in  the  eastern  United 
States  as  far  south  as  Pennsylvania,  and  in  New 
Mexico  and  California.  Its  botanical  name  is 
Arctostaphylos  uva-ursi,  of  the  natural  order 
Ericaceae.  The  leaves  are  used  in  medicine  in 
the  form  of  an  extract  and  fluidextract,  as  a 
diuretic,  astringent,  and  disinfectant  to  the  uri¬ 
nary  mucous  membranes.  It  is  given  in  pyeli¬ 
tis,  cystitis,  and  gonorrhoea,  and  also  in  dropsical 
conditions.  The  chief  constituents  of  uva  ursi 
are  arbutin  and  ericolin,  bitter  glucosides,  and 
ursone,  tannic  acid,  and  gallic  acid. 

UVEDALE.  See  Udall. 

U'VULA.  See  Palate. 

UX'BRIDGE.  A  town  in  Worcester  Co., 
Mass.,  19  miles  south-southeast  of  Worcester, 
on  the  Blackstone  River,  and  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  D  4 ) .  It  has  granite  quarries,  and 
cotton,  yarn,  and  woolen  mills.  Pop.,  1900, 
.3599;  1910,  4671. 

UYEDA,  ob'ya-da.  A  town  in  the  Prefecture 
of  Nagano,  Japan,  situated  in  the  central  part 
of  Hondo,  21  miles  southeast  of  Nagano  (Map: 
Japan,  F  5 ) .  It  manufactures  chiefly  silks. 
Pop.,  1908,  23,838. 

UYUK,  oo-yook'.  A  noted  archaeological 
site  in  Asia  Minor.  See  Eyuk. 

UZ  (Heb.  ‘us).  The  land  of  the  patriarch 
Job,  and  probably  also  the  name  of  his  people. 
In  Job  i.  3  he  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  Bene 
Kedem,  an  Aramaic  people  living  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea  and  the  Arabah  ( see  Kadmonites  ) . 
In  Lam.  iv.  21  the  “land  of  Uz”  appears  as  a 
synonym  of  Bath  Edom,  “the  daughter  of 
Edom.”  According  to  the  colophon  in  the  Greek 
version  Job  “lived  in  Ausitis  in  the  borders  of 
Idumaea  and  Arabia,”  and  the  same  statement 
is  found  in  the  Peregrinatio  Sylvice  and  in  a  pas¬ 
sage  from  Aristeas  quoted  by  Eusebius  ( Prcep . 
Ev.,  ix,  25).  Uz  appears  as  the  eponymous  an¬ 
cestor  of  an  Aramaic  tribe  in  Gen.  x.  23  (oldest 
son  of  Aram),  and  in  Gen.  xxii.  21  (oldest  son 
of  Nahor,  brother  of  Buz).  The  representation 
of  Uz  as  a  descendant  of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi.  28) 
probably  indicates  only  that  this  Aramaic  tribe 
lived  in  the  territory  of  Mount  Seir.  The  names 
and  homes  of  the  friends  of  Job  point  in  the 
same  direction.  Eliphaz  of  Teman,  a  district  in 
Edom,  appears  in  Gen.  xxxvi.  4  as  a  son  of 
Esau.  Bildad,  the  Shuhite,  may  be  identical 
with  Bedad,  the  father  of  Hadad,  the  third  King 
of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi.  35),  and  Shuah  was  re¬ 
garded  as  an  uncle  of  Sheba  and  Dedan  (mod¬ 
ern  el  Ula).  Zophar,  as  the  Greek  text  shows, 
was  a  son  of  Eliphaz  (Gen.  xxvi.  11,  15),  and 
Na‘amah  is  likely  to  be  a  transposition  of  Ma'an, 
rendered  Minaean  by  the  Greek.  Eliliu  came 
from  Buz,  which  is  associated  with  Dedan  and 
Teima  in  .Jer.  xxv.  23.  If,  as  the  Greek  trans¬ 
lator  thinks,  Job  is  identical  with  Jobab,  the 
second  King  of  Edom,  Gen.  xxxvi  is  clearly  the 
quarry  drawn  upon  in  the  Book  of  Job,  and  the 
land  of  Uz  is  a  part  of  the  ancient  Edomitish 
territory,  easily  exposed  to  raids  from  the  city 
of  Sheba  and  by  the  Aramaic  tribe  Kesed. 
Josephus  speaks  of  Ouses  as  the  founder  of 
Trachonitis  and  Damascus  (Ant.,  i,  6,  4)  ;  Ara¬ 
bic  geographers  localized  the  city  of  Job  at 
Nawa,  and  his  house,  Der  Ayyub,  not  far  from 
Nawa;  and  this  region  has  also  been  assumed 
to  be  the  home  of  Job  by  Wetzstein  and  Barton. 
But  Dhorme  has  convincingly  shown  that  this 


implies  a  transfer  of  the  story  from  the  Edomit¬ 
ish  Dinhaba,  the  city  of  Jobab,  to  the  Dinhaba 
of  the  Hauran.  The  mistaken  notion  that  there 
could  be  no  Aramaean  tribes  as  far  south  as 
in  the  region  occupied  by  the  Aramaic-speaking 
Nabataeans  probably  also  had  something  to  do 
with  this  change.  Consult:  P.  J.  G.  Wetzstein,  in 
Franz  Delitzsch,  Eiob  (2d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1876)  ; 
also  references  under  Uz  (article  following). 

UZ  (Heb.  ‘us).  1.  The  eponymous  ancestor 

of  an  Aramaic  tribe,  represented  as  the  oldest 
son  of  Aram  in  Gen.  x.  23,  as  the  oldest  son  of 
Nahor  and  brother  of  Buz  in  Gen.  xxii.  21.  In 
Gen.  xxxvi.  28  Uz  is  a  descendant  of  Seir;  this 
statement  possibly  affirms  that  the  Aramaean 
tribe  occupied  a  part  of  the  territory  of  the 
Horites,  or  cave  dwellers,  in  Mount  Seir.  Buz 
is  mentioned  with  Dedan  and  Teima  in  Jer.  xxv. 
23 ;  Dedan  is  apparently  the  modern  el  Ula ; 
Teima  still  exists  in  the  same  neighborhood ; 
Buz,  therefore,  is  likely  to  have  been  in  northern 
Hejaz;  and  Uz  seems  to  have  been  an  Aramaean 
tribe  in  the  border  of  Edom  and  Hejaz.  2.  The 
home  of  Job  (i.  1).  He  is  said  to  be  one  of 
the  Bene  Kedem.  The  Kedem  tribe,  or  Kad¬ 
monites  ( q.v. ) ,  lived  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and 
the  Arabah,  and  were  Aramaeans.  Eliphaz,  the 
friend  of  Job,  came  from  Teman  in  S.  Edom ; 
Bildad,  another  friend,  from  Suah,  who  ap¬ 
pears  as  an  uncle  of  Sheba  and  Dedan;  Zophar, 
the  third  friend,  from  Na‘amah,  or  Ma‘an  (in 
Greek  Minaean)  ;  and  Elihu  from  Buz.  It 
is  also  to  be  noted  that  Eliphaz  appears  in 
Gen.  xxxvi.  4,  as  a  son  of  Esau;  Zophar  in  Gen. 
xxxvi.  11,  15,  according  to  the  Greek  version,  as 
a  son  of  Eliphaz;  and  Bildad  apparently,  in 
the  abbreviated  form  Bedad,  as  the  father  of 
Adad,  King  of  Edom,  in  Gen.  xxxv.  35.  In  the 
Greek  version  Job  is  said  to  have  lived  in  Ausi¬ 
tis  in  the  border  of  Idumaea  and  Arabia;  the 
same  statement  is  found  in  the  Peregrinatio  Syl¬ 
via ?,  and  in  a  passage  from  Aristeas  quoted  by 
Eusebius.  The  idea  that  the  Aramaeans  lived 
farther  north  probably  led  Josephus  to  speak 
of  Ouses  as  the  founder  of  Damascus  and  Tra¬ 
chonitis,  and  Arabic  geographers  to  localize  the 
city  of  Job  at  Nawa,  and  the  house  of  Job  not 
far  from  there.  Barton  assumes  that  neither 
Sabaeans  nor  the  Chaldaeans  originally  occurred 
in  the  text,  but  only  “captors”  and  “horsemen,” 
and  that  Uz  was  in  the  Hauran;  Dhorme  more 
plausibly  thinks  of  the  city  of  Sheba  and  the 
tribe  of  Kesed  as  the  enemies  falling  upon  Job’s 
property  and  locates  Job  on  the  borders  of 
Edom  and  Arabia.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
land  of  Uz  was  the  territory  in  this  region  oc¬ 
cupied  by  the  Aramaic  tribe  of  Uz.  Consult: 
P.  Dhorme,  “Le  pays  de  Job”  in  Revue  Bib- 
lique  Internationale  (Paris,  1911);  Nathaniel 
Schmidt,  in  Messages  of  the  Poets  (New  York, 
1911)  ;  G.  A.  Barton,  “The  Original  Home  of  the 
Storv  of  Job,”  in  Journal  of  Biblical  Literature 
(Boston,  1912). 

UZ,  dots,  Johann  Peter  (1720-96).  A  Ger¬ 
man  poet,  born  at  Ansbach  and  educated  at 
Halle,  where  he  became  the  friend  of  Gleim 
and  Gotz.  He  was  in  his  day  prominent  in 
the  group  of  German  anacreontic  poets.  His 
works  include  Si  eg  des  Liebesgottes  (1753), 
Versuch  iiber  die  Kunst  stets  frohlich  zu  sein 
(1760),  and  Poetische  Schriften  (1804).  Con¬ 
sult:  Feuerbach,  Uz,  ein  biographischer  Versuch 
(Leipzig,  1866)  ;  Henneberger,  Brief e  von  Uz 
an  einen  Freund  aus  1753-1782  (Leipzig,  1866)  ; 
Petzet,  Joliann  Peter  Uz  (Ansbach,  1896). 


UZANNE 


UZZIEL 


839 


UZANNE,  u'zan'  (Louis)  Octave  (1852- 
).  A  French  bibliophile  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Auxerre.  He  founded  the  monthly  re¬ 
view  Le  Livre,  which  he  edited  (1880-89),  and 
then  L’Art  et  les  Idees  (1892).  He  was  one  of 
the  original  members  of  the  Society  of  Contem¬ 
porary  Bibliographers  established  in  1889.  His 
best  work  includes:  Caprices  d’un  bibliophile 
(  1877)  ;  La  chronique  libertine  du  XVIlIe  siecle 
(1879-83);  Les  zigzags  d’un  curieux  (1889); 
Notes  pour  la  bibliographie  du  XI Xe  siecle 
(1894);  Contes  pour  les  bibliophiles  (1895); 
Dictionnaire  bibliophilosojiliique  (1890);  L’Art 
dans  la  decoration  exterieure  dcs  livres  en 
France  et  d  V stranger  (1898);  L’Art  et  les 
artifices  de  la  beaute  (1902);  Les  deux  Cana¬ 
letto,  biographie  critique  (1907)  ;  L’Egypte  con- 
temporaine  (1909);  Parisiennes  de  ce  temps 
(1910);  Le  c6libat  de  Vamour  (1912). 

UZ'BEKS,  or  US'BEGS.  A  people  of  the 
Oxus  basin  in  Russian  Turkestan,  scattered 
from  the  frontiers  of  the  Chinese  Empire  to 
the  Caspian.  They  are  in  part  nomadic,  but 
have  settled  in  great  numbers  in  the  towns  and 
villages.  By  language  they  belong  to  the  Turkic 
stock,  but  they  have  a  considerable  strain  of 
Iranian  blood  and  possess  many  elements  of 
Asiatic  Aryan  culture.  The  early  home  of  the 
Uzbeks  is  generally  considered  to  have  been  about 
the  northern  end  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  whence 
they  spread  as  conquerors  in  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury  over  Balkh,  Khiva,  Bokhara,  Ferghana,  and 
Khokand. 


UZENSK,  Novo.  See  Novo-Uzensk. 

UZZIAH,  uz-zl'a  (Heb.  ‘Uzziyydh  or  ‘TJzziy- 
ydihu,  Yahwe  is  my  strength),  or  Azariah  (Heb. 
‘A zarydih  or  ‘Azarydhu,  Yahwe  helps).  A  king 
of  Judah,  son  of  Amaziah  (2  Kings  xv.  1-7;  2 
Chron.  xxvi).  The  relation  of  the  two  names 
is  uncertain.  They  may  be  practically  syno¬ 
nyms,  double  names  occurring  in  the  Davidic 
line,  or  possibly  one  is  a  textual  corruption  of 
the  other.  Uzziah  is  assigned  a  reign  of  52 
years,  but  seems  to  have  reigned  himself  only 
40  (c. 777-737  b.c.).  The  Book  of  Kings  simply 
recounts  his  piety,  and  that  he  was  smitten  with 
leprosy  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  his  son 
Jotham  becoming  Regent.  The  Chronicler  repre¬ 
sents  Uzziah  as  a  successful  warrior,  subduing 
the  Philistines,  and  driving  back  the  Arabians 
and  Ammonites,  and  so  extending  his  boundaries 
southward.  He  added  to  the  fortifications  of 
Jerusalem,  fortified  the  Negeb  (q.v.),  and  zeal¬ 
ously  developed  the  royal  domains.  The  stroke 
of  leprosy  is  represented  as  due  to  the  pride 
created  by  his  success;  he  is  said  to  have  ar¬ 
rogated  to  himself  the  right  to  offer  incense 
in  the  temple,  and,  when  he  persisted  against 
the  high  priest,  to  have  been  stricken  with  the 
plague.  Uzziah  was  the  contemporary  of  Jero¬ 
boam  II  (q.v.)  of  Israel.  Isaiah  records  that 
his  prophetic  vision  came  in  the  year  Uzziah 
died.  Consult  the  histories  of  Israel  quoted  in 
the  article  on  Jews. 

UZZIEL,  Jonathan  ben.  See  Jonathan  ben 
UZZIEL. 


y 


VThe  twenty-second  letter  and  seven¬ 
teenth  consonant  of  the  English 
alphabet.  Its  form  corresponds  to 
the  Roman  V,  which  answers  to  the 
Greek  upsilon  (T,  v),  and  that  in 
turn  was  a  variation  of  the  Phoe¬ 
nician  v  (vau).  (See  Alphabet.)  In  Latin  v 
and  u  were  used  indifferently  to  represent  either 
the  consonantal  or  the  vocalic  sound.  See  U. 

Sound  and  Philological  Value.  As  a  pho¬ 
netic  character  v  in  modern  English  is  a  voiced 
labiodental  spirant.  Its  corresponding  voiceless 
character  is  /.  The  sound  is  produced  by  the 
breath  passing  between  the  lower  lip  pressed 
against  the  upper  teeth.  The  philological  sources 
of  the  letters  are  various.  When  not  initial, 
Eng.  v  may  represent  ( 1 )  Indo-Ger.  bh,  as  in 
Eng.  love,  Ger.  liebe,  Skt.  lubh,  to  desire;  (2) 
Indo-Ger.  p,  as  in  Eng.  over,  Ger.  iiber,  Skt. 
upari.  In  a  few  words  initial  v  in  English  rep¬ 
resents  Indo-Ger.  p  —  AS.  /,  as  in  vat,  AS. 
feet;  vane,  AS.  fana;  vixen,  AS.  fixen.  In  these 
cases  v  is  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Southern 
English  dialect  which  gave  a  voiced  sound  regu¬ 
larly  to  the  older  English  /.  Often  initial  v 
in  English  is  a  sign  of  a  loan  word  from  Latin 
or  French,  as  in  villa,  voice,  vacation. 

As  a  Symbol  and  Abbreviation.  V  in  chem¬ 
istry  =  vanadium.  In  Roman  numerals  V  =  5; 

V  =  5000.  v  =  Lat.  vide,  see.  See  Phonetics. 

Bibliography.  Philippe  Berger,  Histoire  de 
Vdcriture  dans  V antiquity  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1892)  ; 
Henry  Sweet,  The  Sounds  of  English  (Oxford, 
1908)  ;  Maurice  Prou,  Manuel  de  paleographie 
latine  et  franqaise  (3d  ed.,  Paris,  1910);  Sir 
E.  M.  Thompson,  Introduction  to  Greek  and  Latin 
Palaeography  (London,  1912)  ;  W.  M.  Flinders 
Petrie,  The  Formation  of  the  Alphabet  (ib., 
1912)  ;  Eduard  Stucken,  Der  Ursprung  des  Al¬ 
phabets  (Leipzig,  1913). 

VAAL,  val  (Dutch,  yellow,  a  partial  trans¬ 
lation  of  the  native  name  Kai  Gariep,  yellow 
river ) .  The  chief  tributary  of  the  Orange 
River  in  South  Africa,  regarded  by  some  as  the 
true  upper  course  of  the  main  stream.  It  rises 
on  the  west  slope  of  the  Drakensberg,  flows  west 
and  soutliwestward  on  the  boundary  between  the 
provinces  of  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State, 
and  joins  the  Orange  in  the  Province  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  after  a  course  of  between  500  and 
600  miles  (Map:  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  J  6). 

VAC,  or  VACH,  vach  (Skt.,  word,  voice).  In 
Hindu  mythology,  the  personification  of  speech, 
later  identified  with  Sarasvati,  the  divine  em¬ 
bodiment  of  eloquence  and  learning  and  wife  of 
Brahma  ( q.v. ) .  She  is  celebrated  in  one  late 


hymn  of  the  Rig-Veda  as  the  conferrer  of  life, 
wealth,  and  power  on  mortals.  A  later  mete¬ 
orological  interpretation  regards  her  as  “the 
voice  of  the  midair”  or  the  thunder.  Certain 
attempts  have  been  made  to  compare  Vac  as 
“the  divine  word”  with  the  Logos  (q.v.),  or 
Word  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  but  any  parallelism 
between  them  is  due  merely  to  accidental  coinci¬ 
dence.  Consult:  Hopkins,  Religions  of  India 
(Boston,  1895)  ;  id.,  India  Old  and  New  (New 
York,  1901)  ;  Macdonell,  Vedic  Mythology 
(Strassburg,  1897)  ;  Muller,  Six  Systems  of  In¬ 
dian  Philosophy  (New  York,  1899). 

VACA,  va'ka,  Alvar  Nunez  Cabeza  de.  See 
Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca. 

VACANDARD,  va'kaN'dar',  ElphLge  (1849- 
).  A  French  Qhurch  historian.  He  was 
born  at  Melleville  and  became  a  priest  and  doctor 
of  theology.  He  wrote:  Saint  Bernard  (1877)  ; 
Abelard,  sa  lutte  avec  Saint  Bernard  (1881)  ;  Vie 
de  Saint  Bernard  (1895;  new  ed.,  1910),  crowned 
by  the  French  Academy;  La  confession  sacramen- 
telle  dans  Veglise  primitive  ( 1903)  ;  L’Inquisition 
(1907;  Eng.  trans.,  new  ed.,  1915);  Etudes  de 
critique  et  d'histoire  religieuse  (3  series,  1905- 
12). 

VACARESCO,  va'ka-res'ko,  Helene  (Elena 
Vacarescu  )  ( 1 866—  ) .  A  Rumanian  poet 

and  novelist.  Born  at  Bucharest,  she  came  of 
a  family  notable  in  letters  since  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  She  received  part  of  her  edu¬ 
cation  in  Paris,  and  for  a  time,  as  maid  of  honor 
to  Queen  Elizabeth  ( Carmen  Sylva),  resided  at 
the  Rumanian  court.  After  1892  she  lived  mostly 
in  Paris.  Her  Chants  d’aurore  (1886)  was 
crowned  by  the  French  Academy,  as  was  also 
Le  rhapsode  de  la  Ddmbovita  (1900),  a  collec¬ 
tion  of  Rumanian  folk  songs  translated  into 
French.  This  appeared  in  an  English  transla¬ 
tion  by  Carmen  Sylva  and  A.  Shettell  as  The 
Bard  of  the  Dimbovitza  (new  ed.,  1902).  For 
L’Ame  sereine  (1896)  she  was  awarded  the  Jules 
Favre  prize  by  the  French  Academy.  Her  writ¬ 
ings  also  include:  Lueurs  et  flammes  (1903); 
Kings  and  Queens  I  Have  Known  (1904)  ;  Songs 
of  the  Valiant  Voivode  and  Other  Strange  Folk¬ 
lore  (1905)  ;  Le  jardin  passionne  (1908)  ;  Amor 
vincit  (1909);  Royal  Lovers:  The  Adventures 
of  Two  Empresses  (1909). 

VACATION  SCHOOL.  A  term  used,  quite 
arbitrarily,  to  indicate  a  school  kept  in  many 
American  cities  during'  the  customary  summer 
vacation  for  the  children  of  the  public  schools. 
The  term  has  no  reference  to  the  more  advanced 
schools  connected  with  universities  and  colleges 
or  with  popular  educational  institutions  such  as 


VACCINATION 


VACCINATION 


841 


the  Chautauqua  (q.v.),  though  the  motive  for 
the  establishment  of  these  more  advanced  schools 
may  be  much  the  same.  The  vacation  school  is 
of  very  recent  establishment,  save  in  a  few  iso¬ 
lated  instances,  and  owes  its  origin  to  the  work 
of  philanthropic  societies  in  caring  for  the  chil¬ 
dren  of  the  poor  of  the  larger  cities  during 
the  extreme  heat  of  the  summer.  While  there 
are  sporadic  instances  of  such  schools  kept  by 
these  societies  as  early  as  1866,  when  the  old 
First  Church  in  Boston  conducted  one,  and  there 
are  even  some  instances  of  school  boards  provid¬ 
ing  for  such  work,  as  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  in  the 
same  year,  the  movement  has  become  of  impor¬ 
tance  only  since  1898,  when  the  Board  of  Educa¬ 
tion  of  the  city  of  New  York  took  over  the 
schools  primarily  founded  by  the  Society  for  the 
Improvement  of  the  Condition  of  the  Poor.  Dur¬ 
ing  1913-14  that  city  provided  213  play  centres 
of  different  kinds  and  36  vacation  schools,  the 
former  with  an  average  daily  attendance  of  140,- 
168  and  27,107  at  the  latter.  At  the  present 
time  all  the  large  cities  of  the  country  and  many 
of  the  small  ones,  to  the  extent  of  some  200  in 
all,  support  such  schools.  The  work  of  the  va¬ 
cation  school  is  of  a  much  more  practical  nature 
than  that  of  the  ordinary  session  and  is  de¬ 
voted  more  to  constructive  work  and  organized 
play  by  the  child.  Consequently  manual  train¬ 
ing,  housekeeping,  sewing,  together  with  nature 
work,  local  history,  and  geography,  combined 
with  excursions,  form  a  prominent  part  of  the 
curriculum.  During  the  last  few  years,  however, 
work  of  more  serious  character  has  been  intro¬ 
duced  in  the  upper  grades  and  in  the  high  schools 
to  enable  backward  pupils  to  catch  up  with  their 
work,  or  more  ambitious  pupils  to  make  more 
rapid  progress.  The  idea  of  vacation  schools  is 
being  fostered  and  has  met  with  success  in  Lon¬ 
don  through  the  efforts  of  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward. 
Consult  C.  A.  Perry,  Wider  Use  of  the  School 
■  Plant  (New  York,  1910). 

VAC'CINA'TION  (from  vaccine,  from  Lat. 
vaccinus,  relating  to  a  cow,  from  vacca,  cow; 
connected  with  Skt.  vasd,  cow,  from  vds,  to  bel¬ 
low,  or  perhaps  with  uksan,  bull ) .  Inoculation 
with  vaccinia  or  cowpox,  to  protect  the  indi¬ 
vidual  against  smallpox. 

History.  Many  years  before  the  time  of 
Jenner  it  was  observed  in  widely  separated  lo¬ 
calities  that  accidental  infection  with  cowpox 
conferred  immunity  against  smallpox.  Immer- 
mann  quotes  Von  Humboldt  as  referring  in  his 
travels  in  the  tropics  (1803)  to  the  fact  that 
native  shepherds  in  the  Mexican  Cordilleras  be¬ 
lieved  in  the  protection  afforded  by  vaccinia 
against  smallpox,  and  quotes  Brun  as  making 
a  similar  statement  in  reference  to  the  clan 
of  Elihots  in  Baluchistan.  Peasants  in  different 
parts  of  Europe,  especially  in  the  southern  part 
of  England,  in  Holstein,  Mecklenburg,  Hanover, 
and  Saxony  were  firmly  convinced  of  the  fact. 
It  was  known  to  most  Oriental  peoples,  from 
whom  the  idea  was  introduced  into  England  by 
the  communications  of  Tinsoni  and  Pilarini  to 
the  Royal  Society  in  1713,  and  was  taken  up  by 
Sir  Hans  Sloane  four  years  later.  In  1721  Lady 
Mary  Montague  had  her  five-year-old  daughter 
inoculated  in  England,  probably  the  first  Euro¬ 
pean  to  receive  preventive  vaccination,  while  Dr. 
Zabdiel  Boylston  inoculated  his  son  and  two 
negro  slaves  in  Boston  in  the  same  year.  In 
the  smallpox  epidemic  in  Boston  in  1752,  2000 
people  were  inoculated.  In  1763  Dr.  Heim,  of 
Saxe-Meiningen,  learned  through  his  father,  a 


clergyman,  that  milkmaids  of  that  country 
neighborhood  asserted  their  belief  in  the  pro¬ 
tective  influence  of  accidental  vaccinia  against 
variola.  The  English  physicians  Sutton  and 
Fewster  inoculated  with  human  smallpox  in 
1764  nearly  20,000  people  during  an  epidemic 
in  England.  Medical  men  paid  but  little  heed 
to  their  reports,  and  apparently  further  ex¬ 
periments  were  not  made  by  them.  A  Glouces¬ 
tershire  farmer,  Benjamin  Jesty,  inoculated  suc¬ 
cessfully  his  wife  and  two  sons  with  bovine  virus 
in  1774.  It  is  further  reported  that  Platt,  a 
school  teacher  near  Kiel,  vaccinated  two  children 
with  bovine  virus  to  protect  them  from  an  epi¬ 
demic  of  smallpox  in  1791.  But  great  and  last¬ 
ing  credit  is  no  less  due  to  Edward  Jenner 
(q.v.),  who  in  1778  began  a  thorough  scientific 
investigation  of  the  matter,  and  placed  the  per¬ 
formance  of  vaccination  in  its  proper  place 
among  prophylactic  procedures.  His  experiments 
were  very  numerous  and  accurate.  The  first 
mention  of  individuals  occurs  in  the  history  of 
the  inoculation  on  May  14,  1796,  of  the  eight- 
year-old  James  Phipps  with  vaccine  virus  from  a 
vesicle  on  the  person  of  a  milkmaid,  Sarah 
Nelwes,  who  had  accidentally  acquired  cowpox. 
This  was  probably  the  first  vaccination  of  a 
patient  with  humanized  virus  of  the  first  genera¬ 
tion.  A  typical  case  of  cowpox  developed  in 
Phipps,  and  subsequent  attempted  inoculation 
with  smallpox  virus  proved  negative.  Jenner 
followed  this  experiment  with  an  inoculation 
with  bovine  virus,  and  then  inoculated  from  indi¬ 
vidual  to  individual  for  five  generations,  securing 
perfect  immunity  from  smallpox  in  all  patients 
and  collecting  data  of  23  cases.  When  both 
facts  were  established  he  put  forth  his  remark¬ 
able  publication,  An  Inquiry  into  the  Causes  and 
Effects  of  the  Variolce  Vaocinice,  Knoion  by  the 
Name  of  the  Cowpox  (1798).  This  work  was 
translated  into  Latin  and  all  the  European  lan¬ 
guages,  and  excited  much  attention,  as  well  as 
opposition.  Vaccinations  were  frequent  and  nu¬ 
merous,  and  many  representative  and  noted  phy¬ 
sicians  declared  themselves  as  advocates  of  the 
theory  and  practice,  in  England,  France,  Austria, 
Italy,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Russia,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  while 
others,  especially  in  England,  opposed  him.  Jen¬ 
ner  founded,  in  1803,  the  Royal  Institute  for  the 
Extermination  of  Smallpox,  which  he  directed 
for  many  years.  Both  institutions  vaccinated 
people  free  of  charge  and  supplied  virus  for 
other  countries.  To  Luigi  Sacco,  a  physician  of 
Milan,  is  due  credit,  second  only  to  Jenner’s,  for 
a  life-long  service  in  behalf  of  preventive  vaccina¬ 
tion,  equine  and  ovine  inoculation,  and  retro- 
inoculation.  To  Sacco  the  world  owes  the  final 
adoption  of  animal  (bovine)  virus  in  place  of 
humanized  virus. 

Statistics  of  the  Utility  of  Vaccination. 
Statistics  prove  indubitably  that  a  population 
vaccinated  and  revaccinated  thoroughly  can  re¬ 
main  practically  immune  from  smallpox.  One 
of  the  earliest  opportunities  for  proving,  on  a 
large  scale,  the  value  of  vaccination,  occurred 
during  the  pandemic  of  smallpox  which  raged 
in  Europe  from  1870  to  1873.  The  greater  part 
of  the  German  army  had  been  vaccinated  in 
childhood,  and  all  of  it  again  vaccinated  upon 
entering  service  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War. 
In  the  French  army,  regular  vaccination  had  not 
been  practiced,  and  revaccination  had  been  ne¬ 
glected.  The  mortality  in  the  German  army 
was  450,  or  58  men  to  every  100,000;  in  the 


VACCINATION 


842 


VACCINATION 


French  army  the  mortality  was  23,400.  Statis¬ 
tics  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely,  but  they 
all  show  the  same  result.  The  experience  of 
the  United  States  health  authorities  in  the 
Philippine  Islands  is  another  case  in  point. 
With  the  exception  of  an  occasional  sporadic 
outbreak,  the  islands  have  been  free  from  small¬ 
pox  since  vaccination  was  enforced.  In  the 
United  States  and  England  epidemics  have  oc¬ 
curred  from  time  to  time,  but  in  every  instance 
they  have  been  shown  to  be  due  to  laxity  in 
the  enforcement  of  the  law,  or  to  opposition 
on  the  part  of  certain  sections  of  the  community. 

Technique  of  Vaccination  and  Course  of 
Vaccinia.  Virus  for  vaccination  should  be  pro¬ 
cured  from  well-developed  typical  vaccine  pocks 
on  the  abdomen  of  a  healthy  young  heifer,  while 
they  are  still  in  the  vesicular  stage.  The  virus 
may  be  received  upon  ivory  points  or  removed 
entirely  by  scraping  it  from  the  underlying  co- 
rium  with  a  spoon,  and  rubbing  this  mass  with 
glycerin.  The  resulting  emulsion  of  pulp  is  much 
more  active  than  the  dried  lymph.  It  is  con¬ 
veniently  kept  in  sealed  capillary  tubes.  Both  the 
collection  of  virus  and  its  application  to  the  pa¬ 
tient  should  be  done  under  strict  aseptic  con¬ 
ditions.  Usually  the  arm  or  leg  is  chosen  for 
the  place  of  vaccination,  and  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  disinfected.  Two  or  three  shallow 
scarifications  are  made  with  as  many  crossing 
them,  the  surgeon  cutting  as  deeply  as  the  derma 
without  necessarily  drawing  blood.  After  the 
lymphatic  fluid  begins  to  flow  from  these  in¬ 
cisions  the  vaccine  virus  is  rubbed  into  the  in¬ 
cisions.  A  sterilized  toothpick  flattened  at  one 
end  is  a  convenient  implement  for  this  purpose. 
After  drying  thoroughly,  the  surface  is  covered 
with  a  layer  of  sterile  gauze,  which  is  to  re¬ 
main  on  for  three  days.  In  the  course  of  three 
to  seven  days  elevated  papules  appear,  oval  or 
oblong,  over  the  scarifications.  These  papules 
are  firm,  hot,  and  tender.  They  are  surrounded 
by  a  red  halo  or  areola.  About  the  fifth  day  af¬ 
ter  their  appearance  they  become  vesicles,  con¬ 
taining  clear  fluid,  which  is  vaccine  lymph. 
When  humanized  virus  was  used,  this  was  taken 
from  the  patient  to  be  used  in  inoculating 
another  case.  These  vesicles  are  called  Jenner’s 
vesicles,  and  somewhat  resemble  the  vesicles  of 
smallpox.  Like  them,  also,  they  shrink  and 
become  umbilicated  after  the  seventh  or  ninth 
day ;  the  halo  grows  darker ;  pus  takes  the  place 
of  the  lymph;  pain,  itching,  swelling,  and  heat 
are  troublesome.  A  slight  reaction  consisting 
of  fever  and  malaise  may  take  place  on  the  fifth 
day.  About  the  ninth  or  tenth  day  the  pustule 
dries,  and  a  crust  forms.  The  areola  fades. 
The  axillary  glands  may  enlarge  at  this  time 
and  are  tender  and  painful  on  pressure.  Chil¬ 
dren’s  symptoms  are  more  pronounced  than  those 
of  adults.  The  temperature  during  vaccinia 
reaches  102.5°  F.,  and  rarely  runs  higher.  The 
crust  separates  from  the  arm  in  14  days.  If  the 
crust  be  detached  by  scratching  or  the  chafing 
of  the  clothing  a  second  one  forms.  In  all 
cases  scrupulous  care  must  be  exercised  lest  the 
wound  become  infected  with  germs  in  dust  or 
clothing,  or  under  finger  nails.  Serious  conse¬ 
quences  follow  such  infection.  The  wound  may 
be  infected  with  erysipelas,  or  gangrenous  in¬ 
flammation  may  set  in,  causing  a  very  large 
ulcer.  These  are  not  the  results  of  the  vaccina¬ 
tion,  but  of  subsequent  infection;  and  the  same 
results  are  often  seen  following  any  scratch 
with  a  needle  or  an  abrasion  upon  the  hand. 


Danger  of  Vaccination.  There  is  no  danger 
in  proper  vaccination,  if  infection  is  avoided 
thereafter.  All  inflammatory  reaction  .beyond 
that  described  as  occurring  in  the  course  of  regu¬ 
lar  vaccinia  is  due  to  the  introduction  of  micro¬ 
organisms  by  means  of  dirty  instruments  or 
through  the  admission  of  dust.  There  is  abso¬ 
lutely  no  danger  of  transmitting  disease  by 
means  of  bovine  virus.  When  humanized  virus 
was  used  there  was  some  danger  of  transinoculat- 
ing  with  syphilis  or  tuberculosis.  Yet  even  this 
danger  was  remote.  Tetanus  has  followed  vac¬ 
cination,  not  from  the  operation  itself  but  from 
subsequent  infection. 

Compulsory  Laws.  Naturally,  vaccination, 
in  order  to  protect,  must  be  universal.  All  foci 
from  which  the  disease  might  spread  must  be 
destroyed,  and  immunity  must  be  secured  round 
about  each  focus.  Every  child  should  be  vac¬ 
cinated  during  its  first  year,  and  all  adults 
from  foreign  countries  should  be  vaccinated,  un¬ 
less  they  present  sufficient  evidence  of  success¬ 
ful  protection  previously.  Several  years  after 
Jenner’s  discovery,  public  interest  was  aroused 
to  a  complete  understanding  of  the  necessity  of 
compulsory  vaccination.  Bavaria  established  a 
law  making  vaccination  compulsory  in  1807. 
Other  states  of  the  North  German  Confedera¬ 
tion  followed,  and  between  1815  and  1832  simi¬ 
lar  statutes  were  enacted  in  Oldenburg,  Baden, 
Wiirttemberg,  Saxe-Gotha,  Saxe-Meiningen,  and 
Brunswick.  Austria  in  1801  made  vaccination 
compulsory  for  school  children,  but  not  generally 
so  till  1886.  In  1816  Prussia  also  enacted  an 
indirectly  compulsory  law.  Sweden’s  compul¬ 
sory  law  was  put  upon  the  statute  books  about 
1803.  Norway  and  Denmark  followed  in  1810. 
After  many  vicissitudes  and  changes,  Great 
Britain’s  law  was  enacted  in  1867.  Scotland 
put  herself  on  record  in  1864.  Italy,  Holland, 
and  Belgium  popularized  vaccination  very  early 
and  needed  no  law.  France’s  decree  of  1809  was 
inoperative  and  the  country  has  suffered  heavily 
from  the  want  of  a  compulsory  law.  The  German 
Empire  framed  the  Imperial  Vaccination  Law  in 
1874,  and  its  provisions  deserve  study  and  imi¬ 
tation.  It  provides:  (1)  Every  child  Shall  be 
vaccinated  within  the  calendar  year  of  its  birth, 
unless  it  has  passed  through  an  attack  of  variola. 
(2)  Every  pupil  shall  be  revaccinated  when  12 
years  of  age,  if  he  has  not  had  variola  within 
the  past  five  years.  (3)  Every  vaccinated  person 
must  present  himself  to  the  "physician  who  vac¬ 
cinated  him  between  the  sixth  and  eighth  day 
after  vaccination.  (4)  Medical  certificates  prov¬ 
ing  successful  vaccination  at  the  legal  ages 
shall  be  preserved  by  parents  and  guardians. 

In  the  United  States  the  laws  regarding  com¬ 
pulsory  vaccination  vary  greatly  in  the  dif¬ 
ferent  States.  Vaccination  is  made  compulsory 
by  law  only  in  Kentucky,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  Porto  Rico.  In  Kentucky  the  law  requires 
the  vaccination  of  all  children  within  12  months 
after  birth  and  all  minors  and  adults  are  to  be 
vaccinated.  In  the  Philippine  Islands  every 
child,  three  months  of  age,  must  undergo  vac¬ 
cination  and  all  inhabitants  must  be  vaccinated 
as  often  as  required  by  the  health  authorities. 
In  Porto  Rico  the  board  of  health  requires  that 
every  person  shall  possess  a  certificate  of  vac¬ 
cination.  Massachusetts  enacted  laws  to  regu¬ 
late  vaccination  in  1809.  Several  States  followed 
the  example  early,  notably  Rhode  Island.  In 
most  of  the  States  local  or  State  boards  of  health 
formulate  regulations  under  which  vaccination 


VACCINATION 


VACCINE  THERAPY 


843 


is  practically  compulsory,  acting  in  unison  with 
school  boards  in  excluding  all  unvaccinated  chil¬ 
dren  from  the  schools.  In  several  of  the  United 
States  the  constitutionality  of  statutes  making 
vaccination  compulsory  has  been  judicially 
settled.  They  are  held  to  be  a  legitimate  ex¬ 
ercise  of  the  police  power  for  the  protection  of 
the  public  health.  A  physician  who  vaccinates 
a  person  without  the  latter’s  consent,  but  who  is 
acting  under  the  authority  of  such  a  statute  or 
ordinance,  is  not  liable  for  assault.  For  a  fuller 
account  of  vaccination  requirements  in  the 
United  States,  consult  The  International  Year 
Book,  1912. 

In  spite  of  the  testimony  received  from  all 
over  the  civilized  world,  antivaccinationists 
flourish  in  small  bodies  here  and  there.  The 
antivaccination  sentiment  had  become  so  strong 
in  England,  although  confined  to  a  small  class, 
that  a  measure  was  adopted  in  1898  practically 
annulling  the  compulsory  vaccination  bill  of 
that  country.  The  newer  measure  provides  that 
any  parent  may  refuse  to  have  his  child  vac¬ 
cinated  and  avoid  legal  penalty  if  he  satisfies 
the  court  that  he  has  conscientious  scruples  as  to 
the  benefits  of  vaccination.  The  agitation 
against  vaccination  has  been  constant  since  the 
days  of  Jenner.  In  his  time  it  was  claimed  that 
the  tendency  of  the  inoculation  of  vaccinia  was 
to  cause  bovine  characteristics  to  appear  in  chil¬ 
dren  ;  that  they  developed  horns,  hoofs,  and  tails, 
and  bellowed  like  cattle.  Less  absurd  but,  in  the 
opinion  of  leading  medical  authorities,  equally 
untenable  arguments  are  presented  against  vac¬ 
cination  to-day. 

Revaccination.  Jenner  believed  that  the 
effect  of  vaccination  was  perennial;  and  this  be¬ 
lief  imperiled  the  progress  of  vaccination  at  one 
epoch  in  its  history,  for  vaccinated  persons, 
after  several  years  of  immunity,  fell  victims  to 
smallpox.  At  one  time  the  mystical  number 
seven  seemed  to  rule  tbe  mind,  and  vaccinia  was 
said  to  last  seven  years.  In  fact,  the  duration 
of  immunity  conferred  by  vaccination  is  variable 
in  different  people.  In  a  few  cases,  one  vaccina¬ 
tion  protects  for  life,  and  cannot  be  successfully 
repeated.  In  others,  a  vaccination  will  take 
every  time  it  is  tried.  A  number  of  investi¬ 
gations  as  to  the  duration  of  immunity  have 
thrown  some  light  on  the  matter.  These  were 
based  on  the  percentage  of  successful  revaccina¬ 
tions.  Kitasato  of  Tokyo  found  that  revaccina¬ 
tion  was  successful  in  14  per  cent  after  one  year; 

33  per  cent  after  two  years;  47  per  cent  "after 
three  years;  57  per  cent  after  four  years,  and  so 
on  until  10  years  was  reached,  when  89  per  cent 
of  the  persons  were  successfully  revaccinated 
and  therefore  had  probably  lost  their  immunity. 
Somewhat  similar  results  were  obtained  by  Les- 
cohier  of  Detroit,  in  500  cases.  He  found  that 

34  years  after  primary  inoculation  revaccination 
was  practically  always  successful.  King,  in 
1913,  in  observations  made  on  Asiatics,  found 
that  in  a  series  of  312  patients  who  had  been 
vaccinated  before  15  years  of  age,  revaccination 
was  successful  in  80.3  per  cent.  It  may  be 
taken  as  a  safe  rule  that  immunity  in  a  large 
percentage  of  persons  is  practically  lost  10 
years  after  primary  vaccination  and  that  it  be¬ 
gins  to  diminish  from  the  second  year.  See 
Cowpox. 

Substitutes  for  Vaccination.  It  has  been 
asserted  from  time  to  time  by  enthusiasts  in 
sanitation  that  cleanliness  and  disinfection  will 
control  and  prevent  smallpox.  This  is  an  error. 
Vol.  XXII.— 54 


Until  the  microorganism  causing  smallpox  is  dis¬ 
covered  and  its  nature  is  known,  no  adequate 
prophylactic  or  disinfectant  measures  will  super¬ 
sede  vaccination.  Were  primary  vaccination  and 
revaccination  carefully  practiced,  smallpox  would 
be  entirely  eradicated.  See  Smallpox. 

Bibliography.  Willan,  Vaccine-Inoculation 
(London,  1807)  ;  Sacco,  Trattato  di  vaccinazione 
(Milan,  1809)  ;  Baron,  The  Life  of  Jenner  (Lon¬ 
don,  1827)  ;  Borne,  T  accxnation  et  revaccinations 
obligatoires  en  application  de  la  loi  sur  la  pro¬ 
tection  dc  la  sanU  publique  (Paris,  1902)  ;  C.  K. 
Millard,  The  Vaccination  Question  (London, 
1914)  ;  A.  C.  Klebs,  “Historic  Evolution  of  Va¬ 
riolation,  ’  in  Bulletin  of  Johns  Hopkins  Hos¬ 
pital,  vol.  xxiv  (Baltimore,  1915). 

VACCINATION  EOR  TYPHOID.  See 
Hygiene,  Military  Hygiene. 

VAC'CINE  THERAPY,  Bacterin  Therapy. 
Bacterial  vaccines,  as  defined  by  Sir  Almroth 
Wright  (q.v. ),  are  “sterilized  and  enumerated 
suspensions  of  bacteria  which  furnish,  when  they 
dissolve  in  the  body,  substances  which  stimulate 
the  healthy  tissues  to  a  production  of  specific 
bacteriotropic  substances  which  fasten  upon  and 
directly  or  indirectly  contribute  to  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  corresponding  bacteria.” 

The  use  of  bacterial  vaccines  in  combating  dis¬ 
eases  of  bacterial  origin  is  based  on  the  princi¬ 
ple  that  the  injection  of  killed  bacteria  increases 
the  bactericidal  power  of  the  blood  by  stimulat¬ 
ing  the  production  of  antibodies,  these  in  the 
main  constituting  the  defensive  mechanism  of 
the  body  against  zymotic  diseases.  The  im¬ 
munity  which  a  vaccine  confers  differs  from  that 
given  by  a  serum  in  being  active  instead  of  pas¬ 
sive.  The  materials  from  which  vaccines  are 
prepared  may  be  derived  from  various  pathologi¬ 
cal  fluids  of  the  body  which  contain  the  offending 
organisms.  Cultures  may  be  made  from  the 
nasal  secretion,  from  pus  cavities,  discharging 
ears,  from  sputum,  from  the  urine,  and  from  the 
blood.  These  specimens  must  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  uncontaminated  by  extraneous  organ¬ 
isms.  Cultures  are  made  by  spreading  the  ma¬ 
terial  upon  suitable  media,  preferably  those  con¬ 
taining  blood  or  serum  and  having  a  solid  con¬ 
sistency.  The  further  process  of  preparing  the 
vaccine  consists  in  mixing  the  resultant  culture 
(generally  a  24-hour  growth)  with  normal  salt 
solution,  to  which  is  added  a  preservative,  such 
as  phenol,  and  agitating  the  emulsion  to  secure 
uniform  mixture.  A  mechanical  shaker  is  used 
for  this  purpose  and  from  a  half  to  one  hour 
is  necessary  to  complete  emulsification.  The 
mixture  is  standardized  by  means  of  an  ordinary 
blood  counter,  so  that  a  given  number  of  bacteria, 

.  usually  from  100,000,000  to  1,000,000,000,  are 
contained  in  each  cubic  centimeter.  Finally,  the 
bacteria  are  killed  by  exposure  to  a  temperature 
of  140°  to  150°  F.  for  about  an  hour.  The  vac¬ 
cine  is  now  drawn  off  into  sterile  glass  con¬ 
tainers  and  is  then  ready  for  use.  Vaccines 
made  directly  from  the  secretions  of  a  given  pa¬ 
tient  are  termed  autogenous  and  are  as  a  rule 
more  efficacious  than  stock  vaccines,  these  being 
cultures  made  from  extraneous  sources.  Stock 
vaccines,  however,  particularly  when  polyvalent, 
i.e.,  containing  several  strains  of  the  bacterium, 
are  more  generally  used  and  give  good  results. 
Vaccines  are  administered  by  hypodermic  injec¬ 
tion,  the  skin  being  previously  sterilized  with 
alcohol  or  iodine.  They  are  most  effective  in 
localized  suppurating  lesions  of  the  skin,  such 
as  abscess,  acne,  furunculosis  and  carbuncle,  ps- 


VACCINOTHERAPY 


VADIMONIAN  LAKE 


844 


pecially  when  these  are  in  a  subacute  or  chronic 
state.  They  are  also  of  value  in  deep-seated  pus 
affections,  such  as  pyelonephritis,  cystitis,  osteo¬ 
myelitis,  etc.;  in  specific  affections  of  the  joints, 
such  as  gonorrheal  arthritis  and  in  many  af¬ 
fections  of  the  eyes,  ears,  and  nose.  Tuberculin 
(q.v. )  is  discussed  under  its  own  title.  Bacterin 
therapy  is  contraindicated  in  all  diffuse  infec¬ 
tions  characterized  by  septiciemia  or  pyaemia, 
and  in  severe  acute  diseases,  such  as  pneumonia 
and  typhoid  fever,  when  the  body  is  already  over¬ 
whelmed  by  the  bacterial  invasion.  In  general 
the  presence  of  fever  is  a  contraindication.  The 
prophylactic  value  of  certain  vaccines  is  well  ex¬ 
emplified  in  typhoid  fever  (q.v.),  where  a  very 
efficient  degree  of  immunity  is  conferred  by 
protective  doses  of  antityphoid  vaccine.  See 
Serum  Therapy;  Tuberculin.  Consult  Gould 
and  Pvle,  Cyclopedia  of  Medicine  and  Surgery 
(Philadelphia,  1912),  and  J.  A.  Kolmer,  A  Prac¬ 
tical  Text-Book  of  Infection,  Immunity,  and 
Specific  Therapy  (ib.,  1915). 

VACCINOTHERAPY.  SeeVACCiNETHERAPY. 

VACH,  vach.  See  Vac. 

VACHELL,  vach'el,  Horace  Annesley  (1861- 
) .  An  English  novelist,  educated  at  Har¬ 
row  and  at  the  Royal  Military  College,  Sand¬ 
hurst.  His  fiction  includes,  notably:  The  Ro¬ 
mance  of  Judge  Ketchum  (1894);  Quicksands 
of  Pactolus  (1896);  The  Procession  of  Life 
(1899);  John  Charity  (1900);  The  Pinch  of 
Prosperity  (1903);  Brothers  (1904);  The  Hill 
(1905);  The  Face  of  Clay  (1906);  Her  Son 
(1907);  The  Other  Side  (1910);  John  Verney 
(1911)  ;  Bunch  Grass  (1912)  ;  Quinneys ’  (1914)  ; 
Spragge’s  Canyon  (1914).  Her  Son  and  Quin¬ 
neys'  were  dramatized,  the  latter  being  produced 
in  New  York  in  1915.  Other  plays  by  Vachell 
were  Searchlights  and  Lady  Camber  (both  1915). 

VACHEROT,  vash'ro',  Etienne  (1809-97). 
A  French  philosopher,  born  at  Langres  and  edu¬ 
cated  in  Paris.  In  1837  he  was  appointed  su¬ 
perintendent  of  the  Ecole  Normale  by  Victor 
Cousin,  his  former  teacher,  whom  he  succeeded 
as  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Sorbonne  in 
1839.  His  liberal  views  and  especially  the  ex¬ 
position  of  his  philosophical  doctrines  in  the 
Histoire  critique  de  Vecole  d'Alexandrie  (1846- 
51)  aroused  the  violent  opposition  of  the  clergy. 
He  was  suspended  from  his  position  of  super¬ 
intendent  and,  after  denying  allegiance  to  the 
Empire  in  1852,  was  deprived  of  his  professorate. 
Judiciary  proceedings  and  imprisonment  resulted 
from  the  publication  of  La  democratie  (1859). 
As  mayor  of  the  fifth  arrondissement  of  Paris  he 
rendered  important  services  during  the  siege  and 
the  Commune  and  in  1871  was  elected  to  the 
National  Assembly,  where  he  at  first  sided  with 
the  Liberals,  but  afterward  joined  the  Centre 
and  even  lent  his  support  to  the  Broglie  ministry 
in  its  ultramontane  aspirations.  Although  he 
withdrew  from  political  life  after  the  dissolution 
of  the  National  Assembly,  he  continued  to  voice 
sensationally  anti-Republican  opinions  in  the 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  the  Figaro,  and  the 
Soldi.  Besides  his  principal  work,  La  meta- 
physique  et  la  science  (2d  ed.,  1863),  containing 
the  development  of  his  philosophical  system,  he 
wrote  Essais  de  philosophie  critique  (1864),  La 
religion  (1868),  La  science  et  la  conscience 
(1870),  La  politique  exttrieure  de  la  republique 
(1881),  Le  nouveau  spiritualisme  (1884),  La 
democratie  liberate  (1892).  For  his  biography, 
consult  Olle-Laprune  (Paris,  1898). 

VACO  A.  See  Screw  Pine. 


VACQTJERIE,  vak're',  Auguste  (1819-95). 
A  French  author  and  journalist,  born  at  Ville- 
quier.  He  showed  himself  an  ardent  admirer  of 
Hugo,  and  endeavored  to  practice  the  tenets  of 
romanticism  as  expressed  by  the  great  writer  in 
his  Preface  to  Cromwell.  His  utterances  as 
editor  of  Rappel,  an  anti-imperial  journal,  were 
several  times  made  the  subject  of  court  proceed¬ 
ings.  Beginning  with  poetry,  L’Enfer  de  Vesprit 
and  Les  demi-teintes  (1845),  Vacquerie  later 
wrote  the  following  plays:  Tragaldabas  (1848), 
a  failure;  Drames  de  la  greve  (1855);  Les 
funerailles  de  Vhonneur  (1861),  a  seven-act  Ro¬ 
mantic  drama;  Jean  Baudry  (1863);  Les  fils 
(1866).  His  Theatre  complet  appeared  in  1879. 
Vacquerie’s  work  is  vividly  imaginative. 

VACUUM,  vak'u-um.  See  Air  Pump. 

VACUUM  CLEANER.  A  mechanical  de¬ 
vice  for  removing,  by  means  of  air  suction,  dirt, 
dust,  and  other  fine  matter  from  carpets,  up¬ 
holstery,  walls,  and  other  surfaces.  The  device 
consists  essentially  of  a  nozzle  to  be  passed  over 
the  material  to  be  cleaned,  a  pipe  connecting  the 
nozzle  with  a  separator  where  the  dust  and  dirt 
are  removed  from  the  air,  and  an  apparatus  for 
producing  a  vacuum.  The  nozzles  are  of  various 
sizes  and  forms,  according  to  the  use  for  which 
they  are  intended,  such  as  cleaning  carpets  on 
the  floor,  or  removing  the  dust  from  books  on  a 
shelf.  The  exhausters  that  produce  the  vacuum 
are  of  various  types.  There  are  three  kinds  of 
plants  in  general  use:  One  small,  portable,  and 
compact,  electrically  driven  by  being  connected 
to  a  lamp  socket.  Another,  permanently  mounted 
on  a  vehicle  and  driven  by  an  internal-combus¬ 
tion  engine,  is  drawn  up  at  the  curb  and  a  hose 
led  into  the  building  to  be  cleaned.  The  third 
is  a  permanent  installation,  usually  located  in 
the  basement  of  a  building  and  connected  by 
built-in  pipes  with  outlets  where  a  hose  and 
nozzle  may  be  attached  in  the  various  rooms 
and  halls. 

David  T.  Kenney  of  New  York  is  credited  with 
installing  the  first  pure  vacuum  system  in  1902, 
and  about  1905  Dr.  William  Noe  of  San  Fran¬ 
cisco  constructed  the  first  portable  vacuum 
cleaner.  Consult  M.  S.  Cooley,  Vacuum  Clean¬ 
ing  Systems  (New  York,  1913)  ;  N.  S.  Thomp¬ 
son,  Mechanical  Equipment  of  Federal  Buildings 
(New  York,  1915). 

VACUUM  PROCESS.  See  Refrigeration. 

VA'DIA'NUS,  Joachim  (1484-1551).  A 
Swiss  reformer  and  humanist,  whose  real  name 
was  Von  Watt.  He  was  born  in  Saint-Gall, 
was  educated  there  and  in  Vienna,  and  became 
instructor  in  classics  at  the  University  of  Vienna 
in  1514.  He  returned  to  Saint-Gall  in  1518  to 
practice  medicine.  But  his  great  work  there  was 
as  a  reformer  and  a  friend  of  Zwingli,  and  it  was 
largely  due  to  his  influence  that  Saint-Gall  in 
1525-27  went  over  entirely  to  the  Protestant 
church.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  re¬ 
ligious  colloquies  of  Zurich  (1523),  and  of  Bern 
(1528),  and  corresponded  with  Luther  and  Eras¬ 
mus.  He  wrote  a  Chronicle  of  the  abbey  of 
Saint-Gall,  edited  by  Gotzinger  with  Vadianus’ 
other  German  works  (1875-77),  and  a  Commen- 
tarius  in  Pomponium  Melan  (1518).  Consult: 
Geilsius,  J.  v.  Watt  als  geographischer  Schrift- 
steller  (Winterthur,  1865)  ;  Preffel,  J.  Vadian 
(Elberfeld,  1861);  and  Gotzinger,  J.  v.  Watt 
(Halle,  1895). 

VADIMO'NIAN  LAKE  (Lat.  Vadimonius 
Lacus) .  A  small  circular  lake  in  Etruria,  now 
Lago  di  Bassano.  It  is  famed  as  the  scene  of 


VADSO 


VAIL 


845 


two  Roman  victories  over  the  Etruscans:  the 
first  in  309  b.c.  under  the  dictator  Papirius 
Cursor,  the  second  in  283  b.c.  under  the  consul 
Dolabella. 

VADSO,  v&ds'e.  A  town  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  Norway  (lat.  70°  4'  N.,  long.  19°  E.). 
Located  on  the  shores  of  Varanger  Fiord  and 
on  \  ando  Island,  it  is  attractive  considering  its 
high  ^latitude,  with  a  mean  yearly  temperature 
of  33°  F.  It  has  a  town  hall,  schools,  residences 
for  civil  and  military  officials,  and  five  fish-oil 
refineries.  It  engages  in  extensive  fisheries  in 
the  Atlantic  and  in  the  Arctic,  in  coastwise 
shipping,  and  in  summer  in  shipping  to  Russia. 
It  exports  fish  and  fish  products,  guano,  skins, 
game,  and  reindeer  meat.  Vadso  dates  from 
1567.  Pop.,  1910,  3322. 

VADUZ,  va'duts.  The  capital  of  the  Princi¬ 
pality  of  Liechtenstein.  It  is  charmingly  situ¬ 
ated  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  at  an  ele¬ 
vation  of  1525  feet,  and  is  on  the  Feldkirch- 
Buchs  branch  of  the  Austrian  State  Railway. 
It  is  near  the  Three  Sisters  (6880  feet).  The 
town  has  a  Gothic  parish  church  and  a  castle, 
which,  destroyed  by  the  Swiss  in  1499,  was  re¬ 
built  in  1523-26.  The  tower  of  the  castle  dates 
from  the  ninth  century.  Pop.,  1912,  1376. 

VAGA,  va'ga,  Perino  del  (1500-47).  An 
Italian  decorative  painter.  He  was  born  in 
Florence,  was  perhaps  a  pupil  of  Ghirlandaio 
or  Fra  Bartolommeo,  and  certainly  of  Raphael, 
whom  he  assisted  in  Rome  in  the  stucco  and 
arabesque  decorations  of  the  Loggia  of  the  Vati¬ 
can.  He  also  executed  some  of  the  scriptural 
subjects  there,  and  the  figures  of  the  planets 
in  the  great  hall  of  the  Appartamento  Borgia. 
After  the  sack  of  Rome  in  1527  he  went  to 
Genoa,  where  he  decorated  the  Doria  Palace  with 
stuccoes  and  frescoes  in  a  style  similar  to  that 
adopted  by  Giulio  Romano  at  Mantua,  with  sub¬ 
jects  from  classical  fables.  Later  he  returned 
to  Rome,  where  he  designed  a  number  of  fagades, 
hall  and  church  frescoes,  and  with  Daniele  da 
Volterra  decorated  the  Sala  Reggia  in  the 
Vatican. 

V AGANTES,  va-gan'tez  ( Lat.,  wanderers ) . 
The  name  given  to  the  itinerant  students  and 
clerics  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
indistinguishable  often  from  the  wandering  min¬ 
strels  and  clowns  who  form  so  picturesque  a 
feature  of  mediaeval  life.  They  are  known  for 
the  body  of  satirical  literature  in  Latin  which 
they  created,  commonly  designated  as  Goliardic 
literature  (q.v. ). 

VAGARSHAPAT,  va-gar'sha-pat.  A  village 
of  Russia.  See  under  Etchmiadzin. 

VAGI'NA  (Lat.,  sheath).  One  of  the  sexual 
organs  in  the  female.  It  is  a  sheath  from  4  to 
7  inches  long,  into  which  open  the  uterus  and 
the  urethra.  It  lies  behind  the  bladder  and  in 
front  of  the  rectum,  and  it  is  lined  with  mu¬ 
cous  membrane.  Its  external  opening  is  called 
the  vulva,  which  is  formed  by  the  apposition  of 
the  two  labia  majora. 

VAGLIERI,  val-ya're,  Dante  (1865-1914). 
An  Italian  classical  scholar,  born  at  Triest.  He 
studied  at  driest  and  at  the  University  of  Vi¬ 
enna.  From  1893  to  his  death  he  was  con¬ 
nected,  in  various  capacities,  with  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Rome.  He  had  charge  also  for  some  years 
of  the  important  excavations  at  Ostia  (q.v.), 
which  he  prosecuted  with  such  energy  and  skill 
that  Ostia  now  rivals  Pompeii  as  a  source  of 
information  concerning  ancient  Roman  life. 

VAGRANT.  In  law,  a  term  of  broad  appli¬ 


cation  including,  in  general,  all  idle  and  dis¬ 
orderly  persons  who  may  become  a  menace  to  the 
public  peace  or  a  public  burden.  The  statutes 
in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  differ  in 
details,  but  are  elastic  enough  to  cover  such  di¬ 
verse  classes  as  unlicensed  peddlers,  beggars, 
drunkards,  fortune  tellers,  prostitutes,  notorious 
criminals,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  specific  tramp 
(q.v.).  ^  * 

VA'GUS  NERVE.  See  Pneumogastric 
Nerve. 

VAHLEN,  va'len,  Johannes  (1830-1911). 
A  German  philologist,  born  in  Bonn,  where  he 
studied  at  the  university,  and  became  privat- 
docent  in  1854.  In  1856  he  was  made  professor 
in  Breslau,  in  1858  at  Vienna,  and  in  1874  in 
Berlin.  Among  his  writings  are  to  be  noted 
especially:  Enniance  Poesis  Reliquice  (1854;  2d 
ed.,  1903)  ;  Ncevii  de  Bello  Punico  Reliquice 
(1854)  ;  Ueber  die  Annalen  des  Ennius  (1886)  ; 
Ulpiani  Liber  Regularum  (1856);  Cicero  de 
Legibus  (2d  ed.,  1883);  a  critical  edition  of 
Aristotle’s  Poetics  (3d  ed.,  1885)  ;  Lorenzo  Valla 
(2d  ed.,  1870)  ;  Laurentii  Vallce  Opuscula 
(1869);  and  many  articles  in  periodicals.  For 
several  years  he  was  coeditor  of  the  periodical 
Hermes,  and  also  of  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  oster- 
reichische  Gymnasien.  Since  his  death  his  mis¬ 
cellaneous  papers  have  been  published  in  Opus- 
cula  Academica  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1907).  Con¬ 
sult  J.  E.  Sandys,  A  History  of  Classical  Scholar¬ 
ship,  vol.  iii  (Cambridge,  1908). 

VAI.  See  Vei. 

VAIGATCH,  vi-gach'  (  Waigatz)  .  An  island 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean  belonging  to  the  Russian 
Government  of  Archangel,  between  the  mainland 
and  Nova  Zembla  (Map:  Russia,  J  1).  It  is 
separated  from  the  latter  by  the  Kara  Strait, 
and  from  the  mainland  by  the  Yugor  (Waigatz) 
Strait,  while  its  east  coast  is  washed  by  the 
Kara  Sea.  It  is  about  70  miles  long  and  25 
miles  wide,  with  an  area  of  1400  square  miles, 
and  is  traversed  lengthwise  by  a  range  of  moun¬ 
tains,  an  extension  of  the  Ural  system.  The 
climate  is  cold  and  the  vegetation  Very  scanty. 
The  island  is  permanently  inhabited  by  a  few 
Samoyeds,  but  in  summer  it  is  visited  by  a  num¬ 
ber  of  Russians  for  its  fisheries  and  the  fur-bear¬ 
ing  animals. 

VAIHINGER,  vlffiing-er,  Hans  (1852-  ). 

A  German  philosophical  critic,  born  at  Nehren, 
and  educated  at  Tubingen,  Leipzig,  and  Berlin. 
He  became  docent  at  Strassburg  in  1877,  and 
professor  in  1883,  and  in  1884  went  to  Halle  as 
professor  of  philosophy  and  pedagogy.  He  is 
known  chiefly  as  a  critic  of  Kant.  He  edited 
Kantstudien  after  1896,  and  wrote  a  Kommentar 
zu  Kants  KritiJc  der  reinen  Vernunft  (2  vols., 
1881-92);  Kant — ein  Metaphysikerf  (1889); 
Die  transcendent  ale  Deduction  dei'  Kategorien 
(1902).  His  other  works  include:  Goethe  als 
Ideal  universeller  Bildung  (1875);  Hartmann . 
Diihring  und  Lange  (1876)  ;  Nietzsche  als  Phi- 
losoph  (2d  ed.,  1902)  ;  Die  Philosophie  in  der 
Staatspriifung  (1906);  Die  Philosophie  des  Als 
Ob — System  der  theoretischen,  praktischen ,  und 
religiosen  Fiktionen  der  Menschheit  (1911;  2d 
ed.,  1913). 

VAIL.  See  Drinking  Usages. 

VAIL,  val,  Alfred  (1807-59).  An  American 
inventor,  born  at  Morristown,  N.  J.  He  gradu¬ 
ated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York 
in  1836.  In  September,  1837,  he  entered  into 
partnership  with  Prof.  S.  F.  B.  Morse  (q.v.), 
agreeing  to  supply  the  funds  necessary  to  bring 


VAIL 


846  VAISESHIKA 


Morse's  newly  invented  telegraph  before  the 
public,  and  to  construct  a  practicable  model  at 
his  father’s  ironworks  at  Speedwell,  near  Mor¬ 
ristown,  N.  J.  In  January,  1838,  the  model  was 
completed,  and  on  the  twenty-third  was  first  pub¬ 
licly  exhibited  at  the  University  of  New  York. 
When  in  1843  work  was  begun  on  an  experimen¬ 
tal  line  between  Washington  and  Baltimore, 
Vail  became  assistant  superintendent.  He  sug¬ 
gested  so  many  improvements  to  Morse’s  original 
apparatus,  as  did  also  Joseph  Henry  (q.v.),  that 
the  modern  telegraph  is  considered  by  some  to 
be  the  product  of  Vail  and  Henry  rather  than 
of  its  original  inventor.  Vail  published  The 
American  Electro-Magnetic  Telegraph  (1845). 
Consult  Pope,  “The  American  Inventors  of  the 
Telegraph,”  in  the  Century  Magazine,  vol.  xxxv 
(New  York,  1888). 

VAIL,  Charles  Henry  (1866-  ).  An 

American  Universalist  clergyman  and  writer  on 
Socialism,  born  at  Tully,  N.  Y.  He  graduated 
from  the  theological  school  of  St.  Lawrence 
University  in  1893  and  was  pastor  at  Jersey 
City,  and  in  New  York  State  at  Albany,  Richfield 
Springs,  and  Albion  (from  1906).  Becoming 
deeply  interested  in  the  study  of  Socialism,  he 
indorsed  its  principles  and  wrote:  Modern  So¬ 
cialism  (1897),  National  Ownership  of  Rail¬ 
ways  (1897),  Scientific  Socialism  (1899),  The 
Industrial  Evolution  (1899),  Mission  of  the 
Working  Class  (1900),  The  Socialist  Movement 
(1901),  The  Trust  Question  (1901),  Socialism 
and  the  Negro  Problem  (1903),  Ancient  Myster¬ 
ies  and  Modern  Masonry  (1909),  The  World’s 
Saviors  (1913),  Militant  and  Triumphant  So¬ 
cialism  (1913). 

VAIL,  Stephen  Montfort  (1818-80).  An 
American  Methodist  Episcopal  clergyman,  born 
at  Union  Vale,  Dutchess  Co.,  N.  Y.  He  gradu¬ 
ated  from  Bowdoin  College  in  1838  and  Union 
Theological  Seminary  in  1842,  and  was  then  a 
pastor  in  New  York.  For  two  years  he  served 
as  president  of  Pennington  Seminary  (N.  J. ), 
and  from  1849  to  1868  as  professor  of  Hebrew 
in  the  General  Biblical  Institute  at  Concord, 
N.  H.  From  1869  to  1874  he  was  United  States 
Consul  to  Bavaria.  He  strongly  advocated  the 
abolition  of  slavery  and  was  an  early  champion 
of  training  for  the  ministry,  writing  effectively 
on  both  these  subjects;  also  Outline  Lessons  in 
77 

VAIL,  Theodore  Newton  ( 1845  —1920 ) .  An 
American  capitalist,  born  in  Carroll  Co.,  Ohio. 
He  was  educated  at  Morristown  (N.  J.)  Acad¬ 
emy,  and  then  studied  medicine  for  two  years. 
He  was  early  connected  with  the  United  States 
railway  mail  service,  of  which  he  was  general 
superintendent  in  1875-78.  In  1878  he  became 
interested  in  the  telephone  business,  and  after 
1896  was  identified  with  electric  enterprises  in 
the  Argentine,  introducing  the  American  electric 
system  of  street  railways  in  Buenos  Aires,  and 
installing  telephone  systems  in  the  principal 
Argentine  cities.  Vail  became  president  of  the 
American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company 
and  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company. 
In  1913  the  former  corporation,  which,  because 
of  its  close  relations  with  the  Western  Union 
and  subsidiary  companies,  had  become  known  as 
the  “telephone  trust,”  complied  with  the  gov¬ 
ernment’s  request  for  reorganization.  Vail  then 
resigned  from  his  office  in  the  Western  Union. 
With  other  New  Haven  directors  in  1916  he  was 
acquitted  of  a  charge  of  conspiracy  to  monopolize 
interstate  commerce.  In  1915  he  received  the 


honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from  both  Princeton 
and  Harvard. 

VAILIMA  (vi-le'ma)  LETTERS.  A  series 
of  letters  written  from  Samoa  by  Robert  Louis 
Stevenson  between  November,  1890,  and  October, 
1894.  They  are  addressed  to  Sidney  Colvin  and 
contain  a  varied  record  of  his  Samoan  exile. 
The  title  is  derived  from  the  name  given  by 
Stevenson  to  his  island  home. 

VAILLANT,  va'yaN'  (Marie)  Edouard 
(1840-1915).  A  French  socialist,  born  at  Vier- 
zon  (Cher),  and  educated  in  Paris,  where  he 
studied  engineering  and  then  medicine,  and  in 
Heidelberg,  Tubingen,  and  Vienna.  After  his  re¬ 
turn  to  Paris  in  1870  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  government  of  the  Commune  and  served 
for  a  time  as  Minister  of  Education.  He  escaped 
to  London  on  the  downfall  of  the  Commune, 
became  a  member  of  the  general  committee  of 
the  Internationale,  took  part  in  The  Hague 
conference  in  1872,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
sentenced  to  death  in  contumaciam  by  the  Con- 
seil  de  Guerre.  After  the  amnesty  of  1880  he 
returned  to  Paris,  and  in  1884  was  elected  to 
the  municipal  council,  where  he  advocated  the 
suppression  of  standing  armies,  national  con¬ 
trol  of  public  services,  and  various  socialistic 
measures.  He  opposed  Boulangism  very  strongly, 
at  the  same  time  attacking  the  opportunism  of 
the  radical  Republicans.  He  was  elected  several 
times  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  where  he  sat 
as  a  Socialist. 

VAIR.  One  of  the  tinctures  in  heraldry 
(q.v.). 

VAISESHIKA,  vi-sa'she-ka.  The  name  of 
one  of  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  Nydya 
(q.v.)  school  of  Hindu  philosophy,  and  probably 
a  later  development  of  the  Nyaya,  properly  so 
called.  It  agrees  with  the  latter  in  its  analyti¬ 
cal  method  of  treating  the  subjects  of  human 
research,  but  differs  from  it  in  the  arrangement 
of  topics  and  especially  in  its  doctrine  of  atomic 
individualities  or  viscsas — whence  its  name. 

The  topics  or  categories  ( paddrthas )  under 
which  Kanada  (q.v.),  the  founder  of  this  sys¬ 
tem,  arranges  his  subject  matter,  are  the  follow¬ 
ing  six:  (1)  substance,  (2)  quality,  (3)  action, 
(4)  generality,  (5)  atomic  individuality,  and 
(6)  coinherence;  and  later  writers  of  his  school 
add  to  these  a  seventh  category,  nonexistence. 
These  may  be  explained  more  precisely.  1.  Sub¬ 
stance  is  the  intimate  cause  of  an  aggregate 
effect;  it  is  that  in  which  qualities  abide,  and  in 
which  action  takes  place.  It  is  ninefold — earth, 
water,  light,  air,  ether,  time,  space,  soul,  and 
manas,  or  the  organ  of  affection.  2.  Quality  is 
united  with  substance;  it  comprises,  according 
to  the  commentator,  the  following  24  elements : 
color,  savor,  odor,  feeling,  number,  dimension, 
individuality,  conjunction,  discon  junction,  prior¬ 
ity,  posteriority,  gravity,  fluidity,  viscidity, 
sound,  understanding,  pleasure,  pain,  desire, 
aversion,  volition  or  effort,  merit,  demerit,  and 
self-restitution.  Seven  of  these  are  later  addi¬ 
tions  to  Kanada’s  list.  That  qualities  belong  to 
the  soul  is  maintained  by  the  Vaiseshikas  in  op¬ 
position  to  the  Vedantists  and  Sankliyas.  3. 
Action  consists  in  motion,  and  abides  in  sub¬ 
stance  alone.  4.  Generality  abides  in  substance, 
quality,  and  action.  It  is  of  two  kinds,  higher 
and  lower,  or  genus  and  species.  5.  Atomic  in¬ 
dividuality  resides  in  eternal  substances,  by 
which  are  meant  manas,  soul,  time,  space,  ether, 
earth,  water,  light,  and  air;  it  is  the  visesa  or 
ultimate  difference;  such  differences  are  end- 


VAISHNAVA 


VAISHNAVA 


847 


less;  and  two  atoms  of  the  same  substance, 
though  homogeneous  with  each  other,  differ 
merely  in  so  far  as  they  exclude  each  other. 
6.  Coinherence,  or  perpetual  intimate  connec¬ 
tion,  resides  in  things  which  cannot  exist  in¬ 
dependently  from  one  another,  such  as  the  parts 
and  the  whole,  action  and  agent,  species  and 
individual,  atomic  individuality  and  eternal  sub¬ 
stance.  7.  Nonexistence,  the  last  category,  is 
defined  by  the  modern  Vaiseshikas  as  being 
either  nonexistence  without  beginning,  but  with 
an  end ;  or  nonexistence,  with  a  beginning,  but 
no  end;  or  absolute  nonexistence,  which  has 
neither  beginning  nor  end;  or  mutual  nonexis¬ 
tence,  which  is  the  reciprocal  negation  of  iden¬ 
tity.  The  nature  of  each  of  these  substances, 
qualities,  and  actions,  is  then  the  subject  of 
special  investigation.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that, 
according  to  the  Vaiseshika  system,  understand¬ 
ing  ( buddhi )  is  the  quality  of  soul,  and  the  in¬ 
struments  of  right  notion  are  treated  under  this 
head.  Kanada  admits  of  only  two  such  instru¬ 
ments,  or  pramanas,  perception  and  inference. 
Comparison,  revelation,  and  the  other  instru¬ 
ments  of  right  notion,  mentioned  in  other  sys¬ 
tems,  according  to  the  commentators  are  in¬ 
cluded  in  these  two.  Fallacies  and  other  modes 
of  inconclusive  reasoning  are  further  dealt  with 
in  connection  with  inference,  though  with  less 
detail  than  in  the  Nyaya,  where  these  are  favor¬ 
ite  topics  for  discussion. 

In  point  of  time  the  Vaiseshika  system  ante¬ 
dates  that  of  the  Vedanta  (q.v.)  and  possibly 
originated  not  long  before  the  Christian  era. 
The  work  of  its  reputed  founder,  Kanada,  has 
been  commented  upon  by  a  triple  set  of  com¬ 
mentaries,  and  popularized  in  several  elemen¬ 
tary  treatises.  J.  T.  Panchanana  edited  the 
text  with  the  commentary  of  Sankara  Misra 
(Calcutta,  1861),  while  Ballantyne  translated 
some  of  the  sutras  (Mirzapore,  1851). 

VAISHNAVA,  vish'na-va  (Skt.  vaisnava, 
adherent  of  Vishnu).  The  general  name  of  a 
worshiper  of  Vishnu  (q.v.),  but  applied  par¬ 
ticularly  to  one  who  worships  him  in  his  in¬ 
carnate  form,  either  as  Krishna  or  as* Rama. 
Even  those  who  worship  Vishnu  under  other 
forms,  or  avatars  (see  Avatar),  are  adher¬ 
ents  at  the  same  time  of  one  of  these  two  sects. 
Of  the  two,  the  older  division  comprises  the  Krish- 
naites  who  were  known  in  the  earliest  sectarian 
period  (c.200  B.c. )  as  Pdncaratras  and  Bhdgava- 
tas.  Whether  these  names  were  at  first  applied 
to  the  same  sectaries  or  to  two  divisions  of 
Krishnaites  is  not  known;  but  in  the  seventh 
century  a.d.  they  appear  to  be  two  distinct  bod¬ 
ies.  The  essential  tenet  of  these  sects  is  that 
which  is  maintained  by  all  Vaishnavas,  viz., 
that,  besides  the  identity  of  Krishna  with 
Vishnu,  the  human  soul  is  a  distinct  entity, 
while  incorporate  in  an  earthly  body,  and  after 
the  death  of  the  body  it  becomes  one  with  Vishnu. 
This  qualified  idealism  distinguished  the  Vaish¬ 
navas  philosophically  from  the  Saivas  (q.v.)  on 
the  one  hand,  and  from  the  Vedantists  (see 
Vedanta)  on  the  other.  Another  tenet  held  by 
all  Vaishnavas,  though  not  exclusively  by  them, 
is  the  doctrine  of  bhakti  or  saving  faith,  and 
this  may  be  said  to  be  the  great  popular  sup¬ 
port  of  these  sects.  It  appears  first  in  the 
Bliagavadgita  (q.v.),  the  oldest  scripture  of  the 
Vaishnavas.  According  to  this  doctrine,  all 
works  and  other  beliefs  are  without  essential 
value,  though  good  works  and  right  knowledge 
are  useful.  The  one  essential,  however,  is  faith 


in  Krishna  (or  Rama)  as  Vishnu,  i.e.,  as  su¬ 
preme  deity.  Salvation,  further,  consists  in 
being  received  back  into  God’s  essence.  The 
corresponding  activity  on  the  part  of  the  divinity 
is  grace  or  favor  extended  to  such  as  have  faith. 
In  the  grosser  conception  of  Vishnu  as  a  god 
occupying  a  heaven  of  his  own,  the  soul,  instead 
of  being  reabsorbed,  simply  shares  the  joy  of 
this  heaven. 

At  the  present  time  the  Krishnaites  are  largely 
in  the  majority  in  northern  India,  while  the 
Ramaites  are  strongest  in  the  southeast,  the 
southwest  being  the  home  of  one  of  the  strong 
Krishnaite  sects,  which  arose  in  the  twelfth  cen¬ 
tury.  At  this  period,  in  fact,  sprang  up  the  chief 
sects  of  both  parties,  and  from  this  time  onward 
the  antagonism  between  the  sects  and  subseets 
of  each  separate  division  became  powerful. 

Before  these  popular  schools  or  sects  arose,  a 
special  division  of  Krishnaite  Vaishnavas  was 
formed  (c.1200  a.d.)  on  the  Malabar  coast  under 
the  influence  of  Anandatirtha,  the  founder  of  a 
school  known  as  Madhvas.  He  taught  not  only 
the  separate  existence  of  human  souls,  but  the 
separate  existence  of  matter  as  an  eternal  es¬ 
sence.  This  school  remains  a  restricted  southern 
growth,  but  the  duality  doctrine,  as  it  is  called, 
has  been  accepted  by  the  masses  over  a  wide 
area.  Both  the  next  great  Krishnaite  sects 
emphasize  an  entirely  new  practice,  on  which 
they  lay  more  weight  than  they  do  on  theology 
or  metaphysics.  This  is  the  practice  of  revering 
the  Child  Krishna.  No  trace  of  this  cult,  with 
its  accompaniment  of  madonna  worship,  is  to 
be  found  in  the  records  of  the  older  sects,  and 
it  is  possible  that  the  practice  was  an  imitation 
of  Christian  usage.  Unfortunately,  with  the  in¬ 
troduction  of  this  child  worship  was  still  re¬ 
tained  the  antique  conception  of  Krishna  as  an 
amorous  shepherd,  and  under  the  influence  of 
these  two  images,  together  with  the  continual 
emphasis  upon  bhakti,  the  worship  of  Krishna- 
Vishnu  rapidly  deteriorated.  This  element  be¬ 
came  supreme  in  the  later  development  of  the 
Krishnaite  sects  of  the  north,  where  among  the 
lower  classes  it  has  superseded  all  other  reli¬ 
gious  notions  and  has  deeply  affected  even  the 
cultivated  classes. 

The  first  of  these  sects  is  that  of  Caitanya. 
who  was  born  in  Bengal  in  1485.  His  special 
religious  tenet  was  love  for  Krishna.  This  was 
expressed  by  songs  and  dances  of  a  licentious 
character.  Caitanya  himself,  like  most  of  the 
late  Vaishnava  teachers,  was  regarded  as  also 
divine  and  as  a  reincarnation  of  Krishna  himself. 
The  second  great  sect  of  Krishnaites  arose  in  the 
northwest  and  was  founded  by  Vallabha,  called 
also  Vallabhacarya.  His  sect  was  no  less  self- 
indulgent.  The  worship  of  the  Child  Krishna 
was  particularly  affected  by  the  Vallabhas  with 
all  its  excesses.  But  the  sect  is  saved  from  the 
uniform  low  level  of  the  Caitanyas  through  the 
fact  that  it  is  not  without  sectarian  literature. 
The  founder  reverted  to  the  nondualistic  doctrine 
of  the  Vedanta,  and  the  philosophy  of  his  school 
is  thus  distinguished  from  that  of  Caitanya, 
who  taught  that  each  believer  was  to  exist  as  a 
separate  spirit  in  a  heaven  filled  with  sensual 
pleasures.  Both  these  sects  elevate  Radha,  the 
mistress  of  Krishna,  to  a  divine  position.  A 
reform  of  both  these  religious  bodies  took  place 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  Caran  Dasis 
were  protestants  against  the  excesses  of  the 
Vallabha  sect  and  they  instituted  a  moral  reform 
based  on  the  purer  belief  and  practice  of  the 


VAISHNAVA 


VALAIS 


848 


southern  Madhva  Krishnaites.  A  similar  pro¬ 
test  against  the  Vallabha  sect  resulted  in  the 
formation  of  a  new  division  under  the  leader¬ 
ship  of  Narayana,  who  was  worshiped  as  a  god 
by  his  adherents.  Other  reforming  sects  of  this 
sort  scarcely  deserve  to  be  called  Vaishnavas,  as 
they  are  eclectic  deists. 

At  the  same  time  that  Madhva  was  founding 
hi3  Krishnaite  sect  in  southwestern  India,  Rama¬ 
nuja  in  the  southeast  (about  Madras)  was 
founding  the  first  distinctively  Ramaite  Vaish- 
nava  sect.  The  Ramanuja  sect  remained  in  the 
south,  but  the  sect  founded  by  Ramanuja’s  fol¬ 
lower,  Ramanand,  was  operative  in  the  north 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  to  this  sect  are 
due  in  succession  some  of  the  reform  movements 
of  more  recent  times.  The  Northern  School 
(Vadagalis)  hold  to  the  monkey  doctrine,  while 
the  Southern  School  (Tengalais)  affect  the 
cat  doctrine.  The  former  doctrine  holds  that 
God  saves  the  sinner  as  a  monkey  does  its 
young,  by  allowing  the  young  to  embrace  it 
and  be  carried  to  safety.  The  cat  doctrine  is 
Calvinistic,  affirming  that  God  saves  as  does  a 
cat,  by  picking  up  the  kitten  without  concur¬ 
rence  or  effort  on  the  kitten’s  part.  The  Ten¬ 
galais  are  the  more  numerous  and  have  a  theo¬ 
logical  literature  written  in  Tamil  (see  Tamils)  . 

But  the  great  difference  between  Krishnaites 
and  Ramaites  is  moral  and  intellectual.  The 
Krishnaite  Vaishnavas,  with  few  exceptions, 
such  as  that  of  the  high-caste  Madhva  sect,  are 
as  epicurean  and  licentious  in  practice  as  they 
are  unphilosophical  in  intellect.  What  litera¬ 
ture  they  possess  is  small,  apart  from  erotic 
poetry.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Rama  schools 
have  elaborated  complete  theological  systems, 
and,  generally  speaking,  they  are  morally  above 
reproach.  Most  Ramaites  hold  that  the  deity  is 
not  without  qualities,  and  in  logical  conclusion 
they  maintain  that  Rama  as  Vishnu  has  a  heaven 
of  pure  delight  in  which  the  believer  will  lead 
a  pure  but  joyful  existence,  not  being  absorbed 
into  the  divine  essence.  In  consequence  or  the 
moral  tone  of  the  Rama  Vaishnavas,  it  is  from 
them  rather  than  from  the  Krishnaites  that  the 
later  reformers  draw  their  inspiration.  Kabir, 
one  of  the  disciples  of  Ramanand,  founded  the 
sect  of  the  Kabir  Panthis,  which  still  has  a 
large  following  in  northern  India,  but  unites 
Rama  and  the  divine  monkey,  Hanuman  (q.v. ), 
in  one  common  worship.  A  purely  deistic  sect 
also  claiming  Ramanand  as  the  teacher  of  their 
founder  is  that  of  the  Dadu  Panthis.  The  litera¬ 
ture  of  the  modern  Vaishnava  sects  is  best  rep¬ 
resented  by  the  Ramcaritmanas  of  Tulasidasa, 
the  greatest  of  modern  Hindu  poets,  and  by  the 
Premsdgar  or  ocean  of  love,  an  erotic-religious 
poem  of  the  Vallabha  sect.  For  the  older  litera¬ 
ture,  see  the  article  Vishnu. 

It  remains  only  to  be  said  of  the  Vaishnavas 
that  some  of  the  subsects  worship  almost  ex¬ 
clusively  the  female  side  of  Vishnu,  in  the  form 
of  his  wife,  Lakshmi  ( q.v. ) ,  or  in  that  of  Sita, 
the  wife  of  Rama.  The  Vaishnavas  have  several 
famous  festivals,  the  chief  being  that  of  the 
Rath  Ydha  in  Bengal,  in  which  an  image  of  the 
god  is  carried  in  a  procession,  the  Janmastami 
or  birthday  festival  of  the  Child  Krishna  at 
Benares,  and  the  Rds  Ydha  or  dance  festival, 
commemorating  the  dancing  of  Krishna  with 
the  Gopis,  his  mistresses.  The  general  sign  of 
all  Vaishnavas  consists  of  two  perpendicular 
marks  on  the  forehead.  They  revere  as  symbols 
the  Tulasi  plant  and  the  salagrama  stone,  a 


white  pebble;  the  veneration  for  this  latter  as  a 
symbol,  however,  is  of  recent  origin.  See 
Hinduism. 

Bibliography.  Wilson,  Sketch  of  the  Reli¬ 
gious  Sects  of  Hindus  (ed.  by  Rost,  London, 
1862)  ;  Williams,  Brahmanism  and  Hinduism 
(3d  ed.,  ib.,  1887);  Barth,  Religions  of  India 
(ib.,  1881)  ;  E.  W.  Hopkins,, Religions  of  India 
(Boston,  1895);  Winternitz,  Geschichte  der  in- 
dischen  Litteratur  (Leipzig,  1908  et  seq. )  ; 
Bhandarkar,  Yaisnavism,  Saivism,  and  Minor 
Religious  Systems  (Strassburg,  1913)  ;  L.  D. 
Barnett,  Antiquities  of  India  (London,  1913)  ; 
Moore,  History  of  Religions  (New  York,  1913)  ; 
Noble  and  Coomaraswamy,  Myths  of  the  Hindus 
and  Buddhists  (ib.,  1914).  Of  later  works  may 
be  mentioned  the  Bhdshdpariccheda,  edited  and 
translated  by  Roer  (Calcutta,  1850),  and  the 
Tarkasahgraha,  edited  and  translated  by  Bal- 
lantyne  (2d  ed.,  Calcutta,  1848)  ;  edited  by 
Vidyasagara  (ib.,  1897),  and  by  Athalya  (Bom¬ 
bay,  1897).  Consult:  Gough,  The  Vaiseshika 
Aphorisms  of  Kdndda,  translated  (Benares, 
1873);  Windisch,  JJeber  das  Nydya-hhdshya 
(Leipzig,  1886)  ;  R.  Garbe,  The  Philosophy  of 
Ancient  India  (2d  ed.,  Chicago,  1899)  ;  Muller, 
Six  Systems  of  Indian  Philosophy  (New  York, 
1899)  ;  Macdonell,  History  of  Sanskrit  Litera¬ 
ture  (London,  1913). 

VAL,  Francois  du.  See  Fontenay-Mareuil. 

VALAAM,  va-liim'  (Finnish  V  alamo).  A 
small,  wooded  island  (12  square  miles  in  area) 
in  the  northern  part  of  Lake  Ladoga  (q.v.)  in 
Finland,  Russia  (Map:  Russia,  D  2).  It  is  very 
picturesque  and  surrounded  by  40  smaller  is¬ 
lands.  On  its  south  end  is  the  famous  Valaam 
Monastery  of  the  Transfiguration  which  attracts 
numerous  pilgrims. 

VALAIS,  va'la'  (Ger.  Wallis).  A  canton  of 
south  Switzerland  ( Map :  Switzerland,  B  2 ) . 
Area,  2027  square  miles.  It  consists  of  the  val¬ 
ley  of  the  Rhone  and  a  number  of  lateral  valleys 
along  its  tributaries,  inclosed  by  the  Bernese 
Alps  on  the  north  and  the  Valais  Alps  on  the 
south.  Valais  abounds  in  glaciers  which  occupy 
about  one-fifth  of  its  area.  The  highest  point 
is  the  Dufour  Peak  on  Monte  Rosa,  15,217  feet. 
Valais  contains  many  kinds  of  minerals,  prin¬ 
cipally  lead,  gold,  iron,  anthracite,  marble,  and 
limestone.  Most  of  these  minerals  are  worked. 
The  canton  is  chiefly  pastoral,  vineyards  and 
orchards  being  found  only  in  the  deep  valleys. 
The  wines  of  Valais  are  well  known.  The  chief 
manufactures  of  the  canton  are  soap,  glass, 
sugar,  and  dynamite.  The  constitution  of 
Valais  provides  for  a  legislative  assembly  ( Grand 
Conseil)  elected  directly  at  the  rate  of  one  mem¬ 
ber  for  every  1000  inhabitants.  The  capital  is 
Sion  (q.v.).  Pop.,  1910,  129,579;  almost  entirely 
Roman  Catholic.  The  French-speaking  inhab¬ 
itants,  who  form  about  two-thirds  of  the  popu¬ 
lation,  inhabit  the  western  part  of  the  canton 
and  the  German-speaking  the  eastern. 

The  valley  of  the  upper  Rhone,  the  Vallis 
Pocnina  of  the  Romans,  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans  in  57  b.c.,  and  later  incorporated  with 
Rhaetia.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  Roman  Em¬ 
pire  the  region  was  occupied  by  the  Burgun¬ 
dians,  whose  rule  was  supplanted  by  that  of  the 
Franks.  After  the  disruption  of  the  Frankish 
realm,  at  the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  it  formed 
part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Trans jurane  Burgundy 
and  then  of  the  Kingdom  of  Arles.  Later  the 
bishops  of  Sion  and  the  counts  of  Savoy  held 
sway  in  western  or  Lower  Valais,  contending 


VALCKENAER 


VALDIVIA 


849 


with  each  other  for  dominion,  while  Upper 
Valais  was  colonized  by  Germans,  who  founded 
a  number  of  independent  communities  or  tith- 
ings.  Finally,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  Upper 
Valais,  after  joining  the  Swiss  Confederation, 
secured  control  of  Lower  Valais,  which  was  ruled 
as  a  subject  territory.  In  1798  the  whole  region 
became  part  of  the  Helvetic  Republic.  In  1802 
Valais  was  made  an  independent  republic  by 
Napoleon,  who  annexed  it  in  1810  to  France  as 
the  Department  of  Simplon.  It  was  freed  in 
1814,  and  in  1815  was  constituted  a  canton  of 
the  Swiss  Confederation.  It  took  part  in  the 
League  of  Sarnen  as  well  as  in  the  Sonderbund. 

VALCKENAER,  val'ke-nar,  Lodewijk  Kas- 
par  (1715-85).  An  eminent  Dutch  classical 
scholar,  born  at  Leeuwarden,  and  educated  at 
Franeker  and  Lejalen.  In  1741  he  became  pro¬ 
fessor  of  Greek  at  Franeker,  and  25  years  later 
was  called  to  Leyden.  He  is  known  for  his  edi¬ 
tions  of  Euripides’  Plioenissce  (4th  ed.,  2  vols., 
1824)  and  the  llippolytus  of  Euripides,  which 
contained  the  famous  Diatribe  in  Euripidis  Per- 
ditarum  Fabularum  Fragmenta  (1768).  He 
also  edited  Homer’s  Iliad  with  Scholia  (1747), 
Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus  (1781).  His 
greatest  work,  however,  was  his  Diatribe  de 
Aristobulo,  first  published  posthumously  by  Lu- 
zac  (1806),  in  which  he  exposed  the  literary 
forgeries  of  the  Alexandrians.  His  Opuscula 
Critica,  etc.,  were  published  in  2  vols.  (1801). 
Consult:  L.  Muller,  Geschichte  der  Jclassischen 
Philologie  in  den  Niederlanden  (Leipzig,  1869)  ; 
Bergmann,  Memoria  Valclcenarii  (Utrecht, 
1874)  ;  J.  E.  Sandys,  A  History  of  Classical 
Scholarship,  vol.  ii  (Cambridge,  1908). 

VALDAI  (val-di')  HILLS.  A  ’.ow  plateau 
or  group  of  hills  in  west  central  Russ. a,  occupy¬ 
ing  the  southwestern  parts  of  the  governments 
of  Novgorod,  and  Tver,  midway  between  St. 
Petersburg  and  Moscow  (Map:  Russia,  D  3). 
They  form  the  culminating  portion  of  the  broad 
elevation  running  through  central  Russia,  and 
rise  very  gradually  from  the  surrounding  plain. 
They  are  dissected  by  numerous  narrow  valleys 
containing  a  number  of  lakes.  The  hills  rise 
to  the  maximum  height  of  1150  feet  above  the 
sea.  They  were  formerly  forested,  but  are  now 
mostly  cleared  and  cultivated.  In  the  plateau 
rise  the  Volga  and  its  branches  which  flow  east 
and  south  to  the  Caspian,  the  Dnieper  and  the 
Don  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  others  northwest 
to  the  Baltic. 

VALDE GAMAS,  val'da-ga'mas,  Marques  de. 
See  Donoso-Cortes. 

VAL-DE-GRACE,  val'-de-gras'.  A  former 
Benedictine  nunnery  in  Paris,  founded  by  Anne 
of  Austria,  and  changed  into  a  military  prison 
in  1790.  The  dome  of  the  church,  dating  from 
1645,  is  modeled  on  that  of  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome. 
The  church  was  the  place  of  burial  of  the  French 
royal  family  and  the  Orleans  princes,  and  con¬ 
tains  the  tomb  of  Henrietta,  wife  of  Charles  I 
of  England. 

VAL-DE-GRACE,  Jean  Baptiste  du.  See 
Cloots,  Baron. 

VAL  DEL  BQVE,  val  del  borva.  A  crater 
of  the  volcano  of  Etna  (q.v.). 

VALDEPENAS,  viil'da-pan'yas.  A  town  of 
the  Province  of  Ciudad  Real,  Spain,  115  miles 
south  of  Madrid,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Jabalon  River  (Map:  Spain,  D  3).  It  is  on 
the  highway  to  Andalucla.  It  has  manufactures 
of  spirits,  flour,  and  cooperage  ware;  but  its 
reputation  rest.?:  mainly  upon  its  celebrated  red 


wine.  There  are  chalybeate  springs  in  the  vicin¬ 
ity.  Municipal  pop.,  1900,  20,688;  1910,  23,580. 
The  town  made  an  heroic  defense  against  the 
French  in  1808. 

VALDER,  Josis  Lucio.  See  Bomfim,  Count. 

VALDES,  val-das',  Armando  Palacio.  See 
Palacio  Valdes. 

VALDES,  Juan  de  (c. 1500— 41).  A  Spanish- 
Italian  theologian  and  reformer.  He  was  born  at 
Cuenca,  in  Castile,  imbibed  some  of  the  ideas  of 
the  Reformation  in  Germany,  and  in  1528  wrote 
a  treatise,  Didlogo  de  Mercurio  y  Caron,  criti¬ 
cizing  the  Church  in  such  manner  that  the  In¬ 
quisition  made  Spain  uncomfortable  for  him. 
He  went  to  Naples  in  1530,  spent  some  time  in 
Rome  and  Bologna,  and  in  1533  returned  to 
Kaples,  where  he  resided  until  his  death.  He 
devoted  himself  to  study  and  literature  and 
gathered  round  him  a  choice  circle,  including 
Peter  Martyr  and  Vittoria  Colonna.  He  was  an 
advocate  of  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  justifica¬ 
tion  by  faith,  but  remained  a  Catholic.  His 
Didlogo  de  la  lengua  (Naples,  1533)  is  the 
earliest  philological  treatise  we  have  in  Spain. 
His  works  earn  him  high  rank  among  Spanish 
writers. 

Consult:  B.  B.  Wiffen,  Life  and  Writings  of 
Juan  de  Valdes,  loith  a  translation  from  the 
Italian  of  his  Hundred  and  Ten  Considerations, 
by  John  T.  Betts  (London,  1865);  Edward 
Boehmer,  Spanish  Reformers  of  Two  Centuries 
(1874)  ;  id.,  Lives  of  Juan  and  Alphonso  de 
Valdes  (1882);  Marcelino  Menendez  y  Pelayo, 
Los  Heterodoxos  Espaholes  (Madrid,  1880)  and 
in  his  Obras  completas,  vol.  i  ss.  (Madrid,  1911, 
etc.). 

VALDES,  Juan  Melendez.  See  Melendez 
Valdes,  Juan. 

VAL'DEZ.  An  incorporated  city  on  a  north¬ 
ern  arm  of  Prince  William  Sound,  Alaska,  the 
most  northerly  port  that  is  open  throughout  the 
winter  (Map:  Alaska,  K  5).  The  great  interior 
Alaskan  mail  route  lies  over  the  wagon  road 
from  Valdez  to  Fairbanks,  where  passengers 
and  mail  are  carried  by  stage  in  summer  and 
on  sleds  in  winter.  The  junction  of  the  cables 
and  land  lines  is  made  at  Valdez,  of  the  United 
States  Signal  Corps  telegraph  system  of  over 
4000  miles.  The  city  has  churches,  schools,  and 
a  telephone  system.  Pop.  (1915),  about  1200. 

VALDEZ,  Pierre.  See  Waldenses. 

VAL  D’  ISPICA.  See  Ispica,  Val  d’. 

VALDIVIA,  val-de've-a.  A  province  of  South 
Chile,  bounded  by  Llanquihue  on  the  south, 
Cautin  on  the  north,  Argentina  on  the  east, 
and  the  Pacific  on  the  west  (Map:  Chile,  E  5). 
Area,  8352  square  miles.  The  larger  part  of  the 
surface  is  level  and  only  the  portion  adjoining 
the  Andes  and  the  coast  land  are  mountainous. 
The  climate  is  moist  and  healthful  and  the  soil 
is  fertile.  Forests  are  abundant  in  the  moun¬ 
tainous  regions,  and  timber  is  one  of  the  most 
important  products  of  the  province.  The  chief 
occupations  are  lumbering,  agriculture,  and 
grazing.  Pop.,  1903,  78,073;  1912,  141,298,  in¬ 
cluding  a  large  German  element.  Capital, 
Valdivia. 

VALDIVIA,  Pedro  de  (c.  1497-1554) .  The 
Spanish  conqueror  of  Chile.  He  was  born  at 
Serena,  in  Estremadura,  and  served  in  the  Span¬ 
ish  armies  in  the  Italian  wars,  being  present  at 
the  capture  of  Milan  and  the  battle  of  Pavia 
(1525).  He  went  to  the  New  World  and  in 
Mexico  joined  Cortes,  by  whom  he  was  sent  to 


VALDOSTA 


VALENCIA 


850 


Peru  when  Pizarro  asked  for  help  against  the 
Inca  insurrection  in  1535.  His  brilliant  conduct 
in  the  battle  of  Salinas  led  to  his  selection  to 
prosecute  the  conquest  of  Chile.  In  March,  1540, 
he  started  south  with  150  men.  Early  in  1541 
he  laid  the  foundations  of  the  city  of  Santiago, 
and  for  six  years  he  successfully  combined  the 
establishment  of  settlements  in  the  country  with 
the  operations  against  the  Indian  armies.  In 
December,  1547,  he  returned  to  Peru,  where  lie 
rendered  important  service  on  the  royal  side 
in  the  contest  with  Gonzalo  Pizarro.  As  soon 
as  this  rebellion  was  ended  on  the  plain  of 
Sacsahuana,  Valdivia  hastened  back  to  Chile, 
in  January,  1549,  to  renew  the  war  against 
the  Araucanian  Indians.  He  met  with  repeated 
successes,  but  was  unable  to  stamp  out  the  guer¬ 
rilla  bands,  which  united  in  a  fierce  attack  on 
the  Spanish  fort  at  Tucapel  in  December,  1553. 
Valdivia  hastened  to  its  relief,  and  had  all  but 
dispersed  the  Araucanians,  when  the  latter  were 
suddenly  rallied  by  a  young  native  page  of 
Valdivia,  named  La  u  taro,  who  deserted  his  mas¬ 
ter  at  the  critical  moment,  called  upon  his  coun¬ 
trymen  to  renew  their  attack,  and  annihilated 
the  Spaniards  (Jan.  1,  1554).  Valdivia  was 
captured  and  killed,  despite  the  efforts  of  Lau¬ 
taro  to  save  his  life.  Consult  Coleccion  de  docu¬ 
ment  os  inedit  os  para  In  historia  de  Chile  .  .  . 
publicados  por  J.  T.  Medina:  Valdivia  y  sus 
compaheros  (6  vols.,  Santiago  de  Chile,  1896— 
97). 

VALDOS'TA.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Lowndes  Co.,  Ga.,  156  miles  southwest  of  Savan¬ 
nah,  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line,  the  Georgia 
and  Florida,  the  Valdosta,  Moultrie,  and  West¬ 
ern,  and  the  Georgia  Southern  and  Florida  rail¬ 
roads  (Map:  Georgia,  C  5).  It  is  the  shipping 
centre  of  a  region  engaged  in  cotton  and  fruit 
growing  and  farming,  and  manufactures  cloth, 
lumber  products,  fertilizers,  buggies,  cottonseed 
oil,  foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  and 
naval  stores.  Noteworthy  features  are  the  South 
Georgia  Normal  College,  the  high  schools,  the 
Federal  building,  and  the  Carnegie  library.  Val¬ 
dosta  was  settled  in  1859,  and  was  incorporated  in 
1860.  Pop.,  1900,  5613;  1910,  7656;  1920,  10,783. 

VA'LENCE.  See  Valency. 

VALENCE,  va'laNs'.  The  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Drome,  France,  66  miles  by  rail 
south  of  Lyons,  crowning  a  hill  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhone,  below'  the  confluence  of  the  Isere 
(Map:  France,  S.,  K  4).  The  cathedral  of  St. 
Appolinaire,  in  the  odd  Auvergnat-Romanesque 
style,  consecrated  in  1095,  contains  an  apse  with 
colonnade.  The  Maison  des  Tgtes  (sixteenth 
century),  with  its  beautifully  decorated  window's 
and  its  front  sculptured  with  heads  of  Homer, 
Aristotle,  Pythagoras,  and  Hippocrates,  and  the 
fine  paintings  of  the  church  of  St.  Jean  Bap¬ 
tiste  are  worthy  of  mention.  There  is  a  fine 
suspension  bridge  over  the  Rhone.  Across  the 
river  lie  the  interesting  ruins  of  the  Crussol, 
a  twelfth-century  castle.  The  printing  of  linen 
and  cotton  fabrics,  the  manufacture  of  flour  and 
tinned  foods,  and  agriculture  are  important  in¬ 
dustries.  The  vineyards  are  of  great  extent. 
Pop.,  1901,  26,946 ;  1911,  28,706.  Valence  is 
the  Valencia  of  the  Romans. 

VALEN'CIA,  Span.  pron.  va-lan'the-a.  The 
name  of  a  former  kingdom  of  Spain,  comprising 
the  present  provinces  of  Valencia,  Alicante,  and 
Castellon  de  la  Plana.  The  region  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Aragon  and  Cataluna,  on  the  east 
by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  south  by  Murcia, 


and  on  the  west  by  Murcia,  New'  Castile,  and 
Aragon.  Area,  8830  square  miles.  The  surface 
is  of  a  broken  mountainous  character,  with  some 
small  plains  scattered  along  the  coast  and  in 
the  uplands  of  the  south w'est.  The  plains  bor¬ 
dering  the  Mediterranean  abound  in  lagoons, 
from  many  of  which  salt  is  derived  in  large 
quantities.  There  are  few  good  harbors.  The 
most  important  rivers  are  the  Segura,  Guada- 
laviar  (or  Turia),  Jucar,  and  Mijares.  The 
rainfall  varies  greatly,  and  the  cold  north  winds 
and  the  hot  southw'est  w'inds  are  very  dry.  The 
temperature  varies  from  the  extreme  summer 
heat  of  the  lower  coast  plains  and  valleys  to  the 
extreme  w'inter  cold  of  the  inland  mountain 
regions.  With  this  variation  in  temperature  and 
rainfall  there  is  a  wide  variety  of  agricultural 
products.  Wheat  and  other  cereals  are  grown  in 
fairly  large  quantities,  but  their  yield  is  sur¬ 
passed  by  that  of  the  vine,  rice,  sugar,  and 
fruits,  among  which  the  exports  of  oranges  and 
figs  have  the  lead.  The  stock-raising  interests 
of  the  section,  chiefly  sheep  and  goats,  are  im¬ 
portant.  The  mining  industry  is  not  very  large, 
lignite,  iron,  lead,  and  zinc  being  produced  in 
small  quantities.  In  manufactures  Valencia 
ranks  next  to  Cataluna  and  has  extensive  tex¬ 
tile  establishments,  iron  and  copper  foundries, 
distilleries,  sugar  mills,  and  potteries.  The 
fisheries  and  the  curing  of  salt  fish  also  employ 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  population.  The 
inhabitants,  who  preserve  many  traits  of  the 
Moorish  admixture,  in  1900  numbered  1,587,533, 
and  in  1913,  1,727,759.  Upon  the  dissolution 
of  the  Caliphate  of  Cordoba  in  the  early  part 
of  the  eleventh  century,  Valencia  became  an 
independent  kingdom.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
century  it  passed  under  the  rule  of  the  Almo- 
ravides,  who  were  supplanted  three  years  later 
(1095)  by  the  Cid,  whose  death  (1099)  soon 
forced  hisVidow  again  to  give  way  to  the  Moors. 
In  1238  the  city  of  Valencia  was  taken  by 
James  I  of  Aragon,  who  soon  became  master 
of  the  region. 

VALENCIA.  A  Mediterranean  seaport  of 
Spain,  capital  of  the  Province  of  Valencia,  185 
miles  east-southeast  of  Madrid,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Guadalaviar,  2  y2  miles  from  its  mouth 
(Map:  Spain,  E  3).  As  the  capital  of  the 
former  Kingdom  of  Valencia  it  retains  many 
traces  of  Moorish  occupancy.  The  surrounding 
huerta.  resembles  a  vast  shady  orchard  and  bears 
magnificent  groves  of  citron,  orange,  and  mul¬ 
berry.  The  city  itself  is  picturesque  in  the 
crow'ded,  narrow,  and  winding  streets  of  the 
older  portion  and  charming  in  the  broader 
streets  and  luxuriant  plazas  and  paseos  of  the 
newer  part.  Its  climate  is  mild  and  very  dry. 
The  public  buildings  are  numerous  and  interest¬ 
ing  architecturally  and  because  of  their  histori¬ 
cal  significance.  Among  the  important  churches 
the  Cathedral  La  Seo,  with  its  splendid  octag¬ 
onal  tow'er  El  Miguelete,  occupies  first  place. 
This  structure  w'as  begun  in  1262  and  completed 
in  1482.  Before  the  Puerta  de  los  Apostoles  of 
the  cathedral  there  meets  every  Thursday  the 
Tribunal  de  las  Aguas,  which  is  the  oldest  tri¬ 
bunal  in  Spain  and  controls  the  distribution  of 
the  irrigation  w'ater.  The  church  of  San  Andres 
contains  some  beautiful  frescoes  and  paintings 
of  Juanes,  Ribalta,  and  Vergara.  The  former 
Convento  del  Chrmen  is  now  utilized  for  the 
Provincial  Museum  of  Paintings,  with  a  very 
complete  collection  representing  the  Valencian 
school  and  some  notable  foreign  w'orks.  La 


VALENCIA 


VALENCY 


Lonja  (the  silk  exchange),  the  centre  of  the 
commercial  life  of  the  city,  is  a  beautiful  Gothic 
structure,  built  on  the  site  of  the  Moorish 
Alcfizar.  The  Aduana,  a  superb  structure 
erected  for  a  customhouse  by  Charles  IV,  is 
now  occupied  as  a  tobacco  factory,  employing 
4000  operatives.  The  provincial  hospital,  housed 
in  a  fifteenth-century  structure,  accommodates 
G000  patients  annually.  The  ornamental  Plaza 
de  Toros,  or  bull  ring,  reputed  the  best  in  Spain, 
seats  17,000  spectators.  The  Plaza  del  Mercado 
is  the  largest  of  the  public  squares  of  the  city; 
others  of  note  are  the  Plaza  del  Principe  Al¬ 
fonso,.  the  Plaza  de  Tetuan,  the  site  of  the  old 
citadel,  and  the  Plaza  de  la  Reina,  a  busy  shop¬ 
ping  and  cafe  centre.  The  harbor  of  Valencia 
(El  Grao)  is  one  of  the  most  secure  on  the  Medi¬ 
terranean  coast.  The  chief  exports  are  rice, 
melons,  oranges,  and  other  fruits,  green  and 
dried,  wines,  silks,  raw  and  spun,  and  an  excel¬ 
lent  quality  of  olive  oil.  The  industries  of  the 
city  include  tobacco  manufacturing,  silk  spin¬ 
ning,  and  hemp  and  linen  weaving.  There  are 
also  manufactures  of  velvet,  hat  plush,  felt, 
gloves,  fans  (a  special  product),  iron  and  bronze 
ware,  leather  goods,  and  especially  the  glazed 
pottery  ware  and  the  glazed  bricks  known  as 
azulejos,  for  which  there  are  more  than  20 
establishments  in  the  environs  of  the  city.  The 
agricultural  industries  of  the  vicinity  are  also 
important.  Valencia  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the 
foremost  universities  of  Spain.  (See  Valencia, 
University  of.)  The  population,  illustrating 
in  character  and  physical  traits  the  early  Moor¬ 
ish  admixture,  numbered,  in  1900,  213,550;  in 
1910,  233,348:  Valencia  first  appears  in  history 
in  138  b.c.,  when  it  was  given  the  Jus  Latinum. 
It  was  destroyed  by  Pompey,  captured  by  the 
Visigoths  in  413,  and  by  the  Moors  in  714.  In 
1021  it  became  the  capital  of  an  independent 
Moorish  kingdom.  In  1095  it  was  captured  by 
the  Cid,  but  the  Moors  subsequently  assumed 
control,  until  its  final  capture  by  James  I  of 
Aragon  in  1238.  The  expulsion  of' the  Moriscoes 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
greatly  crippled  its  prosperity,  and  by  espous¬ 
ing  the  Austrian  side  during  the  War  of  Spanish 
Succession  it  lost  many  of  its  ancient  privileges. 
In  1812  it  was  captured  by  Suchet  and  remained 
in  the  possession  of  the  French  until  the  follow¬ 
ing  year. 

VALENCIA.  See  Valenti  a. 

VALENCIA.  The  capital  of  the  State  of 
Carabobo,  Venezuela,  situated  24  miles  south  of 
Puerto  Cabello,  with  which  it  has  railway  con¬ 
nection,  near  the  western  end  of  Lake  Valencia 
or  Tacarigua  (Map:  Venezuela,  D  1).  Valencia 
is  well  constructed  with  broad  streets,  well-kept 
plazas,  a  beautiful  market  and  alameda.  It  con¬ 
tains  a  notable  cathedral  erected  during  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  city  is 
on  the  banks  of  the  Aragua  River.  The  chief 
exports  are  coffee,  sugar,  cacao,  and  hides.  Pop. 
(est. ),  27,538.  Valencia  was  founded  in  1555. 
During  the  struggle  for  independence  it  was  the 
scene  of  battles  fought  by  Bolivar  in  1814  and 
1821,  the  latter  of  which  gained  the  freedom 
of  Venezuela  from  Spain.  On  account  of  the 
various  sieges  from  1810  to  1821  and  the  great 
earthquake  of  1812,  there  are  many  ruins  in 
the  vicinity. 

VALENCIA,  Duke  of.  See  Narvaez,  R.  M. 
VALENCIA,  University  of.  A  Spanish 
university,  founded  by  the  union  (1411)  of  an 
episcopal  foundation  for  theology  (1345)  and  a 


municipal  school  of  arts,  medicine,  and  civil  and 
canon  law  (established  shortly  after ) .  A  papal 
bull  confirmed  the  union  about  1500.  Several 
colleges  were  founded  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  period  of  the  greatest  prosperity  of  the  in¬ 
stitution.  From  that  century  it  sank  in  num¬ 
bers  and  reputation.  It  was  reorganized  in  the 
decade  1848-58,  and  has  since  grown  to  be  one 
of  the  leading  universities  in  the  Kingdom,  with 
faculties  of  philosophy,  law,  natural  science, 
and  medicine,  and  in  1913  some  1700  students. 

VALENCIENNES,  va/laN'syen'.  The  capital 
of  an  arrondissement  in  the  Department  of 
Xord,  France,  and  a  fortress  of  the  second  class, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Rhondelle  and  the  Scheldt, 
30  miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Lille  (Map: 
France,  N.,  J  2).  Broad  boulevards  are  laid 
out  on  the  site  of  the  old  fortifications,  which 
were  demolished  in  1892.  There  are  many  houses 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  which  give  the  streets 
a  mediaeval  appearance.  The  handsome  Hotel 
de  Ville,  pure  seventeenth  century  except  the 
facade,  contains  a  large  collection  of  paintings, 
especially  of  the  Flemish  school  (including 
splendid  specimens  of  Rubens),  and  a  collection 
of  sculptures.  The  Gothic  church  of  Saint-Gery, 
dating  from  the  thirteenth  century,  with  a  mod¬ 
ern  tower,  and  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  du 
Saint-Cordon,  a  modern  structure  in  thirteenth - 
century  style,  with  beautiful  stained-glass  win¬ 
dows  by  Leveque,  are  worthy  of  notice.  In  the 
old  Jesuit  College  is  the  municipal  library  of 
more  than  25,000  volumes,  containing  much  val¬ 
uable  Romance  literature.  There  are  an  academy 
for  sculpture  and  painting,  a  museum  of  natural 
history,  an  immense  hospital,  a  lyc§e,  and  an 
arsenal.  The  famous  Valenciennes  lace  is  no 
longer  manufactured.  The  extensive  coal  fields 
amid  which  Valenciennes  lies  have  made  it  a 
metallurgical  centre.  Glass,  sugar  (from  beets), 
chemicals,  cambrics,  and  lawns  are  also  manu¬ 
factured.  Chicory  coffee  is  shipped  in  large 
quantities.  Pop.,  1911,  34,766.  Valenciennes  is 
the  Roman  Valentiana.  It  came  to  France  by 
the  Treaty  of  Nimeguen  in  1678.  It  was  taken 
by  the  Germans  in  August,  1914.  See  War  in 
Europe. 

VALENCIENNES.  See  Lace. 
VALENCIENNES,  Aciiille  (1794-1865). 

A  French  zoologist,  born  in  Paris  and  educated 
there.  In  1836  he  became  professor  of  ichthy¬ 
ology  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  He 
collaborated  with  Cuvier  in  preparing  Histoire 
naturelle  des  poissons  (11  vols.,  1829-49),  the 
last  five  volumes  being  written  solely  by  Valen¬ 
ciennes.  Valenciennes  wrote  Histoire  naturelle 
des  mollusques,  des  ann4lides  et  des  zoophytes 
(1833). 

VA'LENCY  (Lat.  valentia,  strength,  from 
valere,  to  be  strong,  able;  connected  with  OIr. 
flaith,  power,  Lith.  galeti,  to  be  able,  Goth. 
waldan,  OHG.  waltan,  Ger.  walten,  AS.  icealdan, 
Eng.  wield),  Valence,  or  Atomicity.  In  chem¬ 
istry,  the  combining  capacity  of  an  atom,  with 
reference  to  the  number  of  other  atoms  with 
which  it  can  be  directly  combined.  The  con¬ 
ception  of  valency  is  an  offspring  of  the  atomic 
and  molecular  theories.  These  theories  led  to  a  , 
knowledge  of  the  numbers  of  different  atoms 
making  up  the  molecules  of  compounds;  but  as  in 
many  cases  very  different  compounds  were  found 
to  have  the  same  composition  and  the  same 
molecular  weight,  it  became  clear  that  differ¬ 
ences  in  the  chemical  and  physical  properties 
of  compounds  must  often  be  caused  by  differ- 


VALENCY 


VALENCY 


852 


ences  in  the  manner  of  combination  of  their 
atoms.  Those  differences  of  combination  had  to 
be  investigated,  and  thus  arose  the  question,  In 
what  manner  does  affinity  act  in  holding  together 
the  atoms  of  compounds?  In  considering  various 
compounds  with  a  view  to  obtaining  some  light 
on  this  question,  chemists  were  gradually  led 
to  a  series  of  assumptions,  the  incorporation 
of  which  in  atomic  chemistry  has  proved  ex¬ 
ceedingly  fruitful. 

First *  of  all  it  was  observed  that,  in  com¬ 
pounds  of  hydrogen  with  some  one  other  element, 
one  atom  of  hydrogen  can  hold  in  combination 
only  one  atom"  of  the  other  element;  this  was 
shown  by  such  compounds  as  hydrochloric  acid 
(HC1),  hydrobromic  acid  (HBr),  hydriodic  acid 
(HI),  etc.,  and  the  fact  was  expressed  by  say¬ 
ing  that  hydrogen  is  univalent  or  monad.  The 
valencies  of  certain  other  elements  were  then 
found  by  considering  their  compounds  with 
hydrogen,  on  the  principle  that  by  every  unit 
of  their  combining  capacities  the  atoms  of  those 
elements  can  hold  one  atom  of  hydrogen;  for 
hydrogen  itself  is  univalent,  i.e.,  has  unit-com¬ 
bining  capacity.  From  the  compounds  already 
mentioned  it  may  be  seen  that  the  atoms  of 
chlorine,  bromine,  and  iodine  are,  like  hydrogen, 
univalent;  for  each  atom  of  these  elements  can 
be  combined  with  only  one  atom  of  hydrogen. 
Similarly,  compounds  like  water  (OH2),  sul- 
phureted  hydrogen  (SH2),  ammonia  (NH3),  and 
marsh  gas  (CH4)  show  that  oxygen  and  sulphur 
are  divalent,  that  nitrogen  is  trivalent,  and 
that  carbon  is  quadrivalent.  The  valencies 
peculiar  to  some  of  the  elements  being  thus 
established  by  an  inspection  of  their  compounds 
with  hydrogen,  the  valencies  of  the  other  ele¬ 
ments  can  be  found  by  studying  their  com¬ 
pounds  not  necessarily  with  hydrogen,  but  with 
any  element  of  known  valency.  Thus  compounds 
like  sodium  chloride  (NaCI),  potassium  chloride 
(KC1),  etc.,  show  that  the  atoms  of  sodium  and 
potassium  are  univalent;  for  they  can  hold  in 
combination  only  one  atom  of  another  univalent 
element.  The  same  thing  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  sodium  or  potassium  takes  the  place  of  one 
atom  of  hydrogen  in  acids,  e.g.,  in  hydrochloric 
acid: 

Na  +  HC1  =  NaCl  +  H 
K  +  HC1  =  KC1  +  H 

Evidently,  an  atom  of  sodium  or  potassium  is 
equivalent  to  an  atom  of  hydrogen,  and  as  the 
latter  is  univalent,  the  former,  too,  must  be  uni¬ 
valent.  Similarly,  an  atom  of  calcium  takes  the 
place  of  two  atoms  of  hydrogen: 

Ga  +  =  CaCl2  +  2H 

and  therefore  the  element  calcium,  or  rather  an 
atom  of  this  element,  is  considered  divalent. 

Thus  a  few  simple  compounds  and  a  few  simple 
reactions  led  to  a  knowledge  of  the  valencies 
peculiar  to  all  of  the  elements.  The  conception 
of  valency  has  proved  especially  useful  in  the 
domain  of  organic  chemistry,  i.e.,  the  chemistry 
of  the  compounds  of  carbon.  Our  modern  struc¬ 
tural  theory  is  based  entirely  on  the  assumption 
that  an  atom  of  carbon  is  invariably  quadriva¬ 
lent;  and  the  usefulness  of  the  structural  theory 
can  hardly  be  overestimated.  For  it  exhibits  in 
a  clear  and  simple  manner  the  relations  between 
similar  as  well  as  different  compounds,  and, 
above  all,  it  permits  of  determining  the  exact 
number  of  different  compounds  that  may  have 


the  same  composition  and  the  same  molecular 
weight,  and  thus  permits  of  foretelling  the  exis¬ 
tence  of  compounds  before  they  have  been  act¬ 
ually  obtained. 

Graphically  each  unit  of  combining  capacity 
of  an  atom  is  represented  by  a  dash  added  to  its 
symbol.  The  valencies  of  different  elements  are 
thus  denoted  as  follows: 


H —  Cl—  — O—  — N— 


etc. 


When  two  atoms  combine,  at  least  one  valency 
of  each  is  employed,  and  in  compounds  like  the 
following,  the  atoms  are  said  to  be  linked  to¬ 
gether  by  single  bonds,  each  bond  evidently  rep¬ 
resenting  two  valencies  or  affinities  (i.e.,  one 
unit-combining  capacity  of  each  of  the  combin¬ 
ing  atoms)  : 


H— Cl  H— O— H  H— N— H 

I 

H 

Hydrochloric  Water  Ammonia 


I 

H— C— H 

I 

H 

Marsh  gas 


The  graphic  representation  of  valency  suggests 
an  important  question,  viz. :  Are  the  valencies 
of  an  atom  forces  acting  only  in  certain  direc¬ 
tions,  or  do  they  act,  like  gravity,  in  all  direc¬ 
tions?  A  further  question  naturally  suggests 
itself  in  the  case  of  atoms  having  more  than  unit 
valency,  viz.:  Are  the  several  affinities  equal 
to  one  another  in  power?  To  answer  these  ques¬ 
tions  is  a  matter  not  of  idle  speculation,  but  of 
necessity  in  the  case — again — of  the  compounds 
of  carbon.  The  study  of  these  compounds  has 
led  chemists  to  make  the  following  assumptions: 

( 1 )  the  four  valencies  of  carbon  are  in  all  re¬ 
spects  equal;  (2)  they  act  in  four  different  di¬ 
rections,  which  are  perfectly  symmetrical  with 
respect  to  the  carbon  atom.  The  carbon  atom  is, 
viz.,  imagined  to  be  placed  at  the  centre  of  a 
regular  tetrahedron,  and  four  equal  forces  are 
assumed  to  act  in  the  directions  of  the  four 
vertices  of  the  tetrahedron.  A  further  assump¬ 
tion  that  thrusts  itself  upon  the  organic  chemist 
is  that  in  every  compound  capable  of  independ¬ 
ent  existence  all  the  valencies  of  the  constituent 
atoms  are  satisfied  by  combination,  and  that  no 
valency  is  free.  Without  these  working  assump¬ 
tions  organic  chemistry  can  make  no  progress. 
These  assumptions  made,  there  is  hardly  a  gen¬ 
eral  fact  that  remains  unaccounted  for.  The 
assumptions,  though  hypothetical  in  character, 
are  therefore  incorporated  as  principles  of 
science,  and  thus  in  connection  with  the  com¬ 
pounds  of  carbon  chemistry  answers  in  a  sense 
the  question  stated  at  the  beginning  of  this  ar¬ 
ticle,  viz. :  In  what  manner  does  affinity  act  in 
holding  together  the  atoms  of  compounds? 

In  the  case  of  other  elements  than  carbon,  the 
application  of  the  idea  of  valency  has  been  much 
less  useful  and  much  less  successful.  In  fact, 
the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  consistently  applying 
the  idea  to  the  several  elements  are  so  great  that 
the  idea  would  probably  have  been  abandoned 
long  ago,  were  it  not  for  its  great  usefulness  in 
the  case  of  carbon.  The  chief  obstacles  are  as 
follows:  First,  the  valencies  of  most  elements 
are  found  to*  be  variable  and  hence  unreliable 
as  a  basis  for  predicting  the  constitution  of  un¬ 
known  substances.  Thus,  while  in  ammonia 
(NH3)  the  atom  of  nitrogen  is  trivalent  (be¬ 
cause  combined  with  three  univalent  atoms  ot 
hydrogen),  in  nitric  oxide  (NO)  it  is  divalent 


VALENCY 


VALENS 


853 


(because  combined  with  one  divalent  atom  of 
oxygen),  and  in  ammonium  chloride  (NH4C1)  it 
is  pentavalent  (because  combined  with  five  uni¬ 
valent  atoms,  viz.,  four  hydrogens  and  one 
chlorine).  In  other  compounds  nitrogen  seems 
to  have  still  other  valencies.  Turning  to  iron, 
we  find  it  divalent  in  ferrous  chloride  (FeCL) 
and  trivalent  in  ferric  chloride  (FeCl3). 
Chlorine  is  univalent  when  combined  with  hydro¬ 
gen,  and  quinquivalent  when  combined  "with 
oxygen.  Sulphur  is  divalent  when  combined 
with  hydrogen,  and  hexavalent  when  combined 
with  oxygen.  Phosphorus  is  trivalent  when 
combined  with  hydrogen,  and  quinquivalent  when 
combined  with  oxygen.  Oxygen  is  divalent  in 
nearly  all  of  its  compounds;  yet  in  dimethyl 
ether  hydrochloride  oxygen  must  be  assumed  to 
be  quadrivalent.  Further,  it  has  been  stated 
above  that  the  atoms  of  hydrogen,  chlorine, 
iodine,  and  sodium  were  primarily  assumed  to 
be  univalent.  One  might  therefore  expect  that 
in  all  combinations  of  any  two  or  three  elements 
one  atom  of  one  would  combine  with  one,  and 
only  one  atom  of  the  other.  Yet  the  compound 
called  trichloride  of  iodine  has  the  formula  IC13. 
Is  iodine  trivalent  in  this  compound?  Another 
compound,  a  hydride  of  sodium,  appears  to  have 
the  formula  HNa^.  Is  hydrogen  in  this  compound 
divalent?  And  is,  therefore,  the  valency  even 
of  hydrogen  variable?  Again,  when  we  find  the 
molecule  of  hydrogen  gas  to  be  made  up  of  two 
hydrogen  atoms,  wTe  conclude  that  the  affinity  of 
each  of  these  atoms  is  satisfied  by  that  of  the 
other  atom.  But  the  molecules  of  certain  uni¬ 
valent  elements  (the  vapors  of  sodium,  potas¬ 
sium,  iodine,  at  high  temperatures,  etc.)  are 
known  to  be  made  up  each  of  a  single  atom.  Are 
the  affinities  of  these  single  atoms  free?  Or 
shall  we  accept  the  verdict  of  organic  chemistry, 
according  to  which  the  molecule  of  a  substance 
capable  of  independent  existence  can  contain  no 
free  affinities?  But  then  how  can  a  single  atom 
form  a  molecule? 

While  we  thus  search  in  vain  for  an  explana¬ 
tion  as  to  what  becomes  of  affinities  in  certain 
compounds,  we  find  that  other  compounds  seem 
to  involve  the  use  of  more  valencies  than  those 
possessed  by  the  constituent  atoms.  Examples 
of  such  compounds  are  presented  by  the  innum¬ 
erable  known  crystallohydrates,  like  NaCl. 
2FLO,  made  up  of  several  molecules  within  each 
of  which  all  the  available  valencies  should  be 
expected  to  be  satisfied.  Other  examples  of  this 
kind  are  presented  by  many  of  the  minerals 
found  in  nature.  Do  atoms,  then,  possess  addi¬ 
tional  valencies  which  sometimes  do  and  some¬ 
times  do  not  come  into  play? 

If,  with  all  these  unanswered  questions  in 
mind,  we  return  to  a  consideration  of  the  com¬ 
pounds  of  carbon — compounds  for  which  the 
valency  doctrine  has  rendered  its  best  services — 
we  find  that  really  here  also  the  assumption  of 
the  constancy  of  valence,  viz.,  of  the  constant 
quadrivalence  of  the  carbon  atom,  is  by  no  means 
generally  correct.  In  the  first  place  we  have 
the  classic  case  of  carbon  monoxide:  in  this  com¬ 
pound  (CO)  the  carbon  atom  appears  to  be 
divalent;  the  only  escape  from  this  conclusion 
is  by  way  of  assuming  that  the  oxygen  atom 
is  quadrivalent,  which  is  but  little  more  satis¬ 
factory  than  ascribing  an  exceptional  valency 
to  the  carbon.  In  another  compound,  fulminic 
acid  (HCNO),  the  carbon  atom  is  quite  cer¬ 
tainly  divalent.  But  the  most  striking  examples 
of  carbon  acting  with  a  valency  other  than  four 


are  presented  by  triphenyl-methyl  (first  pre¬ 
pared  by  Gomberg)  and  a  series  of  analogous 
substances  discovered  in  recent  years.  Tri¬ 
phenyl-methyl  is  methyl,  CH3,  in  which  the  thtee 
hydrogen  atoms  have  been  replaced  by  phenyl 
(C„H5)  groups.  But  triphenyl-methyl  is  not  a 
radicle;  it  is  a  compound  leading  an  independ¬ 
ent  existence;  therefore,  the  carbon  atom  to 
whicli  its  three  phenyl  groups  are  linked  is  in¬ 
dubitably  trivalent — as  much  so  as  it  would  be 
in  methyl  itself,  if  methyl  could  be  isolated  as  an 
independent  compound. 

In  view  of  such  facts,  and  notwithstanding 
the  great  services  rendered  by  the  old  working 
assumption  of  the  constant  quadrivalence  of 
carbon,  there  remains  to-day  no  justification  for 
thinking  of  valency  as  an  immutable  property  of 
the  atom ;  the  combining  capacity  of  an  atom,  of 
which  its  valency  is  a  measure,  must  be  recog¬ 
nized  as  capable  of  being  diminished  or  increased 
under  the  influence  of  the  other  atoms,  or  groups 
of  atoms,  with  which  the  given  atom  is  linked. 
And  recognizing  this,  we  may  well  expect  the 
birth  of  new  classes  of  compounds,  unknown  to 
the  older  organic  chemistry,  and  so  the  creation 
of  a  theory  of  such  compounds  becomes  a  mat¬ 
ter  of  possibly  the  greatest  practical  importance. 

This  explains  why  in  recent  years  so  much 
speculation  is  being  published  concerning  the 
ultimate  nature  of  valency.  A  sound  theory  of 
valency,  which  such  speculation  may  sooner  or 
later  introduce,  will  not  only,  as  our  purely 
formal  valency  doctrine  has  done,  guide  the 
chemist  to  the  preparation  of  new  compounds; 
it  will  answer  the  many  questions  which  chem¬ 
istry  is  now  compelled  to  ignore,  and  it  will 
give  us  the  much-needed  and  long-sought  insight 
into  the  constitutional  peculiarities  of  benzol 
and  its  innumerable,  and  in  many  cases,  im¬ 
mensely  valuable  derivatives.  Consult  J.  A.  N. 
Friend,  The  Theory  of  Valency  (New  York, 
1909).  See  Cakbon  Compounds;  Chemistry; 
Stereochemistry. 

VA'LENS  (c.328— 378  a.d.).  Roman  Emperor 
of  the  East  (364—378  a.d.).  He  was  the  brother 
of  Valentinian  I  (q.v.),  and  was  born  near 
Cibalis,  in  Pannonia.  He  was  associated  with 
his  brother  in  the  Imperial  authority,  receiving 
as  his  share  of  the  Roman  world  Asia,  Egypt, 
and  Thrace,  in  364.  His  sovereignty  was,  how¬ 
ever,  disputed  by  Procopius,  a  supposed  scion 
of  the  race  of  Constantine,  who  raised  his  stand¬ 
ard  in  Thrace,  was  crowned  at  Constantinople, 
and  for  two  years  maintained  his  ground  with 
skill  and  courage,  till  the  defeat  of  his  troops  at 
Thyatira  and  Nacolea,  followed  by  his  capture 
and  death  in  366.  The  first  prominent  act  of 
Valens’s  reign  was  a  reduction  of  25  per  cent 
in  the  taxes.  The  prolonged  imprisonment  of 
3000  Ostrogoths,  who  had  been  sent  to  aid  Proco¬ 
pius,  led  to  a  war  which  lasted  from  367  to  369. 
The  contest  was  carried  on  in  the  country  of  the 
Goths  and  was  throughout  in  favor  of  the  Ro¬ 
mans.  Difficulties  arose  immediately  afterward 
(370)  with  the  Persians,  who  sought  to  occupy 
Armenia,  although  war  was  not  declared  till  the 
end  of  372,  when  the  Romans  were  victorious. 
Valens,  who  had  removed  to  Antioch  at  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  war,  now  occupied  himself  with 
the  religious  quarrels  between  the  Arians  and 
the  orthodox  party,  which  at  that  time  raged 
with  much  violence  over  the  whole  Eastern  Em¬ 
pire.  Affairs  on  the  eastern  frontier  again  as¬ 
sumed  a  threatening  aspect;  but  the  Romans 
were  disinclined  any  longer  to  interfere  with  the 


VALENTA 


VALENTINIAN 


854 


designs  of  the  Persians  on  Armenia,  and  con¬ 
cluded  a  somewhat  discreditable  treaty  in  376. 
Meanwhile  the  Goths,  who  had  for  some  time 
been  peacefully  settled  in  Dacia,  were  assailed 
by  the  advancing  hordes  of  the  Huns.  The 
Ostrogoths,  who  first  felt  the  shock,  were  partly 
incorporated,  and  the  remainder  forced  to  re¬ 
treat;  the  Visigoths  next  attempted  to  stem  the 
torrent,  but  without  success,  and  crowds  of  fugi¬ 
tives  gathered  at  the  north  bank  of  the  Danube. 
Valens  accorded  permission  to  a  large  body  of 
Goths  under  Fritigern  to  cross  into  Moesia  and 
Thrace,  and  take  possession  of  the  waste  lands 
in  these  provinces;  the  fugitive  Ostrogoths  soon 
afterward  crossed  the  river  without  permission ; 
and  the  alarm  which  the  numbers  and  turbulence 
of  his  new  subjects  speedily  aroused  led  Valens 
to  the  adoption  of  such  impolitic  measures  that 
the  gratitude  of  the  Goths  for  shelter  afforded 
was  turned  to  bitter  resentment.  Valens  at  last 
resolved  on  war,  and  engaged  the  Goths  near 
Adrian'ople,  Aug.  9,  378.  His  army  was  totally 
routed,  and  two-thirds  of  it,  including  Valens 
himself  and  most  of  his  chief  officers,  were  left 
dead  on  the  field.  Consult  The  Cambridge 
Mediceval  History,  vol.  i  (New  York,  1911), 
and  Edward  Gibbon,  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  chaps,  xxv— xxvi  (ed.  of  J.  B. 
Bury,  London,  1912). 

VALENTA,  Eduard  (1857-  ).  An  Aus¬ 

trian  chemist,  born  in  Vienna,  where  he  was 
educated  at  the  Polytechnic  School  and  later 
became  professor  of  photochemistry  in  the 
Graphic  Educational  and  Experimental  Institu¬ 
tion.  He  received  many  honors.  His  numerous 
and  important  publications  include:  Klebe-  und 
Verdickungs-M ittel  (1884)  ;  Die  Photographie  in 
naturlichen  Farben  (1894);  Photo  graphische 
Chenvie  und  Chemdkalienkunde  (2  vols.,  1898— 
99 )  ;  Die  Rohstoffe  der  graphische  Druckgeioerbe 
(3  vols.,  1904-14)  ;  and  many  contributions  with 
Eder. 

VALENTIA,  va-len'shi-a,  or  VALENCIA. 

A  small  island  off  the  southwest  coast  of  Ire¬ 
land  noted  as  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  sub¬ 
marine  cables  between  Great  Britain  and  America 
(Map:  Ireland,  A  8). 

VALENTIA.  One  of  the  five  provinces  into 
which  Britain  was  divided  under  Diocletian, 
covering  the  portion  of  Scotland  south  of  the 
wall  of  Antoninus. 

VALENTIN,  va'len-ten,  Gabriel  Gustav 
(1820-83).  A  German  physiologist.  He  was 
born  and  educated  at  Breslau  (M.D.,  1832), 
where,  with  his  teacher  J.  E.  Purkinje  ( q.v. ) , 
he  discovered  ciliary  epithelial  motion.  While 
professor  of  physiology  at  Bern  (1836-81),  he 
discovered  the  nuclei  of  cells  (1836),  and  the 
diastatic  role  of  the  pancreatic  fluid  (1844),  and 
he  gave  to  medical  science  observations  on 
many  other  important  physiological  phenomena. 
He  wrote  on  the  effect  of  poisons  on  animal 
organism,  also  Lehrbuch  der  Physiologie  des 
Menschen  (1844;  2d  ed.,  1847-50),  and  Grundriss 
der  Physiologie  des  Menschen  (1846;  4th  ed., 
1854).  ‘ 

VAL'ENTINE.  The  name  of  several  saints 
and  martyrs  of  the  Christian  Church.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  on  February  14  is 
observed  the  day  of  seven  of  them,  and  the 
veneration  of  the  head  of  an  eighth.  These 
martyrs  had  lived  in  various  parts  of  the 
world — France,  Belgium,  Spain,  Africa — but  the 
two  greatest  were  a  priest  at  Pome  and  a  bishop 
in  Umbria,  both  of  whom  lived  in  the  third  cen¬ 


tury.  The  legends  which  have  been  preserved 
in  regard  to  them  have  little  historical  value. 
St.  Valentine’s  Day  is  more  famous,  however, 
as  a  lovers’  festival;  this  has  no  connection  with 
the  saints,  but  is  perhaps  the  survival  of  an  old 
festival,  of  a  similar  nature,  in  the  Roman 
Lupercalia.  It  was  observed  particularly  in 
England,  but  to  a  certain  extent  upon  the  Con¬ 
tinent,  too;  mention  of  it  is  found  as  early  as 
Chaucer.  The  custom  was  to  place  the  names 
.of  young  men  and  women  in  a  box,  and  draw 
them  out  in  pairs  on  St.  Valentine’s  eve.  Those 
whose  names  were  drawn  together  had  to  ex¬ 
change  presents  and  be  each  other’s  valentines 
throughout  the  ensuing  year.  Later  only  the 
men  made  presents. 

VALENTINE.  1.  A  character  in  Shake¬ 
speare’s  Two  Gentlemen,  of  Yetona,  one  of  the 
two  whose  humorous  adventures  give  the  play 
its  title,  2.  The  brother  of  Gretchen  in  Goethe’s 
Faust,  by  whom  he  is  killed  while  trying  to 
avenge  the  family  honor. 

VALENTINE.  A  sentimental  romance  by 
George  Sand  (1832). 

VALENTINE,  Basil.  The  pseudonym  under 
which  Johann  Tholde  published  in  1644  a  work 
entitled  Halographia.  For  the  origin  of  the 
name  see  Valentinus,  Basilius. 

VALENTINE  AND  OK/SON.  A  Carolingian 
romance,  written  in  the  second  half  of  the  fif¬ 
teenth  century  and  printed  at  Lyons  in  1495. 
It  narrates  the  history  of  twin  brothers,  sons 
of  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople.  Orson  grows 
up  as  a  savage  denizen  of  the  forest,  but 
Valentine  is  found  by  his  uncle,  King  Pepin, 
and  is  trained  at  the  palace  to  be  a  finished 
courtier.  In  1589  Hathaway  and  Munday  wrote 
a  play  founded  upon  the  story,  and  six  years 
later  an  interlude  bearing  the  same  title  was 
produced. 

VALENTINER,  va'lcn-te'ner,  Wilhelm 
(1880-  ).  A  German  art  historian  and 

critic  and  museum  official.  He  was  born  at 
Karlsruhe  (Baden),  and  studied  at  Heidelberg 
under  Thode,  and  in  Holland  with  De  Groot  and 
with  Bredius,  whose  assistant  he  was  at  the  Gal¬ 
lery  of  The  Hague.  In  1905  he  was  called  to  Berlin 
by  Wilhelm  Bode  (q.v.),  under  whom  he  worked 
at  the  Kaiser  Friedrich  Museum  and  Kunstge- 
werke  Museum.  In  1907  he  was  appointed 
curator  of  the  department  of  decorative  arts 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  (New  York), 
which  under  his  supervision  became  one  of 
the  foremost  in  the  world.  After  service  at 
the  front  in  the  European  War  he  was,  in  1916, 
attached  to  the  general  staff  at  Berlin.  Espe¬ 
cially  known  through  his  writings  on  Flemish 
and* Dutch  painting,  he  published:  Rembrandt 
(1907),  and  Althollandische  Genre  Zeichungen 
(1908),  both  with  Bode;  The  Art  of  the  Low 
Countries  (1914);  The  Last  Years  of  Michel¬ 
angelo  (1914).  He  also  wrote  important  cata¬ 
logues,  including  that  of  the  Hudson-Fulton 
Loan  Exhibition,  Dutch  Masters  of  the  Seven¬ 
teenth  Century  (1909). 

VAL'ENTINE  VOX,  THE  VENTRILO¬ 
QUIST.  A  lengthy  and  once  popular  novel  by 
Henry  Cockton  (1840),  abounding  in  farcical 
situations  produced  by  the  hero’s  use  of  his 
gift. 

VAL'ENTIN'IAN.  A  romantic  drama  by 
Fletcher  produced  before  1618—19,  but  not 
printed  until  1647.  It  contains  some  very 
beautiful  songs. 

VALENTINIAN  (  Valentinianus)  .  The 


VALENTINIAN 


VALENTINIANS 


855 


name  of  three  Roman  emperors  of  the  same 
family.  The  most  famous,  Valentinian  I 
(364-375  a.d.  )  was  the  son  of  humble  parents, 
and  was  born  at  Cilmlis,  in  Pannonia,  in  321. 
Valentinian  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age, 
and  rose  rapidly  in  rank  under  the  emperors 
Constantius  and  Julian,  only,  however,  to  fall 
more  rapidly ;  for  he  was  degraded  by  Con¬ 
stantins  in  357,  and  banished  by  Julian  in  362. 
Restored  to  favor  in  363  he  distinguished  him¬ 
self  in  the  East,  and  on  the  death  of  Jovian 
was  unanimously  chosen  as  his  successor  (Feb. 
25,  364 ) .  A  month  after  his  accession  he 
chose  as  his  colleague  his  brother,  Valens  (q.v. ), 
to  whom  he  resigned  the  government  of  the 
East,  reserving  for  himself  Illyricum,  Italy,  the 
.Gauls,  Britain,  Spain,  and  Africa.  During 
Valentinian’s  reign  the  Alemanni  repeatedly 
(366-368)  ravaged  the  east  and  the  Saxons 
(370)  the  northeast  of  Gaul;  Illyricum  was 
wasted  (370)  by  the  Quadi  and  Africa  by  the 
southern  desert  tribes,  though  these  invasions 
were  mostly  repelled  and  avenged.  The  internal 
administration,  on  the  other  hand,  was  excellent, 
for  the  Emperor  added  to  his  ability  prudence 
and  firmness,  vigilance  and  impartiality.  Though 
himself  a  zealous  Catholic  he  permitted  his  sub¬ 
jects  to  adopt  whatever  religion  they  chose,  and 
strictly  forbade  all  persecution  or  annoyance  on 
account  of  religious  belief.  On  account  of  the 
abuse  of  ecclesiastical  influence  he  excluded 
priests  and  monks  from  the  right  of  succession 
to  property;  it  was  forbidden  to  hold  judicial 
proceedings  in  private;  the  extreme  license  of 
speech  hitherto  allowed  to  advocates  was  re¬ 
strained;  gratuitous  medical  attendance  was 
provided  for  the  poor  of  Rome;  and  schools 
were  established  throughout  the  Empire.  The 
success  of  his  administration  was  doubtless 
much  owing  to  his  fortunate  choice  of  officers: 
Theodosius  the  Elder  in  Africa  and  Britain, 
Jovinus  in  Gaul,  and  Theodosius  the  Younger 
(afterward  Emperor)  in  Illyricum.  In  private 
life  Valentinian  was  above  reproach,  except  for 
his  violent  temper.  By  his  first  wife  he  had 
one  son,  Gratianus  (q.v.)  ;  and  by  the  second, 
Justina,  a  son,  Valentinian,  and  three  daughters, 
one  of  whom,  Galla,  became  the  wife  of  the 
Emperor  Theodosius  I. 

Valentinian  II  (375-392  a.d.),  the  younger 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  372  a.d.,  and  re¬ 
ceived  from  his  elder  brother,  Gratianus  ( q.v. ) , 
the  provinces  of  Italy,  Illyricum,  and  Africa  as 
his  share  of  the  Western  Empire.  During  his 
long  minority  the  Empress  Justina  administered 
the  government;  and  about  three  years  after  her 
death  Valentinian,  who  had  given  promise  of 
good  administrative  qualities,  was  murdered  at 
the  instigation  of  the  Frank,  Arbogastes,  the 
commander  in  chief  of  his  army. 

Valentinian  III  (425-455  a.d.),  the  grand¬ 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  was  born  about  419 
a.d.  and  was  seated  on  the  throne  of  the  West 
by  Theodosius  II,  Emperor  of  the  East,  in  425. 
Valentinian  was  a  weak  and  contemptible  prince 
and  may  be  said  never  to  have  ruled  during 
the  30  years  that  he  sat  on  the  Imperial  throne; 
his  mother,  Placidia,  governed  till  her  death 
in  450,  and  she  was  succeeded  bv  the  eunuch 
Heraclius.  The  regulations  enacted  for  the 
internal  administration  were  creditable,  and 
especially  so  when  ecclesiastical  interests  were 
involved,  but  the  utter  corruption  of  manners, 
the  complete  extinction  of  public  spirit,  the 
oxactions  of  the  tax  collectors  and  commis¬ 


sioners,  the  employment  of  the  powers  of  the 
executive  in  the  avenging  of  private  quarrels, 
and  the  impossibility  of  obtaining  redress  for 
injuries  showed  that  the  Empire  had  fallen  far 
beyond  remedy.  The  early  part  of  Valentinian’s 
reign  was  disturbed  by"  the  contests  between 
the  comites  Bonifacius  and  Aetius  ( qq.v. ) ,  the 
former  of  whom  had  supported  and  the  latter 
resisted  Valentinian’s  claims  to  the  throne;  but 
notwithstanding  this,  Aetius  prevailed  upon 
the  Empress  to  declare  his  rival,  the  Governor 
of  Africa,  a  public  enemy;  and  the  latter  called 
to  his  aid  the  Vandals  under  Genseric  (q.v.). 
Thus  Africa  was  lost  to  the  Empire.  But 
Aetius,  notwithstanding,  proved  himself  the  bul¬ 
wark  of  the  Roman  power  in  Europe;  the 
Franks,  Goths,  Burgundians,  and  other  German 
nations  who  had  encroached  on  the  Empire  were 
successively  defeated  and  repelled,  and  the 
advance  of  the  Huns  was  stayed  on  the  field 
of  Chalons.  Yet  the  labor  of  defending  an  exten¬ 
sive  empire  from  attack  on  all  sides  was  too 
much  for  one  man;  and  much  of  Spain  and 
Gaul  was  seized  by  the  Suevi  and  the  Visigoths, 
the  north  of  Italy  was  ravaged  by  the  Huns, 
Sicily  and  Sardinia  by  the  Vandals,  and  even 
Rome  was  repeatedly*  besieged,  while  Britain 
was  abandoned  to  the  Piets  and  the  Scots. 
Aetius  seems  to  have  committed  the  same  error 
as  his  predecessor  Stilicho  (q.v.)  in  attempting, 
by  the  marriage  of  his  son  to  Valentinian’s 
daughter,  to  transfer  the  Imperial  dignity  to  his 
own  family,  and,  like  him  also,  he  was  assas¬ 
sinated,  though  by  the  sword  of  liis  master 
(454).  In  455  Valentinian  was  murdered  by 
adherents  of  Petronius  Maximus  and  of  Aetius. 
Consult:  H.  Richter,  Das  Westromische  Reich 
unter  den  Kaisem  Gratran,  Valentinianus  II, 
und  Maximus  (Berlin,  1865);  H.  Schiller,  Ge- 
schichte  der  romischen  Kaiserzeit,  vol.  iii 
(Gotha,  1883—87);  Thomas  Hodgkin,  Italy  and 
her  Invaders  (Oxford,  1892)  ;  The  Cambridge 
Medieval  History,  vol.  i  (New  York,  1911); 
Edward  Gibbon,  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Ro¬ 
man  Empire,  chapters  xxv,  xxvii,  xxxiii-xxxv 
(ed.  of  J.  B.  Bury,  vol.  i,  London,  1912)  ;  the 
article  “Valentinianus,”  in  Friedrich  Liibke, 
Reallexikon  des  Klassischen  Altertums,  vol.  ii 
(8th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1914). 

VALENTINIANS.  The  most  important 
Gnostic  sect  or  school,  founded  by  Valentinus, 
who  went  from  Alexandria  to  Rome  about  140 
a.d.  and  died  there,  or  in  Cyprus,  about  160. 
They  recognized  heathenism  as  a  preparatory 
stage  of  Christianity,  and  divided  the  higher 
spiritual  world  into  15  pairs  of  aeons,  each 
consisting  of  a  male  and  a  female.  The  first 
pair,  or  syzygy,  is  made  up  of  Bythos,  or  God 
in  himself,  and  Ennoia,  or  God  as  existing 
in  his  own  thoughts;  from  these  emanated  next 
Nous  (Intelligence)  and  Aletheia  (Truth),  and 
so  on.  As  the  last  aeon,  Sophia  (Wisdom), 
transgressed  the  bounds  that  had  been  laid 
down  by  the  aeon  Horos,  and  a  part  of  her 
being  became  lost  in  Chaos,  there  was  formed 
a  crude  being,  called  Achamotli,  which,  through 
the  Demiurgos  that  emanated  from  it,  created 
the  corporeal  world.  Horos  now  imparted  to 
the  souls  of  men  (for  all  the  bodies  composing 
the  corporeal  world  are  possessed  of  souls)  a 
pneumatic  or  spiritual  element,  but  this  only  at¬ 
tained  to  full  activity  when  Christ,  a  collective 
emanation  from  all  the  aeons,  appeared  as  Sav¬ 
iour,  and  united  himself  with  the  man  Jesus. 
In  the  end,  all  that  is  spiritual,  and  even  the 


VALENTINUS 


VALERIAN 


856 


originally  psychic  or  soul  element  in  so  far  as 
it  has  assimilated  itself  to  the  spiritual,  will 
return  into  the  Pleroma.  The  Valentinians 
existed  as  late  as  the  second  half  of  the  fourth 
century.  See  Gnosticism. 

VAL'ENTI'NUS  (?-c.l60).  The  founder  of 
one  of  the  Gnostic  sects  which  came  into  exist¬ 
ence  in  the  first  half  of  the  second  century. 
According  to  Epiphanius  ( Hcer .  xxxxi,  2)  he 
was  horn  in  Egypt,  as  some  assert,  of  Jewish 
parents,  and  was  educated  in  the  Hellenic 
schools  of  Alexandria.  During  the  reign  of 
Antoninus  Pius  (about  140)  he  came  to  Rome, 
where  he  first  appeared  as  an  orthodox  religious 
teacher.  On  his  settling  in  Cyprus  he  became 
an  open  enemy  to  the  Church  and  began  to 
propagate  his  peculiar  doctrines,  for  which  see 
Gnosticism;  Valentinians. 

VALENTINUS,  Basilius.  A  German  chem¬ 
ist  and  physician  who  lived  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  Numerous  writings, 
purporting  to  come  from  him,  have  been  pre¬ 
served,  but  in  regard  to  his  life  the  obscurity 
is  so  great  that  some  extremists  have  even 
denied  his  existence,  saying  that  the  name  is 
a  pseudonym  of  Paracelsus  (q.v.),  with  whom 
his  works  show  great  resemblance.  Sounder 
scholars,  however,  maintain  that  he  did  live, 
having  been  born  in  Alsace,  and  being  a  Bene¬ 
dictine  monk.  His  writings  show  a  position 
midway  between  alchemy  and  modern  science. 
The  most  complete  edition  of  them  is  that 
published  by  Petraus  (Hamburg,  1740). 

VALERA  Y  ALCALA  GALIANO,  va-la'ra 
e  al'ka-lii'  gil'le-a'nO,  Juan  (1824-1905).  A 
Spanish  statesman,  diplomat,  novelist,  poet,  and 
scholar,  born  at  Cabra,  in  the  Province  of 
Cbrdoba.  He  was  educated  at  Malaga  and  at 
the  University  of  Granada,  where  he  took  his 
degree  in  law,  and  then  entered  upon  a  diplo¬ 
matic  career  (1847).  When  the  Duke  de  Rivas 
was  sent  as  Spanish  Ambassador  to  Naples 
Valera  accompanied  him.  He  was  then  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Spanish  legations  at  Lisbon  (1850), 
Rio  de  Janeiro  ( 1851-53 ) ,  Dresden  and  St.  Peters¬ 
burg  (1854-57).  After  his  return  to  Madrid 
(1858)  he  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the 
liberal  journal  El  Contempordneo  (1859).  He 
was  a  leading  member  of  the  Unibn  Liberal, 
and  was  made  Minister  to  Frankfort  (1865)  by 
General  O’Donnell.  After  the  revolution  of 
1868  he  was  appointed  Assistant  Secretary  of 
State  and  (1871)  Director  of  Public  Instruc¬ 
tion.  During  the  reign  of  Alfonso  XII  he  was 
Minister  to  Lisbon  (1881-83),  Washington 
(1883-86),  and  Brussels  (1886-88),  and  in 
(1893-95)  Ambassador  to  Vienna.  Throughout 
all  his  diplomatic  and  political  activity  he  pro¬ 
duced  works  which  rank  among  the  highest  that 
his  country’s  literature  contains.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Spanish  Royal  Academy  of  the 
Language  (1861)  and  to  the  Academy  of  Moral 
and  Political  Sciences  (1900).  He  became  life 
Senator  (1881)  and  Knight  Grand  Cross  of  the 
Order  of  Carlos  III  (1882). 

Valera  really  began  the  movement  in  fiction 
that  was  the  glory  of  the  last  three  decades 
of  the  nineteenth  century  in  Spain  with  his  Pe- 
pita  Jimdnez,  first  published  as  a  serial  in 
1374  and  since  translated  into  many  modern 
languages.  Pepita  was  written  after  Valera  had 
steeped  his  mind  in  the  Spanish  mysticism  of 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  His 
next  novel,  Las  ilusiones  del  doctor  Faust ino 
(1875),  the  story  of  a  modern  Faust,  did  not 


catch  the  popular  favor  so  quickly  as  Pepita. 
His  third  novel,  El  comendador  Mendoza  (  1877), 
is  free  from  philosophizing.  After  a  shorter 
story,  Pasarse  de  listro,  appeared  the  Dona  Luz 
(1879).  Having  abandoned  politics,  Valera 
wrote  El  hechicero,  Juanita  la  larga,  La  buena 
fama,  Genio  y  figura,  De  varios  colores,  and 
Morsamor,  all  attractive  novels.  The  short  tales 
of  Valera  are  hardly  less  known  and  appreciated 
than  his  more  extended  works.  Among  them 
are  the  Cuentos,  dialogos  y  fantasias,  the  de¬ 
lightful  little  El  pdjaro  verde,  the  Parsondes , 
the  Asclepigenia,  the  Gopa,  and  the  Bermejino 
prehistorico.  In  the  poetry  of  Valera  his  erudi¬ 
tion  is  more  visible  than  any  other  trait.  By 
translating  or  paraphrasing  in  verse  the  poems 
of  foreign  authors,  Valera  acquainted  his  coun¬ 
trymen  with  portions  of  the  poetic  literature 
of  Germany  and  the  English-speaking  regions; 
thus  he  rendered  into  Spanish  verse  parts  of 
Goethe’s  Faust,  of  Uhland’s  ballads,  and  of 
Moore’s  Paradise  and  the  Peri ;  poems  of  James 
Russell  Lowell,  Whittier,  and  W.  W.  Story. 
His  translation  of  that  gem  of  antiquity 
Daphnis  and  Chloe  has  itself  become  a  classic. 
He  also  translated  Schack’s  Poesie  und  Kunst 
der  Araber  (1881).  His  critical  work  displays 
great  powers  of  observation,  and  gives  evidence 
of  wide  reading.  For  purity  of  diction  and 
beauty  of  style  Valera  has  never  been  sur¬ 
passed  in  Spain. 

Consult:  Juan  Valera,  Obras  Completas  (Ma¬ 
drid,  1905  et  seq.,  43  vols.  to  1916)  ;  Ferdinand 
Brunetiere,  La  casuistique  dans  le  roman  de 
Juan  Valera,  in  his  series  Histoire  et  litterature, 
vol.  i  (Paris,  1884)  ;  Emilia  Pardo  Bazan,  “Re- 
tratos  y  apuntes  literarios,”  in  Obras  completas, 
vol.  xxxii  (Madrid,  1891  et  seq.)  ;  Conde  de 
Casa  Valencia,  Necrologia  de  ...  D.  J.  V.  (ib., 
1905)  ;  Conde  de  las  Navas,  Don  Juan  Valera 
(ib.,  1905)  ;  J.  D.  Fitz-Gerald,  “Juan  Valera,” 
in  The  Bookman,  vol.  xxi  (New  York,  1905)  ; 
F.  Vbzinet,  Les  maitres  du  roman  espagnol  con- 
temporain  (Paris,  1907). 

VALERA  Y  DELAVAT,  va-la'ra  6  dA'la-vat', 
Luis,  Marquis  de  Villasinda  ( ?-  ) .  A 

Spanish  diplomat  and  novelist,  son  of  Juan 
Valera  y  Alcalb  Galiano  (q.v.).  He  served  as 
Secretary  of  Legation  at  Peking,  as  Minister 
to  Morocco,  and  as  Minister  to  Portugal.  Among 
his  works  are:  Sombras  chinescas  (1902); 
Visto  y  sohado  (1903);  Del  Antaiio  Quimerico 
(1905);  El  filosofo  y  la  tiple  (1908);  De  la 
muerte  al  amor  (1910). 

VALERE,  va'lar'.  A  stock  name  for  a  lover 
in  French  classical  comedy.  In  Moliere’s  L’avare 
he  is  the  son  of  Anseline  and  lover  of  Elise, 
Harpagon’s  daughter.  The  character  occurs  also 
in  Le  depit  amoureux,  L’dcole  des  maris,  and 
Le  mddecin  volant,  and  in  Mrs.  Centlivre’s 
Gamester. 

VALERIAN,  va-le'ri-an  (OF.  valeriane,  Fr. 
valeriane,  from  ML.  valeriana,  valerian ;  prob¬ 
ably  from  Lat.  Valerian/us,  prop,  name,  from 
valer e,  to  be  strong,  able ) ,  Valeriana.  A  genus 
consisting  of  about  180  species  of  annual  and 
perennial  herbs  of  the  natural  order  Vale- 
rianacese.  The  common  valerian  ( Valeriana 
officinalis)  is  abundant  in  ditches,  moist  woods, 
etc.,  throughout  Europe  and  northern  Asia.  Its 
fleshy  root  (valeriance  rhizoma)  has  been  used 
in  medicine  as  an  antispasmodic  and  a  stimu¬ 
lant  to  the  nervous  system  and  circulation — ac¬ 
tions  attributed  to  valerianic  acid. 

The  active  ingredient  is  a  crystallizable  vola- 


VALERIAN 


tile  oil,  from  which  is  obtained  by  oxidation 
valerene  (C10Hlfl),  valerol  (C,2H20O),  also  known 
as  Baldrian  camphor;  and  valerianic  acid 
(C5H10O2).  The  latter  as  a  pharmaceutical 
product  is  derived  from  amylic  alcohol  by 
oxidation  and  is  not  identical  with  the  natural 
acid.  There  are  three  official  preparations,  viz., 
the  fluid  extract,  the  tincture,  and  the  ammo- 
niated  tincture.  The  volatile  oil  is  not  official, 
but  is  preferable  to  the  tinctures  which  are 
extremely  nauseating  to  many  patients.  In 
toxic  doses  valerian  produces  #  diarrhoea,  vomit¬ 
ing,  and  mental  disturbances. 

The  greater  valerian  ( Valeriana  phu) ,  which 
grows  in  alpine  districts  of  Europe,  is  now  al¬ 
most  entirely  disused,  although,  like  Valeriana 
dioscoridis,  it  is  very  active.  Valeriana  celtica 
and  Valeriana  saliunca,  are  alpine  species,  found 
in  Styria  and  Carinthia.  Valeriana  sitchensis, 
a  native  of  the  United  States,  is  said  to  possess 
medicinal  properties.  The  root  of  Valeriana 
edulis ,  a  species  found  in  northwestern  America, 
is  used  as  food  by  the  Indians. 

VALERIAN  (Publius  Lictnius  Vat  v- 
rianus  ) .  Roman  Emperor  253-260  a.d.  He 
was  descended  from  an  ancient  and  noble  family, 
and  was  chosen  for  his  integrity  and  accomplish¬ 
ments  to  the  office  of  censor/  Faithful  in  his 
allegiance  to  Gallus,  he  went  to  summon  the 
legions  of  Gaul  and  Germany  to  aid  the  feeble 
Emperor  against  the  usurper  yEmilianus,  but 
arrived  too  late  to  save  his  master.  The 
usurper’s  troops  murdered  their  own  chief,  and 
united  with  their  late  antagonists  in  proclaim¬ 
ing  Valerian  Emperor,  August,  253.  He  was 
then  about  60  years  old,  and  took  as  colleague 
his  eldest  son,  Gallienus  (q.v.).  Valerian 
showed  abundant  proof  during  his  short  reign 
of  most  ardent  zeal  for  the  prosperity  of  the 
Empire,  but  the  times  required  a  ruler  of  more 
energy  and  ability,  as  the  irruption  of  the 
Franks  into  Gaul,  despite  the  efforts  of  Au- 
relian,  the  devastation  of  Thrace,  Macedonia, 
Greece,  and  the  archipelago  by  the  Goths,  the 
advance  of  the  Alemanni  to  Milan,  and  the 
conquest  of  Syria  and  Armenia  by  the  Persian 
King  Sapor  (Shapur),  testified.  Since  the 
troubles  in  the  East  appeared  most  threatening, 
Valerian  went  thither  in  person,  and  wras  for 
a  time  successful,  but  was  surprised  by  superior 
numbers  at  Edessa,  was  defeated,  and  with 
the  remnant  of  his  army  forced  to  surrender 
(260  a.d.  ).  Valerian  remained  in  captivity  till 
his  death.  The  statements  regarding  the  in¬ 
dignities  heaped  upon  the  unfortunate  captive 
by  his  haughty  conqueror  are  probably  false, 
or  at  least  much  exaggerated.  After  his  death 
his  skin  w^as  flayed  off,  stuffed,  and  preserved 
as  a  proud  trophy  of  victory,  which  was  in¬ 
variably  exhibited  to  the  ambassadors  from 
Rome  to  the  Sassanid  court. 

VALERI  ANOS,  va'la-re-a'nas,  Apostolos. 
See  Fuca,  Juan  de. 

VALERIC  (va-ler'Ik  or  -le'rik)  or  VALE'- 
RIAN'IC  ACID.  A  name  applied  to  four  dis¬ 
tinct  volatile  fatty  acids,  all  represented  by  the 
same  formula,  CJUCOdT.  The  valerianic  acid 
ordinarily  met  with,  and  used  pharmaceutically, 
is  often  referred  to  as  iso-valerianic  acid.  It 
is  a  limpid,  colorless,  oily  fluid  of  a  penetrating 
odor,  similar  to  that  of  valerian  root,  and  of 
an  acrid  taste.  It  boils  at  174°  C.  (345°  F. ). 
It  makes  a  transparent  spot  on  paper,  but  the 
spot  disappears  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is 
only  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  dissolves  in 


857  VALERIUS  MAXIMUS 

alcohol  and  ether  in  all  proportions.  It  exists 
in  and  is  obtained  by  distilling  valerian  root 
with  water  acidulated  with  sulphuric,  acid.  It 
may  be  similarly  obtained  from  angelica  root. 
It  is  also  formed  during  the  oxidation  of  fats 
and  fatty  acids  (especially  oleic  acid),  either 
by  nitric  acid  or  mere  exposure  to  the  air,  by 
the  oxidation  and  putrefaction  of  albuminoids, 
etc. ;  but  the  best  method  of  preparing  it  is  b}r 
distilling  a  mixture  of  amyl  alcohol  (or  fusel 
oil)  with  bichromate  of  potash  and  sulphuric 
acid.  An  amino  derivative  of  this  acid,  having 
the  formula  C4H8(NH2  )  C02H  and  named  va¬ 
line,  is  of  considerable  importance  in  biological 
chemistry. 

^  The  following  salts  are  used  in  medicine :  ( 1 ) 
Valerianate  of  ammonia,  which  forms  colorless, 
or  white,  flat  quadrangular  crystals  that  are 
deliquescent  in  the  air.  (2)  '  Valerianate  of 
iron,,  a  dark-red  amorphous  powder  which  is 
readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  is  insoluble  in 
cold  water.  (3)  Valerianate  of  zinc,  which 
forms  brilliant  white  pearly  tabular  crystals, 
with  a  feeble  odor  of  valerianic  acid  and  a 
metallic  taste,  is  scarcely  soluble  in  water,  in 
alcohol,  or  in  ether.  Valerianic  acid  and  its 
salts  are  supposed  to  be  useful  remedies  for 
reflex  neuralgia  and  for  various  neurotic 
troubles;  but  what  their  action  consists  in 
is  entirely  unknown.  Amyl  valerianate,  C5Hn. 
C5H902,  is  a  volatile  fluid  with  a  penetrating 
odor  of  apples,  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but 
dissolving  freely  in  spirit  and  in  ether.  In  the 
form  of  a  dilute  spirituous  solution,  it  so 
strongly  resembles  apples  in  its  smell  that  it 
is  used  in  perfumery  under  the  name  of  oil 
of  apples,  or  essence  of  apples. 

The  three  other  known  valerianic  acids  are 
of  much  less  importance  than  the  one  described 
above. 

VALE'RIUS  ANTIAS.  A  Roman  historian 
of  the  first  century  b.c.,  who  wrote  the  history 
of  Rome  from  the  earliest  times  down  to  those 
of  Sulla.  This  work,  which  consists  of  at  least 
75  books,  was  full  of  exaggerations,  but  was 
mentioned  among  the  well-known  annals,  and 
was  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  Livy,  who  men¬ 
tions  Valerius  by  name  repeatedly,  and  followed 
him  unhesitatingly  in  the  first  decades  of  his 
work.  Consult:  H.  Peter,  Historicorum  Ro- 
manorum  Fragmenta  (Leipzig,  1883),  for  the 
fragments  of  the  Annales ;  W.  S.  Teuffel,  History 
of  Roman  Literature  (Eng.  trans.  by  G.  C,  W. 
Warr,  London,  1891)  ;  Martin  Schanz,  Geschichte 
der  romisehen  Litteratur,  vol.  i,  part  ii  (3d  ed., 
Munich,  1909). 

VALERIUS  CORVUS,  Marcus.  See  Cor- 
vus  M.  V. 

VALERIUS  ELAC'CUS.  A  Roman  scholar 
and  teacher.  See  Flaccus,  Gaius  Valerius. 

VALERIUS  MAX'IMUS.  A  Roman  his¬ 
torical  compiler  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  to 
whom  he  dedicated  a  work  bearing  the  title 
of  Factorum  et  Dictorum  M emorabilium  Libri 
IX,  and  consisting  of  short  stories  and  anec¬ 
dotes  from  various  authors.  His  style  is  ornate 
and  often  obscure,  and  his  want  of  acquaintance 
with  the  history  and  constitution  of  his  country 
renders  him  an  unsafe  guide:  yet  he  was  a 
favorite  author  of  his  own  time,  and  much 
studied  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  best  edition, 
including  the  two  epitomes  by  Julius  Paris  and 
Januarius  Nepotianus,  is  that  of  Kempf  (Leip¬ 
zig,  1888).  There  is  an  old  English  translation 
by  Speed  (London,  1678).  Consult  W.  S.  Teuf- 


VALIANT-FOR-TRUTH 


VALERIUS  PROBUS 

fel,  Geschiohte  der  romischen  Ltteratur,  vol.  ii 
(Oth  ed.,  Leipzig,  1909);  Martin  Schanz,  Ge- 
schicht.e  der  romischen  Litteratur,  vol.  ii,  part  ii 
(3d  ed.,  Munich,  1913). 

VALERIUS  PROBUS,  Marcus.  See  Pro¬ 
bus,  M.  V. 

VALERIUS,  Henricus  (Henri  de  Valois) 
(1603-76).  A  classical  scholar,  horn  in  Paris. 
He  was  chosen  by  the  clergy  of  Prance  to  pub¬ 
lish  an  edition  of  all  the  Greek  authors  whose 
writings  deal  with  the  early  history  of  the 
church,  and,  in  1654,  he  was  given  a  pension 
and  the  title  of  Royal  Historiographer.  His 
publications  include  "the  ecclesiastical  histories 
of  Eusebius,  Socrates,  Sozomen,  Theodoret,  and 
Evagoras,  all  of  which  were  accompanied  by 
Latin  translations  and  scholarly  introductions 
and  notes  (1659-73);  a  collection  of  excerpts 
from  the  Greek  historians,  especially  Constan¬ 
tine  Porphyrogenitus,  known  as  the  Excerpta 
Peiresciana  (1634),  and  an  edition  of  Ammianus 
Marcellinus  (1636).  His  minor  works  were 
published  under  the  titles  H.  Valesii  Emenda- 
tionum  Libri  V  and  De  Critica  Libri  II  (1740). 

VALETTA,  va-let'ta.  The  fortified  capital 
of  Malta,  located  on  the  east  side  of  the  island 
(Map:  Italy,  E  7).  The  city  is  on  a  tongue 
of  land,  which  forms  two  harbors  and  terminates 
in  a  narrow  promontory  bearing  the  lighthouse 
and  fort  of  St.  Elmo.  In  addition  to  St.  Elmo 
there  are  three  other  important  fortifications, 
government  and  private  dry  docks,  a  coaling 
station,  a  marine  hospital,  and  quarters  for 
troops.  The  principal  architectural  features 
are  the  governor’s  residence,  formerly  the  pal¬ 
ace  of  the  grand  masters  of  the  Knights  of 
Malta  or  St.  John,  and  the  cathedral,  contain¬ 
ing  tombs  of  the  Knights.  The  town  has  a 
university,  library,  botanical  garden,  and  mu¬ 
seum.  In  parts"  of  the  city  the  streets  are 
broad  and  run  at  right  angles  to  each  other; 
in  others  the  land  is  so  steep  that  the  streets 
are  practically  stairways.  Valetta  has  a  large 
transit  trade,  and  is  an  important  British  naval 
station.  Pop.,  1901,  22,680;  1911,  22,882.  In 
1565  Valetta  withstood  a  memorable  siege  by 
the  Turks,  against  whom  it  was  successfully 
defended  by  Jean  Parisot  de  la  Valette  (q.v.). 
See  Malta. 

VALETTE,  va'let',  Jean  Parisot  de  la 
(1494-1568).  Grand  Master  of  the  Knights  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem  (q.v.).  He  was  born 
in  Toulouse,  and  at  an  early  age  entered  the 
Order  of  St.  John.  His  chief  distinctions  were 
won  in  naval  service  in  the  Mediterranean.  In 
1557  he  was  elected  Grand  Master,  the  forty- 
eighth  to  hold  that  office.  During  the  first 
five  years  of  his  grandmastership  he  captured 
50  great  galleys  from  the  Turks,  and  a  large 
number  of  smaller  vessels  of  war.  In  May, 
1565,  a  Turkish  fleet  said  to  have  been  composed 
of  150  ships,  conveying  30,000  troops,  appeared 
oil  the  harbor  of  Malta,  and  after  failing  in 
several  assaults,  formally  invested  the  island. 
Alone  and  unsupported  by  any  of  the  Christian 
Powers,  La  Valette,  with  about  700  knights  and 
8000  men  at  arms  and  islanders,  defended  the 
fortress  under  circumstances  of  extreme  diffi¬ 
culty  and  distress.  At  the  end  of  four  months, 
and"  after  a  loss,  it  is  said,  of  _  20,000  men, 
the  Turkish  fleet  was  forced  to  raise  the  block¬ 


858 

ade  and  withdraw  from  the  island.  La  Valette 
died  three  years  later,  Aug.  15,  1568.  Consult 
Jurien  de  la  Graviere,  Les  chevaliers  de  Malte 
et  la  Marine  de  Philippe  II,  vols.  i-ii  (Paris, 
1887). 

VAL'GIUS  RU'FUS.  A  Roman  poet  of  the 
Augustan  age.  Horace  (Sat.  i,  10,  82)  mentions 
him  among  those  friends  whose  commendation 
outweighs  the  criticisms  of  detractors.  He  is 
said  to  have  written  elegies,  epigrams,  and 
works  on  botany  and  grammar.  Consult  Peter, 
Historicorum  Roytanorum  Fragmenta  (Leipzig, 
1883 ) 

VALHALLA,  val-hal'la  (Old  Norse  valholl, 
gen,  valhallar,  hall  of  the  slain).  In  Old  Norse 
mythology,  the  abode  of  Odin  in  Asgard,  the 
hall  of  the  fallen  in  battle.  It  stood  in  Glads- 
heim  (Old  Norse  Gladhsheimr) ,  the  home  of  joy. 
The  roof  of  it  was  of  gold,  and  in  front  of  it 
was  the  grove  Glasir,  the  trees  of  which  bore 
golden  leaves.  Before  the  house,  which  was 
so  high  that  its  summit  could  scarcely  be  seen, 
a  wolf  was  hung,  as  a  symbol  of  war,  over 
which  sat  an  eagle.  The  hall  itself,  ornamented 
with  shields,  wainscoted  with  spears,  and  lighted 
with  shining  swords,  had  540  doors,  through 
each"  of  which  800  heroes  could  walk  abreast. 
Every  morning  they  marched  out  at  the  crow¬ 
ing  of  the  cock,  and  fought  furiously  with  one 
another;  but  at  midday  all  wounds  healed,  and 
the  heroes  assembled  to  the  feast  under  Odin’s 
presidency.  The  guests  ate  of  the  bacon  of  the 
boar  Saehrimnir,  and  refreshed  themselves  with 
beer  and  mead,  which  flowed  in  abundance  from 
the  udder  of  the  goat  Heidrun  (Old  Norse 
Heidhrunr) ,  fed  by  the  tree  Lserad  (Old  Norse 
Lceradhr)  which  rose  above  the  hall,  while  the 
attendant  Valkyries  handed  them  the  drinking 
horns,  under  Freyja’s  direction.  See  Odin  ; 
Valkyries.  Consult  R.  B.  Anderson,  Norse 
Mythology  (Chicago,  1875;  7th  ed.,  ib.,  1901). 

The  name  Valhalla  is  also  given  to  a  German 
temple  of  fame,  situated  about  7  miles  east 
of  Regensburg,  Bavaria,  on  the  heights  above 
the  Danube  valley.  This  singularly  beautiful 
and  imposing  structure  was  erected  under  Louis 
I.  It  was  designed  by  Klenze,  and  completed  in 
1842.  It  is  built  of  gray  marble,  in  close  imita¬ 
tion  of  the  Parthenon,  and  is  246  feet  long  and 
115  feet  wide.  Fifty-two  Doric  columns  sur¬ 
round  it.  The  interior  is  Ionic,  forming  a  hall 
50  by  180  feet  and  56  high.  Schwanthaler, 
Wagner,  and  Rauch  had  charge  of  the  decorative 
features.  The  number  of  busts  of  eminent  Ger¬ 
mans  in  1911  was  165,  and  there  are  six  Vic¬ 
tories  (goddesses)  by  Rauch. 

Consult:  King  Ludvig  I,  Walhallas  Genossen 
(Munich,  1842;  2d  ed.,  ib.,  1847);  Adalbert 
Muller,  Donaustauf  und  Walhalla  (33d  ed., 
Regensburg,  1898)  ;  Schratz,  Kurze  Geschichte 
und  Beschreibung  der  Walhalla  und  des  Markts 
Donaustauf  (8th  ed.,  ib.,  1904). 

VALHORN,  Joseph  Gasser  von.  See  Gas¬ 
ser  von  Valhorn,  Joseph. 

VALIANT-FOR-TRUTH.  A  character  in 
the  second  part  of  Bunyan’s  Pilgrim’s  Progress, 
who  joins  the  company  of  Christiana  on  her 
journey  to  the  Celestial  City.  He  combines  the 
noble  qualities  of  a  mediaeval  crusader  with  the 
homely  virtues  of  the  English  middle  classes  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 


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